INDEX TO VOL. XVIII.

PART I.

Aborigines of Southern India, By B. H. Hodgson, Esq. .o..00eccececeeces

of Nor-Eastern India, On the. By B. H. Hodgson, Esq. ......

Abstract Statement of the Receipts and Disbursements of the Asiatic Society,

METIS 2 Oe acc: 0 ails aie 'e,clule.cnalelelulleid ejoiere wie ia)¥ e/a) O16 -o1g wieisaieiais) aia ale’ aie) a's jeig\eln ain

Annual Report of the Asiatic Society for 1848, 2. cccscccccecccccvvceces

Ball Coal of the Burdwan Mines, Further remarks on the. By. H. Piddington,

Battle field of Alexander and Porus, Addendum on the, By Capt. J. Abbott,..

Chinese Geographical Work, Notice of a. By J. W. Laidlay, Esq..........

Deviation of the Compass near Saugor in Bundlekund, A notice of a remark-

able local. By HE Piddin stom), PIsdr. tens sles cs ciae's wcle's sie vinj/e's\sieioie sie

Dushani and Chianni Garrows, A narrative of our connexions with the,......

Page

350

451

Vi.

412

176

137

410

Earthquakes in Assam, eceone~ eevee oeo2e 0202028809820 868688 FFE FH SCH FH SHE BH OS SS 172-3-4

General Observations on the contending claims to antiquity of Brahmans

and Buddhists. By Lieut.-Col. J. Low, 2... .cecceescccescesnscesece

Geography of Western Afghanistan, Notes on the. By Major W. Anderson,

Greek Sculpture in Potowar, Remains of. By Capt. James Abbott,........

Indian Ethnology, A Brief Note on, By B. H. Hodgson, Esq.......- +00:

Inscription from Keddah, On an, By Col. J. Low,........ sees eecscesces

Tron Tension Bridges, Note on. By the Rev. J. Pratt, .....c0csccccsccce

Journal of a Trip through the Kohistan of the Jullunder. By Lieut. W. H.

Se MMT EL A eaal aiul'a's" 9 Scale all eiaieicha ciaic solelet cia nlaiac isl elsie oi nainc esas shiesins

foIsikim, Veby Dray Campbell, j.i.c cclcccscceccs sev sso

of a passage down the Nurbudda from Chikulda to Baroach. By

Ree DEE WICK yc eicinie a Kialtin Muiaiele 5 <a selate Seeks te cee eae tae ctlav as ee

Languages spoken by the various tribes inhabiting the valley of Asam and its

553

131

238

247

249

360

A482

461

mountain confines, Notes on the. By W. Robinson, Esq. ............ 183-310

List of Ordinary Members of the Asiatic Society, ........

—— The Rajas OF SialKOte ie sie'sis'e's ee ee ee ee er ee er ee

XXVi.

Honourary Members of the Asiatic Society, ......c.eeceecesesee XXiX.

177

iv Index.

Page

Mason’s paper on the shells of the Tenasserim Provinces, Notes on the Rev. F.

By W. H. Benson, Bsqs sess cs a0 eaee coal «sb edelaee eee (aan aa

Memoir on the Law of Storms in India, A seventeenth. By H. Piddington,

Flags ais civ: baiceineod Soicw dao Lo wingresteeUeuae ine a ciee cae ee emanate

Meteoric Iron, A supplementry note on Capt. Sherwill’s. By H. Piddington, Esq. 171

Meteorological Register for January, 1849, ..cecscccccccrecccescccvcess S882

for February, 1849, wccccccrecsccceccccsevecece 1824

for Warch, W649,” pcccc vc s:00is.o oveis ccrewtamicemieincien COGE

for April, 1849, o. 0s ccce cone cocccscncessaceess 4198

ee ————= for May, 1849, ...ccescccvcceccccccccceversee JUL

for June, 1849, Gee ss xiv so 00 vases elecieeitclamtcetaee One

Notes, chiefty Botanical, made during an excursion from Darjiling to Tonglo,

a lofty mountain on the confines of Sikkim and Nepal. By Dr. J. D.

Ffooker,.ves0 ce de cite ec ce ws wehbe ob 0 od ve ue UUbHbeseNceUasd toler ee “ERD

Notes by J. Avdall, Esq., on the extracts proposed from the work of Moses

Khorenensis, on the Geography of Western Afghanistan, .....seeessse. 988

Note on the transport of coal from the pits at Sonadeh to Bombay, by the

Nurbudda. By R. N. C. Hamilton, Esq.... cc cccscsccccecccsvscsese 594

Note on the Sciuri inhabiting Ceylon, and those of the Tenasserim Provinces.

By B. Blyth; Esq:jiss es oe. dd Bede eb. Uae be lt au Sa eede ba aes UEOD

Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon, Supplementary Notes to the. By

Majot By Matdeny 320s o2.099 Ses 2k SECS. SOR I ek BOS

Pine tree of the Tenasserim Provinces, The. By the Rev. F. Mason, ..#... 73

Polecat of Tibet, The. By 5. H. Hodgson, Hisq., ".c0+.0csscccdeuezesees 446

Proceedings of the Asiatic Society for January, 1849,.. .ccccccccscsessece 76

——- for FebYuary, 1649, 2% seis cnaaeqetcaiaean 1 Lao

for March, 1849, .... cc cccccccccvcves 283

for April, 1849)... 66. <0/cs 00s sieiemtern, ele

fOr May, 1849, Saws oo a0 ou sie wn ou omeennraien see

for June, F949). c. o<c0se «ce alten a deemed

Snow-line in the Himalaya, On the. By Lieut. R. Strachey,..........e0. 287

Spontaneous Combustion of Coal wetted with salt water, Ona. By H. Pid-

ington, Hsqs..'. > se sctseisehe os «cs wbeles ais os 00s ciel ternarn tsi rane m

Visit to Dewangiri. By Lieut. E. T. Dalton, .....cceseccccereccesecese 66

INDEX TO NAMES OF CONTRIBUTORS.

Abbott, Capt. James, Remains of Greek Sculpture in Potowar,.........06. 131

—_— . Addendum on the Battle Field of Alexander and Porus, 176

———__—. List of the Rajas of Sealkote, .....secececceccceee 177

Anderson, Major William. Notes on the Geography of Western Adahadhinte, 553

Index.

Avdall, J. Esq., Notes by, on the extracts proposed from the work of Moses

Khorenensis on the Geography of Western Afghanistan, .......ec0e00

Benson, W. H. Esq. Notes on the Rev. F. Mason’s paper “ on the Shells

GF Ge MEnAssoriny ProvinePe, od! i iikw a Gide oils s Bikled'b o ow aula ofaial bale apres

Blyth, E. Esq. Note on the Sciuri inhabiting Ceylon, and those of the Te-

MASSCTIM: PrOviNCeS,.c.0c os ae vase ccaaes oh 6c08 06 ccbee ee ccee Ses scee

Butler, J. Esq. Earthquakes in Assam,....eseceve seesecccecsoccccces

Campbell, Dr. A. Journal of a trip to Sikim, .......seeecssccccescecees

Dalton, Lieut. E. T. Visit to Dewangiri, .c.cccecscecceccscevseccccces

, Earthquakes in Gowhatty.. 0.0.00 ccccccccceseccne

Fenwick Capt. Journal of a passage down the Narbudda, from Chikuldeh to

Baroach, with notices of the most important obstructions to the Navigation,

Hamilton, R. N. C. Esq. Note on the transport of coal from the pits at So-

madeh to Bombay, by the Nurbudda,.. 2. 0. .0'0ccccceccccnsnccesessce

Hodgson, B. H. Esq. A Brief Note on Indian Ethnology,.....sceeccecess

—— Aborigines of Southern India, .......0 ceccsscccces

Whe; Poleeat of Tibel./ N.S... cbs cs es oc cca ctesece

—————. On the Aborigines of Nor-Eastern India,

C. K. Esq. Earthquakes in Burpetah

Hooker, Dr. J. D. Notes, chiefly Botanical, made during an excursion from

Darjiling to Tonglo, ....

9 ®@ Ce GPT CH BHO48 See ee eeenen 02068

wo eeeeeeeest eee eese ee Oo 1.088 08 00 oe ee oe

Jenkins, Major F. Harthquakes in Assam, ....05..cccccccocccecsccccce

Laidlay, J. W. Esq. Notice of a Chinese Geographical Work,

Note on an Inscription from Keddah, ........ .eeece

——

Low, Lieut.-Col. J. General Observations on the contending claims to anti-

guity of Brahmans and Buddhists, < cccccs wcja< cies ee e)cictes cod 00 cesses

Madden, Major E. Supplementary Notes to the Turaee and Outer Moun-

RMR POUT AGOMs Vc: c:cie,o aie swans win lahutatro'a aim ace’ dca"'s)a) cialis @ s'r a Gala eoeidlelaiae

Mason, Rev. F. The Pine tree of the Tenasserim Provinces,......... 2.000.

Parish, Lieut. W. H. A Journal of a trip through the Kohistan of the Jul-

lunder, undertaken at the close of the year 1847, and commencement of

1848, for the purpose of determining the Geological formation of that district,

Piddington, Henry, Esq. A Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms in

MAMLA gma ada jois wisn’ <1 aiolfelerd sininie cj eiate eli ernie afeiiaisl ave la! clieici ciel alae ecleria’ isis e' 4's

On a spontaneous combustion of Coal wetted with

salt water, on broad the ship Sir Howard Douglass.... ..ceccccescs cece

A Supplementary Note on Capt. Sherwill’s Meteo-

ric Iron, ee ae ee ee ee iy eeecoee se ee seee ese ee es ee ee eves sne8 ee

A Notice of a remarkable local deviation of the

Compass near Saugor in Bimdlecumdy: (acs. cess ga aks s ce vebs ce cada sean

Further remarks on the Ball Coal of Burdwan

Mines, eesesescoeosws opeeocvavn ee ese ae eoeteaeeoeeceeseeeeepeeeceaeevpacgpetasanseaeoneca

412

vi Index.

Page

Pratt, Rev. J. H. Note on Iron Tension Bridges,....cccscscecesccesses 249

Reynolds, Capt. C. S. A Narrative of our connexions with the Dusannee and

Cheanee Garrows, with a short account of their country,.....csseseseeee 49

Robinson, William, Esq. Notes.on the Languages spoken by the various

tribes inhabiting the valley of Asam and its mountain confines, ........ 183-310

Strachey, Lieut. R. On the Snow-line in the Himalaya, ...eascesesessee 287

LIST OF PLATES.

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(RM ae NT Ta i i Sara

ANNUAL REPORT.

Tue Council of the Asiatic Society submit with much satisfaction

_ their Annual Report, shewing the state of the Society’s affairs during the

year just expired.

During that period the Society have had to deplore the death of

seven members, of whom two, the Hon’ble Sir J. P. Grant and Sir

Henry Wilmot Seton, long held the office of Vice Presidents of the

Society, and were distinguished for the deep interest they ever evinced

in its prosperity and usefulness. In the same list too the Council have

to record the names of Major General Hodgson, Colonel Stacy and Colo-

nel Wilcox, as authors of valuable contributions to the Society’s pub-

lications.

By departure to Europe—the loss of members has been 10, of whom

Colonel Forbes, a Vice President, is expected to return immediately,

three others in a year or two, and six may be considered as permanently

separated from our ranks.

By actual withdrawal the diminution has been 19, of whom 14 have

attributed their secession to the pecuniary difficulties which have been

felt so severely during the past year by all classes of the community.

While we have thus permanently lost 32 members, 26 new members

have been elected, and 5 have returned from Europe, leaving our

numbers practically the same as at the close of 1847, beg subscribing

members, actually in India, 159.

FINANCES.

The Council submit with pleasure an abstract statement of the

receipts and disbursements for the year 1848.

i Report.

This exhibits Receipts from all sources, ......ccccseccsessse RS, 28,100 1 7

Expenditure, ...... Snieeale ss aie tielnietem 12d gOeie. 2 UE

Balance to acct. in Cash an in A ee Banke ee Bengal, oe aavicasingite | UUme 3

Of which received from Government (Annual.)

For Oriental Grant, £ ARSW dies whee aan ewale oad ow Pam eueeNeRee Ginn ue

For Wecear Heoncntie: ealoey oo: ce tc eo ceak ee ee 3,000 0 O

MOP CUEUOVATULO, Sewinc oe TES ee hale sw Gk 0c Me bia ke cpleeieiston ae vince 768 0 O

For Museum Zoology, (8 oe/s's sc.vstectet oceuiseies doscetenes cease «©6000 O20

RQ CUUCQCONULO), | alafoleta(hye «ain apieisciale's «6 eee .s Wasi si0'% einen mie elo ev als 600 0 0

Rs. 13,368 0 0

From Society’s resources.

From Jourmal, ss.c.i+ s< iicleiwala: Secale crecblebe ese Sales ore SUS (Geren cmmte

Subscriptions and Admission fees, BO Sees OMe Ore ch 2 el Ee

Sale of Oriental Works,........... sine 2) Gee ONO

Contributions from Members for the purchase ‘of Furniture, .. re 800 0 0

Miscellaneous; as per detailed Account, 0... 0scececscasncces 132 6 6

Total Rs. 13,820 1 8

alan Geral Pasty Gaby ip ainias: se wieseisce Moe's, wk wlelate. oe bia S Rtas wee erecerace 911 15 11

14,732 1 7

eee

Total Rs. 28,100 1 7

The whole of the outstanding Madilities, including the estimated cost

of the Journal to the 31st December, and Rs. 1,348 10 3 due to Mr.

Vos for the repairs and additions to the house, amount to Rs. 7,549 1

9, while our dependencies to credit amount to Rs. 10,398 2 4, of

which at least Rs. 9,000 are certainly realizable within the ensuing

year.

The Council regard this result as eminently satisfactory, especially

with reference to the heavy expense (Rs. 2,348 10 3) incurred by the

triennial repairs and the additions made to the buildings, and to the

number of drawings with which the Journal has been embellished, and

the scientific and literary contributions of our members illustrated ;

also with reference to the expense incurred in printing and editing 12

numbers of the Society’s new Oriental periodical, the Bibliotheca Indica,

of which 9 have already appeared. Nor should it be forgotten that

this result has been arrived at in a year of unparalleled distress, which

bore directly or indirectly most seriously upon the Society’s resources.

ADDITIONS TO BUILDINGS.

The Council point with much pleasure to the great improvement

effected in the premises by the enclosure of the south veranda, the

erection of a sky-light over the hall of meeting, the furnishing of the

apartments and the arrangements for the suitable lighting of the rooms

Report. il

on the occasions of the evening meetings. The cost of the furniture it

is gratifying to add, has been chiefly provided by the liberal donations

of a few members of the Society, and has entailed only a charge of Rs.

336 on their general funds.

The financial crisis of 1848 rendered it impracticable to proceed with

the plans for erecting a Sculpture Gallery and Lecture-Room, and for pro-

viding lectureships, as suggested in the Annual Report for 1847. Nor

does the present period appear favorable for the introduction of these

important measures, which the Council still hope are only postponed to

more prosperous times.

ORIENTAL DEPARTMENT.

The marked feature in this department is the commencement of the

** Bibliotheca Indica’ on the plan suggested by the Vice President, Mr.

Laidlay, and which has already elicited the approbation of Professor

Wilson, M. Burnouf, and the leading philologists of Germany. Next

in importance is the liberal remission on the part of the Hon’ble the

Court of Directors of the heavy claims to which the Society had be-

come liablefor the misapplication of the Oriental Grant from 1841 to 1847.

Naturau Hisrory. Tue Sections, &e.

In the Department of Natural History, the Council have to record

their grateful sense of the indefatigable exertions of the Section of

Natural History, who have met weekly in the Museum during the whole

year, and under whose directions in a few months more the Council feel

assured that the Zoological Museum will be arranged and displayed in

a manner worthy of the scientific reputation of the Society, and of the

munificent aid afforded by Government to this department of their

labours. The Council record with much regret that notwithstanding

the zealous exertions of the Section no Catalogue has been as yet pro-

vided of the Collections in this department.

On the subject of the Sections generally the Council are of opinion

that their appointment has been attended with great advantage to the

Society ; they propose that the present members be re-elected for the

ensuing year.

The Library has been enriched by the acquisition of 474 volumes,

the Museum by numerous and very valuable additions since the last

Annual Report.

Iv Report.

The Council have lastly to point out that in consequence of the

death of Sir J. P. Grant, and the departure from the Presidency of

Mr. H. M. Elliot, there are two vacancies to be filled up in the Vice

Presidents list. As Colonel Forbes, so many years a Vice President, is

immediately expected to return to Calcutta, the Council propose his re-

election. On the Council list—through the departure of Mr. Bushby,

Mr. W. P. Grant, Lord Arthur Hay, and Mr. Heatley, and the resigna-

tion of Mr. Grey, five vacancies exist, but the Council consider that the

original number of nine members should be reverted to, which if agreed

to, will render necessary the election of two new members. The Council

accordingly propose the following names for the consideration of the

Society :—

Dr. McClelland,

Babu Ramgopal Ghose.

The whole of the accounts and documents illustrative of the Society’s

affairs as reported on in the preceding details, are herewith submitted to

the Society, and the Council propose that they be printed separately for

circulation to the members.

With reference to the revision of rules adverted to in the last general

report, the Council desire to add that replies have not as yet been

received from the principal public bodies addressed on this subject.

The Council m conclusion desire to record their grateful sense of the

important literary and scientific contributions received by the Society

during the past year, from many of its members, among whom the

following—

Mr. B. H. Hodgson,

Lieut. H. Strachey, and

Capt. A. Cunningham,

have been conspicuous for the number and value of their communi-

cations. The Society are also deeply indebted to the Hon’ble Mr.

Thomason, Lieut.-Governor N. W. Provinces, and to Mr. H. M. Elliot,

Secretary to the Government of India, for the numerous and important

public documents placed at their disposal for publication in the Jour-

nal.

By resolution of the Council,

W. B. O’Suavucunessy, Secretary.

Asiatic Society, 10th January, 1849.

Report. v

The Report having been read and adopted, the meeting proceeded

to elect officers for the ensuing year, and on scrutiny of the lists, the

elections of the following gentlemen were announced :—

President.

THe Hon’sie Sir J. W. Convite.

Vice Presidents,

Tue Lorp Bisuor or CALcuTra.

Lirut.-Cou. W. N. Forses.

J. W. Larpuay, Esa.

Dr. W. B. O’SHAUGHNESSY.

Council.

W. Seton Karr, Esa.

JAMES Dopp, Esa.

Dr. McCureLianp,

and.

Rev. Mr. Lone.

We sy Jackson, Esa.

Cart. A. BRooME.

R. W. G. Friru, Ese.

Basu RaAmGopat GHOSE.

Dr, H. Waker.

Secretaries.

W. B. O’SHaveunessy, Esa.

J. W. Latpuay, Esa.

Dr. EK. Rorr, Secretary in the Oriental Department.

The following gentlemen were also appointed members of the several

Sections :—

Oriental Section.

W. Seton Karr, Esa. Rev. Mr. Lone.

W. Jackson, Esa. Carr. LATTER.

Basu Hurreemouun SEn. Dr. Rorr, Secretary.

Basu Rasenpra Lau Mirrra.

Natural History.

Dr. McCLeLianp

Mr. Larpuay, Secretary.

J. W. Grant, Esa.

Dr. WALKER.

R. W. G. Frirs, Esa.

Statistical.

Rey. Mr. Lone. | Dr. Duncan Stewart. | Lieut. Srapues.

Geology and Mineralogy.

Cart. Broome. G. Wixsy, Esa. A. Mitcue.t, Esa.

Jas. Dopp, Ese H. Newmarcg, Esa.

Physics and Meteorology.

J. W. Grant, Ese. Lievut.-Cou. Fores.

Cart. THUILLIER. Rev. Mr. Pratt.

vi | Report.

Dr. Abstract Statement of the Receipts and

RECEIPTS.

To Museum.

Received from the General Treasury the amount of

allowance authorised by the Court of Directors for

the services of a Curator for 12 months at 250 Rs.

PELMMOMPN ye. doe c.c0k eis Stee cee sisal = . Rs.

Ditto ditto for ey of Specimens at 50 Rs. ae

HOW y re clcsls c's «

Ditto back amount onl Beni “Frash’s services for. 5

months, his services not being required—at 5 Rs. per

month, <<... : ve me me wees cece ence cece

Ditto fine from Frash’s Salary, is sts iinlp swe be cece

To Mustum Economic Grouocy.

Received from the General Treasury the amount of

allowance granted by Government for the services of

a Joint Curator, for 12 months, at 250 Rs. per

MIOMUN;:) sieves acs Sadeterates?o | alsicia <'otets

Ditto ditto for Establishment. and contingencies, and

ditto, at 64 Rs. per iit; cee ee cs were sees vane

3,000 0 0

600 0 0

25 0 0

0 8 0

3,000 0 0

768 0 0

3.625 8 0

—_—_——— 3,768 0 0

Carried over,..

7,393 8 0

Report.

Disbursements of the Asiatic Society, for the year 1848.

= —— =

DISBURSEMENTS.

By Museum.

Paid Mr. E. Blyth’s Salary as Curator

for 12 months, at 250 Rs. per month, 3,000 G 90

Ditto house-rent for ditto at 40 Rs. per

Deine dacs: smsssccesneseece: 4000 (0

——_—_—— 3,480 0

Ditto Establishment of Taxidermists, Artists, Carpen-

ters, &c., ditto ditto at 147 Rs. per month, ...... 1,764 0

Ditto Contingencies, GUECO CIELO rails claie = </eicie'esieiererslol 1 OeO oe

Ditto for 5 dozens and 2 Stoppered Bottles, alshelels 18 1

Ditto for 1 tin-lined Case for packing Minerals for Syal

ney Museum,..... aeetefela as chee! ce) evatel(<ialia\cl eisiaccrels ca |

Ditto Mr. H. Mansel, for a Teak Wood

Glass Case for the Model of the Taj, 40 0 0

Ditto ditto for expences incurred in re-

placing the Missing pieces of Ivory,

BACH TO! tHe ADOVE, o- as oc oc cssecess 16 0 0

Ditto for repairing and enlarging a Teak Wood Table

ORTON ssi 6:0) 5.40% «> 9s,» state atiave eiehalaieter sieiais 12710

Ditto for a Glass Case for depositing Shells, Selgedacs 70 7

By Museum Economic Grouocy.

Paid Mr. H. Piddington’s Salary as Joint-Curator for

12 months, at 250 Rs. per month, ..........ee02 3,000 0

Ditto Establishment for ditto at 31 Rs. per ditto,.... 372 0

Witto Contingencies for ditto, 2... sacecesccccecs 89 13

Ditto for a Copy of Lyall’s Principles of Geology,.... ll 4

Ditto for a Silver Evaporating Basin, .... 28 8

Ditto Messrs. Scott and Co. for a Copy of "Bengal Di-

rectory for 1848, ...... 8 0

Ditto for a Copy of Quarterly J ournal ‘of Geological

MEME ING. (2 yestiin AalareSiiestele 6 kubte ; 4 0

Ditto for 4 lbs. and 5oz. of liquor ammoniz mith stop-

Poe CEMIUGLCS, tals tate sr’n os 0:4 ale oie wis a silole abbnelaraleravelatoims 18 0

By MINERALOGICAL AND GEOLOGICAL MUSEUM.

Paid Contingencies for 12 months, ........s0006. 65 10

Ditto Mr. J.C. Sherriff, for printing Geological Cata-

lopueim Hebruary 1841, 2. cs. Sue ee os welde Sole 89 13

Ditto ditto Mineralogical ditto, sia) os) Wroi wintlabata Weryier Ole 61 10

Ditto for a Saw for cutting Specimens, .........+4. 7 8

Ditto for Teak planks for making a chest of drawers,.. 13 4

vil

Cr.

5,929 12 0

3,001 9 6

237 14 6

9,699 4 0

Carried over,..

vill Report.

| Brought forward, Co.’s Rs. 7,393 8 0

By Lisprary.

Received by Sale of Books, ..sovccrceescecccceoes 65 6 6 ae

To ORIENTAL PUBLICATIONS.

Received from the General Treasury the amount of

grant from Government for 12 months, at 500 Rs.

POL MONT. 6.5, a5'scc, <.c6. leper atieiel opetetoarone

Ditto by sale of Oriental Publications,.. 770 0 O

Ditto (by transfer) from Mr. H. Torrens,

GitEG;, + < sB sain. one's = stan waisietmare s , LOA mene

Ditto ditto Mr. J. Muir, ditto, .« veces 24 0 0

a O28 ey 20 Ha

— 6,928 0 0

Carried over;,.. 14,386 14 6

6,000 0 0

Report. 1x

Brought forward, Co.’s Rs. 9,699 4 0

By Liprary.

Paid Baboo Rajenda Lall Mitter’s Salary as Assistant

Secretary and Librarian for 12 months, at 100 Rs.

EON. 20s ce siafele G@alne cic as\elc se se sc osiag 1,200 0% 0

Ditto Establishment for Library, at 58 Rs. 8 An. ditto, 702.0 0

mata Contingencies for ditto, .....0.0ccecessecess 173 6 6

Ditto Messrs. Thacker and Co., for pur-

chase of Books, .... Metaehaelianey lide 0

Ditto Messrs. Ostell and "Lepage, for

ESE En aie se cio ginls cinie'aie asta pice geile AO E2aO

Ditto Capt. C. Douglas, dibio canon 144 8 0

Ditto Mr. J. S. Cunningham, ae of

Messrs. Smith, Elder and Co., for

PLEO asl s cima tie ates gig 6's 6'eho0 Races 208 0 0

Ditto Mr. J. Sinclair, Wiecountant Ori-

ental Bank, for a set of Bills of ex-

change, No. 5 1215, on the Union

Bank of London, in favor of Mr. H.

C. Cumming, and remitted in payment

of Books purchased from him—#£25

100; exchange 1 83 per Rupee, ....-— 298 8 7

Ditto Native Book-Sellers for ditto,.... 16 8 0

Ditto Messrs. Scott and Co., for a Copy

of Bengal Directory for the year 1848, 10 0 0

Ditto for a Copy of Capt. Bedford’s

Chart of the Hooghly, below Calcutta, 2/0 0

Ditto Mr. Edmond, for a Copy of the

Distribution List of the B. C. Service,

from Ist November, 1848, .....e0. 1 0 0

— 1,053 0 7

Pista Murty for binding books, ...cse..-osssecess) 120 6 0

Ditto Messrs. Thacker and Co., for stationary, DiabatehaNe 36 12 0

Ditto Landing charges on Booka, parcelsh: Seog) A. ee 512 0

Ditto for making 14 new planks for, and repairing book-

aE tte tanteh ot 7 ev ahd Sia aicai ok ash Deak chavcoos oropawievchane an ecevae 27 Ou 9

Peeters Watan Mats oo... evans her ei eiens 26 10 O

Ditto freight for a Case containing Asia-

tic Researches, forwarded to Dr. L. C.

Stewart, Kussowlee, ...... eee 213 0

Ditto ditto Mahabharut ditto 4 “Pundit

Pamminital (Uimbala, <2. os <0 s'clsece ce L 8.6

Ditto ditto for 2 packages ditto to Capt.

Wires Kittoe, Benares, ...0csecvocc es 6 9 9

1014 9

a (8 48Gb 13728

By OrRiENTAL PUBLICATIONS.

Paid Establishment for Oriental Works for 12 months,

Bee ACL THORN ss 4 nin dates sis!e nie ois sa ciateite oem, | COL “Or'O

Ditto Contingencies for ditto, Sala suiatausae alta te tieley seca 1612 9

Ditto Rev. J. Thomas, Printer, for 100 Copies lar Mr.

Hodgson’s Essay on the Kooch, Bodo and Dhimal

PERN C ST cicta cas siete.’ «5,0 300 0 0

Ditto Messrs. Thacker and Grell for a Copy ‘ofthe

Abesh Kedah,. Riayaiata sa alee taunvorelesnrate nines 3.4 0

Ditto Duftry for binding ‘books, ovata dilbis ols viv'e aja/)s 50 6 0

Carried over,.. 13,186 1 10

x Report.

Brought forward, Co.’s Rs. 14,386 14 6

To JouRNAL.

Received by sale of the Asiatic Society’s Journal,.... 291 12 0

Received by transfer from the separate account of

Journals sold to Subseribers,. ces sarcsecen cocnes 1,673, 0. 0

nal

1,964 12 @

SS Gee

Carried over,.. 16,351 10 6

Report.

Brought forward, Co.’s Rs.

Ditto for transcribing 8400 Slokes of the

Rajah Tarangini, at 3 8 per 1000,.... 29 6 6

Ditto ditto 24 jooz and 6 pages of the

Dartorruck Amar Bahdarashale, at 3

SAG Mer MPC, «2's cs seas de eee ss 8 2 0

——__—__—— af, SiG

Ditto for eight ae bars for suspending book-

shelves, ..... POS Sak hel cick écmihe er Meretaelists Zon 9

Ditto for a Ratan Mat, . 20 2

Ditto for repairing book- shelv es and supplying 112 feet

of Teak wood for the same, ....... L Fae Ane Pacha

Ditto Rev. J. Thomas, of Baptist Mission Press, for

printing Bibliotheca Indica, No. 1-4,. ar 896 2

Ditto ditto Dr. E. Roer’s Salary as Editor ‘of the ‘Ori-

ental Journal for 11 months, at 100 Rs. per month, 1,100 0

Ditto ditto his Establishment for ditto; tense - 474 0

Ditto ditto boat hire for Pundits for ditto, .......... 48 0

Ditto ditto Contingencies for ditto, ..... 14 6

Ditto Proprietors of Newspapers for advertizing Bib-

liotheca Indica, ....... Sistas d.s af °8 0

Ditto for a Bill Register- Book for ‘ditto,.. asl) si slates 19 O

Ditto Accountant to the Government of

Bengal, Revenue Department, for a draft

on the Collector of Benares in favour

of Mr. G. Nicholls, Head Master Be-

neras College, and remitted to him on

account Oriental publications, ...... 51 0 0

Less amount received from Dr. Roer, on

this account from Mr. Beadon,,..... Lys 8

—_—_-—- 3973710

By JourNat.

Paid Rev. J. Thomas, account Baptist Mission Press,

for printing the ore s Journal, from July to

eup VSAS, ess hats 2,852 0 0

Ditto ditto for 2 Reams and 9 ‘quires ‘of thick tinted

POIGREO PAPEL ge \(als < lake alee oelare'e a 49 0 0

Ditto Mr. T. Black, Proprietor of the Asiatic fash:

graphic Press, for printing and lithographing Draw-

iesyeOnarts, &C., .2\id'saeaee< sratehate WEE 407 9 10

Ditto Mr. J. DeCruz, for the Proprietor

of the Calcutta Lithographic Press,

for Lithographing Maps, .......... 60 6 0

Ditto Mr. T. F. Cummins, for Lithogra-

PPO REE SS oe ate in a)opnes,/ae, 0,6 :4.5\5. 050 20 12 0

Ditto Mahindy Lall Sircar, for Litho-

BEAPHIME PIALCS, aig e.crnis-40:0's n'a. 56 60 aie 47 8 0

we 836 3 10

Ditto Bissonauth Nundon’s Salary as Draftsman for

Mupuer and September, 1848, .. 0 cceenccccene cna 50: Oy. 0

Ditto tor binding’ Joprnals, .. 0... 00s 0c00 ee 10 8 0

Ditto freight for Journals, forwarded to Messrs. W. H.

Allen and Co. London, per P. and O. S. N. Co.’s

MIATA MADD Uc Ts ttt, aaa gle Galea ed alelee web alee 1237; 8: 0

Ditto Contingencies and postage, .,....essereeroes: 60 4 6

Carried over,..

aTceco (S) for) ow

13,186 1 10

3,955 3 6

3,98) 8 4

eee

21,122 13 8

X11 Report.

Brought forward, Co.’s Rs.

To ContTRIBUTIONS AND ADMISSION FEEs.

Received from Members, amount of quarterly contribu. |

tions during the 12 months, <c)0....6 om ee ne oe oe

Ditto ditto admission fees ditto, ......sseeccccveecs

To MiscELLANEOUS.

9,386 15 2

608 0 0

————— _ 9,994 15 2

Received by sale-of Old Mats, 2. 2... 0-1 s 0s seca cone 8 8 0

Received by transfer from Mr. J. Muir, the amount

paid for printing 200 Copies of the Literature of the

Vedas as per contra, 1... cccesccesccvcsvccecens 32 0 0

To Secretary’s OFFics.

Received from Buckawoolla Peon, Ist instalment in

payment of Rs. 10 advanced him on account of his

DAILALV; 4/8 sichetorntty olobeieis's! anita tise mnie > oa a. 36)4 aca 1 0 06

To CoNTRIBUTIONS FOR THE PURCHASE OF FURNITURE.

Received. from the following Members contributions

for the purehase of the Asiatic Society’s Furniture :—

Js W. Colville; Mstic, (oc stacousis cc's tei ee cre eBe 100 0 O

JW Grant -Msqe scissdeciee secs ss tome es CUO (0 cu

Messrs, Willistand: Farle, so. 0 os < 303% Gece cc 50 0 O

Ji WW is) Maaillaiys, Hi Stf ore see’e ciercieucis fefolcie/ales etsy ater eie 50 0 0

G.) Lamb; ise. osacciers corners: seis siciee Spi eecee 50 0 O

HL. Wi Mot, HsGe % <'sscscgaieraiepaie ajo) sc sieueeuais 50 0 0

Rajah Ramehund Sing,.. aces sc secsaees ne | p200, 0 0

Raja Sutchurn Ghosauly Mocs. os sos clesieniss 50 0 0

W.. B. Jackson, Hsq...c ote deen annie see 50 0 0

Baboo Ramgopaul Ghose,......sescecceesce 50 0 0

Hy Curble, Haq. ys ss saree site twidares's Sins 50 0 0

Carried OVery.6

16,351 10 6

40 8 0

1 0 0

800 0 0

27,188 1 8

Report.

By MIscELLANEOUS.

Paid Mr. H. Halligan’s Salary as Night Guard for 12

months, at 40 Rs. per month, Je ole 400 | OCAO

Ditto for repairing the Table for the Meeting Room... 10 3 0

Ditto for repairing and bronzing 14 wall shade

branches, and supplying 14 new Toon Wood

Brackets, ... 14 0 0

Ditto for advertizing Meetings of the Asiatic Society

im the Newspapers, ......ee- ereveceuin Lt dana

Ditto Messrs. Spence and Co, a9 for lighting up the

Town Hall for the Meeting of May, June, July, and

August 1848, at 32 Rs. each, .... 56 128 0 0

Ditto for Sundry Contingent expences ‘incurred for the

Meetings, and for Oil for Night Guard, Biles aE OO Kh!) 60.

Ditto Nyak bearer’s Salary, as bearer for the reading

room from 12th September to 30th October, 1848,

at 6 Rs. per month, . ..... ee O12. 19

Ditto Mr. J. Chaunce, for pimaline up and keeping the

Clock in order, ..... 25 0 0

Ditto Rev. J. Thomas, account Baptist Mission Press,

for printing Miscellaneous Articles,...... 207 4 0

Ditto ditto on account Mr. J. Muir, for printing 200

Copies of the Literature of the Vedas,.........00. 32 0 0

Ditto Mr. T. Black, Proprietor of the

Asiatic Lithographic Press, for Litho-

graphing 100 Copies of election letter, 6 8 0

Ditto ditto, for printing from a steel En-

graving emblematic Vignette of the

Museum of the Society, srsyelay's ae 6 0 0 123 85 0

Ditto (by transfer) on account of Mr. H. Torrens, in

part of Rupees 1500 due to him by the Society,.... 502 0 0

Ditto ditto Mr. J. Muir, Ditto Rs. 500 ditto, ...... 168 0 0

By Secretary’s OFFice.

Paid Mr. F. Greenway’s Salary as officiating Accountant

for 12 months at 60 Rs. per month,. isteeises pudee0 OKO

Ditto Establishment for Ditto at 41 Rs. ‘per ditto, 4

Co. Rs. 492 0 0

Less Salary of Peons, whose services

were not entertained,.........ee0 ee 2 1083 488 1a 9

Ditto for Stationary, ...... mistalsiatciieis ey elevateleratete 86 6 0

Ditto Contingencies and Postage, wetee ils ditvasshet teats 6112 6

Ditto Bucka woolla Peon, advance on peeoune of his

SM MPRA Yea nialicteltaleilale\ie) cc) ea lala) == oe, Wis'ivisi ele nie: ioie 10 0 0

By PurcHase or Furniture.

Paid Messrs. Adam and Co. for purchase of the follow-

ing articles :—

1 Mahogany Marble-top Circular

Drawing room, Lable,. ies. 2 - 220

2 pairs or 4-Light Lusters at 120, 480

1 pair of treble-branch wall Consudolas 70

1 Mirzapoor Carpet, 23 feet by 16 feet, 125

MEAEONZe StANGISD, 6c. «c00 cc cecciee 28

oooco

ooooo

xii

Brought forward, Co.’s Rs. 21,122 13 8

1,803 23

1,367 2 3

Carried over,.. 24,293 2 2

Report.

XiV

Brought forward, Co.’s Rs. 27,188 1 8

To BALANCE.

As per Account closed on the 3lst Dec. 1848, .sceccescessoeeese 911 15 IT

—r

Company’s Rupees,,... 28,100 1 7

etal

Errors and

Calcutta, Asiatic Society,

the 30th Dec. 1848.

Report. XV

Brought forward, Co.’s Rs. 24,293 2 2

1 Mahogany Camp Sideboard in 3

Pesce ccc sein csaens oss | 110 0-0

2 Pairs of Bronzed Table Argand

PaMApS, le oe ss 55 cee een eh coce ve 100 0O

1 Gross Cotton Wicks,......secees a 0

Ditto Muddoo Soodun Doss, for 3 Ar-

and Lamps, .. 2-022. cccces cciearas 25 0 0

2 Dozens Oilburners,... wc voice scce-ce 10 0 O

lass PUDIDICTS) .40i 0 oc oc'es coweee £20.70

——_——_._ 36 0 0

Ditto for 11 pieces of Beerbhoom cloth, .......eeee. 16 8 0

rte for rattan Mats, 1... 0s cacceccsjsetescecceus 442 1 0

By BvILpDINGs.

Paid Mr. J. M. Vos, advance on account of repairs

and alterations of the Society’s Premises,.......... 1,000 0 0

By Srr WM. Jones’ MonuMENT,

Paid Messrs. Sheriff and Co. for repairing Sir Wm.

Jones’ Monument, as per estimate, ......eeeee00. 103 7 9

By BALance.

anithe Bank of Bengal, .....0..escecs, 955176

REM AMOS. lsc cr csc ce ce cess cdioe 37 7 2

By INEFFICIENT BALANCE.

For amount advanced Mr. Templeton, for

Contingencies in the Museum and Zoo-

logy Department on the 27th ultimo, 50 0 0

Ditto Baboo Rajendralall Mittro, Assis-

tant Secretary and Librarian, ditto in

the Library, on the 3rd ultimo, ...... 30 0 0

— 80 0 0

— 1,072 14 8

Company’s Rupee,.. 28,100 1 7

Omissions Excepted.

Frep GREENWAY,

Officiating Accountant.

Xvi Report.

Dr. The Oriental Publication Grant in

January 11th, 1848.—To Cash paid Dr. E. Roer, Co-

Secretary, Oriental Department, Establishment and

Contingencies for the month of Dec. 1847, for the

publication of the Vedas, ..... . Rs.

Ditto 15th, ditto, Establishment for “Oriental Works,

Ditto 20th, ditto. Duftry for binding Oriental Books,

presented to Rope Pius Dtsicciocisss cate cenens

Ditto ditto Gitte Gixto, <x. ese eteletercle ne sels ’s oar ce! case

February 8th ditto, Dr. E. Roer, Editor of the Oriental

Journal ‘ Bibliotheca Indica,’’ his allowance for the

month of Jan. 1848,

Ditto ditto Establishment and Contingencies for “ditto,

Ditto 17th ditto, Establishment for Oriental Works

FOE Jat BAS sacctaiarerakorre ielevetetetenetsiiete o's fe a eisireis: oe

March 6th ditto, Duftry for binding the

following works :—

A Copy of Amarcosha,.........000 1 6 0

A Copy of Persian Catalogue, ...... 012 0

Ditto 7th ditto, Dr. E. Roer, Co-Secretary

Asiatic Society, his allowance as Editor

of the ‘‘ Bibliotheca Indica’’ for Feb., 100 0 O

Ditto Establishment and Contingencies, 24 0 0

Ditto Charges for Advertizing the Ist

No. of the Bibliotheca Indica in the ©

Bengalee Newspapers, eiee 11 8 0

Ditto ditto ditto in the ‘ Elwell iene 8:48) g

Ditto ditto ditto in the Bengal Hurkaru, 6 0 0

Ditto 16th ditto, Establishment for Ori-

ental Works for February 1848, .... v2 0 0

Ditto 17th ditto, Sundry petty Charges, 10 0 0

Ditto 29th ditto, Messrs. W. Thacker and Co. for a

Copy of ithe Abesmy ised aly, ic tecicis c/s cieie cline <icie stete

April 5th ditto, Dr. E. Roer, Editor of

the Oriental Journal for March 1848, 100 0 O

Ditto ditto his Establishment and Con-

tingencies for March). c/s eteclssieisie’s «7 46 0 0

Ditto 6th ditto, petty Charges, .....

Ditto 15th ditto, Establishment for Oriental Works for

March 1848, : SAOOASIDO UDO”

Ditto 29th ditto, for’ a Blank Book, aterieleUsveleieieieuarenery

150

146

Carried over,..

vo) a)

ips 80

Zi 2 0

228 0 0

219 13 0

802 7 0

Report.

Account Current with the Asiatic Society

Jan. Ist, 1848.—By Balance of Acccount

closed and published down to the 31st

Dec. Company’s 5 per cent. Loans of

A ies as oc ae oa v6 Sis saow ee A000 of 0

Bree earn cle clakgie.o8 ts sie Qieane Rees 202 0 0

—— 4,202 0 0

a—— 4,202

Ditto 15th ditto Cash, received from the General Trea-

sury, the Amount of Monthly grant sanctioned by the

Court of Directors for the Month of December 1847, 500 0 O

February 15th ditto, ditto for January 1848, ........ 500 0 O

March 16th ditto, ditto for February 1848, ........0. 500 0 0

April 18th ditto, ditto for March 1848,.............. 500 0 0

May 25th, 1848.—By Cash received from the General

Treasury, being the Amount of Monthly grant sanc-

tioned by the Court of Directors for the Month of

April 1848, @eesoveeeaevneen ee eevee ©Geoeee se aeveeev e868 500 0 0

June 28th, By ditto ditto for May 1848,............ 500 0 0

July 18th, By ditto ditto for June 1848,............ 500 0 90

August 25th, 1848.—By Cash received from the General

Treasury, being the Amount of Monthly grant sanc-

tioned by the Court of Directors for the Month of

CITI. VS cen ea e@eeeeeeeotd e202 8282026 868 500 0 0

September 22nd ditto, ditto ditto for August 1848,.... 500 0 0

October 26th ditto, ditto ditto for September 1848, .. 500 0 0

November 17th ditto, ditto ditto for October 1848,.... 500 0 0

December 26th, 1848.—By Cash received from the Ge-

neral ‘l'reasury, being the Amount of Monthly grant

sanctioned by the Court of Directors for the Month of

MVCrMeMIMCE LOB oS ois aa lhe-ova:.n ovale celavcie alcveph cubits 500 0 0

500

Xvil

Cr.

0 0

Carried over,.. 10,202 0 0

XViil Report.

Brought forward, 802 7 0

May 8th—To Cash paid Dr. E. Roer,

Editor of the Oriental Journal, hisallow-

ance for April, 1848,.............. 100 0 ‘0

Ditto ditto Establishment and Contin.

SENCIES GIO, 2 os. cs co we ss sons es 48 0 0

————_ 148 0 0

Ditto 16th ditto, Establishment for Oriental Works for

April 1848,. ; es oti thes 72-0 -0

Ditto 17th ditto, Duftry for binding Books,.. semetnersite 6 0

Ditto 22nd ditto, Extra Writer for transcribing 2000

Slokes of Rajatarangini at 3 8 per thousand, ...... 7 0 0

—— 227 6 0

June 3rd ditto, Dr. E. Roer, Editor

of the Oriental Journal, his Allowance

for May, <2. 62 - 100 0 0

Ditto ditto his Establishment and Gontin-

gencies for ditto,’ 22... Jee ewes 41 1 6

146 1 6

Ditto 13th ditto for, Ink for Copying Rajatarangini,.. 0 8 0

Ditto 17th, ditto Establishment for Oriental Works for

May SUS AS 27. ecvclal ais ete ='+ atoteleo'<iceleuasyalalleleleieis(e7sisia 72 0 0

— 218 9 6

July Ist ditto, paid Cooly hire for Biblio-

theca Indica No. 4,. 0 4 0

Ditto ditto Gour Chund Doss for Gopying

2500 Slokes of the Rajatarangini at

=0) Per thOUSANG, seis ee eels cele eicle 812 0

oe 9 0 0

Ditto 7th ditto, Dr. E. Roer, Editor of

the Oriental Journal, his Allowance for

June 1848, : cwee =LOO 0 0

Ditto ditto Establishment and Contingen-

Cles 10% JUNE 6845) lac ceterevsla © cvelsraiaiere 44 15 0

——_———._ 144 15 0

Ditto 15th ditto, Establishment for Oriental Works for

Gistosgec «4. Ue rey sista siekete 72 0 0

Ditto 24th ditto, Hoornaratullah for transcribing 24 jooz

and 6 pages of the Dartoorur Amar Bahadurashali, at

3B JOOZ PEFTUPEe, oo wo cecececencascensccscccsace 8 2 0

——_—_——- _ 234 1 0

August 2nd ditto, Dr. E. Roer, Editor of

the Oriental Journal, his Allowance for

July 1548... were sess «6100 00

Ditto ditto ditto Establishment and Con-

tingencies forditto,e: .cielss silence < 50 8 O

150 8 0

Ditto 5th ditto, Accountant to the Government of Ben-

gal in the Revenue Department, for a Draft on the

Collector of Benares, and remitted to G. Nicholls,

Esq., Head Master of Benares, Bi i on a publi-

cationiof the) Vedas, sis cic.vu\estcs ioe werew are ee ates we 39 8 O

Ditto 15th eee Sundry Contingent expences as per

Bill,. matele «Wb ela aipilos ealipls ale) siuilolniy/eieieilsie’< s oie 311 0

Carried over,,. 1,482 7 6

t li ; ‘ t) +

aes. i ‘ ' that

Brought forward, 10,202 0 0

®) / 3

fe / . =

2s f

a4 i;

rll

(

( “

\ 7 ¢

Ocoee CGE

Carried over,.. 10,202 0 0 |

XX Report.

Brought forward,

August 15th, 1848.—To Cash paid for Copying 2900

Slokes of the Rajatarangini at 3 8 per thousand, .. 10] 2° 6

Ditto 17th ditto, Establishment for Oriental Works for

shulyigl SA e a eaipiaisiates: since cigs sleine occis sue ains oe 72 0 0

September 4th ditto, Dr. E. Roer, Edi-

tor of the Oriental Journal, his salary

POP PAMENSE claw eceiecnelp minis onianicene es), “LOO! LO!) 0

Ditto ditto Establishment for ditto,.... 48 0 0

Ditto ditto Contingencies, 4-4-1 13 0 513 0

153 13

Ditto 15th ditto, Contingencies for the Oriental De-

partment of the Librarian, ..... 4 10

Ditto ditto for Copying 1000 Slokes ‘of the Rajataran-

gini as per bill, . GEO DE PS)

Ditto 20th ditto, Duftry ie binding Oriental Works, 10 12

Ditto 21st ditto, Histablichinient for Oriental Works for

AMURUSE,” x si c'ei 72 0

Ditto “25th ditto, for 8 ‘wrought iron . bars ‘for. suspend-

ing Book-shelves, Ec harosisicis ie a oicie! «,ctelerseetie icc. winter 23 9

Ditto 29th ditto Dr. E. Roer’s salary as

Editor of the Oriental Journal for

NE PLEMIDEL, <5 <76 eels Be 100 0 O

Ditto ditto ditto his Extablishinent ditto, 48 0 0

Ditto ditto ditto Contingencies, ditto, .. 4 0 0

So 2S

wo Oo SSO

Ditto 30th ditto, for repairing Book-shelves, ........

October 18th ditto, Establishment for Oriental Works

for September 1848, .......- 0+: Wek’ avaisiseeliers 72 0 O

Ditto 19th ditto, Cooley hire for remov-

ing and arranging Bookeshelves, .... 312 0

Ditto ditto for a mat, os... Aeseier< sc atets 20 2 0

November 2nd ditto, Dr. E. Roer’s

salary as Editor of the Oriental Jour-

nal for October 1848, .......000-- 100 0 O

Ditto ditto Establishment for ditto,.... 48 0 0

Ditto ditto Contingencies 4-+4+-2 14 0 614 0

154 14 0

Ditto 13th ditto ditto, ditto for the Oriental Depart-

ment of the Library,...... : Ld) 33

Ditto 16th ditto, Establishment for Oriental Works for

Gctoner te elatlaga aunceh sieve aialstaie etal ieheieieien shave. ai 72 0 0

December 5th 1848.—To Cash paid Dr.

E. Roer’s salary as Editor of the

Oriental Journal for November 1848, 100 0 O

Ditto ditto Establishment for ditto,.... 48 0 0

Ditto ditto Contingencies for ditto,.... 5 5 0

153 5 0

Ditto 7th ditto, for repairing Bookeshelves and supply-

ing 112 square feet of Teak board, &c. .... eee 23 ek 4G

Carried over,.. 181 12 6

1,482 7 0

275 13 6

422 8 3

95 14 0

228 9 9

2,505 5 0

| Report. | Seip

| aoe ,

ss Brought forward, 10.202 0 0

* a « 7 . -

1G Es

’

ea '

{

7 f \

i - ‘

| , ‘

ss : rhe )

Mg -_

. f a?

‘ ¢ 2

} i ¢ a

, \

\ {

¥ , ‘ ae a .

ts 6 x ;

‘

\ \

V NS

ié

sa )

Carried over,,. 10,202 0 0

Xx Report.

Brought forward,

Ditto 20th ditto, Establishment of Oriental Works for

ING CME GT OLA yg tenia) oie: s.5 oul she's insc) hes cre) iseRey onl ale ste

Ditto 26th ditto, Ber. Mr. ‘J. Thomas,

account Baptist Mission Press for prin-

ting the Bibliotheca Indica No.1 to 4, 796 2 0O

Ditto ditto ditto English translation of

the Text in the above 4 Nos.,........ 100 0 0

Ditto ditto for 100 Copies of Essay the

first, on the Kooch, Bodo, and Dhimal

Tribes, Bb percopy i nema 300 0 0

Ditto 30th ditto, Amount of Rev. J. Thomas’s bill

due for printing the ‘‘ Bibliotheca Indica’? No. 5

to 8, @eeeoneeeeeeeeoeo ee ee eeeeserrees ee 22 ©8222 Oe

Dec. 26th, 1846.—To Balance.

Company’s Papers of the new 5 per Cent. Loan de-

posited with the Government Agent, ..........

Cash, .@@ee0e0ne8 e@eeee@ eo @eoeeeeae cea

e@eene ee ee oe

Company’s Rupees,.... 10,202 0 0

Calcutta, Asiatic Society,

the 30h Dec. 1848.

870

Set

181 12 6 2,505 5 0

0 0

2 0

———_—— 1,449 14 6

8 0

870 8 0

0 0

4 6

5,376 4 6

Errors

Report. XXili

Brought forward, 10,202 0 0

Company’s Rupees, 10,202 0 0

Excepted.

Frep. GREENWAY,

Officiating Accountant.

Report.

XX1V

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XXV1 Report.

LIST OF MEMBERS

OF THE

ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL.

Anderson, Major W. Douglas, Capt. C.

Avdall, J. Esq. Dwarkanath Das Basu, Babu.

Abbott, Capt. Jas. Dalton, Lieut. Ed. 9th Rt. N. I.

Alexander, Henry R. Esq. Karle, W. Esq.

Austen, Lieut. Albert G. Elliot, W. Esq. (M. C. 8.)

Barlow, Sir R. Edgworth, M. P. Esq.

Benson, Lieut. Col. R. Elhot, H. M. Esq.

Beaufort, F. L. Esq. Elliot, J. B. Esq.

Birch, Major F. W. Furlong, J. Esq.

Birch, Lieut. Col. R. J. H. Frith, W. H. L. Esq.

Blagrave, Lieut. T. C. Frith, R. G. W. Esq.

Bogle, Major A. French, Gilson R. Esq.

Bowring, L. R. Esq. Falconer, Dr. H.

Briggs, Lieut. D. Forbes, Lt. Col. W. N.

Broome, Capt. A. Gilmore, A. Esq.

Buckland, C. T. Esq. Gladstone, M. Esq.

Bushby, G. A. Esq. ' Grant. J. W. Esq.

Batten, J. H. Esq. Grey, W. Esq.

Brodie, Capt. Thos. 5th Rt. N. I. Gibelin, M. E.

Beckwith, J. Hsq. Greenway, Wm. Esq.

Bell, Dr. Adam. Gubbins, C. Esq,

Blundell, G. Esq. Gobinda Chunder Sen, Babu.

Banks, Capt. J. 8. Hannay, Capt. S. T.

Campbell, A. Esq. Heatly, 8S. G. T. Esq.

Cheap, G. C. Esq. Henry, Dr. Wm.

Christopher, A. Esq. Hill, G. Esq.

Colvin, B. J. Esq. Hough, H. F. Esq. Ph. Gl.

Colvin, J. R. Esq. Hodgson, B. H. Esq.

Corbyn, F. Esq. Heeberlin, Dr. J.

Colvile, The Hon’ble Sir J. W. Hopkinson, Capt. H.

Cust, R. N. Esq. Houston, R. Esq.

Currie, E. Esq. Huffnagle, C. (M. D.) Esq.

Cunningham, Capt. J. D. Hurimohun Sen, Babu.

Corcoran, Jas. Esq. Hannington, Capt. J. C.

Champneys, Capt. E. G. J. Hall, F. E. Esq.

Colebrooke, R. Esq. Hamilton,—Esq.

Davidson, T. R. Esq. Hay, Andrew, Esq.

Dunlop, A. C. Esq. Hearsey, Lieut. Col. W.

Dodd, Jas. Esq. Jackson, W. B. Ksq.

Dirom, W. M. Esq. Jenkins, Lieut. Col. F.

Jones, R. Esq.

Johnstone, Esq. John

Jerdon, T. C. Esq.

James, Lieut. H. C. 32d N. I.

Karr, W. Seton, Esq.

Kittoe, Capt. M.

Kerr, J. Esq.

Keane, Rev. W.

Laidlay, J. W. Esq.

Latter, Lieut. T.

Loch, G. Esq.

Lackersteen, Count.

Logan, J. R. Esq.

Lamb, Dr. G.

Low, Col.

Lawrence, Sir H.

Mackenzie, J. Esq.

MacLeod, D. F. Esq.

Maddock, Hon’ble Sir T. H.

Mill, J. B. Esq.

Muir, J. Esq.

Mitchell, A. Esq.

Muller, J. Esq.

Money, D. J. Esq.

Maclagan, Lieut. R.

M’ Clelland, Dr. J.

Maxwell, Lieut. H.

Newmarch, J. Esq.

Ommaney, M. C. Esq.

O'Shaughnessy, W. B. Esq.

Ouseley, Lieut. Col. J. R.

Ouseley, Capt. R.

Peel, Hon’ble Sir L.

Phayre, Capt. A.

Prinsep, C. R. Esq.

Prosonocoomar Tagore, Babu,

Pratt, Rev. Mr. J. H.

Pakenham, Capt. G. D.

Report. XXVIl

Ramanath Tagore, Babu.

Ramgopaul Ghose, Babu.

Rawlinson, Major H. C.

Ripley, Lieut. F. W.

Rogers, Capt. T. E.

Ram Chand Sing, Rajah.

Ramaprassad Roy.

Richards, Rev. J.

Sleeman, Lieut. Col. W. H.

Sherwill, Lieut. W.S.

Spilsbury, G. G. Esq.

Strachey, Lieut. R.

Strong, F. P. Esq.

Sutchurn Ghosaul, Rajah Bahadoor.

Stewart, Dr. D.

Sandberg, Rev. P. L.

Slater, Rev. S.

Staples, Lieut. N. A.

Scott, Jas. S. B. Esq.

Sandes, F. C. Esq.

Skinner, C. B. Esq.

Strachey, John, Esq. (C. S.)

Stubbs, Lieut. F. W.

Thomason, Hon’ble J.

Tickell, Capt. J. R.

Torrens, H. Esq.

Trevor, C. B. Esq.

Thuillier, Capt. H. E. L.

Thomas, R. Esq.

Tayler, W. Esq.

Thornhill, C. B. Esq.

Udny, G. Esq.

Walker, H. Esq.

Wilby, G. R. Esq.

Willis, J. Esq.

Waugh, Lieut. Col. A. S.

Wilson, Daniel. The Right Rev.

Lord Bishop of Calcutta.

Radhakant Deb, Rajah Babadoor Young, Dr. R.

List or MEMBERS ELECTED IN 1848.

Alexander, Henry R. Esq.

Austen, Lieut. Albert G.

Bell, Dr. Adam.

Banks, Capt. J. S.

Corcoran, Jas. Esq.

XVill | Report.

Champneys, Capt. E. G. L.

Colebrooke, R. Esq.

Gubbins, C. Esq.

Gobinda Chunder Sen, Babu.

Hay, A. Esq.

Hearsey, Lieut. Col. W.

James, Lieut. H. C.

Maclagan, Lieut. R.

Massey, G. Esq.

M’Clelland, Dr. J.

Maxwell, Lieut. Harley.

Pakenham, Capt. G. D.

Richards, Rev. J.

Ramchund Sing, Rajah.

Ramapersaud Roy, Babu.

Strachey, John, Esq.

Stubbs, Lieut. F. W.

Tayler, W. Ksq.

Thornhill, C. B. Esq.

List of Members who have returned from Europe and rejoined the

Society :—

Dr. H. Falconer.

G. Blundell, Esq.

C. Huffnagle, Esq.

Sir H. Lawrence, K. C. B.

Loss or MEMBERS DURING THE YEAR 1848.

By Death.

Hodgson, Major General J. A.

Lushington, G. T. Esq.

Massey, G. Esq.

Stacey, Lieut. Col. L. R.

Wilcox, Major R.

By Withdrawals.

Debendranath Tagore, Babu.

Goodwin, Major H.

Hume, J. Esq.

Jameson, W. Esq.

Knighton, W. Esq.

Linstedt, EK. Esq.

McKilligan, J. P. Esq.

McLeod, W. C. Esq.

Middleton, J. Esq.

Manuckjee Rustomjee, Esq.

Mackey, D. C, Esq.

Report. XX1X

Nripendranath Tagore, Babu.

O’Dowda, R. Esq.

Rustomjee Cowasjee, Esq.

Smith, Lieut. R. B.

Thornhill, H. Esq.

Thwaites, R. Esq.

Thompson, Rev. Mr. J.

Ward, J. Esq.

By departure to Europe.

Baker, W. C. Capt.

Boyes, W. E. Capt.

Brandreth, J. E. L. Esq.

Cameron, Hon’ble C. H.

Forbes, Lieut.-Col. W. N.

Gilmore, A. Esq.

Grant, W. P. Esq.

Hardinge, How ble C. 8.

Hay, Lord Arthur.

Macqueen, Rev. L.

Ravenshaw, E. C. Esq.

LIST OF HONORARY MEMBERS.

Baron von Hammer Purgstall, Aulic Counseller, Vienna.

Professor Augustus von Schlegel.

— Rasmussen,

————. Oersted, jor the Royal University of Copenhagen.

Freehn.

Monsieur Garcin de Tassy.

Sir John Philippart.

Professor R. Jameson,

Count Carlos de Vidua.

De Noe.

Professor Francis Bopp.

KK. Burnouf.

Christ. Lassen.

———— A. Langlois.

Monsieur J. J. Marcel.

Professor Heeren.

——— M. J. Klaproth.

The Rev. William Buckland, D. D.

Sir John F. W. Herschell.

Col. W. H. Sykes.

Chevalier Ventura.

General M. A. Court.

Professor Lea, Philadelphia.

Dr. Harlan, Philadelphia.

pS.-§ Report.

Monsieur P. A. Lair, President of the Society of Agriculture and Com-

merce, Caen.

Right Hon’ble Sir C. W. W. Wynn.

Professor H. H. Wilson.

Sir George Staunton.

The Baron Schilling, Cronstadé.

The Chevalier Amédee Jaubert, Paris.

Professor L. Agassiz Neufchatel.

Monsieur Renaud, Paris.

His Highness Hekekyan Bey, Egypt.

Dr. Ewald, London.

‘Hon’ble Sir Edward Ryan, London.

Professor Jules Mohl, Paris.

Capt. William Munro, London.

His Highness the Nawab Nazim of Bengal.

Dr. J. D. Hooker, R. N. F. R. S.

Professor Henry, Princeton, United States.

ASSOCIATE MEMBERS. *

Blyth, E. Esq. McGowan, Dr. J.

Brownlow, C. Esq. Piddington, H. Esq.

Dawe, W. Esq. Stephenson, J. Esq.

Delessert, A. Esq. Roer, Dr. E.

Keramut Ali, Syud. Tregear, V. Esq.

Long, Rev. J.

* Exempt from payment of Subscriptions.

JOURNAL

OF THE

ASIATIC SOCIETY.

JANUARY, 1849.

A Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms in India, being Storms

of the China Seas from 1842 to 1847, and some of the Northern

Pacific Ocean, from 1797. By Henry Pippineton, President of

Marine Courts of Enquiry, Calcutta.

Part I.—Cuina SeAs.

| In this paper the word Cyclone is used to express any turning gale or tyfoon. |

In the sixth of this series of Memoirs, (Journal Vol. XI.) I have

collected all that could then be obtained relative to the storms of the

China Sea from 1780 to 1841, and I have reason to believe that in no

one instance, then, had any contradiction been found to the law for the

tracks whica was announced as the result of the researches embodied

in that paper; to the which, for the China sea, the present is a necessary

supplement.

This law may be stated in general terms to be that, though varying at

different seasons of the year in the Tyfoon months, yet they are always

from some point to the Eastward of the meridian, or from between N. b

EK. and 8. b E. tothe Westward and North-Westward, having, sometimes,

not straight but curving tracks; and the utility of tracing out, if documents

can be obtained, the track of every Cyclone, in this and in every sea, is

to ascertain beyond contradiction.and controversy if any Cyclone has

travelled from any part to the westward of the meridian, and further, to

obtain more exact data on which to found our judgment of what the

average tracks in each separate month are most likely to be; for upon

the right knowledge of the tracks of the Cyclones, whether deduced

No. XXV.—New Series. B

2 Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. [Jan.

at the time at sea, or laid down from previous research, depends the

successful management of the ship when involved in or threatened by

them; and it will be seen that, as from analogy, I had supposed it

possible, so we have now found that some rare anomalies of tracks to

the Eastward of the Meridian do take place in two dangerous parts of

the sea, the Straits of Formosa and Bashee Passage.

In the part relative to the storms of the Northern Pacific Ocean, I have

comprised all that I have been able to collect relative to this great, and

to us, very important field of our research, comprising as it does nearly

the whole Eastern Coast of China, the stormy seas of Japan, and that

great tract extending to the N. W. Coast of America, and bounded per-

haps only by the Equator,* im which these wonderful meteors take their

rise.

1840.

Tracks A. and B.

The Goiconpa’s Storm, September 1840.

Log of the Ship Hasumy, Captain Buckue, from Singapore to China.

In my fourth Memoir, (Journal Asiatic Society for 1841, Vol. X.) I

showed that this unfortunate ship, the Golconda, with 300 Madras troops

on board, was in all probability lost on the 23d—24th September, about

the spot where the centres of two tyfoons, the one from the E. S. E.,

and the other from the 8. by E. met; but though imdubitably there

"were two storms, it was not possible from the logs of one ship for each

storm*+ to affirm that we had laid down correctly the exact line of the

’ tracks.

Having subsequently received a capitally well kept log from Captain

Buckle of the Hashmy, I find with great satisfaction that the track of

the Northern Cyclone is perfectly correct as to direction, the only correc-

tion to be made being, that the centre of the 22nd, the first day, requires

to be placed 70 miles farther to the Eastward: but at the approach of

Cyclones, the estimation of the ship’s distance from the centre is

always of great uncertainty without hourly observations of the Baro-

meter and careful measurement of the ship’s run.

* At the Kingsmill groupe, upon the Equator, hurricanes are known to prevail.

+ The London Thetis and the Calcutta Thetis.

Zs Naukin>> |S

Noon 28 Vito

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GS i

BQuesanE

7 {— Bank

uy pr 4 EaSURAIN'S CYCLONE

Eyer Mow 1821" b947

TRACK OF THE H. CO'S STEAMER PLUTO,

STEAMING INTO A TYFOON IN THE CHINA SEA

To THE SeveyTEENTH MEMOIR

on the

S08 6

Tytorms

25 = << \

CYCLONES OF THE |

China and Woo-Choo Sas

1842 tw 1848 |

and of the

18% 29% June 1846

NORTHERN PACIFIC OCEAN.

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1849. | Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. 3

I give below the abridged log of the Hashmy, reduced to civil time,

and then a few brief remarks.

“On the 18¢h September 1840, at 8 a. M. the Hashmy sounded in 26 fs. on the

Macclesfield Bank ; she had light breezes and sultry weather at noon, when she

had no soundings at 100 fs. Lat. observed, 16° 20’ N.; Long. Chr, 1140 24” E,;

Bar. 29.90; Simp. 29.56 ; Ther. 895° E. To midnight light winds.

19¢h. Sept,—a. M. and till noon the same winds and fine. Noon Lat. 17° 34’ ;

Long. Chr. 114° 39’; Bar. 29.89; Simp. 29.55; Ther. 88°, To midnight light

winds inclining to calm and hazy weather.

20th.—Light airs westerly and N. westerly, and fine till noon, Lat. 18° 28’ N. ;

Long. Chr. 114° 37’ E. Bar. 29.87; Simp. 29.55. Ther. 863°; P. M. wind

light at N. W.; at 8 north ; squally and so till midnight.

21st,—Daylight increasing fresh breeze with dark squally appearance, At 8

a, M. wind marked N. N. E. and the same at noon, when a strong breeze with

a heavy head swell; Lat. 18° 47”7N.; Long. 1150 48’ E, Bar. 29.77; Simp.

29.47; Ther. 85. p. m. Wind at 2 p.m. N. N. E. and at9 N.b. E. Increas-

ing bad weather and making preparations to meet it. Midnight, fresh gale, and

heavy head swell N.; for the last 36 hours the ship has been standing to the

N. E. and eastward ; Lat. about as at noon.

22nd Sept.—a. m. breeze increasing and north a heavy sea getting up; at day_

light hard gale with heavy squalls ; sails blowing out of the bolt ropes, wind al-

ways north ; ship hove to on /arboard tack ; noon heavy gale with a high and con-

fused sea. a. M. pumps constantly going, Lat. Acct. 18° 30’ N.; Long. Acct. 117°

18’ E. Bar. 29.32; Simp. 29.04. p. m. still increasing ; 4 p. m.a perfect hurri-

cane from N. eastward ; at 11 p. M. after a slight lull the wind shifted to East and

S E. and continued to blow if possible with more violence than before, the glass-

es having been, between this time and 8 a.m.of 22rd, down to—Bar, 28.65;

Simp. 28.40; Ther. 803°. At midnight wind marked East.

23rd Sept.—Hurricane still continuing ; at 8 a. m. the glasses shewed indica-

tions of rising though still blowing tremendously hard. During the strength of

the gale the ship lay buried in the seas which made a clear breach over her, expect-

ing at every minute to lose the masts. At 3 a. m. Bar. 28.65 ; Simp. 28.40; Ther.

814° ; at 4 Simp. began to rise slightly. At 8 Bar. 28.90; Symp. 28.95; Ther.

804°. Noon wind marked 8, E. Lat. Acct. 18916’, N. ; Long. 116° 30’ E. Bar.

29.20; Simp. 29.08. Ther. 819°, p. m. heavy gale, furious gusts and high cross

sea; wind §. E. and at4 p.m. 8S. E.b. 8, At 3,30 bore up and attempted to

run under the reefed foresail, but the heavy seas constantly breaking on board

and the squalls occasioning the ship to broach too, hove too again at 6.30 P.M.

on starboard tack ; wind S. E. b. S.; head to N. E,

24th Sept.—a.M. strong gale; at 2 set the reefed foresail again. Daylight bore

B 2

Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms.

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6 Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. [JAN.

REMARKS.

Upon laying down the Hashmy’s track and taking the storm, if not

fairly begun, to be threatening at noon on the 25th, I find that produc-

ing backwards the track of the London Thetis’ storm upon the chart

appended to the Fourth Memoir, a point on it would agree for this day

very well. The wind being at N. N. E. would place the centre of the

storm at E. 8. E. from the ship, and taking backwards the distance

from noon to midnight on the 22nd, as there marked, it also agrees so

far as such acute angles and large distances can be expected to do, the

centre at noon on the 22nd would fall, however, about 70 miles further

to the eastward than where it is marked on our chart, when laid down

by the positions of the two ships, the Hashmy to the north-west, and

the London Thetis to the W. 8S. W. of it.

For the 23rd, when both the ships lying too had fallen into the ad-

jacent quadrants, from the storms having rapidly passed on between them,

making the Hashmy to have now the centre bearing S. W. and the

London Thetis the centre N. W. from them respectively, our centre is

exactly correct, and the weather and Barometer exactly as they were

to be expected, i. e. the weather more severe, because the centre was

now nearer to the vessel, and the Barometer rising, because it had passed

and was leaving her,

On the 24th, all the ships had fine weather. We have here an in-

stance, and it is principally on that account that I have placed these two

tracks again on our present Chart, of the complete reliance which, with

careful observations of the wind, weather and Barometer, may be placed

on our science; for no careful commander can now in future doubt, I

should think of the awful risks which running on witha fallmg Barome-

ter may expose him to, and no sailor who understands common trigono-

metry can doubt, I should suppose, of the accuracy of our deductions,

and that they might, with the knowledge we now possess of the laws by

which the Cyclones of the China Seas are governed, have been perfectly

made on board the respective ships (including here the unfortunate

Golconda, with her 400 victims) at any time during the tempests, so

as to indicate tothem all the best plans for escaping from, and even

for profiting by the Cyclones, by a little curving in their courses.*

* Since this was written I have been favoured by my friend, Dr. Collins of the

ship Queen, with a copy of the log of the ship Sophia, which ship, with the Minerva

1849. | Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. 7

Tracks C. and D.

Cuvusan and Tune-Hai* Tyfoons, September 1843.

The tracing of these Cyclones in so high a latitude is of great interest

as connected with those of the Japanese and Formosan seas. 1am

indebted to Commander Vyner, H. M. S. Wolf, for the following.

“On the 1st of September 1843, a hurricane commenced, the centre of which

passed over the Chusan archipelago, doing immense damage, and it would

appear that the whirlwind was travelling from the S. E, to the N. W., as it was

felt severely at Woosung in the Yang-tse-kiang river, about 120 miles from

Chusan, about nine hours afterwards,

At about sunset of the 31st of August a dirty appearance of the weather began,

wind from the N. N. E, with drizzling rain; about 4 past nine at night the

wind began to increase and the Barometer to fall a little; at 10.30 p. mM. a hur-

ricane commenced at its full power from N. EK. suddenly, and then the barometer

commenced to fall rapidly, and by 2 a. m. of the Ist was at 28.22 and did not

go lower. The commencement of the hurricane was so sudden that no appre-

hension was contemplated by any of H. M. ships or those of the merchant ser-

vice, all being taken by surprise with their boats in the water, and top-gallant

yards across.

in company, ran up on aN. W. course from the 22d to the 23rd, just across the

Eastern and S. Eastern borders of the Cyclones of the ships London Thetis and

Calcutta Thetis, with, of course, a heavy S. Westerly gale amounting in violence to a

tyfoon, and on the 23rd, when exactly on the track over which the Cyclone of track

B. had just passed, they hove too fearful of a shift of wind. I need not remark that

they would have been perfectly safe in running on then. We have thus, from the logs of

three separate ships an exact corroboration of what was originally laid down from two.

* TunG-HAI, (the Eastern Sea,) is the name given by the Chinese to the sea in-

closed between their Eastern coasts and the chain of islands which stretches from the

south of Corea and includes Japan and Formosa. The Northern part of this sea from

about 35° North, is the Wang-Hai or Yellow sea. The Japanese or Japan sea is the

sea to the North of Japan and to the East of Corea. We want a fixed name for this

first sea, for Eastern sea is far too indefinite ; it might be distinguished by its Chinese

name of Tung Hai, or as the Formosa sea? though this last might confound it again

with the Straits of Formosa. Perhaps the Loo-Choo Sea would be the best we

could choose for it, and I have socalled iton my Chart? Ina French Atlas of 1838,

the straits between Formosa and the Coast of China (our straits of Formosa) are

called the straits of Fokien, and the Tung Hai, for which I propose the name of the

Loo Choo Sea, is called the Corean Sea, which would more appropriately belong to

the Yellow sea. These names are of no great consequence, it will be said, but, it is

to be regretted that we cannot settle them.

8 Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. | JAN.

When once the hurricane began it was fruitless to attempt sending men aloft,

for they could do no more than with great difficulty prevent themselves from

being blown out of the rigging,* but during the 4} hour that the centre of the

whirlwind was passing, it being a dead calm, the opportunity was seized to

secure the boats and get the masts down,

As soon as the half hour had expired the hurricane again struck us from S.

W. and blew violently until 6 a. m. when it gradually subsided.

The Barometer commenced rising rapidly from the moment the N. E. wind

ceased, and continued to rise throughout the S. W. part of it. Three vessels

were driven on shore, the barracks at Sin-kea-Mun (East end of Chusan) were

blown down, 1 soldier killed and several wounded. Many houses were blown

down and unroofed ; crops entirely destroyed and many lives lost both on shore

and at sea amongst the Chinese ; trees were torn up by the roots and the whole

country devastated. We learned from the old inhabitants of the island and the

fishermen, that such a hurricane had not visited Chusan for 11 years, at which

time a similar one took place; they are said to be uncommon.”

In reply to subsequent enquiries, Commander Vyner says :—

*‘T have not heard of any vessel meeting the hurricane at sea, nor of its being

felt on shore or at sea to the Southward of Chusan ; that it was felt at Woosung

is certain, although I am not sure if the calm was felt there, but I think it was.

I remember perfectly well a vessel arriving at Chusan about two days after

the hurricane which was within a hundred miles of the place at the time and

felt nothing of it. It would thus appear that the whirlwind was formed in the

neighbourhood of Chusan.”’

Track D.

Cacique’s Tyfoon, September 1843.

A Canton paper gives the following account of a second Tyfoon fol-

lowing close upon the one just described. After briefly relating the

particulars of the Chusan Tyfoon of the lst and 2nd, which agree ex-

actly with the foregoing, and adding that in it the Cacique’s Barometer

fell to 28.30,+ it continues :—

‘©The Cacique sailed from Chusan on the 4th inst., and on the 5th, about

100 miles North of Formosa, again eacountered a heavy Typhoon commencing

with a N. E, gale which continued with a heavy sea from the Eastward until 1

P. M., when, as at Chusan, it fell suddenly calm, during which thousands of

* This was in an English man-of-war, and in a snug anchorage, and it gives us some

idea of what the destructive fury of these meteors must be.

t+ Newspaper says 27.10, but this, by a subsequent paragraph, appears to be

certainly a mispriat.

1849. | Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. 9

birds threw themselves on the deck. Ina short time the wind rose again from

the S. W. and soon increased to a terrific hurricane. Anticipating the change

of wind, they set the close-reefed foretopsail and foretopmast stay-sail just in

time to catch the wind as it struck the vessel, by which means she was payed off

before the wind, when all sail was taken in, leaving her scudding under bare poles

till 5.30 p. m.. when the easterly swell having gone down considerably and the

wind abating a little, the Cactgue was hove to with her head to the 8. S. E. un-

der a close-reefed maintopsail and balanced mizen. At midnight the weather

became moderate, and the barometer, which at 1 Pp. mM. was down to 28.25,

had risen to 29.20. The Cacique stood the tempest remarkably well, and lost

nothing of consequence; made no water, and did not ship a single sea. She

saw the Brig William off Oksue apparently beating away for Chimmo, and

arrived at Hongkong on the 13th, after a remarkably short passage of 19 days.

In another notice in the Friend of China, itis said that this Cyclone occurred

in 27° N, Long. 122, East and that, the ship’s barometer gave 8 or 9 hours

warning, the calm lasting only about 5 minutes,

I have not been able to obtain any farther notice of this Cyclone,

but there is no doubt that it was travellmg like the former from the

Seubuto the N.: W:

Track E.

Tyfoon of the AtiteT RonomaAn and SHau Attu, November 1843.

These two vessels experienced a severe Tyfoon in November 1843.

The followmg are the abridged logs, with some additions, from the

Singapore Free Press of 29th November.

Abridged Log of the ship Suan Atuum, Captain Evans, reduced to

Civil Time.

The Ship Shah Allum, Capt. Evans, from China to Bombay, was at Noon

3ist Oct. 1842 in Lat. 19930’ N.; Long. 112925’ E.; Barometer 29.70, and at

10 Pp. M. 29.60, having left the Grand Ladrone at sunset the preceding evening.

She was running to the S.S, W. 9 knots with wind N. Easterly and cloudy

weather, 2 p. mM. wind marked N. N. E. course S. 8. W. 4 W. 142 miles to 3

A.M. On the 1st Nov. when she hove too. Midnight strong gale; 1s¢ Nov.

3 A. M. heavy gale from the Northward (N. N. W.) hove too. Daylight tyfoon

from the N. W. 8 a. Mm. Bar. 29. 10 a.m. wind veered suddenly to the westward

with greater violence. Mountainous sea; carried away quarter gallery, boats,

&c. 10.30 a. m. lost main and mizen topmasts. Noon Bar. rising from 29.10

0 20, but tyfoon still blowing with great fury.

p. M. wind veered to S. W. “ with extraordinary gusts at times ;” 1. rp. mu, Bar.

29.30. Gale moderating. At 3 wind South and clearing up; Bar, 29.40. Sun-

10 Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. [ JAN.

set made a little sail, During the night the weather became fine. Wind at 10

p. M. marked East.

2nd Nov.—At noon had made from 8 p. m. on the ist to noon 2d, 66 miles

on aS. b. W. course, Lat. 16° 39’N.; Long. 110° 12’ E. The newspaper

quoted above adds to this :—

** Captain Evans says that the Barometer rising so high the day previous to the

gale and falling so gradually, confirmed him in the opinion that they were going

to have a strong N. East monsoon, and he carried on a press of sail to get well

clear of the Paracels, but from observations taken the day after the gale they

were during the worst of it about 20 miles W. N. W. from the North Shoal and

drifting to the South East, but the wind veering to the Southward, S. E., and

latterly to E. N. E., they were drifted to the W. S. W., 40 miles off the North

Shoal by noon of the 2nd, when they had good observations. We is not cer-

tain whether the Barometer fell below what he has mentioned above, as he did

not leave the deck from 10 p.m. until the sea washed the stern windows and

boats away, but he thinks it did not, as about 10 and 11 it blew exceedingly

severe from west and W. S. W.”

Abridged Log of the Ship AttetT Ronoman, Captain Luerin, from

Macao bound to Singapore—reduced to Civil Time.

The Atiet Rohoman left the Dome of the Grand Ladrone bearing N. E, 3 E.

and that of the Little Ladrone N. E. in 16 fs. water at 5h. 50’ p. m. on the 30th

October, 1843, with a N. N., easterly wind, 5, 6 and 7 knot breeze and a heavy

S. E. swell to midnight.

31st Oct,—Wind N. E. b. E. andN. E. b. N. 83 knot breeze, steering to the

S. 8. W.; at noon Lat. 19° 10’ N.; Long. 111° 42’; strong gales and cloudy ;

p. M. hazy and increasing. At 10 Pp, mM. asudden gale from the N. N. E. Ship

running 8 knots to the 8. S. W.

1st’Nov.—1 a.m. blowing a severe typhoon N. N. E.; 3 a. m. typhoon

veered to N. E, Sails cut away and blowing from the yards. 9 a. Mm. wind marked

N. E. Noon vessel half swamped, at 5. a. M. the wind is said in the remarks to

have veered to E. S. E. 9. ™. lost maintopmast, mizenmast, boats and an

anchor, Noon severe typhoon; 3 ft. water in the hold; Lat. about 17° 03’ N.,

Long. 110° 39’ E. p, m. wind marked 8, b. E. severe gale. Ship’s head west ;

carried away the head of the rudder ; at 63 Pp. M. moderate and veered to the S. E.

2nd Nov.-—a. M. clearing up and repairing damages ; noon Lat. 17° 32’ N.;

Long. 109° 13’ E.

REMARKS.

It is evident from the veering of the wind that these two ships were

on opposite sides of a Cyclone, the Shah Allum on the Ist at 10 a. M.

1849. | Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. 1]

being close to the centre, which was passing to the northward of her

(wind West) while the Atict Rohoman, at 9 a. m. had the tyfoon of

excessive violence at N. E.; and by noon it had veered to 8S. b. E. The

average change with the first of these ships we may call from N. W.

to 8S. W. giving an east course for the centre of her Cyclone, and for the

Atiet Rohoman from N. N. E. to S. b. E., giving a course of about

from S. 85° east to N. 85° W., or say a W. 3 N. course and the mean

the two would therefore be a W. + N. course.

But this assumes the two ships to have been stationary like two

islands, whereas both ran, and were drifted considerably to the southward.

before being drifted back to the northward. We cannot calculate this to

any exactness, but we may say, with all allowances, that the Cyclone

must really have been travelling, for them, about from E. b. N. to

W.b.S., which is the track I have assigned to it. We have no fur-

ther data for the distance it may have travelled from the eastward be-

fore reaching these two ships, but as it lasted a considerable time with

them, and was yet, by the rapidity of the veering near the centre, travel-

ling with considerable velocity, I have produced the track about four

degrees to the eastward, though it probably extended farther, and as we

shall see in the cyclones of 1847, may very probably have been felt, if

it did not fully reach to the shores of Cochin China, about Turon Bay.

Track F.

Manila Tyfoon of October, 1843.

I have for this Cyclone but a single log, though a carefully detailed

one, and quite sufficient to authorise us to mark off the track of it across

what is, at some seasons, a dangerous anchorage, and where too much

caution cannot be used, whether lying at Cavite or off Manila, during the

whole of the tyfoon months. The extract of the log which I have is

contained in a letter from the Captain of the American ship Unicorn,

to Mr. Redfield, and by him forwarded to me. It is as follows :—

“« October 30th, 1843.—(Civil Time at Manila,*) begins calm and dark lowering

weather, Bar. 29.90. 3, p. m. the same; Bar. 29.90, 4 p. m. a light breeze

from N. N. EF. Bar. same; 6 p. m. wind veered to north, increasing dark gloomy

weather, Bar. 29.89. 7 p. mM. thick and rainy, very sultry and has been for 24

hours ; felt two heavy shocks of an earthquake ; blowing fresh, Bar. 29.84 ; 9 P. M.

* Ship then lying at anchor in the Bay of Manila; this was the 29th by Euro-

pean account.

12 Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. [JAN.

wind veered to N, by W. increasing thick and rainy, a wild look. Bar. 29.79;

got down top-gallant masts and yards ; 10 p. m. wind shifted suddenly to N. W.

and commenced blowing hard squalls, steady rain, dark and gloomy ; Bar, 29.

753 12, blowing very hard in squalls, sea making up ; Bar. 29.55 ; 2 a. m. blow-

ing furiously, let go 3d anchor and veered out all the cable; ship holding on,

others dragging past us; Bar. 29.35. 4 a. m. blowing a hurricane; got topmasts

and yards down, let go stream anchor, the fleet driving past us; a heavy sea on,

ship pitching bows under, hard squalls, steady rain, dark gloomy weather ; Bar.

29.30. 6 a.m. blowing furiously in squalls, the ship started her anchors and

drove 4 miles before she brought up ; drove from 5 into 35 fathoms water ; an

English Brig, driving past us broadside to the wind, sea making a breach over

her; Bar. 29.20; the trees began to give away to the force of the wind, many on

the roads lying prostrate. 8 a. m. gale unabated, three vessels on shore; Bar. 29.

20. Noon, gale in its fury, steady rain in torrents. Bar. 29.40. 1. 30. a. M.

it fell a still calm instantly for five minutes, the wind shifted suddenly to S. S.

E. and blew as hard as ever ; the rain pouring in torrents ; Bar. 29.44. 2. 30.4. M.

moderating fast, sea going down rapidly, wind 8S. 8S. E.; Bar, 29.51. 4 a. m.

wind veered to south, more pleasant ; Bar. 29.66. 6 a. m. calm and cloudy, Bar.

29.75; much sea on. |

In this gale three vessels drove on shore and all the fleet at anchor in the Bay

dragged 3 or 4 miles. It appears the gale was felt severely in the China sea, as

two English ships came in dismasted after it, one of them was off the Pratas

Shoal at the time, from Macao bound to Chusan, the other off the Macclesfield

Bank, from Macao for Bombay.

A Brig was at the time in Bernadino straits and reported having a very strong

N. W. wind but clear weather and smooth sea.”

A Singapore newspaper gives the following notice, but it is uncer-

tain if at this late period of the season the gale may not have been the

monsoon and not part of a Cyclone. From the dates it could not have

been the same as the Unicorn’s.

“The Cecilia, Captain Buttry, suffered severely during the late gale. At the

commencement, on the 28th October (sea time) in Lat. 17° 32’ N.; Long.

119° 49’ E. met with heavy gales from the N. N. E. which continued with in-

ereasing fury until the 31st, when it blew a hurricane. The Cecilia lost two

men, one of whom was washed overboard. Part of her cargo was obliged to be

cast overboard, and the copper sheathing was washed from the starboard side of

vessel, On the weather moderating on the 2d November, found themselves in

Lat.17:° 4 N..; Longi20 57 i”

The shifts experienced by the Unicorn, N. W. to S.S. E. gives a

1849. ] Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. 13

track of from N. 56° East to the South 56° West, across the anchorage

of the Bay of Manila.

Track. G.

The Epmonstone’s Tyfoon of Nov. 1844.

Abridged Extract from the Log of the Ship KpMONSTONE, Captain

McDovaat, from Hong Kong, bound to Singapore, reduced to Civil

time.

The Edmonstone left Hong Kong onthe 14th Nov, 1844, and at Noon on that

day was in Lat. 21° 3’ N.; Long. Chr. 113° 6’ E.; p,m. to midnight a 6

and 7 knot breeze from N. N. E. and fine weather.

15th Nov.—a. m. the same breeze ; Noon, Lat. 18° 42’; Long. East 119 50’ ;

Bar. not given; having steered 8. S. W. $ W. 157’ for the preceding 24h, p. m.

the same, midnight and fine.

16th Nov.—Daylight; rolling heavily. Wind always N. N. E.to8 a. m.

wind N. b. E.; at 11. a. Mm. in first reefs; Noon no Obsr. Lat. Acct. 16° 15’;

Long. 110° 51’ E.; p. M. strong gales and threatening appearance, made all

snug. Wind N. b. K.; Bar. 29.70. At. 5. Pp. M. 29.60; ship running from Noon

to 6 p.m. 8. 8. E. when she hove too with head to the East, position by esti-

mation being 40 miles south of the Triton’s Bank and on its meridian ; when

brought to at 10. p. m. Bar. 29.00; midnight, wind the same, Bar. 28.50; at

9 p. M. the last of the sails, the main-topsail, blew from the yard, the quarter

boats, furled sails, &c. being all gone ; —‘ the force of the wind and rain at this

tame was such that we could not shew our faces over the rail.” At midnight blow-

ing a most furious Tyfoon, all the masts were blown out of the ship with the ex-

ception of the foremast.

17th Nov.—Found it impossible to cut away the wreck till Noon; 3. a. mM.

wind N. b, E,; 4, Bar. 28.60 ; 5 a.m. wind N, W.: at 8 West; 10. S. W. and

at Noon south ; Lat. Acct. 14° 22’; Long. 111° 31’ East; p. m. wind if any

thing abating; Bar, 28.60. Midnight “the sea as high as ever and rising in

peaks high over the ship.” Wind hauling to the south.

18th Nov.—To noon the same weather as before: Bar. 28.80; awful sea on

and much difficulty in keeping the Lascars to the pumps. Wind abating,

19¢h Nov,—Daylight bore up under the (newly bent) foresail, “ wind being

again at North (it having gone completely round the compass) where it had been

stationary throughout this severe tyfoon ; Noon, Lat. Acct. worked back from

20th, 11° 57’ N. ;* Bar. 29.20; Ther. 70°. p.m. running to the south with a

fine Northerly breeze.”

* With allowance for the sea, but not for the Storm Current.

14 Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. [JAN.

The wind here seems to have been steady at N. b E. from 6 p. m.

to 3. a. M. or for 9 hours, or as nearly so as could be ascertained at

night, and in such weather, durig which time we may allow the ship to

have made a drift of at least 3 miles per hour, or 27 miles mall. The

fall of the Barometer from 5. p. mM. to 10. Pp. M. was from 29.60 to

29.00 or 0.60. in 5 hours, giving an average fall of 0.12 per hour.

By the rule given at p. 199, of the Sailor’s Horn Book, this would give

80 miles for the distance of the centre at 74 p. M., and we find that it

passed her, though without any calm, about 4 a. m. on the following

morning, or at 84 hours from this time, which would give a rate of tra-

velling of somewhat less than ten miles per hour.

We find that though the ship was drifting to the southward (about

S. b. W. appears to have been the drift made good by the log) she still

had the wind steady from N. b. E. up to 3 a. m., which would give her

a drift of say 22 miles about up to 4 a. m. when, as the wind was N.

W.., the centre then passing close to the northward of her position bore

N. KE. of her. Projecting this it gives a course of from EK. 7 N. to W.

4 8. for the track of the storm, which is that which I have assigned

to it.

Cyclones of 1845.

The following newspaper notice is all that I possess relating to this Cy-

clone, if it was one, for it may have been only the onset of the monsoon,

though the veering of the wind being as much as ten points, gives great

probability to the supposition that it may have been a true Cyclone

travelling to the south-westward. My principal motive for inserting

it however is the season at which it occurred, which is earlier than any

tyfoon of which we have a record, and we may, as so frequently has

been the case, obtain other documents to connect with it. At present

I do not insert it as a track, but it will serve to put the vigilant mariner

on his guard.

“< Typhoon in the China seas.—Captain Uceda of the Spanish brig Dardo, which

arrived here a few days since from Manilla, reports the occurrence of a severa

typhoon in the China seas, experienced by the Dardoin Lat. 14° 00’ N.;

and Long. 119° 30’ East. The typhoon commenced on the 21st of May, from

W. N. W., varied to W. then S. W. and terminated on the 24th May at S. The

only injury sustained by the Dardo was the loss of her top-gallant masts, but it

is feared that vessels in'the China seas may have suffered severely from the effects

of the typhoon.”—Singapore Free Press, July 27, 1845.

1849. | Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. 15

Tracks H. and I.

North Pacific Ocean and China Sea Tyfoon of October 1845.

I am indebted for the data of this track to Rear Admiral Parker, by

whose order several logs and a sketch chart were transmitted to me

through Mr. Elliott, Master of H. M.S. Agincourt, and to Capt. H.

Gribble, late of H. C. S. Repulse, who also sent me several brief abstracts ;

I have placed together the logs of these two tracks, because it 1s quite

probable that the two Cyclones were connected, though we have no direct

evidence of the fact. H. M.S. V. Driver, bound to New Zealand, met

with a Cyclone on the 6th Oct. in the Pacific Ocean, in Long. 127° 30”

east, and the John O’ Gaunt, the first of the vessels which suffered from

it inthe China Sea, had it commencing on the 8th in about the same la-

titude, but in 116° 40’ East. This gives a distance of about 650 miles to

be traversed in two days, which will allow a nearly average rate of 13.5

miles per hour.

As before noted I have no intermediate notices to connect these two,

except one from the Friend of China of the 31st Dec., of the loss of the

Bremen Brig Express from Mazatlan to China with treasure, on the

Bashees, on the 8th October, of which the following is also a newspaper

notice from Singapore. The circumstance that the Driver’s Cyclone,

Track H. was travelling to the northward of west, while that of the dan

Espiegle and other ships is to the southward of west, Ido not con-

sider as material, for I have no sort of doubt that a Cyclone might be

deflected by the lofty mountains on the north of Luconia and curve

away to the southward after it had passed them, if it met then for in-

stance, with a strong N. E. breeze or other conditions altering its course.

“¢ Manilaa—The Amigo del Pais, December 14th, 1845, contains an official no-

tice of the loss of a foreign vessel on the coast. The communication states that

on the 9th November was reported by the Mauanian, the loss of the Bremen

brig Express, 460 tons, which went on shore during a gale of wind and became

a total wreck. There were on board Captain Henry Hackfield and ten men in-

cluding the supercargo, Mr. Edward Vischer. The cargo consisted of Sapan-

wood, Gold, Sycee Silver and dollars, valued at 480,000. The gale commenced

on the morning of the 8th November, and continued until 2 p.m. of the 10th.

By the timely assistance of the people at San Carlos, the whole of the cargo

was saved. Her Britannic Majesty’s frigate Samarang received the whole of

the cargo on board and was to convey it to Manila’’,— Ibid.

16 Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. [ JAN.

Abridged Log of H. M. 8. V. Driver.—Civil Time.

Noon 6th Oct. 1845, in Lat. 18° 24” N.; Long. 127° 30’, Steering to the

E. b, S. with a fresh breeze (5)* from the E. N. E.; Bar. 29.80; pP. m.a heavy

swell from the eastward, blue sky, cloudy and squally ; 6 p. m. Bar. 29.75; at

midnight wind N. E, (10) blowing a gale, vessel steaming to the E. S. E.

7th October.—a. M. Steamer hove too with head to the eastward.f Wind N

E, (12) 2 a. m. hurricane ; Bar. 29.30; at 5 wind east (11) Bar, 29.25 ; at 9

S. E. Noon wind S. E. (11) Lat. 17° 22’N.; Long. 1279 24’ East; Bar.

29.50, Heavy sea running throughout ; 4 p. m. to midnight S. E. (10 to 9).

8th October.—a. M. to noon wind S. E, (8) and a heavy sea; noon the same 3

Lat. 18° 18’ N.; Long. 126° 19’ Hast. At night moderate and fine ; Barome-

ter 29.90,

Extract from the Log of the Ship Joun O’Gaunt—reduced to Civil

Time.

7th October, 1845.—Noon in Lat. 18° 40’; Long. 116° 15’ East; Bar.

29.65; wind KE. N. E. and steady; at 11 p. m. wind N. N. East, heavy squalls.

8th October.—5, a. M. heavy gale,north. 10 a.m. the same, N. N. W. and

tremendous sea; noon, Lat. D, R. 19° 3’; Long. 117° 8’; Bar. not quoted,

Pp. M. hove too; wind N. N. W.

9th Oct.—a. m. Bar. 29.00. 5 a. M. wind west ; head N. N. W.; Bar. falling ;

no position given, 1 P.M. wind shifted to southward and eastward, blowing

with extreme violence ; midnight gale unabated ; Bar.27.50, Simpiesometer 27.70.

10th October.—Noon heavy gale at E. S. E. ; Barometer rising ; Lat. 20° 53’

N.; Long. 116° 15 east.

Extract from the Log of the Ship Six Rosert Sate. Civil Time.

8th October, 1845.—At noon Lat. 14° 06’ N.; Long. 114° 15’ east. P.M.

wind N, W.

9th Oct.—Wind N. westerly and variable; Bar. noon 29.55; Lat. D. R. 15°

10’ N.; Long. 116°06’; p.m. shortened sail to close-reefed topsails. To 4

wind N, N. W. cloudy, gusty weather, with a heavy northerly swell; 5 p.m.

west; 8p. mM. W.S. W.; 108. W.; midnight 8S. S. W.; 8 N. E. swell and a

heavy westerly swell getting up; lightning to the S, E. and north.

* These figures in the logs of H. M. Ships denote the force of the wind as marked

according to Admiral Beaufort’s table ; 12, signifying a hurricane ; I have added also

the usual words.

t+ The wrong tack, being on the right hand side of the track of the Cyclone, the

starboard tack should have been chosen.

1849. | Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. 17

10¢h Oct.—At 3 a. M. wind south, increasing to a strong gale with heavy

squalls and rain. Noon, Lat. 17° 12’N.; Long. 117° 58’ east ; Current S.

39°; E,172';* p. m. wind S.b. E. moderating; fresh and fine weather at mid-

night, with the wind S, E. and E. S. E. on the 11th, when the Lat. is supposed

by Capt. Gribble to be about 18° 30’ N,

Letract from the Log of the American Steam Barque Epiru. Civil Time.

8th Oct. 1845.—6 p. M. off Pedra Branca.

9th Oct.—1 a. M. wind N. b. E., brisk gale. At 5 N. E. hard gale, laid too,

head N. N. W.; p.m. N. E.

10th Oct.—Wind N. E., strong gale; 5 p. M. wind east; 9 Pp. mM. moderate at

S. E.; off the Ass’s Ears. Minimun of Barometer 29° 65’. Drifted from

Pedra Branca to the Asses Ears (drift of 24 per hour.)

H. M.S. Acincourt at Hong Kong. Civil Time.

On 9th Oct. 1845.—Steady breeze (5) from the north and east with squalls.

10th Oct.—Wiud north to noon, when force (8), At 4.30 p. m. Bar. falling

to 29.76; struck lower yardsand topmasts; wind N. b. E. At 6 wind E. b. N.

Bar. 29.79; 55 p. M. let go best bower and veered to 80 fs. on the small bower.

To midnight wind E. b. N. Bar, 29.79.

11¢h Oct.—Barometer rising to 29.90 ; at noon 2 a. M. a very heavy squall with

Tain, wind east (8); 10 a. Mm. wind S. E. b. E. (7); p. m. weather becoming fine.

Abridged Log of H. M. Brig Esp1rcue.

9th October 1845.—6.50 a. M. weighed and stood out of the Lema Channel ;

heavy sea from S. E.; wind N. N, E. (9). Bar. 29.87; Ther. 82. Noon. The

Ninepin bearing West, Great Lema S.S.W. p.m. Increasing sea and Bar.

falling from 29,85 at noon to 29.70; at midnight, making all preparations

gor bad weather. Wind N. Eb N. (10.) |

10th Oct.—Hove too throughout with head to the Eastward. Wind N. E.

(10 and 11.) At10 a, ™. taken aback in a shift of wind from S. 8. W., but

wind flying back to East} again, Bar. falling from 29.71 at 3 Pp. M. to 29.66

at noon; Lat. D. R. 21° 46’ N.; Long. 114° 35’; ep. m. soundings 32 per fm.

mud, Wind E. S. E. (11) 4 p.m. East (10) to9 p. m., when 8.8. E. (11) Mid-

night 36 fm. mud and sand.

* No doubt from the last observation on the 8th, this is 86’ per day, or 3.3 miles

per hour!

t+ This temporary shift from S. S. W. we can only account for by considering it as

a local tornado within the main Cyclone, since the wind came back again steadily

to the east, and is evidently part of the other ship’s storm. H.M. B. being hove

too on the wrong tack (for she was on the right hand side of the track, and should

have been onthe starboard tack,) was also the cause of her being taken aback. With

her head to the Northward the S. 8, W. shift would have been a quartering breeze.

18 Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. [Jan.

11th Oct.-a. mM. wind S. E. (11) Bar. 29.68; rising to 29.72 at 6 a. mM.

and 29.83 at noon, when wind about S. E. bS.; (9.) Lat. 21° 11’; Long. 113°

30’; current since 4 p. M. on 9th S. 44° W. 41 miles. Mainmast was found

sprung ; P. M. becoming gradually fine,

Extract from the Log of the Ship ANN, of London, Capt. StEvENSON.

Civil Time.

On the 8th Oct. 1845 the Ann was in Lat. 19° 46’N.; Long, 114° 36’

East ; moderate and fine, wind N. Easterly.

9th Oct.—a. m. light breezes increasing to strong breezes at noon, when cloudy

and a heavy head sea. Wind N. N. W. Lat. 199 24’ North; Long. 115° 30’

E.; 1 P. m. perceived a peculiar appearance of the atmosphere. The Barometers

as usual, 30.00, and 29.80; had sent down small sails, &c. in preparation

to beat to the eastward but not apprehending bad weather. Sunset increasing

wind ; appearance of atmosphere more settled and Barometer steady ; at 10h. 30.

Bars, fell two-tenths ; ship standing to the E, N. E. under snug sail at 8 Pp. M. but

gale increasing considerably reduced ship at midnight to storm sail.

10th Oct.—a. m. Barometers falling rapidly, 29.30 and 29.50. At daylight

increasing to a Tyfoon. Split and cut away main topsail, being unable te

furl it. Ship under storm mizen. Noon Barometer 29.00 and 29.20; 1 P. M.

28.80 and 29.00. Under bare poles with a tarpaulin in the mizen rigging ; 4

p.M. Bar. 28.50 and 28.70; gusts of wind and confused sea—fearful ; 4.30

P, M. cut away quarter boats. At 5 p.m. Bar. 28.50 and 28.80, with an alarm-

Ing appearance, ship lying with tarpaulins in mizen rigging with her head to the

Eastward and drifting fast to the Southward.* At 5.30 tremendous gusts with

perfect sheets of foam all round, the spray sweeping over the mast-heads. The

heavy seas that struck the ship and which we expected would make a clean sweep

of the upper deck fore and aft disappeared over our heads like a sheet of light-

ning from the fury of the wind. At 7 Bar. 28.00 and 28.20; heavy rain, About

8 p.m. Typhoon moderating, seain a more confused state. Ship labouring

dreadfully ; at 9 p.m. Tyfoon fell suddenly light, and veered} to the S. East-

ward ; head from S. W. to W. S. W. rolling awfully, but Bar. still inclined to

fall; did not venture to make sail. At 10.30 wind increasing from the S. E.;

at 11h.20 every appearance of an approaching hurricane from the S, Eastward.

During the lapse of 50 minutes the Bars. fell 0.3, and were now at 27.70 and

27.80. Midnight, Tyfoon blowing with awful fury and the sea fearful in the

extreme, washing away every thing before it. Fore topmast, jibboom and head

of the foremast gone, which was not discovered till daylight.

* The direction of the wind is not given, but from this it must have been

about N. N. E.

tT The Italics are mine ; it might almost be called a shift.

1849. | Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. 19

11th October.—Daylight strong gale S. E.; at 8 p. m. the same and less sea.

Bar. 29.30 and 29.10, rising rapidly ; Noon, Lat. 20° 41’ N.; Long, 114° 30’

East. After which fine weather gradually returning with Southerly winds.

The following notice from a Singapore paper does not afford us any

assistance in tracing the Cyclone track, but it is always a lesson (if more

are needed) to shew the mischief which is done by disregard or ignorance

of the laws of our science. I have no sort of doubt that it was a part

of the same Cyclone to which the preceding logs relate.

“The ship Tyrer, Ellis, which left China on the 9th October 1845, with a cargo

of Tea, bound for London, arrived here on the 15th November, having experienced

a very heavy Typhoon on the passage. We have received the following particu-

lars of the voyage. The Tyrer left on the 9th ult. with pleasant weather. On

the 10th at 4 p. m. commenced with small rain and wind increasing,—continued

to blow very hard until 10 o’clock next morning when it blew a_ perfect hurri-

cane, and the ship refusing to steer any longer broached to. During eight hours

the ship was on her beam-ends, and blew away her jib booms, jib, fore royal-

masts, two quarter boats, washed away all the bulwarks,—and a. great quantity

of sails, water casks, &c. went overboard :—every thing was cleared to cut away

the masts in case the ship went any lower. When the ship at last righted she

had three feet and a half of water in her hold. From 10 4. m., on the 11th until

8 Pp. M., the wind was from N. N. E. to N. W. The day after this severe storm

four of the crew were seized with fever and ague—the next day 13 more were

down, and ultimately for three weeks there were only five persons left in a con-

dition to work the ship, viz., the Captain, two mates, the cook and the steward.

We think great credit is due to Captain Ellis for the manner in which he brought

his ship down under these circumstances. It is supposed that about one-third

of the cargo has been damaged.”

REMARKS.

Track H.

I begin here, as previously explained, with the Cyclone of H M.

Steamer Driver, which vessel seems to have had it on an average from

N. E. to S. E. and to have been at 5 a. m. when nearest the centre,

not far from her position at noon on the 7th, being hove too during

most of the interval. With the best allowance I can make for her drift,

not having the detailed log to refer to, I should allow for this Cyclone a

track to the W. b. N. as I have marked it; I do not connect the two

tracks, as we have no authority for so doing.

20 Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. (Jan.

Track I.

The John O’ Gaunt appears to have had the Cyclone commencing with

her from North soon after midnight of the 7th, and by noon of the 8th,

in Lat. 19° 3’; Long. 117° 8’ E., it was a heavy gale at N. N. W.

which would place the centre to the KE. N. E. of that position and at a

considerable distance, or moving down slowly, for the wind remained ap-

parently at this point till 5 a. m. on the 9th, or for nearly 17 hours,

when it is marked at west, the centre not being far to the northward, for

at 1 p. M. it is said the wind shifted* to the south, and by the following

day, the 10th, it had veered to E. S. KE. when the Barometer was rising,

so that the vessel was apparently drifted far to the northward and the

Cyclone was passing her slowly without much southing im its track.

But the notes obtained are unfortunately very meagre, as the logs pro-

bably were, and in the absence of the log we can deduce little but esti-

mates. The two notes I have of this vessels log also disagree, so far as

can be made out, in dates, which adds greatly to the difficulty.

The John O’ Gaunt is the only vessel from which we can fix the bear-

ing of the centre of the Cyclone approximately on the 8th, and on the

9th she was very near the Ann, with which vessel it did not commence

till the afternoon or rather night, though it was certainly seen approach-

ing her soon after noon, by the “peculiar appearance’+ noted in the

log. It is evident from the position of these ships that the Cyclone was

not one of any great extent, for they were at most, and with every allow-

ance for errors, not more than 100 miles apart on the 9th, when the

John O’Gaunt was close to the centre, having the shift at 1 Pp. M.,

while the Ann was just remarking the peculiar appearance quoted

above.

Hence we cannot include the gale experienced by H. M. Brig Lspie-

gle and the Ldith on the coast, and by H. M. S. Agincourt at Hong

* These words shifted and veered are used so indiscriminately that we can deduce

nothing exact from them, unless we are told from which point the shift took place.

If it was at once a shift from West at 5 a. M. to South at 1 Pp. M., this would indie

cate a very slow motion of the Cyclone, or that the ship was carried along with the

storm wave to the Westward faster than she drifted to the Eastward. All we can

conclude is that from 5 a. m. to 1 p. m. she was very close upon the centre.

tT It is to be regretted this peculiar appearance is not more accurately detailed.

One of the greatest services seamen can render to science and to each other is to

give exact and full accounts of all these phenomena.

1849.] Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. 21

Kong, as parts of the same Cyclone, the Espiegle being at 260 miles

distance from the John O’ Gaunt to the N. N. W., and the Sir Robert

Sale 240 miles to the S. S. W., and thus far out of the utmost verge

we can suppose for the outer storm circles. The fact of these gales

occurring at the same time, and the direction of the wind with the

Espiegle, being in accordance with the circle, would at first sight have

Ied us to suppose that they really formed part of it, but the dnn’s log,

which appears from the extract made to have been perfectly well kept, is

conclusive on this point. The easterly gale of the Espiegle, though veering

from N. E. to S. Kast or through 8 points of the wind circle, we may con-

sider to have been either the first efforts of the N. E. trade or that this

and the Sir Robert Sale’s cloudy and threatening weather on the 9th

were parts of a Cyclone of larger diameter, which was not completely

formed, its central part only being, as we have seen, with the Joha

O’ Gaunt and Ann in full action, and with the last vessel, of excessive

violence, with a very remarkable fall of the Barometer at and near the

centre. I should remark also, by the way, that we have as yet no instance

of the Cyclones of the China sea extending to 600 miles in diameter,

and this is certainly not one.

I have then laid down the track from the logs of the John o Gaunt

and dnn alone as being one about from the East # North to the W. 2

S. It may be somewhat more or less of course, the exact position of

both vessels being uncertain, but this is probably nearest the truth.*

Track I.

Manila Tyfoon of November, 1845.

I have no further notice of this cyclone than the following, from the

Singapore Free Press :—

‘< By the Carotine from Manila accounts are received from the Manila papers

of a severe gale there. It grew dark on Monday the 2d November,t 1845, with

very dark murky weather and a fresh breeze from N. E. changing to N.N. E.,

Fast and S. E. at which it rested at 3 in the morning. The force of the tempest

was from 10 o’clock on the 3d. The bar. fell 75 centesimals. Almost all the

ships in the Bay dragged ; the American ship Camera, which left on the 2d re-

* In the Chart to the Sailor’s Horn Book, this track has a more Southern direc-

tion, being to the S. W. b. W. from the N. E. b. E. owing I think to oversight in

the dates when laying it down for that chart without any Memoir.

{~ Supposed Manila time, or lst Nov. European.

22 Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. [JAN.

turned on the 3d before having left the Bay, with loss of her three masts ; Bal-

carras and Flecha cleared out on the 2d. They arrived safely at Singapore.”’

If we take the shift here to have been from N. N. E. to S. E. this

will give us a track of from the E. b. N. to the W. b. S., or it perhaps

curved a little more to the southward on its passage, as the entrance to

that large Bay would lead it to do, but it might thus become outside a

Cyclone travelling from N. E. or N. E. b. E. If we could obtain well

authenticated registers of winds in such positions both within and at

the bottom of deep bays and gulfs over which Cyclones are travelling,

and then accounts of their tracks outside, we should be able to speak

of these changes of tracks with more certamty. On shore, valleys and

ravines seem certainly, as it were, to lead whirlwinds to prefer the lines

of their direction.

1846.

Track J.

Tyfoon of the H. C. Steamer Piuto, June, 1846.

This Steamer was bound from Hong Kong to join Rear Admiral

Parker’s force at Labuan, on the coast of Borneo, when she ran into

the Cyclone, in which, as will be seen, she was so nearly foundering. Her

log was forwarded to me by the Superintendant H. C. Marine at Cal-

cutta, and I have obtained also some other documents enabling me to

trace accurately the track of the Cyclone, and to demonstrate very

clearly the grievous error which had been committed. I deemed it

right to address the Government of India through the Superintendant,

pointing out this error, and it has done me the honour to lithograph my

letter and chart for the instruction of the officers of the Indian sea-going

Steam service. The lesson it affords may be useful in other parts, and

as my letter comprises at once the abridged details of the data, and the

summary of them, I have preferred printing it nearly at length. The

sketch chart on which I have also marked the run of the schooner

Mischief, the log of which vessel I give at the end, will be seen on the

large chart to this memoir. The following is my letter :—

The Secretary to the Superintendent of Marine, Calcutta.

Sir,—I have the honor to acknowledge receipt of your letter No. 3805 of

18th inst. giving cover to the log of the H. C. Steamer Pluto in the tyfoon

experienced by her in the China Sea in June 1846,

1849.] Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. 23

It is at all times an invidious task to expose professional errors, but it is one

essential to the interests of science, of humanity, and of the public service, when

these involve not only great and useless pecuniary loss, but imminent risk of

life and property, and possibly great detriment, amounting even to partial failure,

of warlike operations. Such errors are moreover by so much the more mis-

chievous when they are committed in the face of knowledge now within every

seaman’s reach, and in a quarter of the globe where, so to speak, the storms

have been tracked with mathematical accuracy through a long series of years

from 1780 down to the present time.* The very newspapers in China refer at

once to the Law of Storms to explain their tyfoons whenever they occur !

But I deem it my duty, Sir, to point out, what cannot have escaped you, that

the H. C. Steamer Pluto on this occasion steamed as wilfully into the heart of a

Tyfoon as if she had been sent out to experiment upon them ; and that heaving

to for six hours, or making a curve in her course not amounting to 100 miles of

direct loss on her track, would have fully and completely saved her and the

Government from all the loss and danger she has suffered, and left her services

available with the Admiral.

I proceed to shew for the information of Government, by whom I trust this

letter may be forwarded to the Admiral, how this has been done.

My documents are :—

a. Log of the Pluto as forwarded by you, which is however imperfect, for

it is a copy of the remarks mostly ; the courses and distances steamed and

the winds, being omitted ! (the detailed log was however subsequently forward-

ed by Admiral Parker.)

b. Private log of the chief officer of that ship forwarded to me by Capt.

Johnson,

c. The Newspaper accounts from China, giving imperfect logs of the Brig Siewa,

and of the Nemesis and Pluto Steamers with reference to that of the Jane.

d. The log of the Brig Anonyma obtained here by myself.

1. It appears that the P/uto left Hong Kong on the morning of the 27th June,

and at noon on the 28th was (at A on the annexed Chart)+ in Lat. 19° 49’ N.;

Long. 113° 45’ East. Her Barometer, which was at noon 30.00, had fallen by

6 M. P. to 29.90, and by midnight to 29.68, that is, it fell one-tenth in six hours

from noon, and something more than two-tenths more in the next six hours; and

this was in the China Sea, in the tyfoon months, with the wind from the East-

ward, or against the usual monsoon, and with as much of other appearances as

rendered it quite a sufficient warning.

* See ‘‘ Storms of the China Sea from 1780 to 1841,’’ by me. (Journal Asiatic

Society, vol. xi.)

T See Chart to the present Memoir, on which, to the left, this sketch chart is

placed.

24 Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. [JAn.

June 29th.—The vessel appears to have steamed on as if wholly unconscious

of any danger ahead, though the increasing gale must have warned them of it, if

they did not believe their Barometer ; and a reference to the Horn Book of Storms*

(p. 10 and 16 of the first, and 10 and 16 of the 2d edition) must have demon-

strated to them beyond controversy that they were on the Northern side of the

track of a tyfoon and steaming as directly as they could for its awfully dangerous

centre ! or in other words, placing themselves wantonly in a position in which

the finest frigate in the navy may be blown over like a paper boat: and from

which hundreds of well found ships have never escaped to tell their tale! and

they were doing this with a deeply laden and encumbered vessel !

By half past noon she had steamed into the centre of the tyfoon, being at noon

in latitude 18° 22’ N.; Long, 112° 48’ East; or at B on the chart. Her course

made good was S. 32 W. 103 miles since noon of the 28th; her track is made

curved on the chart to shew how she probably steamed and drifted.

It will be observed that between the first noted fall of the Barometer at 6 P.

m. and this time Noon 29th, eighteen hours elapsed, and as during the last six

hours she could have made but little way, we may fairly allow her to have run

down at the rate of five miles per hour (or 90 miles of the 103) which she made

between Noon of the 28th and 6 a.m. of the 29th; and that for the last 60

miles of this 90, or from a, (her position at 6 Pp. Mm.) to b. which we may estimate

to be that of 6 a. M. we may fairly say she was forcing herself into mischief, The

distance from a. to B also, or 70 miles, must be about the semi-diameter of the

Tyfoon where violent. The sequel of this mistake, which might have been de-

tailed and predicted beforehand, even if we had not another word from her, was

the shift of wind to the 8S. W. and the remaining half of the Tyfoon which so

nearly completed the Pluto’s destruction.

The Siewa was on the 28th, at Noon, in Lat. 17° 21’ N.; Long. 113° 38’

East ; with a commencement of bad weather, increasing till the next day (wind

not stated) when at Noon 29th she was ina full hurricane in Lat. 18° 8’ N.;

112° 32’ East; throwing cargo overboard, having thus committed on the oppo-

site side of the storm the same error as the Pluto; i. e. ran up 78 miles to the

N. 53° W. into the heart of it, for at 3 p. M. she was in the calm centre with a

shift of wind to N. W, veering to the South West at midnight, when it began to

moderate as the tyfoon was travelling from her. Her track is marked on the

chart.

The Nemesis from Bombay is said to have been farther to the South, in 16°

N. and to have first experienced the Tyfoon at 2 p,m, on the 28th, from the

N. W., veering gradually to S. 8. E. Her position is not given.

* If they had it on board ?

+ She lost her funnel, rudder, &c. &c. and drifting back in an utterly disabled

state, struck on the rocks of Hong Kong, where she was nearly lost.

1849. | Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. 25

The Anonyma on the 28th and 29th was running up to the N. E. b. N. and

N.N. E. 7 E. from 14° 40’ N. 113° 15’ E. to 18° 4’ N, 114° 57’ E., with a

strong S. W. monsoon and gale, which latterly vecred to the S. E. and S. 8. E.

' with a heavy confused sea. I have marked part of her track, also showing that

she ranup just across the track, and behind the storm which was tearing the

Pluto to pieces.

The track of this Tyfoon appears to have been about from the S, 30° E. to

the N. 30° W.

It is only necessary, Sir, to refer to the sketch chart annexed, to see in a mo-

ment, that, allowing the Commander of the Pluto to have acted from the praise-

worthy motive of pushing on at all risks to join the Borneo force at the earliest

moment, he took exactly the only wrong method to do so! Assuming that at mid-

night 28th, or 2 a. m. on the 29th, when he could not have doubted that he was

plunging into a Tyfoon, he had steamed away to the N. E, or within a point or

two either way of it as might have been easiest for his vessel and engines, till his

barometer rose again to 29.80 or 85, which is a safe altitude (and the Barometer

will mark the distance made from the centre of the Tyfoons almost with the

accuracy of a clock) and then have hauled gradually to the East, §. E., South

and $8.8. W., till on his direct course, he would have made about the dotted line

on the chart, and not even have crossed the track of the centre for a long time,

escaping thus the inconvenience of the heavy sea always found there,

I am enabled to set this error in the strong light of contrast, by adverting to a

report which, under a general order from the Lords of H. M. Admiralty, has

been sent tome by Commander Nevill of H. M.S. Serpent.

This vessel, with 23 millions of Dollars on board, being the last instalment of

the China treaty money, encountered off the Mauritius in February last all the

signs of wind, weather and Barometer indicating her approach to a hurricane.

She hove to for six hours and allowed it to pass her, and then, as I have indicated,*

when she bore up, crossed the sea left by the path of the centre, which was so

heavy that every precaution was necessary to prevent her rollingaway her masts ;

but she lost nothing but the six hours run.

The difference between these two vessels is evidently, and in a word, that of

management and mismanagement. Both were on important services (and the

steamer had moreover the advantage of going in the direction she pleased) but

the one accomplished her’s in safety by due attention to the law of storms, and

the other is crippled by setting it at defiance. I repeat that this may have been

done from the most praiseworthy motives, but it has been altogether done the

wrong way, and if, without being especially called upon, I step forward to expose

the error, it is because I consider every Englishmai and every sailor bound to

point out errors of judgment which, however remotely, may in some Cases seri-

* Horn Book of Storms, p. 9.

26 Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. [ JAN.

ously affect life and property, and the safety and honour of our flag; and that

I should ill return the assistance which I have received from the Honourable

The Court of Directors in furnishing me with documents for my researches, did

I pass over this most grave error in silence.

H, PipprncTon.

Calcutta, 7th Oct. 1846.

Extract from the Log of the Schooner Miscutrr, Capt. Wutte, from

Hong Kong and Singapore, subsequently obtained. Civil Time.

26th June.—Left Hong Kong, Noon, Lat. 21° 40’ N.; Long. 21° 40’, Bar.

29.42.

27th June.—Lat. 19° 1673 N.: Long. 112° 5’ East; Bar, 29.40. Ther.

92°, Squalls from S, to S, E. and a heavy swell from the South ; 8 p. m, brisk

gale S. E. Noon strong S. E. gale, @ very heavy Southerly swell; unable to

carry sail for it.

28th June.—Lat. 17° 39’ N.; Long. 110° 16’ East; S. East breezes abat-

ing and sail gradually made.

It will be seen on the chart that the Mischief crossed the line of

the Cyclone’s track about 36 hours previous to its arriving at her posi-

tion, but that she distinctly felt the swell which the Cyclone was driving

up before it.

Track K.

Tyfoon of the Ship Hyprerrr, Capt. PowEwt, 21st and 22d July, 1846.

The Hyderee at sunset 21st of July, 1846, had the Grand Ladrone bearing

N. b, W. distant 15 miles, in 17 fs. water, standing to the E. S. E. with the wind

at N. E. increasing to a hard gale and very heavy high sea. Bar. 29.50; mid-

night 29.30.

22nd July.—At 2 a.m. Bar, 29.20; 4 a. M. 29.00; hard gale at east at 6 A. M. 5

daylight the wind fell light, Bar. 28.90, and some sail was made to keep the

vessel from rolling At 8 a, mM, the wind was South but Bar. rising; at 9S. E.;

by 10 a heavy tyfoon at S. E, ship on her beam ends ; cut away the mizenmast

and foretopmast, lost foremast head, cut away main topmast ; decks being swept

fore and aft; at 11 moderating; 3 feet water in the hold; Noon moderate

but a heavy sea. The Barometer at sunset on the 21st July was 29.50; at

midnight 29.30; 2 a. M. 29,20; 4 a. M. 29.00; daylight 28.90; after which it

began to rise. The ship’s position at sunset, when the gale commenced, was with

the Grand Ladrone bearing N. b. W. distant 75 miles, in 17 fs, water. After

this stood to the E.S. E, till the wind shifted at 10 a. m. and when the gale

was over, had soundings 22 fs, Cow-cock Island bearing north, about 40 miles to

1849. ] Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. 27

the westward of Grand Ladrone, where the ship remained three days refitting, the

current setting W. S. W, the whole time, about two knots per hour,

It would appear that this Cyclone was a very partial one, for as I am

informed by Captain Powell, ships at a short distance to the northward

of the Hyderee had topgallant sails set. Nevertheless it is worth noting

as being perhaps analogous to, if not of the same kind, as the ‘Tornado

Cyclones off the Coast of Ceylon, and near Cape Negrais,* which are

peculiarly dangerous on account of the little warning they afford, and

their tendency to appear in fine weather, when ships are least on their

guard against them. We have recently had an instance of their occur-

rence at the Sandheads, occasioning the loss of the Barque Nussur, with

all hands on board.

The average shift being from Kast to 8. E. wouid give a track to the

W.N. W. from the E. 8S. E., but as we must make some allowance for

the ship’s drift to the southward during the first part of the Cyclone,

1 have allowed it one to the E. b. N. $ N. which will not be far from

a correct estimation.

Track J.

H. M.S. Rinepove, Straits of Formosa, Sept. 1846.

I have marked this as a Cyclone, H. M.S. Ringdove having had a

severe gale on the 15th and 16th Sept. (force of the wind being marked as

high as 10 and 11.12, being hurricane force) from the North, which af-

teran hour’s calm again returned at 8S. W., but in this last half both its

duration and force were far less than in the first part, in which it was

blowing for 27 hours from N. E. to North, with a force of from 8 to 11,

falling a dead calm from force 10, whereas in the latter half of the

Cyclone it was blowing only from force 4 to 8, and this for about 12

hours at most. This is partly accounted for by her bearing up and

running to the North and N. E., which was directly out of the vortex,

and partly no doubt from the influence of the coast of China, close to

which she was. Nevertheless, these apparent anomalies or peculiarities,

should be faithfully noted to aid us in future research,

Abridged Log H. M. S. Rinepove.

At Noon 14th Sept. 1846. Lat. 24° 0’ N,; Long. 119° 45’; wind N, E.

force (5); veering to North at 7 p.m. and from that time to midnight varying

* Sailor’s Horn Book, p. 38, Journal Asiatic Society, Vols. IX. and XIV.

E 2

28 Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. [Jaw

from North to N. E.; and increasing in force to 9., or strong gale for a man-of-

war ; thick squally weather.

15th Sept—Wind N. E.8; at 6 a. m. North 9, and at Noon the same and 10.

Lat. 24° 8’ North; Long. by bearings of Chapel Island, 118° 35’ E.; Bar.

30.10; 5 Pp. M. 29.80, Midnight 29.80; wind to midnight North ; 10, ship’s

head to the Eastward, squally, cloudy, and rain.

16th Sept.—Wind N. b. E. 10, to 4 a. m. when it fell calm to 5 p. m. Breeze

springing up S. W. misty and drizzling, which continued to Noon, when it was

still S. W. 7, having been at 8 from 8 a. M.; Bar. 5 a.m. 29.63. At Noon 29.84 ;

Position when in the calm and shift about 23° 42’; Long. 118.55 East ;

p, mM. wind S. b, E. force 7; weather still overcast and cloudy, but subsequently

clearing up.

The shift of wind was from N. b. E. to S. W., which would give a

track of from E. 8. E. to the W. N. W. but with due allowance for the

vessel’s standing to the Westward, and drifting as she must have done

to the Southward, we shall find that the average track would be about

from the S. E. to the N. W., at which I have marked it. We do not

know in truth, also, how much the track may have been influenced by the

land, but for all practical purposes the estimated track will be quite near

enough to the truth: for the essential question for the seaman in all

narrow seas is to know if the tracks of the Cyclones lie across or directly

through the channels.

Track M.

H. M. S. Acincourt, Bashee Passage, September, 1846.

I am also indebted for this log to Mr. Elliott, Master of H. M.S.

Agincourt, who forwarded with it a sketch chart shewing very clearly

that a Cyclone must have passed over or near to the south extreme

of Formosa, of which the Agincourt had the southern quadrants only,

while H. M.S. Vestal and Dedalus, which vessels parted company

in the forenoon, and stood to the northward, had it much more severe.

Their logs unfortunately have not reached me.*

* Probably under a notion prevalent among some Commanders that, unless a

Cyclone amounts to a furious or damaging hurricane or tyfoon, it is of no conse-

quence, or useless to send us the details. This is a great mistake. Whenever there

is anything Cyclonic in a breeze, I shall be glad to have details of it, and especially

when other vessels have also felt it. A moderate Cyclone may be as instructive as

the most violent one for the great object of tracing out the track at that season of

the year.

1849.]| Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. 29

Abridged note from Mr. Exuxuiorr’s letter, and the Log of H. M.S.

AGINCOURT.

H. M. 8. Agincourt was on the 14th Sept. 1846, in sight of Formosa, Ape’s

Hill bearing N. N. E, 100 miles; at 8 a.m. wind hauling from East to North and

N.N. E. with fine weather and royals set; Bar, at 1 Pp. M. 29.86; at 5. Pp. M. the

wind shifted to N. W. in a squall with rain; after which the weather becaie

squally ; at 6.30 p. m. calm, and at midnight a moderate breeze from the N. W.

b. N. with a heavy confused swell from the E. N. E, but fine, and wind

moderate, being marked as 5.

15th Sept.—a. mM. swell continuing, Bar, had fallen to 29.83 ; made preparations

for bad weather. At6 a, m. galecommenced wind N. W.; at7 it was W. N, W.;

at noon, W. b. N., Bar. 29.48, ship having been standing to the South-

ward. At 2.30 r. mM. S. W.;* at6 p.m. 8. 8S. W.and at 7p. mM. South; Lat.

at Noon was 21° 18’ and Long. 121° 20’ East; Bar at 9 4. M. 29.50 and at Noon

29.46 ; Ther. 83° at 1.30 Pp. M.; at 3.30 bore up, Bar. 29.63, and by 6 P. M.

the Barometer was at 29,70; the North Bashee being in sight bearing 8S. W. 5

miles,

Mr. Elliott remarks that the E. N. E. swell was so heavy that it

would not have been proper to run out against it. His sketch makes

the track of the Cyclone to be from the EH. N. E. tothe W. 8. W., in

which I quite agree.

Track N.

The Miscutrr’s Tyfoon of Sept. 1846.

Abridged Log of the Clipper Schooner Miscuter, Capt. Waite, from

Singapore to China. Civil Time.

The Mischief was on the 23rd Sept. in Lat. 179 4’ N.; Long, 115° 26’; Bar.

at 29.46; Ther. 86; p. m. brisk Westerly breezes and threatening appearance to

the West and N. W.; 3 p. m. wind hauledto the N. W., at night W. N. W.

and N. W. and squally weather.

24th Sept.—Increasing ; 2 to 4 a. mM. much lightning N. E. to N. W.;4,

threatening appearance to the N, E.and N. W. Making preparations for bad

weather ; sharp squalls W. N.W.and N. W. Very wild upper sky, but Barometer

steady at 29.94; at 10h.30 p. m. Ther. 84; heavy N. E. swell getting up from

11 last night, which continues ; Noon blowing hard from N. W., with constant rain

and squalls ; Lat, 18° 54’ N.; Long. 115° 34’ East ; a current to the E, S, E. of

* Mr, Elliott remarks, ‘‘ At this time the Bar. rose 0.02 and fell again immedi-

ately.’’

+ Probably an error of the copyist, as it was at 29,94 on the 24th.

30 Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. [JAN.

30 miles since the 23rd. The Pratas bearing N. E, b. N. 126 miles: Pp. m. furious

hard squalls from W. N. W, rain and a confused sea; hove too at 8 p. M. till

daylight, blowing furiously from the West and a frightful sea.

25th Sept.—Daylight very wild appearance ; wind coming round to the W.

S. W., still blowing fearfully and sea dreadfully cross from the veering of the

wind ; 8 a.m. wind 8. W.; Noon a hard Tyfoon from 8S. W, with a dreadful sea ;

no signs of its clearing up. Weather so thick cannot see 3 mile all round; Lat.

Acct. 19° 223.; Long, Acct. 116° 27’; Bar. 29.16; Ther. 849°. Allowed 187

E.S, E. and 11’ East for current and sea; Pratas Shoal N. b. E. 2 E. 80 miles ;

p. M. heavy gales S. 8S. W. with a tremendous cross sea breaking over the vesse]

fore and aft ; sunset very severe gusts; no signs of a break in the weather.

26th Sept.—Constant passing sharp squalls and torrents of rain with a break-

ing sea; appearances of a second gale, Noon Lat. Acct, 20° 28’ N.; Long,

116° 16’ East; Bar, 29,22; Ther. 83°. Allowed 30 miles N, E, b. N. for the

sea; Pratas Shoal N, E. b E,3 East 30 miles; Pp. Mm. furious squalls from

S. W.b. S.; constant heavy rain and high turbulent sea. At 5 Pp. mM. very severe ;

sunset 8S. W., 8 Pp. M. perfect tyfoon S.S. W.; 9,15. wind South* to midnight.

27th Sept. a. M. wind and weather as above; signs of a break in the

weather; 4 a. mM. blowing very hard with torrents of rain, Daylight fearfully

hard with very thick rainy weather and dirty appearances all round, At

8 the same; at 9 a lull but very dirty still; squalls and rain till Noon;

when a bright spot or two to the North, but no signs of a change; Lat. by

Acct. 21° 25’ N.; Long. 116° 225 East; Bar. 29.22; Ther. 81; P. M. pass-

ing sharp squalls from S. W. and the same confused sea; 4 p.m. gale abated

a little with a clear sky to the W. 8. W. and Northward ; at 6 steady hard gale

from S. W. b. 8S, with a heavy sea and far from settled appearances to the N. E,

and S. E. quarters. At 8 the same winds, drizzling rain and lightning from N.

W.to N. E. and East, andahigh seaon. Midnight threatening appearances

from N. W. to East with continued lightning.

28th Sept.—a. M. Passing heavy squalls from W. 8S. W. with heavy rain

and appearances of the wind coming from the N. E, ; the lulls between the squalls

considerable. At9 a.m. hard gale from the Westward with cloudy weather

but sea decreasing ; Noon, gale and sea much moderated ; made sail. Lat. by

indifferent observation 21° 42’ N.; Long. 115° 34%’ East: Bar. 29.28, Ther, 81.

The following is extracted from the Overland Friend of China of

Sept. 1846, and the Cyclones it relates to are doubtless one, or perhaps

two of them connected with that of the Mischief, but I have been un-

able to obtain further details.

* It is possible there may be some error of the copyist here, or some little aber-

ration of the Cyclone track, but it does not affect the general result,

———

1849. | Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. oa

The Apolline from Tutacorin had severe gales about 70 miles outside the

Ladrones on the 27th and 28th, but suffered no damage.

The Stephen Lurman put back having experienced a severe typhoon off Braco

Point. It commenced on the night of the 26th and continued until the morn-

ing of the 29th. The vessel was twenty-six hours under bare poles, and was

at one time within three miles of the land on a lee shore, but fortunately the

danger was discovered in time to wear. There was a very high turbulent sea.

She sprung her mainmast and lost some sails. During the height of the gale

she had three feet water in her hold.

It is remarkable that in the storm experienced by the Aqua Marine* the wind

went round with the sun, In the case of the Stephen Lurman, it went round

against the sun.

The Amazon encountered a severe gale which commenced on the 25th and

lasted until the 28th September. She was then in between 19 and 21 degrees of

N, Lat. and 116° and 117° E. Long. On the 27th the vessel was nearly under

water. To ease her the mizen-mast and fore top-mast were cut away, the guns

and all the deck lumber thrown overboard.

TThe Don Juan, 28th September, at 10 Pp. m., lost main-mast off Amoy, the

weight of the breeze lasted 12 hours, and shifted from S, 8. E. to N. N. W.

Kestrel, from Lombok, has also been much crippled.

The H. M. T. S. Sapphire, reports the Admiral with part of the Squadron

still at Chusan.

The H. M. Schooner Young Hebe, put back into Amoy, having lost two

anchors in the gale of 28th and 29th ultimo.—Overland Friend of China.

REMARKS.

It would appear from this valuable note of the Mischief’s log, which

Capt. White has been good enough to render as perfect as possible for

me, that the Cyclone had fairly commenced with her from the N. W.

about noon of the 24th, though her Barometer was still as high as

29.94 at 10.30 a. m., but this has occurred before in the China Sea,

and it even has remained high throughout the whole of a severe and

undoubted Tyfoon Cyclone.t At this time then, noon 24th, we may

allow the centre of the Mischief’s Cyclone to have been bearing N. E.

of her, and at no great distance, since by daylight on the following day it

* J shall notice this vessel’s storm separately.

‘; Appoline is probably meant here, and the ships were on different sides of the

track of the Cyclone.

~ See 6th Memoir, Journal Asiatic Society, Vol. XI. p. 690, remarks. on the

Ariel’s Barometer.

32 Seventeenth Memoir on the Law. of Storms. [JAN

bore North, the wind being about West and hauling rapidly to W.S. W.

and to S. W. at 8 a. m. where it continues to noon. We have it thus

between noon 24th and 25th coming down upon her from the N. E.

and passing her close to the Northward of her line of drift. If we

take her Bar. at 10h. a. mM. of the 24th to have been within the influ-

ence of the Cyclone, we find that it fell (from 29.99 to 29.16) 0.78 in

the 25 hours from 10h. A. m. to noon of the 25th, or at a mean rate of

0.15 per hour, which would give a distance at the mean of the time, or

say at about midnight, of 50 miles only from the centre, and this I have

taken as the best datum we have, though we cannot be assured that the

fall of the Barometer was at a regular rate. The succeeding rapid

veering of the wind shews however, as above remarked, that the vessel

was very close on the centre.

We next find that from noon of the 25th to that of the 26th the

wind, not hauling to the W. S. W. and 8S. W. and then gradually to S.

E., which it should have done if the Cyclone had had a track to the

S. Westward so as to have brought the wind to S. E. at about noon

on the 26th*, but that after coming to S. 8. W. at p. m. on the 25th, it

remains at that point and to 8S. W. b. 8. at noon on the 26th, evidently

showing that the centre was now bearing to the N. W. b. W. of the

vessel, and had thus, from some unknown cause, curved away to the

Northward and Westward instead of continuing its straight track to the

S. Westward, for the whole of the day of the 26th-27th to noon of the

28th, we find that it continues at S. W. and S. W. b. 8. though

abating a little, the Barometer having risen 0.06 only on the 24th;

not improbably from the influence of the coast Cyclone, of which we have

the newspaper notice previously quoted, for we find that the threatening

appearances continue with her from N. W. (her own Cyclone) to N. E.,

that of the coast of China. ,

On the 28th, though we find ‘‘ the appearances were that the wind

was coming from the N. E.,” ie. that there was probably a heavy

bank in that quarter, yet the Mischief’s Cyclone ended in a hard gale

from the westward, gradually moderating after noon, but the Baro-

meter between the 27th-29th rising 0.06 only, as before. I have laid

down its track as curving away and travelling off to the N. Westward

** For we have always the vessel’s position carefully given, and moreover worked

up at the time, which is far more to be depended upon than after estimates.

1849. | Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. 30

without any reference to this return of the wind to the W. 8S. W., and I

now explain why I do so.

We have seen in the log of the 27th that the appearances were threat-

ening from N. W. to East, and to N. BE. onthe 28th, and at noon on this

last day the Mischief was only 93 miles 8S. W. b. S. of Braco Point,*

off which the Stephen Lurman experienced a tyfoon between the night

of the 26th and morning of the 29th, “the wind going round against

the sun,’ and the Appolline had severe gales about 70 miles outsidet

of the Ladrones on the 27th and 28th.

The Amazon again had a severe gale from 25th to 28th, and from

these provokingly vague notices (which look as if the ship’s position

was not known) we may guess that on the 27th she was in Lat. 20°

Long. 116° 30’ or thereabouts, but again at what hour of the 27th

she was in distress we cannot say. Atnoon of that day the two vessels,

Amazon and Mischief, were about 85 miles apart. Hence from all this

we may deduce that it is probable, as itis certainly possible, that on the

28th the Amazon was nearer to the centre than the Mischief, and that

the Stephen Lurman’s Cyclone was a different one, which was passing

down the coast of China from the E. N. E. and may probably have

deflected that of the Mischief, and occasioned the W. S. W. gale with

which her Cyclone ended. This is very vague, itis true, but we have no

better data, and must wait to see if future experience will allow us to

suppose that the track may even have curved more shortly to the N.

Westward, which, were we to take the Mischief’s log alone, we should

infer it did.

The Don Juan’s Cyclone.

If there be no error in the newspaper notice which I have printed

at p. 31, this is a very remarkable instance of a Cyclone m the Formosa

Channel travelling to the KE. N. E. from the W. S. W. We have unfor-

tunately no further notices of it, but I place it on the chart both as a

new fact, if it is correctly reported, and because, as will be subsequently

seen, I have in track T. the Hasurain’s Cyclone, a very remarkable but

* The proper name I suspect. By the English, (see Horsbargh) it is usually

termed Breaker Point.

+ If this was a Ship from Singapore she was probably not far from the Meridian

of the Grand Ladrone, but she may have been to the eastward and have partaken of

the Stephen Lurman’s Cyclone,

34 Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. [JAN.

perfectly authenticated instance of a severe Cyclone off the south end of

Formosa, also curving away to the eastward, after travelling up from the

southward: so that this one becomes not so improbable when we con-

sider moreover that the land of China and that of Formosa are both

high, which may influence the formation and tracks of the meteors very

considerably.

1847.

Track P.

Tyfoon of the Brig GuEss, July, 1847.

The following is a newspaper notice, altered from the Singapore Free

Press, of Oct. 14th, 1847, to Civil Time.

“The following has been sent us from Amoy for publication, The Gwess seems

to have encountered a very severe gale :— |

‘Extract from the brig Guess’s Log.—On the 19th July 1847, at noon fresh

breeze and squally. Barometer falling to 29.50; at 2 double-reefed the top-sails

and furled top-gallant sails. At 3 Pp. Mm. more moderate ; wind N. N. W., out

reefs and set top-gallant sails. At 4 p. m. strong breeze and a dirty appearance,

in top-gallant sails and double reefed the top-sails. At 6 Pp. M. strong gale,

squally, and looking bad, wind N. b. W., close-reefed the top-sails, handed

square main-sail jib, and mizen; sea getting up and Barometer falling, At 8 Pp.

mM. wind North, Barometer 29.00 ;—an increasing gale attended with hard

squalls and rainy dirty weather ; handed the fore-top sail. Midnight, Barometer

28.50,* wind North, blowing a strong gale; handed the fore-sail, brought the

ship to under close-reefed maintop-sail.

20th. At4 a.m. hard gale, attended with hard squalls and rainy dirty wea-

ther and high rough sea,—brig labouring heavily and shipping large seas fore

and aft. At 6 a.M. still increasing and a dirty appearance,—down top gallant

yards and mast; and made the ship snug. At 10 4. mM. fore-topmast. staysail

blew away, ship labouring heavily; cut adrift 11 bales of 'Tinder from off the

quarter and stern davits ; at noon wind N. b. W.—Barometer 28.50 and falling,

blowing a most terrific hurricane, brig laying down on her beam ends, lee side

of the deck under water, labouring heavily, pumps constantly attended to, cut

away foretop mast and carried away jib boom at the same time. Ship labouring

heavily, working herself to pieces, cut away the lee bulwarks. For the preservation

of the ship and the lives of the crew it was necessary to heave overboard all the

passengers’ chests, baggage, guns, &c., from off the lee side of the deck. Brig

on her beam ends labouring and shipping large seas fore and aft, washing every

thing from off the deck. No observation.

* Possibly 28.80 ?—H. P.

he =e ie See og AL Oe Ee. =

wl pee @ ace Te el ee ee oes > es wr th a ' Be

1849. | Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. 35

Hpi Wace ce YY HL SO 20" 46e North:

Long. by acc. .... bier ae does) ES QOD MBAs.

P, M.—Brig laying too under close-reefed maintop-sail, blowing a most ter-

rific hurricane, labouring heavily and shipping large seas fore and aft—laying

down on her beam ends. At 2 p.m. wind N.b. W. to North—Barometer

28.40—close-reefed maintop-sail blew away; gale still increasing with very

violent squalls, blowing feather white. At 4 p.m. Barometer 28.10, blowing ter-

rifically with a high awful looking sea—ship labouring so heavily, that 1

momently expected to see the brig go down. At 5 wind hauls to N. W. At 6

wind West, blowing terrifically, attended with violent squalls feather white. At

8 Barometer getting up to 28.50—gale more moderate, wind S. W. occasionally

hard squalls but not so violent; midnight moderate gale—ship rolling heavily ;

Barometer 29.00.

20th. Day-light strong breeze, passing squalls—set the fore-sail, and put

the ship before the wind—wind 8.8. E. Crew employed clearing away the

wreck and putting things to rights about deck. Forenoon fresh breeze from S.

S. E. and passing squalls and rainy ; rigging jury mast—noon set all possible

sail; fine pleasant breeze and cloudy. No observation for Chr. Barometer

29.70.

MBoie Oy ODSia5 6 a+ « anv'e,'s,t tested pwbinn 1, 20f Soe) North,

GRE DVR ACEs isin seitipclros tiyemee oe LAD 200. bast,

H. Bristow, Master.

Brig “ Guess,” Amoy, 14th August, 1847.—Singapore Free Press, Oc-

tober 14.

The ship Karl of Balcarras was also just on the Southern verge of

this Cyclone and running to the Northward towards it though she did

not reach it in time, as will be seen by the following abridgement from

her Log, reduced to Civil Time.

The Earl of Balcarras, bound to China, was on 19th July at Noon in Lat.

14° 19’ N.; Long. 113° 27$ East; with a 7 knot breeze N. Westerly and

cloudy weather. Course N. E.b. N. At midnight the same.

20th July.—a.m.a long heavy swell getting up. At 3 wind W.N. W.

Noon increasing to a gale at West. From 5 a. Mm, course North. Lat. by Acct.

16° 32’ N.; Long. 114° 19’ E.; Bar. 29.46. Ther 85°, p.m. Fresh gale

West, vessel making but one and two knots against a heavy sea till9 p,m. At

4 p. M. Bar. 29.42; 10 Pp. Mm. 29.48 ; at 11, 29.50, and at midnight 29.50; wind

veering to W. S. W,

21st July.—Gale moderating and at9 a, m. marked Southerly. At Noon

Lat, 18° 19’ N.; Long, 114° 26’ East.

F 2

36 Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. [JAN.

The Balcarras’ log we leave out of the consideration of the track of

this Cyclone altogether, as though she was doing all she could to get to

the Northward, the Cyclone had passed on ahead of her, its passage be-

ing faintly mdicated by the fall and rise of her barometer.

From the Guess’s log however we can distinctly trace that it was one

coming down upon her from the EK. b. N., the wind being nearly steady

at N. b. W. for a long time, till between 2 pv. mM. and 8 p. m. of the

20th, we find it veering from N. b. W. to 8. W., or 11 poimts of the

storm circle (Cyclone points) in 6 hours, or not far from 2 points per

hour. It is thus clear that the vessel was drifted by the Northerly gale

just out of the centre, though close upon its Southern border.

If, as is very probable (for mistakes in newspaper accounts of gales

and hurricanes are constantly occurrig) the height of the Barometer at

midnight 19th,—20th, was 28.80 instead of 29.50, we may then, allow-

ing it to have fallen regularly from 29.00 at 8 p. m. on the 19th to 28.

50 at noon of the 20th, or 0.50 m 16 hours, say that its average fall

was .031 per hour, and that at the mean time of this 16 hours, or at 4

A.M. on the 20th, the centre was thus about 225 miles from the vessel :

and we find it was then “a hard gale.”

From this time, 4 a. m. to 6 p. m. of the same day when the wind

was West and the centre therefore bearing due North of the Brig, are

14 hours. And if our calculation of the distance at 4 a. m. is correct

it had then travelled the 225 miles in this time, or at about 16 miles

per hour, which is not an excessive rate for the Cyclones of the China Sea.

It will be observed however that this calculation depends on the typo-

graphical error we have supposed for the height of the Barometer at

midnight. If at that hour it had really fallen to 28.50, as set down,

this would place the centre at 10 p. m. of the 19th within 80 miles of the

Brig, but we can barely suppose it moving so slow (for we have as yet

I think nothing below seven miles per hour ascertaimed for the rates of

travelling in the China Sea) that it would only reach the vessel at 6

p.m. onthe 20th. If we calculate from the fall of 0.20 (29.00 to 28.80)

which I suppose to be the true correction of the error in the midnight

figures for the Barometer, this will give the mean distance of the centre

at 10 p. m. on the 19th tobe 175 miles. And as it reached the meridian

of the vessel at 6 p.m. or in 20 hours, this was not quite at the rate of 9

miles per hour. Either calculation it will be seen is a sufficient ap-

1849. | Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. 37

proximation to the truth to put the seaman on his guard in full time.

And I have indeed introduced it, both as shewing the necessity of fre-

quent registry of the Barometer, and when possible, careful copying and

printing of the extracts.

Track Q.

H. M. Steamer Vutturn’s Tyfoon of October, 1847.

I am indebted to Lt. Crawford Pasco, of H. M. Steamer Vulture, for

this notice, which is both valuable and remarkable. It is valuable as

shewing that on the Coast of Cochin China the Cyclones (in this instance

at least) travel direct to the shore, as in the case of the Coromandel

Coast, and it is remarkable as the only log we have of a Cyclone reach-

ing this shore, though no doubt they must frequently do so. I copy

Lt. Pasco’s letter entire, and in the track laid down, I adopt that from

his diagram. There is nothing in the Cyclone itself calling for any

particular remark.

HT, M. Steamer “ Vuurure,” Whampoa, Nov. 25th, 1847.

S1r,—In compliance with the request contained in your very valuable “ Horn

Book” of Storms, that you may be furnished with accounts of any storms which

occur, 1 beg to transmit a few particulars of a tyfoon, experienced by this

ship between noons of 23rd and 24th October last, while at anchor in Turon

Bay, Cochin China, Lat. 16° 07’ N.; and Long. 108° 13’ E. of Gr., with a

diagram annexed illustrating the same. Consulting your book at the time, and

using the mean course and velocity of storms in October according thereto as

data, I concluded a N. E. gale or strong breeze would be felt at Hong Kong

about 6 p. M. of the 22nd, which on my return I found on enquiry to be the

case, though its strength had not been sufficient to excite particular attention.

The following table of wind, &c. is copied from H. M. 8. Vulture’s log book.

The figures denoting the force of the wind, and the letters the state of the

weather, are according to the abbreviations by Admiral Beaufort, now in general

use in H, M, naval service :—

38 Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. [ Jan.

Date | aime, (Direction of | Foree, (State of Bar Remarks.

1847. : wind. *| weather.

Oct.

23d.| Noon |N.W.b.N.|5 to 8/ 0. q. r. | 29.65] At about 3h. p. m. the

Sh. Pe. M. Do. Sir |7Ore cient. .60 |moon’s Perigee. On shore

10h. Do. Oo Ald) sar .06 |the tide rose so much as

Midnight | North 10 Do. 49 |to destroy alarge portion

24th. |2h. a. M. Do. LEVI STE Sofas .o4 jof native huts situated on

+ N. E. 11 Do. .20 |the low country. The

ship’s position was quite

landlocked and surround.

ed by high land, except-

ing in a Southerly direc.

tion, but none nearer

than 2 or 3 leagues, ex-

cept to the Hast, close

under which she lay.

Latitude 16° 07’ N.;

Longitude 108° 13’ E,

5 Do. 11 Do. 18

6 Veering 22

Rasterly, 10) og. p: At 6h. 50m. Full moon.

8 East, 10 Do. 42

10 veering S.E. 9 Nome d. 03

Noon S. E. Y) Do. 00

CRAWFORD Pasco,

Lieut. R. N.

To Henry PrippineTon, Esq.

Calcutta,

Track Rh.

Barques Swattow and Ros Roy’s Tyfoon of November, 1847.

The Barques Rob Roy and Swallow were both dismasted in this Cy-

clone, which appears to have crossed the China Sea from the coasts of

Luconia, about Point Capones, in a W. N. Westerly direction to Hainam.

The following notice is from a newspaper. I have no further ac-

counts of these two vessels, and in the original, Laboan is printed for

Luban, evidently a mistake.

The ship Sea Witch (from New York 14th August and Manila 24th instant,)

has on board the crew of the ship Ann and Jane; that vessel having been

wrecked on the Island of Luban on the 8th instant (1847.) She was from

London for this port with a valuable cargo, all of which, with the ship, is totally

lest. Two of the crew were drowned ; and the remainder carried to Manila in

a Spanish schooner, and from thence to Hongkong in the Sea Witch.

ae ro

et Wael

1849. | Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. 39

On the 24th instant an English brig was going into Manila dismasted.—

Overland Friend of China, November 28.

The following is the log of the Rob Roy :—

Abridged extract from the Log of the Barque Kos Roy, Capt. J.

Francis, from Singapore to China. Reduced to Civil Time.

6th Nov 1847.—At Noon in Lat. Obs. 13° 51’ N.; Long. Chr. 115° 397

East; Bar. 29.8; Ther. 84 p. m. Light airs increasing to midnight to a steady

fresh monsoon from N, E., N. N. E. and North.

7th Nov.—a. M. increasing breezes, and at Noon fresh gale N. b. W. and

Squally (from Noon of 6th a heavy cross head sea* is noted) Lat. Obs. 14° 11’

N.; Long. Chr. 117° 45’ E.; Bar 29.5; Ther. 84 p.m. ; wind N,N. W. to mid-

night, when under close reefs standing to the N. E. b. N. with strong gales and

a high sea.

8th Nov.—a.M. strong gales N. N. W. increasing to hard gale N. W. at

Noon; 9 «a.m. hove too with head to the Northward; Lat. Acct. 15.2 N.;

Long. Acct. 113°37’; Bar. 29.50; Ther. 82; p. m. wind N. W.; violent gale,

confused high sea and torrents of rain; 4 Pp, mM. shipped a dangerous sea which

carried away ail the bulwarks, the wind suddenly veering to S. W. and more moder-

ate with a clear break in the sky. Squared the yards and ran 11’ to the N, E.

in two hours, under reefed foresail and foretopsail ; at 6 wind suddenly veering to

South and blowing a complete hurricane, tried to take in the foresail and topsails,

but in the attempt they blew to atoms. Ship broached to and was appareutly

foundering. In attempting to cut away topmasts lost foremast, main and mizen

topmasts. Ship righted with 5 ft. water in the hold, lost quarter boats, deck

cargo, &c. Midnight blowing a tyfoon with heavy rain. Ship lying too with

head to the East and wind S.S. E. since 6 p. m.; Bar. 29.60 at 0.30 Pp. m. 29.

50 at 4; and at 6 p. Mo. fell to 28.40; Ther 62.

9th Nov.—a. m. blowing a heavy tyfoon S. S. E.; 4 4. m. gale taking off; 6

A. M. moderating to Noon with wind steady atS.S. E. Noon moderated and

clear Barometer rising.

The following logs are abridged from the Sérait’s Times Extra of

December 6th, 1847, and the dates are altered to Civil Time.

Particulars of the Typhoon in the China Sea of Nov. 10th.—In our last issue

we announced the arrival under jury-masts of the Swallow, Captain Anderson,

* Undoubtedly the seas of the outer storm circle and of the ‘‘ wave of progression,’’

of the whole Cyclone travelling exactly towards the ship.

f Italics are mine. This is another case to those so often cited of the storm

disk being seen through.

40 Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. [JAN.

from Hongkong. The Swallow when in about 19 deg. N. latitude encountered

one of those singular but destructive phenomena which have buried in the

depths of the ocean so many lives. She appears to have had a very narrow

and providential escape from foundering, having passed near the centre of the

storm. Captain Anderson has obligingly favored us with the loan of his log

book, from which some interesting particulars are here annexed :—

The Swallow left Hong Kong Nov. 7th and experienced fresh breezes from the

N. E. with a somewhat unusually heavy sea. It was not however until the 9th

that any change was observable in the atmosphere.

Extracts from the Log of the Barque Swallow, Captain Anderson, from Hong-

Kong to Sydney.

Nov. 9th. Wind N. E. p.m. Cloudy with rain in all directions ; pumps

kept going every hour, At mid-night wind increasing still from the N. E. with

a more violent sea. At noon the sun was obscured: Lat. by account 18 deg.

40 m. N. long. by account 113° 0’ East.

At 1p. M. strong gale and a heavy sea—the latter making a passage over all.

At 8 p. m. double reefed the topsails, the vessel at this time scudding before

the wind and shipping heavy and dangerous seas on deck, At mid-night gale

increasing ; the sea lashed up into a complete foam.

Nov. 10th.—At 4 a. ™. shipped a heavy sea which swept nearly every thing

off the decks, including water casks, spars, &c. At 6 the vessel was labouring

severely, the sea making a complete breach over her, and threatening instant des-

truction, on each occasion taking away something from the deck, The cuddy

cabins were now stove in, and nearly every thing washed overboard belonging to

the passengers; breaking through the hatch of the gun-room and destroying the

stores. At 9 a. mM. both quarter boats filled; the long-boat, also the cook’s

house and remaining articles on deck were carried away by heavy seas; it was

now found necessary to cut away the boats from both quarters as the vessel

was labouring much in consequence of their filling with every succeeding wave.

At 10h. a.m. 2 fell suddenly calm, and continued so for about one hour, in which

the wind flew round to the S. W. blowing stronger than before ; all this time the

sea was foaming over the vessel, and the men kept constantly at the pumps.

At 11 a. mM. hove to and cut away the topsails from the yards. It not being

possible to quit the pumps, bore up and hove to again at noon ; at this juncture

the ship was on her beam-ends, her yard-arms in the sea: the ship became

unmanageable. It now became necessary for the safety of ship, cargo and all

concerned to cut away the main-mast, which was done; the ship immediately

righted and got before the wind, running before a heavy gale and tremendous

sea, plunging the bowsprit under water.

Course N. by E., wind 8. W. p. ., after clearing away the wreck of the

mast and spars, all hands were again set to the pumps, pumping up sugar and

1849. | Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. Al

salt water and no signs of the vessel being in any degree relieved. It was

deemed advisable to lighten ship, at 7p. mM. The people at the pumps nearly

exhausted. At mid-night the wind moderated, but there was still a heavy sea.

The pumps kept going.

Nov. 11¢h,—At 6 a. mM. commenced to heave sugar overboard ; the passengers

all the time working at the pumps and assisting in every way in their power.

At 10 a.m. the island of Tinhosa bearing about N. W., at noon kept away for

the island for anchorage. At noon, the wind veered to the northward, when the

ship bore up for Singapore, having hove overboard 1400 bags of sugar; still

making as much water as ever.

Nov, 12th.—Course S. S. W. p. mu. weather more moderate; all hands em-

ployed heaving cargo overboard to lighten the ship. About 2,000 bags of sugar

were thrown overboard; at 4 a, mM. secured a stay from the mizen mast to the

fore-mast and seta jib. At 8 a. M. secured a stay from the mizen mast to the

stump of the main-mast and set a fore-top-mast staysail.

Nov. 13th.—Moderate winds and clear weather. At mid-night the swell so

heavy that the vessel made but little way through the water.

Nov. 14th.—Course S. E. Wind N. W. p. m. strong winds and cloudy. At

8 Pp, M. very gloomy weather; mid-night strong winds and rain—the sea rising.

At noon Lat. by account 14 deg. N. long. 111 deg. 2 min. E,

Extract from the Log of the ship General Wood, Captain Stokoe, from Hong

Kong to Singapore. Civil Time.

Wednesday, Nov. 9th, 1847.—At 1 p.m. moderate breezes and fine—weighed

and made sail to Singapore.

At 4 p.m. Fresh breezes and cloudy; Barometer had fallen in the previous

24 hours to 29m. 75.

Sunset—Fresh breezes and cloudy, with a heavy swell from the N, East-

ward ; ship rolling heavily.

Midnight—Strong breezes and cloudy. Furled the mizen top-sail and reefed

the jib.

At 4 a.m. 10¢h Noon Blowing hard from the E. N. E. and east with a high

increasing sea, and threatening appearances in the weather ; Barometer falling

29,63,

Daylight—Strong breezes and threatening appearances to E. N. eastward

and Ed. with a very heavy swell on; ship rolling heavily at times; Barometer

falling to 29.53 made preparations for bad weather. Fresh gale veering to east-

ward.

At 11 a fresh gale from the S. eastward with a high sea on; ship rolling and

straining heavily.

Noon gale increasing at S. east ; with threatening appearances.

42 Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. (JAN.

A strong gale from the S. east with a very heavy sea on ; sent down topgallant

yards, and housed mizen top-gallant mast.

At 6 Pp. M. same wind and weather ; ship labouring heavily and making more

water than usual. One pump at work.

At 8 increasing breeze and ditto weather.

At 10 30, Barometer rising 29’. 64.

At 11 30 saw land bearing N. N. W. supposed to be Tinhosa False.

Midnight. Wore ship and set jib, mainsail, and close reefed mizen top-

sail.

At 2 a. M. 11 gale decreasing with less sea on.

Daylight—Fresh breeze and cloudy ; weather clearing up a little; Barometer

29.70.

At 9 hours 30 Mount Tangeon bearing N. N, W.

At 10 hours decreasing breeze and fine.

Noon—Decreasing breeze with a heavy swell on. Mount Tangeon N. W. 3

W. Lat. by obs. 19 deg. 16 min. N.

The size of the typhoon of November 10th, appears to have been 150 to 160

miles in diameter. For, assuming the Swallow at 10 a.™M. to have been near

the centre, the General Wood was about 70 to 80 miles distant on its northern

or north-western limit. We learn from Captain Burn, of the dAtiet Rohoman,

that on the 10th November he was to the northward of Pulo Sapata, with light

S. E. winds and a very heavy sea from N. and Eastward ; so that, although the

wind did not affect the Atiet Rohoman, the strongly agitated sea affords evidence

that a disturbing influence was in operation to the N, and E. of the last men-

tioned vessel.

The following notice, also from the above paper, is the only one I

have been able to obtain of the drdaseer’s share of the Cyclone :—

Since the above was in type, we learn that the Ardaseer, in her passage up

the China Sea, on Nov. 8th, when in Lat. 15° N. Long. 119° E. encountered a

severe typhoon which laid her on her beam ends, with all sails furled. The Ardaseer

on the 8th was six degrees to the Eastward of the Swallow, so that it would appear

the storm passed in the line of its track at the rate of about 200 miles in 24 hours.

The Ardaseer was proceeding Northward so as torun away from the storm ; had she

been passing to the S. or W. she would probably have suffered as severely as the

Swallow—Ediior.

: REMARKS.

The Rob Roy does not appear to have had more than a fresh gale at

Noon of the 7th, but at midnight we may consider her as fairly within

the outer circles of the Cyclone, having the wind at N. N. W. and its

centre therefore bearing from her EK. N.E. She may have been at

i849.| Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. 43

this time in about Lat. 14° 30’ N.; Long. 118° 17+ East; and from

this time to Noon of the 8th, when Capt. Francis places her in about

Lat. 15° 12’; Long. 119° 10’, she may have made an E. N. E. course

good, or one directly towards the centre of the Cyclone, which, when

close upon her, veered first to N. W. and then at 4 p. m. became more

moderate, the centre having reached her so far as to place her as it were

on its S. E. border with aS. Westerly breeze. She then ran up 11

miles to the N. E. but reached that part at which the wind was at

South and blowing a hurricane.

This gives us an idea of what the size of the central space may have

been. For if we suppose an octagon (S. West to South, being one-

eighth of the wind circle) of eleven miles on each side, this will require

a circle of 25 miles to include it. And we may take the Rod Roy’s run

to the N. E. as having been across one side of such an octagon. I have

made no allowance in this for the motion of the Cyclone itself, which

unless the ship was carried with it, would at least add ten miles more

to this estimate.*

But be this as it may, we can account very fairly for the wind’s shift-

ing now to a hurricane at South, by this run of 11 miles, and we must

take the first shift of N. W. to S. W., though the last was not of full

force, for the true index to the track at that time. If the ship had been

lying to, the full tyfoon would doubtless have returned at 8. W. or there-

abouts.

But we have seen before that from the steadiness of the wind at

N.N. W. till nearly Noon, it was at first coming down upon the vessel

from the KE. N. E. to W.S. W. It therefore by this time (Noon to

4 p. M.) was altering its track to the Westward. And as we find that

the wind very soon became S. 8S. E., at which point the vessel being

disabled drifting only, it ended also at 8. S. E. we must allow that it

now travelled away nearly to the W. N. W. or thereabouts.

The Swallow appears to have been at Noon of the 9th at about 400

miles to the N. W. b. W. of the Rob Roy’s position of the 8th, with

her Cyclone begmning only from the N. E., or we may say with the

* Though 35 miles is a large estimate, we must recollect this was not the calm

space, but the verge of it, when there was still a fresh S. W. gale. The large calm

Spaces are perhaps not so rare as we may suppose, and they account for ships lying

so long in them, which occurs also when the Cyclone is a slow moving one.

Gaz

44 Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. [Jaw

centre at least 120 miles to the S. E. of her, and as at Noon of the 8th,

we may call the centre of the Rob Roy’s Cyclone about 30 or 40 miles

to the West of her position, it follows that the actual distance between

the positions of the two centres on these days was not more than 290

miles, which would allow a rate of 12.1 miles per hour for its progress

on a W. N. W. course, which being both usual and probable, we may

fairly and safely assume that it was the same Cyclone which, curving

up to the W. N. W. as it cleared the mountains of Luconia, between

Pt. Capones and Cape Bolinao, reached and dismasted the Swallow

in consequence of her ill judged run to the Southward, travelling then,

as will be seen by her shift of wind, to the N. W.

On the 10th, at 10 a. m. by the Swallow’s log, its centre reached

that vessel when she was about in Lat. 16° 42’ Long. 111° 03/, so that it

had not travelled up more than 130 miles in this 22 hours, or our pre-

vious estimate of the distance of the centre on the 9th was too small, or

the storm was of larger dimensions, or it had slackened its rate of motion

on approaching the high land of Hainam. If we take the whole time (46

hours) between the passage of the centre over the Rod Roy on the 8th,

and this estimated position on the 10th, the entire distance between the

two positions is 7 degrees, or 420 miles, which for 46 hours will

give an average of 9.2 per hour, and if we adopted this rate throughout,

it would place the centre so as to make the wind at Noon on the 9th, to

have been about N. E. b. N. instead of N. E., which it may well have

been, since the winds are rarely marked on board of merchant ships at

busy and anxious times like the approach of a tyfoon in the China Sea,

with any especial care. We may also suppose, as this has been well

authenticated in other instances, that as above stated, the rate of the

Cyclone’s motion to have been checked on its approach to the Coast of

Hainam.

What is important however to our investigation is, that the Cyclone,

which had probably a double curving, though the track is made strait

on the Chart, is fairly traceable across the China Sea.

The log of the General Wood is too imperfectly given to afford any

fair ground for comment. She was evidently to the Northward of the

Swallow, and felt the N. E. quadrants of her Cyclone, but we cannot

say at what distance, as her position is omitted.

The Ardaseer was evidently close to the Rob Roy, but we have not

1849. | The Dusannee and Cheannee Garrows. 45

even the wind in her notice, and thus it is again almost useless. It is

scarcely necessary to add that both the Rod Roy and Swallow were dis-

masted through errors of judgment, but of different kinds. The Rod

Roy might have ran down and hove too* on the Southern, and the

Swallow on the Northern sides of the Cyclone, with perfect safety.

(To be Continued.)

LILI

A narrative of our connexions with the Dusannee and Cheannee Gar-

rows, with a short account of their country.—By Capt. C. 8.

Reynotps, Principal Assistant to the Commissioner of Assam.

The Dusannee and Cheannee country, is bounded on the South-

west by the Cullunkee river, and to the East by the Gograh river,

which descends from the Garrow hills, and separates the purgunnahs of

Mechpara and Caloomaloopéra. To the South it is bounded by the

country of the independent Garrows, and to the North by the last

named purgunnah.

Although we have hitherto considered the Dusannee and Cheannee

Garrows as separate tribes, I believe they are both one “ Abengyas,”

and that this distinction without a difference has arisen merely from

the circumstance of their bordering on those portions of Caloomaloo-

para held by the ten anna and six anna sharers respectively. They

consider themselves as one and the same people, and I doubt whether

any of them have an idea why they have been called Cheannees and

Dusannees, except perhaps those who border immediately on the plains.

I was unable durmg my tour through their hills to discover that any

line of demarcation had been laid down between the two mehauls by

the former zemindars, and indeed there was no necessity for any, until

the estate of Caloomaloopara became divided into shares, which occurred

at a time when the Garrows had thrown off even the name of allegiance

to the zemindars.

* With a little more sea-room she might have run to the Southward till her Baro-

meter rose a little, when the wind would, by the Cyclone passing on, have hauled

rapidly to the West and S. W. and she might have made a fair wind round the West-

ern quadrants of it. She unfortunately hove too in the direct track of the centre:

aS. 8. W. course, for a few hours would have given her good sea-room and the

North-Westerly, Westerly and S. Westerly gales of the Southern and S. Eastern

quadrants, with which, and daylight, she might safely have passed the Scarborough

Shoal.

46 A narrative of our connexions with [JAN

I can find no notice of the Dusannee and Cheannee Garrows until the

years 1822-23, when they were first assessed at 196 Narainnee rupees,

which was increased in the years 1824-25 to 200 Narainnee rupees,

and under what circumstances this mehaul escheated to Government

we have no records in this office to shew. I believe that like all other

Garrow mehauls bordering on the lands of the Chowdries, it was

formerly in the possession of the holders of purgunnah Caloomaloopara,

which was sold in satisfaction of a decree, and the Garrow mehauls

attached to it were retained in the hands of Government for political

reasons, and on account of the oppression of the zemindars on the hill

people. At this time the Garrows of Currybaree and other parts were

in a state of revolt, and the purchaser was well contented to get rid of

the Garrow mehaul which had been a source of much annoyance to

the former zemindars, without any gain.

Shortly after the mehaul came into our possession Mr. Commissioner

Scott sent a party under the Garrow Serberakar Mirza Bundally Beg, to

reduce the Garrows of this mehaul to order, as they had long thrown

off any allegiance. This officer seems to have accomplished the object

of his mission satisfactorily, as all the chiefs came in and made their

submission, and agreed to pay the revenue, which was fixed at 196

rupees per annum, to be paid through the chiefs of each village.*

The Dusannees however, do not appear to have been properly brought

under subjection, for they continued to evade paying their revenue up

to the year 1832, when their arrears amounted to 4979 N. Rs.+ This

circumstance, coupled with the Garrows of Rungtoopara having cruelly

murdered. four Burmese hunters who had proceeded far into their hills

for the purpose of shooting wild elephants, led to a detachment being

sent against them, with a view to cause them to surrender the mur-

derers and to make them pay up their arrears. The force sent

consisted of a company of Sebundies and 100 Burmese settlers at

Singimaree, the whole under the command of Mirza Bundally Beg, the

Serberakar. The party proceeded via Tikree Killa into the Garrow

country to the east of the Dusannee mehaul, as it was thought that

they would be able to get into the enemy’s country with greater ease by

that route than up the Rungi river. At Cherangiri, Mirza stockaded

the party and commenced clearing a road towards Rungtoopara. The

* The agreement is not to be found. tT See Appendix A.

1849. | the Dusannee and Cheannee Garrows. 49

working party was attacked by the Garrows, but the guard over it

succeeded in repulsing them with some loss, that on our side being only

1 Sebundy and 2 Burmese killed, and 2 Sebundies and 1 Burmese

wounded.

From Major Davidson’s report* it would appear that after the attack

the chiefs came in and surrendered, and agreed to pay up their arrears,

and as they affirmed that the murderers of the four Burmese hunters

had been killed in the attack, a fine of 1000 Rupees was merely

inflicted on the village of Rungtoopara for the crime committed.

Although the chiefs entered into written agreements, they on one

excuse or another evaded paying up their arrears and fine as agreed

upon by them, and in the commencement of the cold season of 1834-

35, Lieut. Brodie was deputed to make enquiries into the reasons for

their not having done so, and also to bring them to order if necessary.

On the arrival of this officer at Bengal Katta, the chiefs of the lower

portions of the mehaul came in and tendered their submission, but on

making enquiries respecting the arrears of revenue, the ryots affirmed

that they had paid in their rent annually to the chiefs appoimted to

collect it ; and therefore they were no longer responsible for the amount

claimed from them. On an investigation it was ascertained that several

payments had been made by them which had never been carried to

the credit of Government, and as the settlements which had been made

with this clan appeared most defective and uncertain, it was deemed

advisable to grant a remission for the past and to demand the arrears

only for the current and preceding year. After some little trouble this

was paid up, and also the fine levied on the village of Rungtoopara for

the murder of the four Burmese. Lieut. Brodie, at the same time made

arrangements that the revenue should no longer be paid through each

chief, but direct to Mongring Luskur, who was to be considered respon-

sible for the whole amount. The settlement was also made in Company’s

Rupees instead of Narainnee.t

After this settlement the Dusannees, although irregular in their pay-

ments, continued in tolerably good order until last year, when it became

necessary to send a small party of sepoys towards Risségiri with a view

to the apprehension or surrender of the individuals accused of the

murder of their chief and massacre of his family. Previous to this

* See Appendix B. t+ See Appendix C.

45 A narrative of our connexions with [ JAN.

party bemg sent every endeavour had been made to induce the chiefs

to surrender the murderers but without success, and it was supposed

_ that the expedition of a small force would at once cause them to do so.

The party proceeded through the Cheannee country, vid Rampanee to

Rissogiri, and at a short distance from the latter place, they were attack-

ed by a large body of Garrows, who killed the interpreter and severely

wounded the guide and one of the leading sepoys. The Garrows were

repulsed, but the party was compelled to retire, as the revolt appeared

of a very serious nature, but which I have reason to believe from

subsequent information, was very much overrated at the time. The

season then was too far advanced to commence any military operations,

and therefore the only proceedings taken against the Garrows were

increasing the guards at the foot of the hills, to prevent their egress

to the plains.

In the latter end of November instructions were received to proceed

against these rebellious people, and to bring them to order, and a

detachment under Lieut. Belli was detached in the commencement of

January for this purpose.

We left this on the 10th idem for Singimari, and reached it on the

13th inst. The intelligence I received on my arrival there was of a

nature to make me suppose that I should meet with very serious

opposition, I therefore determined to proceed at once to Bhogamara, a

village at the foot of the route into the Cheannee mehaul, and after

summoning in the Dusannee chiefs, should I find it impossible to bring

them to terms, or they refuse attendance, to construct a road through

the Cheannee country to Rissogiri.

My first interview was with the chiefs of Cheannee, who appeared

unwilling to render me any assistance against the Dusannees, and indeed

positively refused to help me in cutting the road. I used every endea-

vour to persuade them, but at the same time informed them they were

liable to severe punishment for their contumacy, as every chief of a

Tributary Mehaul (much less a Khass Government Mehaul) was oblig-

ed, under the agreement they had entered into, to render every assistance

when occasion required. As I found that I could not induce them to

join me, I determined to shew them that I did not need their assistance,

and had demanded from them nothing more than they had stipulated

to perform when first brought into subjection; I therefore gave them -

1849. | the Dusannee and Cheannee Garrows. 49

their dismissal, and told them they should have no communication with

me until I visited them in their own village, backed by the sepoys.

The day after my interview, I commenced the road and placed the

coolies under a sufficient guard to protect them against any attack, or

surprize of the Garrows. On the evening of the first day at the con-

clusion of our work I was gratified by seeing waiting my arrival at my

tent, three or four of the chiefs of the nearest villages, who had come

to tender me their services, and that of their followers, and I willingly

accepted them.

The next day they brought down 50 followers, and with their assist-

ance we contrived to complete a very tolerable day’s work. On my

return towards camp I was met by several other chiefs who came to

tender their services, and on the fourth day of our labour, there was

not a single chief or the Cheannee tribe who had not subscribed his

quota of workmen towards clearing the road.

On the evening of the 4th day of my work, I received intelligence

from the messengers I had sent to the Dusannee Garrows that their

chiefs would meet me at Bengal Katta for the purpose of making their

submission, and I determined to proceed there without delay, leaving

the construction of the road to Mirza Luskur and the chiefs of Ram-

pannee.

I attribute the chiefs jomimg me so soon in the construction of the

road after their decided refusal, to the circumstance of their seemg that

I was determined to carry out my object, and also that if they wished

they could not hold out when I had ready access to their villages and

could with ease bring up my supplies.

The route from Bhogamara to Bengal Katta lies for the most part

over low hills and swampy ground at the base. These swamps are

caused by the flooding of the Jingiram, which leaves a deposit on the

banks and consequently raises the land above the level of the surround-

ing country, and the drainage from the hills having no free outlet, the

intermediate space becomes a mass of swamp incapable of cultivation.

With a little expense and judicious warping the whole of the country

at the foot of these hills might be raised above the floods of the

Jingiram, but at present it isa desolate waste. The exact boundaries of

the purgunnah of Kaloomaloopéra with respect to the mehauls of

Cheannee and Dusannee has never been laid down, and wherever a ryot

50 A narrative of our connexions with [Jan.

of the plas cultivates the zemindar claims the revenue, although I am

fully persuaded that he has no right to it. It appears to me an object

of the first importance that these boundaries should be accurately laid

down to prevent any future litigation.

About 6 miles from Bhogamara, en route to Bengal Katta, are the

ruins of the palace and city of the Rajah of Bissondor, which, from

their extent and numberless tanks still extant, must have been a place

of no small importance in days long gone by. Not one brick now

remains on another, of any building except two small Hindu temples,

similar to those dedicated to Nursing at this place. They are still in

tolerable preservation. Although I made every inquiry in the mofussil

I could obtain no information respecting this place, except that the

Rajah* flourished long before the occupation of the country by the

Moguls, and was a man of great wealth and power, who held the Garrows

in complete subjection. I had no time to examine the ruins minutely,

but it would amply repay the curiosity of any person who would do so.

I merely mention the circumstance now, that any person who travels

that route again may know that such a place is in existence, and had I

been aware of it I certainly should have made arrangements for halting

at Goalgunge to inspect the ruins. The route from these ruins continues

over the same kind of country to Bengal Katta, which is situated on

the banks of the Jingiram, and a little below where it is jomed by the

Rungi river.

My interviews with the chiefs, and the result.—I have already

communicated in my letters Nos. 21 and 22 of the 29th January, and

3rd February last, and it merely remains for me to say, that having

been assured of the good faith of the tribe, I had only to proceed against

the rebellious village of Kissoogiri, the heads of which had refused ail

my overtures of pardon and forgiveness, if they would come im and sur-

render the murderers. I halted at Bengal Katta 5 days in order that

the chiefs might clear the road I directed them to undertake, and on

the 24th of January, it was reported ready, and we commenced our

march accordingly, and reached Buldagiri the same day, when I received

intelligence of the whole of the Kissoogirians having fled. I then

* May it not have been the residence of Mansing, who was Governor of Bengal,

and built the magnificent stone ghaut at Doobri, distant about 15 miles from this

spot ?

1849. | the Dusannee and Cheannee Garrows. 51

entered into certain arrangements with the chiefs, who consented to all

I proposed, and also to bring to me the refugees of the village of Kis-

soogiri on the following day at Bengal Katta. As there was now no

probability of our meeting with any opposition, I determined to return

to Bengal Katta, and wait the result of my negociations, which we ac-

cordingly did, and reached our standing camp the followmg day. After

waiting the prescribed time, as the chiefs did not make their appearance,

or send me any explanation, I determined to proceed at once, and make

the enquiry myself, and this time not to stop short of Kissoogiri ; and on

the morning of the 27th idem we commenced our march.

The route into the Dusannee country, and that by which all the Gar-

rows of this mehaul descend to the Bengal Katta haut, lies from the

latter place for the first two miles over a high plain to the Burmese

settlement on the Rungi river. Marching along the west bank of this

stream for about a quarter of a mile, you come to an extraordinary ridge

of granite rocks, which rise like a wall out of the ground, and running

across the road to the bank of the river seem to form a natural boundary

between the hill country you are now entering and the plains you leave

behind. The same extraordinary convulsion which threw up this ridge

of stone, as if aware that such would be required, has cleft a doorway

through it, which although narrow for elephants, is easily passed by any

other laden animals. About $a mile up the same bank of the river

the road crosses at a ford immediately below the first falls of the Rungi

river, which are caused by another wall of stone similar to that just

described, which runs completely across the river and disappears under

the hills on either side. The fall however commences some hundred

or more yards above, and the river is seen dashing and bounding along

over every impediment, till it reaches the barrier, when with one mighty

effort it leaps into tranquility below, from whence, as if tired and ex-

hausted with its exertions through the hills, it winds its way quietly

along till it finds repose in the waters of the Jingiram. The route now

lies up the east bank, sometimes along the edge of the water through

massive boulders of granite, and at others over the precipitous slopes

of the little hills that restrain the course of this impetuous stream. The

road never leaves the margin, except in one instance below Buldagiri,

when it cuts across a promontory to save a considerable detour by the

river. Our encamping ground was fixed on the west bank of the river

H 2

D2 A narratwe of our connexions with [ JAN.

above Buldagiri, on a little hill cleared for cultivation. The village of

Buldagiri is situated on the east bank of the Rungi, on a small piece

of table land overlooking the river. It contains 13 substantial houses,

and the population may be taken at an average at about 130 souls. The

chief is a fine old fellow, and bears an honest countenance.

From our.encamping ground the road laid along the western bank

of the river for about a mile, where it makes a considerable detour to

the east of the road, and we did not again catch a glimpse of its turbid

waters till we reached Chitskiri. The road between Buldagiri and the

above place was excellent, and a decided improvement on the river routes ;

no ridges of rock or high boulders obstruct the path, and so judiciously

has it been chosen to avoid all abrupt ascents and descents, that you

might almost fancy you were travelling in the plains.

The hills we passed over were covered with jungle, in all the different

stages of Garrow fallow land. Low grass interspersed with old cotton

plants, next rank Ooloany grass, thickly studded with quick growing

shrubs and trees, and then the shrubs and trees grown almost into

forest jungle. When the jungle has attained this growth, which it

does in 7 or 8 years, the Garrows think the land has rested sufficiently,

and recommence the labour of clearing for cultivation.

The village of Chitskiri, from which we encamped but a short distance,

is prettily situated on the east bank of the river, but a few of the inha-

bitants have located themselves on the west also. Between these two

places, for the convenience of villagers, one of those picturesque and use-

ful rattan suspension bridges has been thrown across the river. I re-

marked several of them in different parts of the river to enable persons

to pass over to their cultivations, which are frequently situated on the

opposite bank to what the villages are. The old chief of Chitskin I

was much pleased with, and in cutting and clearing the road, as also

bringing up provisions, I found him and his dependents most useful.

From Chitskini to Rungtoopara there are two routes, one along the

bank of the river, and the other over the ridge of hills, which the first

passes under. The first is impassable for elephants and laden cattle,

being blocked up with ridges of rock and boulders, between which only

individuals can pass. The bed of the river is also impracticable, and

Rungtoopara would be impregnable from this side, were it not for the

route over the hill, which although a little abrupt, is still far from bad.

1849. | the Dusannee and Cheannee Garrows. 53

Descending to the bank of the Rungi it again falls into the old road,

which continues along the margin to Rungtoopara. This is a superb

village, or rather string of hamlets, which line both sides of the river for

at least a mile and a half, and I should think they contain at the lowest

computation not less than 1500 souls.

The chief of this village is Moonkual ; he has however, no real title to

the distinction, but being a clever intriguing man, he has gradually

usurped the authority of the old hereditary chief, who is in his dotage,

and his heir and son-in-law being weak in intellect, the people have

chosen for themselves a man capable of directing their counsels and

managing them. They still, as a matter of form, submit any important

subject for the consideration of the old chief, but I query whether his

opinion is attended to when it is at variance with that of Moonkual. The

power this man possesses over the people is astonishing. and his will is

law. If we can secure his good faith we need fear no further outbreaks

of the Dusannees.

As I intended to make Rungtoopara my head quarters during my

residence in the Dusannee country I pitched our camp upon a hill at

the head of the village, as it was admirably calculated for defence in case

of any treacherous night attack, and a few sepoys would be sufficient to

protect our baggage and standing camp when we proceeded against

Ripoogiri. I obtained ready assistance from the villagers in erecting

temporary sheds for the sepoys, and half a dozen stout fellows stepped

forward into my tent aud knocked up a Mechan for me to sleep on. As

they were working with Lumbarees alongside of me I thought how

easy it would be for any of them to settle my account and dash into the

jungles, when they would never more be seen, but treachery of this kind

forms no part of the Garrow character I believe.

From the top of the elevation we were on, the hills for miles around

were cleared for cultivation, whereby we obtained a tolerable view of the

surrounding country. At our feet ran the Rungi rver, whose course we

could trace coming from the south as far as Ripoogiri, a short distance

from which it appeared to take a south-east direction towards some high

hills, which I have laid down in the map. To the east 8 or 9 miles

distant, the Tikree Doar hills rise abruptly above those of Dusani, which

gradually decrease the farther south-west they run. Here and there

the eye lighted on a small patch of cleared land, and denoted that a

54 A narratwe of our connexons with [JAN.

village did not lie far off. By this I took the bearings of those places

I have entered in the map, and much reliance therefore cannot be placed

on their exact position, yet it will give a tolerably correct idea of the

whole country. As far as the eye could reach to the south the hills

appeared to be of the same uniform appearance as those we were on,

and to have been at some time or another under cultivation ; amongst it

we could discern several cleared patches pointing out the habitations of

some of the mdependent Garrows. At the time I was making my ob-

servations the atmosphere, which is always more or less husky and obs-

cure at this season of the year, was tolerably clear, and calculating that

as a crow might fly I was then 25 miles from the plains, and that my

visible horizon was limited to 15 miles beyond, my knowledge of the

country may be supposed to extend half the distance across the promon-

tory of the Garrow hills, yet I could discover no sterile precipitous rocky

mountains which the Garrows wish us to believe are the features of the

independent Garrow country, and I believe they merely do so to give

us a false idea that the country is inaccessible. As far as I could see

the hills presented no greater obstacles to the construction of a good

road from Rungtoopara into the independent Garrow country than those

we had already surmounted, through which as good a mail coach road

might be constructed as through any of the mountains of Wales.

From Rungtoopara to Ripoogiri is a distance of six miles. The road

winds along by the side of the Rungi river, and thence over a small hill

till it meets the same stream a few hundred yards from the last named

village. The lands for miles around had been cleared for cultivation,

and our march was far more cheerful than any of the preceding, as we

had a fine view of the surrounding country. I had heard that the

Ripoogiri Garrows had barricated the road in several places and planted

it thickly with ‘‘ Panjees,”’ or sharp bamboo spikes, but as I could not

find out the exact position of their ambuscades, I persuaded the Garrow

chiefs who volunteered to act as guides to head the party and shew us

the route, knowing full well that long before we reached these places

that they and their followers would drop to the rear. They preceded

the detachment about forty yards, marching in battle array. Each man

armed alternately with a Lumbaree and bamboo shield, and spear and

shield, and in the attack they form file, the latter fighting over the

shoulder of the former. We had marched in this manner about 4

1849. ] the Dusannee and Cheannee Garrows. 55

miles or more, when the leading Garrows shewed symptoms of uneasi-

ness, and one by one gave up the post of honor, and at last they all

came to a dead stand, and refused to advance any further. I then drew

them up on the side of the hill, and the detachment stepped to the

front, and commenced picking its way through the “ Panjees” to the

bottom of a deep ravine into which the road dived, and no sooner did

the leading files commence the ascent on the opposite side than we were

saluted with a shower of darts and stones thrown by a party of Gar-

rows from behind a barricade across the road. ‘The descent and ascent

into and out of the ravine was through dense jungle, and we had no

opportunity of getting a fair view of our enemies, but a couple of well

directed volleys right and left made the place too hot for them, and the

leading files having demolished the palisade we rushed through in pur-

suit, but the enemy had vanished. We then proceeded on to the vil-

lage, which was distant from this spot about 3 a mile, where we expected

to meet with serious opposition, but whether the Garrows had been

more severely handled than they expected and had lost some of their

leaders in our carrying their outpost, I know not, but on entering the

village we found it deserted, although every preparation had been made

for resistance. The village itself was stockaded and the only approach

to it along the precipitous banks of the Rungi had been blocked up

with felled trees, and the path planted with ‘‘ Panjees” for a distance of

200 yards, and the side of the road inland for upwards of 46 or 50 paces,

The “ Panjees” we were compelled to shave off even with the ground,

as they had been planted so deep that we could not extract them, and

the trees we were obliged to cut to pieces and remove. I would suggest

to any person who may go in command of a similar expedition, to take

a small band of coolies to act as pioneers, equipped with “ Doas’’ and

““ Kodals.”’ In the present instance the sepoys had some Kookeries

(Nepaul knives) and the party had been furnished with ‘ Kodals,” but

if we had not been so provided we might have been detained some con-

siderable time in gettting to the village, as it was, we were an hour and

a half getting over 200 yards of road. Every company of light infantry

in this jungle country should be equipped with “ Kookeries,” which

should be served out to them from Government.

As there was no hopes of inducing the people to surrender after the

numerous proclamations I had issued to them, offering pardon and for-

56 A narrative of our connexions with [JAN

giveness to all excepting the murderers, who would come in and give

themselves up unconditionally, and as they appeared to me to require a

severe example for their contumacy in attacking us, and also as my

instructions did not warrant my detaining the detachment in these

unhealthy jungles hunting a few individuals who might be apprehended

by offermg adequate rewards, I directed the destruction of the village

and its defences, and after binding down the chiefs to seize and forward

to me the offenders should they ever enter their respective Simadibtions

we commenced our retreat to the plains.

On our arrival at Rungtoopara, I regaled the chiefs who accompanied

us with a good dinner, and lots of liquor, which they appeared to enjoy

amazingly, but nevertheless “‘ Moonknal,”’ the chief and his brother-in-

law, although fond of a good carouse, came into camp at an early hour

and slept there durmg the night, as in fact they had done since our

arrival, as a kind of hostages for the good behaviour of their dependents.

This they did of their own accord and not at my instigation.

The morning after our return to Rungtoopara we commenced our

march back, and were honored by all the ladies of the different villages

we passed through coming out to look at us, and although all the beauty

and fashion of the Dusannee country was assembled, I must confess I

never beheld such a horridly ugly set. The women labor as hard as

the men, which of course gives them a coarse appearance, but still

amongst the youthful I could not discover a single creature with even a

pleasing expression of countenance. Their dress does not heighten

their charms, which consists merely of a broad band of cloth encircling

the waist and reaching half way down the thigh, the other portions of

the body being entirely exposed. Round their necks they wear innu-

merable strings of brass knobs, not unlike the heads of children’s arrows,

and in their ears large brass rings of various sizes, and occasionally in

such great numbers that the wearer is compelled to put a strap through

them, and by passing it round the forehead, relieve the lobe of the ear

from the great weight attached to it, and which would tear through,

were it not thus protected.

The women are I believe chaste, and intrigues with them are gener-

ally punished in a summary manner amongst the independent Garrows.

A man taken in open adultery, if not at once dispatched, is tried by

the heads of his village and sentenced to pay a large fine in expiation

1849.| the Dusannee and Cheannee Garrows. 57

of his crime, but if it is not paid on the exact date, the injured man is

considered at liberty to take the life of the adulterer whenever he can

find opportunity. If a man succeeds in absconding for a time from

the wrath of the husband, but is afterwards apprehended, he is tried as

before, and adjudged to pay a fine of the same description, but of less

amount than the former, in forfeiture of which the injured man is at

liberty to wreak his vengeance on him whenever he is able.

This last fine is called “Gulla Bachana,”’ and the former ‘ Dhy,”’ by

the lowlanders.

The laws of marriage and inheritance are precisely the same amongst

the Dusannee and Cheannee Garrows as the other Garrows, and by a

reference to Mr. Elhott’s and Lieut. Dalton’s reports, an accurate and

full account of them will be found. Respecting their religion I made

no enquiries when I was on the spot, and therefore am unable to give

any satisfactory information.

In their political relations I believe each chief is entirely independent,

and governs his own dependants with the assistance of a punchyat of

the heads of houses. In affrays of a serious nature, as in the massacre

of the old chief of Ripoogiri, it is customary I understand for the chief

in whose jurisdiction it occurs to invite the neighbouring chiefs to sit

with him, and give him the benefit of their advice. In the event of

an inroad from the plains I believe all jom under the most substantial

neighbouring chief to resist it.

We have been in the habit hitherto of calling on the Government

Luskur of the mehaul, in which a murder takes place, to give up the

offenders without any reference to the “ Locma,”’ or chief of the village

to which the offender belongs. This I am persuaded the Luskur is in

most cases unable to perform, as although he collects the Government

revenue, he has no further authority than over the dependants of his

own village, and the practice should be discontinued.

The cultivation of these hills is carried on in precisely the same

manner as amongst the other Garrows. Their implements of husbandry

bemg a hoe, a Doa, and a Lumbaree, but with these very inefficient

tools a man and his wife are able to bring under cultivation between

3 or 4 biggahs of land annually, besides sowing, reaping, housing and

carrying the produce to market. Their labor is unceasing, as the land

is too poor to yield more than three crops, one of Agsoo, one of cotton

a8 A narrative of our connexions with [ JAN,

sown with Khoni Dhan, and one of Assoo again. After this the land

must remain fallow, until it is completely covered with tree and shrub

jungle, which it generally is in 7 or 8 years.

The chief productions of the hills are cotton, Indian corn, Assoo

Dhan, millet, chillies and yams. Cotton may be considered the staple

product, and on it they are dependant for the other necessaries of life

their hills do not yield.

Although I made every search during my time for coal, limestone,

and iron, I could discover none. In a little stream to the south-east of

Bhogamara, I picked up some pieces of potter’s clay ; it was white and

appeared of a good kind, but I could not discover the vein from which

it had been washed. The Mundul of the village however told me that

he could shew me any quantity, but I had not time then to accompany

him.

At the foot of the hills, in the direction of the Rungi pass and

Lamma Mitur hills, is a forest of Saul timber, which properly belongs

to Government, but is at present disputed by the zemindar, and the

case cannot be definitely disposed of, until the boundary between the

estate of Caloomaloopara and the Dusannee country is laid down.

The trade with these Garrows is carried on entirely at the hauts of

Bengal Kutta and Rajaballa, but I have seen some of the Dusannees

trading as low as Pootemaree. Money is but little used amongst them,

and the medium of their exchange is cotton, the indigenous production

of the hills. In a year of scarcity, when the cotton is insufficient for

their demands, they are compelled to extract from their hidden treasures

a few “Korahs” or dishes of bell metal, which they sell, or barter for

the supplies they require. Every substantial Garrow has generally a

supply of these articles, which are considered heir-looms in the family,

and are handed down from father to daughter, from generation to

generation, and it is only in the event of dire necessity they ever part

with them. These dishes vary in size and shape as much as the brass

** Sooreahs” of the Bengalees, to which they are not dissimilar, the chief

difference bemg that the rim of the latter is outside and that of the

former inside. They are much prized by the Bengalees, and are pur-

chased by them with avidity.

I have never been able satisfactorily to ascertain where these articles

are manufactured, and where the Garrows obtain them from. The

1849. | the Dusannee and Cheannee Garrows. 59

Garrows themselves are unable to give any information on this point,

and the general idea amongst the Bengalees is, that the Korahs are

manufactured in Sherpore, zillah Mymensing, and are disposed of to

the Garrows of that district, who again sell them to those of this. If

this was the case the Bengalees could obtain them at a cheaper rate on

the spot, than they can from the Garrows, and there would be no

occasion to export them to Bengal, as they at present do from here, at

least if the manufactory at Sherpore is still extant. Some of the Korahs

are encircled with a band of embossed figures of men, women, and

animals, which must have been moulded on at the time of manufacture.

They are well executed and reflect the greatest credit on the state of

the arts, wherever they are made. There is also a small kind called

““Deo Korahs,” beautifully embossed as above described, these the

Garrows haug up as their household gods, and worship them. Should

the possessor of one neglect to pay his accustomed devotions to it, and

to sacrifice to it monthly a fowl, he is certain of being afflicted with

some bodily ailment, and my informer told me that his mother was

afflicted with an enormous tumour on her hip, in consequence of her

neglecting to pray and sacrifice to it, but that after doing so, and pro-

mising a stricter attention to her duties, she was relieved; he told me

he firmly believed in its power. If a person performs his devotions to

the spirit which inhabits the Korah, with increasing fervour and atten-

tion, he is generally rewarded by seeing the embossed figures gradually

expand. The Garrows believe also that when the whole household are

wrapt in sleep that these “Deo Korahs” make expeditions in search of

food, and when they have satisfied their appetites they return to their

snug retreats unobserved. I merely mention these superstitions, as I do

not see them alluded to by either Messrs. Elliott and Sisson, or Lieut.

Dalton. I believe the Mirees have a superstition something similar

regarding the “ Deo Guntas,” which are brought from Thibet.

Mr. Sisson says, the Garrows eat every description of animals but

kites and jackals, and I have been given to understand that those of

Dusannee and Cheannee are not more particular on this head than

their neighbors. They are particularly fond of dogs, which are reared

and sold by the Bengalees at the hauts in great numbers, and form a

very profitable article of their trade. Their cooking is scanty, and the

meat is often eaten half raw. The utensils they use in common are

60 A narrative of our connexions with [Jan

small earthen pots, purchased in the plains, but on great occasions the

Korahs above described are brought into requisition. On a journey

and when travelling lightly the Garrows dispense with the cooking pot

entirely, and use merely the joint of a bamboo, in which they boil their

food.*

With respect to the climate of this country, I ought not to speak

unfavorably, for during my stay in it, I enjoyed most excellent health,

but it is reported to be the most insalubrious portion of the Garrow

hills, and Major Davidson, in an official report, states on the authority

of Lieut. Whitelock, that out of 6 Europeans who entered. it for only

one day, 4 died.+

The inhabitants however do not shew any symptoms of living in a

bad climate, and appear a very healthy, robust race. During our pro-

gress through the hills, however, I always took the precaution to pitch

my camp on the top of some cleared hill, and I attribute the general

good health of the detachment with us, and also of Lieut. Belli’s and

my own, to this circumstance. I have to thank Lieut. Dalton for the

hint, who in speaking of the climate of the Garrow country, says,

cleared spots are always to be found, and though water may not be

near, it is better to suffer a little mconvenience on this account, than

to put up for the night in confined vallies where the exhalations are

deadly.

In conclusion I beg to annex a copy of the translation of an agree-

ment entered into with the chiefs at Bengal Katta, together with a copy

of the settlement made, by which the revenue has been increased from

136 to 306 rupees annually, and each village assessed as in mehaul

Cheannee ; also a list of the villages of that division.

P. S.—In the letter which accompanies this paper I have offered a

few suggestions regarding the opening out of roads to connect our

markets, and which I hope will eventually lead to a good one being

constructed across the Garrow Hills into Zillah Mimensing, which, by

causing a free communication with the plains on either side, would in

my humble opinion more speedily conduce to the civilization of the

Garrows than any other method that could be devised for the promotion

of this desirable object.

* As is commonly done by the Dyaks of Borneo.

t Vide letter 9th January, 1835, to Agent Governor General.

1849. | the Dusannee and Cheannee Garrows. 61

AprpENDIX A.

Hetract of a letter from Major Davipson, Principal Agent Governor

General, to CHARLES Situ, Lsq., Acting Agent Governor General,

dated 14th Dec. 1833.

Para. 4th.—The murder of the four Burmese is not the imme-

diate cause of the necessity of making an incursion upon the Dussanee

Garrows, it has been rendered necessary by insubordination which has

existed for some years, and by their aunually threatening to invade the

lowlands about Singhermary and Curribarry. :

Para. 5th.—The Burmese who have been murdered went into the

Garrow Hills for the purpose of hunting elephants for the sake of their

tusks, and their murder was not, till the receipt of Mirza’s report, known,

as they had gone into the hills and were not expected back for some

time.

Para. 6th.—Kvery measure will be taken to prevent the necessity of

having recourse to firearms before they are made use of, and the

murderers and revenue will be in the first instance demanded, but from

the knowledge I possess of their character, I am satisfied these demands

will not be attended with success.

I have, &e.

(Sd.) A. Davipson,

Prinel. Asst. to Agent G. G.

True Copy.

C. 8. Reynoups, Princl. Asst.

From Major Davipson, to Capt. JENKINS, Agent Governor General,

15th Sept. 1834.

Para. 3rd.—In reply to the first questionin Mr. Macsween’s letter,

I beg to state that the acts of insubordination complained of consists in

refusing to pay their revenue, murdering four Burmese who went into

their country, and threatening to murder any person sent to demand

revenue, and constantly threatening to burn the village and plunder the

hauts on the frontier. No revenue has been paid to government by the

Dusannees since 1829-1830, as reported to your predecessor by Captain

Bogle, under date 15th July 1832, in the 19th paragraph of his letter.

True Extract,

C. 8. Reynoups, Princl. Asst.

62 A narratiae of our connexions with [Jan.

AprENDIX B.

To C. MacsweEEn, Lsq., Chief Secretary to Government, Fort William.

Sir,—I have the honor to report for the information of the Vice

President in Council that the Dusannee Garrows of this frontier, reported

in my latter of the 5th instant, as being in a state of insubordination,

have been reduced to obedience.

Para. 2nd.—Under the authority of T. C. Robertson, Esq., late Agent

to the Governor General on this frontier, I dispatched Mirza Bundally

Surbrokar of the Garrow Hills to reduce the insurgent Garrows to obedi-

ence, and I regret to state the Garrows having made a sudden attack

upon a party of Sebundies and Burmese who were guarding a party of

120 coolies employed in cutting a road through the jungle, our party

sustained a loss of one Sebundy and 2 Burmese killed, and 2 Sebundies

and 1 Burmese wounded. The Garrows were however repulsed after

sustaining a loss of about 25 men.

Para. 3rd.—In consequence of the alarm created on the frontier

villages I was under the necessity of requesting military aid from Major

Monteith, commanding at Jamulpore, as reported in my letter of the 5th

instant, who dispatched two companies under the command of Captain

Marshall to Singheemary, but as the Garrows had submitted before

Captain Marshall’s arrival, I have requested that officer to return to

Jamulpore.

I have, &e.

(Sd.) A. Davipson,

Prinel. Asst. to G. G.’s Agent.

True Extract.

(Sd.) C. S. Reynoups,

Goalpara, 14th March, 1834. Princl. Asst.

AppPrENDIX C,

Extract of a letter from Agent Governor General to W. H. Macnacu-

ton, Lsq. Secretary to the Government of Bengal, Political Depart-

ment, Fort William, dated 21st, January, 1835.

Para. 3rd.—I have to refer to my letter of the 27th November for

my instructions ; I considered that the Dusannee Garrows were in arrears

1849. | the Dusannee and Cheannee Garrows. 63

of rent from short payments for several years, and that for their refrac-

tory conduct, and the expenses we were put to in the expedition against

them in the years 1833—1834, they had been fined to the extent of 1000

rupees, besides having this against them, I conceived that the out-

rage some individuals of this tribe had committed in putting to death

4 Burmese hunters had been unavenged.

Para. 4th.—But it will appear from Ensign Brodie’s letter of the

5th December that it seemed to be the impression that the fine had been

imposed in satisfaction of that outrage, and that such had been the sus-

picious conduct of the immediate persons employed in the payment and

receipt of the rents, that it was doubtful to him whether we had any

just claims to arrears at all except for the past and current year.

Para. 5th.—Under these circumstances, Ensign Brodie proposed to

Iimit his demands upon the chiefs to the payment of these arrears, and

of the fine which were distinctly acknowledged, to I which of course

assented ; after some delay the whole of the fine has been made good and

arrangements have been made for the payment of our rents by villages

direct to our authorities, instead of through the chiefs, on whom there

rests a suspicion of having appropriated a portion of the sums paid.

The arrangements concluded with the chiefs by Ensign Brodie are con-

tained in his letter of the 13th instant, and will, I trust, be approved by

Government.

TRANSLATION.

A copy of an agreement entered into with the chiefs of Dusannee, at

Bengal Katta.

Your Lordship having arrived at Bengal Katta, nm the Garrow coun

try, we, the subjects of the Hon’ble East India Company, have written

and subscribed to the following articles, for the purpose of shewing

that we are certainly such, and should we ever act in opposition to the

said articles we shall be liable to punishment.

Article 1st.—We agree to abstain from committing murder either

in our own clan or in any other, or will we permit any amongst us to

do so, or to commit any other heinous offences, that we may be able

to prevent.

Article 2nd.—It was our former custom to hang human skulls in

our houses. We hereby agree to abstain therefrom for the future.

64 A narrative of our connexions with | [ JAN.

Article 3rd.—All disputes which may occur in our jurisdiction

requiring investigation, we will endeavour to settle with the assistance

of a punchyat of 4 or 5 of the most influential chiefs amongst us,

and in presence of the disputing parties, and should we be unable to

settle it ourselves, we will report the same to the Hunt Mohurir, with a

view to its being settled by your Lordship.

Article 4th.—When any officer or Government servant may have

occasion to travel through our country, we agree to clear the roads in

our several jurisdictions and to furnish him with coolies and render him

every assistance in our power.

Article 5th.— When any officer or his deputy may arrive at Bengal

Katta, and summon us to attend him, we will instantly do so, and if it

is necessary for us to attend him at any other place we agree to do so

on his summons.

Article 6th.—We agree to prevent any independant Garrows from

entering the Government territoriés through our jurisdictions, with

intent to murder or commit any other disturbances.

Article 7th.— When any officer or Government servant arrives at our

Doar, we agree, on being called on, to pay without delay the revenue

due by us.

Article 8th.—The road which has been cleared from Bhajamara to

Kuntanangiri, and Bengal Katta to Ripoogiri, we agree to keep clear

every year throughout our respective jurisdictions from 24 to 30 feet

wide.

Signed by the Locma of Runecropara.

< CuHITSKIRI.

a DERSEGIRI.

a DuDINGIRI.

a MaGuLPaARA.

= DULIONGGIRI.

es CHANNAPARA.

1 MorwunGIRI.

a BuLpDAGIRI.

a BoKkonGIRI.

2 J UNGRAPARA.

Hs CHERANGIRI.

fe DoNGUPARA.

a CHANNANGPARA.

is NEJOGIRI.

True translation.

(Sd.) C, S, Reyno.tps,

Princl. Asst.

1849. | the Dusannee and Cheannee Garrows. 65

The undermentioned were not present, but they had previously made

their submission to me :—

Doongrang, Locma of TEPATANGIRI.

Monka ‘is RUNSEIGIRI.

Moonsing __,, CHAMPAKPARAH.

Tezing - KUNTANANGIRI.

Neusang 3 Rvupooeirti.

Census of Mehaul Dusannee.

Lov (ometoopara..%. .\eia. 100 Houses. 100 Rupees.

Bae” Repooritl,”) 2c... Soe. 2 2 2

ite C@imoveiiry,:, sul otk. leslie 20 20

A ep DeMAeeiTyh: sais shies We Be 12 12 .

dot SLOW AEE cases aiinsa sieteaior vet's ‘ 20 20

Gor) Koumtananeiries jai ieiee vA 7

7») Maculpara,.’... 5:2: beinehas av 10 10

Bex, IADOUGIFES wcr.de sieig, be os 11 1]

Dau ana AkG : 2a steve'eitie ets 7 7

DO g PVEOT OOM 6. win e's aco 20 20

ly, MDM AOU cic, chen 's aslates 13 13

2.2) OOM SIT, ). .f sis Scie ssl e's 12 12

Poon Sunsraparays. eels. 10 10

mat) *Cheraneirty iis Cece 14 14

ho, andar es) yo Re 15 15

nee" Tepatamowiy 2. 2.2 7

Lies Clralnipaliaray oi.) 2 yee 1 1

Po), Deoneaparay ss Si. Ve + 4

we (eC hdnane paras nie hia 12 12

ee Neaomiri lity Lassies Hk 9 9

306 306

The mehaul contains 306 houses of substantial persons, which may

be estimated to hold 10 souls each—in population therefore 3060

persons of all ages and sexes.

66 Visit to Dewangari. [Jan

Names of villages in Dower Cheannee Garrow Mehauls.

1. Rabungiri. 14. Maudaparah.

2° Markhagiri. 15. 'Tangreeparrah.

3. Lengparah. 16. Juchaparrah.

4. Kolaparrah. | 17. Bichdokparah.

5. Rakhoparrah. 18. Khorchangparah.

6. Khosurparah. 19. Malugiri.

7. Sindaparah. 20. Sangbuck.

8. Bindangiri. 21. Boreeparrah.

9. Runggoogiri. 22. Romogiri.

10. Boreeparrah Ist. 23. Domreegiri.

11. Chomreekparah. — 24. Ramrunggiri.

12. Dangrungp arah. 25. Mansangiri.

13. Dingsaparah.

Visit to Dewangari.—By Lievt. E.T. Dauron, 9th N. I.

I yesterday carried out my project of paying Dewangari a visit, and

I must give you an account of my excursion.

On the 14th January, I halted at Soonbunkotta, from which I had been

informed, I might go to Dewangari and return the same day, but when

I declared my intention of proceeding next morning I was told it could

not be done. The days being now so short, however I was determined

on making the attempt, and sent up to tell the Rajah I was coming.

We started at 8 a. m., and though on the preceding evening all were

expatiating on the difficulties of the road, endeavouring to dissuade me

from going, I now found all the villages and pergunnah authorities

anxious to accompany me, and I had not less than a hundred followers,

consisting of the Wuzeers of the Dooar Borkot and Sella, their Patwa-

rees and Takooriahs, and a body of Cachari volunteers.

For the first two miles our route lay over a grassy plain partially

cultivated by the Soonbunkotta villagers, which the Dia river in its

various wanderings had strewn with large stones. A table-land rises

from this, shewing a bold cliff towards the plain, and giving a breadth

of from one to two miles of flat surface to th foot of the hills. At the

1849. | Visit to Dewangart. | 67

gorge of the hills through which the Dia, now a small stream, but a

large and very mischievous one in the rains, emerges on the plains, we

found the Bootia Chokey. This consisted of two or three huts only,

but nearly as many hundreds of people, men, women and children, were

here awaiting a favorable phase of the moon to proceed on their journey

to the plains. There werebesides these a considerable number of Boots

and Bootnis, who make this their dwelling place whilst the intercourse

with the plains is open, attending upon an official styling himself in

parlance with me, the Deka Rajah, who sits here at the receipt of

customs, levying tolls on the merchants, and assess from our ryots for

cutting wood in, taking potter’s earth from, fishing, or cultivating cotton

in the Bootia territory. The Deka Raja was respectably dressed and

very polite. He invited me to come up and sit in his office, which is

a snug little boarded apartment looking out on the river. I had no

time to spare, but I sat with him a few minutes to recompense him for

the trouble he had taken in preparing a seat for me, a little platform

covered with red cloth. He looked like a Chinaman without a tail, his

head being close shaven. The road now lay up the rocky bed of the

Dia, in crossing which I made use of an Assamese dola or trugon, which

on the shoulders of Cachari bearers I found a very convenient vehicle

for hill travelling, though I only mounted it when I should otherwise

have been obliged to wait, as I could proceed more rapidly on foot.

The river flows through a very narrow ravine, sometimes a mere chasm

in the rocks, which rise precipitously on both sides. The descent is

rapid, bringing down large boulders which considerably obstruct the

road, but for a north bank hill highway I did not consider it a difficult

one. The hills in the vicinity of the river are nearly destitute of fine

timber trees, being mostly covered with grass, bamboos, and low shrubs.

The pine apple tree (I forget the proper name of it) which I found in

such luxuriance in the valley of the Soobunskeri is also here a leading

feature in the landscape, and there are other palms. Leaving the main

stream of the Dia to our left, we continued our march up the bed of

its most easterly afiluent. Its passage between the rocks was in some

places only two or three feet in width, and the hills now rising high

above us on both sides, keep this little dell in almost perpetual shade.

About half the march was up this stream, and it is the worst part of

the road. For the remainder, though the ascent is severer, the path

K 2

68 Visit to Dewangari. [JAN.

over the hill is wider, and free from slipping stones, and the country is

more open. About noon we reached the first Bootia house, and shortly

afterwards the temple, which, at least the interior of it, is worth more

than the cursory inspection I had time to give it. It is a square stone

building with gable ends and thatched projecting roof. The gable

fronting the north has a verandah, or rather a projecting balcony of

timber, behind which a well constructed frame work with several doors

admits light into the temple. I was ushered in, and found in front of

the window a highly ornamented altar, on which various utensils and

offermgs were placed in front of a recess, containing three large Bud-

dhist images, all seated in the usual cross-legged attitude absorbed in

heavenly contemplation. They appeared to be formed of clay, were

exceedingly well executed and resplendent with gilding. The apart-

ment before the altar, about 20 feet square, is boarded, and the walls

are entirely covered with paintings of figures in similar penitential or

devotional attitudes as those in the recess, but differently dressed. They

resemble Chinese paintings, but I was assured they were the work of a

village artist. If so, they are surprisingly well executed, the colours

very brilliant and well chosen, and drawing tolerably correct ; gilding

was introduced to heighten the effect. My guides pointed out to me

two sockets in front of the altar from which a pair of very handsome

elephant’s tusks that formed an ivory arch in front of the images have

lately been stolen by some of our rascals, I make no doubt ; I hope I

shall be able to trace them.* The Bootias hold this temple in too

great veneration ever to have thought of committing such a (to them)

sacrilegious theft. Being on the high road to Dewangari, it is well

known to all our people, who come up here to trade ; there is no house

very close to it, and no one lives im it, consequently there was no diffi-

culty in removing unseen any thing it contained ; besides the tusks, some

of the altar vessels were removed, ‘‘and the gods looked on all the

time without doing anything to punish the marauders,’ innocently

remarked my Bootia Cicerone, as if he considered that by far the most

extraordinary part of the story.

A priest’s house also of stone stands near the temple ; it is two-storied,

and with its projecting roof and balconies has rather a picturesque

appearance. Of the other houses seen, some were of stone, some

* The thieves have subsequently been caught and punished.

1849. | Visit to Dewangarr. 69

partly of stone and partly of timber, some all of timber. They had

most of them rather a delapidated appearance, and several were wholly

deserted. The temple is about a mile and a half from the residence of

the Rajah. The path between appears to have been at one time lined

with houses, but their sites are now overgrown with jungle, the former

occupants having settled in our territories. The path from the temple

winds along the northern face of a mountain, overlooking a valley, in

which there is some appearance of cultivation. About half a mile from

the temple we came suddenly on a stone obelisk built on a projecting

spur of the hill, rounding which, a fine view was obtained of the Rajah’s

house and village. Several similar obelisks standing boldly out on the

most prominent eminences formed a peculiar feature in the landscape.

They are all of the same form—a square pedestal with projecting base,

and cornice gradually diminishing from a height of six or eight feet, by

steps, to the base of a globe, which is surmounted by a spire. I was

informed that they were constructed entirely for ornament ; this appears

a degree of refinement to which we could scarce have supposed the

Bootias had attained, yet their varied but always effective situations

supported this motive for their erection. They had each a tablet with

inscriptions, most probably in laudation of the person who built them.

I had unfortunately no one with me who could read the Bootia charac-

ter. The Rajah’s house is situated on the ridge of a lofty hill com-

manding an extensive view of the plains of Assam to the south, and

having a fine open valley with cultivation to the north. The village

appeared to consist of but few houses, and these scattered and dilapi-

dated, as if the proprietors cared little for preserving them. Whilst

making a hasty sketch of the view from the obelisk, some of the Rajah’s

people, with caparisoned ponies and a mule came up, and one of these

they insisted on my mounting. ‘They also mounted my chaprassies

and thus we proceeded to the Rajah’s dwelling, and surrounded by a

dozen wild Bootias, who held me on the poneys back, some by the legs,

others by the tails of my coat, whilst they kept up an incessant exhort-

ation to the animal in their own language, all of which they assured

me he perfectly understood, to be careful how he stopped and proceeded.

The vice-regal lodge is a large wpper-roomed square stone building, with

gable ends, a very low and wide doorway, and five large windows in a

row in the upper story, four of which have projecting covered balconies

70 Visit to Dewangart. (JAN.

of timber. It gave me the idea of an old-fashioned farm-house, which

after having been long deserted and neglected had suddenly been

adopted as a place of shelter and placed m a state of temporary repair.

The lower story, with exception of the great yawning entrance, is nearly

destitute of apertures for the admission of light or air—in this respect

resembling a block-house. I expected the Rajah would have come out

to meet me, but this he did not do, and I for some time debated in my

own mind whether, under such circumstances I should go to him. How-

ever as I had come to his village an unexpected and an uninvited guest,

I decided that it would not be derogatory to my dignity to be conducted

to his presence by the messenger he deputed for the purpose, and I

accordingly entered the gloomy mansion. The ascent from the lower to

the upper story is accomplished by means of something between a

staircase and a ladder, which I had to grope my way up. The lower

apartments, with exception to the hall are, I understood, only used as

cells for prisoners, consequently the admission of light and air is a

secondary consideration; at the top of the ladder however, I found

myself in a well ventilated and roomy anti-chamber without furniture of

any description, but in which the numerous attendants of the Rajah were

demurely seated all round with their backs to the walls.

In the next room I found the Rajah seated on a small square plat-

form covered with red. cloth, very grave and grand, but very dirty, with

legs crossed and arms folded, looking as like one of the figures of the

immortals I had just been examining in the temple, as it was possible

for a mere erring mortal todo. Ina recess to his right there was a

repetition of the gilded figures of the temple, which he said was a

representation of the Dhurma Rajah. Before these the people, who

were with me, connected with Dooars who knew the customs of this

little court, made humble obeisances and one or two in the back ground,

whom from having been formerly under him, the Rajah knew by name,

he directed to do so, but he paid no attention to the nonconformity of

myself and followers with the usage. For me an arm chair was placed,

in which I seated myself without any ceremony.

The Rajah had before him a little low table on which oranges and

other things fancifully arranged in the style of the offerings before the

altars, were deposited, and on it several joss sticks were burning, which

emitted an aromatic odour; before this table, as before the altar, a pan

1849.] Visit to Dewangari. at

of burning charcoal was placed, all I suppose emblematic of his being

the representative of the Dhurma Rajah.

I forgot to mention that on my road up I met a messenger with a

letter from the Rajah in reply to my missive of the preceding day,

announcing my intention of visiting his village, in which he stated that

if I halted at the boundary he would come down and see me the fol-

lowing day and arrange about my going up. I told his messenger I

could not wait so long. He said there was no objection to my proceed-

ing at once if I pleased ; so on I went.

The Rajah opened the conversation by remarking that when one

great man came to visit another due notice should be given in order

that preparations worthy of the event might be made. However, as I

had come to Dewangari in this off-hand manner, he hoped I intended

to remain a few days, in which case he would be happy to entertain me.

He evidently did not understand the visit, and hardly knew whether he

should receive it as a compliment or otherwise. I believe I explained

all to his satisfaction, for he ended by repeating his invitation to me to

remain in a more cordial and pressing manner, offering to provide every

thing for the whole party, and promising if the Dhurma Rajah per-

mitted him, to come and see us at Gowhatty. We discussed other

matters, but I found on political subjects he would give no opinion

without receiving particular instructions from the Dhurma Rajah. The

day was now waning and I rose to depart, promising to repeat the visit,

if circumstances admitted of my domg so. I have no doubt I com-

mitted what was in their eyes a breach of etiquette in going up to

Dewangari without having previously a long correspondence on the

subject, but had I entered into this the Rajah would in all probability

have, in selecting a lucky day for the event, have so put off the period

of my visit that I should have been unable to go at all. Descending

into the village I found the news of my arrival had collected together

all the habitants, and a very little encouragement converted them all

into most importunate beggars. Throwing a few small coin to some of

the women, I was instantly surrounded and half-smoothered by a mass

of blooming Bootia beauties, pressing upon me for similar favours.

I use the word “blooming” advisedly, and not as a mere alliterative

redundancy. The women have broad flat Tartar faces, small eyes, large

mouths, noses short and low, not on the whole the most pleasing com-

f2 Visit to Dewangari, [JAN.

bination of features, but many of them have fine plump rosy cheeks,

healthy and pleasant to look upon, though the complexions, a light olive,

have nothing in common with lillies. Their figures are concealed by the

amplitude of their robes. They appear to take less care in adorning

themselves than any Hill lasses I have met with. Their clothes are

dirty, clumsily made, and awkwardly put on. Their tresses are generally

left to float as nature pleases, though some few of the more tidy and

respectable matrons had their’s bound with a handsome bandeau of

flat silver chains with a large ornament in front. Some damsels appear

with shorn heads, and these I understand have all taken vows of cele-

bacy. They are mostly widows, whose pretensions to virginity could

not under any circumstances be supported, but some old women amongst

them, with shorn heads, asserted their claim to the title.

I saw little cultivation, and excepting a few women weaving, no one

appeared employed in any useful occupation. In weaving the women

are seated on the ground. The web passes round three rollers of wood

forming a triangle. One of. these, attached by a leather belt to the

woman, one supported on two posts in front of her, and the third pin-

ned to the ground farther off. The woman by her position keeps the

web stretched to the necessary tightness. The shuttle is a small hollow

bamboo containing a roller for the thread. This she passes through the

inclined web before her working upwards, and passing the woven part

round below, until the whole piece completed thus comes round. The

fine woollen cloths which the Bootias export are not made here, be-

mg brought from the interior. They are of very superior manufacture,

resembling in pattern, material and softness of texture the Scotch tar-

tans. The affection of all Hill tribes for plaids is singular; we have

them all round the valley.

The cloths manufactured at Dewangari are of cotton or of erie. The

latter brought from the plains.

The greater portion of the population of Dewangari consists of the

Rajah’s followers, or of traders, who make this their temporary resi-

dence ‘for more convenient barter with the plains; the rajah himself

is not above making money in this way ;* whilst he keeps back other

* Every officer of the Bootan government is allowed a certain sum of money

from the public treasury to trade upon, and which at stated periods he returns with

interest.

1849.] The Pine tree of the Tenasserim Provinces. 73

traders on the pretence that the moon is not sufficiently old for their

periodical migration, his own agents are allowed egress with Bootia

cloths, which they dispose of before the market becomes swamped.

Of “iris” or permanent householders, I was informed there are not

now more than twenty about Dewangari, great numbers having deserted

and settled in the Dooars. And as those who remain are subjected in

consequence of the desertions to more than their former share of annoy-

ance, they too are likely ere long to desert. I saw at Soobunkottah

upwards of 60 Boots and Bootnis who had there settled ; at Gooroo-

gong, there are as many more; and they are settling in other places

besides these two. They have not as yet taken up any land; and told

me they had no intention of doing so, as they find they can push a

very comfortable livelihood by trading. I told them I should tax

them whether they cultivated or not. They were quite willing they

said to pay whatever I imposed.

It was 2 ep. m. before I got clear of the Dewangari village; we had

the use of the rajah’s ponies a part of the way ; I believe he ordered

that they should go with us the whole way, but his people made some

demur and I sent them back, asI could get on just as fast on foot. We

returned by the same road, and some of us got to the foot of the hills

shortly after sunset, and I got back to camp at 7 p.m. Some of the

party were not up till9 p.m. It wasa hard day’s work.

The Pine tree of the Tenasserim Provinces. By the Rev. F. Mason.

Some twenty years ago the residents of Moulmain were not a little

surprised to find, among the drift wood of the Salwen, a log of some

coniferous tree. This was the first intimation that any tree of the Pine

tribe grew on the borders of these Provinces; but whether it were of

the genus Pinus, or Abies, or Larix ; a pine, a fir, or a larch, did not

appear. It was several years after this occurrence, that one of our

former commissioners told the writer he had offered a hundred rupees

to any of the foresters who would bring down a spar of this tree. Spars

have been, subsequently, brought down, but it is believed that Capt.

Latter, the Superintendent of Forests in these provinces, is the first Euro-

74 Phe Pine tree of the Tenasserim Provinces. [JAN.

pean who has visited the locality where the tree is indigenous, and from

specimens of the foliage and fruit, which he has brought away with

him, it appears to be a new species of Pinus that may be characterized

thus :— ji

P. Lattert. Arbor 50—60 pedalis, cortice scabro, foliis geminis 7—

8; uncialibus caniculatis serratis* scabriosculo, strobilis and uncialibus

ovato—conicis, squamis rombeis inermis.

Hab. In provincia Amherst : in convalli fluvir Thoungyeen.

Descr. <A tree of from 50 to 60 feet high, or more, and from 13 to

2 feet or more in diameter. Sheaths of the leaves arranged spirally,

tubular, membranous, six lines long. Leaves two from each sheath,

equal, from 7 to 8 inches long, acute with a sharp point, convex on the

back, slightly scabrous with eight rows, in pairs of very minute thorns

which produce a striated appearance, hollow on the under surface

serrated cones ovate-conical, nearly four inches long. Scales rhomboid,

unarmed.

The flower is unknown. A single ripe cone that had cast its seeds,

and a small branch, being all the materials that have been furnished for

description.

Specimens of the wood that have fallen under the writer’s notice

contain more resinous matter than any other species of coniferee he

ever saw. It appears like woody fibre immersed in resin. The Karens

make tar from the wood, by a very simple process ; and large quantities

of both tar and pitch might be manufactured in the forests, if a re-

numerative price could be obtained for the article.

This species has been named after Capt. Latter, as the discoverer,

because all our acquaintance with the tree has been derived from him,

beyond the vague knowledge that a tree of the pine family existed

somewhere on the banks of the Salwen. He reports it as growing

with the Engben, which is a species of Dipterocarpus that is met on

the sandy shores of the Province of Tavoy, side by side with Casurina

muricata, This Pine is not found west of the Donaw mountains, a

part of an unbroken range of granite mountains that runs down from

the falls of the Salwen to the old city of Tenasserim, and which here

separates the valley of the Thoungyeen from the region watered by the

* Lindley says of the order, ‘* Leaves—entire at the margins ;’’ but these are

certainly finely serrated ; and I find P. eacelsa described with leaves ‘‘ tooth-letted.’’

1849. | The Pine tree of the Tenasserim Provinces. 79

Gyne and its tributaries. In a note to the writer Capt. Latter adds:

“‘In the valley of the Thoungyeen it is found growing on the raised

central plateau of sandstone, mixed up with Engben trees, and in pro-

portion as the elevatien increases the Engben disappears. In the lower

Thoungyeen, towards the remotest parts of the valley, it is found on

ranges of hills west of Theglar river. These are its sites on the British

side of the Thoungyeen. On the Shan side of the river, it is said to

be more abundant, and appears to occupy the lower portion of the

Toungnyoo range, where the sandstone formation is more prominently

developed. From the accounts of Burmese foresters-who have seen the

Pine forests on both sides of the river, the tree appears to be of a finer

growth on the Shan side, than on the British, where trees are to be

found of nine feet in girth and proportionably tall. I should say that on

the British side of the valley the tree ranges at an altitude of 1000 to

15,000 feet above the level of the sea; and that its latitude is about

17° -north.’”

Possibly it may prove to be a known species ; but it is not among the

éwenty-two species described by Louden as the denizens of Great Bri-

tain, nor among the ¢welve species described by Michaux in his “ North

American Sylva,” nor is it either of the Indian species described by

Roxburgh. Should it, however, be a species described in some other

work to which the writer in these “ outskirts of civilization’ has no

means of access, some of the members of the Society will probably be

able, with this description and colored drawing, to point out the iden-

tity, and though then this note will be no contribution to science, it will

still be a contribution to our knowledge of the resources of the Tenas-

serim Provinces.

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ASTATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL

For January, 1849.

The usual monthly meeting of the Asiatic Society was held on the

evening of Wednesday, the 10th January,

The Hon’ble the President in the chair.

The accounts and vouchers for December were submitted.

Mr. Wm. Macintosh, Civil Architect, who had been duly proposed

and seconded at the December meeting, was ballotted for and elected.

Read letters—

From Capt. Powell, Steamer ‘“‘ Precursor,”’ requesting his name to be

removed from the list of members.

From the Hon’ble the President, forwarding a paper by Mr. Hodgson

of Darjeeling on the Chepang and Kusunda tribes of Nepal (with

drawing).

From the Hon’ble Mr. Bethune, requesting on the part of the Cal-

cutta Public Library, to have a copy of the Journal, Bibliotheca Indica

and other Oriental works published by the Society supplied free of

charge. Ordered as requested.

From B. H. Hodgson, Esq. Darjeeling, a memorandum relative to

the Seven Cosis of Nepal.

From the same—a Route from Kathmandu, the capital of Nepal, to Dar-

jeeling in Sikim, interspersed with remarks on the people and country.

From the President of the Batavian Society of Arts, acknowledging

receipt of the Bibliotheca Indica and of the Journal.

From J. W. Laidlay, Esq. V. P., &c. presenting, for the use of the

Zoological Section, the sum of 500 rupees, due by the Society to Mr.

Laidlay, for 100 copies of his version of Fa Hian. The thanks of the

Society were unanimously voted to Mr. Laidlay for the above donation.

Also from Mr. Laidlay, Notice of a Chinese Geographical work.

1849. ] Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. 77

From Dr. Aloys Sprenger, communicated by Mr. H. M. Ellot, a

passage from Ibn Qotaybah’s Adab al Katib on Arabic Astronomy.

From Messrs. Holmes & Co. presenting a copy of the Bengal Bio-

graphy and Obituary.

From Professor Holmboe of Christiania, presenting specimens of the

Norwegian coins of the present reign, and a bronze medal commemorative

of the 25th year of the reign of Charles John. The thanks of the So-

ciety were voted to Professor Holmboe.

The Secretary read the Annual Report of the Council, showing the

state and progress of the Society during 1848. The Report was una-

nimously adopted.

The meeting proceeded to elect office-bearers for the ensuing year.

The results are given in the supplement to the Report.

The Curators and Librarian having submitted their usual reports, the

meeting adjourned.

W. B. O'SHAUGHNESSY,

r V. P. and Secretary.

LipRaRy.

The following books have been added to the Library since the 1st of Novem-

ber, 1848.

Presented.

Det Oldnorske Verbum, oplyst ved sammenligning med Sanskrit og andre

sprog af Samme Aet. Af C. A. Holmboe. Christiania, 1848, 4to. (Pamphlet )—

By THE UNIVERSITY oF CHRISTIANA.

Das alteste Munzwesen Norwegens bis gegen Ende des 14 Jahrhunderto

Eine Abhandlung von C. A. Holmboe; Christiana, 1847, 8vo.—By THE SAME,

Traité de la Spéidalskhed ou Elephantiasis des Grecs, par D. Danielsson, et

W. Boeck. Traduit du Norweigian, par L. A. Cosson. Paris 1848. 8vo. Avec

un Atlas de 24 planches folio. By THE SAME.

Transactions of the China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, for 1847.

Hongkong, 1848. 8vo.—By rue Socrety.

The Bengal Obituary, or a record to perpetuate the memory of departed

worth, being a compilation of Tablets and Monumental Inscriptions from vari-

ous parts of the Bengal and Agra Presidencies. Calcutta, 1848, 8vo.—By

Messrs. Hotmes & Co.

Astronomical Observations made at the Observatory of Cambridge by the

Rev. J. Challis, Vol. XV. for the year 1843, Cambridge, 1848, 4to,—By THE

University or CaMBRIDGE.

The Oriental Christian Spectator for Nov. 1848.—By THE Epiror.

The Oriental Baptist, Nos, 24-5,—By tae Eprtor,

78 Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. [Jan.

Meteorological Register kept at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, for

the months of October and November, 1848.—By tHe Deputy Surveyor

GENERAL.

Upadeshaka, Nos. 24-5.—By rue Eniror.

Tatwabodhini Patrika, Nos. 67-8.—By tur Tarwapopuini’ Sasua’,

The Journal of the Indian Archipelago, Nos. X. XI. and XII.—By rue Epiror.

Ditto ditto (2 copies).—By Taz GoverNnMENT oF BENGAL,

Fragments of an Oration against Demosthenes, respecting the money of Har-

palus, by A. C. Harris. Alexandria, 1848. 4to. Pamphlet—By rue Epiror.

The Calcutta Christian Observer for Nov. and Dec. 1848.—By Tue Epirors.

The Oriental Christian Spectator, Vol, IX. Nos, 9-10.—By tue Epiror.

Geschiedenis en Beoordeeling van het Pantheisme of Algodendom, door, S.

A. Buddingh. 4to. Pamphlet.—By tue Autuor.

Chun’s Verzeichuitz nuier Bucher mit binschlusz des Landkarten uud son-

stiger im Buchhandel vorkommender Artikel, 4 vols. 12mo.—By Mr, H. B.

Konic of Bonn.

Die Sprachphilosophie der Alten, von Dr. L. Lersch. Parts I—III, 8vo,

2 copies.—By THE SaME. ¢

Zeitschrift Sur die Kunde des morganlandes. Im Viereine mit mehreren Gelehr-

ten herausgegeben von C. Lassen. Siebenten Bandes erstes Heft, 2 copies.—By

THE SAME.

Kammavakya, Liber de officiis Sacerdotum Buddhicorum, Edidit Fredericus

Spiegel, 8vo. 12 copies.—By THE SAME,

Caroli Rieu de Abul Alae Poetae Arabici. Vita et Carminibus, secundum

Codices Leidanos et Parisiensem commentatis, 8vo. 12 copies.—By THE SAME.

Indische Alterthumskunde. von C. Lassen, Ersten bandes IJ. Halfte. 7

copies,—By THE sams. (This work is dedicated to the Asiatic Society of Ben-

gal).

De Accentu Compositorum Sanscriticorum ; Auctore S. T. Aufrecht. 8vo,

4 copies.— By THE SAME.

Die Topographie Jarusalem’s, von W. Krafft. Bonn, 1847, 8vo.—By THE

SAME.

Carmina Valerii Catonis cum Augusti Ferdinandi Naekii Annotationibus,

Eura Ludovici Schopeni. Bonnae, 1847, 8vo. 3 copies.—By THE SAME.

Geschichte der Klassischen Philologie im Alterthum, von Dr, A. Grafenhan,

3 vols. 8vo. 2 copies,—By 1HE SAME,

Aristophanis Lysistrata cum scholiis. Ex recensione Roberti Enger. Bonnae,

1844, 8vo, 2 copies.—By THE SAME.

Aristophanis Thesmophoriazusae cum scholiis. Ex recensione Roberti Enger.

Bonnae 1844, 8vo, 2 copies.-By THE SAME,

1849. ] Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. 79

Ueber die Keilinschriften der Ersten und Zweiten Gattung. Von C, Lassen und

N. L. Westergaard. Bonn, 1845, 8vo. 2 copies.—By THE saME.

Bibliothecae Sanskrite sive Recensus Librorum Sanskritorum Hucusque typis

vel Lapide excriptorum critici Specimen. Bonnae ad Rhenum, 1847, 8vo. 13

copies.— By THE SAME.

Mric’chakatika id est Curriculum Figlinum Sadrakae Regis Fabula Sanscrite,

edidit Adolphus Fridericus Stenzler. Bonnae, 1847, 4to. 10 copies.—By THE

SAME.

Biblische Abhandlungen von Dr. J. G. Sommer. I. band.—By THE same,

Ramayana ; id est carmen epicum de Ramae Rebus Gestis Poetae Antiquis-

simi Valmicis opus. Adiecit, Aug. Guilelmus a Schlegel. Vol. I. parts I. and II,

and Vol, II. part I. 8vo.— By THE same,

Exchanged.

The Atheneum, Nos. 1087, 1090, 1091—1097 and 1099.

The Picnic Magazine, Nos, 1X. X. and XI.

Purchased.

Comptes Rendus, Tome XXVII. Nos. 5—11.

Journal des Savants for Aug. 1848.

The Annals and Magazine of Natural History, Nos, X.—XI.

The Edinburgh Review, No. 178.

Brija Kisora Ghosa’s History of Puri.

Atlas to Allison’s History of Europe, parts XVII. XVIII. and XIX.

Gould’s Birds of Australia, parts 35 and 36.

Edmond’s Distribution List of the Bengal Civil Service for Nov. 1848,

Museum of Antiquities.

The donations received in this department since the last meeting, are as

follow :—

1. From J.S. Campbell, Esq. A New Zealand water-proof cloak.

2. From—Fitzgerald, Esq. A stone arrow-head, from a mount near the

summit of the Allighanies.

3. From the University of Christiana. A bronze medal and seven Norwegian

silver coins. The medal bears, on the reverse, a bust of the king Charles John,

and the inscription—Carolo Johanni D. G. Regi Norv. Soec. Goth. Vand.

Anno Imp. XXV. Urbs Nidarosiae Memor M.D.CCC.XLIII. On the obverse,

the king is seated on a throne in the centre of a gothic apartment, around which

is inscribed—Priscum Nidarosiae decus Restitutum. Die VII. Septembo M, D.

CCC. XVIII.

80 Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. [JAN.

Report of Curator, Zoological Department.

My last published Report was that for the month of June, published in the

No. of the Journal for that month; and I have now to record the donations

received since that time.

July, 1848. M. Alfred Malherbe, of Metz. A large collection of mam-

malia and bird skins, and of land and fresh water shells, chiefly from Algiers,

with others from different parts of Europe ; together with sundry specimens

of mammalia and birds packed with them by Mr. A. Bartlett, including many

presented by H. E. Strickland, Esq.

The collection received from M. Malherbe is as follows: (1)

MAMMALIA.

Genetta afra,—Algiers.

* Mustea erminea, L. France.

Lutra vulgaris, var.? (N. S. apud Lesson.) Algiers.

Sorex alpinus,—Switzerland (St. Gothard.)

S. araneus, L. France.

Dipus mauritanicus,—Algiers (Oran).

+Mus rattus, L. Three specimens. France.

*M. sylvaticus, L. Switzerland.

Arvicola nwvalis,—Switzerland (snowy summits.)

* Lemmus norvegicus,—Norway.

Cephalophus natalensis, A. Smith. Port Natal. S. Africa.

AVES.

* +Tinnunculus cenchris, (l.): Falco tinnunculoides, Natterer. Female. Al-

riers.

+ Circus cinerascens, (Mont.) Adult and young males. Algiers.

* +Accipiter nisus, (L.) Male and Female. Algiers.

TGyps fulvus, (L.) Adult. Algiers.

Scops Aldrovandi, Ray ; Strix scops, L. Algiers. (Identical with the Indian

species, of which the grey variety is Sc. pennata, Hodgson, and the chesnut

variety—figured in Mr. Jerdon’s ‘ Illustrations of Indian Ornithology,’

pl. 41,—is Sc. sunia, H. (2)

(1) The species of which the museum had previously European specimens have an

asterisk prefixed ; and those of which it contained Indian examples are distinguished

by across. Those of other regions previously in the museum are marked with a double

cross.

(2) M. Malherbe remarks of this species, in his‘ Catalogue Raisonné des Oiseaux

de l’Algerie,’—‘‘ Paroit plus rare: foréts de la Calle. Le sujet que j’ai recu est d’un

roux vif rayé de noir et de cendré.” That forwarded by him to the Society is grey with

@ rufescent tinge.

1849. | Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. 81

Athene noctua, (Retz: Strix nudipes, Lesson: Str. passerina apud Latham

and Temminck ; Athene bactrianus, nobis, J. A. S. XVI, 776). Two spe-

cimens. Algiers.

* Nyctale Tengmalmi, (Gmelin). Sweden.

*Syrnium aluco, (L.) Algiers.

{Upupa epops, L. Female. Algiers.

* +Coracias garrula, L. Algiers.

tCeryle rudis, (L.) Greece. (Identical with C. varia, Strickland, of India.)

* Alcido ispida, L. Algiers.

*Merops apiaster, L. Morea.

Picus medius, L. Male and female. France.

P. pubescens, L. Male. N. America.

*P, minor, L. Male. France.

*Picoides tridactylus, (L.) Female. Switzerland.

Celeus flavescens, (Gm.). Male. Brazil.

Dendrobates goertan, (Gm.) Male and female. Hab. Senegal.

Colaptes cayannensis, (Gm.) Male. Oronoco.

Ozxylophus glandarius, (L.) Male and female. Algiers.

Caprimulgus ruficollis, Tem. Female. Algiers.

tCypselus melba, (L.) Female. Switzerland.

+Pyrrhocorax alpinus, Vieillot. Male. Pyrenees.

* Nucifraga caryocatactes, (L.) Male. France.

{Sturnus unicolor, Marmora. Male and female. Sardinia. (These have scarcely

a trace of the brilliant-coloured glosses of Capt. Hutton’s Afghanistan

specimens. )

Passer salicaria, ( ); Fringilla hispaniolensis, Tem. Male and female,

Algiers. (Identical with the Afghanistan race.)

Petronia stulta, (Gm.): Fringilla petronia, L. Male. Italy. (Do.)

*Acanthis cannabina, (L.) Male. Algiers.

*Chrysomitris spinus, (L.) Male. France.

Centrophanes lapponicus, (L.) Male and female. Finnmark.

*Emberiza miliaria, L. Two specimens. Algiers.

*E. cirlus, L. Male. Algiers.

E. melanocephala, Gm. Male. Dalmatia. (Differs from Mr. Jerdon’s LE.

melanocephala of S. India in its much larger size ; having the wing 4 in.,

the tail 3 in. long, and the rest in proportion.)

E. cesia, Cretschmar. Male. Lombardy,

*E. hortulana, L. Male. Italy.

EE. hyemalis, (L.) Male. Siberia.

*Melanocorypha calandra, (L.) Two specimens, from Italy and Algiers.

82 Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. [JAN.

Galerida cristata, (L.) Algiers. (Well distinguished from the species re-

ferred in the museum to G. chendoola and G. Boysii of India).

+Calandrella brachydactyla, (L.). Italy. (Identical with the so called ‘ Ortolan’

of India, Emberiza baghaira, Franklin, v. Alauda dukhunensis, Sykes.)

Accentor alpinus, (Gm.) Male and female. Switzerland.

Parus sibiricus, Gm. Siberia.

Lanius rufus, L. Two males. Algiers.

Pycnonotus obscurus, (Gm.) Female. Algiers.

tPetrocossyphus cyaneus, (L.) Male and female. Italy and Algiers.

(Identical with P. longirostris, nobis, J. A. S. X1V, 150 ; and barely, if at

all, separable from P. pandoo (Sykes): but distinct from P. affnis,

nobis, and P. manillensis, (Gm.).

Sazicola leucura, (Gm.) Female. Algiers. (Distinct from S. leucura apud

nos, J. A. S. XIV, 131; now S. opistholeuca, Strickland.)

S. stapazina, (Gm.) Male. Algiers. (Well distinguished from S. atrogu-

laris, nobis, J. A. S. XVI, 131.)

S. aurita, Tem. Male. Algiers.

*Pratincola rubicola, (L.) Three specimens. Algiers.

*Pr. rubetra, (L.) Female. Algiers.

Ruticiila tithys, (L.) Female. France.

Muscicipa atricapilla, Gm.: M. luctuosa, Tem. Algiers.

* +Hirundo rustica, L. Algiers.

+H. rupestrvis, Gm. Algiers.

{+ Budytes melanocephala, (Savi). Male. Algiers. This appears to be perfectly

identical with the common Indian and Malayan species, the adult males

of which (towards the breeding season) have the head and ear-coverts

dark fuscous-slaty, contrasting with a white chin and line bordering the

throat, and a bright yellow throat and under-parts. Whether during the

height of the breeding season the head becomes pure black, we are un-

aware; but suspect not, though we have seen black-headed specimens in

European museums. Burnes figures one from Kabul, and Mr. Jerdon

refers to such in the Madras Journal, XI, 19, citing them under the name

B, melanocephala.) (1)

B. cinereocapilla, Bonap. Male. Algiers. (Resembles the last, except that the

whole throat, as well as chin, is pure white.)

*B. flava, (L.): B. neglecta, Gould. Male. Algiers. (Identical with speci-

(1) Capt. T. Hutton has subsequently presented the museum with a pair from Kan-

dahar, the male of which has the head, nape, and ear-coverts quite black. His Deyra

Doon species appears to be the same as the Bengal one; but his Pied Wagtail of the Doon

is well distinguished alike from Motacille luzoniensis, alba, and Yarrellii.

1849.] Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. 83

mens from Norway; and scarcely, if at all, distinguishable from some

young specimens of the common Bengal species, which have the white

supercilium more or less developed.)

*B, flaveola, (Tem.): B. flava of British authors, passim: B. Raii, Bonap.

Male. Algiers. (The crown much darker than in British specimens, and

the yellow supercilium, consequently, more strongly contrasting.)

t+Anthus trivialis, (L.) Algiers.

TA. Richardi, Vieillot. Young female. Sicily.

TA. aquaticus, Bechstein. Two specimens : in summer plumage ; Switzerland :

winter dress; Algiers.

tA. campestris, Vieillot : A. rufescens, Tem. Algiers. (Identical with A. rufulus

apud Jerdon et nos ; and the true A. rufulus is decidedly the common A.

malayensis, Eyton.)

Aédon galactotes, (Tem.) Two specimens. Algiers.

{Cisticola cursitans, (Franklin): C. schenicola, Bonap. Algiers. (Undistin-

guishable from Indian specimens, unless it be that the average size is

rather larger, and the black predominates more upon the crown. If pro-

cured in India, this Algerian specimen would scarcely be remarked even

as a slight variety.)

Calamodyta aquatica, (Gm.) Two specimens. Sardinia.

Curruca orphea, (Tem.) Female. Algiers. Distinct from C. Jerdoni, nobis,

- v. C. orphea apud Jerdon, Catal.)

C. melanocephala, (Lath.) Male and female. Algiers.

C. provincialis, (Gm.) Male and female. Sardinia and Algiers.

*Phylloscopus sibilatrix, (L.) Italy.

*Ph. trochilus (L.) Algiers.

*Ph. rufus, (Bechst.) Two specimens. Algiers.

Ph. Nattereri, (Tem.) Two specimens. Italy.

Regulus ignicapillus, Leach. Two males and female. Sardinia.

*Troglodytes ewropeus, (L.) France.

tTichodroma muraria, (L.) Male and female. Sardinia.

Columba livia, L. Four domestic varieties.

Pterocles alchata, (.): Pt. setarius, Tem. Male. Spain.

*Lagopus mutus, Leach: L. alpinus, Nilsson. Male, winter ; female, autumn.

Switzerland.

L. islandorum, Faber : Tetrao hyperboreus, Tem. Male and female. Iceland.

Caccabis greca, (Ray) : Perdix saxatilis, Tem. Male and female, Italy. (Only

differs from C. chukar of the Himalaya, Afghanistan, &c., in having a

purely white throat, and in the ferruginous of the ear-coverts being

less marked.)

M 2

84 Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. [JAN.

Turniz andalusica, (Gm.): Hemipodius tachydromus, Tem. Specimen from

Algiers (Oran).

+Sypheotides afra, (Gm.) Male. 8. Africa.

+Squatarola helvetica, (L.) Two specimens. Algiers.

+Hiaticula cantiana, (Lath.) Two specimens. Algiers.

*H. annulata, G. R. Gray: Charadrius hiaticula, L. Algiers.

+Himantopus candidus, Brisson: H. melanopterus, Ray. Female. Algiers.

*+Hematopus ostralegus, L. Algiers.

{ Tutanus ochropus, (L.) Algiers.

TT. hypoleucos, (L.) Algiers.

*+Tringa muta, (L.) Algiers.

tFalcinellus igneus, (.) Female. Sicily.

tHerodias bubulcus, (Sav.): Ardea russata, Tem. Young. Sicily.

}{Botaurus stellaris, (u.) France.

*Ardetta minuta, (L.) Sicily.

* Sterna paradisea, Brunnich. Adult and young. Algiers and Sicily.

*+St. hirundo, L. Male. Algiers.

* Hydrochelidon nigra, (L). Summer and winter dress, Algiers.

H. leucoptera, (Tem.) Summer dress. Algiers. —

~Xema ridibundus, (L). Algiers.

*Catarracta pomarina, (Tem). Newfoundland.

tPhenicopterus roseus, Pallas: Ph. antiquorum, Tem. Old male. Algiers.

tFuligula nyroca, (L.) Female. Algiers.

TF. cristata, (L). Male. England.

Erismatura mersa, (Pallas): Anas leucocephala, Female. Algiers.

*+Mergus merganser, L. Male. Algiers.

*M. serrator, L. Female. Algiers.

Podiceps auritus, L. Male; breeding dress. Algiers.

*TP. philippensis, Gm. : Colymbus minor, ibid. Two. Algiers.

TESTACEA.

Helix maritima, 2. Oran.

H., lactea, 1. France(Perpignan). 1. Africa(rare).

H. albella, 2. Algiers.

H. hieroglyphica, 2. Oran.

H. Jannotiana, 1. Oran.

H. candidissima, 2. France. J]. Oran.

H. pisana, Muller. 3. France. 1. Algiers.

H. variabilis, 3. France.

H, nictensis, 2. France. 1. do. var. (very rare),

1849. | Proceedings of the Asiatic Society.

H. pyrenaica,

H. cariosula,

H. alabastitis,

H. hispanica, L.

H. Dupoietiana,

H, terrestris, Pennant (H. elegans, Drap., nec Brown).

H. cespitum,

H. olivetorum,

H., splendida,

H. obvoluta, Gualtieri.

H., sylvatica, (Drap. pl. VII, f. 27-29).

Hi, lapicida, L. (Drap. VII, f. 35-37).

Hi. carthusianella, (Drap. VI, f. 31, 32).

H. cornea,

H. fruticum, Chemnitz (Drap. pl. V, f 16-17).

H. naticoides,

H. altenana,

H. hortensis, Muller (Drap. pl, VI, f. 6).

HT. nemoralis, Muller (Drap. pl. VI, 3-5).

H. melanostoma,

H. arbustorum, Muller (Drap. pl. V, f. 18).

H. pyramidata,

H. lenticula,

H. Cervieri,

HA. strigeila,

H. vermiculata,

H. algira, Lister.

Bulimus acutus, Lister.

* B. radiatus,

*B, decollatus, Drapernaud.

Pupa tridens, Drapernaud (pl. III, 57).

P. quadridens,

P. Goodallii, (Mich. pl. XV, f. 39, 40).

P. pyrenaica,

P. avena, (Drap. pl. III, f. 47, 48).

P. secale, (Drap. pl. III, f. 49, 50).

P. cylindrica,

P. variabilis,

P. cinerea,

P. farenesi,

mwoawnyonNyNUnnwrererenbDW

. France.

. Oran.

Africa.

. Oran.

. France.

. Constance:?)

. France.

. Africa.

. France,

. France.

. Oran.

. France.

France.

86 Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. [| JAN.

*Clausilia parvula, (Mich. pl. XV, f. 21, 22). 15. France.

Cl. bidens, (Muller, Drap. pl. IV, f. 5-7). 6. France.

Cl. ventricosa, (Drap, pl. IV, f. 14). Il. France.

Achatina folliculus, 2. Oran.

Lymnea stagnalis, (Muller). 2. France.

DL. auricularis, 4. France.

*Physa hypnorum, 8. France.

Cyclostoma mammillare, Lam. (C'. Volizianum, Michard). 4. Oran.

C. maculatum, Drapernaud (pl. I, f. 12). 6. France.

C. sulcatum, 2. France.

Paludina viridis, (Drap. pl. I. f. 26, 27). 17. France.

*Dreissina polymorpha, (Gm.) 2. France.

* Anadonta anatina, (L. Drap. pl. XII, f. 2). 1. France.

A. minima, Millet (Mem. de la Soc. d’ Hist. Nat. du Dept. de

la Moselle, 1843, 2d Cahier, p. 44). 2. France.

Unio 1 ostrata, (Mich., pl. XVI, f. 25). 2. France.

*U. batava, (Turton). 2. France.

*U, pictorum, (L.; Drap. pl. XI, f. 1, 2, 4). 2. France.

U. Requiennei, 1. France.

With the above collection were also received the following :

From H. E. Strickland, Esq.

Plecotus auritus, Geoffroy.

* Melunocorypha calandra, (L.). Europe.

*Fringilla montifringilla, L. M. and F.

Emberiza aureola, Pallas. Siberia. (N. B. Distinct from the Indian spe-

cies hitherto so termed,—E. flavogularis, nobis,—by having the lores,

supercilia, ear-coverts and throat, black, &c.)

From Mr. A. Bartlett (for sale, or to receive the value in Indian speci-

mens, )—

Of MAMMALIA—

Felis leo, L. Skeleton.

Cercoleptes caudivolvulus, (Pallas). Do.

Procyon lotor, (L.), and

Nasua fusca, Desm. Skulls.

Also skins (without bones) of

Cercopithecus sabeus, (L.) 2, and of

—C. ruber, (Gm.) 2. In bad order.

Felis leo (N. Africa, very fine, and since mounted in the museum), taken from

the individual of which the skeleton is also sent.

1849. } Proceedinys of the Asiatic Society. 87

Procyon lotor, L.

Nasua fusca, Desm. Tail imperfect.

Cercoleptes candivolvulus, (Pallas). Imperfect.

Celogenys paca, (L.)

Cervus virginianus, L. Young male (not good).

C. tarandus, L. Juv. (forwarded on account of the Zoological Society).

Myrmecophaga jubata, L.

Dasypus sex-cinctus, L. (epidermis wanting to bony dermal plates).

Dasyurus viverrinus, (Shaw). brown variety.

Phalangista vulpina, (Meyer).

AVES.

* Macrocercus macao, (L.)

M. ararauna, (L.)

* Chrysotis amazonicus, (Gmelin.)

Chr. leucocephalus, (1.)

Calurus resplendens, Gould.

Rupicola aurantia, Vieillot, 2 males.

Paroaria dominicana, (Gm.)

Psophodes crepitans, (L.) (Bad.)

Penelope jacucacu, Spix.

Tetrao cupido, L. Foem.

Houbara undulata, Jacq. Male.

* Cygnus atratus, Latham.

Dendrocygna viduata, (L.)

* Anas sponsa, L. Male, non-breeding plumage.

Also a collection of glass eyes for stuffed animals.

2, The late G. T. Lushington, Esq. C.S., of Almorah. A skin of Ovis

ammon, Pallas.

3. Mr. Birch, of the Pilot Service. A small living Crocodile.

4. Mr. P. Homfrey. A dead Squirrel (Sciurus purpureus), since prepared

as a skeleton.

5. Babu Rajendra Mallika. Two dead specimens of Satyra cornuta.

AUGUST.

6. Babu Harri Chanda Ghose (Principal Sadir Amin of the 24 Per-

gunnas). A living Felis viverrina, since mounted in the museum.

7. W.C. Thorburn, Esq., now of Sandoway, Arracan. A few mamumalia

and bird-skins, from Chittagong.

88 Proceedings of the Asiatic Society.

SEPTEMBER.

8. Capt. Lewis. A young Kangaroo in spirit.

9. Babu Rajendra Mallika. A dead male of Gazella cora.

10. C. Huffnagle, Esq. A dead specimen of Arctonyx collaris, and one

of Buceros pusaran.

1]. R. W. G. Frith, Esq. A semi-albino Snake, of the species Tropido-

notus umbratus, (Daud.)

12. Babu Rajendra Mallika. Hight species of stuffed Parrots, of which four

are new to the Society’s collection, viz. Coracopsis nigra, (L.), Aprosmictus

erythropterus, (Gmelin), Platycercus semitorquatus, Quoy and Gaymard, and

Eos Nove Guinee, (Latham).

| OcTOBER.

13. Mr. Cleghorn, of the Pilot Service. A specimen, just dead, of the

Anous stolida, (L.), procured at the Sandheads during the violent storm of

that month.

14. Col. Low, Penang. Specimens of an unnamed Swift, and of its nest.

15. Babu Rajendra Mallika. A stuffed female Silver Pheasant (Gallo-

phasis nycthemerus).

NovEMBER.

16. Capt. 8. R. Tickell. A few bird-skins from Darjiling, comprising a

new species and genus of Shrike, for which Capt. Tickell proposes the name

Thamnocataphus picatus.

17. E. L. Layard, Esq., and R. Brodie, Esq., Ceylon. A collection of

mammalia and bird-skins from that island, comprising several new species,

of which I am requested to draw up descriptions for the Society’s Journal.

18. T. Hart, Esq., H. M. Steamer ‘ Inflexible.’ A collection of shells from

New Zealand; also a Pilot fish, Naucrates ductor, (L.); and an Echeneis,

taken in the Indian Ocean: 3 specimens of an apparently undescribed Scin-

coid Lizard from the new settlement of New Edinbro’, New Zealand; and a

few Crabs and other Crustacea taken off the shores of that country.

19. Mr. J. Prosser. Some specimens of Swifts, in spirit, from Penang,

comprising an undescribed species of Acanthylis.

20. R. Fitzgerald, Esq., of N. Carolina. The rattle of a Rattle-snake

(Crotalus).

yy, = - _

Meteorological Register kept at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, for the Month of Jan., 1849.

Lat, 22° 33/28”. 33 N. Long. 88° 23’ 42”. 84 East. Mag. Variation 2° 28' 36” East. Mag. Dip. 27° 45’.

5 : Maximum and Mini-| =

Observations maile at sunrise. ‘Maximum Pressure observed at 9h. 50m. Observations made at apparent noon. Observations made ut 2h, 40m. p. m. Minimum Pressure observed at 4 p.m. Observations made at sunset. Maat Thermometer, [= £ \Raia Gauges

8 T r Wind Temperature, | Wind. & Temperature. | Wind Elevations.

Temperature. | Wind. Temperature. | Wind. Temperature. | Wind. % ‘emperature. ind. & r

x 4 S 2

E é 5 z = Feet.| Feet,| |_s

Z 3 3 = g ee ¢ 8 < a aa alee i 5 e Z

: 2 = G a rd 8 a =| = aes a FS = a ra a 2 a ;

2 s Sale = 5 4| 3 2 a|é 2 |2s| 2 aus 3 a |S WES El = ERS 3 : : i:

2 2 (eel 4 Baiesalins cl = Sie2ei|a a i sel e|elals = S/2/a EI bs St Sr) S = FI é jal

sal = = a 3 rd = < é S a < me s 3S 23/4 | = Ss. Ss a BJ =z s S = a ~ = s Ss z a 2 =\5

3 ello: (eect 3 ela lel 3 Fy eo 2. | 8 2 22/2 |2|2 | 36 z Clete Aes ees 3 Bai eS: |e sa 8 3 ela) 4 =

: 2)/2/)2] 2 2/2/22] 82 yy 2a oie |e é en Sales es ac = Stal |heee |p |e = nl |e |e Maal) te & he We é

a Sus |e 8 2 slslola 2 s/s /s] a4 2 als | 5 | 5 [5 4 Is |sis} a 2 |e) S.|s is | 6 = |2\4\4 a

Hees —|— —— slleaioa] anne: Sate eae a inche| @ 1° |? aches Ole area fox

5 32 78.2 | 76.3 | 62.2 |W.N.W.|Clear. fi peer me daaa 196 | 712 | 628

; 4.7 Clesrs 78.2 | 17.0 | 63.6 |N. W. [Dito 5 IN. N.W.lclear. 80. Clear. 19.2 | 086 | 577

2 By Baar NNN 776 | 76.4 | 6: Ditto N. Ditto Ditto REA STL iSs0

: 4 ied 64.0 JN. W. |Ditto 73.0 | 17.9 | 6 Ditto N. W. [Ditto Ditto 80.0 | 6&2 | 56.

. 4 JN. W, Ditto 19.2 | 66.4 |N. Ditto N.N.W.|Cirro cumuli, Cirro cumuli, | 80.8 | 69.8 | 5i

5 | 08 aa Garena 66,9 NIN. W, Ditto 19.7 | 614 |N. |Ditto Clear. BRO) ADS

m 350| NN. |pite” 619 JN. Dito 77.0 | 630 |N..N.W.{Ditto V.)Ditto

3 | es 53.8 [N.N,W.|Cirro strati. 2 | 66.7 | 694 |NIN.W,|Cirro strati. 60,3 |N.N, W,|Cirro strati. 744 | 60.1 |N. Ciro strati. Cirro strati.

N.N.W. - .162| 67.6 | 68.3 | 59.5 |N. (Clear. .097| 75.2 | 746 | 61.8 |N.N. W.lClear, 17,2 | 63.0 |N. ‘Clear. v,|Clear.

a “df ay plese .128| 66.3 | 67.8 | 60.3 |N. \Cirro cumuli. JOR4) 742 72.0 612 |N,W, |Cloudy. ae -* . . Cloudy.

n | jas 53.2 (Clear. 1178 | 66.4 | 68.5 | 58.9 |N.N. WIClear, *y93| 76.0 | 75.2 | 614 IN: W. [Clear. 789) 618 )N. \Clear. IN. |Clenr. ) eee

12 | “108 53.0 (Cirro strati. 1185) 66.9 | 67.6 | 59.2 IN, Cirro strati. ‘094 | 734 | 71.8 | 587 |NIN.W.|Scattered clds. 73.2 | 59.3 |N. W. |Cloudy. N.N.W.|Cloudy. -|Cloudy. 76.4 | 65.

5 66.7 | 594 |N.N. W.\Clear, .038| 73.7 | 73.0 | 61.3 |N.W. |Clear. N. _,, |Clear. N.W. |Clear. 71,0 | 60.0 \calm. Clear.

1s a0 ee rr 69,9 | 60.0 |N. Ditto 1036| 766 | 75.8 | 624 |N. W. [Ditto W.N.W.|Ditto i N Ditte 722 | 612 |pito’ [Dito

1s | .060 538 Ditto 68.8 | 61.0 |N. W. {Ditto 078| 76.2 | 744 | 628 |N.E, |Ditto N. Ditto . |30.004| 79.0 N. Ditto 73.5 | 61.5 JN, Ditto 600

16 | .046 55.0 Ditto 69,0 | 60.0 |B, Ditto 64.0 |N Circo cumuli. Ww. Cirro cumuli. |99,998| 79.0 W.S.W.|Cirrie 72.6 | 64.2 )3.W. |Cicrocumuli, | 80-5 | 68

5 a E, 2 | 661

8 {Dit tratis N.E._ |Cloudy. Cloudy, E.S.E.|Cloudy. | .g61| 72.8 N. E. |Cloudy. ago | 71.8 | 71,2 | 63.0 (Cloudy. 15°

19 [30.093 57.0 |N. E. N.B. |Ditto Cloudy. N. Ditto tas | 71.2 N. Ditto ‘g92| 67.8 | 66,0 | 61.8 Girrocumul. } 71-2 | 6h.

20 | .037 55.8 |Calm, N.N. W.|Cumuli. ‘Cumulo strati. W.N.W.|Ditto 1985 | 72.9 No W. [Ditto 930 | 70.2 | 68.5 | 61.8 Clear. 74.2 | 65)

7 56.0 |Ditto N.N. W. Ditto Cumuli. N..N.W,|Cumulo strati, [30.009 72.9 | 71.9 V.| Ditto 70.0 | 62.0 |N. Cumuli, 16.9} 66.8

a oe 57.0 \Ditto W. (Clear. Cumulo strati, Ditto 008 | 76. 75,0 Ditto 71.0 | 61.2 |N, Clear. 115 fe

zs E. Dito Clear. Clear. 29,971) 76.2 | 74.8 Clear. . 17, sea

5 Ditto Ditto Ditto . Ditto Cumuli, 81.8 | 69.9

53.3 [Ditto [Ditto .2 IN. Ditto Ditto K Ditto f ‘ Ditto Clear, .

55.0 \Ditto | Ditto a f 60.0 |N.N. E. Ditto Ditto 3 Ditto 1984) 77.0 | 75.0 | 61,8 |N. N.W)|Ditto Ditto 78.3 | 68.2

61.8 Ditto |Foggy. Ditto Vy. Ditto 64.5 |N.N.W. Ditto .955| 79.2 | 77.0 | 628 IN, W. |Ditto 72.5 | 67.4 |N,N.W.|Ditto 81.0 | 71.7] 624 [104,8) 2. “ 28

29 - noes wees -* .- -* wee - -- it see - oo ween oe a ne nee . -* + sees neee -« - - ae oo oe 2

30 56.3 |Calm, |Clear, 124) 70.6 | 74.2 | 62.5 Clear, 080) 77.8 | 77.0 W.|Ditto 79.5 | 65.0 IN. W. Clear. 993) 80.0 | 78.7 Clear. 130.003} 76.0 | 73.7 Calm. |Clear. 815 a =» {102.0] .. ™ 30

31 55.8 |Ditto | Ditto 10 | 70.3 | 71.9 | 620 Ditto 250) 78.8) 778 | 647 IN. W. Ditto 79.9 | 66.3 |N,N.W,|Ditto .977| 80.8 | 79.0 Ditto 000) 76.2 | 74.4 N.N.W.Cirri. BLY | 71.7 | 60.2 |106,2) ppt

Mean 90.056 57.2 | 575 | 53.6 | 30,114 | 67.7 | 684 | 611 30 064| 74.9 | 73.8 | 63,0 29,998 77.3 | 76.2 | 63.5 29,989 | 77.0 | 75.3

Ol the Correspouuing mouth of last year.

30012 554 56,0 540 30,071 68.0 69.3 604 30.018 76.1 75.6 61.5 29.910 787 78.3 620 29,029 78.7 77.3 60.8 29.995 149 726 61,2 (OS eo. ca GN OD

These Observations bave been made for the most part, with a supply of new and firstrate Instruments received into the Observatory, by orders of the Bengal Government ; a brief description of the Instruments seems necessary.

Ast—The Barometer is a standard Instrument by Newman, diameter of the tube 0.504 Inches. The following is the comparative shewing of this Instrument aod those Barometers which were in use atthe Observatory prior to Ist of June, 1844. Barometer by Troughton used prior to the Ist of June, 1844. Observations reduced to 32° Fubrenheit.

Ditto iD ” ” ih » 0.514 Ditto. Ditto... Ditto Col. Everest used from Ist of June to lst of August, 1844. Ditto «-

No, 62 Standard Barometer by Newman used {rom lstof September, 1844 Ditto

2nd.—The Thermometer is a Standard Instrument by Newman, on metal Scale and graduated to 4 of a degree. 86..-. Ditto.+e, Ditto ..,--- Ditto.--..+lrom dd of April, 1847. .... Ditto « Ditto - + 29,667

No. cS fier

ee Balb BT eae by Newman, graduated to single degree divisions, the differeace between Standard Thermometer and dry Thermometer of this Instrument is -+ 0.2, the Temperature of the dry Bulb is taken from the Standard Thermometer, in the event of the quantity moisture, dew point, or dryness, being required, itis necessary the difference adverted to,

¢ taken into calculation,

4th—Maximum and Minimum Thermometer by Newman, The difference between the\s instruments, and the Standard Thermometer is + 0.7 for the former and 0,23 for the latter.

Sih. Ta KA repeats shewa in Column 41 of a Thermometer, in sun's rays, is acquired \yy means of a Newman's Maximum Thermometer having a black bulb.—V'he above Instruments, excepting the Thermometer placed in the sun'srays, ure fixed at above 4} fect from the ground, to a post, in a thickly choppered house, and are freely exposed to the airand sheltered from any influence

of Solar reflection,

‘The height of the Surface of the Mercury in the Cistern of the Sta\dard Barometer in the Observatory attached to the Surveyor General's Office above the Mean Level of the Sea, having been deduced from a Series of Tide Observations taken from a Regiser kept at Kyd’s Dock Yard, the result is recorded for general information

Lowest Monthly Average of Mean Tides in\the Months of February and March, above the Zero of Gauge at Kyd’s Dock Yard, Calcutta,.. 8.38 abr. UILLIER, Capratn,

Difiereace of Level between the Zero of Tide\sauge at Kyd’s Dock Yard, ond the Standard Barometer at the Observatory, sccecceseeen y aaa Fees Geta _

Height of Sundard Barometer aboye the Leyel of the Sea,....++ In charge Surveyor General's Office.

= eS = = = —

a eer Sate " %

De Ca

: toe

ee ae)

Fr,

JOURNAL

OF THE

AWLATIC. SOCIETY,

FEBRUARY, 1849.

General Observations on the contending claims to antiquity of

Brahmans and Buddhists, by Ineut.-Col. Low.

It is only very lately that I had an opportunity of seeing the

CLXVII. No of the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta of

1845; and of perusing the luminous and able critique it contains of

M. Burnouf’s work on Buddhism, by Dr. EK. Roer.

But although the writer, seems to have convinced himself that the

question respecting the disputed antiquity of the Brahmanic and Bud-

dhistic systems of religion, has been fairly set at rest, he can scarcely

hope that every body will be quite prepared to follow his example. I

will confess that some of the arguments adduced were to a certain

extent in accordance with my own views, while others claimed the

reader’s close and unbiased attention, yet it appeared, and does still

appear to me, that many preliminary conditions require to be fulfilled,

and many points, however plausible, to be established by solid proof,

before we can be called upon to give our final assent to the conclu-

sions he has arrived at.

If I might be allowed to propose a theory which should serve to cool

down the fervor of dialectics, and give time for a patient and scrupu-

lous search after such facts as can at this day be only obtained from

ancient Indian MSS. and from architectural remains, and their accom-

panying numismatic, religious and civil, records and inscriptions, it

would be in some such terms as these :-—

No. XXVI—New SErIEs. N

90 General Observations on [Fes.

The brahmans are confessedly a foreign tribe in India, who were

located at first in or about the Punjab.

They must, when they arrived, have been a small body—for they did

not spread as a people beyond their original locality until centuries had

elapsed.*

From internal evidence they must have brought along with them

(from Persia or the N,. W. perhaps) a well defined system of social

polity, and we must suppose a religion.+

If they had a religion, and had reached a clear stage of moral civili-

zation, they must have had a written language: but it is not under

this supposition easy to acccunt for their not having preserved any satis-

factory written account of themselves, either as an offset from their

parent stock—or as a colony in a foreign land.

That the want of such records, and of dates, would, under the same

supposition, lead to the inference that these brahmans wished to conceal

their origin, and to thus give them an opportunity of throwing it back

into the impenetrable darkness of the past. Thus for instance, although

while first peopling or living in the Punjab, they must have been in con-

stant contact with the Asiatic Greek kingdom, yet they have not pre-

served any thing I believe regarding them worthy of much notice, unless

accidently.

They appear also not to have left, in their original seat in the Punjab,

any marks, architectural or otherwise, by which their residence there

could or can be traced, unless there. were, even then amongst them,

schismatics, professing Hero worship, or that of Buddha, who might

have co-operated in the building of the Chaityas there, all of which lead

* As. Res. Vol. X. p. 32. The Peish-cara brahmans were Christians and first

arrived in Ceylon (from Persia in A. D. 77.) There were Peish-cara kings in In-

dian, called the dynasties of Arygo, Saca and Salava, and there were 25 kings of the

Sacas.

+ Wilford says, that Brahma’s heaven lies towards Tartary, and that the Levites

were brahmans.1 Faber considers that Brahma was the Bromius of the Greeks,

the Broum of the old Irish—and when the brahmans desired to represent him in

conjunction with his three sons Brahma, Vishnu and Siva they depicted him with

four heads, but when the triple offspring of the patriarch (Noah) had to be figured,

he had three heads only. These were Jupiter, Neptune and Pluto,—or the Phoeni-

cian Cromus the younger, Jupiter, Belus and Apollo—or Shem, Ham and Japhet.2

1 J. A. 8S. B. Vol. VIII. p. 359, 360. 2 Faber’s Cabiri, Vol. II. p. 381.

1849. ] Brahmans and Buddhists, 91

to the inference that while in that locality their religion was that of the

Vedas, solar and theistical, or agni-istic.

At the time of Alexander’s invasion, brahmans, according to our accep-

tation of the term, do not appear on the stage—at least not as religion-

ists—so that it is to be concluded that if they had a well defined reli-

gion, it was not an obtrusive one—while it seems to be yet doubtful if

brahman was not a name subsequently given to the whole tribe, from

the title of Brahmana, or pure, having been applied to the ascetics, whose

haunts they perhaps chiefly contributed to fill.

The brahmans first start into public notice as intelligent, if not scien-

tific and ambitious laymen, making themselves necessary to kings, and

finally imposing on them their spiritual yoke. They had already begun

to penetrate beyond their original and circumscribed bounds, when Bud-

dha appeared, but all of India, which was in their front and flanks, must

then have been unbrahmanized, and they had not reached Bengal until

about B. C. 300—for Mr. Colebrooke informs us that the brahmans of

Bengal are descended from jive priests (only) who were invited (as astro-

logers perhaps,) from Canyacubja, by Adisura, king of Gaura. There

were then too some Sareswatta brahmans and a few Vaidicas in Bengal.*

There is, I apprehend, no proof that the brahmans had temples in

India previous to the building of Buddhist Chaityas, and Viharos, or

until Buddhism was on the decline.

There is no proof I believe that any brahmanical epigraphic or other

inscriptions exist of a date prior to the earliest Buddhist ones of a simi-

lar description.

The sudden appearance of some of the earlier gods of the brahmans,

when the latter began to see in the near vista a golden ladder reaching

to the throne, shews that these gods had probably held a place in their

creed for a long while before, if we are not to impute the monstrous

birth to an impure, but a ready, fertile, and vivid imagination acting in

concert with, and impelled by the new circumstances of their position.

There is no proof what the actual written character and language of

the brahmans was at the period of their arrival in India. If these

were Sanscrit we should be able to trace them to some more occidental

region.

If both, which is probable, were rude and unpolished, it would be

* As, Res. Vol. V. p. 66.

N 2

a General Observations on [Frs.

equally, if not more, reasonable, to assign to the cognate languages the

Pali and Prakrit, a distinct origin, from however a cognate source, pro-

vided the direct derivation of these last from the Sanscrit cannot be

proved. The Sclavonic, the Latin, the Celtic—Thracian, German and

Medo-Persian are all more or less allied to Sanscrit.* Jaubilicus

declares that the language used in the Mysteries was not that of Greece,

but of Egypt and Assyria, and Homer’s dialect of the Gods, or the Ar-

kite Ogdoad, was Chaldee or Hebrew. The tongues too of Chaldea,

Syria, Palestine, Phenecia and Arabia, are kindred, and the radical lan-

guage was widely diffused to the north and east.

During this process of diffusion we may readily believe that it un-

derwent some modifications, especially before ; and perhaps by different

lines, it reached India.

Lieut.-Col. Sykes goes so far as to say that proof is awanting to shew

that the Sanscrit, in its present form, existed until six or seven centuries

after the Pali.

The brahmans, or those amongst them who were religiously inclin-

ed, finding perhaps on their reaching India, and for centures afterwards,

a race of settlers who were descendants of emigrants from the same

western regions as themselves, and thus allied to them in a great degree

in habits and feelings, readily coalesced with them; and formed the

Brahmana or Ascetic school of holy men, each acting for himself, yet

associating to a certain extent in selected places, leaving the gods, which

then may have been recognized, to be venerated or worshipped by the

multitude ; until the latter, running into the first extravagances of poly-

theism, called for regenerators and reformers, beginning with the first

Buddha, unless the process had begun before the ascetic amalgamation

had taken place, and could then be reduced to a reasonable period.

* M. Suffarik. Foreign Quarterly Review, Oct. 1840.

+ Faber quoting Diodorus, Vol. I.

+ Wilford observes, ‘‘ that long before Christ, a renovation of the universe was

expected all over the world with a Saviour, a King of peace and justice,’ and

the Magi of Scripture carried this idea with them from the East.

‘¢ The new Asz or Godlike men from the east, took to themselves. the names of

the ancient ones and gave themselves to be the real Ase or Gods.’’? Odin was one of

these. The Emperor Augustus was consecrated a God after his death, and both be-

fore and after it temples were erected in his honor and sacrifices offered to him.

1 As. Res. Vol. X. p. 27. 2 Ditto quoting Gylfe.

1849.] Brahmans and Buddhists. 93

The Sannyasis of India at this day, have eighteen modes of devotional

discipline.*

The author of the version of the Milinda Raja informs us in that work

that he has only given an abstract account of the austerities and obser-

vances of the secluded devotees, who aspire to supreme felicity, in the

wild recesses of hills and forests, away from all intercourse with their

species, and that the work itself is merely a compendium,

The 28 rules and observances, &c. &e.

1 Attanang rakk’ hati.

2 Ayungwadhati.

3 Phalang théti.

4 Wachang hitha hati.

5 Ayasang wino theti.

6 Yasamu paniti.

7 Arating nasa yati.

8 Rating uppa theti.

9 Waya apaneti.

10 Wesa rachang kasuti.

11 Kosachha mupanéti.

12 Weripang Chaueti.

13 Watu paneti.

14 Dosu paneti.

15 Mohang.

16 Manang haneti.

17 Suwitakang b’hachéti.

18 Chité Kakkhalang karoti.

19 Chittang Sanné hayati.

20 Hasang jhana yati.

21 Piting upphaj heti.

22 Gharukang karoti.

23 Labhang napphattayati.

24 Mana piyang karoti.

One of these Temples was near Bombay. We find in the late Mr. Turnour’s

translation of the Mahawanso the counterpart of Virgil’s and other antient writers’

accounts of the anticipated renovation of the world where the golden age was to

recommences then the Argonauts were to appear followed by the Argo and so on.

* As. Res. B. Vol. V. p. 38.

94 General Observations on [Fes.

25 K’hanting paliti.

26 Sangh-karanan sab’hawang angséti.

27 B’hawa pati sant’? hang ukghateéti.

28 Sapp’hang samanyang theti.

In the Ratana KalapaI find that under the head Kasina, these or

similar recluses must sit before a small circle of earth until a new reve-

lation of the universe bursts upon them. They must contemplate water,

and fire, and air ;—also the colours, blue, yellow, red, white, the ether,

or empyrean, Akasha, the sky, and light,—all of which are explained in

the Pali work Wis’ uddha Magga.

It may safely be said, that however humanizing in its effects Bud-

dhism may have been, (and it indisputably has always been so in every

Eastern country where it has been established), it is of too self-denying

a nature, and bears too heavily on the resources of a people to last

long in a state of full vigor and purity, and in these degenerate days,

revivals, reformations, convocations, and new infusions of zeal are rare

or nearly obsolete.

These reformers were only revivers of the older doctrines of the

Buddhas ; but the corruptions had so long prevailed that they could not

be easily or completely abated even for a while, and the holy men, or

brahmana, coalescing with the brahmanical tribe, their influence, al.

though operating independently of each other, may have caused the

Buddhas to have been deemed heretics by them, although, if we are

to credit Fa Hain, the term would better apply to the brahmans. These

last certainly were heretics from the religion they brought with them to

India, if the Vedas are its expositors, and if the Buddhists professed

that original faith as emigrants from Persia, so the brahmans were

equally dissenters from it, and greater heretics than the Buddhists.

It is not necessary then while trying to elucidate ancient Buddhist

history, to assail that of the brahmans, or to detract from their soaring

pretensions to civil and religious antiquity. There is room for both to

revel amidst the tortuous mazes of their impalpable chronologies.

It is assuredly however impossible to everlook the fact that the last

Buddha was of a Brahman family, and that his father, a king, support-

ed, according to the Mahawanso, 60,000 Brahman priests. We have no

means of knowing the actual pedigree or parentage of the previous

Buddhas. If what I have (following Sir W. Jones) hinted at, be true,

1849. Brahmans and Buddhists. 95

that the ancestors of all of the civilized people who inhabited India

at Buddha’s advent, were in fact all emigrants from Persia, or from some

country allied to it in religion, then we might easily infer that if the Bud-

dhists really separated themselves from the brahmans, the schism must

have begun about the time when they had but just arrived, if not before

it, in the Punjab, that the Buddhists preserved the gods and genil

which they had mutually worshipped in Persia, while the brahmans,

although retaining also these deites, were on the other hand diverging into

polytheism—and that these Buddhists engrafted hero or man worship on

their own original faith, having either become acquainted with it before

their emigration or obtained it from more early emigrants then settled in

India—or perhaps from subsequent emigrants from Asia west of India.

Again, how are we to account for the peculiar style of architecture of

the Buddhists, and their various emblems.

The former could not, one might suppose, have been based on types

handed down by the brahmans, nor have all at once sprung into exist-

ance. The Dagobahs too, or Chaityas of the third Buddha Kassapo,

belonged therefore to a former age—and their shape was transmitted to

the followers of Sakya Buddha.

That the idea of a tomb, gradually expanded into a magnificent Chait-

ya or relic fane, might have been the natural result of man-worship

established for centuries, may be readily admitted. But if the original

man or hero worshippers, came from the west, then we can be in no

difficulty for precedents.

This course is apparently much more reasonable than that which

traces the architectural types from the east to the west.

If indeed the Buddhism of India was to be deemed the parent, as it

has been by many, of western Buddhism, then it must truly have been

of a much greater antiquity than has been claimed for it by its modern

advocates, at least it would in such case reach beyond the historical

period.

If India, as some writers have supposed, gave a religion—Hinduism

in its present acceptation, it could not have been—to the western nations,

or to one or more of them, then it would be difficult for us to accord

with their etymological inductions, since the radicals in such a case

would necessarily have appertained to an Indian language, not to San-

serit or its derivatives, which came with the Indian races and brahmans,

96 General Observations on [Fes.

and apparently at a later period into India. Western Buddhism would

rather seem to have had its origin in the Persian empire, or in some

other region of western Asia.

The learned Wilford, in his 6th Essay, apparently deems Meru a tem-

ple to God, but says, the Buddhists consider it as the tomb of the son

of the spirit of heaven, and that their pyramids, in which the sacred

relics are deposited, be their shape what it will, are imitations of the

worldly temple of the Supreme Being, and which is really the tomb of

the first of his embodied forms or of his son—and also that the real

place where the Thakur’s bones are deposited should be unknown, to pre-

vent profanation, as in the case of Osiris’s tombs. Therefore it is said

that the Thakur’s bones are not placed in the pyramid, but in a small

vault deep under ground at some distance from it, as at Sarnatha near

Benares.* His secret vault is called Catz.*

This practice seems to have belonged to the followers of the former

Buddhas, for we find from the Mahawanso, from the accounts given in

the above translated book, Phra Thom and from all disclosed I believe of

the topes or Chaityas, which have been opened, that the relics were de-

posited openly in presence of multitudes of spectators, im a vault either

in the centre of the lower portion of the spiral structure, some feet above

the ground, or else in one under, or in, the middle of the foundation.

Wilford observes that “ although the brahmans are not addicted to

the worship of dead men’s bones, still he knows one imstance to the

contrary. At Jagannatha, they have a bone of Krishna, which is

considered a most precious and venerable relic. It is not allowed to be

seen, and neither Hindus nor Bauddhas are fond of making it the subject

of conversation.” It is most probable that the temple built at ‘ the

Diamond Sands,’’ stood on the site of Jagannatha, and that the heretical

brahman Buddhists would, along with the mass of the people, have per-

petuated the ancient veneration for the relics, but under anew name.

Balas is one of the titles of Buddha but now little known. This word,

properly pronounced, sounds exactly like Belos in Greek and Belus in

Latin. May we not then reasonably suppose that the temple and tomb

of Belus at Babylon was a monument precisely like one of Buddha, and

calculated for the very same purpose ?+

* As. Res. Vol. X. p. 129, et seq. tT As. Res. Vol. X. p. 134.

1849. | Brahmans and Buddhists. 97

The pyramids, like all the temples of Belus in India, had no opening

whatever.* I think later excavations have proved that there were en-

trances to the pyramids of Egypt which had been shut up. The find-

ing of Sarcophagi under the pyramids seems to have settled the ques-

tion as to their origin. The Musalmans, observes Wilfold, aver that

the world is now under the 4th Buddha; Zoroaster or Zarades or Zoroa-

des or Zarat, was the eldest Zoroaster, son of Oromazes, who was ac-

cording to Lindas, “ The Spirit of Heaven,” and who directed his

bones to be carefully preserved. He is supposed to have assisted at the

tower of Babel. The antiquity of relic worship can hardly be disputed.

There were four Adams, and four Buddhas. Adam’s body was entomb-

ed at his own request in a cave or vault called Alconuz, in a mountain in

the centre of the world (of course the Hindu Meru), and represented by

artificial hills. Adam’s remains after the flood were divided amongst

his posterity.

Let us now turn again to Faber, in his highly interesting account of

the Cabiri, a great deal of which however rests perhaps on probabilities

and controvertible etymologies. He says that the Mithratic cavern of the

Cabiri, was not always subterraneous, but sometimes lay concealed in

the centre of enormous buildings of the pyramidal form. Such was the

Tower of Babel, which was yet standing in the days of Herodotus,+ who

describes it as consisting of eight towers gradually tapering to the top,

with a temple at the top, and a shrine at the bottom, with a statue of

Jupiter Belus, or the solar Noah. The pyramidal form was probably

adopted in honor of the sun, and in imitation of the tapering flame, as

indeed the very name of pyramidal seems to imply this.

Now if the temple on the top be reckoned as the eighth story, we

shall have an exact counterpart of a Buddhist Chaitya without the

surmounting umbrella. The temple of Jupiter Belus, stood exactly

where one of Buddha now does, in modern Chaityas in Ava and Siam.

As to the above definition of pyramid, the lexicons explain the word

pyramis without any such allusion to flame or fire, merely describing it

as globular or cylindrical or quadrilateral at bottom, but tapering up-

wards, or a geometrical solid figure, whose base is a polygon, and the

sides plain triangles, whose several points meet in one.

* As. Res. Vol. X. p. 134.

T Faber’s Cabiri, Vol. II. p. 384, citing Herodotus, lib. I. c. 181-3.

98 General Observations on [Fex-

But if the root of pyramis, be as it seems to me, pyra, we should come

at once to a simple exposition of the origimal mtent of a pyramid, ac-

cording to the Latins ; for pyra implies, and is, a heap of wood made for

the BURNING of a DEAD BODY, a funeral pyre or pile. This at least

shews that the belief of the Latins was that Babel was a mausoleum as

well as the pyramids.

The tower of Babel seems to me to have been raised in honor of some

great legislator, or some social or spiritual benefactor. The people of

the various countries in its vicmity would, as in the cases of building

Buddhist temples in after times in India, Ceylon, &c. have flocked

to the spot to assist in its erection, and there would then of course

have been a conflict of languages, which might have impeded the work.

But it went on apparently to completion, and then the strangers

dispersed. Faber says, the tower had seven stories, which is the num-

ber in a Buddhist Chatya.

It is very improbable that if the idea of raising Dagobas was indigen-

ous, and normal, amongst Indian Buddhists, the latter should have hit

exactly on the number seven.

If the Pali character slowly advances from a remote date until it

insensibly blends itself with, or almost loses itself in the Sanscrit, then,

if it did not belong to the Palis or Buddhists, or to some other ancient

tribe of people, not brahmans, the latter should be able to shew their

own records of the olden time, couched in that character. It would be

predicating I should think a great deal, and more than facts yet warrant,

were we to assume that during the many centuries throughout which

this cliaracter was seemingly bemg wholly appropriated by people not

brahmans, these last were holding that people in civil subjeetion. Nor

is there any glimpse to direct us to the point whence the supposed

heretics, the Buddhists, took the lead of the brahmans—for this must

have been long before Sakya Muni’s time, if we are to believe that

Chaityas—which kind of monuments were never, as far as we know,

tolerated by brahmans—existed long before his ministry,

But the brahmans I believe have no monumental records of Hindu-

ism to shew of a date anterior to those of the Buddhists and couched in

the Pali character. It is said they were not historians, nor given to

transmitting to posterity on stone or metal any records of themselves

or of other people. The truth would seem to be that, having failed to

1849. | Brahmans and Buddhists. 99

make, or at least to preserve, any clear account of their own advent in

India, they could not, while confined to the Punjab, have had much

either of a political or religious nature—which their pride would have

allowed them to register.

But let us turn to their debouchment on the plains of India, and we

shall see that when they had at last set their feet on the necks of the

- Buddhists, what marvellous aptitude they displayed for the crafts of

the builder, the sculptor, and the engraver.

And here again we may pause to enquire or conjecture, whence such

acquisitions were derived. We want much indeed two series of draw-

ings for comparison. One of the architectural and inscriptive monu-

ments of the Buddhists, and another of those of the Brahmans and

Hindus—arranged chronologically. That the Greeks of the Punjab

taught the former the art of sculpture is highly probable, and will ac-

count for the best specimens their temples afford. This will be more

probable, if, as I suspect, the best specimens of Brahmanical and Hindu

sculpture were posterior to Greek domination in Bactria, and to Greek

influence in the countries around it.

It may be allowed and we may reasonably believe, that India was

densely peopled when the brahmans arrived on its frontier.

If this had not been the case, that tribe would not have entangled

itself in the Punjab, but would have sought out pleasanter quarters on

the banks of the Ganges or some part of central or southern India. That

they did not do so, is proof that they feared the people then possessing

India. It is not very probable then that the minority in this early

stage of their progress should be able to impose their own customs,

laws, and religion upon the majority. For such a consummation it

would be requisite first to shew, if indeed that even would be sufficient,

that the then occupants of India were a savage, unlettered, and unreli-

gionized race or races, ready to view the strangers as demigods, and to

bend their necks to their civil and spiritual domimation—and to yield

up their native freedom to the unmitigated thraldom of caste.

The brahmans found caste, I suspect, a social arrangement of long

endurance, and only altered it to the extent of placing themselves on

the highest bench. For as caste was a social system of the Persians, we

must suppose the Indians, if they did come from that country, to have

brought it with them.

0 2

100 General Observations on (Fes.

The Buddhists recorded every notable event on stone or on metal,

particularly such as had reference to religion and its royal supporters,

a feature which distinguished them from the brahmans for many cen-

turies,—and has it yet been shewn that there are Hindu or Brahmani-

cal temples older than the sthupas or chaityas ?

Can it be proved what existing language of India, written and spoken,

cognate to the Sanscrit, has been directly derived from it, without re-

ference to the Pali?

Ancient Indians.

There would be no difficulty in assigning an origin to the race or

races which peopled India previous to the arrival of the brahmans,

could we implicitly rely on the conclusions or suppositions of Sir W.

Jones, that it was the same with the original inhabitants of Persia. His

proofs and reasoning would seem to lead us in many instances to the

desired haven of truth, but the former are imperfect, as he himself ad.

mitted, and I suspect not strong enough to create a thorough conviction

of their cogency.

However, as I have already hinted, there is no cause why we should

not suppose with every degree of probability, that the brahmans were

not the first civilized people who came as emigrants from the west; and

if Persia did not receive her civilization from India, as Sir W. Jones

hints they did, the Indians may have obtained at various, and perhaps

distantly, separated periods, their civil organization, especially that of

caste, and their religion or religions from Persia. We have not cer-

tainly any thing very positive to shew that man-worship came from

that country, but there were many, and apparently well beaten tracks,

leading from the various nations of central and northern Asia to Hin-

dusthan, by which that peculiar worship may have been imported.

Besides, if we refer to the above author’s writings,* we shall find

that Mahabad, who was the first (at least reputed) king of Iran, and of '

the whole earth, received a sacred book in a heavenly language from the

Creator, and “that Fourteen Mahabads had appeared or would ap-

pear in human shapes for the government of this world.” ‘These are

the 14 Menus,” &c.

The manner in which these Mahabads are recorded, indicates them

to have been rather spiritual superiors than mere kings, metempsycho-

* As, Res. Vol. V.

1849. | Brahmans and Buddhists. 101

logical personages perhaps, or Buddhas or heroes. The Buddhists there-

fore may have easily derived their list of regenerators or Buddhas from

Persian history, or tradition carried by them to India, whether we are

to look upon them as forming a portion of the emigration to the Panjab

or as belonging to previous or subsequent migrations to India. Indeed,

this author assumes it as a fact that the brahmans came from Iran,

and that the ancient Indians and Persians were Hindus, or in other

terms, Cusians, or Casdeans or Scythians, who had established a pow-

erful dynasty in Persia, and whose history had been engrafted on that

of the Hindus of Uyodhya and Indraprestha. But this latter supposi-

tion only embraces one or more partial emigrations from the west. The

whole of India and its shores south of the Gangetic Provinces are not

here accounted for, and the variety of tribes which now people that

area, exhibit a considerable difference in their physical developments,

hence a wide field is opened I suspect for research. That the emigrations

to upper or N. Western India were by land, can hardly be doubted, and

their progress may have been gradual, for architectural remains in the

regions intermediate betwixt central Asia and India are supposed, and

with, I think, much probability, to exist, if found, to attest these last

suppositions. But it appears I think equally probable that emigrations

to the coasts, and their inclosed areas of India, took place by sea.

If emigrations had taken place from Persia or any other focus in

central Asia, to India, anterior to the arrival of the brahmans, they too

must have brought with them the religions prevalent at the respective

periods in the parent state. But have we any architectural remains,

unconnected with Brahmanism or Buddhism, which can lead us to con-

clude what these religions if any, were,—assuming here for the sake of

elucidation, that Buddhism was indeed posterior to Brahmanism. It is

to be conjectured, not—unless the Pali comes to our aid.

It is difficult to resist the conclusion, after a perusal of Sir W. Jones’

arguments, that ‘‘ the brahmans came directly from Persia.” If this

position could be distinctly proved, the period might, with tolerable

precision, be fixed, when they did arrive ; by a comparison of their reli-

gious dogmas, as they exist i the Vedas, and in the religion which pre-

vailed in Persia when Zeratusht, as Sir W. Jones informs us, had

added to the Sabism and fire worship of Kyumers, which were per-

fected by Hushang,—the new family of Genii or Angels, and also new

102 General Observations on [Fes.

ceremonies for the adoration of fire, while at the same time they might

be supposed to have still retained a belief in the theism which originally

prevailed in Persia.

This would perhaps throw back the date of their emigration to a pe-

riod preceding Zeratusht, for this reformer had gone to India to gain

instruction from these very brahmans in theology and ethics; thus per-

haps evincing his knowledge or belief of their having carried these

sciences from Persia. This date might be fixed somewhere betwixt

B. C. 800 and the advent of Zeratusht.

Sir W. Jones does not in the essay I have been alluding to notice

the Pali character or language. But if the Sanscrit, as he states, can be

traced, and, in a great measure, identified with the oldest languages in

Persia, then both the character and idiom of the Pali may perhaps be

followed up to the same source through a separate channel.

Much philological acumen will be required to fix the precise relations

in which the Deri or refined Parsi,—the Pahlavi and Chaldaic, Assyriac,

Zend and its Awesta,—the Pracrit, Sanscrit, and Pali stand towards

each other. But until this shall be accomplished no sound reasonings

or deductions can be made regarding their precise ages, nor that of the

races who employed them.

I am not aware that the foregoing writer’s position, that the Parsi

and the various other Indian dialects were derived from the language

of the brahmans, has as yet had the confirmation of the learned in Ku-

rope ; although it be still one which has the support of some orien-

talists.* |

If etymology could be tolerated ina subject like the present, the words

Pali and Bali might be supposed to have sprung from D. Herbelot’s

Pahlavi and Pahalevi—or from the words Pahali and Bahali, which he

says the Persians used indifferently.

If the character which has been so felicitously and ably traced back

by Prinsep and Dr. Mill to a remote period through all of its proteous

forms, be the Pali, let us then be told how and when it branched off

from the Sanscrit, and why it was kept distinct.

As the transitions of the Pali went on, each successive one may have

left that one which preceded it to be employed for recondite purposes.

But if latterly the Maghadi was not the priestly or exoteric language,

* As, Res. Vol. II. from p. 49 to 64.

1849. | Brahmans and Buddhists. 163

where shall we look for it, at least before Sanscrit became the language

of the Buddhists? If the Pali and Sanscrit characters be originally the

same, then the antiquity of the brahmans in Hindustan would either

be thrown back to a remoter period than orientalists might be disposed

to admit, or the brahmans would be considered as a colony which had

imported with them to that country a form of the same character used

by the earlier occupiers of it, and which from having arrived at a more

advanced stage of improvement than the Pali, gradually superseded it,

while the Sanscrit language took the place of the Magadhi for a similar

reason.

The primeval worship of Hindustan may have been that of demons,

spirits and genii, being that natural religion, which in every age and

under every stage, from savage life up to the dawn of civilization, has

been the result of fear, and of the instructive impulse towards the pre-

servation of life.

It is very probable that the mental obscurity was first brightened by

emigrations from the west, at periods long antecedent to the arrival of

the brahmans, and that the latter may have pursued the same track.

It is hardly possible that any emigrants from the west, however differing

in the periods of their arrival, should not have had something common

in their civil organization, religious dogmas, and metaphysical subtleties.

Thus it appears to me easy to account for the Buddhists having in

their system of religion the earlier gods of the brahmans, Brahma, Ish-

wara, Indra, with a similar train of Devatas deities probably venerated

under other names in Arabia and Central Asia. I allude to Sakya

Buddhists, for of previous Indian Buddhism we may be said to be

almost totally ignorant, unless we can prove that some of the volumes of

Buddhist theology which now exist were extant before Buddha Sakya’s

advent.

The corruptions of polytheism seem to have begun amongst the In-

dians long before Sakya’s time ; and to have modified Buddhism. This

last took shortly after his death a more corrupted form; not that of

simple hero-worship, which it probably was at first, but as that of a

man converted into a demigod.

We have only to turn towards the west to be convinced how prone

all the nations of antiquity were to man-worship in the first instance, and

to that of his apotheositical form in the second. But there may

104 General Observations on [Fes.

be a prebias in the human mind to deify, as there certainly is a predis-

position in the minds of the mass to venerate, great benefactors to the

race, and therefore these separate feelings may operate independently in

any country, although the objects of them are more likely to be borrow-

ed by infant nations from those further advanced than themselves, than

to have been indigenous.

T do not know why it would be necessary to go to such a distance for

the ancestry of the natives of India as the learned Bryant does, nor do

I know the positive grounds, if any, on which he founds his assertions

that the Hindus, alias blacks, came to India from Shinar, and that they

are believed to have been originally Scythians or Cuthites, the posterity

of Ham, from Chus, his son; and that they settled on the Indus, and

subsequently migrated to Ethiopia above the Cataracts. I apprehend

however that by Hindus the brahmans alone are meant, and the inatten-

tion to the proper distinction betwixt the terms Hindu and brahman, is

apt to create misconceptions. Brahman could hardly have been the origi-

nal name of the tribe, but one imposed on them by the Indians when

they arrived, being worshippers of Brahma.

But the better informed Wilford on such points tells us that there

were two tribes of this people, the Canyacubja or Canoje brahmans, and

those from Sacadwip, called Saca or Sacalas,* while the brahmans admit

generally that they settled in Canoje. If it could be proved that any

of the race first came from the west and settled in or near the delta of

the Indus, the above origin assigned to them would be rendered more

probable, or in other words, less improbable than that of their having

proceeded directly from Shinar.

The Siamese divide the brahmans into two tribes also; Bryant indeed

says that they occupied the country on the banks of the Indus,—the

Sinthus of the Periplus,—Guzerat or Juzerat, or Cutch,—Cambaia or the

Bay of Cham, and that they were Lords of the sea, or Paloe Semunder

the sea of the Pali or Selandwe or Serindeb or Singhala Dwipa, or Seilan

or Ceylon. But it is known that brahmans descended from the Punjab

and settled at the mouth of the Indus, and I think it probable that from

thence they prosecuted voyages to the eastward in concert with Arab

navigators.

After all however, it is certain that we have not far advanced in the

* J. A.S. B. Vol. IX. pp. 40—74.

1849.] Brahmans and Buddhists. 105

investigation of the ancestry either of brahmans or the more original

tribes or people of India, since the day when the revered founder of our

Society electrified the world of letters by his speculations, and his keen

and logical discourses on Asia, in its widest sense. A rapid glance at

some of these profound essays or discourses will perhaps shew that

until we can produce adverse facts, we shall have to rest, whether con-

tended or not, with what he has laid before us regarding the ancient

civil, political, religious and literary history of the brahmans and Indians.

He sets out by informing us that “ the first Indian monarchs can hardly

be supposed to have reigned less than three thousand years ago.—Of

course there is no proof of this position.

“<The Dabistan describes a religion called Hushang, which was long

anterior to that of Zeratusht, and several of the most eminent of the

Persians, dissenting in many points from the Gadrs, and persecuted by

the ruling powers of their country, retired to India, where they compiled

a number of books now extremely scarce ; (then) further, that a Dynasty

termed Mahabadian (q Maha) had been established for ages in Iran,

before the accession of Kayumers.* Hence,” adds Sir W. Jones, “ the

Iranian monarchy must have been the oldest in the world.”’ It seems to

me that if these emigrants were brahmans or men who afterwards assumed

that name, we ought to find the earliest brahmanical worship to correspond

with the religion of Hushang, which supplanted the ancient religion of

Iran or Deism. The Vedas sufficiently attest that the first brahmans

were sun and fire worshippers, yet perhaps retaining faint perceptions of

the ancient Deism of Persia, which had itself been debased by poly_

theism, and thus affording a nucleus around which they could weave

their own tangled and plural system of gods and energies, male and

female.

« Every just and benevolent man, whether he perform or omit these

(ceremonies) is justly styled a brahman.”+ Thus the Vedas gave no

religious superiority to brahmans.

But the sun was that “ great effulgent power which is Brahma himself,

and he is called the light of the radiant sun. It is the greatest of lights,

and is the principle of life in all beings.t The sun, says Yajunyawalcya,

is Brahmé, and this is a certain truth revealed in the Vedas.’’§

* Sir W. Jones’ 6th Disc. on the Persians. A. R. VJ. p. 48, et seq.

7 As. Res. Vol. V. t Ditto ditto, p. 349. § Ditto ditto, p. 353,

106 General Observations on | Fes.

The sun is the eye of the universe. There is none greater among the

immortal powers. From him the universe proceeded, and in him it will

reach annihilation. It is the three irradiating powers, or forms,

Brahma, Vishnu and Rudra.*

The Malays derived from the Hindus, I suppose, their name for the

sun, mata hari, the eye of day.

“The court language of Iran about Mohammed’s time, and when

Anusharavan sat on the throne of Persia, was called Deri, while that

of the learned was named Pahlavi. The former was only a refined and

elegant dialect of the Parsi.

Besides these, there was a very ancient and abstruse tongue known to

priests and philosophers, called the language of the Zend, because a

hook on religious and moral subjects had been written in it. That is,

the character was the Zend, and the language Awesta.

Hundreds of Parsi nouns are pure Sanscrit, and very many Persian

imperatives are the roots of Sanscrit verbs.” The corollary or deduc-

tion made from these facts does not yet seem to have been adopted by

the learned, “ that the Parsi was derived, like the various Indian dialects,

from the language of the brahmans.”

If the brahmans came from Persia, it is more likely that they should

have brought the Parsi, or the Pahlavi along with them.

But “the Zend bears a strong resemblance to Sanscrit, and the Pah-

lavi to Arabic.”? Hence, according to this assumption, the brahmans

brought the Zend with them.

Could any of the characters of the ancient inscriptions decyphered by

Prinsep be traced back to one of these Persian Alphabets, as they have

been formed into Sanscrit ? ‘‘ The Zend language was at least a dialect of

the Sanscrit, approaching perhaps as nearly to it, as the Pracrit, or other

popular idioms, which we know to have been spoken in India two thou-

sand years ago.”

This date would fall about the period when it is probable the third

Buddha Kassapo may have appeared.

“‘ The oldest discoverable languages of Persia therefore were Chaldaic,

from which Pahlavi was derived, and Sanscrit, and when they had

ceased to be vernacular, the Pahlavi and Zend were deduced from them

respectively, and the Parsi either from the Zend or immediately from the

dialect of the brahmans. But all had perhaps a mixture of Tartarian.”’

* As. Res. Vol. V. p. 354.

1849.] Brahmans and Buddhists. 107

Where we have no unbroken clue to guide us, the truth cannot be

indisputably established, and it seems meanwhile more consistent with

the plan on which learned investigationsin our days are carried on to

consider the Sanscrit, or its parent language and character, to have had

their origin in Persia, or in any other region where the Zend had pre-

vailed.

“The primeval religion of Iran was a pure deism.* That which

succeeded it was Sabian.”

Tn the first we find that in addition to the inculcation of the belief in

one supreme God, maker and continual governor of the world—in a

pious fear, love and adoration of him, and a due reverence for parents

and aged persons, and a fraternal affection for the whole human species,

it is enjoined to have a compassionate tenderness even for the BRUTE

CREATION.

This last injunction is a prominent one in the Buddhist creed, but

has no place in brahmanism or sacrificing Hinduism.

If the brahmans did emigrate from Persia, then it appears to me, as

I have already stated, that it must have been after—but not long after—

Sabianism had become the popular worship—because the brahmans

were originally, as settlers in India, if we are to judge from their earliest

books, Theists, and Sabists combined—for if they did not publicly wor-

ship the Host of Heaven they venerated the sun and moon, and perhaps

other celestial bodies. But at what period the Sabians took precedence

of Theists in Persia does not clearly appear, or we might perhaps fix

the period when the brahmans arrived mm India. The brahmans and

Persians both worshipped, as many of the former now do, fire. But I

apprehend that the Hushangites, who fled to India as above quoted, pro-

bably formed a distinct sect there from the brahmans, and retained

longest the Unitarian doctrines. Sir W. Jones deemed the doctrines

of the Zend to be quite distinct from those of the Vedas.

“Thus it has been proved by clear evidence and plain reasoning that

a powerful monarchy was established in Iran long before the Assyrian

or Pishdadi government. That it was in truth a Hindu monarchy,

though any may choose to call it Cusian, Casdean or Scythian—that

it subsisted many centuries, and that its history has been engrafted on

that of the Hindus, who founded the monarchies of Ayodhya and Indra-

* As. Res.Vol. V. p. 58.

P 2

108 General Observations on [Fes.

prestha—that the language of the first Persian Empire was the mother

of the Sanscrit, and consequently of the Zend and Parsi, as well as of

Greek, Latin and Gothic; that the language of the Assyrians was the

parent of the Chaldaic and Pahlavi, and that the primary Tartarian lan-

guage also had been current in the same empire, although, as the Tar-

tars had no books or even letters, we cannot with certainty trace their

unpolished and variable idioms.”

In this paragraph the brahmans and Hindus appear to be blended

into one people. The present Tartarian alphabet is plainly derived

from some derivative of the Sanscrit; Ivan or Persia is the common

country (it is continued) from which migrated the Hindus, Arabs, and

Tartars ; and it is considered highly probable that the Britons came from

Armenia, the Goths or Seythians from Persia, and the Insh and old

Britons from the borders of the Caspian.*

“The Hindus, Chinese and Japanese proceeded from some ancient

stem distinct from the Arabian and Tartarian one. But all the three

stems may be traced to Iran, as to a common centre, from which it is

highly probable that they diverged in various directions about 4000

years ago.’ +

However delightful to the imagination these speculations may be, we

must, I fear, for want of clear demonstration, resume our stand on the

threshold of induction.

In some such terms then as the foregoing, the respective claims of

brahmans and Buddhists might be consigned to abeyance, until the

learned should have decided upon them by an induction from all the

facts which history and research can afford, and the claimants be

allowed to revel in the meantime amongst the sweets of antiquity

respectively.

But I cannot resist the temptation which Dr. Roer’s lucid exposition

offers, for makimg a few concluding observations on the discussion in

question, and in so doing I will follow up the arguments by which he

wishes to convince us that the brahmans have won the field.

He observes that through M. Burnouf’s researches we have re-

turned to the central source of the Buddhist writings, from which all

others, with exception of the Pali, are only radiations.t This position

* As, Res. Vol. II. Disc. on Hindus. t Ditto ditto, on Chinese p. 381.

t No. CLXVII. J. A. S. B.

1849. | Brahmans and Buddhists. 109

we could wish to see placed in a clearer light; and to have the Pali

alloted its definitive position in Indian theology and literature. He

admits or reports that the language of the Sanscrit books on which

M. Burnouf’s learned work rests is barbarous. But we would also desire

to learn their earliest dates and those of the character (or characters)

im which they are written, so that a close and rigid comparison might

be instituted betwixt that language and character or characters, and

the Pali and the language it clothed. The most barbarous of the two

in both of these respects might perhaps seem entitled, after such a

scrutiny, to claim the preference, If the Pali and Sanscrit were alike

barbarous at any given period, the brahmans could claim the merit of

having brought the latter quickly to perfection; that the Buddhists,

fond as they were of recording their religious history in the Magadhi,

were induced at last to adopt it; although perhaps this may have been

partly owing, as I have before noticed, to heretical innovations.

If the Sanscrit and Pali character and language should be found to have

been the same originally, then we should have one clue to trace Sanscrit

to its fountain, namely, the most ancient specimens of Pali extant.

We are still, I think, deficient in proofs that “the Buddhist religion

overcame that of the brahmans, on its own ground.’ Ji might rather

be said that the former outstripped the latter in the race—for there was

no hostility apparently betwixt the followers of either, but rather a phi-

losophical and polemical rivalry, which did not, until a long time had

elapsed become debased into a mutual virulence and hatred.

It is asked, if Buddhism has been able to overcome the intellectual

barrier with a great number of the Hindus, the tenacious adherence to

their religious impressions—and also why should christianity not be able

to exercise a similar influence over the Hindu mind?

To answer this question we require a much more correct knowledge

than we now possess of what the Hindus and Buddhists, particularly

the former, really believed and practised in ancient times. The Hindus

of those earlier days were not trammelled to the pantheistic car, which

they now so painfully, although willingly, drag along. Hinduism then

was not transcendental, but an incipient monster with undeveloped.

energies, neither prepared to compel veneration nor to attract it, by

diffusing around itself a false glare and splendour. Besides, the Bud-

dhists and Brahmans had one or two connecting links. Both had appar-

110 General Observations on [ Fes.

ently worshipped the same God and Genii originally—if not up to the very

period of their dividing in doctrine; and the Buddhists still retained

these Genii or Devatas, in their theogony, although divested of the

superior potency formerly accorded to them—while both had lost sight

of the supreme Ruler of the universe. Numbers of the Buddhist

Priests too were brahmans—and some of these were learned in the

Vedas, containing doctrines which all the people who emigrated to India

from ancient Persia must, during a certain period, have known and

followed.

It can be little matter of wonder then, that multitudes of the peo-

ple should have followed these converts, much less so if these were

priests—and I have not met with any mention of a regular brahman

priesthood at the time when Buddha the 4th, preached his doctrine.

But it is evident that the first converts at least were brahmans—men

well versed in brahmanical learning, as all the learned Buddhists

appear to have been from the earliest times of which any Buddhist

records remain, and were led to adopt Buddhism from a conviction of its

merits, founded on open discussion and a rigid comparison betwixt these

and those of their own dogmas. Ifa few brahman priests of acknow-

ledged sanctity were at the present day to expose the falsity of Hindu-

ism, without being persecuted for so doing, and to preach the moral-

ety of christianity, as Buddha did that of some foregoing Indian sys-

tem,—we may suppose that the faith of the multitude would be shaken,

and that numbers would separate and follow the new apostles, even

although the fetters of superstition are much more firmly rivetted upon

them now than seem to have been those which shackled the Hindu of

B,C. 543. For one God worshipped then by the Hindus, they have

now tens perhaps.

A new Avatar if now promulgated by the brahmanical priesthood,

acting in concert, would probably consign the whole of the Hindu Pan-

theon to Naraka.

But these men, supposing even that they are not sincere in their

present belief, have no worldly motive, nor are likely soon to have one,

for repudiating their gods. There are no christian kings, and Adhi

Rajas, at whose right hands they can sit as counsellors, astrologers or

priests—the door of ambition is for them but narrow, and the objects

which at best could be gained were it laid widely open are, when

1849.| Brahmans and Buddhists. 111

put in comparison with their former actually enjoyed, moral and politi-

cal ascendency, paltry. Further, it appears from Dr. Roer’s critique

that “the Sanscrit words in the Nepal records have often acquired new

acceptations.”’—Q. May new ideas not have followed ?

** Buddhism,” observes Dr. Roer, “is no primitive religion, but one

of those which are founded on the development of preceding religious

opinion.’ Granted to a certain extent.

I have already quoted some authorities whose opinions regarding the

Buddha of the west have, when combined with what we know of the

religion as it existed and exists in the east, led me also to nearly the

above conclusion. I mean that the Buddhism which was re-established

by the ministry of Gotama Buddha, was one which originated at some

undefinable period before his advent, and that it was attempted to be

engrafted on Brahmanism (at a more recent period) however, under the

form of a moral improvement, and also that the authentic records we yet

possess, do not clearly define the original line of separation betwixt

Brahmanism and Buddhism.

It appears to me also that the Hero worship of the west was at some

remote period propagated in India by emigrants from thence, as well as

the worship of Devas, corresponding to the primitive deities of the brah-

mans, and that this idea was first subsequently adopted by the sects

of philosophical moralists, who being desirous of perpetuating the names

of the prominent reformers, gave each of them an apotheosis, and then

raised Chaityas and towers over their relics on models handed down to

them from ancient times.

It is obvious that we are as yet quite in the dark as to who the peo-

ple were who inhabited India before either Brahmans or Buddhists

appear on the stage of India.

Even should it be proved that Brahmanism is older than Indian

Buddhism, it will not follow that Hero worship was not still more

ancient, not only considered generally, but with special reference to

India. It is easy to perceive how the adoration of a man can be an

after-thought and have no material connection with his doctrines, which

last may have been handed down to his age from one far anterior to it.

In the wide range of religions where shall we find an original one ?

Such superstitions as are the results of natural impulses or the markings

of fear or the airy forms bodied forth by the imagination and incipient

i 4 General Observations on [Frs.

reasonings of infant races, are of no account here, however interesting to

the natural and moral philosopher, became traceable both to natural and

moral causes. All the ingenuity of antiquarians has not yet unravelled

the tangled skein of religions. Possessing many features in common,

still how various do their sources appear to be—or if traced back to what

seems some common point, how suddenly are they found to diverge

again ;—what blending of their dogmas, what perversions, what improve-

ments, what grand conceptions, what debasing and demoniac ideas and

creeds,—what asceticism—what grossness—what epicurianism do we

not find almost blended together. For the primitive religion we must go

back to the first days of man. The question, observes our author, put

by the brahmans to their opponents, why Sakya Muni did not appear in

any former period, was cut short by the doctrine that the universe

always is under the government of a Buddha.

But it is probable that they also replied, that three known Buddhas

had preceded this one, and they might, and perhaps did argue, that [like

the Jewish prophets] each successive Buddha succeeded to the mantle

of his predecessor ; and that these Buddhas were separate identities, and

not avatars of a single person, although each Buddha became in fact

according to the doctrines, an incarnation of himself under a new condi-

tion of existence.

The Buddhist religion doubtless appertains to ‘‘ an advanced stage of

society,” and so did brahmanism. But this does not materially affect

the comparative antiquity of either of the opposed parties, unless one of

them can be proved to have emanated from the other. But if this reli-

gion be distinct from brahmanism, it may have been either gradually

evolved during the advance of society, or borrowed at once froma

more highly civilized western one.

In the first instance it would be vain to endeavour to trace it back to

its original elements. The other may or might yet be traced, could we

discover any records of the first intercourse betwixt the people of the east

and west. As India was quite well known to western nations [at least

by name] about the period of Buddha Sakya, and B. C. 623 to 543, we

may admit the probability of a much earlier intercourse betwixt the two.

Hinduism, as it now exists, is a new religion, and so comparatively is

or was brahmanism, if it was a shoot from a western one, whether Persic,

Chaldaic or Scythic.

1849. ] Brahmans and Buddhists. 113

In the Vedas the sun and sky were worshipped, and Sir W. Jones*

acquaints us that the popular worship of the Persians under Hushang

was purely Sabian, having succeeded to pure Theism.

It is hardly necessary perhaps to speculate deeply as to where the

brahmans obtained the ideas of their later gods.

In the year of Christ 50, there were astrologers from India practising

their profession at Rome, and in the first centuries the Hindus (q.

brahmans rather) sent many embassies to the Greeks and Romans, and

some of these reached Spain, Alexandria, and Egypt.t

The term first centuries is somewhat vague, but it may still permit us

to suppose that the pantheistic rabble of the Hindus had not then been

created, and the Greeks, Romans, and the people of Egypt and other

countries they visited may have supplied them with the conceptions,

which they afterwards matured. Nay, we do not know that the earliest

Indian travellers were not those men who were then or who afterwards

became Buddhists. Buddhism was general throughout India very long

before and during the first centuries, and its votaries being embued

with a spirit of inquiry, it is more likely that they should have travelled

to the west than that brahmans should. Dr. Buchanan acquaints us

that certain Jain tribes affirm that they came from Arabia. This

may be true, and we may suppose that they brought with them the

worship of Brahma, and perhaps of the other gods of that country, for

they were not then Jainas, these being a heretical Buddhist sect, al-

though it is possible they may have been originally hero-worshippers.

This emigration, if true, would support the ideal or theoretical case I

have already proposed. “To this day,’’ (1811) observes Wilford, “there

are certainly followers of Brahma, and brahmans in Arabia, where many

old names of places are Sanscrit or Hindi.

Wilford observes that ‘ the Mahrattas, a numerous and respectable

tribe of brahmans and Khattris, are acknowledged all over India to be

foreigners from the western parts of Persia, who left their native coun-

try not 1200 years ago,” (before 1811.) Does this not shew that they

only followed along beaten road ; and if it be true, it bears me out in the

supposition that emigrations from the earliest ages fled to India from

the horrors of war in the west, or from the love of change. In A. D.

Pires: BD. Vols. }X. and X. p. 99: 7 Ditto Vol. X. p. 99, 100.

t Ibid, 98. * Tbid, Vol. 11. Disc: the Persians.

114 General Observations on [Fes.

500, the Roman Exarchs or Governors were obliged to fly from Syria to

India, and certainly by sea, as the Romans were at war with the Persians _

to escape from an invasion by the king of the Hemiarites. Wilford

assures us also ‘‘ that so early as B. C. 189, or before it, Hindus of both

sexes were not uncommon in Greece: that they were settled in Colchis,

and that the Sindi of Thrace came originally from India. The Indus

was so named from a Hindu Mahant who fell into it durmg Manhius’

expedition at the above date and was drowned.” The probability, I will

venture to say, is that the river had originally that name, or one very like

it, and thence those who dwelt on its banks were called Indus, but long

subsequent to the location of the brahmans there.

The constant intercourse which from a remote period had been kept

up betwixt India and the western nations, was put a stop to by the ad-

vance of Mahometanism.

The embassies from Porus to Augustus, and from Pandion king of

the southern parts of the peninsula, sufficiently attest the intercourse

24 years B. C. at least.*

It is difficult at this day to determine who the people called Hindus

by the westerns, were. The brahmans occupied the banks of the Indus

and Cutch, and all western foreigners must, when approaching by land

or by coasting the shores of India, near to the Indus, have encountered

probably and chiefly men of the tribe of brahmans.

It is a question who were these early Hindus. It is more than pro-

bable that they were Buddhists, for, as Wilford observes, ancient travel-

Jers make no mention of the monstrous statues of the Hindus. The

historians of Alexander take notice of the Sibce carrying among their

standards the image of Hercules, whoever he was.t

This, if not a statue or representation of a Buddha, was at any rate one

of a hero, or famous man, for these statues mentioned by Philostratus as

having been cut out of the rock beyond Hurdwar, had nothing mon-

strous in them, any more than those made by Grecian artists in the

Punjab.

If it was with the brahmans that “ a regular trade was carried on from

the accession of the Ptolemies to the throne of Lyypt, to the conquest of

that country by the Romans, and which did not cease until the middle of

the 7th century, when the growing power of the Musalmans put a stop

* As, Res. Vol. X. p. 109 et seq. fT Wilford, As. Res. Vol. X. p. 111.

1849. | Brahmans and Buddhists. PIS

to it,’’* and if we look to the fact that the brahman tribes were most

probably subjects of the Greek kings of Bactriana who ruled, according

to Wilford, the countries on the banks of the Indus as far as Sirhind,

during a period of 129 years,—from 255 to 126 B. C., and if we also

advert to the intercouse the brahmans must have thus had with the peo-

ple of Egypt, and with all the ancient countries west and N. W. of India,

we shall have no difficulty in accounting for the mythological medly

which brahmanism, and, now, Hinduism present.

The bent of the brahmans towards traffic in the early stages of their

progress in India shews that they were by no means a religious tribe.

It appears to me that it was from Surat and Gujerat or Bombay that the

first brahman merchants penetrated to China, which must have been, long

perhaps, antecedent to A. D. 414, when Fa Hian sailed with them to

that country. But the natives of India generally were attached to trade,

although those who resided on the western coast of the peninsula, and

on the W. and N. W. frontier of India, doubtless became the first traders

with the western nations.

The features which were common to the gods of Greece, Italy and

India, have been so forcibly delineated by Sir W. Jones, that speculation

as to their general identity seems quite superfluous. He has not decided

to which of all these the priority is due. But he himself, and many others,

have shewn the resemblance which the Egyptian deities had to the gods

of these three nations,—one which could hardly have been fortuitous,

and he was the first to disclose the close connexion which existed be-

twixt the ancient Persians and the brahmans. Persia too was well known

to the Greeks and Romans,—from all which, and from the consider-

ation also that we have every reason to believe that the Pantheons of

these two last nations were erected before the brahmans had fairly

plunged into the vortex of idolatry, it might be surmised that the

Greeks and Romans took the lead. But this would not prevent us

- from also believing that an interchange took place in the gods of the

three people, or rather perhaps a reciprocal modification of them, after

the direct intercourse betwixt Greece, Italy, and India had been

established. It appears that the bralimans and Buddhists were always

ready to learn the arts, sciences and religious opinions of the Romans,

and the latter we know were ever prone to adopt and incorporate foreign

deities into their system.

* Wilford, As. Res. Vol. X. p. 114.

116 General Observations on [ Fes.

And as to the Hindus generally, they had an immemorial affinity,

observes Sir W. Jones, with the old Persians, Ethiopians and Egyp-

tians, the Phenicians, Greeks, and Tuscans, the Scythians or Goths,

and Celts, the Chinese, Japanese, and Peruvians.

For many centuries after the conquests of Alexander, there seems to

have been an eager desire in India for foreign arts and sciences, curiosi-

ties, instruments of music, wine, and even beautiful women. Those

who desiderated such objects however were not Buddhists after Sakya’s

taste, and must have been either brahmans or people from some

other body of Indians. Ifthe Greeks made statues while in the Pun-

jab, the brahmans may have adopted the gods or heroes there represent-

ed. For many interesting facts respecting the ancient intercourse

betwixt India and western nations, Col. Wilford’s learned Essay V.

(Vol. X. T. A. 8. B.) may be consulted.

The gods and devatas, who still grace the 22 heavens of the Bud-

dhists must, if we believe and can prove that the latter were a heretical

offset from brahmanism, be the same as those worshipped at the period

of the separation of the two sects, by the brahmans. This would serve

to fix the date in the above supposed case.

But I cannot suppose that the chief of these Devatas, Indra, was

born out of India, although some foreign ideas may have been mixed up

with his history.

From the following extract from the Milinda Raja, the qualifications

of Indra might have entitled him to Nirvana. His apotheosis however

had a lay character, rather than a religious one. He was doubtless the

ruler of some powerful empire, the capital of which was perhaps termed

Meru, which name, after his Dynasty had passed away, remained as a

mythological region.

The seven names of Indra.

1. Maghawa, which appertained to him while yet a holy man in

this world.

2. Burinthatho, when he was in the full exercise of the virtue of

charity.

3. Sakko. Because of a benignant and humane disposition.

4. Wasawo Phalawo. When he built houses for the poor and was

in other respects munificent.

1849.| Brahmans and Buddhists. 17,

5. Sahassa Netto. When he had become perfect master of one

thousand Pali works.

6. Suchampati. When he was married to Suchida Nari.

7. Dewanna Mintho. When having finished his actively virtuous

life on earth, he ascended to Tawatinsanang, and became the ruler of all

the Devatas in that heavenly region.

Mis Consorts were :—

1. Suchita—celebrated for the gardens she formed. She made

one Nandawana 500 yojanas square.

2. Sanantha,—famous for the wells and tanks dug by her orders.

3. Suthamma,—who erected Caravanserais and other buildings for

travellers, and also affixed spires to Dagobas, these first being five long

cubits in length (or height 30 feet.)

4. Suchada,—renowned for her virtue.

Indra is also called Saké—Purindadé—Dewa Raja.

Wajiré Pani—Sujanpati.

Sahassaké—Mahindo.

Wajirawudho— Wasawo.

Dassasatta Naiyano—Tiduwadibhii—Suranatho—Wajirahath6.

Bhutapati—Maghawa.

Kosiy6—Indé—Wassagha.

Pakasassano.

“The native country of Buddhism is India—and as there was no

other religion but brahmanism, ¢izs must have been its parent.”

If this shall be proved it will not perhaps be difficult to shew what

that form of brahmanism was to which it owes its existence. As I

have not met with the proof of this position I beg to suspend my

own judgment. But it is my steady opinion that the worship of a man,

which is the coping-stone of the present Buddhist system, as it could

not have been derived from the brahmans under any view of the

subject, had either very long indigenously prevailed in India, or had

been brought from the west, some time prior to its being generally

adopted, I apprehend that both religions were originally based on

the deep abstraction of infinite power, and illimitable intelligence. But

we have not sufficient means for tracing the changes which the Indian

mind underwent from the period of the 1st Indian Buddha, perhaps three

or four thousand years ago, up to the 4th Buddha, or how many theolo-

118 General Observations on [ Fes.

gical theories may have been alternately accepted and rejected during

that period.

M. Remusat seems to have believed that Buddhism travelled from

the banks of the Ganges to central Tartary—in the neighbourhood of

the lake Lob,—amongst the Ouigours—at Khotan, and in all the small

states to the N. of the Himalaya mountains—also in Affghanistan—

Oudyana—Gandhaza, &c. But was there not a germ, if not a fully

expanded blossom of this religion existing long before away towards

Persia and Turkistan? Buddhism, he also observes, [the Buddhism I

suppose of Sakya he means, originating in central India, between

the mountains of Nepal and the rivers Jumna and Gogra] was carried

back by tradition as far as the tenth century before our era—and

monuments of which still subsist, and the others now in ruins, confirm

the testimony of these traditions.*

It would be satisfactory if we could discover a solid base for the

latter supposition—for I am not aware than any of the decyphered

Pali or other inscriptions will carry us back so far.

He then, in his 6th head of facts, states, that “we are satisfied that

Buddhism had penetrated into the Dekkan in very ancient times, and

there exist there from that period excavations in the form of temples,

the construction of which is carried back to epochs so remote as to be

comprised within the age of fable.

It would, as supporting my argument, be rather gratifymg to us to

find these assumptions confirmed—but until the full and solid grounds

for them are exhibited, it will be prudent I think to withhold our assent.

M. R. first says (head 5) that Buddhism had penetrated to the

mouths of the Ganges A. D. 500—as if it had only been then able to

get so far from its source in the N. W.; and if his sixth position be

correct, then the Buddhism of which he sees traces in the Dekkan, could

not have been that which Sakya promulgated, or rather which he is

believed to have originated—but may have been a prior stage of Bud-

dhism—that of one of the three Buddhas before Sakya.

He goes on to say that in Fa Hian’s time the Ceylonese counted

1497 years since the Nirvana of Sakya Muni.

Now the Mahawanso of Ceylon declares the period of the Nirvana

* Lieut-Col. Sykes quoting M. Landresse, Tr. R. A. S. Vol. XII. p. 256—7

et seq. .

1849. | Brahmans and Buddhists. 119

to have been in B. C. 543, and Fa Hian was in Ceylon in about A. D.

410, so that the first of these Nirvanas was in B. C. 1087. Lieut.-Col.

Sykes, who quotes M. Landresse in his account of M. Remusat’s re-

searches, shews* that the circumstances attending Sakya Buddha’s early

career—his ministry, and preaching, his death, and the belief of his

followers, all tend to induce a strong belief that there had been Buddhas

preceding him, while Fa Hian positively asserts that a large tower in

Oude contained the entire bones of Sakya Muni’s immediate predecessor,

Kasyapa.

M. Burnouf’s sources of information are two—the Sanscrit Bud-

dhistical works of Nepal, and the Pali or Magadhi works of Ceylon.

It appears to me that Sanscrit was not employed by the Buddhists

to record events until a period when heresy was rife, there being no

less than 22 sects. Now it remains perhaps to be proved that the

Buddhism introduced into Nepal, and the Himalaya, was not that of

one of these sects,—was not propagated by men originally brahmans, and

who were retrograding towards their first faith, or rather rapidly fram-

ing another. He was tempted with every kind of gratification by a Rakh-

sha or demon to abandon the priesthood, but resisted. He had also

the special gift of being able to walk upon the waters, and Devils were

afraid of him. I do not see how the dates of these Sanscrit works there-

fore will yield solid data for a summing up, although they may greatly

aid investigation. A comparison of the substance of them with that

of the Ceylonese Pali books may do so. But if any suspicion shall

seem necessary in regard to these Sanscrit MSS. .I cannot understand

how the ancient elements of Buddhism are to be sought for in what

is common to both these classes of books, for it was as easy for the

writers in Sanscrit to omit what was foreign to their purpose, as it was

for the brahmans to falsify and suppress in the manner they did, the

records of Buddhism which fell mto their hands. Scynthianus, who

had studied at Alexandria about B. C. 190, visited India by sea and

brought back four books :+ what were they? The Vedas most likely.

Itis curious that Buddha did not write any thing himself—tike

Christ and some of the Prophets, he preached the doctrines leaving to

his disciples the task of editing it. We have therefore no means of

* Pr RwAsis.: Vols MAL, p. 262.

7 J. A. S. B. Vol. IX. p. 215—217.

120 General Observations on [Fes.

_ knowing whether this task was faithfully executed, and is was, we may

suppose, from the different versions given of that doctrine, that heresies

arose. Francklin, in his essay (p. 12) observes that when Buddha was

about to die he is said to have addressed his followers to this effect :— .

“That what he told them about spiritual affairs and a future state

were mere allegories, as there are neither rewards nor punishments after

this life.’ I have never during my intercourse with the Buddhist priests

heard any such a recantation even hinted at—quite the reverse. And

indeed it must have, if it was ever broached, been one of the heretical

doctrines, for it is upon the metempsychosis and a future state that the

whole Buddhist system hinges, and by which its moral maxims are en-

forced. But I find something analogous to the above in the Ratana

Kalapa, under the head Mara, who was the King of the Maras, and

who persecuted Buddha, but was defeated, so that people who act

wickedly are likened to the Mara.

‘Buddha said that there is no Yama or king of Naraka (Hell)

but that the wicked see him in their minds’ eye only.’

Yama Raja Pathamang Dewadutang—Samanusasetwa.

In one of the versions of the Milinda Raja in my library, it is stated

that there were six Mimis—Purana Kassapé—Makhali Kosa (Ghosa)

Niganda—Nataputo—Sunjoyo Wélattha Buddho—Ajiwokesa, Kanbalo

and Pakuddho.

Malinda then visited Purana Kassapé and asked him to inform him

who was the protector of the world? ‘The priest replied, the earth,

or ground. Again, by what power will souls be precipitated into hell ?

To this question there was no reply. Therefore Milinda reflected that

there were no wise and learned men in Jumbo Dwip. Pursuing his

questions, he asks, will the good actions of men be rewarded and the evil

ones punished after death? Answer, neither—but as the mortal is here,

so in every way will he remain hereafter the same. Milinda—Will

this take place or be, where the individual may happen to have been

_maimed accidentally or for crime? No reply.

After this there were no wise men in Sagal for twelve years, and if -

any Arrahans appeared before the king he drove them away. When

that period had elapsed, it became known that a great assemblage of

krores of Arrahans had taken place in Himala at Rakhita-thalla, and

that their superior was Assagutta Thero. These persons then proceeded

: 1849. | Brahmans and Buddhists. 121

to the mountain named Yuganthara, in order to arrange about having a

learned discussion with Milinda Raja. The question had been thrice

put to the assembly, that a polemic champion was wanted, but no one

stepped forth. The Superior then said, that there was in Kétumti, in

Indra’s heaven a Devata named Maha Séna, who might be able to com-

pete with Milinda. Upon this the assembly adjourned to Indra’s hea-

ven. Indra inquired if the king had not been before in his heaven—

and on being assured that he had been there, Indra intimated to Maha

Séna that he should descend to the earth from the Loké heaven. The

Superior of the Arrahans persuaded this holy person or Deva to under-

take the visit out of regard to the religion of Buddha. The Superior

inquired on his return if all the Arrahans had accompanied him—when

Rohana replied that he had staid behind, being absorbed in contempla-

tions. For this breach of duty he was, asa punishment, sent to a

brahman’s village on the further side of Himala, there to afford ghostly

imstruction to Nagaséna, the son of the brahman Soniuttera, for 7 years.

Thus after portents on earth and in the heavens, Nagaséna was born.

It happened that this brahman had appointed another brahman to

be the preceptor of his son, and had required that the youth should be

grounded in the three Veds and the Silpa. The youth Nagaséna had

heard read but a small portion of these sacred volumes, when he be-

came impressed with a perfect recollection of their whole contents.

These Veds consist of Niganda (pa), Sarakkha, Ittihassa (pa), Viya-

kurna (pa), Lokayatana (pa), Maha Sapinna Lakhana. The boy in-

quired of his parents if there were any other Veds, but was told that

there were no more. He accordingly dismissed his teacher, and having

read the four; (Q. 3?) Vedas, he thought them of little value, and that

all true wisdom and knowledge had disappeared from the earth.

While absorbed in these reflections Rohana arrived at his father’s

house. The youth asked him why he wore patched garments? I am,

said Rohana, Babbajit or Athit, or he who has got rid of sin and the

passions. What then do you know of the Silpas and Shastras? I know

the chief Silpa. Why do you shave the head? There are 16 acts

relative to the head, which must not be attended to, and which can only

be avoided by the tonsure. Head-dress, cleansing the hair, curling it,

operations on it with iron instruments, anointing it, nikkhi, also adorn-

ing it with flowers, scenting it ; twisting and tying it (nimasa).

122 General Observations on [Fres.

Huritakki, purifyimg it with this fruit.

Amulaki, and so with this fruit.

Muttika palibod, ditto ditto with this earth.

Pinning of the hair.

Gundaka palibod, purifying it from any unpleasant smell.

Khaché, the same.

Kapaka palibod.

Nahapuka—washing it with water.

Moreover, parasitical insects are disturbed and killed by these opera-

tions which are thus sinful.

“But,” said the youth again, ‘‘ Why do you wear patched garments 2”

** Because,” replied Rohana, “‘ by wearing unpatched clothes a person

continues attached to the world.”

Rohana then takes Nagasena to his abode at the Vihara of Wijampa,

where they remained one night; then they proceeded to Rakhitalena,

where were assembled the Koti satanan Arahantanan purato patu

rahosi of Arahans. This place was in Himala. Here Nagasena was

ordained as a priest—~and Rohana, at his request, began to instruct

him in the doctrine (of Buddha) begmning with Kusala Dhamma—Aku-

sala Dhamma—Abbiya Katha Dhamma. When Nagaséna had learned

these three preliminary, he immediately recollected seven other Maha

Pakarani, namely, the

Abhi Dhamma Sangini.

Wibhauja.

Dhatu Katha.

Puggulla Panyati.

Katha Wutta.

Yamaka.

Pathama.

The Arrahans had resided for 20 years at this abode, and Nagasena

had attained to the age of 20 years. He was then made the chief

priest or Uppasampada.

Nagasena became dissatisfied with his spiritual guide, because he

could not impart more knowledge to him than he had already acquired.

Rohana knew what was passing in his pupil’s mind, and reproved him

for it, saying that he would not forgive him for his want of confidence,

unless he would go to Sagal and humble the (spiritual) pride of Raja

1849.]| Brahmans and Buddhists. 123

Milinda. Nagasena replied, ‘ Not only will I humble him, but all the

princes of the world, should they confront me.”

As it was the rainy season, Nagasena went to visit Assagutta, a

Muni, and said to him, “ I have been sent by my Guru with his respects :

you know his name and he knows your’s.” But although the young

priest staid three months with the Muni, the latter did not converse

with him (on religious matters), but advised him to go to Asokorama

or Wihar, or monastery at Pataliputra, where, he added, resided the

priest Dhammarakit—where religious instruction would be given to

him. This place he said was distant one hundred yojana.

Before Nagasena set out an old woman who was cook to Agragutta

[was this not a forbidden luxury to devotees?] on listening to Negase-

na’s recital of the Purm Dhurm, became inspired, or a Soda patimagha.

He consequently joined a caravan of 500 carts which were under a

merchant, Pataliputta Koséthi, who received religious instruction from

Nagasena and became Soda Patimar.

When Negasena had reached Asokarama, he found there a learned

Bhiku named Tissadatta, who had come from Lanka. These two paid

a visit to Dhammarakit, and they were taught together by him the Pali

Digha Nikaya. In three months they were perfect. Nagasena now

became an Arahan, when the earth quaked, &c. After this, at the desire

of the multitudes of Arahans of Himala, he returned to them. Here

he received instructions to proceed to Sagal and humble the pride of

Milinda Raja. He was on this occasion escorted by 80,000 Arahans.

Milida Raja, about this time, asked his ministers if they knew any

learned priest. They replied, that they knew one named Aytipala, who

lived at the Sangkéya Pariwena. His majesty paid this priest a visit,

accompanied by 500 persons. In the course of the conversation which

ensued, the Raja tried to elicit the qualifications of his guest, but the

latter kept silence and retired out of respect, to his cell. The Raja

laughed, and asked if Jumbo Dwip held no other so learned as himself?

In the 2nd volume the king learns the name of Nagasena, and is

greatly disturbed on first hearing it. He accordingly visits the priest,

and a long dialogue ensues, which would occupy here too much space

were I to insert it.

In illustration of these remarks I shall quote the Ratana Kalapa,

under the head Ubhato Kotito Panha. Here it is inculcated that as

R 2

124 General Observations on [FEs.

Buddha is in Nivana, it is ‘ useless to worship him, and only requisite

to venerate his memory, and follow his precepts. Statues too are only

useful for refreshing the memory, for as the husbandman sows grain in

the earth and reaps the harvest, so he who believes in Buddha and

follows his doctrines will be saved. The earth and Buddha are both

per se inert.’

Buddha too led a wandering life, followed by his disciples. As

Christ quoted the prophets, so did Buddha, and his disciples the four

Buddhas who preceded him. Buddha visited the infernal abodes, like

Christ, and he was treacherously poisoned at a supper, and although by

his prescience aware of his doom, yet he strove not to avert it, so did

Christ, and he ascended like Christ to heaven, and will at the end of

the five thousand years be succeeded by the fifth or last Ean, so

Christ is to come again in the last day.

The metempsychosis is a radical portion of belief both in Pete eation

and Buddhism, and has a ready type in Egypt. A misinterpretation

of the nature of Christ, of his, to be (alternate) changes from the divine

and spiritual essence to physical existence, might under circumstances

of priority of time, have led perhaps to the dogma just adverted to.

** No supreme superhuman Buddha,” observes Dr. Roer, “or Bud-

dhas, or Adhibuddhas, are found in these Nepal books.”

I have already expressed my belief that the apotheosis of the Bud-

dhas was borrowed from what was apparently at first a distinct form of

worship, that of heroes and great benefactors to the human race.

From what can be gathered from Buddha’s own oral discourses or

sermons, their sole aim was to direct his hearers in the road to Nivana,

a condition of eternal rest, undisturbed by migrations, or moved by any

thing external or internal.

If future angelic or god-like super-power had been one of his objects

or his chief one, then the tiers of the Buddhist heavens might have been

filled with thousands of such spiritualities, all eternally exercising the

power of gods, and influencing, according to the creed of the degenerat-

ed Buddhas of later days, the destinies of man, and thus rivalling the

Hindus in the multitudes of their gods.

Buddha himself, agreeably to the Pali Thatsa-chatta, in my posses-

sion, passed through ten states of existence, ending with that of Sakya

Muni. Thenceforward, he became dead to the universe either of mind

1849. | Brahmans and Buddhists. 125

or matter. His followers might gratefully endeavour to perpetuate his

name and his sympathy with their moral deficiencies, by connecting

these with splendid Chaityas and temples and colossal statues, but his

ministry had been accomplished, and he could in no way influence their

destinies, or happiness, but by the example and precepts he left behind

him. His object,—that which he had pointed out to his followers as the

sole aim of all his actions, had been, as he and they believed, attained,

when he was on the point of entering Nivana, which, like the negative

Elisian beatitude of the Vedanta school, consisted originally perhaps of

a total absorption into the divine essence, thus losing all identity.

The study of the simple Sutras, according to M. Burnouf, will throw

much light on the connexion of Brahmanism and Buddhism.

I shall not hazard an opinion as to the nature and scope of the

Indian epigraphic monuments lately elucidated and ascribed to Bud-

dhists. When this very interesting branch of antiquarianism shall have

been so proved and analysed as it ought to be, it will be perhaps time

enough for a final decision. If these shall ever be awarded to the

brahmans, they will probably exhibit the latter under very different

phases of religious and moral character, than we have been accustomed

to view them in.

It would meanwhile be satisfactory to learn if there be in existence

an undoubted specimen of the Sanscrit character of a date anterior to

the oldest existing Pali character. The brahmans may not have cared

much about epigraphs, but if they were a race to whom India was des-

tined to owe its religion and social polity, some vestiges of the written

character in which these doctrines were to be preserved would, one

might suppose, have been left on some less perishable material than

leaves or paper.

It has not been proved how castes originated, or when. If caste ex-

isted over Gangetic India and the Peninsula at the time when the brah-

mans were confined to the Punjab, it must, I think, be admitted to have

done so independent of the latter. As I have before hinted, the

brahmans probably found the nucleus of the institution as derived,

according to Sir W. Jones, from Persia, extant in India, on their first

intermedling with its civil affairs; and readily availed themselves of so

convenient a weapon for dividing and ruling.

126 General Observations on [Fes.

The Peninsula of India must however have been far removed from

even the first feelers which they pushed out before them, and assuredly

if Buddhism did not descend to Hindustan from the N. W., but was

indigenous there, its first types, emblems and monuments ought to be

also there found. I believe there is no one who does not allow that

Brahmanism (not Hinduism) if it ever reached at those early times the

Peninsula, pervaded in the first instance the regions of central India,

and perhaps those bordering on Guzerat, and that Hinduism appeared

on the Peninsula at a much later period than Buddhism. Why the

brahmans did not at first proceed there also has not been shewn by any

ancient records, and this might lead to the mference that they had

really then no regular priesthood, and were therefore careless about

making proselytes.

It seems to me, that until proof to the contrary shall be advanced, it

will be safest to consider all the most ancient Buddhist Chaityas as

having been clustered towards the countries in, or borderimg on the

Punjab, and if Buddhism did not at the periods of their erection prevail

in southern India, that some religion other than Buddhism or Brahman-

ism, must be sought for in it ; allowing for the probability at the same

time, that hero-worship may at some remote period have existed

in southern India independently altogether of both. Should even Bud-

dhism be found to have arisen amongst the brahmans, there is nothing

to prevent us supposing that man-worship was brought along with

them from Persia or some other western region.

The Nepal texts were compiled or written when Hinduism had made

several rapid strides, and the sanctuary of Buddhism had been invaded

by both open and concealed heretical enemies, and we therefore do not,

and perhaps cannot, know to what extent reliance is to be placed on

these Nepal books—especially as in them “ the whole brahmanic society,

with its religion, castes, and laws appears.’ (p. 796.) We know that

the heretical Buddhists to the eastward tolerated, if they did not vener-

ate, the Hindu gods and the converse as to the Hindus there in respect

to Buddha.

If the Hindu Pantheon, with its complement of male and female deities

and inferior Devatas, had actually been erected at the period of Buddha’s

advent, where are the remains of its Pagodas? where are its epigraphic

and other records on stone, brass or other metal? It was natural that

1849.] . Brahmans and Buddhists. 127

the Buddhists, had such existed, should have passed them over in

silence ; but very strange and inigmatical that the brahmans,—whose

sacerdotal rivalled their political ambition, should have hidden their tow-

ering heads under a humble mud cabin.

The transition period, if such there was, had not apparently passed

when Buddha appeared, for he did not discard the brahmans.

Admitting even that the Brahminical society had reached its acmé

in Sakya Muni’s time, are we to consider that society as embracing more

than a merely fractional portion of the Indian population—or as ex-

tending beyond the tribe of brahmans? Baron C. Hugel says, “that

there is no doubt of one fact, that when Alexander was in the country

of Taxila, the people neither belonged to the Brahminical or Buddhist

faith—as they ate at his table, and did not burn their dead, but (like

the Parsees) gave them to be devoured by vultures. Hence,’’ he adds,

‘the people were of the same religion as the Parsees, and it would be

worth something could the latter be identified with the brahmans.” I

do not quite apprehend who are here meant by the people. The brah-

mans had certainly some connexion with Persia—and so had the ori-

ginal Indians I suspect, as has been already alluded to.* But Sir W.

Jones has commented fully on this subject, as I have already quoted.

There was no prohibition I think, in original Buddhism, of its votaries

eating with any other class, and the present Buddhists to the eastward

do not object to sit down to table with Europeans.

And were all their gods and goddesses and suite of minor divinities

indeed worshipped by the people in the midst of which Sakya lived

with his ascetics? constantly and exclusively worshipped by all castes?

If so, Buddhism must have had no existence at all when Buddha ap-

peared. We require to have such gods or deities as did exist in the

minds of the people, selected from the Buddhist works, which after rigid

inquiry, shall be found of the greatest antiquity. All I have seen regard-

ing the gods in the Buddhist Bali works of Siam seem to have reference

ehiefly—if not only, to Brahma, Indra and Devatas ; although the gods

of the Hindus have been subsequently mixed up with their system.

It is quoted from M. Burnouf that “the Kshatrya caste also existed at

the time of Sakya, from which the kings emanated.” But Indian

history, such as it is, exhibits many kings who were not of this caste,

and who were served by brahmans.

* Baron C. Hugel’s travels in Cashmir and the Punjab, page 24.

128 General Observations on _ [Frs.

If the brahman caste had been all-powerful, all the rulers and digni-

taries of the land would have belonged to it.

If the Brahmanical tribe was itself divided into castes, then there were

two bodies under this denomination,—the Brahmanical and the Indian,

which, if proved, would at once shew that caste came with them, from

Persia or some other contiguous region,—and if any one could be a brah-

mana, an anchorite or an ascetic, and a teacher of the Brahmanical

mantras, there could scarcely have been any regular Hierarchy. It is

not likely that we shall ever learn when the brahmans ceased to be

what Fa Hain termed them, a small tribe of foreigners,—for their march

to power was insidious. Sir W. Jones informs us that the Mohsan

states in his writings, that in the opinion of the best informed Persians,

who professed the faith of Hushang, distinguished from that of Zera-

tusht, the first monarch of Iran, and of the whole earth was, Mahabad,

(Maha ?—a word apparently Sanscrit,) who divided the people into four

orders,—the religious, military, commercial and servile, to whom he

assigned names unquestionably the same in their origin with those now

assigned to the four primary classes of the Hindus.*

If we were to admit that Sakya Muni had three predecessors, and to

allow only a hundred years to have elapsed betwixt each, we might fix

B. C. 843, as about the time when Buddhism was first promulgated,

and in such case, where ought we to place the brahmans at that period ?

—not to the south and S. W. of the Punjab? If dissent had not also

sapped the foundations of Buddhism, the brahmans could never perhaps

have risen to power, and that dissent became the more dangerous

inasmuch as to Buddhism, it embraced men who were brahmans well

versed in the Vedas, and who being fully informed of all the weak points

of Buddhism,—for no popular feeling was wounded, and no political insti-

tution, caste included, was assailed by Buddhism ; on the contrary, it was,

while it endured, avery popular faith, and we have its present prevalence

over Hindu-China, Japan and partly China itself, as a proof of the tena-

city it now possesses over the human mind, and which it probably origi-

nally did possess, until force subdued it. ‘The Indians rivetted the

chains already forged for them by the brahmans, when they abandoned

the freedom and equality of Buddhism, and placed the mighty engine

of civil and religious thraldom, that of the castes, entirely in the hands

of the Hindu priests, or brahmans.

* As, Res. Vol. II. p. 59.

1849. ] Brahmans and Buddhists. 129

If the brahmans, when Buddhism was advancing, had possessed but a

fraction of that power the Hindu priesthood now has, there would have

been no Buddhism within the area of its influence. They must then

have feared the people, and the latter must have had no serious, if any,

obstacle opposed to a change of religion. In fact, the whole of Indian

society, brahmans included, seems for a long period to have been fer-

menting with opposing philosophical, religious and metaphysical theories,

which prevented the public mind from settling down to one belief, and

it was a mighty point gained by Buddha or the Buddhas, when he, or

they, drew off the minds of the multitude from vain antological specu-

lations and ethnical absurdities and grossnesses, and directed it to the

plain, although perhaps not equally attractive path of ethology.

It is observed (p. 807,) that Sakya attached little importance to reli-

gious forms or to the offering of flowers and perfumes. If it be meant

by this that flowers and perfumes were Buddhist offerings in the last

Buddha's time, to whom were they offered? They must have been so

to a prior Buddha. If such offerings had no existence until after Sa-

kya’s death, this Buddhism could only be properly said to have com-

menced from that last period when these honors were paid at his

shrine. But I agree with Dr. Roer in believing that there must have

been statues of the three* Buddhas previous to Sakya’s time ; and this,

whether such persons ever existed or not—I have already stated my

opinion that they did exist within reasonable periods gauged by the

moral necessities of the Indian population, or any other one amongst

whom they lived, although the objection might be started that they

were merely the exponents of Astronomical or Cosmographical periods.

That which has in the west been called Buddhism, or a derivative

from it, such as Druidism and the religion of Odin or Wodin, and per-

haps other religions, have been assigned almost invariably to some

region of upper central Asia; Indo-Scythia generally. The Buddhism of

India therefore must, if connected with any more western one, have

been much more ancient than Sakya’s system, or in other words, the

parent of it. The Goths brought with them from Indo-Scythia to the

west the mythology of those religions bordering on Persia and Hin-

dustan.+

* T suppose 4 is a misprint.

+ Faber’s Cabiri, Vol. I. p. 290.

130 General Observations on Brahmans and Buddhists. | Frs.

The Egyptians had not only two kinds of written character,—one

popular—the other Sacerdotal, but two sorts of sacred sculpture—one

simple, like the figures of Buddha and the three Ramas, the other alle-

gorical, like the figures of Ganesa, Isani, &c.* Here we have the exter-

nals at least of Buddhism and Brahmanism when contemporaneous.

Druidism was, according to Davies, simply the worship of men—deified

after death. Like Brahmanism, it took a long time before it became

sanguinary—and only became so after the Phenecians, as Faber informs

us, led Colonies to Britain. Druidic man or hero-worship was corrupted,

says Davies, into the worship of the sun, moon, and stars. Hence issued

the deities of Chaldea, first, then Egypt and ¢hence to the east or India,

or Tibet, Britain, Tartary, Asia and Siam, Ceylon, J apanese Isles,

China, Siberia, Russia, Scandinavia and the N. of Europe. Thirdly, to

India, Scythia and China. Fourthly, to Rome, Europe, Germany, Gaul

and Britain. Fifthly, to Greece. The Druidical religion is a ramifica-

tion of Hinduism. Should he not have said of Buddhism? The first part

of the above paragraph closely accords with some parts of the ancient

Persian system of religion. Francklin assigns Tartary as the birthplace

of the Druids, basing his supposition upon physiognomy, or rather on

their facial and craniological conformation, and that Buddhism reached

the Persians and (from the neighbourhood of Afghanistan perhaps)

before A. D. 700.

The pyramids of Egypt have been shewn by explorers to have been

erected as mausoleums for the mighty dead. The Tower of Belus might

have been built for a similar purpose. The Israelites in their wander-

ings betrayed a tendency, to imitate that pyramidal type.+ One author

has informed us that the Meru of the Buddhists is the tomb of the Spirit

of heaven, his bones having been scattered all over the world and being

afterwards collected like (those of Osiris), were enshrined.t

The Cuthite Ethiopians expelled the Mizraim from Egypt [or abori-

gines| and they raised the pyramids. This nation became afterwards

Scythe or Scythians, and were esteemed the oldest nation on the

earth.§

* As. Res. Vol. II. p. 273.

+ Prichard’s Egyptian Mythology, pp. 29, 30.

+t Tr. A. S. of B. Vol. X. p. 12 8, et seq.

§ Franklin’s quotation (p. 154) of Bryant’s Analysis.

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1849.] Remains of Greek Sculpture in Potowar. 131

The Ethiopians have colossal statues of priests eighteen feet high.*

The Egyptian qualities of the sun and moon were five: spirit, heat,

dryness, moisture, water and air, which were converted into jive gods,

and the five Buddhas.

I must claim the indulgence of the learned for having hazarded so

many crude reflections, especially as (before noticed) I quite disclaim

any pretensions to Pali or Sanscrit scholarship. Dr. Roer’s attain-

ments in oriental literature entitle his remarks to close attention, and

although suspending my own judgment as to the main object of con-

troversy, I have not been the less gratified by their perusal.

Remains of Greek Sculpture in Potowar, by Capt. James Axssort,

Boundary Commissioner, §c.

Thad been detained some days upon the table-land above Pind

Dadem Khann, had visited the salt mines at the base, and the anti-

mony matrix at the summit of Mt. Kurrungli, and had witnessed the

annual Hindu purification in the celebrated Fountain of Kuttass, one

of the eyes of the earth. I had fixed my departure for the morrow,

when I heard of an old site in the neighbourhood and visited it,

expecting little recompense, owing to former frequent disappointment.

It is the summit of a knoll of white limestone on the left bank of the

rivulet which escapes from the fountain of Kuttass. The glen is the

wildest of that neighbourhood, having probably been selected on that

account for the site of atemple to Ammon. Abrupt limestone ridges

wall it in on two sides.

The Muhammedan faqueer whose ancestors have occupied this site

about 300 years, strenuously denied that it contained any sculpture ; and

although the basement, of which some stones are still in place, gave

promise, by its simple finish, of the Grecian chisel, it was long before

my search was rewarded by any indubitable testimony. By degrees,

however, fragments of cornice, frieze and pilaster, were turned up, and

then a sculptured spout (Fig. 1 of the Plate III.) accompanying. I

offered a reward for the fragments of the mouth, but all search proved

fruitless. A singular mass of sculpture next came to light (Fig. 4 of

, * Singly.

8 2

132 Remains of Greek Sculpture in Potowar. [Fes.

the Plate IV,) a trefoil arch shrining a seated figure, so like many of the

Indian idols that I despaired of establishing in other minds my own

conviction that this temple was the work of Grecian hands. Another

weather-worn basso relievo, which in its present state might easily pass

for a Satyr or a Hunoomann, confirmed this fear: but it was dispelled

forever when on turning an unpromising block of stone, 1 found the

reverse to be a head of Bacchus or of Alexander in his character of

Ammon, (Fig. 1 of the Plate IV.) I cannot express the relief which

this afforded me: not as regards my own gradually but firmly established

conviction, but on account of the triumphant evidence upon which I

give it utterance.

When Tod’s Rajhasthan first issued from the press, I was struck with

the resemblance in plan and outline, between the Grecian and Rajpootra

temples, and this impression was confirmed as I became more intimate

with the architecture of Western India. Still there appeared no possi-

ble link of connection between Rajhasthan and Greece ; the intervening

tract of India and Afghanisthan exhibiting no proof that the successors

of Alexander had introduced their architecture into lands south of the

Indian Caucasus ; and the surmises of Tod, appearing to me rather such

theories as an enthusiast would desire to establish, than sober structures

based upon fact. The architecture of the Bullur and Manikiyala

Topes first startled me. The pilasters are manifestly Greek, and belong

to an order either borrowed from Greece, or borrowed by Greece from

India. The sculptured freestone at Jelum, the ancient Bukephalia (see

plate in your late appendix) I at once recognised as Greek. A gentle-

man known to your pages for his botanical contributions questioned the

fact of the heads of corn therein represented beg maize, upon the

generally received idea, that maize was first introduced into India by

the Portuguese. But it isso manifestly nothing but maize, which is

there represented, that if the Portuguese were the introducers of that

variety of corn, this sculpture could not be Grecian : and as the style is

evidently that of Greece, the sculpture acquires considerable interest

from the question depending upon it.

About a month ago I visited a town called Kala, 4 miles N. W. of

Jelum, and found therein a’ beautifully sculptured column almost pre-

cisely similar to some in Rajhasthan (see Plate V). This was dug from

the site of Bukephalia by a brahman and transported to a new temple

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1849. | Remains of Greek Sculpture in Potowar. 133

at Kala, under the belief that the figure in the niche is a representation

of the goddess Kali. I perceived at once that it was Grecian ; although

the interblending of styles would, I foresaw, make it difficult for me to

convince others of the fact. The pillars you will perceive, are, as in

those of the Tchoah temple, of what may be styled Indian Ionic: the

simple volute being exchanged for an acanthus leaf. The figure bears

in its left hand what seems to be acornucopice. It is rather clumsy,

and savours of the land of Egypt; but the hands are wrought with

perfect truth and the transparency of the drapery is admirable and

utterly inimitable by eastern art. The head dress can only be surmised by

what remains of it ; the face and head having been mutilated by Muham-

medan bigotry. It would seem to have been a turban, and we learn

that in Alexander’s day, Persian women wore turbans. The bosom is

defaced and the sex of the figure is doubtful. There are points of re-

semblance between this sculpture and the figure of Osiris at Aknoor,

(see your late appendix), viz. ‘The bend of the body, its clumsiness and

the beading in the huge head-dress. It seems highly probable that the

bulk of the imported sculptors were Egyptian, superintended by Grecian

architects. The greater proximity of Egypt and her skill at that

time in sculpture, as well as the dependence at the outset of the colonies

upon Egypt, and their utter separation from Greece by the intervention

of Egypt, when that dependence had ceased, rendering this highly

probable. Allowing this, we shall not be surprised at the abundant use

of the lotos, applicable to temples of Jupiter Ammon, of Osiris and of

Bacchus. The lotos ordinarily employed is that bastard kind so com-

mon in Bengal, and not allowded to be the Puddum or Kuwwul, or

sacred lotos. In the Tchoah temple, however, we have the true lotas

unmistakeably and most faithfully sculptured, (see Fig. 3, Pl. III.)

The head (Fig. 2, Pl. IV.) has been severed from its trunk, and as the

figures of Bacchus were often effeminate, the sex cannot be determin-

ed. The cap resembles that of a Tooreuman* bride, and is manifest_

ly Tartar. It may have represented Juno as Ammonia, or Isis, as the

companion of Osiris Ammon. The three plates upon the cap are mani-

festly of lamb-skin and the sculpture may have been executed previous to

the separation of Potowar from Bokhara.

* There can be little doubt that the Amazons or Hummanzun were Torcumuns,

and this figure may represent one of them as amongst the attendants of their con-

queror Alexander.

134 Remains of Greek Sculpture in Potowar. [Fes.

The head upon the waterspout seems to me to have been human, and

had it not been so, it might have escaped mutilation. The cheeks are

full and smooth, and although upon this sketch the peculiar perspec-

tive of the fracture gives the idea of a ram’s head, there is no such

resemblance in the original. My people pronounced it a lion, which the

paws and the fulness of the checks justified. But I think any Kuro-

pean would recognise it as human ; the head of a Jupiter Ammon.

The horned, human head, (Fig. 1, Pl. IV.) is manifestly Osiris as

Ammon The face is almost as smooth as that of the female head, but not

so decidedly feminine. The rings in the horns are not delineated,—every

thing nervous is excluded. The very horns are effeminate, and a chaplet

of roses forms the setting. We must bear in mind, that it formed a

mere ornament to the entrance of the temple similar to those in Plate

II. The query is whether a temple to Osiris Ammon would be ex-

ternally decorated with figures of the presiding Divinity, or whether that

Divinity was not rather the old and sterner Jupiter Ammon of the de-

sert? In this case the female head may have belonged to a companion

of the Deity, or to a subordinate. The summit of the female’s cap is

pierced, rendering it probable that it was a caryatid.

Amongst the true lotos flowers (Fig. 3, Pl. IV.) will be observed a fir

apple, one of the Bacchic emblems; but I have vainly endeavored to

discover anything that can be pronounced either vine leaf or ivy.

Considering the foundation of this Indo-Greek kingdom by Alexan-

der: the love and enthusiasm of his followers, his untimely death and

his politic assumption of Divine rites as the son of Ammon; it is not

improbable that temples to Alexander Ammon may have been erected

upon the theatre of his exploits, and if so, this is certainly one of them.

Such temples would want the emblem distinctive of Bacchus, viz. the

vine ; and ivy might be excluded for the same reason. But this would

exhibit the emblems of the lands of his conquest, the lotas for Egypt

and India, the caryatides of Tartary: and the figure of Osiris Ammon

might be introduced as subordinate to the conqueror.

I write at great disadvantage so many hundreds of miles from any

books of reference, and with a memory almost unrefreshed by study

during five and twenty years. It is possible, therefore, that further

research may modify some of the theories. But, that the thread of

connection between the architecture of Rajpootana, and that of Greece,

1849. | Remains of Greek Sculpture in Potowar. 135

is established, admits not of a doubt. AndI cannot but regard the fact

as of intense interest to the antiquary, tending to affect many of the

prevailing theories of the origin of the most interesting race in India.

By pressing my enquiries on all hands, I learned that the architrave,

and lintels of a door to this temple had been removed to Kuttass, and

introduced into the principal temple there. I revisited that temple at

the latest hour of my stay, and found the stones alluded to sculptured

into the most graceful and exquisite wreath of flowers, terminating below

in a cornucopice. The flower which I know not by name, though it is

familiar to my eye, I have seen, unless memory deceive me, beautifully

delineated in the inlaid work of the Taz. The workmanship of the Taz

has surprised many. Whence the models and who the artists? Some

of the models I have found growing wild upon the mountains of Af-

ghanistan ; here is another. Doubtless, when the Taz was erected,

vestiges of the exquisite taste of Greece were less obliterated. Two

centuries of Muhammedan bigotry, yea the single reign of Aurungzebe,

being as deadly in its effect upon the graces of social life, as forty cen-

turies of the wear and tear of the great destroyer.

Whilst busily searching the Tchoah site for fragments of sculpture,

the faquer observed, “‘ If you look for images you should go to Ram-

kata, where they lie thick as shingle ; many of them still in their niches.”

Gathering from his description that a Grecian temple was still existant

at that place, I deferred (though much prest for time) my march, and

started at once for Rémkata,* distant about 15 miles westward of

Tchoah.

At the southern brink of the table-land of Potowar a small area

half a mile in length by a quarter of a mile in breadth is scarped south-

ward by precipices 200 feet in height, and northward by a precipitous

acclivity of some fifty feet, resembling upon a very diminished scale the

site of Maundoo in Malwa. ‘The rocks are white limestone full of sea-

shells and masses of flint and agate. Graceful towers have been con-

structed on the northern face connected by walls of loose stones: and

thus we have a fortress of some strength were it preserved in repair. In

the interior, near the southern declivity, at the highest point, stands a

ruim which at first sight appeared to me that of a Gothic Church—on

approaching, my ideas were strangely confused: for here are fluted

* Called also Mullote and Shahgurh,

136 Remains of Greek Sculpture in Potowar. [Fes.

pilasters of Grecian order, surmounted with Persian capitals; and

between them is a trefoil arch containing the obelisk of Shiva and

surmounted by a Gothic gable. And the architraves are supported

upon Grecian pilasters, and on either side of the recess of the false door

are curvilinear entablatures filled with figures in Roman or Grecian

armour, and upon the frieze are rows of alternate sphinx and warrior,

and every cornice is Grecian, though often barbarously perverted,

and as we gaze upon the fabric, we call to mind those wretched ginger-

bread temples in Bengal, in which Grecian pillars and cornices have

been mixed up with Saracenic domes and minarets and obelisks peculiar

to India. The work is in red freestone, but so obliterated by the ele-

ments and so defaced by Muhammadan hands, that much is left to con-

jecture: every head of every figure having been lopped away. In

many places the sandstone is dissolved into a mass of red, ochrous sand.

My first idea was, that I gazed upon a Buddhist temple built from the

fragments of a Grecian fane. But more attentive consideration dispelled

this impression. The details (the obelisks excepted) being all Grecian,

though sadly lapsed into barbarity. The entablatures of the facade

strangely resemble those ugly rigmaroles which disfigure Italian

Churches.

The building consists of a Propylon eastward and the Sekon just

described, of which the only door faces the east. The facade on this

side resembles that in the sketch, with a slight difference. The cell is

a lofty, nearly square apartment of sandstone, cemented with lime, but

not plastered. The roof is vaulted, but open at summit, having either

been so constructed or since broken through to admit a passage, for

above it is a modern cell built by a Muhammedan devotee. The sand-

stone within is in perfect preservation. The interior of the cell is wholly

undecorated ; but the inner walls north and south of the Propylon are

decorated with singular piles of sculpture resembling the exterior facade

of the Sekon. They seem to me to offer a key to so much of the style

as is not Grecian—the abrupt slope of the upper gable and the mitigated

slope of the eaves, presenting a correct outline of a Chinese or Tibetan

temple, such as in the mountains we see constructed of timber. The

whole seems to me the work of this Grecian colony after its subduction

by Scythia,—their own taste beg constrained by edict to conform to the

general outline of their conquerdr’s temples.

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1849. | Notice of a Chinese Geographical work. 137

I could make but a very hurried sketch, for my leisure was restricted

to a few hours, and the wind, the sun and a drizzling shower greatly

interfered with the operation. This however may suffice to point the

way to further discovery of relics in which Potowar* is evidently rich.

The sculptured stones I had conveyed through the kindness of the

Dewan Adjoodia Persaud to Lahore, but as the scientific officer who

received them, gave me a receipt only for “‘a bundle of stones,” I have

some anxiety about them, I believe I can get them conveyed free of

expence to the Society to Delhi or even to Calcutta. They are not

very bulky. |

In plate VII. is a sketch of a very remarkable marble sculpture

turned up at Nosherain Huzara, some years ago, and adopted as a house-

hold god by a Kuttri of Kurripoor, I could not persuade him to sell

it. It is the Diana Triophthalme, and will exhibit the origin of the

attribute of three-eyed to shew for whom it has evidently been mistaken.

The third or central eye is delineated in a vertical position precisely as

im the pictures of Shiva. The execution is coarse. The block of

marble is unfinished and has probably been imbedded in a wall. The

natives mistake it for a male figure, perhaps because Chandra (the moon)

is male.

My papers are just now in considerabie jeopardy, or I should feel

— disposed to defer this communication until I could make it more com-

plete: but I am warned by subsequent losses.

Notice of a Chinese Geographical work ; by J. W. Laiwuay, Esq.

VP... &e.

Although, as I find after preparing the subjoined extracts for

publication, the interesting little work from which they are derived has

already been incidentally noticed by M. Klaproth in an article upon

Chinese Cosmography in the Journal Asiatique for 1832; yet the great

interest attached of late years to such productions, may perhaps justify

the insertion of this additional specimen, even at the risk of a little

repetition.

* I apply the name Potowar to all the table-land between the Indus and Jelum,

bounded on the south by the salt range, but I am not certain that this designation is

correct. At present the name applies only to the north-eastern portion.

138 Notice of a Chinese Geographical work. | Fes.

The author of the treatise in question was named Chhin leen kwing.

In a short and modest preface, he states that his father being in too

poor circumstances to devote his attention to letters, was compelled in

early life to push his fortunes on the sea; that there he became dis-

tinguished for his knowledge and skill, and had the good fortune to

render important service to the expedition sent by the emperor Khang

hi for the reduction of Formosa. He was thus brought to the favoura-

ble notice of that emperor, and was promoted from post to post, till he

attained the appointment of lieutenant-commandant of the coasts of

Kwang tung. He was naturally proud of his profession, and “ very

impressively”’ instructed his son while yet a boy in all the mysteries

of his craft, ‘ the islands and the shoals, the harbours and the danger-

ous places, the haunts of pirates,” and other matters of seafaring in-

terest, so that, as the latter assures us, he never in after life forgot them.

Our author obtained in his youth an appointment in the body guard

of the emperor Khang hi, and enjoyed an excellent opportunity of

extending his geographical knowledge under the auspices of that mon-

arch, whom he describes as graciously taking a personal interest in

and promoting his studies. He afterwards held various appointments

of importance, visiting officially several of the countries described in the

course of his little work, and improving his knowledge of more distant

lands by intercourse with Europeans and other foreigners whom he

occasionally fell in with. The preface is dated in the 8th year of Yung

ching, corresponding with A. D. 1731.

The work itself is entitled Hai kwo wan kian lu,* or a Narrative of

what is seen and heard of the seas and the nations. It is divided into

eight chapters, the first of which treats of the sea coasts of China, and is

accompanied by a set of maps exhibiting the entire sea front from Kao

li (Korea) to the boundary of Cochin China. This chapter is occupied

with a rather dry and uninteresting detail of the distances and bearings

of different places, and the dangers encountered, as well from the ordi-

nary perils of navigation, as well as from the pirates by whom many

parts of the coast were at that time infested. As the author avoids,

apparently intentionally, any particulars regarding the country or the

people, there is nothing in this chapter of sufficient interest to extract ;

so that we may pass at once to the second, entitled

* és: LB TL FL, ak

1849. | Notice of a Chinese Geographical work. 139

“TUNG YANG KI;* or An account of the Eastern Ocean. What [won-

drous|+ things doth not the vast extent of the universe contain! The

spirits of space,—the 10,000 varieties of living beings,—the sun,

moon, and constellations,—and many other things which transcend

our comprehension! All these the Holy Sages have examined and

discoursed upon ; and they, too, to determine the four parts, invented the

compass,{ dividing it into twenty-four rhumbs [extending] from near

to far, and admirably adapted to enable us ignorant men of after ages

to inform ourselves of all the kingdoms of the world: kingdoms ex-

tending beyond kingdoms !

Let us describe then the foreign kingdoms of the earth ; the naviga-

tion to them ; their people, productions, customs, and what really is to be

seen and heard among them; that henceforward honorable men may

be enabled to pick and choose.

Chiu stn§ is situated in the north-east quarter of the world. It

adjoms Shing king, and lies opposite to Thin cheen|| and the country of

Ku ki tst. It is divided into provinces and districts, and is the high

road through which the tribute passes to the court. Its history and

geography have been compiled generations ago, and there is no need

of speaking more fully of it here. On the south it is bounded by the

ocean, on which is an island belonging to V2 pan,* named Ma tao,t

which may be reached in one night with a fair wind. At Ming kwan

pth there were disturbances [in former times]. From Ma tao, souther-

Ga we =

+R FF at

t+ The words betwixt brackets are interpolated to explain the meaning of the text

more fully.

¢ According to some Chinese authors the compass (called by them Ch? nan, the

south index) was invented in the fabulous ages of their history. Others refer it to the

time of Ching wang of the Chow dynasty,—1121—1114, B. C. It is very curious

that Marco Polo makes no allusion to so important an instrument, which was

unknown in Europe till some time after his travels.

§ A province at the extremity of the Corean promontory.

|| Thin chen is a district betwixt Pekin and the sea. The river of Pe kin is also

so called.

EF] AX Yi pan, the spring or origin of day, is perhaps the etymon of Japan.

} I take this to be the island lying between the Japan group and the continent,

and called Tsu sz ma on our maps.

aby

140 Notice of a Chinese Geographical work. . [Fes.

ly, on the magnetic rhumbs yin, kd, mao,* is an archipelago of seventy-

two islands, all belonging to Y% pan, the country of the Wainu.+ These

maintain a traffic with the Central Kingdom.{ There is one island named

Ching kt, which with difficulty produces sufficient pulse and grain

for the sustenance of the inhabitants. There trade is carried on for the

public benefit, accounts are kept, and at the end of each year, whatever

profit accrues, is equally divided among the people of Chang ki. The

king of this nation resides in the north-east part of Chang ki. About

one month’s journey by land is a country named Mi ye ko,§ which

translated means “ the capital.’ He [the king] receives his title from

the court of Han.|| He dresses according to the fashion of the Central

Kingdom. The people study the literature of the beautiful Central

Kingdom, but read it with the accent of Wai.* :

The king possesses the authority, but military and political affairs

are managed by the military chief. The king interferes not in these.

He receives sufficient for his subsistence from the tribute and offerings

of the country. The military chief} occasionally pays his court to him,

and that is all.

Changes in the succession occasionally occur from strife [among the

members of the royal family]; but strife never occurs between the king

and the military chief. It is narrated in the annals of V2 pan, that

from the earliest ages of the empire to the present, there has beena

succession of kings. In former times a military chief usurped the

throne ; but the country ceased to produce the usual tribute; the five

grains became scarce; and the productive energies{t of nature became

* These points of the Chinese compass extend from E. 30° N. to east. The bear-

ings appear to be given from Peking.

T Japanese.

+ China.

§ The Meaco of our maps.

|| Of China, from the dynasty of that name.

* Wai, Japan.

tT This is the Cubo of our geographers.

“ Se er Yin yang: which may also mean, the male and female powers of

nature, in which sense the words are used by Chinese writers. On the

subject of these powers, Dr. Harland, in an interesting article on Chinese Anatomy

and Physiology published in the Transactions China Branch of the Royal Asiatic So-

1849.] Notice of a Chinese Geographical work. 14]

unpropitious. The military chief then returned to the station of a sub-

ject, when the seasons became propitious as before. [ver since that

time no military chief has presumed to aspire [to the throne].

All offices are hereditary. Conformably to the customs of Han,* the

officers named. Chi st, receive an allowance of a thousand stone [of rice].

This allowance is ample for their support, and few are induced to trans-

gress the laws. Every year they elect one of their number to be a con-

stable,+ who becomes security for the village and receives fifty | pieces of |

gold per annum as his pay. They have little to do, and have ample leisure.

They apply themselves to Chinese literature, become good scholars,

and behave with urbanity. They wear peacocks’ feathers in their caps.

They attend to the cleaning of the roads and ditches, and to the sweep-

ing and watering of the streets. Their families cannot consume the

whole of the food, and there remains a surplus even for the servants to

throw away.

The rich make use of carpets of cotton ; the poor, of mats. On the

occasion of a census, every family displays more or fewer mats, according

to the number of persons. The garments of the men and women have

broad collars and wide sleeves. The dresses of the women are so

long as to sweep the ground, and are ornamented with flowers traced and

dyed upon them. They wear cloth turbans, girdles, and on their feet,

short socks to walk in. ‘The men wear sashes, in which they thrust a

knife. They wear their hair on the head, and beards ; combing the for-

ciety, remarks :—‘ It is difficult to conceive a clear idea of the exact mutual relation

existing between these two powers, which are said to have produced all things,

though they are generally looked upon as a kind of male and female energy, as ap-

pears to be implied by the wonderful productive powers ascribed to them. It is

probable, however, that these terms, when applied to the animal economy, might

often be considered in a similar light, and perhaps with as clear an idea, as the words

positive and negative in electricity, which have become so generally used of late

years to explain any otherwise inexplicable phenomenon. In both cases, the terms

are used to express certain opposing forces, which only become known to us by their

effects, when either of them is in excess, but of whose existence we are not cognizant

s0 long as the equilibrium is maintained.’’

* China, so called after the dynasty of that name which reigned from

+ Kai kun ; literally, ‘ street mayistrate.’ Morrison gives constable as the equi-

valent.

142 Notice of a Chinese Geographical work. [Frs.

mer backwards, and knotting it behind the neck in a band an inch broad

or more; when the hair gets too long, they cut it. The women

do not use cht,* or flour.t Nor do they wear fresh flowers [in their

hair], nor flowered cloth and silk, nor head ornaments, nor ear-rings ;

—only tortoise-shell combs. The young damsels are [numerous] as

the clouds; all day they bathe and perfume themselves. They curl

their hair before and behind. Their finger nails are extremely clean ;

they dread all impurity. Nevertheless, the complexions of the men and

women are not to be compared with those of the lovely Central Land,

although beyond comparison superior to those of all other countries.

Verily, the east produces gay and etherial spirits !

The people of that country have all double sur-names, only the

Che fu have single ones. The Choe fu unite the young men and

young women m marriage. Those who dwell on the spot, are called

Che ke chen; their burial place is at Hong tsi shdn. The men of

this nation become impotent after fifty years of age. Nw is the name

of the tribe; hence they are called Wai nu. They in general venerate

Fuh,t and respect the priests of the Central Nation. They constantly

sweep the family temples and the tombs of their departed ancestors.

They procure sweet smelling flowers and delicate fruits [for offerings] ;

or failing these, with venerable priests of Fuh they approach the ances-

tral tombs.

These people hold their lives cheap. If they have transgressed the

law, and the matter become public, they go to a sequestered spot, and

destroy themselves,§ so as not to involve others. The laws are extremely

severe against quarrels and strife. They speak very gently to each

* A vermilion salve used by Chinese ladies for the lips.

tT To improve the complexion.

+ The Chinese transcription of Buddha.

§ This account is confirmed to the letter by M. Titsingh, who says, ‘‘ When a

person is conscious of having committed some crime and apprehensive of thereby being

disgraced, he puts an end to his own life to spare his family the ruinous conse-

quences of judicial proceedings. This practice is so common that scarcely any no-

tice is taken of such an event. The sons of all people of quality exercise themselves

in their youth for five or six years, with a view that they may perform the operation,

in case of need, with gracefulness and dexterity ; and they take as much pains to

acquire this accomplishment, as youth amongst us do to become elegant dancers or

1849.| Notice of a Chinese Geographical work. 143

other, and when they summon their servants, they do so by clapping

their hands.

They have no traffic in slaves ; but they engage themselves for a cer-

tain time, and on the lapse of that time they return home.

Two nations are tributary [to Yi pan |. On the northis Mé tdo, which

is bounded by Chiu sin.* Chiu sin pays tribute through Md tdo, and

Ma tao remits it to Yt pan. On the south is Sd tsi md, bounded by Ltu

khiu.t Liu khiv is tributary to Sa fst md, and Sd tsi md to Vi pan.

The kings of both islands obey the commands [of the king of Yi pan. |

The seasons are similar to those of Shan tung, Kong nan and Chi kong.

Chang ki and Pho tho lie east and west of each other, at a distance

of forty kéng. He mant is distant from Chang ki sixty-two kéng.

With a north wind you go from Wu tao man ; with a south wind from

Thin thang man. By Ma tao lies the road to Ting chitu : Sa tsi ma

is the road to Wén that, These countries produce gold, silver, copper,

varnish, porcelain, every variety of flowers, and printed goods. The

sea produces lung yin heong, the fish fu, bichu de mar, and every kind

of [marine] vegetable.

The hills of Sa ¢st mé are full of caverns ; from these issue deep and

cold streams admirably adapted for tempering cutting instruments.

They produce also horses, and very strong men.

In the times of the Emperor Ke ¢sing,§ there were freebooters from

Wai at Sa tst ma. Merchant ships from Yi pan anchor at Yung keé,

because formerly eighteen fishermen of Wai, being driven by a strong

wind to the Middle Kingdom, crafty men,|| through their mstrumenta-

lity, excited an insurrection. They wore beards and shaved the hair

skilful horsemen : hence the profound contempt of death which they imbibe even in

their earliest years. This disregard of death, which they prefer to the slightest dis-

grace, extends to the very lowest classes of the Japanese.—Titsingh, Idlust. of

Japan, page 148.

* On the Chinese map this is laid down on the southern extremity of the Corean

peninsula; Md ¢do must be the island Tsu s¢ ma of our maps. They are not includ -

ed in the Chinese map.

+ The Islands called Loo choo, on our maps. I cannot, in the absence of native

maps, identify Sa ts? ma, but a little further on we are told it lies to the north of

Liu khiu. ~ Amoy.

§ Ke tsing of the Ming dynasty, reigned from 1522 to 1567, A. D.

|| 1. e. of the Chinese nation.

144 Notice of a Chinese Geographical work. | Fes.

on their foreheads. They learnt the language of the country ina seclud-

ed spot. Others joined these and they commenced plundering. The

multitude called them Wainu. They afterwards, being overcome, re-

turned to their own nation, eighteen men in number, and were punished

by the king according to the law. From that time to. the present, their

ships have been forbidden to come to the Central Nation: and although

we go to their country, they dare not come to ours. In the history of

Wai* an account of these eighteen persons is given at large.

Proceeding from Pho thé to Cheang ki, you cross the sea of Wang

yang, i a direction from east to west. The wind raises vast and dan-

gerous waves. ‘There is an adage that “ Y2 pan hath good things, but

Wu tao is hard to pass.”

Proceeding from Hea man to Chang kht, with the south monsoon,

you sight K¢ lung shdn,t on the island Thdi wdén.t Going north to

Mi khong yang and Heong thin yong, you again sight the great hill of

Sa tst md, and Thin thang. The course is parallel with the needle.

As for the two seas called Hong yang and Thém ydng, the first, in the

midst, resembles chaff [in colour ?], andthe latter resembles mushrooms.

Hence they are called the Sea of rice-chaff |Mi khong yang], and Hong

thin ydng, the Sea of mushroons. To the south of Sa tsi mais Ltu

khiu. It lies on the rhumb yet,§ and is distant sixty-eight Aéng. The

natives of the interior practise the literature of the Central Nation.

The people are weak and the kingdom poor. They produce copper-

vessels, paper, sea-shells, indigo, and tortoise-shell, but have nothing

else to give in exchange for clothing and necessaries for the inhabitants.

The tribute passes through Fu chiu. These people have long been

known and seen, and it is unnecessary to describe them more fully here.

Liu khiu Vies to the south of Yi pan. All the waters flow to the

eastward. Chang ts?|| hath said that water once covered Mi le, but

at what time is unknown; and Chang tsf never lies!”

The third chapter gives an account of Formosa, and is entitled

* Japan.

+7 The most northerly cape of the island of Formosa.

¢ Formosa.

§ East 150 South.

|| The name of a Chinese sage.

1849. | Notice of a Chinese Geographical work. 145

“TUNG NAN YANG KI,* or An account of the South-East Ocean. All

the oceans of the south-east begin at Thai want and lie to the south

[of that island].

Thit win is situated on the magnetic rhumbs shin sin.t From Ké

lung shan, on the north, to Md khi on the south, it is two thousand eight

hundred “§ in length. It lies opposite to Fu chiu fu, Heng chiu fu,

Chen chiu fu,|| and Cheang chiu fu. It is separated from the island of

Phing «* by a navigation of four /éng,+ and from Hea man by a navi-

gation of eleven Aéng. Its western side is a marshy wilderness ; its

eastern is bounded by the ocean. This part is inhabited by the vassals

Yin yu, named the ‘ aborigines of Phing pu.”

The hills are very lofty, and are inhabited by people whose numerous

races it were difficult to count. They catch deer and eat them. Yams

and rootst constitute their staple food. They have no reckoning of

years. When the grain is ripe, they prepare a wine from it and regale

themselves : and that is their year. By nature they are fond of murder ;

and they preserve the skulls of men as something precious. They

tattoo their bodies, and blacken their teeth. Their races are various.

In the morning when they hear the birds sing, they proceed upon their

business as the omen§ is lucky or otherwise. The men and the women

couple illicitly, and that is their marriage. |

e ae (Ye

Be Wa VF al

+ Thdi Wan is the Chinese name of Formosa. It has generally been applied

by European writers to the port only.

$ Mig ese shin sin, corresponding with S. E. (sin) and E. 30° S.

(shin) on our compass.

§ “i: Stadium Sinicum, continens trecentos et sexaginta passus. De Guignes.

|| These are provinces of Fo kien.

* A group of islands lying off the coast of Formosa, called ‘‘ Pescadores’’ by the

Spaniards, and ‘‘ Visschers Eilanden’’ by the Dutch. Valentyn describes them

‘ minutely. The largest he calls Phek no; no doubt a corruption of Phang u.—

(Beschryv. van Taywan—p. 37).

t Keng is, in time, the 10th part of the day of 24 hours; in measure, 60 li of

navigation, as our author himself informs us a litle further on.

¢ Sheu. I am doubtful what esculents these may be; most probably yams.

§ Pi, properly a method of inferring omens by burning tortoise-shell, but here

it means an omen in general.

| This passage is differently rendered by M. Klaproth:—‘! Les hommes et

146 Notice of a Chinese Geographical work. [Fes.

In the times of the emperor Tsung ching,* the Red Hairs, named

Ho ldn,t took possession of the great port of Ngdn pheng. They

erected a fortress of three stories to protect the opening to the sea.

They taught the natives to till the ground, and induced them to study

the literature of the Western Ocean.t They carried on a traffic in

deer’s skins with Yi pan,§ im which they employed the natives as la-

borers, and harassed them so, that existence became intolerable.

In former times Cheang chi lung|| dwelt upon the sea. He married a

Japanese woman named Vung st, of whom was born Shing kung. Many

tens of Wai nu* followed him, and they anchored together at Thai wan.

From the outer sea they reconnoitred the island, but could do nothing

[more]. He therefore made war upon Kong nan, Chi keang, Fo kien,

and Yet tung,t saying to his son, ‘Should we be unsuccessful there,

[we shall return] and have perfect repose in Thi win. Cheang

shing kung made war therefore upon Chin kong, was repulsed,

and returned. He remaimed watching Kim mun and Hea mun, and

divising schemes to capture Thdi wdn. He brought together the

interpreters of the Ho Jdw nation, named Ho pan and Fu 2,

leadsmen of Lo z mdn, who knew well where the water of the

port was deep and where shallow. These directed Shing kung to

collect the ships and proceed in a body. The Ho lén carefully

guarded the great harbor of Ngdn pheng. Shing kung set out from Lo

émdn, and aided by a great inundation of 30 cubits or more, entered

and took possession of Thét wdn. There was a long struggle with the

Ho lin, because he persisted, saying, “‘ Thde win belonged to our former

kings, and is still inhabited by Wat nu. Take away whatever you

les femmes se réunissent dans les champs pour les cultiver.’’ Valentyn states

that the women perform all the agricultural labor.

* Tsung ching of the Ming dynasty reigned, according to the tables, from 1628

to 1644, A. D.

+ The Dutch.

+ Europe.

§ Japan.

|| This must be the famous Coxingja of the Dutch, who expelled the latter from

Formosa. Valentyn gives full particulars.

* That is, Japanese.

+ The province of Canton.

1849. | Notice of a Chinese Geographical work. 147

possess ; restore us the country ; and your money and goods we will not

touch.” The Ho lin, thoroughly informed of the multitude, went away.

In the twenty-second year* of Khang hi, Cheang khe shang sub-

mitted, and the country was entered upon the maps.¢ Shing thin fu

became thenceforward Thi win fu; Thing peng chiu became Chee lo

an; Wan nin chiu became Thdi win en and Fung shin en. In the

second year of Yung ching,t Che lo en was divided into two, the

northern portion becoming Cheang fwa en.

To the south-east of Shé md khi§ of the district of Fung shin, is Lee

sung,|| situated on the magnetic point szm.* It is a navigation of 72

keng distant from Hé mdn. On the northern side is a mountainous

region, which seen afar off resembles the teeth of a saw. Its common

name is Chéz ngiu hdng.t These hills are inhabited by aborigines, who

belong to Le sung.

To the west, north, east, and south of Sha md khit there are. many

islands at a distance; but only one island is contiguous to Thdz wan :

its name is Hong theo w.§ It also is inhabited by aborigines. No

ships traffic there, because the language is altogether unknown. They

live upon yams and roots and the productions of the sea. The country

produces gold dust.

There are lofty hills in Le sung, which extend round from the north,

at Chdi ngiu hang towards the south-east. In former times the natives

of the Great Western Ocean, named Kan si la Shi pan ya,|| took pos-

* A. D. 1684.

+ That is, became a recognised portion of the Chinese empire ; as a consequence,

of which the provinces seem to have received Chinese names.

£°1725,'A.-D.

§ The most southerly part of the island.

|| Lucon, one of the Phillipines.

* South-east.

T The ‘ ditch or fosse for slaughtering oxen.”’

{ This is the most southerly cape of Formosa.

§ There is no other island on our maps that answers to this description, but

Botel Tobago Xima.

|| Klaproth transcribes these words Kan szu la Chi pan ya: hence, in the edition

of the original in his hands, the first syllable must have been and not as in

mine | , which may be easily supposed to be a typographical error. M, K,’s

y-Z

148 Notice of a Chinese Geographical work. | Fes.

session of it. It produces a grain 5 or 6 fin * in length. Many peo-

ple from Cheang chiu, and Chen chiu cultivate this grain and carry it

to other countries. They pay an annual personal tax of five or six

pieces of gold to reside there. Traders are kept apart in one corner.

They are separated from others and not allowed to transgress the

boundaries. They, also, pay taxes according to their trade. Of all the

foreign countries of the South-east Ocean, Le sung is the most pros-

perous; because the Kan si la Shi pan ya of the Great Western Ocean

bring silver there for commerce. Silk, silken cloth, cottons, and a

hundred varieties of merchandise are sold. The productions of other

countries are brought in great abundance. + The established religious

doctrines are those of the Great Western Ocean.t They have erect-

ed fortified cities and fortresses for the foreigners. The country

originally belonged to the aborigines ; but now it is possessed by for-

eigners.

When the people of Hdn§ marry a woman of this country, they must

adopt the heretical doctrines, and worship the Lord of Heaven in the

church. They use oil and water, and write the character shz|| on their

forehead. The name of this water is water of sprinkling They burn

incense in honor of their fathers and mothers. When their old people

die, they go to the church, dig a grave, and there deposit the body.

The rich spend more or less money, and bury their dead in the church,

within the foundations.* The poor are buried without the walls.

reading is no doubt the correct one, and is the Chinese transcript of ‘* Castillian

Spaniards.”’? The ** Great Western Ocean,’’ is equivalent to ‘‘ Zurope.”’

* Fan, is the hundredth part of a cubit.

+ M. Klaproth translates this passage, ‘‘ Le nombre des indigenes s’est accru

considerablement :’’ an evident mistranslation, ‘‘ in the island the produce of foreign

countries (fin thu chdng) is collected in clouds.”’

t Europe.

§ i. e. China.

|| That is , the Chinese ¢en; the cross.

* M. Klaproth translates: ‘‘ Les riches font, a cette occasion, plus ou moins de

dépense, selon l’état de leur fortune, et elevent des monumens sur la tombe.’’ The

text is Fe [Al ki nai, within, on the foundations ; which is antithetical to the

AE, ’

mode of burying the poor in the next sentence, 1% tseang wai; ** outside

the walls.”’

1849. | Notice of a Chinese Geographical work. 149

Every three years they make a clearance and cast away the bones in a

deep mountain stream. Whatever property the deceased may have

possessed, is proclaimed in the public hall, and is divided into three

parts,—amongst the church, the widow, and the children.*

They have a bad sickness [in the mode of inducing which] the

mothers instruct the daughters and not the sons. They have a way

of charming cows’ hides and smoked hams, and reducing these to the

size of a grain of sand. Whoever eats of this his belly swells and he

dies. Frogs, too, and several kinds of fishes are in like manner be-

witched. ‘They can moreover dissolve these charms and make [the

fishes and frogs| leap out of the mouth again.

The crime against nature is prohibited. Even fathers, sons, and bro-

thers are not allowed to sleep on the same bed. The doors are kept

open at night, to hear and to see; and the beds and the mats are care-

fully examimed. If they be detected, they are punished by fine.

Early in the morning a bell is rung, and it is day; the markets and

the shops are opened for trade. At noon, the bell is again rung, and it

is night! The market is closed, all go to sleep, and none venture

abroad. In the evening the bell is rung once more; and it is day !

Lamps and candles shed a clear light and trade proceeds. At midnight,

again the bell rings, and it is night again! The shops and the markets

are closed. Every shi shin} it is alternate day and night. At noon

day they prohibit the whole country [to trade]. Verily it is a market

of devils !

After a journey of twelve keng you arrive at Li tsi pha, and twenty-

one keng more bring you to Kan ma li,t to both which places the

ships of Han proceed for purposes of commerce. South-east of Li

tsi pha is an island, opposite to which are five other islands, namely

* M. Klaproth has evidently misunderstood this passage ; which he translates,—

‘¢-Ceux qui sont d’une maison riche, cherche a briller dans Veylise principale,” &c.

eto Wher

The words translated ‘‘ maison riche Ar ke tst, means ‘* family property,”

and that translated ‘‘ bridler’’ HH ming, means to proclaim, as well as to shine.

Besides, the matter of burying was disposed of by the clearing out the bones

in the former sentence, and the author has now passed to another subject.

+ Shi shin ; 6 hours.

+ Camarines ? the S. E. peninsula of Lucon ?

150 Notice of a Chinese Geographical work. [Fes.

Pan ngai, A tang, Si mt, Miu mu yin, and Mang kia tst nu.* Many

vessels from the central nation traffic there also. These islands are

inhabited by aboriginal natives, and the productions are the same as

those of La sung, such as deers’ horns, cows’ hides, nerves, and

flesh, Brazil wood, ebony, sandal wood, balsam, yellow wax, swallows’

nests, bichu de mar, and various other things. To sail thither you

must proceed from Le sung to Li tst pha, and thence southerly.

From Le sung to Pan ngdi are ten héng ; to A tang, twenty-three héng,

to Su mu, 24 kéng ; to Man kiu tsin nu fifty-eight kéng. The men

of these islands are very ignorant ; they comprehend nothing; they ac-

cumulate no property. They require only a little cloth from the Central

Kingdom to cover their persons. Each tribe has its chief to protect the

national rights.

South-east of these you come to Wan lao kao,+ and Ting kit. These

two kingdoms are situated on the magnetic rhumb ¢z/.{ The natives

and the various productions are similar [to the preceding]. The dis-

tance by sea from Le sung to Wan lao kao, is 174 kéng. To Ting hi

Zit is 210 héng.

From Le sung due south is a great mountain, the general name of

which in Wu la yu is the Great hill of Si li.§ To the east of

this hill is Sw Jo.|| In ancient times it never paid tribute; but in the

sixth year of Tung ching* there arrived tribute via Man.¢ To the west

* Yn the map prefixed to the History of the Philippine Islands, by Martinez de

Zuniga, there are 5 or 6 large islands south of Lucon, amongst which only one or

two seem to have aboriginal names, namely Panay [Pan ngai], Zebu [Su mu ?]

These are no doubt the islands here spoken of.

+ Moluccas ?

¢ 150S. of S. E. —or more properly, E. 550 S.

§ M. Klaproth has I think misunderstood this passage. He makes it—‘‘ De Liu

soung droite au sud, est une grande montagne; elle n’a pas de nom général, mais

elle est extremement etendue.’’ The mistake rises from the first syllable of the word

Wu Idi yu, (Malay) being taken in its literal acceptation, ‘‘ not ;’’ but how the remain-

der of the sentence is construed as above I do not know. ‘The same mistake occurs

further on. The place alluded to must be in the northern part of Borneo.

|| Sudo must be the Sooloo Archipelago of our maps, between Borneo and Min-

danao.

* 1729 A. D.

+ i. e. Fo kein.

1849. | Notice of a Chinese Geographical work. 151

of thisis Ax Zi man ; and again to the west is Wan ldt ;* these constituted

in ancient times the kingdom of Pho Jo. Proceeding yet further west,

is the great hill of Che ko tstu la, and to the south of that, Ma shin.t

The extent of these hills has never been ascertained: their interior has

never been trodden by man. They produce wild beasts, whose very

kinds are unnamed. Su lo, Kili man, and Wan ldi, are three king-

doms all lying in the southerly rhumbs from Le sung; and to reach

Chee ko tstu lo you must proceed south from Tst chan yang m Yor nan,

passing Kwan len, and Chd phan, and thence easterly, 188 kéng, which

brings you to Chee ko tstu lo. To reach Ma shin also you must go by

Chdé phan, and Ké ld pd, and thence a navigation of 340 kéng. From

Hea man, vii Lee sung to Su lu, the distance does not exceed one hun-

dred and ten kéng.

Again, to the eastward the sea separates a region named Mang hid shi.

From Ma shin to Mang kdi shi,t the distance is twenty-seven éng.

Further east is Ting 4¢7,§ and on the north-east is Wan lao kao and Su lu.

Ki lt man, Wan la kao, and Chee ko tstu lo are generally called in

Wu la yu,|| O fin. The natives are very fond of copper gongs; and

all their utensils are of copper. They dwell in huts along the banks of

rivulets. Their manners are rude. They never remove their swords

from their persons,* and are very dextrous in the use of the spear.

Whenever it draws blood, death follows. They dress in single pieces of

printed or coloured cloth. The merchants of that country travel to and

fro in a kind of small boat called mdng kea. They proceed in com-

pany and divide the profit with each other.

The produce of these countries consists of pearls, camphor, tortoise

shell, bichu de mar, birds’ nests, ebony, sandal wood, sea weed, ratans,

* Borneo, called also Brunai on our maps.

+ Banjermassin ?

+ Macassar; more properly Mancassar, I believe.

§ New Guinea ??

\| Malayan. Klaproth again misapprehends the term :—‘‘ ces pays ne sont pas

connus sons une denomination generale,’’—is his version of this passage.

* M. Klaproth translates this passage, ‘‘ Leurs corps resiste aux coups de sabre !’’

a translation the absurdity of which is self-evident. The meaning is simply that

ap?

rif

they sleep with theircreeses. The word he translates ‘‘ resiste,’’ EYE “i, means

to remove: and were it not so, the word shin, body, is in the wrong position,

syntactically, as the complement of a verb active.

152 Notice of a Chinese Geographical work. [Fer

and so forth. The natives of Ma shin resemble the preceding.

They are exceedingly cunning and treacherous. The Red Hairs are

already in possession of their port, and aim at taking the whole country.

The natives are afraid of their artillery, and dare not fight them : but

retiring to the hills, secrete themselves, and with herbs poison the upper

parts of running streams, and then themselves go out of the way.

The country produces steel, diamonds, pepper, sandal wood, brasil

wood, ratans, nutmegs, camphor, lead, tim, birds’ nests, kingfishers’

feathers, bichu de mar, &c. The diamonds are of five various colors ;

those which are golden, black, and red, are the most esteemed, for if they

be put at night ina dark room, they emit a clear light. If even put

mto muddy water, or covered with a napkin, their light will shine

through. But they prize most of all such as are as large as a die.*

These are valued at 100,000 leang.+ The natives of the Western Ocean

barter for it their most precious commodities.

From Le sung to Ki li mdn, the distance is thirty-nine kéng: to Wan

lét, forty-two kéng. All these are the foreign kingdoms of the South

Eastern Ocean: but Chee ko chtu lo and Ma shin are not on the road

from Lee sung, and ought properly to be entered among the kingdoms

of the South Ocean. The same with respect to Su lu, and Wan lai,

and the chain of mountains running north and south. But we have

given them along with the South-east Ocean, in order to set forth their

position with greater distinctness.”

The fourth chapter, describing the countries immediately South of

China, is entitled

“NAN YANG KI,{ or on account of the Southern Ocean.—All the

kingdoms of the SourHern Ocwan have the Central Kingdom some

what to the east. Examined thence by the magnetic compass, they lie

* M. Klaproth has mistaken the meaning of this passage, which he translates

‘‘ordinairement les indigénes portent, comme ornement detéte, un de ces joyaux,

grand comme une piece de damier, et qui a la valeur de cent mille ouces d’argent !”’

avery ordinary ornament no doubt! The mistake has arisen from the use of the

aeF si

word i siu, ‘‘ head,”’ as a superlative in the text ; as we say head man, for chief

man. The die here referred to is of a hemispherical shape and about half an inch

in diameter or more.

7 Leang, about a dollar and half,

Pay ao

1849. | Notice of a Chinese Geographical work. 153

betwixt the rhumbs ¢ing and wi; but from the Great WesTERN

Ocran of the universe, they lie upon the points scm and tse.*

To speak first of Ngdn nan ;+ it immediately joins the Central King-

dom. Its sea bounds Lim chiu. Its hills turn towards the north-

west, and then south towards Chim shing, in form resembling a half

moon. The name is Kwang nin wdn.t

Under the Tésin it was [denominated] Tséang kwan ; under the Han,

Kado chi; under the Thing, Kado chiu; under the Sung, Ngan nian,

and under the Ming, Kdo cht. It joins, in succession, both the Yet,§

and Yon ndn. The manners of the people and their productions have

been already described in the historical books.

All beyond Shan fwi, Sin chiu, Kwing t, and Chim shing|| is deno-

minated Kwdéng ndn: for the maternal uncle and brother-in-law [of the

Emperor ?| having been sent to watch Shan fwa, they accordingly fixed

upon the fort of Ma lung kd, on the north side of a river, and another

fort belonging to Kdo chi, as the boundary. All to the south of Shan

Jwa, as far as Chim shing, is the kingdom of Kwang nan, called also Ngdn

ndn. The family name of the king is Yen ; he springs from a family of

the Central Kingdom. ‘The country was formerly called Ye ndn hwan.

It produces gold, the wood ndn, perfumes, lead, tin, cinnamon, ivory,

* M. Klaproth, I think, misconceives this passage. He translates it, ‘ Si l’on exa-

mine le monde avec l’aiguille aimantée, on trouve que tout ce qui est situé entre les

rumbs ¢ing et wei est entouré par le grand océan occidental, et que sur le reste des

vingt quatre division de la boussule, il n’y a de terres que par les rumbs de sien et

szu.”” He adds in a note, ‘‘ce passage est un peu obscur dans le texte; je pense

pourtant en avoir saisi le sens.’” A moment’s reflection that the Great Western

Ocean is Europe, and that betwixt it and the countries here described the Litiéle

Western Ocean (comprising India, Persia, Arabia, &c.) intervenes, would have

satisfied the translator that such cannot be the Chinese author’s meaning: nor

is there any equivalent in the original for the words i n’y a de terres que par, &c.

AK we A MERA Te

a9 €p Ai oe ae Bee Ting is S. 15° W. wi, S. 30° W.; Sin, SE.,

and tse E. 60° S.

7 Or An nan.

¢ Or the Bay of Kwang nan.

§ That is, the two provinces of Kwang tung, and Kwang si.

\| These four countries are in Cochinchina.

154 Notice of a Chinese Geographical work. [Frs.

fine silk cloth, birds’-nests, fish-fins, the vegetable cht tsa, sugar, and

other things like Kao cht.

Kdo chiisnamed Tung king (or the eastern capital); and Kwdng

ndn, Si king, or the western capital. It is more powerful than Kdo cht.

On the south are Lo Idi, Tung po chdi,* and Kwan td md. The south-

west borders with J'stm lo ;+ the north-west with Min tin.t They plant

prickly bamboos around their towns. The natives are excellent divers.

When a ship of the Red Hairs, driven by stress of weather, enters

Kwdng ndén wan, the people of the country send about a hundred little

boats, the crews of which carry with them bamboo joints containing a

quantity of fine cord. These dive into the water, and having nailed the

fine cords to the bottom of the vessel, row quickly away, so as to drag

the vessel aground in shallow water. They then pillage and burn her.

Now the vessels of the Red Hairs avoid coming even in sight of the

hills of Kwang nan. Should they behold these, the master immediately

tells the mate how the nation practises this severity.§

Proceeding from Héa man towards Kwdng ndn, you pass by Nan 4,]||

and sighting Lo wdn shdn* in Kwang tung, and Té chiu theo in Khing

chiu fu; cross the Ocean of the Seven Isles by the Chim pa 16+

mountain outside of Kwdng ndn, and so reach Kwang ndn. They

reckon the navigation to be seventy-two kéng.

Kéo chi lies to the west of the Seven Isles, and to reach it you

must go round by the north. From Héa man to Kdo chi is a navi-

gation of seventy-four héng. |

The Sea of the Seven Islest lies south-east of Khing tao and Wan

* This is the Chinese named of Camboja. See Crawford, Embassy to Siam

and Cochin China.

T Siam.

ft Ava.

§ M. Klaproth turns this passage,—‘“‘ le capitaine dit a 1’ équipage.’”’ ‘‘ Mes amis,

ce long pays la est bien dangereux.’? The word = chang, means indeed ‘‘ Jong,’’

but it belongs to the preceding member of the seritence, and forms with the word

Wy from a compound meaning ‘‘mate.’’ (See Morrison’s Dict. Vol. I. p. 81.)

|| This is the island marked Namoa on our maps lying about 70 or 80 miles to the

south-west of Amoy.

* Tn the Canton province. + Champeilo.

+ This is that portion of the China Sea situated South of the Canton province

1849. | Notice of a Chinese Geographical work. 155

chiu. All who go to the Southern Ocean must pass this sea. The junks

of the Central Nation are not to be compared with those of the Western

Ocean. These make use of sextants and quadrants to determine the

sun’s altitude, and measure the time, and so find out the ship’s position.

The Central People use the compass and the sand-glass, and as the wind

is strong or light, fair or foul, determine the number of kéng. Each

kéng is equal to a sea-distance of about 60 Ui. If the wind is fresh and

fair, the amount may be doubled. When the current and the wind

are contrary, they reduce the reckoning. In this way they know

their position. If there be any uncertainty in their minds, they deter-

mine their position by the distant mountains, distinguishing upwards

and downwards, the forms of the hills ; and they use the lead to ascertain

the depth of the water. On the bottom of the lead are put wax and

oil to try the sand or the mud by touch (contact). Every one of these

plans is fit and proper where the place admits of it; but in the Great

Ocean of the Seven Isles, and outside of Td chiu theo, there are only vast

waters, and no hills to serve as land-marks. With a very favourable

wind, and the assistance of the needle, this sea may be crossed in six

or seven days, when you sight Chim pa lo in Kwang ndén, and Wa

lo shan on the outer sea; and thus get the clew again.

Somewhat easterly you come upon [the sands] Wan li chang sha* and

[the rocks] Chin ki shi tang.t Care must be taken to avoid being drawn

into the gulf of Kwdng ndn ; for without a westerly wind it is impossible

to get out again. Such merchant ships as enter it, not bemg bound for

Kwang nén, enter it by the direction of heaven.{ Goods are taxed

excessively ; one half the value is not deemed sufficient. The Red

Hairs, men and things, are not to be found. But they show great

reverence from the. Central Nation. Hence it may be said, that if you

lose but a little, you lose ten thousand i.

In the centre of the Ocean of the Seven Isles, there is a species of

supernatural bird, resembling in form a sea-goose, but smaller. Its

bill is sharp and red: its feet are short and green; its tail bears an

arrow about two cubits in length. It is called the Arrow Bird. It

flies towards vessels passing in the centre of that ocean and shows itself.

and East of Cochin China, and in the center of which are the Paracels,—the Seven

Isles of the text.

* Macclesfield Bank. y The Paracels, + That is against their will.

156 Notice of a Chinese Geographical work. [Fes.

It points [the road ?] to the people ; but if you call, it flies away. At times

it seems to hesitate ; if again you call it, it looks about cautiously, and

again it flies away and returns. [The sailors] burn paper as an offering

to the spirit. It flies round and round, and none knoweth its place.

But tradition says, that when the royal Three Precious Ones* descended,

they summoned a bird from the Western Ocean, and planting an arrow

in it, bade it dwell in the midst of this ocean as a memorial.t

From Kwdng ndn you pass round Shdn hdi and arrive at Chim shing

and Lo ld. Thence going to the west you arrive at Tung po chdi.

From Hé man to Chim shing is a voyage of one hundred keng ; to

Pung po chat, of one hundred and thirteen keng. Tung po chai,

though a distinct kingdom, being enclosed betwixt the two kingdoms

of Kwdng nén and Tsim lo, on the east it pays tribute to Kwang nan,

on the west to Tsfm lo. Should it fail in the least to obey these, by

water and by land they can invade and reduce it.{ The natives are

Wu lé yu White Heads.§ They go nearly naked, girding only the

lower part of the body with a piece of cloth called shat mdn. The

country produces lead, tin, ivory, kingfisher’s feathers, peacocks,

ocean-cloth, red wood, sandal wood, incense, swallow’s nests, sea weed,

and ratans.

From Tung po chdi, a range of hills turns round to the south-west

toward Tsim lo. From Tsim lo you pass round the coast to Séf tst, Lu

kwan, Ta nin, Ting ka nu, and Phang hang. 'The mountains separat-

ing these from the Central Nation, extend in a due southerly direction

thus far, and stop. Again, going round the sea, and the back of the

hills towards the west, where Phdng heng terminates the hills, and at

the back of this is Yu fuh.||

— &FP

ah NE EA Sdn pao; the tri ratna of Indian Buddhists ; that is Buddha,

Dharma, Sanga; or according to the Chinese the past, the present, and the future

Buddha, that is O mi to fuh, Shi kea fuh, and Mi le fuh. Our author seems here

and elsewhere to use the term as a proper name.

t+ This legend is entirely omitted by M. Klaproth in his translation of the chapter.

+ M. Klaproth. ‘‘ Peu a peu il est cependant devenu indépendent. Par mer,

chacun peut y entrer et le subjuguer,’’—a circumstance not calculated to promote

its gradual independence !

§ M. K. “Il n’y a pas de mahometans portant le turban blanc.’’

ij Johore ?

1849. | Notice of a Chinese Geographical work. 157

Westward of Vu fuh is Ma la ka, and the hills behind Ting ha nu.

Westward from Ma la kd, you enter the kingdoms situated to the

south-west of Yén ndn and Thian chu ;* namely, Ké shi thd of the

Little Western Ocean.

From Tsim lo round the coast as far as Yu fuh, every state has its

king; but all obey the orders of Tsém lo. In ancient times Lo and

Tsim formed two kingdoms. These were afterwards united and formed

Tsim lo. They commonly worship Fuh. The king dresses in clothes

dyed with images of Fuh. His food is all gilt, and is served on vessels

of gold. By land he travels upon an elephant; by water ona boat

adorned with dragons and phcenices. The name of their magistrates

is chin kwa. In the presence of men of rank they sit cross-legged,

and bow with uncovered bodies and naked feet. They do not dress

in trowsers, but wrap themselves in a shez man. They entertain

great respect for the Central Nation, and generally employ the

people of Han as magistrates. These superintendent the political

affairs and the treasury. Their city and suburbs are extensive. The

people dwell in houses fronting the rivers. The rivers are full of alli-

gators. From its embouchure to the capital, the river is two thousand

four hundred iin length.t Its waters are deep and broad, admitting

sea-going vessels to enter and depart. It penetrates to a branch of the

Hwang ho.t

* Thian chu is one of the Chinese names of India. K6 shi tha is perhaps the

Portuguese term Costa.

7 M. K. ‘‘Ily a dans le fleuve beaucoup de crocodiles, qui le remontent depuis

son embouchure jusqu’ a la residence du roi. Le cours de ce fleuve est de 2400 di;

ses eaux sont profondes et larges, et les vaisseaux de mer y entrent et sortent. C’est

une branche du Hoang ho,’’ &c. M. K. has confused the two sentences, and made

the entire length of the river 2400 % ; a circumstance the author could never have

meant, when in the same breath he tells us ‘‘ c’est une branche du Hoang ho.”’

~ Although it is not very probable that this great river reaches the Hwang ho, as

our Geographer affirms, yet the sources of these streams cannot be very remote from

each other. Inhis Geography of Cochinchina the Bishop of Isauropolis remarks :

‘‘Maltebrun and many others have placed the source of this river in the province

of Yon-nam in China. But I am persuaded that this river flows from the mountains of

Thibet. Ina short time Ihave no doubt that we shall obtain proof of what I have

advanced. It is indicated in the map of Cochinchina, and the extraordinary inun-

dation of this river about the month of September proves also that the melting of

the ice of Thibet, is the cause of its overflowing its banks and spreading its waters

158 Notice of a Chinese Geographical work. [Fes.

Its shores are covered with extensive forests, abounding in large apes

and monkeys, and in beautiful birds whose songs are heard in all

directions. The villages of the natives are numerous, and the cultiva-

tion is extensive. In the season of cultivation, entire families proceed

in boats to dig and sow* [the lands]: and having finished that, they

return home, without remaining to weed. When the grain is ripe, they

proceed back again by boat, and reap it. The stalks of this paddy are

about twenty cubits in length. The tribute is paid m the produce of the

soil. As they finish planting the young rice, the waters of the Hwang ho

come down. The young plants increase with the waters: if these rise

one cubit, the rice grows one cubit: if the waters rise ten cubits, the

rice grows ten cubits. Itis inno wise destroyed or injured. When

the waters retire, the rice ripens. One branch of the river enters the

Central Kingdom. Its current is very violent. Another branch enters

the countries to the west, and turning again through Tung po chdi and

Tsim lo, enters the sea with a moderate current. The lands are greatly

enriched by its waters, and hence the country is very productive of

rice ; the very stones seem propitious.

It is generally asserted that they catch deer on the tops of trees.

They draw their cattle upon a raised platform lest these too be carried

away and lost by the current like the deer. ‘They remain on platforms

on the tops of trees. They have huts, too, in the vallies, erected in

the midst of the water. They take their cattle up into these. Should

a man be eaten by a tiger, or swallowed by an alligator, they respectfully

announce it to the native sang.t The sang utters imprecations, and

the tiger approaches ; with incantations they throw a cotton thread in

over Camboge and lower Cochinchina, and causing the same fertility as the Nile

does in Egypt. What Maltebrun speaks of a traveller having arrived at Laos from

China by descending one of the rivers and crossing a lake, does not prove that the

Camboge river has its source in China; this on the contrary accords exactly with

the Cochinchinese map; about the 23d or 24th degree of latitude one of the rivers,

which flows from the mountains of Ligum-nam, enters the great river of Camboge.

This Portuguese traveller must have taken the junction of these two rivers for a

lakes") (ee. > V Lt. aoe).

* M. Klaproth, ‘‘a l’epoque des travaux aan naenee ils ferment leur maison,

cachent leurs bateaux et leur rames, et s’occupent de l’agriculture.”’

t fc The Chinese transcript of the Sanscrit WW sanga.

1849. | Notice of a Chinese Geographical work. 159

the water, when the alligator spontaneously binds himself. They cut up

and examine him, whether the body still exist. Whosoever has got dropsy,

goes to the sang, and entreats a charm to deliver them from it. Hence

they generally revere the doctrines of Fuh. When the rich die they

are buried in graves. Over these erected are towers of Shih (Sakya).

Now, there is a kind of man and woman named shi lo mdén. They

differ not from [other] men, save that their eyes have no pupils.

People intermarry with them and have male and female offspring. During

the night they transform their spirits into wolves and dogs, and in con-

formity with the nature of these, proceed to foul places, and feed on

excrement. Towards dawn, they return to their soulless bodies. If, in

their heavy sleep, you turn their bodies, the spirit cannot return to them.

The women conduct business. The men amuse themselves by spurt-

ing lime juice on them. Tears flow in abundance from their eyes, and

they cannot endure it. * * * * Hence the people erect their

dwellings over streams, where there is facility of ablution.

Again, there is a species of men called kung. The word kung signi-

fies enchanted. Swords or knifes cannot wound these. The king

employs them as soldiers of his guard. If they violate their duties,

they are fitly punished. The sang commands their transformation by

imprecations, and compels them to abandon their condition of kung as

a punishment.

In that kmgdom, many worship demons. Tradition affirms that

when the Three Precious Ones arrived in Tsim lo,* the inhabitants were

very few, and the worship of demons was predominant. These entered

upon a strife with the Three Precious Ones, that who should overcome,

should there abide. In one night each [party] completed a temple

and atower. It was about dawn, and the temple of the Three Preci-

ous Ones was yet without a roof :+ but lo! the tower of the demons was

complete. [The Three Precious Ones| caused a wind to blow the tower

aside, and with his cloth-cap roofed in the temple. To this day that

* Buddhism, according to M. Klaproth was diffused through Siam in A. D.

607, when intercourse first began between that country and China. ~

+ M. Klaproth translates somewhat differently: ‘‘ Le lendemain celui des Trois

Precieux se trouvait enti¢érement achevé, et le toit convert de tuiles; mais voyant que

le tour des démons etait egalement termine, ils excitérent un vent,’’ &c. In the

original the expression is, Ak R ‘¢ not completed.”

160 Notice of a Chinese Geographical work. [Fes.

tower stands oblique in the court yard of the temple of the Three Pre-

cious Ones. The decayed ropes still exist in the roof. Foreign vessels

tie a piece of cloth resembling this cap to the mast to make the ship

light and quick, and to this they attach sails, in the manner of studding

sails, availing thus of the strength of the wind without causing the

vessel to lie over.

When the natives are sick they always go to the Three Precious

Ones, and solicit medicine. If the medicine prove not beneficial, they

cast it into the river, and are ordered to bathe, From that time to now

the natives and the people of Thang continue to bathe in rivers and

besprinkle themselves with water when they are sick. All the na-

tives of the outside sea call the people of Han, Thing jin, because

in the time of the Thdng |dynasty| imtercourse began [with those

countries |.

When the people die, their bodies are burnt and [the ashes] after-

terwards buried, to escape divine judgments. Again, one class, seek-

ing tranquillity of mind, make an oath that after their death they will

serve as food for birds or of fishes. This tranquillity of mind consists

in indifference to the body. ‘The bodies of those who seek tranquillity

by birds, are exposed upon rocks among the mountams. The birds

fly round about them, and assemble. Then enters a crow with red

beak and feet, and gives the first peck. All the crows then descend,

and ina moment only the skull and bones remain. They gather and

bury these. Such as seek tranquillity by fishes, are burnt to ashes ;

these are gathered and made into pieces with flour and thrown into the

river. Some there are who in this manner feed both the birds and

then the fishes.

These people build large ships capable of carrying ten thousand shi.

They supplicate wood for masts from the great trees in the mountains.

They first, with incantations, supplicate in sincerity and faith ; and then

strike with the ax. If they proceed not thus, fresh blood issues from

the tree, and those engaged in the work instantly die. They employ

oxen to drag the cart, and on the road play and rejoice. When the

charm is addressed advisedly, should the tree not obey, those who

should eradicate it and bring it away to their store, are certain to die.

The country produces silver, lead, tin, ocean-cloth,* aloe wood, ivory,

* According to M,. Klaproth this means Indian cloth: but the author so often

1849. | Notice of a Chinese Geographical work. 161

rhinoceros’ horns, ebony, sanders wood, camphor, sandal wood, kingfish-

er’s feathers, cow’s horns, deer’s sinews, ratans, mats, the mats called

hai wan tsih, rhubarb, fir seed,* nutmeg, swallow’s nests, bichu de mar,

and sea weed. The money is of silver. The largest is equal to four

chhin, the middle to one chhin ; the second to four or five fan and the

smallest to two fan and five . Their name is féh.t The kings smelt

and seal the com. It is unlawful to cut or employ it [in the arts].

They are exchanged for cowries.

In navigating from He mdn to Tsim lo you pass the Sea of the Seven

Isles. You sight Wai lo shan; and further south, Tat mot chiu and.

A chiu. You then sight Awan len,t and somewhat to the west Ta

chin ye, and Siao chin ye ; and thence turning to the northwest is Pi

ka shén. Thence northerly is Chuh ye, in the mouth of the port of

Tsim lo; altogether one hundred and eighty-eight Aeng. You ascend

this river forty ‘eng, making the entire navigation ‘two hundred and

twenty-eight keng. On the east it is bounded by Tung po chai, at a

distance of about one hundred and thirteen keng. It is so distant because

to the southern face of Tung po chdi, there is an extensive region of mud,

formerly on that account called Lan ni mi, adjoming the hills Ta wang

shan and Siao wang shdn. Hence itis necessary to make a long detour.

To the south of Tsim lo is Ché tsi, Lo kwan and Sung keo, all

belonging to the kingdom T'szm lo. Those of Ta nin, Kih lin tan, Ting

ka nu, Phang hang,§ follow each other successively around the hills.

All lie to the westward of Siao chin a, a voyage of probably one hun-

dred and fifty or one hundred and sixty feng. They produce lead, tin,

kingfisher’s feathers, fine mats, swallow’s nests, bichu de mar, ratans,

camphor, and similar things. But the pepper of Ting ka nu is of supe-

-rior excellence. The natives of that country are all of the Wu la yu

race.|| They do not comprehend principles and religion. They go

applies the term to the cloth of other countries that I take it to mean simply foreign

cloth. Morrison says, ‘‘ any thing that comes from abroad is represented by yang’’

(ocean). ;

* A seed used in medicine. tT The ticul. ¢ Pulo Condor.

§ There is a town and a river named Pahang on our maps, situated to the

north of Singapore, which is no doubt the Phang hang of our author. Ting ha nu

is Tringan ; Kih lin fdn is Calantan; and Ta nin, Patani.

|| M. Klaproth—‘‘ Les habitants de toutes ces contrées sont sans doute de la

méme race.”’

162 Notice of a Chinese Geographical work. [Fes.

about naked, carrying swords. They gird their lower part with a piece

of cloth. They chew betel-nut and tobacco. They eat rice steeped in

water. They never trade with [foreign] ships.

Next is the kingdom of Yu fuh, the hills of which join Phang hang,

situated at their foot. To go thither, you proceed from Kwan len, on

the magnetic point mi, by Chhd pan* and turn west to Yu fuk. It is

reckoned a voyage of one hundred and seventy-three keng from Hea

man. 'The manners of the people are the same as the foregoing, and

the productions are also similar, but, compared with these, better

and more abundant. ach year three or four merchant vessels may

load there. They go to the ships and barter. The country produces

gold dust. The people smelt it and make it into small pieces for

money, each weighing four or five fan. Silver money is not current.

To the west of Yu fuh is Md ld ka, also belonging to the Wu la yu

tribe. Their magistrates are called 4 ye. The king of that country,

like the king of Tstm lo, employs the people of Hdn in the administra-

tion, and in the management of the treasury. The country produces gold,

silver, cloth of the western ocean, rhinoceros’ horns, ivory, lead, tin,

pepper, sandal wood, sanders wood, swallow’s nests, kingfisher’s feathers,

fine mats, and so forth. Money, both of gold and silver, is current.

The sea-going ships of the Central Kingdom never pass beyond this to

the Western Ocean. They go thus far andstop. It isa voyage of

two hundred and sixty keng from Hea mdn. The system of the Little

Western Ocean,t the Kingdom of the Black Devils,t and the Great

Western Ocean§ begins here. The ships of the Great Western Ocean

frequent these countries, as we shall see in our account of the Great and

the Little Western Ocean.

To the south over-against Md lé kd is an island separated by the sea,»

and named 4 ¢hsi.|| It belongs to the Red Hairs, who dwell there.

All the ships of the Red Hairs, going to the countries of the Little

Western Ocean, must pass this place to take in rice and water. From

«f thsi the great hills extend towards the south-east to the promontory of

* The island of Singapore ?

+ Western Asia, India, &c.

+ Africa.

§ Europe.

|| Acheen.

1849. | Notice of a Chinese Geographical work. 163

Wan ku le, which is separted from the opposite coast of Ka ld pa by

the sea. The ships of the Red Hairs returning to the Great West-

ern Ocean, must pass through this sea: and thence proceed south-

west to the Kap* of the Black Devils, and turn westward to the Great

Western Ocean.

Now to speak of the voyage from the Central Kingdom to Kd ld pa ;+

you must go by Kwan len and Chhé pan, guided entirely by the point

wi of the needle. You go west as far as the hills of Wan ku let and

thence to Ka lé pd. It is reckoned a voyage of two hundred and eight

keng from Hea man. It originally belonged to the Wu la yu coun-

try, but now the Ho lin Red Hairs possess it. The officers are

denominated Kd pi tin. Beyond these are the three countries of Hea

kong, Wan tién,§ Chhi wan. The first produces pepper. Wdn tdn is a

separate country. Chhi wan produces pepper and sandal wood. But

Ka lé pd is the most productive of all these places; hither the ships

of all countries come for commerce: here are to be found all the

valuable commodities of the Central Kingdom, the Great Western Ocean,

the Little Western Ocean, the White Heads, the Black Devils, and

the Wu la yu. The Ho lan have a city there, and divide the country.

There are many natives of the Central Kingdom settled there for trade

and agriculture. very year they pay a tax of five or six pieces of gold

each, and receive a ticket of permission to dwell. ‘The number of the

natives of the Central Kingdom is very great; it may be about a hun-

dred thousand. Now the Ho lan have prohibited more from settling :

they send back such as come in ships.

The island of Cid pan is situated to the south of Kwan len, east of

the hills Wan ku le. It is on the highway of the navigation of these

parts. The inhabitants live by fishing. It produces grass for fine

mats of the very best quality. But each year produces enough for only

two mats for the palace of the king. These mats are never infested with

ants or other insects. They are worth forty or fifty pieces of gold.

The second quality are worth twenty to thirty. Those that are worth

one or two pieces of gold are still very beautiful and superior to cloth.”

* Cape of Good Hope.

+ Java.

t Bencoolen.

§ Bantam.

164 Miscellaneous. | Fes.

The next chapter is entitled Siao sf yang ky, or an Account of the

Little Western Ocean. Under this denomination are included India,

Persia, Arabia, and the countries north of the Himalaya as far as the

sea. The account however is so extremely meagre and uninteresting,

consisting of little more than a catalogue of names and a statement of

rude distances and bearings, that I will not detain the reader with fur-

ther details.

The sixth Chapter is entitled Ta si yang ki, or an account of the

Great Western Ocean, by which is understood Europe, and Africa, or the

Kingdom of the Black Devils. It is even less interesting than the pre-

ceding, and is evidently gleaned from imperfect European materials.

Two short chapters conclude the work: one giving an account of the

island called Kwdn len, the Con non, or Pulo Condor of our maps; and

the other describing a small island in the China sea named Ndn 6 khi.

MIscELLANEOUS,

Notes on the Rev. F. Mason’s Paper “ On the Shells of the Tenas-

serim Provinces.”* By W. HH. Benson, Esq.

(Communicated by Dr. T. Cantor.)

Heliz procumbens, Gould. This is Helix delibrata, Benson, (Journal

Asiatic Society, 1836.)

Helix anceps. This shell differs from Helix serrula, Benson, in its

more depressed spire and flatter apex, its less developed sculpture, com-

paratively smooth periphery, contabulate whorls, and larger size with

the same number of whorls. There is merely a perforation also, in-

stead of an umbilicus. It is quite distinct and a good species, though

of the same group as H. serrula.

Helix honesta. This shell is at once distinguished from Nanina

vesicula, Benson, by the angularity of the last whorl, a character not so

observable in NV. vesicula.

Helix saturnia, Gould. This shell is not contained in Pfeiffer’s

Monograph. The whorls are too few for it to agree with H. chevalier?,

(Souleyet) and in that particular and in size it agrees better with H.

oxytes, Benson, which may stray down thus far from the north, as well

* See Journal of the Asiatic Society, Vol. p.

1849. | Miscellaneous. 165

as H. delibrata. Without fuller characters however, it is impossible

to determine.

Helix “ zabata,”’ Gould, is clearly a misprint for H. gabata.

Heliz retrorsa, (not retorsa,) Gould, proves to be distinct from H.

interrupta, Benson, and H. himalayana, Lea. The formation of the

umbilicus is peculiar.

Under the head of Streptaxis pectiti, the name of the author Souleyet

is misprinted (‘‘ Souleget.’’)

Cyclostoma pernobile, Gould. Pfeiffer notes this shell as a synonym

of C. aurantiacum. Schumacher (nec Sowerby), a near ally of C. perdiz,

Sowerby, and places both shells in the Sub-Genus Cyclophorus, Montf.

Pfeiffer observes: ‘‘ Kin prachtiges Cyclostoma, welches Hr. Dr. Philippi

zugleich mit den oben (154) erwahnten von seiner Reise mitgebracht

hat, bestatigt vollstandig meine friher ausgesprochene Vermuthung, dass

C. pernobile, Gould, von Tavoy, dieselbe Art sey, welche Chemnitz ab-

gebildet, und Schumacher Annularia aurantiaca genannt hat. Jenes ist

in Mergui gesammelt worden und entspricht, mit Ausnahme einer etwas

dunkleren Farbung, vollig der Beschreibung und Abbildung von Chemnitz,

so wie auch der Beschreibung von Gould. Zwar ist der Kiel an dem.

vorliegenden Exemplar um ein Geringes weniger scharf, ais bei der Ab-

bildung von Gould; wir wissen aber wie veranderlich dieser Character

gerade bei dieser Gruppe ist, und so dirfte bei der Identitat des Vaterlands

kein Zweifel mehr tiber diese ausgezeichnete Art Statt finden, welche zwar

von Miller und Chemnitz mit C. volvulus zusammengeworfen wird,

aber jedenfalls ihre specifische Selbstindigkeit zu behaupten im Stande

ist.”

Cyclostoma sectilabrum, Gould.—Pfeiffer refers this shell, as well as

C. croceum, Sowerby, to Guilding’s Sub-Genus Megalomastoma. It is

quite distinct from C. croceum which belongs besides to the Mauritius.

Pfeiffer says under the head of Cyclostoma croceum: ‘die von Gould

ausgesprochene Vermuthung dass die Art mit seinem C. sectilabrum

zusammenfallen werde, sich wohl als ungegriindet erweisen diirite,

indem die von Gould angebenen Charaktere by C. eroceum, Sowerby,

durchaus nicht vorhanden sind.”

Bulimus atricallosus, Gould. Reeve has figured this species, but

inclines to the opinion that it is a mere variety of B. citrinus. Pfeiffer

enumerates it among the varieties of B. perversa, (citrinus,) without

166 Miscellaneous. [ Fes.

any hesitation. The Pinang variety, with the ordinary aspect of the

species, but with a purple chesnut colour on the parietes of the aper-

ture, confirms the opinion.

Clausilia insignis, Gould.—The species sent under this name is very

distinct from the species from Malacca, which I have described in

MS. as C. stylus, and which I find in Mr. Cuming’s collection

under the name of C. chinensis from Java. Possibly this name may

be intended for cochinchinensis, Philippi, the description of which I

have not seen, and which appears to be recognized as distinct by Pfeiffer,

from C. insignis, Gould. In May 1847, in referrmg to the Mergui

Clausilia philippiana, he says: “mit C. insignis, Gould, nahe ver-

wandt,”’ a circumstance which, however, I cannot well understand, as

C. philippiana has only six whorls, and the specimen of insignis sent

has nine. Clausilia insignis differs altogether from C. stylus in its

smooth sculpture, its greater ventricosity, more blunted apex, the form

of the mouth and the number and disposition of the plice in the

interior.

Vitrina prestans, Gould. Mr. Mason errs in saying that this is the

largest species of the Genus. In 1836 I described V. gigas, which is

1,3, inch in greatest diameter.

Helicarion cassida, Hutton, described in 1838, is one inch two lines

in diameter, and an allied Abyssinian species equals it in size.

Achatina octona. ‘The shell alluded to under this name, or that of

octonoides, 1s Achatina erecta, Benson, of the Chusan series. There is a

Bulimus octonoides, Adams, belonging to the group to which B. graci-

lis, Hutton, belongs, a shell very nearly allied to Achatina erecta.

The small red Pupa mellita, Gould, may possibly be P. dicolor,

Hutton, the animal of which, like many of the Mauritian Pupe, is yel-

lowish and vermilion. Pupa bicolor I have taken from Calcutta up to

the foot of the Himalaya in Rohilkhund, as well as at Galle in Ceylon,

and Dr. Cantor took it at Pulo Pinang.

1849. | Miscellaneous. 167

On a spontaneous combustion of Coal wetted with salt water, on board

the ship Sir Howard Douglass, Capt. Ociusy. By Henry Pip-

DINGTON, Curator Museum of Economic Geology.

Part I. NARRATIVE.

In a pamphlet printed by me for the Lords Commissioners of H. M.

Admiralty in June 1847* and which has been reprinted at home in the

Nautical Magazine for 1847, the following passage occurs :—

‘¢ When coal reaches the ship it should be carefully examined and it

should be noted if wet with fresh or salt water.”

And the note to this says :—

‘Tt is said that a coal-laden vessel was recently burnt at Aden from

the Master’s having wetted his coal with the salt water to increase the

weight, and I have heard it said that coal wetted with salt water is

more dangerous. As anew set of chemical actions would go on be-

tween the salt water and the pyrites and copperas this may not be

improbable.”

Up to that period this was all, I believe, that was known on this side

of the Cape on the subject of the combustion of coal wetted with salt

water. But the recent arrival in the port of Calcutta of a ship which

had narrowly escaped burning in consequence of her coal heating, after

being wetted with salt water, was an event calculated to afford so much

information on the subject that I have taken every pains to procure the

fullest accounts of it and to investigate the changes which the coal has

experienced: I begin by a narrative of the facts.

The ship Sir Howard Douglass, Capt. Ogilby, of 715 tons burden, from

Newport to Bombay, laden with coal for the Peninsular and Oriental

Steam Navigation Company, ran on the 15th of January 1838 intoa

hurricane of excessive severity, in about Lat. 114° 8S. Long. 801° East,

and, being thrown on her beam ends, her cargo shifted, she lost her

mizenmast, topmasts, rudder, &c. and was for a time in considerable

danger of foundering. She however reached Point de Galle and refitted

there as she best could, and proceeded on her voyage towards Bombay

* A cheap, simple, and certain method of obtaining early warning of any approach

to spontaneous combustion, or ignition by accident, on board of steamers, coal or

other ships ; and of instantly conveying water nearly to the spot, with chemical

notes and practical deductions for the use of sailors.

168 Miscellaneous. [ Fes.

by the southern route ; but on the 20th of April, bemg then about on

the Equator and in Long. 80° East, twelve days out from Point de

Galle, and ninety-five days after the hurricane, her log says :—

“At 9 a.m. sent the watch down in the hold to heave up some

coal between decks and trim up for the lower hold close up to the

beams to ease her from rolling. After digging down from 3 to 4 feet

found the coals charred and very hot. Before reaching Galle nothing

of the kind was observed, although we had previously trimmed ship by

the coals in consequence of hauling the chain cables on deck from aft.

When in Galle roads no sign appeared of heat more than we found

before, the heat now beg so excessive. After a consultation of the

officers and crew it was concluded on to make for Ceylon or the nearest

port with all dispatch for the preservation of the ship and our lives. At

10 a. Mm. wore ship to the N. W.; people employed filling all the small

casks with water and taking them ondeck, some getting the boats ready

in case of being wanted.’

They ran up, having favourable winds, past Ceylon, and arrived safely

at Calcutta, where from enquiries made on board I learned,

1. That the coals were smoking when broken out, but the stanchions

or lining were not charred. ‘They were also smoking when broken out

at Calcutta.

2. She had during the hurricane probably as much as 3 or 4 feet of

water in her bilge, which lay for three or four days till the ship was

trimmed. upright. :

3. The greatest heating was for a space of about 55 feet, amidships,

between the fore and main hatchways, and at about 10 feet deep. There

was but one focus or heated mass, and the coals in the bilge were not

heated.

4. The after-hold coals were not heated, and these were shipped dry

at Newport, while the fore-hold ones were shipped wet during heavy

rainy weather and were the worst.

5. No foul air was noticed at any time in the hold, nor any sulphure-

ous smell, but while retrimming ship after the hurricane, and at Point

de Galle, the whole of the hatches had been kept open, so that if any

was generated it was dissipated as fast as formed.

6. Capt. Ogilby says he has no doubt that the salt water was the

cause of the heating of the coal.

1849. | Miscellaneous. 169

7. During the time of heaving the coals overboard (after the hurri-

cane) and trimming, no heat was perceptible, nor was any found on

trimming ship by the coals on the 10th March, the day before her

arrival at Pot de Galle, and which was 54 days after the hurricane.

The coals came from Russell & Co.’s Priscoe Pit at Newport, S. Wales ;

the ship was a good deal detained for want of coal by a strike amongst

the workmen, so that ‘ Mr. Russell,” says Capt. Ogilby, “ may have got

coals from some other pit to help us along unknown to me.”

8. The Dock Master at Newport informed Capt. Ogilby that “he

had never heard of spontaneous combustion taking place in coals shipped

from Newport (or that side of the hill as they call it), although it

frequently happens to those taking coal from Cardiff; and not long

since a vessel had her decks blown up and was otherwise damaged by an

explosion.

9. Capt. Ogilby adds that the ship Urania, which he commanded in

the Bombay trade, had two narrow escapes previous to his joining her

from the coal shipped in Liverpool merely for dunnage taking fire-

The first time, as soon as the cargo was out and the coals begun upon,

and the second time just as she had got to anchor and broken into the

after-hold to get up the passengers’ baggage.

Part II.—Chemical Kxamination.

- Visiting the ship for the express purpose I could only obtain small

fragments, which were said to be part of the damaged coal, the whole o¢

which I was informed was buried in one of the two heaps which the

cargo formed when it was landed at the Peninsular and Oriental Com-

pany’s wharf. The steamers Haddington and Precursor coaled from

these heaps, but their officers failed to find any damaged coal amongst

the heaps, and this, although in the case of the Haddington, | had

written to a highly intelligent officer on board to be on the look out for

it. Hence it would seem that as far as external appearances went, there

was not in the main body of the heated part any very great change.

Still as we know that considerable heating might go on (as in the case

of emitted gases) without much alteration in mere appearance, I have

subjected what I could obtain to careful examination, of which I now

state the results.

The pure undamaged coal.

This is a very bright glance, and indeed a highly specular coal on the

170 Miscellaneous. | Fes.

cross fracture, and in the sunshine, after a shower of rain, it is perfectly

radiant with the bright places, which have often a pavonine lustre, and

the abundant laminee of pyrites which are all disposed like them vertically

to the horizontal planes. On the horizontal places of the blocks, which

are something less than six inches thick, the lustre is a dark velvet black

and few or no traces of the pyrites are seen except in minute veins, often

forming rhomboids which mark the intersecting edges of some of the

larger laminee.. In a few instances the vertical plates of pyrites are

replaced by plates of calc spar.

AESNSPECMICISTAVILY CIS: nani ae wiser se aiprmrecae 1 LaeO

Its analysis gives per cent.

AV SrOMetMIE; WALET yi. h lci2 es misc) « eee te aiiade’s wat» oe ORE 2.25

Gaseous and Bituminous matter,..............02-cceceece 24.50

Tron and a little silex.and lime, . (0%. eee? 2 eee 4.75

Carboy, Hcliere ae -ovey. gi gene Cae BAe clade OOeee Soe ee 69.00

100.50

The excess is from the peroxidation of the iron.

What was given to me as the damaged coal on board the Sir Howard

Douglas was evidently nothing more than the ¢op coal, or coal shales at

the top and bottom of the seam, and upon examination this proved to

be the case, for it contained 38 per cent. of ash, its constituents per cent.

being, é

Eiyeromietricwwabers wy + Gel aie Bds | sale Ga orsytceqei «|= syraiater es eens 1.65

Gaseous and Bituminous matter, ........ 20.00.00 2 cece ceee 14.17

Ashe Iron; stlex amd meeps ape ete wig oo. A. aysia, comes wie wceedl Or A £02

Saline matter, principally sulphate of iron, from decomposed

POVMILES, er teys (icicle Sala ela ieteln! aielaie cw seine hiey eee hee ee

ATOM: Fe’ ec ANS face wie cats ciety ete ansue ee race te aera orcas 44.18

Excess as before from the peroxidation of the iron.

This result is only so fay useful as that it shews that considerable

heating may go on without much, if any, apparent change in the struc-

ture and appearance of the coal, and that this may take place after so

long an interval as ninety-five days! after being damaged by salt water,

and I have therefore thought it highly worthy of being placed upon

record.

1849. ] Miscellaneous. 171

A supplementary note on Captain SHERWILL’s Meteoric Iron. By

Henry PippINGTON.

In my remarks on the remarkable form of this meteorite, I have

suggested, p. 545, Journal Nov. 1848, that it might perhaps be owing

to its having fallen in a semifluid state as a mass of melted metal,

diagonally, on a yielding soil, and that the foot might be thus formed.

By a singular piece of good fortune, which rarely indeed occurs to theo-

rizers, I am enabled very greatly to add to the probability that this

was really the case, by the following parallel instance, in which nature

has certainly performed for us the very experiment which I suggested,

of projecting a semifused mass of metal on a soft surface.

In arich collection of volcanic rocks and minerals from Vesuvius, *

presented by T. B. Swinhoe, Esq., there are two of the well known

Bombe Volcaniche (volcanic bombs) one of which is a flattened ellip-

tical disk about 33 inches long by 3 mches wide, and 1 inch thick, as

in the annexed sketch, of which one is the horizontal section and the

other a vertical one.

It will be seen that this may be termed a complete embryo of our

Acrolite, though its substance is a common leucitic or pearlstone por-

phyry, or cineritious lava. It has on what must (from the position of

the centre of gravity) have been the lower part, the rudiments of a

foot, of which, as in the meteorite, the axis is about in one of the two

centres of the ellipse, and it evidently, from the smoothness of the

surface, on which are incrusted grains of hornblende or augite, which

are not seen internally, has been in a state of fusion. Now these bodies,

we know, must fall vertically, but if they fell on a slope, which this

probably did, and in a soft soil of ashes or rapilli, they would be driven

forward some distance in a soft state while cooling, as I have supposed

our meted .¢ iron to have been.

Our volcanic bomb is cracked through the longer axis of the ellipse,

and, at the prominence which may represent the foot, it has, as it were,

burst open, as if some gases had suddenly escaped there. The ends

are a little fractured, making the foremost one rather truncated, and I

* But of which I regret to say all the labels are lost!

172 Miscellaneous. [Fes.

was obliged to break a small chip off to get a fresh fracture, so as to be

certain of the internal structure.

In collections better furnished than ours it may be hoped that better

specimens to elucidate this curious question may be found.

Earthquakes in Assam. Communicated by Major Jenkins, Agent to

the Governor General.

January 22nd, 1849.—Yesterday morning about a quarter past 8,

we felt so severe a shock of an earthquake at Gowhatti, that it may be

worth recording. After a very long interval, during which we have been

entirely free from earthquakes, or only had a few slight tremblings, this

occurred durmg a very thick fog which lasted until 11 o’clock ; the wea-

ther for some time before had been cold and cloudy with N. KE. winds,

and on the 18th we had rain with a strong N. E. wind nearly all day.

Some days before there had been heavy falls of snow on the second

ranges of Bootan mountains, more I think than ever I recollect seeing

in this neighbourhood.

When this earthquake occurred I was in my pinnance, preparing

for embarkation, and the boat shook so violently that I thought some

one was jumping on the gang-board, and when I went up to my house

I found some of the ceiling of one room and the cornices of others had

been much shaken. All who were in houses at the time describe the

shock as one of the severest we ever had, and the rumbling as extra-

ordinary loud.

Jagee, Assam, January 26th.—Y our note of the 23rd has just reached

me, noticing a violent earthquake at Gowhatty on the 22d, at about

81 a.m. On the same day andabout the same time I was at Ruha in

a Naumghur, when we felt a very severe earthquake ; it lasted at least a

minute, and the ground moved greatly, the trees also shook violently.

It was also I hear felt at Nowgong, but I have not heard that any build-

ings were damaged. On the 23rd, at 9 p. m. I felt another strong shock

of an earthquake at Jagee; at the same place on the 26th, at about 5

A. M., just as 1 was getting up (it was not light) I heard a rumbling

noise like the movement of heavy guns, and the earth moved but not

so violently as onthe 22nd and 23rd, or so long. On the 17th, I

‘.

a; >

3 me sh

7 , " i :

' rE ~ 4« a Vs

' r hedela

Ly ay ee

7 ear iA ise |

by '

. .

}% ee y

‘ae 4 !

v as 2

1849. | Miscellaneous. 173

marched to Jumoona-mookh ; the day was sultry and close, the next day,

18th, I set out to return to Ruha about 8 a. m., the weather still gloomy

and close ; at 10 a. mM. the rain came down heavily and continued with-

out intermission all day and a greater part of the night; the 19th was

cloudy, the 20th cloudy and rain for some hours. 21st, the same kind

of gloomy weather and a drizzling rain and a heavy oppressive atmo-

sphere, so much so that I fully expected the approach of an earthquake,

as my experience im Assam is that I have invariably observed we are

sure to have earthquakes when the weather is gloomy and the atmo-

sphere dense, not a breath of air stirrmg or thing moving; on the 22nd,

the weather was still close ; on the 23rd during the day the sun came out

but was occasionally obscured, and the atmosphere was heavy, and I felt

oppressed whilst marching on the morning of the 22nd, and the evening

of the 23rd ; not a breath of air was stirring. On many occasions I have

observed this remarkable circumstance—a dead calm, a stagnation of the

atmosphere, and a perfect stillness is sure to prevail before the occurrence

of an earthquake, if not at the time. On the 24th, the weather still conti-

nued close and gloomy, heavy rain fell on Wednesday night ; the 24th,

25th, the morning was cloudy and the sun did not come out till the

afternoon ; weather close and sultry. 26th, as I before observed, I felt

another slight shock of an earthquake about 5 a. M., it was not severe,

nor did it last so long as the others, but was accompanied with a

rumbling noise, which the others were not. The shocks seem to come

from the south-east, and to proceed northerly or rather north-west-

I have been thus minute regarding these earthquakes that you may

compare your own observations with my notes.

(Signed) J. BUTLER.

Earthquakes experienced in Assam in the latter end of January, 1849.

Capt. Dalton, Gowhatty.—We experienced here on the morning of

the 26th, two shocks of an earthquake, which were very remarkable,

not so much for the violence of the shocks—for that was nothing to

signify—but for the loud noise that preceded, accompanied and was heard

some seconds after the trembling had ceased. There could be no

mistake as to whence the noise proceeded; I heard it distinctly two or

174 Miscellaneous. [Fes.

three seconds, before there was any sensation of a shock, gradually

approaching and for some seconds after it had passed, and it distinctly

notified the direction of perturbation and gave me a vivid idea of the

rapidity with which it moved.

Mr. C. K. Hodgson, Burpetah—I have the pleasure to send you

some notes about .the late earthquakes ; the weather has been very

changeable since the 15th, with rain occasionally, but I have observed

that these earthquakes generally take place after a heavy fall of rain

im the hills. They appear to come this year from the Himalayas, and

not as in 1845, from the Cossya hills. The first one on Monday last

(the 22nd) was rather severe, and caused a few cracks in the walls of my

new house, but I am thankful that the injury was not worse.

Memorandum on earthquakes in January, 1849, at Burpetah, Assam.

There was an earthquake felt at 8 a. m. on the 22nd January ; it

commenced with only a gentle undulation of the ground for about a

minute, accompanied by the usual rumbling noise; the noise gradually

became louder and was followed by a smart shock ; apparently from the

north, and then a second more severe one, which made the timbers of

the house crack and rattled the doors and windows fearfully. The

whole lasted for about a minute and half. The morning was very

foggy and cold, with a sharp north-east wind, and the Thermometer

in the shade down to 54°, or 6 degrees lower than it was on the pre-

vious morning, and the fog did not clear up until near noon.*

There was another smart shock of earthquake at a quarter past 11,

p.m. on the night of the 23rd, which also appeared to come from

the north. And we had 2 more slight shocks about 6 a. M. on the

morning of the 26th.

The following is an extract from my diary of the weather from the

17th to the 27th January, 1849 :—

* The weather as here described agrees perfectly with the weather at Gowhatty

on the same morning. We had the same heavy rain on the 18th also.

1849. |

‘Thermometer

in the shade.

Days of the

month. a | pels

22] 8

ees

1849. bp) Per

January 17th,| 56 |66) 68

» 18th,| 61 62} 60

»» _ 19th,| 58 |66} 67

un 20th,| 62 |65] 68

os 21st,| 69 164] 65

»» 22nd,| 54 165} 67

ve 23rd,| 58 |64| 68

. 24th,| 60 |66| 66

x 25th,| 60 |65) 67

1 26th,| 66165] 67

c 27th,| 62 167} 68

Miscellaneous.

Rain guage ele-

vation 5 feet.

0.600| North (strong).

0.450\N. East (strong).

0.056

Direction of the

N. East (strong).

N. East (Light).

wind.

Do. (Do.)

Do. (Do)

Do. (Do.)

175

Remarks on the weather.

(ee

Cloudy weather ; strong N.

East wind in the forenoon ;

Light N. East wind in the

afternoon.

Rain all day, with strong N.

wind ; a storm from the N. be-

tween 4 Pp, M. and Sun-set.

Clear strong N. East wind.

Light rain after 9 P. M.

which continued nearly all

night.

Light clouds and light N.

Kast wind.

Heavy clouds in the fore-

noon. Afternoon clear. Light

N. East wind.

Very foggy from sunrise

until noon. 3 distinct shocks

of Earthquake from the N.

about 8 A. M.; afternoon clear

with light N. East wind.

Foggy for 2 hours after

Sunrise ; clear afterwards un-

til sunset, when it became

cloudy again. A smart shock

of Earthquake at a quarter

past 11 P. M. apparently from

the North.

Light clouds in the morn-

ing, a slight shower of rain

in the afternoon. Light rain

again at night.

Light clouds in the morne

ing. Clear afternoon.

2 Slight shocks of Earth-

quake from the North at 20

minutes to 6 A. M., cloudy all

day.

Clear morning with light

N. East wind in the forenoon.

Westerly wind in the after-

noon and cloudy weather af-

ter sunset,

176 Miscellaneous. | Fes.

Addendum on the Battle field of Alexander and Porus, by Capt. JAMES

ABBOTT.

Since the despatch of my remarks upon the battle field of Alexander

and Porus, I have by cross-examining persons acquainted with the

mountain Mahabunn, discovered that the ruined fort which I supposed

to be Aornos, upon the crest of that mountain, is called Balimah: and

that there is another,ruined fort further north upon the same crest, called

at present Shah kote, or the king’s castle. As this Balimah is imme-

diately above Umm, we have here beyond a doubt the Umb Balimah

to which Alexander moved his camp for the attack of Aornos: for it

is scarcely possible that there should be a second union of two names

which are so uncommon. Umb is on the western brink of the Indus,

overshadowed by the Mahabunn and Balimah. And a camp at Umb

(the highest point upon the Indus to which a camp can ascend), could

be useful only for the assault of a fortress upon the Mahabunn. It

seems therefore probable either that Shah kote is the Aornos of history,

or that Aornos is merely a corruption of Awur (a fort) as supposed by

Professor Wilson: and that it has been used in preference to the name

Balimah, to distinguish it from the Umb Balimah where the camp was

established. Immediately below Shah kote, the mountain having been

cleft by the Indus, forms a natural wall of about 4 or 5,000 feet alti-

tude, and as the attack seems to have been made from the river side,

where Mahabunn has far more the character of a rock than of a moun-

tain, it is easy to account for the appellation of rock given it by the

Greeks to describe its extreme abruptness. It is common in this coun-

try to amalgamate together, for the sake of distinction, the names of

two proximate villages or places. But as this Balimah is in the clouds,

and Umb is in the river basin, it seems probable that in Alexander’s

day both belonged to the same chief, which ‘is no longer the case :

Balimah appertaining to the Suddoons, a race of Pathans, and Umb to

Jehandad Khan son of the celebrated Poyndah Khan who so long held

the Sikhs at bay. Umb is the capital of that chief. Immediately opposite

and across the Indus the valley of that river is closed by projecting

rocks called Durbund, and possibly so named by Alexander or his suc-

cessors, after a similar process upon the coast of the Caspian. Durbund

is the only locality in this neighbourhood connected by tradition with

1849. | Miscellaneous. 177

the memory of Alexander, although the capital of Huzara (Sikundur-

poor) still bears his name. So little is known of the Mahabunn by

persons living on this side the river, that all my enquiries for Balimah

had proved futile until just now, when a visit from Jehandad Khan has

given me the clue.

Errata in Capt. Abbott’s former article.

For elephants page 5, line 8, read elements.

Pubral p- 8, LpQdoo oy! Pulerul.

burst p. 10, 1..19,.-;, “bnast.

are pe TLE is Za, 4, One

first p. 12,01. la, ,, yust.

poems pe LS,, Ls ll,).;> Peeans.

part Bp) 36, kd, a5 post.

Inst of the Rajahs of Sialkote, by the same.

Although the following list of prmces who have reigned over the

ancient Raj of Sialkote in the Punjaub, is manifestly erroneous in the

duration assigned to each reign, yet as it probably is all that is known

of the dynasty, and as I live in hourly apprehension of losing all that

remain of my papers, it seems to me that you may deem it worthy of

preservation in the pages of the Asiatic Society’s Journal. It is

extracted from the fragment of an old Persian book which I procured

. at Sialkote, and of which the title page was lost.

From Raja Bruhm to Raja Saul Bahn, .............. 2000 years.

1. Rajah S. ascepded the throne Anno 137 of Vikramajeet.

2. Rajah S. to R. Russaloo his son, .............. 90

ES © OCHS ee A 45

4 sedan NS Me ERNE ch ke TR beets 52

5 mile Sperm he Nay Rina eke Male ales « his. son, 62

6. Bere PVE UEAIRU PAARL) Wea hasan neste 5 ats tte, le tev elte te ditto %2

Fae, Mookundunpaal). cnn. heOcKG wl. San ditto 62

8 pepe Ear eypal, pain sw.neseeel oer w sere tata tae "et ote's CLEGG a7

9. ey be uisttempanilsss xij. sated nehtee Sod weer d witbo 38

meer Bynepaul,.). Gecotiake ke ook cl ditto 59

Wi Poe RPMUTISSENAAL LY SMM ci ial: wai oie)» sve w/a loa! oe ditto 92

$2. pePap rennet AU: t3/ GUN Is bbe pis SRG ditto 62

Peat) ';, % Munibeerpaul, cite. . Beep el mea arn 28) a a's ditto 88

178 Miscellaneous.

Pbovsts*) Muapaulhe Stine es. Caer ae his son,

TE 8 Ulig cori 2b ape a Ro ieee) A an ditto

16. ron dremel te Tie Aa ditto

hs f. naGeordat pauls. Fk J. eG

1S; pat, POIANA s,s ode Rion «eens ee ditto

19. > sSoorutpaul,... cae s ven ces Motte cies .. ditto

20. ‘i Sunnunpaul ples. At oe ... ditto

Here ends the Rajpootee Dynasty. ?

Total

Furokhmah,

Maimood Ghuznuvi,

Shahb-ooddeen,

Bullél Shah,

Sooltan, Lodiaist). ys MA, PAM 3O Auta

yu Illa ups. sys

eo seer eeeeeeeer ees

eocoeeteerexse ee ee seeeeek eee

34 years.

Lipa!

Or 573 years per reign.

eescsveewrsee s &

eeceneeeeevrxtees

Khyrooddeen, Ghomiuyhiscnas sti-ielgeiere soy

Mir Timoor,

Wace Slialits .. #5 ead ntibcoieptens atts teneke

Koomaioon,.......

Ukibwit, cick: a hatitig® peta odds 36

Noor-ooddeen,

Shah Jehan,

AGEUNE ZOE) oo. wy. oie wes es spielen tits ehedeg

eee ee eweesvee eee eeree es Pee ee

oceeeegeweese eS eS e eee e eee F

»e@ee@eseese ep eteoepeeeeeeeveegeee

ecse €eeeeese

eee ce ee re@ee

eereecseweogere

ev@eeeererece

e@eeeeev ode e@ ¢

BaltadoorS bal erate eke Be cet ech os ancy ede

PerOlaSetas ke eset a aie ie ates

Pelvamd@ar iain eee bc sic elonc tered eustele

US rig Vie O Tugel is ae Sa oe

Dow lity.) sae ees Ree dads US

Muhummud Slralt, bec: veces. cc usec

Ahmed. Shah,

Ahi Gohr,

DiklbmmpSial tite fb cwcss-em elev save

coeeseeeeereew#nanpeseeoeveeee eevee

oeesese@eeeer eer eos eo Ft eeeew ee

Tene 3 ditto.

SIN IE

35 years.

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL

For Fresruary, 1849.

At a meeting of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, held on the 6th

February, 1849,

J. W. Larptay, Esq. V. P. in the chair.

The proceedings of the January meeting were read and the accounts

and vouchers for January submitted.

Capt. Bazeley, B. A., was proposed as a candidate for election at the

March meeting, by Dr. O’Shaughnessy, seconded by Lieut. Staples.

W. J. iH. Money, Esq. C.S. proposed by Mr. Welby Jackson,

seconded by Mr. Colvin.

Read letters—

From W. Seton ¥ rr, Esq. Under Secretary to the Government of

Bengal, presenting for the use of the Museum of Economic Geology, a

Map of Behar in 35 sections, and map of Shahabad in 16 sections. The

maps were exhibited.

From Capt. Newbold, forwarding a note by Hekekyan Bey, Honor-

ary Member of the Asiatic Society, on the strata cut through in

excavating for coal in Wade Sherai.

From Capt. J. D. Cunningham, forwarding two inscriptions from the

Jain temple at Muksee.

From Dr. Weber, Berlin, forwarding two sheets of his edition of the

Vayasaneya Yajur, and recommending the Society to undertake an

edition of the black Yajur.

From Dr. Roer, containing sundry propositions on the same subject.

Referred to the Oriental Section.

180 Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. [Frs.

From A. H. Blechynden, Esq. forwarding a stone inscription taken

from a Mosque in Jessore.

Dr. O'Shaughnessy having published in a separate form a map of the

country in the neighbourhood of the supposed site of the battle between

Alexander and Porus, shewing also the position of the British army

under Lord Gough, the expense of the same was sanctioned by a vote

of the meeting.

Some discussion having ensued regarding the risk mcurred by the

Society in lending MSS. to members at a distance, it was proposed by

Rev. Mr. Long, and seconded by Capt. Latter, that Mr. Elliott be

requested to return without delay the vols. of the Mackenzie MSS.

now three years in his possession.

Read a letter from Mr. Gutzlaff, enquirmg for a Grammar and

Dictionary of the Tibetan language.

On the motion of Welby Jackson, Esq. it was unanimously resolved

that a copy of Csoma de Koros’s Tibetan Grammar and Dictionary be

presented in the name of the Society to Mr. Gutzlaff.

With reference to several small collections of botanical specimens in

the Society’s possession, it was resolved, on the motion of Mr. Welby

Jackson, that these be sent in the name of the Society to the Super-

intendent of the Botanical Garden.

J. W. Larpuay,

Vice-President.

Liprary.

The following books have been received since the last meeting :-—

Presented,

Epistola Critica Nasifi Al-Jazigi Berytensis ad de Sacyum versione Latina et

adnotationibus illustravit indicemque addidit A. F. Mehren. lLupsiae 1848,

8vo.—PRESENTED BY THE GERMAN ORIENTAL SOCIETY,

Zeitscrift der Deutschen morgenlandischen Gesellschaft herausgegeben von

den Geschafts fuhrern, Zweiter Band III. heft.—By tue Enrror,

The Calcutta Christian Observer, No. 110.—By Tue Enpirtors.

The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. No,

XVIII.—By tue Soctery.

The Journal of the Indian Archipelago, Vol. II. No, XII. (2 copies).—By

THE GOVERNMENT OF BENGAL,

The Oriental Baptist, No. 26.—By THe Epiror.

Upadeshak, No, 26.—By THe Eprror,

1840. | Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. 18i

Tatwabodhini Patrika, No. 66.—By THE TaTwaBopHINI Sapa.

Meteorological Register kept at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, for

the month of December, 1848.—By Tur Deputy Surveyor GENERAL.

The Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, No. 15.—By THE Society.

Map of the district of Shahabad, (16 sheets)—By THE GOVERNMENT OF

BEnGat.

Map of the district of Behar, surveyed by Capt. H. V. Stephen, 19th Regt.

N, I. and Lieut. W. S. Sherwill, 66th Regt. N, I. in seasons 1841-2-3-4.—By

THE GOVERNMENT OF BENGAL.

The Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, Vol. XVI. part 2,—By THE

ACADEMY. )

Exchanged.

The London, Edinburgh and Dublin Philosophical Magazine, No, 220.

Purchased.

The Calcutta Review, No. XX.

The Bhagavat Gita, or Dialogues of Krishna and Arjoona, in eighteen lectures

in Sanskrita, Canarese, and English, Edited by Rev. J. Garrett, Bangalore,

1846, 4to.

The North British Review, No. XIX.

Journal des Savants for September, 1848.

The Annals and Magazine of Natural History, No. 11.

Contes Rendus, Hebdomedaires des Seances de l’Academie des Sciences,

Nos, 12—17.

Report of the Curator Museum Economic Geology for the months of January

and February.

Geological and Mineralogical.—I have received from Major Jenkins, Agent to

the Governor General in Assam, some notes of earthquakes in that district, which

I have put into a separate form for the Miscellaneous notices of the Journal, as

all these phenomena should be carefully registered.

Mr. T. B. Swinhoe has presented us with a box containing a large and very

valuable collection of rocks and minerals from Vesuvius, being upwards of 250

specimens, but unfortunately every label belonging to them has disappeared, so

that we have not the advantage of knowing their localities and the dates of the

eruptions! Nevertheless they will supply us with many fine specimens, and with

the series aud remnants of collections we already have, and which I have carefully

collected, we shall be able to make up a fine series of volcanic rocks and

minerals,

I have had the good fortune to discover in this collection a specimen of a

voleanic bomb which I think strongly, if not completely confirms my theory of

182 Proceedings of the Asiatie Society.

the manner in which the puzzling foot-lke appendage to our mass of meteoric

iron and to other acrolites may have been formed. I have put the details of this

into the form of a supplementary note for the Journal, with a sketch.

From Mr. W. H.Sweedland we have received a miscellaneous collection of

rocks from Palamow and the stations on the Ganges,

To Col. Low of Penang, we are indebted for two fine specimens of a shell

conglomerate, with one of a dark grey limestone and clay slate, but I have not got

any notice of the locality.

Economic Geology.—With Mr. Swinhoe’s collection of Vesuvian minerals

already mentioned we have also to acknowledge from that gentleman a specimen

of yellow enamelled plaster, and a fragment of brick, both from the walls of

Herculaneum, as also an ancient earthen lamp from the same place.

I have obtained a splinter of the fine red Aberdeen granite of which the pedes-

tal to Lord Auckland’s statue is made, and which was broken off one of the

inner basement stones on board the Marlborough.

Lt. Haughten, B. N. I. has presented a very fine little crystallised diamond

from Sumbhulpore, with several specimens of rocks, containing minute portions

of copper from Chota Nagpore, but nothing worth attention farther than as an

indication that there may be veins.

I have put into the form of a paper for the Journal my examination of some

coal from the ship Sir Howard Douglass, which was on the point of igniting 95

days after it had been wetted with salt water in consequence of the ship, which

was coal laden and bound to Bombay, having been thrown on her beam ends

in a hurricane, during which time the cargo shifted, and I have added specimens

of the coal, which is of a remarkably pyritous kind from the Priso Pit near

Newport in South Wales, to the collection of the Museum.

ODPL PLL

———

wat Meteorological Register hept at the Surveyor General's Office, Caleutta, Sor the Month of Feb., 1849.

Lat. 22° 33’ 28’. 33 N. Long. 88° 23’ 42” Mag. Variation 2° 28' 36” East. Mag. Dip. 27° 45'

Clue imum Pressure observed at 9h. 50: inimum Pressure observed at 4 p. Rain Gauges,

& & as as 8 — er

2 2. A 8 = 2 sé

| PS 5 = z z 5 3 3 a (| Feet. Feet.| |.

EE HEE Wo el ge LE |e 2 ae a & |e des 2 Bel) ee Eaillug ts oye" ig

2/2.| 5 Aa oe 3 #2) 3 alee Ez| 3 a|: A 83/3 4 2 3 a}: 3 Balls 4a| 2 3 i]

EUAN elt cet 3 Pele a et WS gal Sle |e) * = BEG os || = Beye |) © Fs ez/ Ele [2 2 3 mals lg

sigel2)/2)8] 8 = eet ES Ss/a/45/2)] 8 3 gg)2/4/4 = SF lle ane 3 a | (ell et 3 a ise

Sslefle)e |e a 3 g2/ 3 |2\|\¢z 3 Belel/s|ez 3 3 bel z2/|e2]|# 3 LW SWS = 5 3/2|s 2 = a| 3/4 x|5

eibe|2\3/21 & Zz tll lat ee || a Hest || set |e te z EAs NI Nice z ga Nh eh z 2 Peaihcolne zg 3 5 HB

ala Sh ll\iter ite || tet 4 Fl | ROM non! |eom |e a Gm|gomi mom mre, 4 a S|/o|so 4 Seon | momma 2 Sia|/s]a 4 wa | abed ete le|5

Toches| © ej io Inches} | ° | O° | oe Inches| 2 | © Incha| © | 2 | © ome | ome |e. nee} © | © | © o fe 2 ‘och. |inek | |

1 |30.085) 5a7 | 593 | 57.3 Calm, |Clear. 30.154] 71.0 | 714 | 63.7 |N.E. {Clear 90,103) 784] 77.5 | 65.8 |N. EB. |Clear. 90.096 | 80.7 | 80.4 | 66.5 Clear, 80.7 | 788 | 64.2 |N.N.W.|Clear. 80,035 | 76.3 | 74 ,|Clear. 82.4 | 70.7 | 59,0 [105.0] .. |. 1

2 | 048] 60.0 | 60.5 | 59.0 Ditto’ |Cirrocumuli, | .105| 714 | 732 | 63.2 |S.5. E. [Dito ‘039 | 80,9 | 80.0 | 67.0 |s. Cirro cumuli. |29.973| 81.2 | 79.8 | 67.8 -|Cirro cumuli, 80.9 | 80,0 | 68.3 |S. W. [Cirro cumuli. |29.980| 77.8 | 76, (Cirro cumulie | 83,0 | 71.8 | 60,5 |103,8) 0.16 | 0,98 | | 2

3_| .012| 6&2 | 67.9 | 67.2 [Dito |Cloudy. 1108) 73.9 | 73.9 | 69.4 |N. Cloudy. fuga | 717 | 70.3 | 65.8 |N Wsh\Cloudy. 30,052| 73.9 | 72.0 | 642 Cloudy. 70.8 | 69.8 N.N.A.|Cloudy. 80.055 | 68.9 | 68. .|Cloudy. 76,0 | 720 | 680 | 95.0) 2. | 3

48| (083| 61.0 | 61.0 | 60.4 | N. [Ciro cumuli. 70,2 | 700 | 64.8 |S. E. |Cirrocumuli. | [0g2| 78.0 | 76.9 | 686 |S. W. |Cirrocumuli. | .015| 80.8 | 79.9 | 700 Cirro cumuli, | .011| 81.3 | 80.2 N. W. |Cumuli, 015) 77.3 | 754 ‘Cirrocumuli, | 819 | 71.6 | 61,0 |103,2)1.20 | 1.28 | | 4

5 | .053| 62.9 | 68.9 | 62.0 IN.E._ |Cloudy. 203 | 67.0 | 67.0 | 65.0 |W. Drizzly. 118} 65,0 | 65.8 | 633 |N.E. |Cloudy. 73.0 | 67.5 |N. Ditto crer anal ice Son 75.6 | 69.3 | 63.0 | 95.7] .. | .. 5

6 | 069] 618 | 624 | 61.7 |N.N-E.|Cirro cumuli, | .130| 70.8 | 706 | 67.0 |N. Cirro cumuli, | 089] 76.2 | 74.4 | 67.7 JN. (Ciro cumuli. 76.1 | 689 |N. N.W, Ditto Ciro cumuli, | .012| 73,7 Cloudy. 77.0 | 694 | 61.8 | 97.2). | o 6

7 | 056) 61-7 | 61.7 | 60.9 |Calm. |Clear. 135| 72.2 | 722 | 65.7 |N.N. E,\Clear. ‘o1| 78.0 | 763 | 650 |N: W. |Cumuli. eo. || ren|| cate sere cee aaa | re sc 78.6 | 70.2 | 61.8 101.0 <. | <. lo) 7

8 071| 589 | 60.2} 589 |Ditto |Ditto 135| 70.2 | 71.8 | 63.0 |s, Ditto 082) 78,0 | 76.7 | 61.7 |W, lear. 78.2 | 62,0 |N. W. |Clear. Clear, 032) 74.6 Clear, 80,0 | 69.5 | 58,8 |101.2 ., a, a

Ditto 114| 708 | 712 | 614 |s. Ditto 059] 78.0 | 77.0 | 61.9 |s.W. |Ditto Ditto Ditto .000| 76.2 Ditto 81.5 | 69.5 | 57.4 105.0) .. | ., 9

100| 71.0 | 728 | 67.7 |E. Ditto Jog | 80.4 | 79.7 | 685 |S. Ditto Cumuli. Cumuli. 29,984 | 77.0 Ditto asia | 71.9 | 600 [1022] .. | “| ho

Clear. ‘027 | 71.0 | 709 | 65.0 Clear. Cumuli. Cumuli. 918) 75.7 Clear, Hoag}. | 2. | fie

Ditto 008] 73.8 | 73,9 | 65.5 ‘Cumuli, 804 . {Cumulo strati. | 853) 79,3 | 784 | 67.0 |S. sharp,|Ditto 872) 76.2 Ditto 96.5] o» oD 13

Cloudy. (004| 73.8 | 73.9 | 70.3 ‘Cumulo strat 8 Ditto 891 | 83,0 70.5 |N.N.W,|Dito ‘91 785 {Ditto 1067] 2. | M4

iClear, 048) 70.7 | 71.3 | 67.3 |N Clear. 82,2 Clear, _ | .B96 | 83.7 Vv \Cirro strati. 910) 78,9 \Cirro strati. 108.8) Cys

Comulo strati, | 073) 71-4 | 70.8 | 65.9 |Ditto .926| 813 | 800 Ditto 906 | 81.8 y.|Ditto 912) 78,2 | 77, Cumulo strati. | 82.5 | 73.2 | 63.8 |105.7) ie

Clear, 29,925 | 76.0 | 76,8 | 720 Cumulo strati. | 785) 83.9 | 83,5 Clear. «766 | B44 .|Clear. .765| 79.9 | 78.9 | 67.5 |S.S. W. |Clear, 85,0 | 75.8 | 66.5 |102,' 18

Cloudy. 756 | 80.0 | 808 | 74.0 h.|Clear, 617} 86,2 | 86.2 Cumulo strati. | ‘591| a5.2 p.|Cumulo strati, | (597 | 7915 | 79.2 | 15.0 |SS Wash|Ditto 87.8 | 79.9 | 720 | 98.3) 19

Foggy. 781) 78.5 | 738 | 70.4 «Ditto 1658) 88,8 | 87.2 642| 89.0 Cirro cumuli, | 655) 83.0 | 82.0 | 74,9 Curro cumull, | 89.8 77.8 | 65.8 |112,0) 20

»| Clear. Cumulo strat. 816) 85.8 87.3 | 76.7 751| 86.6 Clear. .766| 82.5 | 823) 75.4 Clear, 88,8 | 80.1 | 714 101.0) « [@23

Cloudy. Cumuli. 1834 | 85.5 85.3 | 77.0 Cumulostrati. | 749] 85.3 | 84, Cumuli, .733| 82.0 | 81,8 | 75.8 y.|Cloudy.. 86.7 | 80.0 | 73.2 | 98.5) 2. mate

Cle DO ray le see +841) 86.7 88,7 | 68.9 Cirro cumuli, | .756| 89,0 | a7.9 | 69.2 |W.S,W.[Cirro cumuli, | .755| 85.0 | 83,2} 70.0 ICirro cumuli, | 90.3 | 92,2 | 74,0 |1120) .. los

Ditto .919| 78.3 | 77.9 | 60.8 |N ‘Clear, 902) 83.3 618 e4.2 | 61.0 Clear. i812| 86.0 | 84.0 | 62.2 |N. W. |Clear, 830! 80.3 | 744 | 66,7 .|Clear. 86.2 | 77.9 | 69.4 |105,8) .. 26,

Ditto 77.4 | 76.8 | 606 |N. Ditto .971| 83.5 LO \N- E._ |Ditto 845 | 648 |V W.Ditto 892) B19 | B25 . [Ditto .905| 80.0 | 78,0 | 66,0 [Ditto 86.2 | 75,5 | 64,8 [105.8 ., 7

Ditto .050| 77.3 | 77.7 | 66.9 |E. Ditto 30,003] 84.8 62.7 |W.S. W.1Ditto 85.0 | 62.7 |W.N.W.|Ditto 1931 | 85.8) Bia Ditto 939] 79.8 | 77.3 | 65.2 Ditto 86.7 | 75.9 | 65.0 |104.8) 28

Mean |29.951| 64.8 64.9 | 63.2 b

Meau of the Corresponding month of lust year.

29.995 65.0 65.5 63.0

90,054 74.7 752 66.5 90,008 823 81,9 68,0 29,992 85.7 85.2 68.7 29,907 85.8 84.6 67.8 29,915 81.0 79.0 67.9 069 eee os

These Observations have been made for the most part, with a supply of new and first rate Instruments received into the Observatory, by orders of the Bengal Government ; a brief description of the Instruments seems necessary. a :

m—The Barometer is a standard Instrument by Newman, diameter of the tube 0.504 Inches, ‘The following is the comparative shewing of this lostrument and those Barometers which were in use at the Observatory prior to Ist of June, 1844. Barometer by Troughton used prior to the Ist of June, 1844. Observations reduced to 32° Fahrenheit.

wa ” ” ” » » 0514 Ditto, Ditto. Ditto Col. Everest used from Ist of June to Slst of August, 1844. Di Ditto.

No, 52 Standard Barometer by Newman used from Ist of September, 1844,

No. 86... Ditto.ees Ditto ...+-- Ditto.---«sfrom 3d. of April, 1847,

the difference between Standard Thermometer and dry Thermometer of this Instrument is - 0.2, the Temperature of the dry Bulb istaken from the Standard ‘Thermometer, and in the event of the quantity moisture, dew point, or dryness, being required,

2nd,—The Thermometer is a Standard Instrument by Newman, on metal Scale and graduated to 4 of a di

Srd.—Wet Bulb Hygrometer by Newman, graduated to single degree divisions, thy difference between ‘Staad

be taken into calculation,

Athe—Maximum and Minimum Thermometer by Newman, The difference between these instruments, and the Standard Thermometer is ++ 0.7 for the former nnd_0,23 for the latter,

HiT gclar ninperature shewa in Coluia 41 of a Thermometer, in sun's rays, is wequited by meaus of a Newman's Maximum Thermometer baving 4 black bulb. —Che above Instruments, excepting tho Thermometer placed in the sun's ays, are fixed atabove 4} fect from the ground, to a post, in a thickly choppered house, and are freely exposed to the airand sheltered from any influence

‘The height of the Surface of the Mercury in the Cistern of the Standard Barometer in the Observatory attached to the Surveyor General's Office above the Mean Level of the Sea, having been deduced from a Series of ‘Tide Observations taken from a Tegisler kept at Kyd's Dock Yard, the result is recorded for general information.

Feet.

H. L. THUILLIER, Carrain,

Officiating Deputy Surveyor General,

In charge Surveyor General's Office.

Lowest Monthly Average of Mean Tides in the Months of February and March, above the Zero of Gauge at Kyd's Dock Yard, Calcutta,

Difference of Level between the Zero of Tide Gauge at Kyd’s Dock Yurd, and the Standard Burometer at the Observatory, sot <sace

Height of Standard Barometer above the Level of the Sea,

( Ure Pi

iy i

ree re Ff

POF

(RRS

JOURNAL

OF THE

ASIATIC SOCIETY.

MARCH, 1849.

Notes on the Languages spoken by the various tribes inhabiting the

valley of Asam and its mountain confines. By WituiAM Rosinson,

Inspector of Government Schools in Asam.

The study of the affinities of languages has always been acknow-

ledged to be one of importance. When properly applied, it cannot fail

to afford an unerring test of the truth or falsehood of traditionary

evidence : and without its aid, it would sometimes be impossible to

unravel the mysteries of contradictory testimonies respecting the rela-

tions of the different races of mankind.

Yet no one branch of study, probably, is attended with greater diffi-

culties in the prosecution, especially as regards the languages of uncon-

nected and barbarous tribes, remote from all contact with literature or

civilization. Itis seldom to be expected that points of resemblance

can be found sufficiently numerous to afford any thing like demonstra-

tive evidence of the affinity of languages under these circumstances.

And even where we do meet with identity in any given number of

words in any two languages, nothing can be inferred from this coinci-

dence, respecting the relation of those two languages. For, if the fan-

cied resemblance or identity of a certam number of words,—unless,

indeed, the proportion be very considerable—were to be esteemed a

sufficient proof of their having been derived from a common stock, it

would follow that more than half the languages of the universe would

exhibit traces of such connection, in whatever order we might pursue

No. XXVIIL—New SERIEs. 2 Rn’?

184 Languages of ‘the various tribes inhabiting the [Marcn,

‘the comparison. For, in the migration and intercourse of nations and

‘tribes, nothmg is more common than the permutation of letters and

ithe borrowing of words, causing an appearance of affinity where in

reality none exists. It is, therefore, only to an essential affinity in the

“structure and genius.of languages (coupled with -verbal coincidences)

that we.can appeal for certain evidences. of a common origin.

Setting. out from the establishment of a certain number of separate lan-

guages as.species, we may adopt the tests of affinity proposed in Adelung’s

Mithridates, and proceed to comprehend in the description of one family

‘such as have more coincidences with each other than diversities ; and

refer to the same class, such families as exhibit any coincidences at all

that are not fortuitous, imitative (that is, from onomatopoeia,) or

adoptive. But, these tests depend so much on the progress of our

‘knowledge in the study of each language, that the results must unavoid-

cably be liable to great uncertainty and fluctuation where our acquaint-

ance with the languages is superficial, so that we can reasonably expect

nothmg more than an approximation to an arrangement completely

‘methodical.

The writer, therefore, whose attention has been but lately drawn to

‘the languages of Asam, and whose opportunities for studying them,

have been but few, begs here distinctly to disavow any intention of at-

‘tempting to trace the languages he treats of to their sources, or to ex-

»plain their affinities. So important an undertakmg, may be much more

rationally expected from the united labors of many than from the feeble

«efforts of a single individual. Yet it is obvious that the task never can

‘be accomplished unless-efforts are made by individuals for communi-

-eating such information as they may have opportunities of acquiring

and though the writer may have failed in laying open the real nature

-of each language, he would indulge the hope that there is yet such a

‘foundation laid, as will eventually secure its being done.

Proceeding now to the examination of the languages spoken in Asam,

-and by the tribes bordering on the valley, the one that naturally claims

“precedence is:‘the ASAMESE.

It is the language usually spoken by the entire population of the

svalley, and in most cases, is the only medium of intercoure used between

‘them and the people of the hills.

With the exception of the Bengali, there is probably no derivative

1849. | valley of Asam and its mountain confines. 185

of the Sanskrit, that bears a closer affinity to its parent, so that nearly

four-fifths of the words in common use'are pure derivations from that

stock. Like its cognate the Bengali, it admits of the introductions of

Sanskrit terms with such facility, and to so great an extent, as to be

capable of conveying ideas with the greatest precision, thus adding

considerably to its copiousness.

Whether it be a direct derivative of the Sanskrit, or only a corrupt

dialect of the Bengali, has been questioned. It seems highly probable,

however, that a careful investigation will conduce to the support of the

latter supposition ; for there does not seem to be a greater diversity

between what are usually considered the provincialisms, spoken in the

remoter parts of Bengal,—in Chittagong and Silhet for instance,—and

the unadulterated Bengali of Nuddeah (where the language is said to

be spoken in its purity), than between any of these and the dialect of

Asam.

From the circumstance of the country having from time immemorial

been governed by rulers of Shan origin, it is somewhat surprising that

more traces of their language are not to be found in the present dialect

of the Asamese. The very small proportion of words that may be

traced to Tai origin, appear for the most part to be adventitious. This

might serve to show that long previous to the invasion of the Shan con-

querors or the inroads of the hill tribes, the valley was inhabited by

a race intimately connected with Bengal or Berar, and this con-

jecture would seem to be confirmed by the traditions of the old king-

dom of Kamroop, and several antique Hindu remains in the most

remote parts of the valley, which have but recently been. brought to

notice by the archaic researches of Major Hannay.

After a careful comparison of the Bengali and Asamese dialects, we-

make no hesitation in asserting, that, except with slight variations of

pronunciation, upwards of eight-tenths of the most common. words are

identical. So strong an affinity may not be perceptible ona cursory

ispection of any given number of words taken from the two languages,.

in as much as the secondary forms in current use in Bengal would most

likely be overlooked, and. these, in many cases, come far nearer to the-

Asamese terms than those words commonly used in Bengali composition..

For the purpose of comparison, a list of words in both the Bengali:

and Asamese dialects is here subjoined. And, the more clearly to.

2B 2

186 Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the [Marcu,

exhibit the analogy between the two dialects, those secondary forms

alluded to, and which have thrown considerable weight on the result of

the comparison, have been introduced into the Bengali column.

It is necessary, however, to observe that in romanizing Asamese and

other languages hereafter treated of, the vowels are used in accordance

with their classical pronunciation on the continent of Europe; and

where these are not sufficient to express the vowel sounds in use, dia-

critical marks have been introduced to supply the deficiency. The

fundamental vowel sounds are as follows : |

A sounded as in agreeable, or u in but.

4 a far.

e ni men.

é ta 5 they.

i 53 pin.

1 te pique.

oO As not.

6 a note.

u is pull.

u fe rule.

a Xs French u, or German t

The consonants are used as in English. G isalways hard. 4H, used

after another consonant, shows that it is aspirated ; thus, kh is sounded

as in pack-horse; th, as in pot-house, &c. ; ng, is sounded as in singing,

N (with the dash under it) as in infant (French).

In the expression of diphthongs, it is necessary to combine the vowels

in such a manner that they shall express the same sounds when united

as they do when separate.

Comparative List of Words.

English. Bengali. Asamese.

Air. Bayu, Bat, Batash. Botah.

Ant. Pipilika, Pinpara. Porua.

Arrow. Tir, Shar. Kanr.

Bird. Pakhi, Chiriya. Chara.

Blood. Rakta, Te}. ej.

Boat. Nouka, Na. Na.

Bone. Asti, Har. 3 Har.

Buffalo. Mohish. Moh.

Cat. Biral, My4o, @ cat’s mewing Mekuri.

whence, myaokari, the mew-

er, and thence.

1849.]

English.

Earth.

Egg.

Elephant.

Eye.

Father.

Fire.

Fish.

Flower.

Foot.

Goat.

Hair.

Hand.

Head.

Hog.

Horn.

Horse.

House.

Iron.

Leaf.

Light.

Man.

Monkey.

Moon.

Mother. —

Mountain.

Mouth.

Musquito.

Name.

Night.

Oil.

Plantain.

Bengali.

Goru.

Kak, Kauri.

Din.

Kukur.

Karna, Kan.

Mritika, Mati.

Dimbha, Dim.

Hasti, Hati.

Chékhyu, Chok.

Pita, Bap.

Agni.

Matshya, Mach.

Pushpa, Ful.

Charan, Pad.

Chagal.

Kesh, Chul.

Hat.

Mastak, Mir.

Shukar, Barah.

Shringa, Sing.

Ashwa, Ghora.

Griha, Ghar.

Lowha, Loha.

Patra, Pata.

Dipti, Pohor.

Purush, Manush.

Banor, Bandor.

Chundra.

Mata.

Parbbat.

Mukh.

Mosha.

Nam.

Ratri, Rati.

Toil, Tel.

Kala.

valley of Asam and its mountain confines.

Asamese.

Goru.

Kauri.

Din.

Kukur.

Kan.

Mati.

Koni, Dim.

Hati.

Sok.

Bapu.

Jui.

Mas.

Ful.

Bhori.

Sagal.

Sul.

Hat.

Mur.

Gahori, Barah.

Hing.

Ghora.

Ghar.

Loh.

Pat.

Pohor.

Manuh.

Bandor.

187

188 Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the [Marcn,

English. Bengal. Asamese.

River. Nadi, Nai. Noi.

Road. Pat, Bat. Bat.

Salt. Laban, Lon. Lon.

Skin. Charmma, Chhal. Sal.

Sky. Akash. Akah.

Snake. Sarpa,. Sap. ' Hap.

Star. Tara. Tara..

Stone. Prastar, Shila, Sil. Hil.

Sun. Surjya, (Bela, time.) Beli.

Tiger. Bagh, Bagh

Tooth. Danta Daént Dant.

Tree. Brikhya, Gach. Gach.

Village. Gram, Gan. Gan.

Water. Jal, Pani. Pani.

Yam. Alu. Alu.

The written characters, in use among the Asamese, are the same as

those that obtain in Bengal, with one or two slight variation. The

powers of the letters are also the same, except the substitution of S in

Asamese for the Bengali Ch, and a guttural H for the Bengali S and Sh.

The principles of Grammar, are alike in both the languages. Both

have the same rules for the inflections which words generally undergo in

order to describe various actions and circumstances, though there exists

some diversity in the inflections themselves.

The analogy by which nouns feminine are regularly formed from

nouns masculine, is the same in both languages. Thus both have,

Mase. Harin, a deer. Fem. Harini.

Mase. Kukur, a dog. Fem. Kukuri.

As in Bengali, so also in Asamese, the names of some of the most

common male and female objects in nature, are applied quite absolutely,

and without any relation to one another. It must however be observed

that the Asamese, far more often than the Bengalis, distinguish the sex

of animals by prefixing the terms Mata and Maiki, male and female.

The seven Cases stated to belong to Bengali nouns, are the same in

number and order with those of Asamese nouns, but the terminations

by which they are discriminated are somewhat different, as shown in the

following paradigms.

1849.) walley of Asam and its mountain confines. 189

Kukur a Dog.

BENGALI. SINGULAR. ASAMESE

Nominative. Kukur. A dog. Kukur.

Accusative. Kukurke. Kukurak.

Instrumental. Kukurte. By or with a dog. Kukurere.

Dative. Kukurere. To a dog. Kukuraloi.

Ablative Kukurete or Ku- From a dog. Kukurarpara.

; kurhoite.

‘Genitive. Kukurer. A dog’s. Kukurar.

eae Kukure or Kuku- Jn a dog. Kukurat.

Locative.

Fete.

Plural.

Nom. Kukurera. Kukurhat or Ku-

kurbilak.

Ace. Kukurerdigake. Kukurhatak or bi-

lakak, &e.

Inst. Kukurerdigete. By or with dogs. Kukurhatere.

Dat. Kukurerdigere. To dogs. Kukurhataloi.

Abl. Kukurerdighoite. From dogs. Kukurhatarpara.

Gen. Kukurerder. dog s. Kukurhatar.

Loe. Kukurerdigete. In dogs. Kukurhatat.

The Comparison of Adjectives in Asamese is effected by a similar

process to what may be termed the secondary form in current use in

Bengal, that is, by prefixing aru more, to the Positive, to form the

‘Comparative, and ati, very, to form the Superlative.

The Bengalis have two kinds of Personal Pronouns. The one used to

find this degrading consequence of aristocracy in the Asamese pronouns

also, but only in those of the 2nd and 3rd persons.

express superiority or honor, the other inferiority or contempt.

Bengali. Asamese.

1st Person Honorific, Nom. Ami.

Acc. Amake, &c. Nom. Moi.

Inferior, Nom. Mui. Acc. Mok, &c.

Acc. Moke, &c.

2nd Person Honorific, Nom. Tumi. Nom. Tumi.

Acc. Tomake, &c. Acc. Tomak, &c.

Inferior, Nom. Tui. Nom. Toi.

Ace. Toke, &c. Acc. Tok, &c.

3rd Person Honorific, Nom. Tini. Nom. Teno.

Acc. Tanhake, &c. Acc. Tenok, &c.

Inferior, Nom. Tiha. Nom. Hi.

Acc. Tahake, &c. Acc. Tak, &c.

190 Languages of the various tribes inhabiting: the [Marcn,

The oblique cases of pronouns, in both languages, are formed exactly

as those of nouns.

The inflections of Asamese Verbs, and the difference between them

and those of Bengali verbs, will be best indicated by the following com-

parative scheme of their verbal terminations.

Kara, Do.

InpicaTivE Moop.

Present Indefinite.

Bengali. Asamese.

Honorific. Inferior. Honorific. Inferior.

be Wart. Kari. Ly Keron; <

2. Kara. Karis. 2. Kara. Kara.

3. Karen. Kare. 3. Kare.

Present DEFINITE.

1. Karitechhi. <= Karitechhi. 1. Karisou. Ee

2. Karitechha. -$ Karitechhis. 2. Karisa. = Karisa.

3. Karitechhen. *S Karitechhe. 3. Karise. Ss

AORIST.

1. Karitém. s Karitaém. 1. Karilonhenten. . js

ee ' 3 Karili-

2. Karita. S S Karitis. 2. Karilahenten. "S S Seas

3. Kariten. ~ 8§ Karita. 3. Karilehenten. ~ S

IMPERFECT,

1. Karilam. . Karildm. 1. Karilon. }

2. Karila. = Karili. 2. Karila. SS Karili.

3. Karilen. Karila. 3. Karile, or karil. =

Preter IMPERFECT.

1. Karitechilam. , 3,Karitechilam. | 1. Karisilon. ay

2. Karitechila. & ‘s Karitechili. 2. Karisila. = ‘S Karisili.

3. Karitechilen. ' Karitechila. 3. Karisile. S

Perrectr TENSE.

1. Karidchi. » y Kariachi. 1. Karison. eal:

2. Kariacha. § § Karidchis. 2. Karisa. S$ Karisa.

3. Karidchen. “ ™ Karidche. 3. Karise. a

PRETER PLUPERFECT.

1. Karidchilam. oe Kariachilam. 1. Karisilon. tes

2. Kariachila. = § § Kariachili. 2. Karisila. & § Karisili.

3. Karidchilen. 'S Karidchila. 3. Karisile. Ss =

FUTURE.

1. Karibo, or ka- S Karibo. 1. Karim. is

rimu. Ss S

2. Kariba. SS Karibi. 2. Kariba. SS Karibi.

3. Kariben. = Karibe. 3. Kariba. 8

1849. | valley of Asam and its mountain confines. 191

‘ IMPERATIVE Moop.

1. Kari. Kari. 1. Karon.

2. Kara, or kario. Kar, or karis. | 2. Kara. Kar.

3. Karun. Karuk. 3. Karok.

PARTICIPLES.

Karibaloi, or kara, doing.

Krita, done.

Karonate karonte, contznuing to do.

Present. Karite, doing.

Past. Krita, done.

Continuative. Karite Karite, conti-

nuing to do.

Adverbial, Kariya, kari, karile, on

doing or being done.

Kari, karilat, karile, on doing or

being done.

GERUNDS.

Karite, for the purpose of doing. | Karibaloi.

Kariba, doing. Kariba.

Karibar, of doing. Karibar.

Karibare, in doing . Karat.

The rules for syntactical construction are the same in both languages.

In the ordinary colloquial use of the Asamese, deviations from the

strict rules of syntax are very frequent, but not more so than in that

form of Bengali prevalent among the lower classes in various parts of

Bengal. I refer particularly to the vague and indiscriminate use of the

two classes of idioms, termed by philologists, the analagous, and the

transpositive.

The following specimeus of Bengali and Asamese composition, have

been furnished to illustrate our remarks on the analogy between the

two dialects :—

Eneiisu.—‘ Influenced by no fear, he offered outrage on others,

seized their property by force, gave false evidence to secure advantage

and benefit to himself, and committed various other enormous crimes.’’

This sentence, in the more dignified Bengali style, would be rendered—

*«« Se sarbbatobhabe nirbhay haiya parer dauratmyamatra kare, balete

paradrabyapaharan kare, mithyasakhya diya swalabh swarakhya kare

ebang ar ar nana prakér mahapatak kare.”

In common Bengali it would run thus :

“Se kichhui bhay na kariyé parer prati dauratmya kare, bal kariya

parer drabya kériyé lay, mithyé sékhya diyé dpanar labh o apanar

rakhya kare, ebang ar ar nana prakar mahapap kare.”

192 Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the {|Marcu,

In Asamese :

‘Hi eku bhai ne khai parar uporat dushtali kare, balere parar bostu

karri loy, misé hakhi diya 4punér labh dru dpunaér rakhyé kare aru ar

arharah pap kare.”

The Lord’s Prayer in Bengali.

“He d4marder swargastha pitah, tomar nam piijya hauk ; tomar rajatwa

hauk ; ar tomar ichchhaé swargete jeman, temani prithibiteo saphal

hauk. Amarder praydjaniya dhér adya deo. Ar dmrd jeman 4pan

aparadhidigake khyama kari, tadrup tumio dmarder aparadh khyama

karo. Ebang amardigake parikhyate anié na; kintu manda haite rakhya

kara. Réajattwa o gaurab o parakram e sakali saddkale tomar. Amen.”

The Lord’s Prayer in Asamese.

He amar swargat thoka pitri, tomar nam pijya hauk ; tomar raijya

hauk ; ar jene swargat tene kui prithibit o tomar isshé pir hauk. Aji

amar khaébar behéni &ém4k dia. Aru jenekui 4mér dhdéruéhontok 4mi

hohun, tenekui amar dhér era. Aru 4mék parikhydloi ni nibé, kintu

apadar para 4émék rakhyé karé. Rajatto, éru mahima, aru prabhad ei

kakal6é hadai tomér. Amen.

All the other languages that will now come under consideration, may

be divided into Two GREAT CLASSES ; those connected with the Thibe-

tan, and those deriving their origin from the Tai or Shyan stock.

They all nevertheless approximate toward the Chinese colloquial

system, and more or less possess the characteristics of being originally

monosyllabic, and all zntonated. Those arranged under the second

class are also destitute of inflections.

The origin of the intonations common to these languages, may in all

probability be found in the extremely limited nature of their colloquial

medium, occasioned by their confining themselves wholly to a mono-

syllabic system. The number of their monosyllables must naturally be

very limited. On a new object being presented to the mind, it becomes

necessary to give it a name ;—the possibility of uniting two or more

syllables to form a word never occurred to them, they must therefore

have recourse to a monosyllable already in use, and their ingenuity

exercised to invent a method of diversifying these monosyllables. This

is done by adding to it, force, length, or rapidity of pronunciation.

These intonations, depending as they do only on a modified action

of those parts of the larynx, which most immediately affect the voice,

1849. | valley of Asam and its mountain confines. 193

are, in general, exceedingly difficult for a European practically to dis-

tinguish. On a careful examination, however it will be found that these

tones do not in reality exceed four, and that they are the same as those

described by Chinese philologists.

The first of these, may be said to be pronounced naturally, as a mid-

dle tone, even and moderate, neither raised nor deepened by any pecu-

har effort.

The second, is a strong, rough, and vehement sound, produced by

strongly exciting the action of the glottis in emitting it.

The third tone, is formed by raising the action of the glottis as in

forming the second tone, and then somewhat relaxing it, which, while

it lengthens the sound makes it end rather feebly.

The fourth tone may be characterized as a short, thick, hasty sound,

which seems to re-enter the throat, so as at length to be stopped in it.

To distinguish this peculiarity, so very common to these languages, it

is proposed to place a dot under the final letter.

The prevalence of these intonations, in all the languages spoken by

the tribes bordering on the valley of Asam, leaves us at no loss to trace

the source from which they have sprung. They evidently bear affinity

to the Chinese, however much they may have subsequently been affect-

ed by any foreign mixture.

In languages, where those terminations and inflections which render

so copious the grammars of the Greek and Sanskrit are almost unknown,

there can be little room for grammatical disquisition. Of the two parts

which form the basis of philology, it is evident that the inflections and

terminations of any particular language furnish the materials for its

peculiar grammar ; hence, where these are wanting there can be left us

little beside a few ideas that relate to general grammar.

Principles of grammar must necessarily be inherent in every language.

But the various rules to which words are subject in order to describe

various actions and circumstances, as they constitute the peculiar gram-

mar of any language, can seldom be transferred from the grammar of

one nation-to that of another. Hence if a language have no inflection

to express case, gender or number in its nouns, or mood, tense, and

person in its verbs, the language would only be distorted by an attempt

to throw its grammar precisely into the form of Latin or Greek gram-

mars for instance, which have inflections for all the more important

2c 2

194 Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the [Marcn,

parts of speech. The writer’s object on the present occasion, has there-

fore been, to show how people, who make use of none, or but few of

these inflections, make their language subserve the same purposes to

them, which languages abounding with inflections accomplish for other

nations, and this, if fully done, he trusts will lay open the peculiar

grammar of each language sufficient for all purposes of investigation.

In attempting to do this, however, with the languages selected for

examination, a difficulty meets us at the very onset.

In a cultivated language there generally exists a certain fixed mode

of expression, used in standard works of literature, which may be con-

sidered as the standard of style,—deviations from which must be sensi-

bly perceived, and regarded as uncouth and improper. Where such

works exist, examples taken from them amply suffice for exemplifymg

the various peculiarities of grammar; but the following remarks can

be deduced from no such solid principles. In languages so rude as to

have never been reduced to writing, our examples of grammar must be

drawn from conversation, often incorrect, and always fluctuating. Add

to this, the speakers themselves are so ignorant of the theoretical con-

struction of their own language that they are unable to give the en-

quirer the least information respecting its grammatical principles. The

only plan left the writer therefore, was to collate a number of words

and sentences arbitrarily, and then by patiently comparing these sen-

tences together to deduce from them the system on which they are

founded.

Part I,

Having offered these preliminary remarks, we proceed now to the

consideration of the Buoria Lancuace, more commonly designated

Tue THIBETAN,

A copious and elaborate grammar of this language has been already

laid before the public by M. Alexander Csoma De Kérés, and to that

work, the student must be referred for a clear exposition of all its pecu-

liarities. Our remarks therefore will be very concise, touching only on

those points on which information may be requisite to aid in instituting

a comparison between this language and the dialects spoken by the

adjoining tribes.

Facts seem to indicate, that there was a time when all the countries

west and south of China, up to the very borders of Bengal, used the

1849.] valley of Asam and its mountain confines. 195

Chinese colloquial medium. In after ages however, some great and

important event—probably the introduction and spread of Buddhism,

— seems to have carried the Sanskrit alphabetic system into these coun-

tries, and to have caused its adoption in those nearest to Bengal, with

such alterations however, as were necessary to accommodate it to the

colloquial medium already current in them. This we find to be the case

with Bhotan, where the colloquial medium, which, for ought we know,

may have been prevalent in the country from time immemorial, refuses

to be identified with the Sanskrit alphabetic system, and has such firm

hold on the country, as to induce the inhabitants while they receive the

Sanskrit alphabet, to reject some of the letters wholly, and change the

sound of others which they still retain.

The literature of Bhotan, having for a long period of time, been con-

nected with that of India, if not entirely derived from it,* it cannot be

expected that the language continues to be a purely monosyllabic one.

It may perhaps be better represented as a connecting link between the

polysyllabic and monosyllabic languages.

The alphabet is derived from the Nagri or Sanskrit system, and

some of the letters resemble the corresponding ones in the Bengali

alphabet. It contains eight series, the last of which has only two

powers. The first four of these are the K, T, Ch, and P series, com-

mon to both the Sanskrit and Chinese system; but the alphabet is

alike destitute of the F series of the Chinese system, and of the double

modification of the T series, found im the Sanskrit system. The fifth

series of this alphabet, Tz, Tzh, &c. is evidently the Ts, Ts’h series

of the Chinese system; and amidst the sixth and seventh, vestiges of

the other sibilant series may be traced.

But the most singular feature in this descendant of the Sanskrit sys-

tem is, that the four first series, instead of possessing five letters, like

the Nagri alphabet, have only four, the second aspirate in each series is

wanting, as it is in the Chinese system too, the first and third letters of

each series have pretty nearly the same sound affixed to them.

Or Nouns.

Gender, in nouns, is usually expressed by the addition of the word

po, male, or mo, female, before or after the noun. Example :

* If coeval with the introduction of Buddhism, it must have been between the

7th and 8th centuries of the Christian era.

196 Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the [Marcu,

Khyi, a dog, masc. Po-khyi. Fem, Mo-khyi.

Phag, a hog, masc. Phag-po. Fem. Phag-mo.

These words are also frequently employed as emphatic particles de-

noting a person or thing especially, or in an eminent degree. E. g. Mi,

aman, Mi-pd, the man. Ma, a mother, Ma-mé, the mother.

In the Declension of nouns, the same form is adopted as that in

Sanskrit, and its derivatives, that is, the addition of certain post-posi-

tive particles.

The following is the general form of declension, according to which

adjectives, pronouns, and participles, as well as nouns, may be declined.

Terminations.

Nominative, and Accusative,

Genitive, kyi, gyi, gi, yi, or i.

Dative, 1a,

Ablative, la, or na.

Instrumental, kyi, gyi, gi, or f.

Locative, la, na, hu, du, ru, or su.

The plural signs in general use are, nam, dag, chag, signifying all :

to these the above particles are added as in the smgular number.

N. B. Ifthe word end in dh, b ors, the genitive must be formed

by kyi; e. g. Khyodh, you ; Khyood-kyi, your ; gyab, side ; gyab-kyi,

of a side. Yas, the right ; yas-kyi, of the right.

If the word terminate in gh, or ng, the genitive must end in gi; e.g.

Kang, a foot, Kang-gi, of a foot.

If the word terminate in a vowel the genitive is to be expressed by {,

or yi; e.g. Ma, a mother; ma-i, of a mother, chu,water ; chuyi, of water.

If the word terminate in n, m, r, 1, the genitive case must be express-

ed by gyi; e.g. Shar, the east, Shar-gyi, of the east, &c.

If the word terminate in gh, or p, the locative case must be express-

ed by tu.

If the word end in ng, d, n, m, r, 1, the locative case must be ex-

pressed by du; e. g. Mur-du, tm haste. Sdng-du, 2m a vessel.

Chyim, a House, is thus declined.

Singular. Plural.

Nom. Chyim, a house. Chyim-nam, houses.

Gen. Chyim-gyi, of a house. Chyim-nam-gyi, of houses.

Dat. Chyim-la, to a house. Chyim-nam-la, to houses.

1849. | valley of Asam and its mountain confines. Loe

Abl. Chyim-la, from a house. Chyim-nam-la, from houses.

Acc. Chyim, house. Chyim-nam, houses.

Instr. Chyim-gyi, with or by a Chyim-nam-gyi, with or by houses.

house.

Loc. Chyim-du, or Chyim-la, ix Chyim-naém-due, or Chyim-nam-la,

a house. in houses.

Or ADJECTIVES.

Adjectives generally stand after the nouns they serve to qualify ; as

in Mi ngam, a bad man; Khang zang, a good house. Lung nag, a black

valley. They are sometimes used before the noun, but in the latter

case have the -definite particle in the genitive form annexed; as in

Zang mi, a good man, or Zang poi mi.

When an adjective is used substantively, so as to denote the abstract

quality, it takes after it the particle, Nying. Thus, Nag, black, Nag-

po, the black ; Nag-po-nying, blackness. Sla, easy, or Sli-po; and Sla-

po-nying, easiness.

Adjectives are formed from substantives by the addition of the geni-

tive sign. Shing, wood ; Shing-gi, wooden. Ser, gold ; Ser-gyi, golden.

Mi, man ; Miyi, human.

Negative adjectives are formed by the addition of med, ma, mi, mida,

mi-mang, ya, &c. Thus, Nor, wealth ; Nor-med, destitute of wealth.

Tha-ya, without end. Tshul-med, zrregular. Mi-rung-po, inconve-

nient. Ma-min-po, unripe.

Comparison is expressed by prefixing the words je, more, and rab,

most, to the adjective; as tho, high ; je-tho, higher ; rab-tho, highest.

More commenly however, the terms 1a, pa, or ba, signifying than or

more than, are put after the name of the person or thing to which com-

parison is made; Nga-pa-khyod-che, Those art greater than I. Di-la-

de-zang, That is better than this. The superlative, or a comparison

with totality, is expressed by tham-chad-la, or kun-la, than all. De

kun-la che-o, or tham chad-la che-o ; that is greater than all, or that is

the greatest.

The numeral system, of the Bhotias, consisting of decades, is exceed-

ingly simple. The cardinal numbers are as follows :—

t.. Chi. 4.04) Zi.

2. Nyi. 5. Nga.

3. Sum. 6. Eu.

198 Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the |Marcu,

7 Din. 32. So-nyi, &e.

8.0) Gyved: 40. Zi-chu.

03.4) Ge. 4l. Ze-chi, &c.

10. Chu, or Chu-tam-pa. 20. Nega-chu.

11. Chu-chi. 60. Tu-chu:

12. Chu-nyi, &c. 70. Diun-chu.

20. Nyi-chu, (wo tens.) 80. Gye-chu.

21. Nyer-chi. 90. Gu-chu.

22. Nyer-nyi, &c. 100. Khya.

30. Sum-chu. 1000. Tong.

31. So-chi.

The unit following the decade in regular order.

There are no ordinals.

The numerals, when put in conjunction with a noun, require that the

noun, (which is always put before it) be in the singular number ; as,

mi chu, ten men. Lo khya, a hundred years.

Or PRONOUNS.

The Bhotias, like the Chinese, have a variety of terms to express the

PeRsONAL PRONOUNS.

There are no less than six to represent the first person. These are :

Nea, and Dag, im common use.

Khopé, masculine.

Kho-mo, feminine.

Nged, the honorific.

and Rang, used emphatically.

The terms used to denote the second person, are Khyod, which is

commonly used, and Khyed, expressive of civility.

The pronouns of the third person, are Khé, most commonly used for

both the masculine and feminine.

Kho-pa, ; masculine.

Kho-ma, feminine.

Khong, used respectfully.

Khong-pa, Ditto. masculine.

Khong-ma, _— Ditto. feminine.

They are all declined according to the scheme given above for the

declension of nouns.

1849. | valley of Asam and its mountain confines. 199

The personal pronouns in the genitive case, are used as PossEssivE

PRONOUNS.

The DemMonsTRATIVE Pronouns are, Di, the proximate, and De,

the remote.

The IntERROGATIVES are, Su, Who? Ga, which? and Chi what ?

Or VERBS.

A word, in Bhotia, expresses an idea, without reference originally to

any part of speech ; its grammatical structure being determined wholly

by the connection in which it stands. With reference to the Verbs, it

may also be remarked, that itis in general, the connection in which

they stand which determines them as being active or passive, neuter or

causal. There are, however, certain words, which are constautly used

as auxiliaries, and which therefore assist in forming the various parts

of the verb with which they are conjomed.

Verbs admit of no terminations expressive of persons or number, these

points being generally denoted by the context.

Not unfrequently, what in English is termed the SuBsTANTIVE VERB,

is expressed in Bhotia by the reduplication of the final letter of a word,

with the addition of the vowel 0. EHwamples: Sum, three ; Sum-md,

there are three.

Shing, wood ; Shing-g6, 2f is wood.

Nag, black ; Nag-gd, it is black.

Mad, true; Mad-do, zt is true.

Verbs which denote an action affecting others, may from their signi-

fication be termed Active Verss. And those that simply denote an

action, without requiring an object, may be termed Neuter.

The Passtve voice is formed by constructing the verb with another

denoting to do, or to make. The phrase, “ thou art beaten by me,”

would be thus expressed, Ngas khyod dung-par chyed-do, literally,

*“thou by me a beating done.”

Causa Verss are formed by the addition of the verb Jug-par (to

put, to cause, to make). Thus; Bri, write ; Bri-jug-par, cause to write.

Bhotia verbs have nothing in them analogous to conjugation, as ex-

emplified in Greek and Sanscrit verbs. Yet as the various modes of

expressing the same action, and distinctions of time, are essential to

language in general, we shall endeavor to show how they are denoted in

this language.

200 Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the [Marcu,

The Indicative Mood requires no explanation. As it merely indicates

or declares a thing, it is necessarily the verb in its simplest state.

The Present Indefinite. Gr6, or Gro-wa, sometimes pronounced Do,

or Dowa, I go, thou goest, &c.

Jyed, or Jyed-wa, I do, thou doest, &e.

The particle wa, here used, is properly speaking an emphatic particle.

The Present Definite, is expressed by the reduplication of the final

letter, as already noted.

Nga do-6 Iam going. Kho do-6, he is going.

Nga jyed-dd, I am doing. Khyod jyed-dd, thou art doing.

The Imperfect is formed by the addition of the verb Dug-pa, signi-

fying to sit, to exist.

Nga dé-dug-pa, I was doing.

Khé jyed-dug-pa, He was doing.

The Perfect tense is formed by the addition of the word Sdng, sig-

nifying a departing or passing away. D6-sdng, went.—Nga jye-song,

L did or have done.

With reference to the first example, it may be remarked that Séng,

by itself, is more frequently used instead of the form above given, as

the perfect tense of the verb ¢o go; dd-séng, being now obsolete, but

commonly used as a verbal noun, signifying gait, or the manner of

going.

The Pluperfect tense is expressed in the following different forms.

Nga song-wa-yin, or, Nga song-dug-pa, I had gone.

The auxiliary Yin, has the same signification as Dug, to be, to exist.

Nga jye-dug-pa, or, Nga jye-pa-yin-pa, I had done.

The Future tense. Nga dd-par-jyeur, I shall go.

Nga jye-par-jyeur, I shall do.

Here, dé-par, and jye-par, are the gerunds, signifymg ¢o go, and fo

do ; and the auxiliary jyeur, signifies, a@ growing, a becoming.

PARTICIPLES.

Present. D0, or Dopa, going. Jye, or Jye-pa, doing.

Past. Sdng-pa, gone. Jye-dug-pa, done,

GERUND.

D6-par, to go, for the purpose of going.

Jye-par, to do, for the purpose of doing.

1849. | valley of Asam and its mountain confines. 201

The Imperative Mood. As in English, the only instance in which

this mood really exists isin the second person. In commanding and

entreating it is obvious, that we address only the second person, the

first, and the third persons of the verb in this mood, being formed by

an address to the second ; hence the simple verb is used in the second

person, and another verb signifying Jet, permit, &c. is introduced in

the first and third persons. This double mode of forming the impera-

tive is found in the Bhotia also. Hxam. Do, go, Jye, do. Ngah, laugh,

&e.

In the first and third persons, the verb Zi, fo permit, is introduced ;

thus, D6-zi, let me, or let him go. Jye-zi, let me, or let him do. Ngih-

ai, let him laugh.

The Potential Mood, which both in English and Latin, includes a

great variety of ideas, may in Bhotia be expressed by words signifying

power or capacity, duty or obligation, doubt or uncertainty.

In the structure of sentences, nouns in general precede their attri-

butes, and the verbs stand at the end of the sentence, having their

qualifying adverbs placed immediately before them.

A few of the Bhotia particles, in common use, are here subjoined.

ADVERBS.

Nam. When? Dang. Yesterday.

Gang-tshe and Gang-du. dt what time. Sing. To-morrow.

Di-du. At this time. Nang-mo-la. In the morning.

De-tshe. At that time. Nu-mo-la. In the evening.

Nam-yang. Never. Rim-gyi. Gradually.

Deng, or Ding, or Deng-tshe. Now. Ring-par. Speedily.

Da-Dala. This instant. Gu-le. Slowly.

De-rmg. To-day. Kha-rog-de. Silently.

CONJUNCTIONS.

Dang. And.

Chyang, Yang. Also, although, notwithstanding.

Yang-na. Or, else.

Uente. Jf.

Interrogative signs, expressive of doubt, may be formed of any word,

by reduplicating its final letter and adding m to it; as in, Ngd4m Kho,

whether I or he.

The Prerosrtions of occidental languages, are rendered in Bhotia

2D 2

202 Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the {[Marcu,

by post-positive particles. They generally follow the noun in the geni-

tive case.

Negi chir-du, for me.

Khang-pi nang-du, into the house.

Sai hogtu, under the earth.

Ri-i gyib-na, behind the hill.

SENTENCES.

The following sentences are given as specimens of composition, with

the hope that they will afford some insight into the grammatical struc-

ture of the language, while they exemplify the rules and explanations

above given.

Khyod thém 14 séng. | Go to the market.

Yangchar nget tshoi chhir de khyer shdg.

Bring me some rice.

Nga togpa chhe war yodh. J am very hungry.

Dhetai ngochita yodh? What is the price of that ?

Chita zhi khyod léng wi yin? How much do you want ?

Dém khiachhe. Open the trunk.

Negye tagzpa khye 14 jy chi yodh. J will see what you have.

Chi labchha yodh? What do you say ?

Chi nye ki charu tsho. Come along with me.

Chui pharol dhido. Go across the river.

Dewar nga la mathébh. TI have not got it yet.

Nam Khyodh leb yong tshe, dene nga dowei dang. When you come

back then I shall go.

Zhare zhare tshog. Come daily. Nga kyede ma thong. I have

not seen him.

Chichir khyod ngye tsar yong? Why have you come to me?

Nga jhitsim khydd thoi nyémdu ne? How long shall I stay with

you ?

Zhég sim ngye dang nyam zu shu. Remain three days with me.

Tur CHANGLO.

The dialect of the Bhotia, distinguished by the above name, is ge-

nerally spoken along that portion of the northern frontier of the valley,

extending from the Binjee Duwar to the confines of the Kuridpara

Duwar, or from about the 91° to the 92° of East Longitude. How far

north its colloquial use may be extended we have not the means of

1849. | valley of Asam and its mountain confines. 203

accurately ascertaining ; nor are we capable of forming a correct esti-

mate of the probable number of the people by whom it is used.

The inhabitants of this tract of country, occupying as they do the

lesser elevations of the Cis-Himalayan range, are generally speaking,

agricultural. Their physical appearance exhibits a few shades of dis-

tinction noticeable between them and the tribes of the Sub-Himalayas.

They are smaller, less muscular, and the hue of their skin possesses a

deeper isabelline tint, from which latter circumstance probably they

derive their appellation, the term Changlo, signifying black.

The alphabetic symbols used by the Changlos are identically the

same as those used by the Bhotias. There is also a very close simila-

rity in the idiom and genius of the two languages.

Or Nouns.

Nouns have two numbers. There is no distinct termination expres-

sive of the Plural: this number is generally formed by the addition of

the adjectives nam, and thamche, signifying all, to which the signs of

the cases are added in declension as in the singular number.

Cases are formed by the following particles used as affixes.

Nominative. t

Accusative.

Genitive, i, or yl, or ga.

Dative, ga.

Ablative, gal.

Instrumental, oyl.

Locative, nang.

According to the above scheme, the noun Phiai, a house, may be

thus declined :—

Singular. Plural.

Nom. Phai, a house. Nom. Phai thamche, houses.

Gen. Phiaiyi, of a house. Gen, Phai thamche yi, of houses.

Dat. Phaiga, to a house. Dat. Phai thamche g4, to houses.

Abl. Phai-gai, from a house. Abl. Phai thamche gai, from houses.

Ace. Phiai, house. Ace. Phai thamche, houses.

Instr. Phai-gyi, with or by a Instr. Phéai thamche gzi, with or

house. | by houses.

Loc. Phai nang, in a house. Loc. Phai thamche nang, in houses.

The genitive sign is almost wholly excluded in common conversation.

404 Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the {Marcnu,

This case is expressed merely by the juxta-position of the two substan-

tives; the former, according to general usage in most Indian languages,

bemg undestood to form the genitive case; as in Songo phai, a man’s

house. Kurta bi, the horse’s leg.

To mark the distinction of Gender the terms pho and mé are gener-

ally affixed to the substantives. Thus:

Sayung, a deer. Mase. Sayungphd, Fem. Sayungmé.

Ling-che, an elephant, Mase. Lang-che-phé, Fem. Lang-che-mé.

Kurta, a horse, Mase. Kurta-pho, Fem. Kurta-mo.

To distinguish the male and female of certain animals, the terms

lagdé or théngphd, male, and damo, female, are sometimes used ; as in

Khu, @ dog, Mase. Khi-ligod, Fem. Khu-dimd. Rabid, a goat, Masc.

Raba-théng-phé, Fem. Raba-damo.

When it is necessary to mark the distinction of gender emphatically,

the adjectives Nyi-an-phé and Nyi-dnp-mo are usually placed after the

generic noun.

Or ADJECTIVES.

The principle of placing the adjunct after the object to which it is

attached causes the adjective generally to follow the substantive ; as

in Khé-mong ba-lungbo, white cloth. Aba chang-ld, a black crow.

Words originally expressing ideas in their nature substantives, are

often used to express the quality they originally denote as existing in

another substantive by the addition of the genitive sign. Shing, wood :

Shing-ga langle, a wooden plough.

The general mode of forming comparison is that of describing a per-

son or thing as possessing some quality more than or beyond others.

This method requires that the substantive with which the comparison

is made be put in the ablative case. Lxvamples :—

Ri-gai changpd, colder than water.

Mi-gai sdpd, hotter than fire.

Jang-gai iyet po, greater than I.

Changing the noun for the word Thamche, al/, we have the form of

the superlative degree.

Thamche-gai iyetpdo, greater than all.

Another mode of forming this degree of comparison is by such ex-

pressions as great of the great, the first word being put in the form of

the genitive case. Ex: Lyet-po-ga iyetpo.

Ring-bu-ga ringbu, long of the long, or the longest.

1849.]

valley of Asam and its mountain confines.

NUMERALS.

The system on which the Changlo numerals is founded will be best

exemplified by the following list :—

. Nyik-ching.

. sam.

SONA TR ww

Loc.

Thur.

Phi.

Nga.

Khung.

Zum.

Yen.

Gu.

. Se, which in composition

becomes Song.

. Song-thur.

. Song-nyik-ching.

. Song-sam, &c.

. Khai-thur (one-score.)

. Khai-thur dang-thur, one-

score and one.

. Khai-thur dang nyik-ching.

. Khai-thur dang sdm, &e.

. Khai-thur dang se.

dl.

40.

41.

50.

ol.

60.

80.

100.

200.

300.

400.

500.

600.

700.

800.

900.

1000.

Khai-thur dang song-thur,

&e.

Khainyik-ching, (¢wo-score.)

Khai nyik-ching dang thur,

&e.

Khai nyik-ching dang se.

Khai nyik-ching dang song

thur, &e.

Khai sim (¢hree-score.)

Khai phi, (four-score.)

Khenga.

Khiai-se (ten-score.)

Khai-songa.

Nisu-thur.

Nisthur dang khenga.

Nisthur dang khaise.

Nisthur dang khai song.

Nisi nik ting.

Nisi nik ting dang khenga.

Nisi nik ting dang khaise.

Or PRONOUNS.

The Persona Pronovuns are Jang, J. Nan, Thou, and Dan, He.

In declension they admit of the same terminations as the nouns.

Singular.

. Jang, I.

Jangga, mine.

Jangea, to me.

Jang gai, from me.

Jang or Jaénge, me.

Jang gyi, with or by me.

Jang nang, in me.

Instr.

Loc.

Plural.

. Jang thamche, We.

Jang thamche g4, ours.

Jang thamche ga, to us.

Jang thamche gai, from us.

Jang thamche, us.

Jang thamche gyi, with or by

Us. |

Jang thamche nang, iz us.

The plurals of the second and third persons are Nan thimche, and

Dan thamche.

206 Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the [Marcu,

The DEMONSTRATIVE Pronouns are Tha, this; Nya, that ; and

Lela, used to denote an object more remote.

The INrrEroGATIVE Pronowuns, are Ebuya, who ? Obachd, which ?

and Hang, what ?

Or VERBs.

Changlo verbs admit of no inflections indicative of person or number.

The following paradigm will serve to show the forms a verb assumes iu

its different tenses :—

De, the root of the verb to go.

InpicatTive Moop.

Present Indefinite. Jang Dele, Igo. Nan dele, thou goest, &e.

Present Definite, Jang Dencha, I am going

Imperfect, Jang Denchoba, I was going.

Perfect, Jang Deba, I went.

Future, Jang Dedong I will go.

ImperaATIvE Moop.

This mood exists only in the second person, and the simple verb is

used to express it, as Nan De, go thou.

The Potentrat Moop is formed by the addition of the word robe,

or any other term significant of power, ability, &c. Jang Dele rd-be,

F can go.

PARTICIPLES.

Dele, going.

Dewe, having gone.

GERUNDS.

Dewa, fo go.

Dene-nadu, or Delenang ka, for the purpose of going.

Interrogation is expressed by the addition of the interrogative parti-

clemo. Thus: Nan Dele md? Do you go?

The negative particle ma is usually placed before the verb when

negation is implied. Thus: Ma dela, Igo not. It is also used in the

prohibitive form, Ma de, Do not go.

Some of the Adverbs in common use are—

Oma, now. Chapten, slowly.

Singye, afterwards. Iti? when ?

Dojo, quickly. Khinang, to-day.

1849. | valley of Asam and its mountain confines. 207

Namnying, to-morrow. Betpe, in the morning.

Ining, yesterday. Nyenri, in the evening.

SENTENCES.

Thongsa de, Go to the market.

Jang brangkho khu phai, Bring me some rice.

Janga bindng khuncha, I am very hungry.

Khu géng hang ya? What is the price of rice? “

Nan-shi hamtur chaspe ya? How much do you want ?

Dom phiekcho, Open the trunk.

Naha hang chakaba janggye gddong, I will see what you have.

Na shiye hang dak cha ya? What are you saying ?

Janged Kabni 6d6, Come along with me.

Ri lenggo lokko de, Go across the river.

Jang dmabu ma nyong ba, I have not got it yet.

Nan omcha unye jang bo dedong, When you come again I shall go.

Ngaémre ngdmre 6d6, Come every day (daily.)

Jang danye mathong cha, I have not seen him.

Nanja repté hangé uphai ya? Why have you come to me ?

Jang ne kapni hamtur chole ya? How long shall I remain with you ?

Jang kapni binang sam chye, Continue with me three days.

Nan omcha kornye opha jinggye loyikpe, When you return I shall

converse with you.

Tue Ga’Ro.

The Garos occupy that triangular extent of mountainous country

between the left bank of the Brahmaputra and the Khassia Hills.

From its apex to its base, this triangle lies between the 25° and the 26°

of N. latitude, and the base itself extends from the 90° to the 91° of

E. longitude.

The Garos have no traditionary legends whatever that may serve to

enlighten us on the subject of their origin. Their remote situation,

and their physical appearance, together with their modes and customs,

so diverse from those of the Bhotias, would at first militate against the

supposition that they were in any way connected with the Cis-Himalay-

an tribes. This connection however is now made apparent from the

strong affinity existing between the language of the Garos and the

several dialects spoken by those tribes. Though these present several

modifications, they may nevertheless be traced to the same radi-

2£E

208 Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the [Marcn,

cals, so as to prove that an essential affinity existed in their primitive

structure, thus affording historical evidence of such a nature as it is

impossible for either accident or design to have falsified.

The Garos make use of no written characters ; and if they at any

prior period had adopted the alphabetic symbols of the Bhotias, it is

highly probable that their subsequent removal from all contact with

them, together with all the hardships to which an emigrating tribe

must naturally be subjected, have obliterated all traces of it.

Or Novwuns.

Garo nouns have two numbers. The Plural is formed by the addi-

tion of the word rang, signifying all. To this form, in declension, the

signs of the cases are affixed as in the singular number.

The following are the affixes used in the formation of Cases :—

Nominative,—

Genitive, ni. Accusative, kho.

Dative, na. Instrumental, chi.

Ablative, nikho. Locative, 6.

According to the above scheme, the noun Nok, a house, may be thus

declined :—

Singular. Plural.

Nom. Nok, a house. Nom. No6k-rang, houses.

Gen. Nokni, ofa house. Gen. Nok-rangni, of houses.

Dat. Nokna, fo a house. Dat. Nodk-rangna, to houses.

Abl. Noknikhd, from a house. Abl. Nok-rang-nikhd, from houses.

Ace. Nokkhd, house. Ace. Nok-réng-khé, houses.

Instr. N6ék-chi, with or by a Instr. Nok-rang-chi, with or by

house. houses.

Loc. Nok6, in a house. Loc. Nok-rango, in houses.

Gender. In this language, as in most others, the names of the most

common male and female objects in nature, are applied absolutely and

without any relation to one another.

Examples.

Masculine. Feminine.

Mande, a man. Mechik, a woman.

Ada, elder brother. Abi, elder sister.

Nond, younger brother. Ano, younger sister.

Apha, father. Ama, mother.

1849. | valley of Asam and its mountain confines. 209

The adjectives Bipha and Bima, male and female, are commonly

added to the nouns that stand for animals. Thus: Achak, a dog.

Mase.: Achak biphé. Fem.: Achak bima. Machak, a deer. Mase. :

Machak biphé. Fem.: Machak bima. Denbd, a cat. Masc.: Denbd

bipha. Fem. : Denbo bima.

Or ADJECTIVES.

Adjectives always follow the nouns they serve to qualify. As Bithe

manna, a ripe fruit, Mande nama, a good man.

When a substantive is used adjectively to express a quality as existing

in another noun, it is put in the genitive case. Thus: Mandeni jak,

the human hand, or literally the hand of man. Ambal, wood, Ambalni

kethali, a wooden knife.

Adjectives do not admit of comparison by any regular inflections ;

the comparative degree is expressed by the dative case of the noun, and

the addition of a word signifying than, beyond, §c. Thus, Rowa, long.

Ina bate réwa, longer than this. Dela, great. Angna bate dela, greater

than I. In the superlative degree the comparison is made with the

word Rang or Darang, al/, and the word bate, than, is placed after the

adjective. Thus, Darang-na del bate, greater than all, (greatest,)

Darang-na (rowa-bate) robate, longer than all, (longest.)

When an adjective is used in composition with a noun the signs of

the cases are usually affixed to the adjective. Thus:

Nom. Mande namja, a bad man.

Gen. Mande namja-ni, of a bad man.

Dat. Mande namja-na, to a bad man, Se.

NUMERALS,

The numeral system of the Garos is emphatically decimal, and ex-

tends only so far as to admit of the enumeration of the fingers and toes.

osha. 11. Chi-sha.

2. Gini. 12. Chi-gini.

3. Githam. 13. Chi-githam.

4. Bri. 14, Chi-bri.

5. Bonga. 15. Chi-bonga.

6. Dok. 16. Chi-dok.

Ao) onl. 17. Chi-sni.

8. Chet. 18. Chi-chet.

9. Shku. 19. Chi-shki.

10, Skang. 20. Chi-skang.

210 Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the {Marcu,

A peculiarity in the use of the above numerals is here worthy of

notice.

When applied to men, the particle Shak, is always prefixed ; thus :

Mande shak skang, fen men. Angnd nénod shdk-bri donga, I have five

brothers. And when the individuals of a group or company are reck-

oned up the computation proceeds thus: Shak-shé, Shak-gini, Shak-

githam, or Shak-tham, Shak-bri, &c.

When the numerals are applied to individuals of the brute creation,

they are preceded by the particle Mang; thus: Machu mang-dok, six

cows. D066 mang-githam chkangaha, we carried off three fowls.

When enumerating inanimate objects the particle Ge is always pre-

fixed to the numerals, thus: Am ge-gini, two mats. Meng-go-ni jaa

ge-bri, a cat has four legs.

Or Pronouns.

The Personat Pronouns are Angi, IT; Na-d, Thou ; and U4, he ;

with their plurals Chinga, we ; Nasimong, you ; and U’é-madang, they.

No distiction is made on account of gender. They are declined like

nouns.

Ist Person.

Singular. Plural.

Nom. Anga, J. Nom. Ching, we.

Gen. Angni, mine. Gen. Chingni, ours.

Dat. Angné, fo me. Dat. Ching-né, fo us.

Abl. Angnikho, from me. Abl. Ching-nikho, from us.

Acc. Ang-kho, me. Acc. Ching-kho, ws.

Instr. Ang-chi, by me. Instr. Ching-chi, by us.

Loc. Ang-o, in me. Loc. Ching-o, in us.

2nd Person.

Singular. Plural.

Nom. Naa, thou. Nasimong, you.

Gen. Nangni, thine. Nangsimongni your's.

Dat. Nang-na, to thee. Nasimongna, to you.

Abl. Nang-nikho, from thee. Nasimongnikho, from you.

Acc. Nang-kho, thee. Nasimongkho, you.

Instr. Nang-chi, by thee. Nasimongchi, by you.

Loc. Nang-o, in thee. Nasimongo, in you.

1849. ] valley of Asam and its mountain confines. 211

3rd Person.

Singular. Plural.

Nom. Ua, he. Uamadang, they.

Gen. Uani, his. Uamadangni, thers.

Dat. Uana, or Una, to him. Uadmiadingna, to them.

Abl. Nanikho, from him. Uamadangkho, from them.

Acc. Ua-kho, him. Uamiadang-kho, them.

Instr. Ua-chi, by him. Uamadang-chi, by them.

Loc. Ua6 or Udno, in him. Uamidaingo, in them.

The DEMONSTRATIVE PRonovwns are, 14, this, and O/4, that ; with

their plurals Térang, these, and O’arang, those.

The INTERROGATIVE PRoNowNS are Sha, who ? Badid, which ? and

Mai, what ?

These are all declined like the Personal Pronouns.

Or VERBS.

The Substantive verb, fo de, is, in Garo, usually expressed by the

reduplication of the final letter of a word. Thus: from nama, good,

we have Naméaa, z¢ ts good. Nok, a house, Nokka, 7¢ is a house. The

verb Dong, fo be, to exist, is often used with the same signification.

Thus: Wal donga, z¢ zs fire.

The verb To Go, may be thus conjugated :—

Inpicative Moop.

Present Indefinite. ITang-na, I go, thou goest, he goes, Sc. {This

is also the form of the Gerund, signifying to

go, or for the purpose of going. |

Present Definte. lang-enga, I am going, Se.

Imperfect. Iang-enga-chim, I was going, Se.

Perfect. lang-44 or Jang-4, I went, Se.

Perfect Definite. Tdnga-chim, I have gone, Sc.

Future proximate, Inesa, I will go, &c.

Future remote, Jangkhing, I will go, &. [This form also

denotes termination. |

PARTICIPLES.

Present, Tange, going.

Continuative, Téngo iango, going or continuing fo go.

Past, lang imong, having gone.

212 Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the [Marcu,

IMPERATIVE Moon.

The only instance in which this mood really exists is in the 2nd per-

son, lang-bé, go thou.

The Potential mood includes a variety of ideas which may be ex-

pressed by words signifying ability, duty, &c.

Tangna manna or Tangna man khen na, may or can go.

Tangna mankhe chim, might have gone.

Supsunctive Moon.

Tangode, If I go.

The verb in the Passive Voice is conjugated in the same manner as

the preceding, with the addition of the word man, introduced between

the verb and its inflection.

INDICATIVE.

Present Indefinte, Tang-man-na, I am gone.

Present Definite, Tang-man-enga, being gone.

Imperfect, Tang-man-engachim, was being gone.

Perfect, Tang-man-aa, was gone.

Perfect Definite, Ténga-man-chim, have been gone.

Future proximate, I-man esa, will be gone.

Future remote. Tang-man-kheng, will be gone.

And so on through the other moods and tenses.

Negation is implied by the use of the word ja, after the verb in its

various tenses.

Anga idng, I do not go.

Ua thole agan-ja, he tells no lies. |

The same word is added. to adjectives to express a negative quality.

Thus: Nama, good ; Namja, bad.

The prohibitory form is expressed by prefixing the particle da, to the

verb with which it is used. Thus:. Da lang, go not.

Khimi-nani dé shal, do not pull her tail.

The interrogative particle ma is usually placed after the verb or at

the end of a sentence in which a question is asked. Naa una khenna

ma? Are you afraid of him? Na daéalo nokna mesi ma? Will you

go home to day ?

The general mode of arranging words into sentences is the same as

that which prevails in the Bhotia ; nouns precede their attributes and

1849.] valley of Asam and its mountain confines. 213

the verb stands at the end of the sentence, having its qualifying adverb

placed immediately before it. This’ mode, however, is not always

attended to in the Garo and its cognate dialects, in which we often

find sentences follow no other order in their construction than what the

taste or fancy of the composer may suggest: sometimes making the

object, sometimes the action, and sometimes the modification of the

action to precede or follow the other parts. The confusion which this

might be supposed to occasion is avoided by the manner of inflecting

their words, by which they are made to refer to the others with which

they ought to be connected, in whatever part of the sentence they occur,

the mind being left at liberty to connect the several parts with one

another after the whole sentence is concluded.

ADVERBS.

Bashko, when ?

Bashikchang, how many times ?

Bachi, where ?

lano, here.

Uano, there.

Aphalo or Aphalchi, outside.

Ning-chi, inside.

Daong, now.

Bashko-bashkoba, sometimes.

Shalantini, or Shaldrang, always.

Pak-pak, quickly.

Kasn-kasn, slowly.

Walo-salo, day and night.

Pring, in the morning.

Athamo, in the evening.

Maina, why.

Nama, well.

Indin, so.

Thala, truly.

Bashik, how many ?

Bashishak, ditéo, applied to men.

Bashikmang, ditto, applied to inferior animals.

Post-positive particles, in this language supply the place of the pre-

positions in occidental tongues. They generally follow the noun in

the Genitive case, though the sign of the genitive is often omitted.

Makha, with, Angni makha rebé, Come with me.

Nung, in, UA nok nung donga, He is in the house.

Koshak, upon, Adung changrowa koshak, upon the high hill.

Sipang, near, Wal sipang da idng, Go not near the fire.

214 Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the [Marcu,

Skaéng, before, Angni skang-skang iangb0o, Go before me.

Jamang, after, Udni jamang jamang ibibo, Come after him.

SENTENCES.

Baona inesi? Where (are you going, or) will you go?

Makha wakheng, J¢ well rain.

Ang makha rebo, Come with me.

Mande-bisa-rang r6a, The boys play.

Maché mande chka, The tiger kills men.

Naa una khen jama? Are you not afraid of him?

Menggé méshe chka, The cat kills mice.

Ualoé nikha, She sees in the dark.

Jikskhil matta, Her claws are sharp.

Khimi dashal, do not pull her tail.

Khimi shalode, khuakheng, If you pull her tail, she will scratch you.

Nathok naémmakho nibo, Look at this fine fish.

Anga ua nathokho balsisi manna, I caught this fish with a hook.

Chi dongjade, shi kheng, [fit have not water, it will die.

Khimi doksha tenga, I¢ shakes its tail.

Ua shi khu ja, It ts not dead.

Mande chio thangja, Men do not live in the water.

Matte mangsha shaan, There is but one God.

Ua thanga mamung 6ba shija, He lives for ever.

Aa shilgi dakka, He made the earth and the heavens.

Ang kho, nang kho, darang kho gamma, He made me and you and

all things.

Bol githing, achu dalla, chi bima, shal, ja, doshak dupil jashkhi,

iarangkhoba matte dakka, The green tree, the high mountain, the

great water, the sun, the moon, the twinkling stars, God made all

these.

‘Mande saksani degapa sakni. Dephante songdépa uni phagapa kho

One man (had) two sons. The younger son to his father

dg4na. E Apha! déngna gam mattam énbo. Unphagapa

said, O Father! tome a share of the wealth give. Mis father

gamkho __ shuale onnaa. Uni ja mand dephante

the wealth dividing gave (it to him.) A few days after the

1849. ] valley of Asam and its mountain confines. 215

songdp4 athang gamkho = aimang sangche lachi 14nga ;

younger son his own wealth taking toa far country went ;

wo sangd 6=—s-s thang nam jaimang Aathang gamkhd gomiéita.

in that country he in doing wickedly his wealth spent.

Nkhemo uni gam gamma tho kete ua sangd akal ongaa,

Afterwards his wealth having spent in that country a dearth was,

ua ban bara dukh ongaa. Unkhoa unisangoni mande shaksa

his great distress was. Then of that country one man

chanadonga ungkhemang uni nok shephangona _ianga. Ua mande

being rich there to his house he went. That man

udkho wak nerikna ann4é, wakna chana 6néko ud

him pigs to keep gave, to the pigs the food (that was) given he

chané dakké, und darangba chana dnji. Nkhemung thang

wished to eat, tohimnoone gavetoeat. After shut his own

gishkho = raéimang Agana, hai! hai! dang phagop4ni nokd

mind being distressed he said, alas! in my father’s house

sakar ménde méannédongé, undde angaba china mankhechim.

servants are many, there LI also to eat might have.

Angé ioni iéngkheng phani nokona.

IT hence willgo tomy father’s house.

Tue KAcHARI.

The Kacharis, or (as they term themselves) Borrds, are a numerous

race, found in almost all parts of the valley of Asam, but principally

along its northern and southern boundaries. Chatgari, a frontier dis-

trict, situated between Desh Durrung and the Bhotan hills, seems to be

their principal local; and here their numbers are said to amount to

about 30,000, which is about half the Kachari population in the valley.

Destitute of any written characters, they have no historical records of

any kind from which to deduce proofs of their origin ; and their tradi-

tionary legends throw but a faint light on the subject. An examination

into their language however furnishes abundant proof of their intimate

connection with the tribes of the Cis-Himalayas. A large proportion

of their vocables are identical with those of the Géros, and almost all

the rest may be traced to some dialect of the Thibetan, while the idiom

216 Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the [Marczn,

of the language and the peculiarities of its grammar show abundant

traces of descent from a common origin.

Closely connected with the Kacharis, among the inhabitants of tlie

plains, are the Hojai Kacharis, the Kochis, (including the Modai Ko-

chis, the Phulguriyas, and Hermias,) the Mechis, the Dhimals, and the

Rabhas.

It is not our purpose at present to say anything of these dialects,

between which and the Kachari the differences are rather nominal than

real, but our remarks will have reference only to the peculiarities of the

Kachari language.

Or Nouns.

Nouns have two numbers. The plural is generally formed by the ad-

dition of the word phir, to which, in declension, the signs of the cases

are added as in the singular number.

Cases are formed by the use of the following post-positive particles,

which except in the Dative case are added tonouns in the genitive form.

Nominative, z

Genitive, ni.

Dative, no, ha.

Ablative, phrai.

Accusative, kho.

Instrumental, jang.

Locative, 40-ha.

In accordance with the above scheme, the noun Manse, a man, may

be thus declined :

Singular.

Nom. Manse, a man.

Gen. Manseni, of a man.

Dat. Manseno, to a man.

Abl. Manseni phrai, from a man.

Ace. Manse khé, or Manseni khé, man.

Instr. Mansenijang, dy a man.

Loc. Manseni 40, or Manseniha, 72 a man.

Plural.

Nom. Manse-phur, men.

Gen. Manse-phurni, of men.

Dat. Manse-phur nd, to men.

Abl. Manse-phur ni phrai, from men.

Ge. Manse-phur kho, men.

Instr. Manse-phur ni jang, by men.

Loc. Manse-phurni 46, 2m man.

1849.] valley of Asam and its mountain confines. 217

Gender. The most common nouns have distinct terms to denote the

distinction of sex. Thus:

Masculine. Feminine.

Manse, man. Hinja0, woman.

Bisai, husband. | Bihi, wife.

Apha, father. Ai, mother.

Bipha, father. Bima, mother.

Ada, elder brother. Bai, elder sister.

Phong bai, younger brother. Binanao, younger sister.

Manse gothd, man-child (boy.) Hinjad gotho, woman-child (girl.)

The words, Jeu, and Jelé, which are equivalent to the terms male

and female, are commonly added to the nouns that stand for animals,

There are exceptions however to this rule, the terms Bonda and Bondi,

Phanta and Phanti, Phera and Pheri, are in certain cases substituted for

the usual sexual postfixes.

Masculine. Feminine.

A Dog, Cheimé-jela. Cheima-jeu.

A Tiger, Mosa-jela. Mosa-jeu.

A Cat, Mauji-bonda. Mauji-bondi.

A Deer, Khutiamoi-phanta. Khutiamoi-phanti.

A Goat, Barma-phanta. Burma-phanti.

A Buffalo, Moichi-phera. Moichii-pheri.

Or ADJECTIVES.

In Kachari, the qualifying adjuncts are placed as often before as after

the substantives; thus: Manse gahim, a good man. Hamma gothd,

a naughty boy. Winjdosa laji ganang, a modest maid. NHangsi guphut,

a white goose.

Adjectives expressing an abstract quality are formed by the addition

of the word Ganang, having, possessing. Thus: Khnai, hair ; Khnéi

ganang, hairy.

Rang, colour ; Rang ganang, coloured.

Hagra, a forest ; Hagra ganang, woody.

Negative adjectives are formed by the addition of Gey4, empty. Thus:

Rang, colour ; Rang-geya, colourless.

Bide, juzce ; Bide-geya, juiceless.

Thaka, wealth, money ; Thaka-gey4, poor, penniless.

Hi, cloth ; Hi-geyé, naked,

2¥F 2

218 Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the [Marcu,

Comparison.—Adjectives admit of no inflections expressive of the

degrees of comparison. A person or thing is therefore described as

possessing some quality beyond another, or more than all; and for this

purpose the word Chin, than, is added to the adjective, and the substan-

tive with which the comparison is made is put in the genitive case.

Instead of the sign of the genitive. case, the euphonic particle Bd is some-

times used. Thus, Gedet, great. Bini gedet chin, or Binbé gedet chin,

greater than this. ;

Boind, all. Béini gedet chin, or Béindbé gedet chin, greater than all.

Gr, hard. Bini gra chin, harder than this. Sarni gra chin, harder

than iron. Boini, or Boindbo gra chin, hardest of all.

NUMERALS. ,

The following is the cardinal series of numbers extending only to 10.

When it is necessary to reckon beyond this number, the Kacharis adopt

the numeral system of the Bengalis.

1. Che. Gar Who:

2. Nai, or Gui. 7. ni,

3. Tham. 8.2 date

4. Bre. 9. Chku.

5. Ba. 1 Oude

When applied to human beings, the particle Sa, is prefied to the nu-

merals, when applied to other animals, Ma; to inanimate objects, Thai ;

to trees, &c. Phang: to articles enumerated by pieces, Gang. With

the addition of these prefixes, the numeral may either precede or follow

the noun. Ex. Manse sanai, two men. Burma mabre, four goats

Phitéi thaird, siz fruits, &e.

Or Pronouns.

The Personal pronouns are Ang, I; Nang, thou; and Bi, he; with

their plurals Jang, or Jang-phur, we; Nangsur, ye; and Bisur, they.

No distinction is made on account of gender. They are declined like

the nouns.

Ist Person.

Singular. Plural.

Nom. Ang, I. Nom. Jang, or Jangphur, we.

Gen. Angni, mine. Gen. Jangni, ours.

Dat. Angno, or Angnihé, to me. Dat. Jangnéd, to us.

Abl. Angniphrai, from me. Abl. — Jangniphrai, from us.

Acc. Angkho, me. ' Ace. Jangkhd, us.

1849.] valley of Asam and its mountain confines. 219

Inst. Ang jang, dy me. Inst. Jang jang, by us.

Loc. Angnidd, in me. Loc. Jangnidd, in us.

2nd. Person.

Singular. Plural.

Nom. Nang, thou. Nom. Nangsur, ye.

Gen. Nangni, thine. Gen. Nangsurni, yours.

Dat. Nangno, éo thee. Dat. Nangsurnd, fo you.

Abl. Nangniphrai, from thee. Abl. Nangsurniphrai, from you.

Ace. Nang kho, thee. Ace. Nangsur kho, you.

Inst. Nang jang, by thee. Inst. Nangsurnijang, by you.

Loc. Nangniad, in thee. Loc. Nangsur niad, in you.

3rd Person.

Singular. — Plural.

Nom. Bi, he, she, it. Nom. Bisur, they.

Gen. Bini, his. Gen. Bisurni, theirs.

Dat. Bind, to him. Dat. Bisurno, to them.

Abl. = Biniphrai, from him. Abl. — Bisurniphrai, from them.

Acc. Bikhd, or Binikhd, him. Acc. Bisurkhé, or Bisurnikhd,

them.

Inst. Binyang, dy him. Inst. Bisurnijang, by them.

Loc. Binido, in him. Loc. Bisurnidd, zx them.

The DemonstTRATIVE Pronovuns are Beye, this; and Boyu, that;

with these plurals, Beyphur, these ; and Boyphur, those.

The InNTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS, are Shur, who? Bobe, which ?

and Ma, what ?

They are all declined like the personal pronouns.

Or VERBS.

The Substantive verb, To de, appears to be wholly wanting in Ké-

chari; its place is often supplied by the verb Dang, ewist. Thus: Diu

dang, if 7s water.

All verbs may be conjugated after the form of the following para-

digm.

InpicativE Moop.

Present. Ja-dang, am eating. Thang-dang, am going. Mau-dang,

am doing.

Here the verb Dang, exist, is added to the root of the verb as an

auxiliary.

220 Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the [Marcnu,

Imperfect. Ja-bai, or Ja-nai, ate. Thang-bai, or Thang-nai, went.

Mau-bai, or Mau-nai, did.

Perfect. Ji-dangman, have eaten. Thang-dangman, have gone.

Mau-dangman, have done.

Future, (proximate.) Ja-nise, will eat. Thang-nise, will go. Mau-

nise, will do.

Future, (remote.) Ja-gan, will eat. Thang-gan, will go. Mau-gan,

will do.

PARTICIPLES.

Present. Jai-dang, eating. Thang-dang, going. Méau-dang, doing.

Past. Janane, having eaten. Thang-nane, having gone. Méu-

nane, having done.

Gerund. Jana, to eat, for the purpose of eating.

Thang-na, to go, for the purpose of going.

Mau-na, to do, for the purpose of doing.

The verb Lang, take away, is sometimes compounded with another

verb, to convey the idea of an action having been done completely, or

effectually. Thus. Ang mau-léng-bai, I have done (it) effectually.

Nang ja-lang-bai, thou hast eaten (it) completely. Bi thang-lang-bai,

he has gone away effectually.

IMPERATIVE Moop.

The only instance in which this mood really exists is in the 2nd

person. Tere the root of the verb is used. As; Nang ja, eat thou.

Nang thang, go thou. The English form, let me eat, &c. is expressed

by the addition of the verb Ho, give, or Than, permit. Thus; Angno

jana hd, let me eat. Angkho thangné than, let me go.

The Subjunctive Mood, is formed as in English, by prefixing the

subjunctive particle 7f, Jadi. Thus; Ang jadijadang, If I eat. Jadi

nang thanggan, If thou wilt go.

PotentT1aAL Moop.

Power or capacity is usually expressed by Haa, to be able, added to

the gerund. |

Ang thangna-haagan, I will be able to go, or I can go.

Bi mauné-haabai, He was able to do. And so through all the other

tenses.

The use of the word Gaman as an auxiliary, appears to give us a

form of a Preterpluperfect tense in this mood? Thus, Ang j4-gaman,

1849.] valley of Asam and its mountain confines. 221

I might, could or would have eaten. Nang thang-gaman, Thou

mightest have gone.

Duty or obligation, is expressed by the word Nang. gan. Thus: Nang

thangna-nang-gan, You must go.

The Optative Mood, or the form expressive of desire, is denoted by

the word Namai used as an auxiliary after the gerund. Thus, Ang

thangna-namai, I wish to go. Bi jana-namaidang, He is desiring to

eat.

The Prohibitive form is expressed by Da, used as a prefix to the verb

in the Imperative Mood. Da thang, Go noét. Daja, Hat not. Da

mau, Do not.

Simple Negation is expressed by the particle A (changed into Ya

after a vowel). Thus. Ang thanyé, I do not go. Bi jé-y4, he does not

eat.

When a question is asked, the imterrogative particle Na is usually

added to the verb. Thus: Nang thangna-haagan na? Wilt thou be

able to go? This particle is omited when any other word in the

sentence implies an interrogation. Thus: Bima bidang, What does

he want ? Nang ma raidang, What art thou saying ?

The Passive voice is usually formed by means of an auxiliary verb,

signifying, to be, to eat, to exist, &c. added to the root of the primary

verb. Thus from Bu, strike, and Ja, eat, we have—

Present tense. Ang bu ja dang, I am struck.

Imperfect. Ang bu jabai, I was struck.

Perfect. Ang bu ja dangman, Ihave been struck, or I have eaten

a beating ; and so on through all the other tenses.

The general mode of arranging words into sentences is the same as

that, that obtains in the Bhotia and Garo, and is common to all trans-

positive languages.

A few of the Adverbs and other indeclinable particles in common use,

are here subjoined.

Jitid, when. Monéaido, in the evening.

O’bdla, then. Gaban, to-morrow.

Unad, afterwards. Miya, yesterday.

MDane, now. Dini, to-day.

O-b6l4, when ? Ma6ah, where ?

Fhungao, in the morning. Beha, here.

999

Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the

Boiha, there. Gobang, much.

Gejana, afar of. Thisi, Bangai, litéle.

Mana, why ? Thubai, enough.

Mabre, how ? Kintu, but.

Thaip-chya, how many ? Aré, and, also.

Besebing, how much ? Lase-lase, slowly.

Jesebang, as much. Mar-mar, quickly.

Usibang, so much. U, Nong6, yes.

Erehai, so, like this. Gey4, Nonga, no.

Horehai, like that.

SENTENCES.

Nangni nawa ma ?

What is your name ?

Angni nawa Pisla.

My name is Pisld.

Nang bajara thangnananggan.

You must go to the Bazar.

Dini sénseman ma mau dangman ?

What have you done all day long ?

Nang jidi mithigo ma ni kta ?

Lf you know why do you not speak ?

Ang mungbé kta ke.

I did not say any thing.

No luna uwa ndmii.

Look for bamboos to build a house.

Hanse jen dua jen gobone dang.

Keep the ducks and fowls apart.

Angni se-géng-gau gésdng néne datha.

Do not stand before me.

Wotni jeng dngni jeng da gosdng.

Do not stand between me and the fire.

Angni 4d4 khé lingdangman phaié kshe.

I have called my brother but he would not come.

Bi ktédang gaban phaind namaidang.

He says he wishes to come to-morrow.

Géban phungao phai.

Come early to-morrow morning.

[Marcuy,

1849.] valley of Asam and its mountain confines. 223

Thangna nabai dang thai, thang.

Lf you wish to go now, go.

Ang ma kt4gan bikhuno gunidang,

Lam thinkiug of what I am to say.

Sache manseha psdrla séndéi dangman. Psiarla godéi — sthangni

To a certain man twosons there were. The younger son to his

biphaha ktabai, Hele Aphé! Thakna chijcharé jidange Angbhagche

father said, O father! the goods that will fall

mangan angnihd, Sthangni bdéstu bisurni rannannai hobai.

to my lot give to me. His own goods to them having divided he gave.

Sanneisur thangnénndi, _psarla godaéi + dhdn-bdstu léngnénnii,

A few days having passed, the younger son his substance having taken,

gejanha dekha6 thangbai. Sthangni thakha erine sephai thorobai. Boibd

toa far country went. His wealth uselessly he spent. All

sephéi thdordénénnai bi dekhao. Angkéal jabai, Abola

having squandered in that country a famine was (or ate up). Then

janemane hamlangbai. Unao bi thangnanndi _—ibi

not having to eat he dried up (starving). Then he having gone in that

dekhao girl nose nao thabai. Bi manse oma gtimnd

country ina householders house remained. The man swine to feed

dublidd thindtbéai. Obdl4 Oma jana gunde jang sthangni

in the field sent (him). Then for pigs to eat the husks with his own

ude bunghuna _issa ja bai, kintu bine radbd hodkse. Unad

belly to fill he was desirous, but noone gave (him). Then

moné6 — gugieinéna,_ bi ktabai, Angni 4ph44 bindi gdlam jabrange-

in mind being pained, he said, My father’s servants are

dang jana langna mane dang, binikhiribo jabrangedang,

many, to eat enough (they) have, more than that they all have,

Angé ikhémukhinaéna thaidang, 4ng_ biniphrai aphaha

I for want of food am dying, I hence to (my) father

thang-gan.

will go.

N. B. These notes had been written before I had had an opportuni-

224 Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the |Marcu,

ty of seeing Mr. Hodgson’s “ First Essay on the Aborigines of India.”

On a comparison of his remarks on the grammar of the “ Bodo”

(Kachari) language with those here submitted, a few discrepancies will

be observable, particularly in the conjugation of verbs.

After a careful re-examination of my notes, however, I have seen no

reason for introducing any amendments. The want of agreement be-

tween us may probably be attributable to local peculiarities.

Tue Mrri.

The chief seat of the Miris appears to be the low hills north of

Banskotta and Lukimpur, from whence the exactions and cruel ravages

of their formidable neighbours the Abors, have compelled them to

emigrate in large numbers, into the plains of Upper Asam.

~ The Abors, and Bor-Abors occupy an extensive range of mountain-

ous country, along the southern exposure of the great Himalaya chain

extending from the 94° to the 97° of east longitude and bordering, it

is said, on Thibet and China.

_ A partial comparison of the dialects spoken by these tribes furnishes

abundant evidence of their original consanguinity ; while the coincid-

ence between their vocables and the terms in common use by the Thibi-

tan tribes is frequent and uniquivocal.

The Miri, being the only one of these dialects we have had an oppor-

tunity of examining, our remarks relating to grammar, will have refer-

ence to that dialect only.

Or Nouns.

The Cases of nouns, of which there are six, are expressed by the addi-

tion of post-positive particles, except in the instance of the accusative, and

sometimes of the Genitive case. The noun which stands in this latter

relation is often indicated merely by its being placed before the other.

The absence of a plural form is usually supplied by the introduction

of the words 4rang and kiding, signifying ad/, to which in declension the

particles are applied as in the singular number.

The following is an example of the declension of a noun.

Elag, a hand.

Singular.

Nom. Elag, a hand.

Gen. Elag, or Elagga, of a hand.

Dat. Elag-nape, or Elag-kepe, to a hand.

ea ee -

1849.] valley of Asam and its mountain confines. — 22

Acc. Elag, hand.

Abl. Elag-lokem, or Elag-kem, from a hand.

Instr. Elag-koki, with a hand.

Loc. Elag-lé, in a hand.

Gender is sometimes denoted by distinct words, as :

Amie, man. Mimmod, woman.

Kota, boy. Mieng, girl.

Baba, father. Nana, mother.

Paid, uncle. Niaya, aunt.

Mill6, husband. Mieng, wife.

The male and female of inferior animals are indicated by the terms

baka and keka, these terms, however, are added only to the last sylla-

ble of the nouns, thus:

Dum-sung, a deer. Masc. Sung-baka. Fem. Sung-neka. Menjeg,

a buffaloe. Masc. Jeg-baka. Fem. Jeg-neka. Sit-te, an elephant.

Mase. Te-baka. Fem. Te-neka. Saben, a@ goat. Mase. Ben-baka.

Fem. Ben-neka. Eki, a dog. Mase. Ki-baka. Fem. Ki-neka.

In asking a question to ascertain the gender of these animals, a still

further abbreviation is employed. The last syllable of the noun, and

the first of the adjective are the only ones used. Thus:

Tene teba? Is zt a male or a female elephant ?

Kine kiba? Is it a male or a female dog ?

Benne ben ba? Js it a male or a female goat ?

Or ADJECTIVES.

The position of an adjective in a sentence is immediately after the

noun it serves to qualify, as: Rok-pi dima, a bad egg. Amie aida, a

good man.

An adjective has no variation of case or number; but when used in

composition with a noun, the variations of case are usually applied to

the adjective instead of to the substantive.

Adjectives are compared by adding Amedag, or Titidag, very, ew-

ceeding, for the comparative, and Atadag, for the superlative. Thus :—

Ataég, broad. Atag dmedag, broader. Atag atadag, broadest..

Kaémpé, beautiful. Kampo titidag, more beautiful, and Kémpo atadag,

most beautiful.

To give greater force or expression to the comparison the words

Amedag and atadag are sounded with a lengthened utterance of the

voice.

226 Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the [Marcu,

The most expressive superlative form is made by prefixing the word

4puling, all, to the ordinary superlative. Apuling kampo atadag, the

most beautiful of all.

NUMERALS.

The Miri numerals, which apparently were meant only to suffice for

the enumeration of the fingers and toes, are as follows :—

hy Veo: 11. U-ying-k0-4-ko.

2. <An-i-k6. 12. U-ying-k6-an-i-ko.

3. Aum-k6. 13. U-ying-k6-4um-ko.

4. A-pi-k6. 14, U-ying-k6-api-ko.

5. Ang-6-k6, 15. U-ying-ko-ang-6-k6.

6. A-keng-k6. 16. U-ying-k6-4-king-k6.

7. Ki-nit-ko. 17. U-ying-ko-kinit-ko.

8. Pi-ni-ko. 18. U-ying-k6-pi-ni-ko.

9. Ké-nang-ké. 19. U-ying-kd-nang-ko.

10. U-ying-ko. 20. U-ying-an-i-k6, or I-ling-ko.

Or Pronouns.

The Personal Pronouns are Ngo, I, N6, thou, and Bi, he, with

their plurals, Ngdlu, Nolu, and Bilu. No distinction is made on ac-

count of gender.

They admit of the same variations of case as the nouns.

Ist Person.

Singular. Plural.

Nom. Ngo, J. Negolu, or Ngo-lu-ke, We.

Gen. Negog, mine. Ngolug, ours.

Dat. Negdg-kepe, to me. Ngo-lug-kepe, to us.

Abl. Ngdg-lokem or Ngog-kem, Ngd-lu-kem, or Ngé-lu-lokem, from

Srom me. Us.

Acc. Ngom, me. Ngo-lum, ws.

Instr. Negdg-koki, with me. Ngo-lukoki, dy or with us.

Loc. Ngo-lo, in me. Ngélu-lo, in us.

2nd Person.

Singular. Plural.

Nom. N6, thou. No-lu, you.

Gen. Nog, or Nog-ke, thine. No-lug, yours.

Dat. Nogke kepe, to thee. No-lug-kepe, to you.

Abl. Né6g-ke-Ié-kem, from thee. No-lug-lokem, or No-lukem, from.

you.

“I

1849. | valley of Asam and its mountain confines. 22

Acc. Nom, thee. No-lum, you.

Instr. Nog-ke-koki, by thee. Nolug koki, by you.

Loc. Nog-l6, or Nolo, in thee. No-lu-lo, in you.

3rd Person.

Singular. Plural.

Nom. Bu, he. Bi-lu, they.

Gen. Big or Big-ke, his. Bu-lug, or Bu lug, thers.

Dat. Big-kepe, to him. Bu-lug-kepe, to them.

Abl. Big-kem, or Biig-lo-kem, Bu-lu-kem, or Bi-lug-lo-kem, from

From him. them.

Acc. Bim, him. Bu-lum, them.

Instr. Bitig-koki, by them. Bi-lu-ko-ki, by or with them.

Loc. Bul6 in them. Bu-lu-l6, in them.

The Relative pronouns are Seko, who, and Eng-k6-k6, what.

Demonstrative pronouns are Sina, this; Esina, that; and Ele, the

more remote. They are all declined like the Personal Pronouns,

Or VERBs.

Miri verbs admit of no terminations expressive of number and person,

The following scheme of verbal terminations will serve to show how

verbs in general are conjugated.

It may here be remarked that the roots of Miri verbs are generally

monosyllabic.

For the purpose of illustration we shall use the verbal roots, Da, eat.

Gi, go. Ka, see.

Inpicative Moon.

Present Indefinite, dabang.

Ngo Da-dabang, I eat. Ngo Gi-dabang, I go.

Ngo Ka-dabang, I see.

Present definite, ladabang, or labang.

Ngo Da-lababang, I am eating. Ngo Gi-ladabang, I am going.

Ngo Kaladabang, I am seeing.

Second Aorist, Kane.

Ngo Da-kane, I did eat. Ngo Gi-kéne, I did go.

Ngo Ka-kane, I did see.

Imperfect, Ka-bang.

Ngo Da-kabang, Tate. Ngo Gi-kaébang, I went.

Ngo Ka-kabang, I saw.

228 Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the [Marcn,

Perfect, tabang.

Ngo Da-tabang, I have eaten. Ngo Gi-tabang, I have gone. Ngo

Ka-tabang, I have seen.

Future, Pabang.

Ngo Da-pabang, I will eat. Ngd Gi-pabang, I will go.

Ngo Ka-pabang, I will see.

IMPERATIVE Moop.

The only instance in which this mood really exists is in the Second

Person.

Ka, or Lang-ka.

No Da-ka, or Da-lanka, eat thou. No Gi-ké, or Gi-langka, go thou.

No Ka-ka, or Kaélangka, See thou.

The termination toka, is commonly used as a more expressive form.

Thus: Da-toka, Gi-toké, Ka-toka.

Gerund, pu.

Da-pi, to eat, for the purpose of eating.

Gi-pu, fo go, for the purpose of going.

Ka-pii, to see, for the purpose of seeing.

Participle, talang.

Da-talang, eating. Gi-talang, going.

Ka-talang, seeing.

Duty or obligation is implied by the termination Kang kapu.

Ngo Da-kang kapii, I must eat. No Gi-kéng kaput, you must go.

Bu Ka-kang kaput, he must see.

Potential Mood, ladang.

Da-ladang, can eat. Gi-ladang, can go. Ké-ladang, can see.

Sometimes the verb Meka, to be able, is added to the gerund, to ex-

press the same signification ; Da-pu meka, Gipii meka, Kapiti meka.

Negation is expressed by the substitution of mang for the usual ter-

mination bang. Thus: Ngé Gi-mang, I do not go. Bui Ka-kamang,

He saw not. Ngd Dapa-ming, I will not eat. No Gila-mang, you can

not JO. .

Prohibition is denoted by the use of the word iyoka, after the verbal

root. Thus: Gi-iyoka ; Do not go. Da-iyoka; Do not eat. Lu-iyoka,

Do not speak.

ADVERBS.

O’, yes. Ma, no.

1849. | valley of Asam and its mountain confines. 229

Egidda, truly. Inkold, where ?

Supag, now, immediately. S6, here.

Lek6, again. Una, there.

Ladipo, always. Aralé, within.

Sild, to-day. Lulo, without.

Iyampo, to-morrow. Anindo, near.

Moilo, yesterday. Mord, far.

Rolo, early. Menape, quickly.

Rouald, in the morning. Dengim, slowly.

Yummilo, in the evening.

The idiom of the language is the same as that of the Bhotia, and the

same latitude allowed in the structure of sentences as is common to all

transpositive languages.

SHORT SENTENCES.

Nog amine akan? What is your name ?

Ngodg amine Kimédlie, My name is Kiunél.

Nog baba inkolo? Where is your father ?

Ekum Aarangesi babae dang. Father is in the house.

Ele amie aida. That is a good man.

Sek ene ioksik se? Whose knife is this ?

Bi gidingki ngo ekiem pake-tabang. He has killed my dog with

a@ spear.

Achyalo kupak toka. Throw it into the water.

Achyalo anga dang. Fish live in the water.

Ede idiko site dang ne? How many elephants are there there ?

Asare dirupe sardag. The wind blows very hard.

Esi amie akdlu dang ne? What does this man say?

Ngomapin adjyoko bilang ka. Give me a little rice.

Ngogke mangke. It is not mine.

Asépe dutoké. Sit quietly.

For the sake of comparison I have here annexed a brief vocabulary

of each of the languages we have had under review. I could wish they

had been made more copious, or that I had had some model to act up-

on whereby they might have been rendered more valuable for ready and

effective comparison. Should leisure and opportunity, however, admit

of my pursuing the line of research I have now taken up, I hope at

some subsequent period to be able to furnish more copious, and I

Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the [Marcu,

230

SU8}}9q

9104)

By- 810M

opn-sury,

0479

ByoyWId

wns

IIsyeq

(‘mnsy) ‘ised

Suvqid

uBseg

sueuly

nywyy

okuy

PANEL

nq pen

ysudy

Suvloy

BAL

sunpiey

suely

Iesy

SaoeL.

badd 1d

a1ay SploM LOGY JO JS] OY} TOF “UALOI “N “AY OU} OF SuOTVST]qo

qmoito ayy uo uvayods syo[eIp oY} [IP Surpnpour “peziwiqns

30vyiog

N04)

DIY

sunp.0y

ph-suvy,

947° 1

Sunpiq

wNWS

93 -Sug'yT

edwox)

uldy

sue sly

nyay'yT

rysuny,

oq PEW

yondy

Suva

Sunp-Jeyl

suery

iesy

suo,

409,

‘uny Lq porddns Atpury sp

ova ova Ab vhyfg “eto

10H) ang = (“ysuvg) BY0D ayon

rep 910 Suvpoug noud

ta oquurg ouundd Suey]

o10q vig wUNnse A guvkle

Wu, oquy sur y Blqeig

ng oqsreqd Nyssunyy sung

(uosp) Wed Suewsnyy ovr ‘elsaeyy gauy

angdn fl joe vysuO wod

Lit | yoday ning mou “NIE

epeyy eloy I 9oyAay YI Sunyoye'T

vatil) eM 9S Suisyed

esuojor (asammsy) esuojor suojor ‘eyoeud essuor ‘1qood

(po06

yuu Hy vimen jou at) ‘oda em = oda “od407

sunyytg es-suer edeAy deixy

PPV apy WIZY wNnYyoOuy

(seq) uy (yea) Caen) tay (yea) (eI) ‘aduy (9a) (vem) ruuy (38d)

Sung, gq-sunyg gyorure Tye

ejoyd-onjeH vyy-dy ny OGL, 9a 24109

Beg vig Sung e0

eqysay waHIg-1q9 ypf-sueq yy quor

nopey ugssy

dvieq esovu eq y ow “edsIyQ ydsiq9

oqiog Suvueg ‘Ssuviee Suvi-oyowey fT, ayoueyy,

eq eure ‘ea PNT yusun'y

olen weysoy y ueywg Sua,

1pYy IO "0LD9 ‘0, 6upyd “DUyOUd

PUG

snuspog

AV 9g

soq

20g

Ped

qrog

paesg

(a) ‘rvag

speoq

yoyseg

ooqueg

seg

ped

(unou) ‘yoeg

quny

sousy

MOLLY

(qdaa) ‘IoMSUY

193uy

saoqy

"ys busy

JOM IIVYOVY JO 4ST] OY} LO “UOPION “, “£ urejded 0} pus “poysitny

Aut Surspoymouyoe jo Ayunj10ddo styy exe} J

“fatwa wesy ou} jo

MOU QSOY} UBY} ‘SoLrepNgBooA [aFosn APALELd09 GLOW 4SNAT

231

valley of Asam and its mountain confines.

1849. ]

septny 30a

(wosp) n410xy

wel

eyejoum uidy

odey

eles)

jwMeq

insexyy

snPAOS

OusUITAT

FL OND

Liepuey

BOT

be bers

eyon yz

BYNSMNEY

soluay

edeg “uy

SviV

By ONT

BO} JVSALT,

euoy

suolw

“NY wosy) “sunio

(Sunq] a1

ByeXn

wyuoy “supoy

yyojoMUMBr)

anpudg (wasp) Biyy VOT

nog

wel

(dtu aundaud

"MT) vyxojom udy

vpody

TRUS

suowe Suey,

imsexy

OSV

OwWsUIP

GME ar)

Hepes

rahe ace |

sunpwoy,

eye

Sunpns yey

solu

Sulqy ‘uy

sey

npag

[Nd

(yznoh) oXoTtT

osuBsey

Sunp By

oysny

pueuL

suoq)y

Tedd

suelnyy

deqynyy

Basie,

Oe OL

weyy

Tine [AL

suvyT

Surry

doug

Wes

eo ial Ih

req-suoyg “Ypy

usyor)

oqe'y

reg

T9["j1Uq

oqo)

TTL

Suasoq

wepel

wmeseyy

"¥I1)

ehosu0y

nYyovil

(wosp) poe T,

oqsunys

oqeqy

Bus

BUS-BU YN TAL

Bled

Oq-pnyyy

Bsiq opueyyy

SuoqjeN

oquey

9sudy

oq-suey

Oqyve1V

oquep edoyy

oqous

BUlye

suolsuy ‘epy

suedax

oqrav

Oger.

Ted

(uvu bunohk

a ahh

suoi4)

ud-9g

sury

Lens

biel ih

bab:

OC ie

BOYS “Npoyoo x npayso x

eqee “AK Sueq ‘eq

nyeyo suey iewusueye

oysmery o”u9

9P,0 o4ug

odgueyg ‘elinyy wodyy *sueXry

odsnyy ‘ouvdg OWNS “UL,

saowvy ‘su07 Selo) ‘Su07T

oz0Y we sn

BSHB AL eSHE AL

Sueyimyy “often ovyOyoOMEN

oys-sunyy 1yosune

ured lg

of-og suoseg

okey Tyg

oryd-Sue Ay deyorsuog

oyoyory SUezTAL

sunig out

Sunyoon (sadunok )

Suluog ‘eyy ‘wesoyg (sept aq)

nyeYyO wog

wid odseg

oyoloyg suepeyd

suey dayosueye

B03 esng

vy nyZ

sueqy oyny

edswT one

nig nyqd *TLIs)

19. WL,

opsuvy9 odsen

neq deo

ns wesyy dejoyg

psyoolg

MOD

toddog

(14) ‘qoo9

aul0g

PL°D

proto

41D

i 8)

PID

41224)

Goye

Arreg

ize)

Aing

umMg

oyepug

JIYJOIG

prog

sag

yeaig

sseig

fog

(-u) ‘mog

au0g

Apog

yeog

Pood

ei fake

1991

(-a) ‘ont

Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the |Marcu,

232

youuury)

i bli

Byus ulMeEg

Oped.

ara

gunz

OPO]

ByOo Oy

OWSUTTAL

valet d

BINS

ug VT

1dyq0y

Bod

uns) e8-Sues 1eq

(6uasas | suomMy

Sunioy

322d

Sunp suvg

ediy,

oka

vom

SUBA-IG

Svp-1Q

Sep-oquy

esuo'y

yeuuy

sepdniny

By0y0S-osyv

BO} Bd

Sunpqey

seAld

"Wa

asa JOM

ae SV

Sunpusurweg Tey-funy yy

opm y Suey

20sog 1)

Bqve vydy

BMBUlg sunyddny

Op1oyy urleg

Sunp 4Oouy Teynsnry

ow SUIT sueyynypy

sully ueSIN,

en1S (wosy) We

uIq eT yunyy Bq

(46a s,p.i2g) id you, (wusy)] ep-ovq

¥eg ee

¥S- Sues el-ueg

suowy ae |

SUnIeN ewey

yezog (wosp) ossuey neg

sunp Sues uvIOL)

odeq sunvy

PA vone>

sunpiq ovr

Tears PUL

Ng gals ro]

oquiy Bsaueg

gsu07 ues

soll G) Bsldd

upUy Tyseuy yy

Sunp10yy ese yl

MYL ud

Sunpqvy dvy

avg Byjoeg

°h09V- "SADY OUST

TRAN

Isyee

Og-yLIS-eq

suviy

oquoyy

eydy

epd

epPeyO

oqde-e4

SueyynyAl

UelynyAy

vuUsuoy

nyysyee

TYOUG

oqey)

vuy

LU OLING

desoq

euey

oqsuny

yeyoy

oqny9

9qIs

vMO-OUT,

vssuag

(uns ay?) Teg

yorpome

(wnsp) ejepuy

9qyoryD

oque(]

odeiny

eyed

"OUDEY)

TAL

nunig

2049

nydouy

uoy Ju0K

vdy

orga ‘ndjox

Busury

ayn

NY 7,

SUrIAL

iyad SuerT

wail Surk{yy

weyy0x)

ards

TpualeD)

yur SUBS

ny yy

gyoyeq-sury

Sul,

Bem [eq BoeN

wesN

nydns.irpyy

ossuosfueyy)

9qiogq)

vyd-aky

BavV

‘oj bunyg

a i

sunyone

¥I9UD

91d

aulsod

vdy ‘vud

wed

suey, ‘oAN

ofoser

suoq

OVAL ‘SUNT

ayo

edSueqy ‘uoyosuey

a aM hea |

gYysuoy) *vUSUON

pF 4

itys

SyomyN

eluaeq

odury

sunyy,

OTOAML “OOM

suisuog ‘odsury,

Dated: |

BUIIN, ‘oumuLAN

ound

Sunpen

dedqureqg

suvjydny,

nus

BIOV AFIIV

“PuY0O”UT

uty

Jasuygy

Iq Shy

Joyyeay

Iva

JayjegT

leg

Wea

908]

jueqdary

MOGI

role §

hc |

4seq

qyweg

Joyysneg

yteq

g0ued

wn9

Aig

MOI9

"ys busy

233

valley of Asam and its mountain confines.

1849.]

(8 a0jvgng ) Suas

-sa¢'(S,4aaq7 ) Sualy SuaLy

aohq soAG

IPV PV

Sepy vopeyt

og os

B90} VL Sunp 32,

oyo-op py ‘oydny, odny, “suodung

rs | me

Byouyy Sunpyy

eyo} Nissuey Sue nissuvy

WeUIOT, weUlO TL,

Sela Seq

PING prom

910g 910g

Sup Su

Suekeg yezag

opty ‘ypsueysugy “suey = ‘odwey

gury ypsuey] = usury

2 9suaTe} IUIOG cai

ueqog usqog

BION “eXUBHT nysuvyi

HOF 1@

qeumy EThirg)

PHO unped

ov oly:

WeL WEL

ey uedgIyAy uedai py

sueimn x WeUO WT

eddary Vv

undy undy

ean osu

Bu0y

euLO

of-e ry

ofex)

qeyood

eupyy

o10q

Ue yr

Tese]

By)

reqyen

reuyy

open

ossuey

issuv HY

meyyey

1q10q

(wasp) 1OMYsT

vung

Suey

One

vsovlatey

uel

wed

nquy

Iesoegq

eiseH

suaq3-V

Teqra

»)

Su01d)

AEM

qy ‘sunpy

VMO1sUBYy

bdeea

ous

UeIN "PUD

oqrqovyAl

mba

cig

vqusied ‘vIIEd

(yonp yoas6

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ayes “suolfeyg

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(piryo uous

-Om) esIq YY

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40-2N

suo0le M

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Lit 6)

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vee

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sunyoung

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daig

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Sueusyy

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son

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3°

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28005)

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3804)

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408.107

qs010,q °

7004

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asd

Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the [Marcu,

234

suedury

Sepuuy

ulm yy

suedden

yueN

o10d

stqts

Snay

vunyd

yody

eULUInT

omy

suopensNy

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B07 EOL

pos

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30} BP]

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M130

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2104)

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our.

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SUISINT

esters)

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(ups) 12104)

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ou yy

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pueqsn yy

esnoy

JOH

O810 FT

y si bum

239

in confines.

1849.]

valley of Asam and its mounta

vyojdnq

wayrT

sunqy

vyojdoreq

sunpulyy

udy

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sucpeg

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293-91

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vy 07 dng

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ait

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499

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240

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suo]

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dry

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(payoo0a) sony

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uley

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(Cu) ‘qSno1g

(-a) ‘querg

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PIO

Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the {|Marcn,

236

vuMncy

ofung

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+ rail 16 |

ofuang

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suniy

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IAAL

seq

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sung

Suos yeg

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ers

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(uabunoh)

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way ley

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one,

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3104$

Tes

3499S

209

pues

°y si busy

237

valley of Asam and its mountain confines.

1849. ]

oy Surk osury re Suoyg “SUuOYg "9g nd

ySueuoy oplary nyyO NAYS no ng

om Tug we 3049 LEDS pay

O¥ JLUIST osueu0 yy lug 1ug wnz ung

oysuayy ohyV Oy 0G Suny y QL

oyxosuy osuelig eq esuog BON LIN

ody dy og ng Wd 17

oyuny wosuy wey Ty, wou) weg wing

oxy Wy WUE) 10 “yg Tur Suryo- yy UN

o1V O1V 249 vys IOyT, 1y9

ofhuy x of Ber oyyueUd owUuo x woz

eplssq ‘oy “NH BAW LO 2,0 suQ sul

Sey Sey (wns) 1osegq Ist OT ‘Sun oT

BAO} Lady sunpyesy ovmeqeH oquivs) wT UeT

Susy Susy uog Tequy Surys Suryg

OULU TAL asuet ofuryy YY 9qLOWN quouly

Bs IBsV Iq ra pra Suny

SuaAt Sus] Sits | MOU oqo oA(qomy

odury unex gnydny yodny oqsunleq odivy ‘dey

(7as-ung) Suymed Sup dyaoyg pou SN ‘oyyVT S0N

akyoy IsV 10d Nf) TY nqyo

SeuulyAl SeUItyAL (wnsy) u0y vy oye 21949 21949

BY0} WOSN TqmosNN = (wnsy7) oSavT oq sueN oydses aqon

Wd ‘wd Wd ‘avd uy ‘sucky vuvy ‘Suemy wily ‘sunqoy SaoyZV "OAV

sunjog sunjog TUB suoyg sung J ‘suoyy

Sulysy aulqs sueyd Suog 10g sutys Sulysuor

aky oky eye WOse A BIyS og

ado ofty rereyD a1Ug vy ekyg

odueky oduefy unqesy odeuty y Suku yy vdSuen

DEN

euIN

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xIS

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991],

qV00L,

ensuoyL,

MOIIOUL*OT,

238 A Brief Note on Indian Ethnology. | Marcu,

A Brief Note on Indian Ethnology, by B. H. Hopveson, Esq.

[The Editors of this Journal have great pleasure in being permitted to reprint

the following short but highly interesting Preface to Mr. Hodgson’s valuable work

on the Aborigines of India. It affords such an exposition of the extensive bearings

and high interest of Indian Ethnology, and of the mode in which this important sub-

ject should be treated, as at once to stimulate and direct future research. They fur-

ther take this opportunity of again strongly commending to investigators the proprie-

ty of adopting uniformity of system, without which their researches will lose half their

value ; and in the matter of vocabularies, to make Mr. Hodgson’s the standard.

Upon points of this kind there will always exist slight differences of opinion ; but

these should give way to the important considerations alluded to ; and if we are to

be guided in this matter by the experience and judgment of any one man in India,

surely none are entitled to higher respect than those of Mr. Hodgson. |

All those who are conversant with ethnology are aware that the

pagan population of India is divided into two great classes, viz., the

Arian, or immigrant, and the Tamilian, or aboriginal, and also, that

the unity of the Arian family, from Wales to Assam, has been demon-

strated in our own times by a noble series of lingual researches—

researches which have done for the history of Man a service analogous

to that done for the history of the globe he inhabits by the fossil

investigations of Cuvier.

The moral and physical condition of the several branches of the

Arian race having been well known prior to these investigations, their

sole object was to recover the clue to the common connexion and rela-

tionship of all the Arians, notwithstanding the obliterating effects on

speech of ages of diverse social progress and of unrecorded migrations

over half the globe’s surface, and notwithstanding the striking physical

changes worked in the lapse of ages by settlemeuts in every clime, from

the Equator to the Arctic circle. What a glorious triumph of litera-

ture to bridge such a profound and vast gulf!

The Tamilian race, confined to India and never distinguished by

mental culture, offers, it must be confessed, a far less gorgeous subject

for inquiry than the Arian. But, as the moral and physical condition

of many of the scattered members of the Tamiilian body is still nearly

as little known as is the (assumed) pristine entirety and unity of that

body, it is clear that this subject has two parts, each of which may

be easily shown to be of high interest, not merely to the philosopher

1849. ] A Brief Note on Indian Ethnology. 239

but to the statesman. The Tamiulians are now, for the most part,

British subjects: they are counted by millions, extending from the

snows to the Cape (Comorin) ; and, lastly, they are as much superior

to the Arian Hindus in freedom from disqualifying prejudices, as they

are inferior to them in knowledge and all its train of appliances—a

fact of which the extensive and important uses now making of the Kol

or Dhanger race, offer a valuable exemplification. Yes! in every ex-

tensive jungly or hilly tract throughout the vast continent of India

there exist hundreds of thousands of human beings in a state not mate-

rially different from that of the Germans as described by Tacitus. Let

then the student of the progress of society, of the fate and fortunes

of the human race, instead of poring over a mere sketch of the past,

address himself to the task of preparing full and faithful portraits of

what is before his eyes; and let the statesman profit by the labours

of the student ; for these primitive races are the ancient heritors of

the whole soil, from all the rich and open parts of which they were

wrongfully expelled by the usurping Hindus.* It is one great object

of this research to ascertain when, and under what circumstances

this dispersion of the ancient owners of the soil took place, at least

to demonstrate the fact, and to bring again together the dissevered

fragments of the body, by means of careful comparison of the langu-

ages, physical attributes, creed and customs of the several (assumed)

parts. It is another object, not less interesting, to exhibit the positive

condition, moral and material, of each of these societies, at once so

improveable and so needful of improvement, and whose archaic status,

polity and ideas offer such instructive pictures of the course of human

progression. Surely a subject so worthy, as this latter one, of the best

attention and ablest examination ought not to be treated superficially,

or as if we aimed merely to learn how far the aborigines have a com-

mon tie of descent. It is the great purpose of my copious and system -

atic vocabulary to display accurately the point of advancement which

the aborigines have reached in thought and in action. And the more

I see of these primitive races, the stronger becomes my conviction that

there is no medium of investigation yielding such copious and accurate

* It can hardly be necessary for me to say that I do not entertain the idle

notion of now ejecting the Hindus and replacing the Aborigines, but that of drawing

well-informed heedfulness to the condition and claims of the latter.

2 ok

240 A Brief Note on Indian Ethnology. [Marcu,

data as their languages. Their physical and mental condition is exactly

pourtrayed in their speech, and he who can analyse it and separate the

foreign elements, has the key to the amount, and sources too, of their

civilization.

I have said that the unity of the Arian race has been demonstrated

chiefly through lingual means. We have now similarly to demonstrate

the unity of the Tamulian race, an interesting but a difficult task ; for

there is an immense number of spoken tongues among the Tamilians,

whereof I have already ascertained not less than 28 in the limited

sphere of my own proposed inquiries ;* and all these, though now so

different as to be mutually unintelligible to the people who use them,

require to be unitised, while one of the highest authorities} on such

points fairly declares that he cannot tell what constitutes identity of

language. It is clear therefore to me that in this inquiry we shall

require all the helps within our reach, and that a copious vocabulary,

as well as a rudimentary grammar, of each tongue, will be indispensa-

ble. But the rudiments of grammar are to be had only with extreme

toil, as creations of your own, from the crude element of very corrupt

sentences supplied by unlettered children of nature ; and, in proportion

as all such grammars are likely to be deficient, in the same proportion

do copious vocabularies become more and more desirable. Besides,

summary vocabularies are apt to deal with generals, whereas particulars

embody the character and racy virtue of speech. But homebred words

are all very particular, and proportionably numerous ; while general

terms, if more conveniently few, are less characteristic and very apt to

be of exotic origin. Take the English general term to move; it is

Latin and one; but of the numerous sorts of especial motion (to hop,

to skip, to jump, to tumble down, to get up, to walk, to fly, to creep,

to run, to gallop, to trot), all are “genuine Saxon, by the soul of

Hengist.”’ Moreover it should be remembered that general terms are

precisely those which rude races rarely understand or employ, and

* I confine myself to the Aborigines of the mountains and the Tarai between

Kumaun and Assam, a rich and extensive field of research. But I hope that other

enquirers will, under the auspices of the Society, join me to complete the investiga-

tion, For the enumeration of the tribes see page 138.

+ H. H. Wilson’s preface to the Mackenzie Papers. Wilson’s scepticism is

somewhat wanton and affected : a sly hit at ignorance ?

1849. | A Brief Note on Indian Ethnology. 241

hence by the adoption of such words in a summary ethnological voca-

bulary we shall probably miss the real import of words, and with it the

power of comparing one language with another, since different respon-

dents are not at all likely to give real equivalents or identical terms,

unless the precise import of what is asked be thoroughly apprehended.

There is yet another snare incident to vocabularies of a few general

terms, even when of obvious meaning, to wit, that in the case of any

general term you may get a word expressive merely of sex, age or other

incidental distinction, from one respondent, and a word expressive of

some other such distinction from another, as ox, bull, cow, heifer. The

only safe plan therefore is to take specific terms, and a sufficient number

of them, reserving abstract terms merely to illustrate grammatical

structure, or the mental condition of the tribe you are investigating.

Now, the long and perfect dispersion and insulation of the several

members of the Tamilian body have led to an extremity of lingual

diverseness which, as contrasted with the similarity of their creed and

customs, is the enigma of their race ; and for the reasons assigned it is

an enigma which assuredly no Cidipus will solve except by dint of words.

In Hindi and Urdu, though structure is the same, vocables make a

difference which is broad and clear, owing to the evidently foreign ele-

ments of the diversity. Not so, however, in the Tamiulian tongues, in

which there is very little of foreign element: all is homogeneousness in

the vocables, and from its sameness of kind is less open to distinct se-

parability. A summary comparative vocabulary was framed some years

back by that able and zealous enquirer, the Rev. Mr. Brown, and it has

been extensively filled up with the dialects of the mountaineers round

Assam. But, in applying this vocabulary to the uses of the present

Essay, I have found it quite insufficient to the ends in view ; to raise,

not to solve, doubts ; and in reference to this question of the adequacy

or otherwise of a very limited number of words even of a primitive

character, I request particular attention to the fact, that the popular

opinion of the decisive nature and effect of such words, propagated by

that able polyglottist, Abel Remusat, has been lately shown to be far

from decisive by Schott, whose observations on the subject may be seen,

in lucid epitome, in Prichard’s Physical History.* Mr. Brown’s words

are scarcely of that kind which Remusat justly laid stress on as “ pre-

* Vol. IV. p. 395, and the following.

212

242 A Brief Note on Indian Ethnology. | Marcu,

rogative instances” of speech.* They are also, I think, much too few

in number to yield decisive results, even had they been quite faultlessly

selected. Any vocabulary that aspires to be useful, must, however

summary, contain a fair portion of words belonging to each and all of

the “‘ parts of speech,’ and must also give the cardinal numbers, at

least down to 10. I am well aware that the prolixity of my own voca-

bulary may be objected to. But let it be remembered that I have a

high object, wholly extrinsic to the mere lingual testing of ethnic affini-

ties, and that is, the ascertainment of the physical and moral condition

of the primitive races, which are the objects of my labours, and that I

hold there is no medium of such ascertainment comparable with their

languages. But I have no hestitation in adding my conviction that

mere ethnological affinities cannot be satisfactorily tested by summary

vocabularies ; that structure as well as vocables must be attended to;

and lastly, that even the sheer words of languages so wholly new to us

cannot be safely got at unless we seek them in more than one form,

and thus obtain means of comparison.

With regard to the second object of these inquiries, or the determina-

tion of the moral and physical status of each aboriginal people, it is

to be observed that, as the Tamiulians have, none of them, any old

authentic legends, and are all very uninformed, save in what respects

their immediate wants and habitual ideas, it is exceedingly difficult to

learn any thing of this sort from them directly: their creed especially

is a subject of insuperable difficulty, through the sole medium of direct

questioning : their customs, again, are apt to afford but negative evi-

dence, because, being drawn from boon nature, they tend to identity in

all the several nations; and lastly, their physical aspect is of that

osculant and vague stamp, which indicates rather than proves any thing ;

or rather, what it does prove is general, not particular. We are thus

* For example, light, lux, is a high abstraction which none of my informants can

grasp, though they readily give equivalents for sunshine and candle or fire flame.

But further, whoever wil! carefully examine my essay on the affinities of the sub-

himalayan tribes in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal for December 1847

(vocabularies), will find that the lingual traces of relationship between these tribes are

by no means correspondent with Remusat’s theory. Nor differences nor resemblances

are in harmony with that theory, and we have thus a striking practical proof of the

value, and necessity indeed, of copious vocabularies as guides to, and indices of, the

status of each tribe.

1849. | A Brief Note on Indian Ethnology. 243

driven back through all the media of research upon the grand stay of a

copious vocabulary. It is my fixed conviction that every distinct

effective idea must have an appropriate word to express it; that the

more important the idea or want (if felt by the parties themselves) the

more surely will the correspondent term be forthcoming. Now, in re-

gard to the creed of two of these nations (the Bodo and Dhimal), I

have toiled for weeks to come at the verity by means of direct questions ;

and yet, if at this moment I have any distinct notion of the real belief

of these people, certainly I am as much indebted for it to my ample

vocabulary as to all my direct interrogations. In the vocabulary, I find

no adequate word for God, for soul, for future state, for Heaven, for

Hell, for piety, for sin, for prayer, for repentance, for pardon ; and I

apply this broad and sure basis of inference, but without exaggeration,

to its legitimate purpose! Nothing can exceed the vagueness of all direct

statement on this most important of subjects: the gods (void of god-

head : creator, lawgiver, judge) are very angry: why? not because you

have sinned, but because they are neglected: they must be flattered

with gifts. This is all; save what may be surely, if carefully, gathered

from a copious vocabulary. I have adverted to the number of people

whose speech is to be investigated (28), as well as to the careful and

ample style of investigation which I conceive can alone suffice for the

realization of the ends in view ; for our aim is not to raise doubts but to

solve them.* But time is the most precious of all things; and as the

present investigation has cost me six months, I purpose to seek aid and

help from abroad, furnishing to each of my co-operators the present

paper as a model, it beg indispensable for purposes of ready and

effective comparison, that all information should take a like direction,

and that direction a sound and good one. In submitting therefore the

first of an intended series of papers to the Asiatic Society of Bengal,

I have the honour to solicit its revision of my labours, in order more

particularly to render the form of the vocabulary and grammar as good

as may be, containing all that is essential and nothing superfluous.

Should the Society favour me with any such suggestions, or should it

practically ratify my present work by printing it, I intend forthwith to

have 50 blank and 50 full copies of the Essay printed for distribution+

* See note at the end of this Preface.

t~ Any person desiring a copy can have it by applying to me at Darjeeling or to

Mr, Laidlay, at the Asiatic Society, Calcutta.

244 A Brief Note on Indian Ethnology. [Marcu,

to co-operators ; and meanwhile I shall conclude this too long preface

with a few explanations of the reasons which have led me to give this

particular form to the vocabulary, the grand stay, as I conceive, in these

inquiries, for the reasons already given. It will be seen at a glance

that my vocabulary is not alphabetical. I think the alphabetical plan

liable to two extreme objections; for we become thus entangled amid

synonyma that are superfluous or deceptive, and among vague words

that are worse than useless. But, worse than this, the alphebetical

plan is void of all that facilitation which is so indispensable towards the

accomplishment of the end in view, it being at once most difficult, and

most necessary to lend the vagrant minds of our primitive informants

some helps towards alertness and steadiness of attention m this to them

so new, so strange, and so tedious, a labour. The principle I have

proceeded upon is the association of ideas by similitude, contrast and

habitual connection ; and I have found this grand principle, (which is

to our cogitative what sympathy is to our emotive faculties) when

understood and applied with the requisite simplicity, to be of great

assistance to myself in guarding against vague words, whose name is

legion, and of yet more and more important assistance to my primitive-

minded respondents. In numberless instances the mutual doubts created

by the first word were removed by mere utterance of the correlative or

contrasted term ; whilst in each of the arts and crafts the clue furnished

by connexion and dependancy of parts enabled me rapidly and surely

to work onwards with the vocables. I purposed also at the same time

thus to prepare so many distinct pictures of the state of knowledge in

its several departments,* such as it is within the ken and use of the races

interrogated (an important part of my plan of absolute as well as com-

parative estimates) ; and, even when no such knowledge was to be had

in the particular case before me, I have carefully preserved the blanks,

deeming the negative almost as valuable as the positive evidence—not

to mention that, having in view application to other respondents of

different nations, it followed that the blanks in one paper might be well

filled in another. Still, the vocabulary is too large and too difficult ;

* The table of contents at the end of the Volume, or the separate headings in the

body of the vocabulary, will show at a glance how this object has been sought to

be gained. Unhappily the headings or titles have been very imperfectly struck off

at press.

1849. ] A Brief Note on Indian Ethnology. 245

and it is therefore a great object to reduce it in the complex terms

without mutilation, and also to give the essentials of grammar with the

utmost simplicity and conciseness ; and for aid to these ends I shall be

thankful, though no pains have been spared to render the whole paper

as it now stands, worthy of the Society’s acceptance and a fitting model

for future research. Of the three separate people* treated of (the Kéch,

the Bodd, and the Dhimal), I have given physical delineations of the

Bodo only, because the faintly yet distinctly marked type of the Mongoli-

ant family is similar in all three, but best expressed (so to speak) in the

Bodo features and form. I am not unaware that a great deal has been

already done in the line of research which I have now, not taken up,t

but resumed, andif I have not adopted and followed up the method of

investigation of any of the many able men who have, with reference to

my present attempt, preceded me in this field, it is not because I am

insensible of the value of those labours, but because their diversity is

quite opposed to every idea of system, where system is most needful,

and that the best system: wherefore the corrections of the Society

are solicited for my own work prior to its dissemination (as a model)

for beimg filled up by various co-operators either within the limits as-

signed to myself (if such aid can be had), or elsewhere and beyond

those limits. B. H. Hopeson.

Darjeeling, June, 1846.

—

Notr.—The great Scythic stem of the human race is divided into three primary

branches, or the Tangus, the Mongol, and the Tark. The first investigators of

this subject urgently insisted on the radical diversity of these three races: but

the most recent inquirers more incline to unitise them. Certainly there is a

Se ee

* I distinguish by language, and assume that wherever there is a broad spoken

diversity of tongue unintelligible to neighbours, there is distinct people. The value

of these spoken diversities will be hereafter determined as one general result of the

inquiry on foot.

+t Mongolian? potius Scythic.—See the appended note on the subject.

~ When I went to England in 1844, I possessed vocabularies of all the lan-

guages and dialects of Nepal: but these, with many other valuable papers, were

lost owing to circumstances I need not dwell on. I have recovered some frag-

ments, and am reconstructing the vocabularies of these dialects upon the plan above

delineated.

246 A Brief Note on Indian Ethnology. [Marcu,

strong and obvious character of physical (if not also of lingual) sameness

throughout the Scythic race; and it is remarkable that this peculiar character

belongs also to all the Aborigines of India, who may be at once known, from

the Cavery and Vigaré to the Cési and Bhagarati,* by their quasi-scythic phy-

siognomy, so decidedly opposed to the Caucasian countenance of the Arians

of India, or the Hindus. I apprehend that there will be found among the

Aborigines of India a like lingual sameness, and that very extended and very

accurate investigation will consequently alone suffice to test the real nature and

import of the double sameness, physical and lingual. That ail the Aborigines of

India are Northmen of the Scythic stem, seems decidedly and justly inferrible from

their physical characteristics. But, inasmuch as that prodigious stem is every

where found beyond the whole Northern and Eastern boundary of India, not merely

from Attok to the Brahmaputra, where these rivers cut through the Himalaya,

but from that point of the latter river all the way to the sea; and inasmuch as

there are familiar and trite Ghats or passes over the Himdlaya throughout its

course along the entire confines of India from Kashmir to the Brahma Kind, it

follows of necessity that very careful and ample investigation will alone enable us

to decide upon the question of the unity or diversity of the Aborigines of India, in

other words to decide upon the questions, whether they owe their confessed Scy~-

thic physiognomy to the Tangis, the Mongol or the Tuark branch of the Tartars

or Scythians, and whether they immigrated from beyond the Himalaya (‘‘ the hive

of all nations’’) at one period and at one point, or at several periods and at as

many points. Between Gilgit and Chittagong there are 100 passes over the Hima-

laya and its south-eastern continuation to the Bengal Bay; while for the time

of passage, there are ages upon ages before the dawn of legend and of chronicle.

I incline to the opinion that the Aborigines of the sub-Himdlayas, as far east as

the Dhansri of Assam, belong to the Tibetant stock, and east of that river to the

Chinese stock—except the Gardéds and other tribes occupying that portion of the

Hills lying between Assam and Sylhet; and that the aborigines of the ¢tarai and

forest skirting the entire sub- Himalayas, inclusive of the greater part of the marginal

circuit of the Assam Valley, belong, like those last mentioned, to the Tamulian stock

of aborigines of the plains of India generally. But what is this Tamulian stock ?

what the Tibetan stock ? and what the Chinese? and to which of the three grand

and well known branches of the Scythic tree (Tangis, Mongol, Tark) do the Ta-

mulians,’‘the Tibetans and the Chineset belong ?—I have now said enough to enforce

caution and stimulate curiosity, and I pause.

* Alpine feeder of the Ganges, not its Bengal defluent. So Alpine Cosi.

t Notices of the Languages and Literature of Nepal.

¢ The Tartars of China are Mantcharian Tangs. I allude to the Chinese proper.

ve) A

bids led %

ae Hi Ke * 7

‘ % oie Ae

. : eis Y

iy ] s. is,’

wa Pelee Calpe

RR CT

t veh hae

hort:

Orde IP w Sues DEOL EZ

LWUPREe HP shor stars

RROLLSZLOP IP Wb Kel AL

7b 2OcD © & VY ©9 Lo VAR a hee

X id

1849. ] On an Inscription from Keddah. 247

On an Inscription from Keddah, by Lieut.-Col. Low.

I have the pleasure to forward to you, to be presented to the

Asiatic Society, a fac-simile of another inscription, in the same

character apparently as that m which one of the inscriptions lately

transmitted to you by me was couched, and which I found very lately,

and after that last had been forwarded.

It may not however be of much importance, and I apprehend may

prove but some religious text of the Buddhists or some other sects.

It was lying under the centre of the foundation of a ruin of an ancient

brick buildmg in Keddah, near Buket Murriam. This building had

been very small, not more than 10 or 12 feet square. When I

raised the slab of stone, it was coated with atenaceous film of carbonate

of lime, produced by the coral stones of the foundation having decom-

posed. The stone being a sort of slate, this has enabled me to bring

out all the letters (a few only being at first visible) by the application

of nitric acid. The inscription is in perfect preservation.

I have the pleasure also to send another piece of the Singapore stone ;

there are several ponderous masses remaining, but that part of the

inscription which are on them are the most defaced. I will try how-

ever, when I have leisure, to copy such parts as are at all capable of

being taken off, but the stone is so rough that this will be difficult to

accomplish, |

Note on the foregoing.

Col. Low’s inscription possesses, I think, sufficient interest to warrant

the insertion of a reduced fac-simile in the Journal, and I give it ac-

cording in Plate X. There is no difficulty in recognising in the first

two lines the well known formula Ye dharmma hetu prabhavd, &c. ;

but, if I am not mistaken, it is in a form of the Sanskrit alphabet much

older than any in which it has been discovered elsewhere. We have in

the Museum—thanks to the zeal of Capt. Kittoe—a goodly assortment

of Buddhist sculptures from Behar, containing these verses mostly in the

Kutila modification of the Sanskirt character, which belongs to the

248 On an Inscription from Keddah. {Marcu,

tenth century of the Christian era ; while that of Col. Low’s inscription

corresponds very closely with the alphabet assigned to the fifth century

in Prinsep’s paleeographic table (J. A. S. Vol. VII. pl. XIII).

_ Another point of interest in Col. Low’s inscription is the subsitution

of a different couplet for that which usually follows the lines above

alluded to. Mr. Hodgson long ago remarked* that there is no necessary

connection between the two couplets; and Prinsep stated,+ on the

authority of Ratna Pala, that another series of verses follows the Ye

dharmma, &c., in the daily service of the temples in Ceylon. In the

expectation that the lines in Col. Low’s inscription would prove to be

those of the Ceylon ritual, I sent for Ratna Pala and showed him my

transcription: but he seemed to have forgotten all about the matter,

and was unable to supply me from memory with the verses referred to,

or to recognise their identity with those of the inscription.

The subjoined ig a transcript of the verses in the Deva nagari cha-

racter :—

4 wat SaINaT AIT La TaTAT

aut a at feu td aet aeraay

WwaMlaa AH HAA Ay ACU

Sarg fara aw aw Waa waa

‘* Whatever moral actions arise from cause, the cause ot them has

been explained by TaruaGata. What is the check to these actions, is

thus set forth by the great Sramana. Vice promotes action, and

action is the cause of transmigration. He who, through knowledge,

performs no action, is not subject to its effects.”

It will be observed that the first line of the latter couplet is identical

with one in an inscription from the same neighborhood published in the

July number of the last volume of the Journal.

On the subject of the doctrme here propounded, Rajendralél hands

me the following note :

«This is but another version of the maxim inculcated by Krishna

and other vedantic preachers on the uselessness of Karma (religi-

ous action origimating in the hope of recompence) as a means of

* J. A.S. Vol. TV., p. 211.

+ Ibid, p. 138.

1849. | Note on Iron Tension Bridges. 249

salvation. The Hindu sages however maintain “rajaguna” (the qua-

lity of passion) and not ‘‘¢amas’’ (darkness or vice) to be the cause of

transmigration; but as the consequences of both raas and tamas are

borne in inferior states of existence, which necessarily imply repeated

birth, the disagreement is not of any great. importance.”—J. W. L.

Note on Iron Tension Bridges, by the Rev. J. H. Prarr.

To the Editors of the Journal of the Asiatic Society.

Since my return to Calcutta after an absence of four months I have

observed that my friend Major Goodwyn has forwarded to you an

article on Iron Tension Bridges, which you have printed in your number

for October last. In this article he does me the favour of noticing with

approval the Memoir I sent you at the beginning of the same year, on

the “ Quantity of Iron necessary in a Tension Chain Bridge.”

The sole object of my troubling you with the present brief commu-

nication, is to pomt out that Major Goodwyn has made my Memoir

say more than I intended it should. In his para. 2 he observes as

follows upon the property which I had demonstrated :—

“2. This is a very important conclusion; but whilst I freely admit the

soundness of the doctrine, I am not fully satisfied as to the correctness

of the writer’s practical deductions therefrom ; viz. that the old system

of suspension, consisting of a uniform chain and vertical drop-bars, is

the most proper for adoption under all circumstances.” (See p. 413,

Vol. for 1848 ; the zfalics are mine.)

But I have taken only one circumstance into account in my Memoir,

and have pronounced an opinion upon ¢hat only ; viz. the consideration

of the quantity of metal employed in the construction of the Bridge.

Some persons had strongly asserted that one advantage of the new

system was considerable economy of metal. This gave an importance to

the conclusion to which my calculation led.

Tn endeavoring to come to a decision upon the merits of the Taper-

Chain system, when compared with the Common Chain, there are several

considerations which must be borne in mind and well examined—such

as regard, for instance, the elegance of the structure, the convenience

2 ue

250 Note on Iron Tension Bridges. [Marcu,

of water-way, the stability or steadiness of the bridge, its durability,

as well as the quantity of metal required in its construction. It was to

the last only of these considerations to which my Memoir referred ;

and after enunciating the exact theoretical result to which I came, the

practical conclusion was stated. thus :—

“The economy of iron will be practically greatest in bridges where

the varieties* of tension are least. ‘This tells, then, in a practical point

of view, against the Taper-Chain system, in the question Taper-Chain

versus Common Chain Bridge.”

But the Common Chain Bridge might be considered far less elegant,

or less convenient for the passage of boats under it, or less durable, or

less stable than the Taper-Chain Bridge for any thing my demonstra-

tion had proved. It was only on the Economy of Iron that I touched.

I purposely confined myself to this one point, that I might avoid

being involved in controversy. And I thought I was safe from this, as

the proof of the proposition I enunciated is a mere piece of geometry ;

and the brief practical inference from it is so obvious that no one can

doubt its truth.

At the time of my committing this demonstration to paper at the

request of another friend,+ who also proposed that it should be printed:

I had begun to take up the question of the comparative stability or

steadiness of the two systems, especially when heavy weights pass along

the roadway, and its parts are suecessively pressed down ; and not si-

multaneously, as when the bridge is loaded uniformly from end to end,

by the greatest weight it can ever have to sustain. This view of the

subject might have been favourable to the Taper-Chain system. But, I

am sorry to say, that I found the subject so inviting, and therefore my

* By ‘‘ varieties,’’ I did not mean changes of tension in the same bar as different

weights were placed on the bridge, but ‘‘ varieties of tension’’ in considering the

various parts of the bridge at any one instant. Thus, for example, in the common

Chain Bridge with vertical suspending rods, the strains of these rods, when the

bridge is uniformly loaded, are nearly the same, there is no variety : whereas in the

oblique suspending rods in the Taper-Chain, those near the centre are far more

strained than those near the ends of the bridge; i. e. there is a greater variety of

tension. I have no reason for supposing that the expression I used has been mis-

understood. But we never lose any thing by adding to the perspicuity of our

language—especially in such subjects as the present.

+ Colonel Forbes.

1849.] Note on Iron Tension Bridges. 251

time and thoughts so much in danger of being engrossed by it, at the

expense of more important matters, that I felt obliged to tear up what

notes I had written. I mention it now only to show that I never con-

ceived that the Memoir you printed for me in your number for January

1848 had entered upon the whole subject ; but only upon that part of

it which I took care tonotify, and which appertains to the Quantity of

Metal required in the construction.

P. S.—Since sending you the above my eye has alighted upon a

passage in Major Goodwyn’s article, which explains various expressions

which he has in other parts used in reference to my Memoir, and

which before puzzled me much, as perhaps they have puzzled others

who may have read both communications.

In opening the exposition of his ‘ Resultant System,” he says,

- (p. 419) :—* I will now proceed to explain a system which only pro-

poses to do what the formule in Mr. Pratt’s Memoir says may be

done.’ But there are no formule in my Memoir; nor is any thing

said about formule ; nor is any reference made to any; nor inference

drawn from any. The Memoir is, as I have said, a mere piece of geo-

metry, leading to a remarkable general principle regarding the amount

of tension in a suspension bridge of any kind, Taper-Chain or not, and

therefore the quontity of metel necessary for its construction. The

demonstration stands alone, and is independent of all hypothesis regard-

ing the form of the bridge.

This, therefore, convinces me that Major Goodwyn must have some

other paper in his mind : and that in writing his article he has had both

that and the Memoir before him, and has treated them as one.

In 1843, when public attention was being called in India to the sub-

ject of Taper-Chain Bridges, I gave my voice decidedly against Mr.

Dredge’s system, to friends with whom I conversed upon the matter,

as utterly impracticable, as well as unscientific: and I drew up some ma-

thematical formulze which might be applied to prove the truth of my

assertions, and also to calculate the strains in theory of the various parts

of a suspension bridge constructed upon any principle whatever. These

formulze where applied to several examples, among others to the projected

Balee Khal Bridge: and as they are now referred to for the first time

im your Journal (in the article I am noticing) I may mention as an

evidence of their correctness, that, among other results to which they

252 Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. |[Marcu,

led, they pointed out that the tendency of the road-way, even should it

stand, would be to sink in the middle—which any one who visits the

bridge and views it from the river will see is the case: and also that

the bridge would not stand, unless the middle link of the chain were

considerably strengthened. This last has had a double verification 5

first in the lamentable fall of the structure ; and, secondly, in its subse-

quent permanence since being reconstructed with the double central link

which it now has.

These formule were printed, I think, in 1846, (but without any ex-

planation of the manner in which they were to be used,)* as an Ap-

pendix to an important Report on the causes of the failure of the

Balee Khal Bridge, and the method of its re-construction, in the Trans-

actions of the Royal Engineers. No direct reference was made to the

formule in the Report itself: they were added probably for future use.

These then must be, I conceive, the formule which Major Goodwyn

has in his mind in the passage I have quoted from his article of Octo-

ber last. But my Memoir has no connexion with them whatever :

nor have I ever put in print any deductions from the formule till

induced to do so in the present communication.

Calcutta, March 28th, 1849.

A Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms in India, being Storms

of the China Seas from 1842 to 1847, and some of the Northern

Pacific Ocean, from 1797. By Henry Pippineton, President of

Marine Courts of Enquiry, Calcutta.

[Concluded from page 45. |

Track 8.

Ros Roy’s Manila Tyfoon of 13th Nov. 1847.

The Rob Roy, which vessel was dismasted on the 18th November in

the Cyclone laid down in the proceding section, met with another

* An explanation was subsequently sent to the Publisher of the Transactions

to supply this deficiency as soon as I was aware that the formule had been made

public.

1849. | Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. 253

Tyfoon, in which she was nearly driven from her anchors, and wrecked

at the entrance of Manila Bay. At Manila this Cyclone was very des-

tructive.

Abridged extract from the Log of the Barque Ros Roy, Capé. Francis.

Civil Time.

On the 12th November the Rob Roy anchored at 6 P.M. in a calm in 22

fs. at the entrance of Manila Bay, with the flagstaff on Corregidor bearing

S. S. E. and veered to 45 fs.; a strong breeze springing up from the N. W.

let go best bower and veered to 90 fs. on small and 75 on best bower. Midnight

hard gale with dark gloomy weather ; sea washing over the vessel fore and aft,

Bar. marked 29.80 6 P. M.; 29.50 at 83; 29.30 at 11, 29. 20 at 1 a. M.

13th Nov.—1 a.m. small bower parted. At 2 the height ofthe Tyfoon, Ther.

78°, Bar. 29.20 ; at 4 more moderate; 11 a.m. weighed and made sail for Manila.

During the Tyfoon the wind was from N. N. W. to N, E. b. N. and died

away atS. W.

REMARKS.

This veering of the wind would seem to indicate a track from the

N. 3 E. to the S. + W., but we are rather embarrassed to judge of it by

what follows, that it “died away at 8. 8. W.” which would make the

Cyclone curve up to the N. W. round Punta Luzon, unless we consider

the vessel’s position, which was that of being anchored in a narrow chan-

nel, and during the whole time under the lee of the high mountain,

of Maribeles, the termination of the lofty coast chain which runs

down to the Bay of Manila. The Island of Corregidor also, so near to

which the vessel was latterly drifted, that as Captain Francis informs

me, the back wave from the rocks was felt, is high, and thus the vessel

was completely under its lee when the wind came in that direction. The

winds moreover in the entrance to a large bay like that of Manila, may

be so variously deflected by the coasts that unless blowing with violence

we can scarcely venture upon any deduction.

I have thus marked this track as one coming down from the N. }

E. to the S.2 W. The seaman will understand however that this is

to some extent conjectural.

Barque Kasurain’s Cyclone off the Mindoro Channel, and Straits of

St. Bernadino.

I obtamed the Log of this Cyclone after my chart was completed,

and have thus been unable to include it, but as it occurred in a part of

954 Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. | Marcu,

the China Sea much frequented at that season of the year in which the

Palawan Passage is adopted, and is, though not of any great severity,

corroborative of the tendency of the tracks here to the Westward, I

have not thought it right to omit noting it, especially as the fall of the

Barometer was as much as 0. 4. in fifteen hours, and we have only

hereabouts, as yet, the two Cyclones of the American ship Panama,

laid down from Mr. Redfield, in the sixth of these Memoirs.

Abridged Extract from the Log of the Barque Easurain, Capt. J.

SHIRE, from Singapore to China—reduced to Civil Time.

The Easurain was on the 11th Nov, 1847 in 11° 40’ North ; Long. 118° 45’

East ; Bar. 29.76; Ther. 84, with the wind W. b. N., a fresh breeze and squalls

to midnight, with a head swell; vessel standing to the N. N. E,

12th Nov.—a, m. the same to noon; wind hauling to N. West, when Lat. by

Acct. 12° 39’ N.; Long, 119° 27’ E,; Bar. 29.75 ; Ther. 86, and wind increas-

ing. p.m. Wind N. W. increasing to half a gale, with a high sea, and at night

threatening with hazy weather and drizzling rain ; prepared every thing for bad

weather. Midnight severe squalls with rain and furious gusts.

13th Nov.—At 3 a. M. Bar, 29.35. At daylight the same weather; 7 a. m,

wind S. W., and at Noon W. S. W. when Lat. indiff. Obs. 13° 10’ N.; Long.

119° 06’ East; Pp. m, wind moderated at W.S. W. and South.

On the 14th fine weather; Lat, 15° 07’ ; Long. 119.0 East,

It might at first sight be supposed that this Cyclone, occurring on the

same date and so near to that of the Rob Roy’s just noticed, has some

connection with it, but it will be seen on comparing them that the Rod

Roy anchored at 6 p. m. on the 12th m a calm, while at this time the

Hasurain at 120 miles distant had already half a gale at N. W., and

that midnight only it was a hard gale with the Rod Roy from about

N. N. W. to N. W., as well as we can judge from her note. The

veering of the wind also with the Hasurain is that of a Cyclone travel-

ling out of the Straits of Mindoro, or of St. Bernadino, on a Westerly

course, and cannot be reconciled to the track supposed for the Rod

Roy’s, which by its duration also (about 10 p. mM. to 6 A. M.) was of |

very small dimensions, or passing very rapidly, while the Hasurain’s

lasted 20 to 24 hours. Had the two Cyclones been but one it must

have commenced sooner with the Rod Roy, and the shift or veering

with the Hasurain should have been into the N. E. quadrant, and not

into the S. E. one. On all these grounds then 1 should take them as

1849. | Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. 255

separate Cyclones occurring at a time when, as will be seen in the fol-

lowing section, great atmospheric derangements were prevalent there-

about. I therefore consider it as an East and West track passing a

little to the Northward of the Hasurain’s position on the 13th, or in

Lat. 13° 30’ North.

Track T.

Easurain’s Tyfoon in the China Sea and Bashee Passage,

Nov. 18th to 21st 1847.

I am indebted to Capt. Shire not only for his log book and Chart,

but further for much verbal information and a valuable memorandum

on the appearances of the weather, which I shall quote largely in the

summary following the Log. This Cyclone furnishes us not only with

a new track for the Tyfoons of the China Sea, but moreover for a most

remarkable anomalous instance thereof; in a Cyclone travelling to the

Northward and then (being as I suppose deflected by the high land

of Formosa) curving off to the westward of the meridian!—the first

Cyclone which we have found so travelling* in the Eastern Hemisphere,

though in the West Indies in the corresponding latitudes this is their

common course.

Abridged Log of the Barque Easurain, Capt. W. H. Suire, from

Singapore to China, reduced to Civil Time.

On the 16th Nov. the Hasurain was at noon in Lat. 17° 03’ North; Long.

119° 45’ E.; Bar. 29.70 ; Ther. 82,° with a moderate breeze and fine weather ;

2p. M. wind increasing with a high sea and vessel preparing gradually for bad

weather,

17th Nov.—a. m.to Noon wind increasing and weather growing worse,

Barometer having fallen to 29.39. ; Ther. 82°. Wind steady at North; Lat.

Acct. 17° 13’; Long. 119° 41’ E.; p,m. gale increasing from North with

great violence, veering to N, W. b. N. at 10 p. m.; midnight a hurricane,

18th Nov.—a. M. wind still increasing, laid too under bare poles; 3 a. M.

_ Bar. 29.04. Daylight it fell calm but no sail made, and it soon after sprung up

from the 8. W. again with fearful squalls and torrents of rain. Ship making

bad weather, scudded under foresail and fore topsail. Noon Lat. 18° 04! N.;

Long. 119° 02’ E, ; Bar. 29.29; Ther. 82. P.M. gale continuing ; 7 Pp. M,

* The meagre and uncertain notice of the Don Juan’s at page 33, I have already

noticed as one which we cannot rely upon, though from this it seems now probable.

peti Vr

256 Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. [ Marcu,

broached to, carried away boats, &c. ; continued to scud till midnight with the

wind still at South.

19th Nov.—At 2 a. mM. Foresail blew away and the ship was compelled to

heave to again ; Noon Lat. 19° 10’ North ; Long. 119° 30’ East; Bar. 29.42 ;

Ther. 79.0. Pp. M. wind South ; Tyfoon till midnight and ship driving to the

Northward.

20¢h Nov.—Wind still at South, somewhat moderated. Daylight kept away

to repair damages. Noon Lat. 20° 217 N.; Long. 120° 13’ East; Bar. 29.45.

Wind still at South. At Noon hurricane came on still more severe witha

cross turbulent sea rendering it dangerous torun. At 2 P.™. hove too, Sunset

more violent to midnight. Ship from 2 p. mM, driving to the Northward at the

rate of about 3’ per hour on to the Vele Rete* rocks, the violence of the wind and

sea being such that it was impossible to steer any kind of course to clear them.

21st Nov.—Midnight suddenly fell calm, a calm of the most dangerous des-

cription, as the ship was rolling helplessly with a tremendous lee sea; Bar. falling

to 29.25. At1a.M.a faint air sprang up from the Northward ; set the close

reefed fore-top-sail to get her head to the Westward, but had hardly done so

when a most dreadful hurricane burst upon the ship from the Northward, laying

her upon her beam ends and exposing her deck entirely to the previous heavy

sea from the Southward ;+ and at the same time a frightful sea came rolling

down from the Northward ; lost fore and main topmasts ; ship now drifting to the

Southward again; Noon Lat. 20° 33’ N.; Long. 120° 30’ East; Bar. rising to

29.50; p. Mm. wind North but moderating ; ship lying too till midnight.

22nd Nov.—a, M. Daylight moderating ; made some sail. True course made

W.3N.; Noon Lat, 20° 29’ N.; Long. 110° 37’ East; Bar. 29.76. Ther.

78.00. p.m. wind N. E.; moderate gale with a cross turbulent sea; at mid-

night moderate.

23rd Nov.—Lat. Noon 20° 17’ N.; Long. 118° 15’ East; Bar. 29.84.

Ther. 80. Ship arrived at Hong Kong on the 25th.

Captain SuirE has enhanced the great value of his contribution to

our science by the following notes on the appearances of the weather,

the sea, the compasses, §c., which I print with some slight abridge-

ments, entire, before giwing my own remarks :

On leaving Singapore on 26th Oct. 1847, from the entrance of Singapore

strait until on the coast of Palaworn, 10th Nov. had remarkably clear

* So in the Charts, the proper name no doubt is the Spanish Las Velas Rotas ;

(the torn sails.) 5

+ See further the remarks on this dangerous incident of a lee-sea in the height of

a Cyclone.

1849. | Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. 257.

weather with calms, the high peaks of the Natunas having a peculiarly shar-

pened clear appearance, and all the other land that we passed appeared to be

much more elevated, and was visible to a greater distance than usual. On the

change of the moon the appearances altered, and indistinct flashes of lightning

were visible, without any’ dark clouds, but on the next day a very heavy

squall came on suddenly and disappeared as quickly again, leaving the air as

calm and clear as before; but the most remarkable circumstance of the voyage

was the remarkably clear and well defined appearance of the horizon at night.

Although at the period when the moon shews least light, it seemed as if some

artificial or phosphoric light were present relieving, the natural dimness which

more or Jess prevails about the horizon line at night; and in all quarters the

stars were as distinctly seen rising and setting as the sun at sunrise, or as the

moon when she sets, When I told the Singaporg people of this on my return

they said that itis a general precursor of a tyfoon in the China Sea, and my

own experience in the Arabian sea, where I saw the same thing, confirms me in °

thinking that it deserves to be noted.

On clearing the reefs, and’ arriving on the coast of Lucan the weather became

thick and drizzly, and we had hardly time to get ready by sending down the upper

spars before it came on most furiously, first at N. W. then veered to West, and

finally to S, W., at which point about daylight on the morning it fell a calm, but

it was a calm of a different description from occurrences of the same kind after

ordinary gales. The whole atmosphere appeared as one thick curtain (without a

break any where) of thick fog-bank, if I may use the expression, blending the

water and sky in one continued mass, and accompanied by that dull, melancholy

sound described in the Horn Book. It remained this way for half an hour, and

then freshened up rapidly. and commenced to whistle and roar as it had previously

done, and brought a succession of dreadful squalls rendering it impossible to look

to windward a moment. It lasted altogether about 36 hours, veered to S, E,

and died away as we ran out of it: as the log book shews, - We fell in with

another in four or five days afterwards, which commenced from the North and

N. W. also, but with clear weather, the only angry looking clouds were those

collected on the top of the range of mountains which run North and South on

Luconia, at the same time that the lower parts were distinctly visible. Another

sign which I have noticed in the Arabian sea; and in the Bay of Bengal

also, is a very thin transparent cloud that flies generally high up, but with

much greater velocity than any other clouds present, and as if it was torn from

some larger fragment of the same kind as itself, The Barometer gives but

very little warning there, and only falls apparently as the gale increases.

When it veered to South, again put the vessel away before it and scudded her

until she broached to, and we could scud her no longer ; we then lay to and were

driven, whether we would or not, in the direction of the Vele Rete rocks. It

2uU2

258 Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. {Marcu,

was hopeless to try and keep her away, as she would not pay off, and had the

calm centre not providentially passed over us again, the ship and all on board

in another half an hour would in all probability have perished.

The calm was precisely of the same description as the former one, but it shift-

ed more suddenly, and the shock, roar and fury of the wind was more instanta-

neous, and terrible; the vessel was thrown on her broadside and the deck

was instantly filled by the previous overwhelming sea that rushed in from the

Southward, which must soon have torn to pieces any vessel if exposed to its

fury long, but fortunately with the Northerly wind there came a perfect deluge of

rain which speedily reduced the previous sea, and kept the new one from

rising.

The Barometer rose rapidly as the rage of the Cyclone passed on, and by day-

light next morning there was,a decided improvement in the appearance of the

weather,

I will mention another circumstance that may be perhaps interesting, as it was

certainly new and startling to me, and that was that we could get none of our

compasses to remain steady, but at every succeeding burst of those heavy squalls

they spun round and round eight points at a time, and we had no other means

of steering but by the roll of the sea and the feel of the wind upon the back

part of the head, and this continued for some time after the gale had passed, and

rendered the approach to the land upon any safe course very precarious. Ropes

on board of a ship that are kept at a great degree of tension, such as the Royal

halyards, I have frequently noticed previous to the coming on of a breeze when

the weather is apparently very fine, emit a peculiar kind of singing noise, and

although it may seem whimsical to say so, whenever I hear it I begin to look

round and see that all is ready for emergencies, as on two or three occasions of

unsuspected bad weather, whether accidentally or not, I have noticed this pecu-

liarity.

REMARKS.

This Cyclone deserves our most careful consideration on many ac-

counts, but principally from its being the first authentic record we have

of a Cyclone curving off to the Westward when approaching the tropic ;

though it had already been conjectured by Mr. Redfield, Col. Reid and

myself* from analogy that this might take place on the coast of China.

We find, then, that on the 17th, the Hasurain was at about 40 miles

from the Western Coast of Luconia, in 17°13’ North, witha gale from

the North, which at 10 Pp. m. veered toN. W. b. N., and at midnight

was a hurricane.

* Horn Book for the Eastern Seas, p. 24.

1849. ] Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. 259

At this last time therefore the centre must apparently have been to the

N. E. b. E. of her, either inland or upon the coast of Luzon, (taking

it to have been only 80 miles in diameter in the last case,) and as from

midnight to daylight when it fell calm, the vessel was lying too, she had

not made much distance to the Southward. Capt. Shire’s Chart places

her about this time in Lat. 16°55’; Long. 119° 35’; and the shift

here was from N. W. b. N. to the 8. W. This would show a track

off the land, but I learn from Capt. Shire that it drew to N. N. W.

and West before it sprung up at 8S. W. veering to South by Noon, when

the vessel had run 69 miles to the Northward, as she had reached

18°04 North. |

It would seem then, that at this time, or from midnight to nearly

Noon, the Cyclone had either been forming or descending* about the

ship’s position, or it may, not improbably, have been forcing its way over

the high land of Luconia, and this, whether formed upon the land, or as is

also probable coming in from the Northern Pacific, as the Cyclones of the

Bay of Bengal cross the Peninsula of India and descend on the Arabian

Ocean. I have sufficiently remarked in other places} on the irregulari-

ties which may and do take place in the wind circles when a Cyclone

is in the neighbourhood of high land, so that I do not deem it necessary

to repeat these observations here to shew that we cannot from the mere

direction of the wind when so close in with the coast, ascertain correctly

the bearing of the centre, especially when, as in this case, the body of

the Cyclone is partly or wholly upon the land.

I take then the place of the centre at this time only, viz. daylight on

the 18th, as the first positively well defined position for it, and we find

that from this time to Noon of the 19th, she was scudding before it

until compelled to heave to with the wind due South, blowing a Tyfoon ;

the vessel alternately heaving or broaching to, or bearing up to scud, as

her distress allowed, nor did this vary till midnight of the 21st, when it

fell calm.

* “ Forming or descending.’’ My present theory is, (see Sailor’s Horn Book,)

that Cyclones are rarely if ever found at the surface of the earth, but in the atmos-

phere above, and that they descend in disk-like whirls to the surface of the land or

ocean.

{ See Memoirs and Sailor’s Horn Book, p. 76.

260 Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. |Mareu,

The Barometer we find was on the 16th at 29.71, and had fallen to

29.39 at Noon of the 17th, and at 3 a. m. of the 18th, it was at 29.04

before and during the calm, and rose again to 29.29 at Noon, shewing

that though the wind was rapidly veering from N. N. W. to West, by

S. W. to South, and the vessel therefore in the Southern and Eastern

verges of the calm centre, yet the Cyclone itself was travelling out to

the Westward. On the 19th, the Bar. is noted as at 29.45, which

shews, so far as the Barometer enables us to form any judgment when

so near the centre, that for this day and a half, or two days, the Cyclone

was running up with the ship, and its fall again from 29.45 at Noon to

29.25 at midnight of the 20th—21st shews also that it was again ap-

proaching the vessel and curving off to the Eastward past the South

point of Formosa, so as to bring the Hasurain again into the calm centre.

During this remarkable track the centre of the Cyclone must have

been to the Westward of the ship throughout, and it must have been

also travelling at a slow rate, since the vessel’s drift when hove too was

sufficient to keep the wind always about South, and it is only during

her first run that she brought the wind as far as S. E.; her subsequent

bearing up being only for about five hours at six knots per hour. We

may infer however from this that the Cyclone was of some considerable

extent, and its centre at some distance, for had it been small and the

centre close, the wind would necessarily have been more variable, and.

its direction have altered quickly with the vessel’s position within the

storm circle. On this account then, I conceive that we cannot allow

tlie centre to have been on an average at less than 75 miles to the West

of the ship, giving to the whole Cyclone a diameter of 150 miles. —

_The track, as I have said before, must be one nearly parallel to the

vessel’s course and then curving rapidly over to the Eastward towards

midnight, 21st,—~22nd. Capt. Shire having carefully given on his Chart

the position of the vessel at midnight as being in Lat. 21° 16°; Long.

120° 38,’ we are enabled to estimate the rate of travelling of the Cyclone

with some degree of accuracy, for as the distance from this point to day-

light of the 18th, is about 270 miles in a strait line, with allowance for

the curving of the storm as I have marked its track, we may call it 300

miles. This distance it took 90 hours, from 6 a. m. 18th to midnight of

21st,—22nd, to travel, so that its rate of progress did not exceed per

hour 3.3 miles.

1849. | Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. 261

We come now to the calm of midnight 21st,—22nd, and the subsequent

shift to the North, which is evidently that of a Cyclone travelling to the

Hastward, and the wind is marked North to Noon of the 22nd, after

which it became N. E. and the Barometer having risen to 29.76, we can-

not consider this as any part of the Cyclone which no doubt passed off to

the East and N. W., or was perhaps exhausted or lifted up, to judge of

the comparative short duration of its Western side.

As this Cyclone, like that of the Pluto’s, is an especially instructive

one, I have placed the track of the ship from Capt. Shire’s chart and

that of the Cyclone as I have laid it down on the large Chart in a

separate compartment, so as to enable the reader to study it with atten-

tion. The remarkable track of this Cyclone, as far as it relates to its

nearly meridional course, we have an analogous instance of in the

Eastern Hemisphere, in that of the Cleopatra as analysed in the

Fifteenth of these Memoirs, and in the Western Hemisphere we have

the Cyclones of the West Indies coming in from the Atlantic and

curving off on the coast of North America, from the Floridas to Boston

or Newfoundland, and then going off again into the Atlantic. Hence

we must not be surprised that we have now found an instructive instance

of this recurving near the Coast of China, though in a lower latitude

than we might have expected. There are two or three other matters

noticed in Capt. Shire’s remarks on these Cyclones, which will deserve

attention, and of these the first is the appearance of the atmosphere

and land in the China Sea, which was so readily recognised by the resi-

dents of Singapore as the precursor of a Tyfoon, and has long been

known generally to be so. ‘This note on the appearance of the horizon

and the stars is worthy of much attention, for every sailor who is accus-

tomed to night observations knows how rare a good horizon is, and that

it often requires a keen eye and much practice to enable him to say he

can conscientiously depend upon them.

The peculiar moaning noise to which I have referred in various of

these Memoirs, was recognised by Capt. Shire, when in the calm centre

of his first Cyclone. We have hitherto only known of it at the approach

of the Cyclones, but there is no doubt it exists, and it furnishes thus a

good warning sign.

Captain Shire furnishes us also with a very clear and remarkable

example of the case to which I have elsewhere alluded of a ship being

262 Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. [Marcu,

instantaneously thrown by the shift of wind on her beam ends against,

and with her deck towards the sea; so as to be for a time and until

the rain and opposing wind had somewhat abated the fury of the rollers

(for that is the appearance the sea then takes) like a vessel on a reef,

which has fallen over to seaward, and no seaman can doubt I think

of the necessity of every precaution being taken to meet this fearful

complication of dangers should it perchance arise.

The remarks on the effect of the sudden bursts of the squalls on the

compasses are new* and deeply interesting, inasmuch as they go far to

shew that the Cyclones are purely electrical phenomena, though of this

we want much more confirmation ; and I have little doubt that when

attention of seamen is properly directed to the numerous signs and

effects of Cyclones which have been hitherto unobserved or casually

mentioned, or forgotten when the storm was over, we shall have a large

harvest of novel and important facts. In the meantime every intelligent

seaman, and every friend to science will I am sure join with me in ex-

pressing our great obligations to Capt. Shire for this addition to our

knowledge.

Track U. |

Shanghae Tyfoon, July, 1848.

While preparing this Memoir for the press I received from Mr.

A. R. Elliot, Master of H. M. S. Childers, a very full report on a Cy-

clone which passed over that place on the 18th July, 1848, and shortly

before a letter from Commander J. C. Dalrymple Hay, of H. M. 8,

Columbine, with copy of a carefully kept meteorological register at Amoy

from the 18th to the 25th of July, and some especially valuable remarks

on the weather and appearances. From the first of these two documents

we can estimate pretty nearly the track of this Cyclone, which is still

farther to the North than any one we have as yet registered. Mr. Elliot’s

note, with some little abridgment, is as follows :—

Notes on the Cyclone which passed over Shanghae on the 20th of

July 1848, taken on board H, M. 8S. Childers, by A. R. Exxiott,

Esq. Master, R. N.

On Tuesday the 18th, fresh breezes and steady at S. E. (force of wind 5 to 6)

B. C. Q. Barometer rather unsteady and falling from 29.73 at Noon to 29.68 at

6 Pp. M., where it remained until midnight ; wind at this time 4; B. C.

1849. | Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. 263

On Wednesday 19th, wind light and unsteady from S. E. to Hast 3; B. C.; at 6

A. M. Bar. 29.67; at noon E. S. E.4;B.C.; Bar. 29.67. At6e.m. E.N.E.

' 5; B. C.; Bar. 29.66 ; between which and 8 p. M. the wind shifted to North 4; B.C.;

at 11 N. by E. and at midnight N. BE. 5; B.C, Bar. 29.59.

On Thursday 20th wind N. E. Fresh and squally, overcast and cloudy with

drizzling rain. At 5 a. M. struck topgallant-masts ; pointed yards tothe wind. At

6 A. M. wind increasing with squalls; force wind 7; gloomy with drizzling rain.

At 6Ga.m.windN. E.6to7 Bar. 29.47. Struck topgallant-masts,

2) ay » N.E.6to7Q ,, 29.35. Bent sheet cable, blowing very fresh

in squalls.

Gai uN. & jrnys 29-33,

ate eg IN. Bs ayers, 29.00, Rain.

» 945,, 5 BL. N.E.,, ,, 4, 29.27. Struck lower yards and topmasts ;

blowing hard and looking very

wild and threatening.

Pane Ne OS ages:

rig. EWR SS, 29.78.

Beer ee OO Ny. 29.14.

ie fC er 4 9» 99 99 29.07. Let go sheet anchor and veered half

a shackle.

”7 12.10 ,, ”? ” 93 9999) 2000s

pote: ee o 9 ,, ,, 28.96. Blowing hard force; 9 looking very

wild the sky covered with murky

oem Pew, 5, NE. by Ni, 55 9)» 20-00- clouds almost impervious with

rain,

Blowing hard force 9.

» 1.50, 4, E.N.E.,, ,, ,, 28.76. Moderated suddenly, scarcely any

wind, almost a Calm, looking

finer. The country completely

inundated ; nothing to be seen but

the houses and the trees standing

out of the water: as it was low-

water here to-day about 12-35,

this enormous rise must have been

forced up against the ebb, and is

now at least 20 feet above low-

water mark !

» 2.6 P.M. E. S. E. moderate. 28.76. Wind came round to E. S. E. with

sunshine and showers ; country

completely inundated.

20) yy BN. EB 28.76. Very little wind; light breeze, no

rain.

a0 ,, S.s. W. pia 28.76. Very light airs.

eee 5, > Sa W 4 28.76. Wind S. S. W., beginning to blow in

puffs, no rain, looking very wild;

Bar. having been stationary some

time seems inclined to rise.

woele 5, ° 8. WW by 8, 7.Q. 28.76. Blowing hard in puffs.

Pei oS: S. We :8t09 28.83. Blowing hard in gusts and squalls,

Bar. rising rapidly ; looking very

wild.

9 oece » 8S. S. W. ‘s 28.86, Bar. rising rapidly. Blowing hard

in puffs, the tide falling very fast,

although the stream of flood is run-

ning up strong, the wind from its

present quarter forces it out of this

river; high water this evening at

6-30 P, M,

Seventeenth Memoir on

3.41 ,, Ss. S. W. A 28.91.

ais hai A by Berl; 28.99.

ALD: 92 aes ‘a 29.04.

mee) Vis sly" 29.07.

54" SUG W. Sito 6. 29.73.

Bes Gr WiShiGaay re 29.17.

6.00 ,, S.S.W. Bar 29.22.

gape Pa aeiegy Pe > 29.26.

6.40 ,, & 29.29.

f 6 99 99 9 29.32.

7210; South 43 53

hes aa South a5 29.34.

7:32.) “South »',, 29.35.

TAOS; South A 29.37.

Si00e;, oe! Say dy, 4 29.40.

8:22); Si. Sie 3e 29.49.

10. ,, S. E. (GQ. P. 6to7)

| by a 6to7 29.57.

2lst at6a.m.S.E.3 B.C. 29.74.

at Noon S.S. E.5 B.C. 29.70.

the Law of Storms. | Marcu,

Blowing hard about force 9, in squalls.

Tide falling fast, the wind since it

shifted to the southward forcing it

out of the river against the flood,

as fast as the wind before had forced

it up against the ebb.

Blows harder in the puffs, but moder-

ates more than it did (and for a

longer period) between them, look-

ing wild; water falling.

Gusts less frequent with long lulls

between them, when it is almost

calm, sun just now shining out,

weather gloomy and murky ; scud

flying rapidly from S. S. W.

Blowing fresh in puffs.

Blowing moderately fresh, but the same

dark murky and almost impervious

clouds, lighted here and there a little

by the sun behind them, raining fast,

becoming calm between the puffs.

Blowing fresh ; about 5 force; cloudy

with rain.

Moderating to 4 force, with steady

rain.

Dark and gloomy with fresh gusts and

very heavy rain.

Long intervals of little wind between

the squalls, but they appear to in-

crease in strength to 7; wind backed

to south, looking very dirty with rain.

Blowing hard (still) at times.

Blowing hard at times.

High water at Shanghae on 20th, 6.30 Pp. M.

Ditto ditto at Woosung ditto 4.51 ditto.

During the swell of the tide, at the usual time of low-water, the tide was at

least 20 feet above low-water mark.

From all I can learn, the mean of the lowest range of the whole of the mer-

chant Ships’ Barometers (at Woosung and this place) was 28.63, the lowest

I hear of was 28.30 on board ship, and 28.10 on shore, and the Sympiesome-

ter on board ship 27.55.

Our’s stood more than one tenth higher than the

mean, but it has always been taken care of, and has during 24 years’ service, (in

passages from England to Bahia, thence to Cape of Good Hope, and Mauritius,

from thence to Hobart Town, and New Zealand and China,) never failed to give

us timely warning in every respect, and we consider it a good one,

1849. | Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. 265

The only intelligence which has reached us yet, is that it was severely felt

at Chusan and also at Ningpo, at the former place causing, through a tre-

mendous inundation, the loss of many lives and much property; and that the

country inland from this, has been deluged as far as Nanking, and no

doubt the whole extent of the Yangtzee river; at Woosung several ships lost,

(through several large junks driving foul of them,) masts, bowsprits, anchors,

and boats, and several junks were driven on shore.

The land about Chusan is bold and very high, and likewise all the Islands

forming that group and archipelago, and also the entrance to the Ningpo

river: the land hereabout, (with the exception of the Saddle Group in

30° 50’ N. 122°4’ E. which lies off the entrance of the Yangtzee Kiang, is all

a low flat for a great extent inland, there being only a few solitary hills be~

tween this and Nanking,

Commander Hay’s notes at Amoy are as follows, and when we

recollect that Amoy is about 440 miles S. 8. W. from Shanghae, we

shall see that the Cyclone, coming up from the 8. Eastward, was nearer

to Amoy at 8 a. m. on the 20th, than when its centre reached Shang-

hae at 2 p. m. on that day.

“On 17th July an unusual fall took place in the Barometer, which reached its

lowest point at 8 a. M. on the 20th July, without any bad weather. On that

day the heat was very great, with clear weather ; I ascended Nantai Washan hill,

1728 feet high, a haze to seaward prevented an extended view, but the sea was

not much agitated. On the 2ist the wind was strong and steady from N. E.

Heavy banks of clouds rose over the land from the W. S. W. to W. N. We

and about sunset an extraordinary broom-like indigo-coloured cloud shot up

behind them to an angle of about 35 from the zenith. To seaward a thick

haze and apparently strong breeze.

22nd July, a heavy swell rolled into the harbour, and at sunset lightning to

the S. W. over the land. At 8 p. mM. a strong breeze from E. N. E. veering to

the Northward, and to seaward heavy looking clouds, with incessant lightning

E. by 8S. Lightning gradually drawing to the Northward ; 11 P. m, lightning

HE. N. E. wind Northerly, 23rd at 8 a. m.wind blowing fresh at West, having come

round gradually by the North during the night, and at 10 W. S. W. until 25th ;

much rain and variable winds, but on the 24th Southerly breezes obtained as

before. On the morning of 23rd a dismasted junk came in, and the Zephyr

Schooner having been at Namoa with a very low Barometer supposed bad wea-

ther must have occurred. The harbour of Amoy is seldom visited by typhoons,

i. €, violent Cyclones, but there can be no doubt that their outer edge may occa-

sionally graze this place.

2M 2

[ Marcu,

Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms.

266

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1849. | Seventeenth Memorr on the Law of Storms. 267

PART II.

CYCLONES OF THE NORTHERN Paciric OCEAN.

Our data for the tracks of Cyclones in this part of the world are very

few, but they are highly worth recording, as presenting two great points

of interest. The first is their conformation to the general laws of pro-

gression and rotation for this part of the globe, and the second that of

the tendency of the tracks to the Westward of the meridian within the

tropics. We might indeed, to these two, add a third consideration,

which is, that the day cannot be far distant when by means of steam

from the Western coasts of North America this part of the ocean will

become both for England and America a high road to China, and when-

ever this takes place, all knowledge relative to its Cyclones must have

high value.

Track V.

Second Tyfoon of the H. C. 8. Duxe or Buccieves and fleet.

The Swifé Sloop of War, Captain Hayward, with a fleet of sixteen

ships, of which 13 were the Hon’ble East India Company’s China

fleet of the season, left Macao Roads on the 15th June 1797, near the

height of the 8. W. moonson, and took, as usual in those days, when beat-

ing down the China Sea was thought an impossibility even for a man

of war, the Eastern route by the Pacific Ocean. While yet within the

Bashees on the 19th June, the fleet experienced a first severe Tyfoon,

which separated it into two divisions which remained during the next

two Tyfoons, Ist and 8th of July at such a moderate distance from

each other (about 300 miles) that we are fortunately enabled to trace

the tracks of these Cyclones to some distance and with much cer-

tainty. —

My documents are first, Logs of the China Ships received from the

India House, and next a copy of that part of the preface to Capt.

Lynn’s Star tables which describes the Buccleugh’s distress. I have

also had the advantage, for the Log of the Canton, of comparing it

with that of Mr. Adamson, who was her chief officer.

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1849. | Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. 271

On the 3rd July, the wind was gradually abating from midnight with all

the ships, and the wind was hauling to the 8. W. b. S. and South with them,

according to their positions, which at Noon, when the weather was tolerably fine,

were,

MOM isa no's Lat, 17°26" Ny . Long, . cc .0¢0, 126549 E,

Mme Castle, 5. ocejcyuee A7°OLT 1... ain’ ein oie /e, + «aie. NOt given,

eee leah OOlD. aces lg aitadcivinde om) LA O0S i 6

Ms eg a an cit NOL OTVEM A! 2 203, AS sate a “wleieiate eth ie 6

nl ry araeiec TLC 40 | leah), vaca dataeuisen © BlO%S0.

The whole of these ships, as will be noted, were now more or less in

a disabled condition from broaching to when scudding to the S. E.

across the South Western quadrant of the Cyclone, and we have seen

that the Canton, which ran on to 8 a. m. had a partial shift, and her

decks swept in consequence, and lost her rudder shortly after.

It was in this Cyclone, and doubtless between midnight and 8 a. m.

that H. M. Sloop of war Swift, Capt. Hayward, with nearly 400 souls

on board* foundered! She was the Commodore, and had separated with

this division of the fleet from the main body, and was scudding with

them to the S. E., her top-light being last seen by the Duke of Buc-

cleugh at midnight 1st,—2nd, and by the Taunton Castle at 1 a. M. on

the 2nd, bearing S. b. W. from her. As Commodore she had no doubt

up to that time, though at much risk, kept under such sail (or probably

bare poles) as would enable her, with her superior sailing to the heavy

Indiamen, to keep company, but as from that time forward the Cyclone -

was increasing in severity as the ships were nearing the centre, and the

centre crossing near them, she must, to avoid being pooped, have carried

any sail she could bear, and thus have run close in upon the centre

before it crossed her track, or she may have seen the signals made by

the Indiamen+ when they broached or hove to and have broached to

also, or been swamped or blown over in attempting to heave to herself.

It is worth remarking that the partial shift-of the wind with the Canton

(W. N. W. to W.S. W.) is exactly an incurving of the wind suchas |

have elsewhere shewnt takes place close upon the centres of Cyclones.

The Swift no doubt was ahead of the Canton the worst sailer in the fleet.

* She had on board, besides her own complement, the officers and crew of H. M.

S. Providence wrecked a short time previous on Typinshan.

t Signal to heave to is recorded in most of the Logs when they did so.

~ Journal, Vol. XIV. p. 732, and Sailor’s Horn Book.

2.N

272 Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. [Marcu,

I shall now give a brief summary of the Logs of the second division

of the fleet, the body of which was on the 2nd at noon about 300 miles

distant from the first division, but I do not give them in tables, for there

are not sufficient differences to render this worth while ; I note merely

any remarkable circumstance. This second division consisted of ten

ships, of which the logs of seven, viz. the H. C. Ships Thames, Royal

Charlotte, Alfred, Woodford, Henry Addington, Carnatic and True

Briton,* are, by the attention of the Hon’ble the Court of Directors, as

before acknowledged, before me; and I have very carefully compared

them so as to detect any discrepancies or any particular notes which may

appear in those which are the fullest and most attentively kept, and in

this respect I must remark that we shall be specially indebted to the

able log of Capt. W. Stanley Clarke of the True Briton, which is the

model of them, and which while it affords us perhaps the earliest in-

stance on record of a careful registry of the Barometer, gives us also in

this case, through that care, the means of connecting to a great degree

of accuracy the Cyclone of this division of the fleet with that of the

first division, by measuring the distance of the centre by the rate of

fall, in addition to the other evidence derived from the positions of the

ships and the wind. At the distance of more than half a century it

is not unpleasing to find that the principles of a new application of

this valuable instrument are here available to aid us in researches of

great interest, ina tract of ocean where our new science has been so

little applied.

Summary of the Logs of the How ble Company’s Ships Tuames, Royau

CHARLOTTE, ALFRED, Wooprorp, Henry AppINGTON, CARNA-

tic and True Briton, forming the second division of the China

fleet of July 1797.—Civil Time.

On the 1st July, 1797, the fleet had the Botel Tobago Xima Islands bearing

N. 18° East to N. 5’ W. in 21° 47’ N.; with light N. E. breezes and fair

weather. The True Briton’s Barometer, 29.63, Ther. 865 at 6 Pp. M. by the

bearing from the Commodore (the Henry Addington, Capt. Farquharson,) the

fleet was in Lat. 21945’ N.; Long. 122° 5’ East ; steering to the S, Eastward 53

and 6 knots with the wind variable from N. b. E. to N.E. b.N., from 8 P. mM.

variable N. E. to North, an increasing breeze; 2nd reefs taken in ; midnight wind

* There were some Botany Bay ships (as traders to New South Wales were then

called,) and others with the fleet.

1849. | Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. 273

about North, blowing strong, with squalls and lightning to the S. E., a confused

swell since 4 p. mM. The fleet at midnight was by acct. in Lat, 219 21’ N.; Long.

122° 38’ East.

2nd July.—Miduight to Noon increasing to a strong gale with hard squalls ;

every preparation making for bad weather. At 8 a. M., wind N. b. W., to N.

N. W. Noon N. b. W.; Lat. 20° 20’ N.; Long. 123° 20’; the fleet hove to at

4i p. mM, in Lat, 19° 49’; N, Long. 123. 33.; p.m. wind N. N.W. 5pe.m.N. W.;

7 W. N. W. and W. b. N., and at midnight W. S. W. at 43 p. , fleet hove to

by signal, being then in Long. E,; 11 ep. m. Henry Addington lost her rudder,

midnight blowing very heavy.

At 3 a. mM. The True Briton’s Barometer sunk 2-10ths of an inch, It is

not said if all at once, or if this is the amount of fall since Noon of the 1st. It

is further said that “at Noon (2nd) it is down at 29. 3, but it is marked at the

foot of the log 29.5, and at 9 p. M. at 29.3, so that I presume 29.5 to have been

an error of the copyists, and that it really was at 29.3 at Noon and 29,43 at 3

A. M., or 2-10ths below Noon of the 1st, At midnight the Barometer is mark-

ed at'29.2. I shall refer again to this Barometer register in deducing the track

of this Cyclone.

3rd July.—a. M. wind veering from W. S. W., to S. S. W.; at 9 a.m. and

Noon, when Lat. 20° 53’ N.; Long. 123° 46’ East. p. m. wind S. b, W, at

sunset and South at midnight, blowing very heavy to 4 p. mM. when it moderat-

ed to midnight, after which the weather became fine.

Remarks.

I commence these with the range of Capt. W. Stanley Clarke’s

Barometer in the True Briton, to which I have before adverted. It

was at Noon Ist July, 29 63. Ther. 863°.

3 A.M. 2nd July, had fallen 0. 2., therefore,...... 29.AS:

Be EE Py ot yet Lee ca ete te stapavet ashes olen oleys Wend 6-0 eke 29.30.

UMC l a. Nalehee sve, soe peace aansg tere NM anc. Usiciietons Mulchs es enero is

PUTO NG lois ace d we sa) 0,0 Spa YANO He SE BB aC 29.20.

BEC MU y cd Ae, Muy ola losnas s He PK AM ie a ea in By ove \siy Se edie

Ale Noe rele Ss ely eh EE NSS acohe hi cus abal 4" voll Die

Lil, ASANe Pee ON ieechiciya felis ii’ eleapicn’s ins 29.20

ON GHCHID Ss dears da sents Whctacva dive vies cole i ROTO 29.30.

Capt. Clarke adds :

** In the other column I have noted the fall and rise* of the Marine Barome-

ter, which proved a very true index of the weather, for between 3 and 4 o’clock

* Shewing how new its application was at this time as a warning to seamen of

the approach of tempests,

2N 2

274 Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. [Marcu,

ithe gale was at its highest and it would be difficult to conceive a more furious

one while it lasted ; the Marine Barometer being rather below 29.1 at that time,

which was its greatest fall; towards Noon the squalls slackened, though we had

hard rain and very thick weather.”

We have first to consider if the Cyclones of the first and second

divisions of the Fleet were one and the same, and for this we must

first consider their distance apart.

It appears that the 1st Division was on the Ist of July at Mooi in

the Western edge of its Cyclone, the wind (North to N. N. W.) in Lat.

19° 10’ North ; 124° 25’ East’, running to the S. Hastward till midnight

the wind increasing in strength and being then at S. W. The position

of the Division at this time was about 18° 03’ N.; Long. 1259-15’ E. ;

and at the same time, midnight, Ist and 2nd, we find that the 2nd Divi-

sion was in Lat. 21° 21’; Long. 122° 38’, or at a bearing and distance

of N. 37’ W.; 250 miles from the Ist, with its Cyclone just commen-

cing at North.

As the first Division had the wind at this time N. W., and was close

upon the centre, we may say that the centre of their Cyclone was in

about 18°20’, N. 125° 30’, E. or thereabouts, which will give the bearing

and distance between the Cyclone and the body of the 2nd Division as

S. 42° East about 244 miles, which we may take as being about the

semi-diameter of the Cyclone, making its diameter to be 488 miles,

which, for a Pacific Ocean one, is not at all excessive.

If we look now at Captain Stanley Clarke’s Barometer register, we find

that between Noon and 3 a. M. it is noted to have fallen 2-tenths, which

for the whole 15 hours would give a fall of 0.13 per hour, but it is

evident that this fall must at least have taken place after sunset,

since nothing is said about a falling Barometer at that time, when the

first reefs were taken in. Hence we may fairly assume that it was a

fall of at least 0.02 per hour,* which would give an approximate dis-

tance of say 250 miles at midnight.

Now it appears from the logs of the second Division that the Cyclone

was, as we have seen, bearing at midnight about S. 42 East 244 miles

* In the next Cyclone in the Log of the Buccleugh of the 8th the Barome-

ter is marked at Noon of the 7th at 29.27 and at Noon of the 8th, 28.55, and the

remarks say :—‘‘ The barometer fell very fast towards Noon.’’ We should evidently

take an unfair average here if we assumed the fall to represent that of the 24 hours,

when it probably took place in 12, or even in six hours.

1849.) Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. 2795

from thence, and that they ran down to meet it to the S. 40° E. 112

miles, till they hove to at 55 p. M., and that by the wind and the Ba-

rometer the centre was nearest to them at about 3 a. m. on the 3rd.

Hence, if from the 250 miles of distance we subtract this 122 miles

of run there will remain 128 miles as the distance made by the Cyclone

from midnight to 3 a. M., or in 27 hours, which will give an average of

4.8 miles per hour for its rate of travelling, which though slow is not an

improbable one, for the Cyclone lasted nearly two days with both Divi-

sions, and both ran across a part of it before heaving to.

It would seem that there is no sort of doubt that the two Divisions

of the fleet experienced the same Cyclone, and as the Cyclone’s centre

bore from the 2nd division 8. 42° East at midnight, and yet though

that division made 94 miles of Southing in its run before heaving to it

passed close to the Northward of it, we may take its track to have been

about from S. 40° Hast to N. 40° West, and we may certainly mark its

course on that track to have been upwards of 500 miles, since we have

seen that its diameter alone could not have been much under that

extent.

Track W.

Third Tyfoon of the H. C. 8S. Duxe or BuccieveH and Fleet, 8th

and 9th July, 1797.

The fleet, as before described, remained separated into two divisions,

which were about 33 degrees apart, and indeed the second or sternmost

division were so scattered that the more distant ships almost formed a

third division, but I still continue to distinguish them as the first and

second divisions, noting carefully, how the more Northerly ships escaped

the Cyclone, of which the centre passed over the first or South East

division, and was severely felt by the southernmost ships of the second

division. |

The first division were near enough together to allow us to consider

them as one fleet, and take the centre of its position as that from which

to calculate. This division consisted of the H. C. 8S. Cuffnells, Duke of

Buccleugh, and Taunton Castle; the Glatton with the Canton in tow

(which ship had lost her rudder and was dismasted) having separated

from the fleet, and being 23 to 3° to the Northward, did not feel this

Cyclone except as a fresh breeze from the S. E. with a long swell from

the South.

276 Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. [Marcn,

Abstract summary of the Logs of the 1st Division, 7th July 1797.—Noon, Lat.

17°21’ N.; Long, Chr. 126920’ East ; Bar. 29.27 ; Ther. 80, Wind N, E. by N.

Confused swell and suspicious weather, moderate breeze, increasing P. M. to a

hurricane at N,N. E. and N. b. E. ; at midnight with a mountainous sea ; under

trysails and bare poles; 8 P. M. Bar. had fallen to 29.24, In the remarks I shall

quote from the Buccleuyh’s Log is an instance of the Red Sky.

8th July, a.m. Wind N.E. b. E. Dark threatening weather and increasing

gale with two ships; with Buccleugh, N.N. W., blowing a hurricane with

hard varying gusts ;* Noon centre of the three ships which were at least 18 or 20

miles apart in Lat. 17°6’; Long. 126.9; Bar. of Cuffnells and Buccleugh, 28.55.

Ther. 79°; 0.30 p. mM. Buccleugh’s Bar. sunk with the calm to 28.40. At 0.30-

P. M.a calm, after which at about 2.4 p. mM. a shift of wind as follows :

Cuffnells N. E. to W. b. N. veering to S. S. E. at 5 p. mM.

Buccleugh N. N. W. to 8. S. W.

Taunton Castle N. b. W. 8.8. W.

Blowing a hurricane again and hauling to southward towards midnight, with

a confused sea; 9 Pp. M, Lightning in the 8S. E. Of the shift Taunton Castle says :—

‘© A little after noon the wind suddenly died away and the sea much down;

but it was the shortest interval of moderate weather I ever knew after a hard gale,

for in two hours, i, e. at 2 Pp. M. there came on sucha violent storm that the

oldest seamen on board said they never knew it blow so hard before.”

9th Julyn—From midnight decreasing somewhat to strong gales S. E. Noon

Lat. 179 26’ N.; Long. 1259 5’. Bar. 29.08; Ther. 79; p. M. to midnight de-

creasing always from S. 8S. E. after which fine weather and Northerly wind, this

division was hove to throughout this Cyclone, the Buccleugh having lost her rudder:

Abstract summary of the Logs of the 2nd Division.

This Division consisted as before, of the ten East Indiamen and some Botany

Bay ships, and from the last Cyclone had had moderate weather till on the 8th

July, 1797, at Noon, when in 18° 38’ N.; Long. 125° 33’ East ; the breeze which

had been preceded by a swell from the S. E. and 8.8. E. increased from the

E. N, E. to a fresh gale E. b. N. with a high confused sea, The True Briton’s

Bar. which on the 7th at Noon was at 29.80, had fallen to 29.62 ; Ther. 85°;

and at 2 p. M., the fleet hove to till midnight.

9th July.—a. M. wind veering slowly to E. S. E. and by Noon to S., E. Fleet

lying to with strong gale and high sea. At Noon Lat. 18° 52’; Long. 125° 8’ E. ;

True Briton’s Barometer 29.40. At midnight wind was still about S, E. b. S.

* Owing no doubt to the incurving of the wind close on the centre ; and the dif-

ference of winds is what should occur with scattered ships but just in sight of each

other at most.

1849. ] Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. Dae

10th July.—Moderating from the S. E. to noon, when in Lat, 19° 17’ N.;

Long. 124° 40’. The True Briton’s Bar. 29.50 ; Ther. 85.

REMARKS.

We have now, from the position of the two divisions, first to settle, as

before, that they successively had the same Cyclone, and then to as-

certain its track.

We find that the first Division, on the 7th July at Noon, when in

Lat. 17° 21,’ Long. 126° 20,’ had the wind at N. E. b. N. amoderate

breeze increasing at midnight to a hurricane at N. N. E., and on this

day at Noon the bearing and distance of the second division from it

was N, 25° W. 157 miles. At midnight 7th,—8th, the second division

had stood on about 30 miles to the S. Eastward, so as to make its dis-

tance at this time about 130 miles from the first division, which was

lying to. The breeze was freshening at midnight with flying squalls

and rain and a heavy sea, and the ships were reefing and (warned by the

preceding Tyfoon) striking topgallant yards and masts. We may take it

then, that they were not far from the outer verge of the Cyclone, which

at this time bore about S. E. from them (wind N. E). It should be

noticed that they continued to stand to the S. E. about 30 or 40 miles

more before heaving to. At noon of the 8th, the first division had it blow-

ing a hurricane, and they had their calm centre and subsequent shift of

wind at about 0.30r.m. We may thus take the position given for the fleet

to have been also that of the centre, and it was in 17° 6’ N.; 126°9’ E,

At this time the 2nd Division bore from it N. 21° West 99 miles by its

position, and had the wind at between E. b. N. and E. N. E. increasing

so rapidly that at 2} p. m. they hove to. The True Briton’s Barometer

had fallen 0.18, but as it is only registered from Noon to Noon we cannot

base any calculation upon it. Ifwe take the true average of the wind

to have been E. b. N. 3 N. this will give us the centre of the Cyclone

as bearing 8. b. E. 3 E. (S. 16° E.) and we have seen that by the esti-

mated position of the two divisions (and that of the first division was of

course merely an estimate and nothing more,) it bore S. 21° E, and if

we take the distance to be 100 miles, the Cyclone was one of 200 miles

only in diameter.

There can be no sort of doubt then that the two divisions experienced

again the same Cyclone, which passed over the first division, and to the

Southward of the second. Its track we may best deduce from .the

278 Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. | Marcu,

shifts experienced by the first division, remembering that they were in

different parts of the central calm space, from 15 to 20 miles or more in

diameter, since the calm lasted about two hours.

We have then the different ships as follows, viz.

Wind at Shifted at about 2 Shewing a

Noon p. M. after a lull | track to the

Ship Cuffnells, N. E. to W. b. N. veering ( W. b. N.

rapidly to 8. 8S. E.

Buccleugh, North S. W. W.N. W.

Taunton Castle, N.N. E. Ss. S. W. W.N. W.

which will give a track of about N. 71° 15’ West, but as we find that

the wind veered with the second division but slowly to the E. S. E. and

S. E. we may allow the track to have been a little more to the North-

ward, and I estimate it to have been really about N. 65° W.

In the Log of the Buccleugh occurs a remarkable notice of the

curious phenomenon, the red sky, which is evidently here, as in the

China Sea and in the Southern Indian Ocean, a precursory sign of the

Cyclones.* The passage occurs in Mr. Lynn’s notes, as follows :—

‘“‘ At sunset the clouds predicted another severe tyfoon ; the appearance was

that of remarkably large and dense clouds surrounding the horizon at an altitude

of about 10 to 15 degrees, having their edges tinged with a deep crimson border,

or if bound with a ribbon of that colour, and reflecting an awful redness on the

sails, which appearance had also preceded the former gales, and which I shall

ever conceive are certain indications of their approach ; made every thing as snug

as possible before night.”’

Track X.

The Buccleugh experienced a fourth Tyfoon, from the 16th to the

18th of July, which is entered as follows in Mr. Lynn’s remarks :—

“Onthe 16th at Noon the Cuffnells made signal that the Bar. was again

falling ; immediately prepared for another tyfoon, which commencing in the N. N,

E. and veering in the same way exactly as the former ones to North N. N. W.,

N. W. and West, from thence to W. S., W. S. W. and South, when after two

days’ continuance of severe blowing it moderated. And we then observed in Lat.

17° 16’ North; Long, 128° 14’ East.’’

* While writing this I learn also that itis so too for the Bay of Bengal, and more-

over, that it has occurred in two instances (Cyclone of October 1848, with the ship

Barham, and Cylone of Oct. 1832 with the ship Albion) at night by moonlight |!

1849.]| Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. 279

This average of N. N. E. to South would, without allowance for the

Buccleugh’s drift, give a track tothe W. b. N. I have no further logs

of the other ships from which to ascertain if it reached them, and I

have marked the track W. N. W. on account of the drift and as passing

tothe Northward and Eastward of the Buccleugh’s position on the 18th,

as it evidently did.

Tracks Y anp Z.

William IV.’s Tyfoons, July, 1845. Pacific Ocean and China Sea.

The following newspaper notice is all I have met with on the subject

of these Cyclones, which though of 1845, I have placed last as from

the scantiness of the notice I cannot conveniently divide it, and the first

Cyclone is a Pacific Ocean one, and the second very nearly so. We are

enabled to mark pretty exactly the track of the first Cyclone, though as

we do not know the vessel’s rate of sailing, there is some uncertainty

about its latitude. The second of them might almost be taken for a

heavy monsoon, but the great fall of the Barometer and the excessive

violence of the wind induce us to suppose that it was a true Cyclone, the

ship being in its S. Eastern quadrant.

SINGAPORE.

Calcutta Englishman, 1st Oct. 1845.

“ We have been favoured by a friend with the perusal of a letter, from which we

_ hearn the following particulars respecting the damage received by the William IV.

On the 7th July 1845, the weather became threatening, and the Barometer fell

considerably, They were then in Lat. 19.40. N., Long. 123. 10. E. A strong

gale with heavy rain set in from the N, E. round to the N, W., and blowing in

heavy gusts. The Barometer continued to fall to 28, 50. and preparations were

made for a typhoon. At 10. a.m. the wind blew with such fury that it was

impossible to stand on the deck without support, the sea blowing over the ship

like a sheet of snow. In an hour the Barometer fell to 28.30. and during the

day was as low as 28,20, At 11 the rudder head broke offand the ship broached

to, carrying away the topmasts, jib-boom, fore-yard, starboard bulwarks, and

quarter and stern boats, Fortunately no water was shipped on the weather side.

Such was the force of the wind that the larboard quarter boat was blown to

pieces. At 3 a, m. on the 8th, wind veered to S. S. W. and the mercury began

to rise, but the fury of the typhoon did not cease until 4.30 a, m. At daylight the

wind was 8.8. E, and still violent. The larboard main chains were found nearly

all broken,

280 Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. [Manrcu,

At noon the gale moderated a little, but an awful sea was still running. The

mainmast was however secured, and a small sail set on the stump of the main

topmast. On the 9th there was a fresh gale from the S. E. but less sea, and the

mercury rose to 29.10. They then steered for Hongkong to repair damages,

but when about 350 miles distant, on the 11th, it commenced blowing a strong

gale from S. S. E., which increased in violence veering to S. W., until 11 a. ™,

when it blew a perfect hurricane. The Barometer fell to 28.20; and they were

obliged to throw the guns overboard, and cut away the mainmast, all the pre-

venter tackles and shrouds being carried away, and from the motion of the vessel it

was tearing up the deck and starting the beams. About two hours after, a heavy

sea fell on board, which swept away all the larboard bulwarks from the fore chan -

nel to the gangway, leaving the foremast almost destitute of support. During

the night of the 11th and morning of the 12th, their situation was extremely

perilous, and at daybreak, they discovered they were not more than 4 miles from

the breakers on the mainland of Formosa, a strong gale blowing from the S. S.

W., and a mountainous sea running. All morning it had been blowing in severe

squalls and thick rain, but cleared up for about half an hour enabling them to

see their danger, when the rain again set in so close that they could scarcely see

a cable’s length. They were able to set a foresail and keep the ship off, and at

5 p.M., reached Lamyet. During the whole of the 12th aheavy gale blew from

the S. S. W., and on the 13th there were continued gales with a high turbulent

sea and constant rain, This night they lay to, to avoid being driven on the Pesca-

dores, It cleared up at daylight of the 14th and the Eastern Islands were dis«

covered, It again blew furiously with heavy squalls, and two of the jury sails

were blown away. Onthe 15th there was a fresh gale from 8S. 8S. E. with a heavy

sea, but a jury mainsail was got up which enabled them to make a better course,

and Amoy was reached at 4 Pp. mM. on the 16th. Five days had passed without

their being able to cook any thing, and for nearly nine days they had not a dry

suit of clothes to put on.”—Singapore Free Press, Sept. 11th, 1845.

Considering the first of these Cyclones, we are a little embarrassed. by

the Lat. and Long. bemg given first, and its not being stated whether

this is the estimated position when it began to blow heavily from the

N. E., or that at noon which has been merely put down first? Taking

the whole of the context however I incline to believe that, as it is said

“they were then in Lat. &c.” and that at 11 ‘she broached to,” it is

intended to express here that this position was that of about daylight,

when the fall of the Barometer commenced, or say at 6 A. m., from

which time, if we allow her to have run on her direct course (for she

was I take it bound to England by the Eastern passage, since she ran

1849.] Seventeenth Memoir on the Law of Storms. 281

with the wind at N. E. till she plunged into the Cyclone, at N. W. (and

indeed she could not heave to with Cape Engano only 70 miles under

her lee) we may say that from 6 a. m. to noon she made at least 50

miles to the S. East, which would place her at noon in Lat. 19°5' N. ;

Long. 123° 37° with the wind at N. W. and the centre of the Cyclone -

consequently a short distance to the N. E. of her, since it veered at or

by 3 a. m. to S. S. W. and shortly after to S. S. E. or 14 points in

15 or 16 hours. The average shift then was one of from N. W. to

S. S. W. which indicates a track from the E. b. N. to the W. b.S.

In the second Cyclone we have only a vague position given, but the

veering, if we allow it on the grounds I have before stated to have been

a true Cyclone, is a very remarkable one, for it indicates a nearly meri-

dional track, and one trending to the Kastward, or from the S. b. W. to

the N. b. EK. and I therefore note it here, though I can only mark it on

the Chart conjecturally as follows.

If we take the ship to have made the best of her way towards Hong

Kong from her last position, by running through the Bashee passage,

she may have been on the 11th, say at noon, when 350 miles from Hong

Kong, in Lat. 20° 50°N.; Long. 120° 20’ East, from which position

the South point of Formosa lies about N. N. E. 70 miles.

We are at a loss to know if the ship ran any distance, or was only

drifted during the whole of the 24 hours from about daylight 11th, to

daylight on the 12th, when so near the rocks of Formosa, for any run

would make the track of the Cyclone even farther to the Westward of

the meridian than we can now venture to assign it, but as she was partly

disabled she could scarcely venture to run far in such weather, and the

drift she made is not an excessive one in a Cyclone. I have therefore

set it down, at a venture, as a track from the S. S. W. tothe N. N. E.

meaning by this expression that I have no doubt, if the newspaper

account be correctly printed* that the track certainly did incline to the

Eastward of the Meridian, but how much so we are uncertain, though

from what we have seen it may have done so enough to pass to the

Eastward of the South point of Formosa!

* I cannot here, unfortunately, refer to the Singapore Free Press of 1845.

| 20 2

282 Seventeenth Memovr on the Law of Storms. [Marcu,

The following is a table of the tracks marked on the Chart for more

convenient reference.

Tracks. Dates.

Avand; SS.) Golcondatand Thetis, . 00's sles «le ave dele’ Sept. 1840.

OR GV Me a Hie si crurlepeln aie. Shc 0 ST aie Sa Mica

a>. “tune Hai, Cackguesi i...’ kes ee webs o cyelala/a vt fore che iy iene

E. Atiet Rohoman and Shah Allum, ......... « - Oct. 1843;

ree) ND alas ioe eck Oe > Pees 5 Re, eee | Oct, 1843!

Gl” “Hdmonstone;? . 8. Oe eet aa ee IePR I: Se: ae Nov. 1844.

Ei I. Pacific Ocean and China Sea, ED) Mp Stn: : Oct. 1845,

DD OER 0 ia.k tanto seachale opens eipisienaickobnn? ;

Li. Ship Ann, &c., Manila,,.........+.+5.-.- Nov. 1845,

Des el, Shemner Ee WULO, rs ls esto wle-s iaia’e + seins), SARE Soerer

hdc U0 CRG i iavahs iojalin Wieden sad A) POOR aa ghee July 1846.

Bae A Whe. LOrnOGOUe, aot octet. b= eee eine ceoes DEDb. 1626,

WES MOS? dowmcourt, 2.05% ds. ss Sater stetoa ters Sept. 1846.

BW. Mischief, ae «x0 «+00 ogee spels Poe ta te aero eer oe

OrteDon Tamir 5, i. Wes sid satewtl Vaieeleesioel “WEpe Mer Ge

BP. wn Briat Gdess, tia. 2 é6 oe O5 Apes ae eieeeies. cca! July bade

QQ... H.iM. Steamer Vulture, poveicas be dois etees Nov. 1847.

R. Rob Roy and Swallow, ......... Sai cists Sse GANOV. beam

S... Rob: Roy, Miamila, mais. sans eis c jsiaso:8i6. ayobiapeis .. Nov. 1847.

T. Hasurain, Coast of Luconia and Bashee renter Nov. 1347.

WO. M.S. Childers, shanghac, .....cuc0o0r0 jy Boag

Paciric OcEan,

V. Duke of Buccleugh, and fleet, ..se-se0ee os July 1797.

Ws: Ditto d.% 2s einen atOs oes ore cess ca PCI PCiIEO.

ee DIO 5: .. dleanis ad cad ear GittOgs we waee sen seer HOMO ’GIEO.

PLL PDD DPD LL DL LOLOLOP LOPE LO

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ASJATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL

For Marca, 1849.

Ata Meeting of the Asiatic Society held on Wednesday, the 7th

March 1849,

The Right Rev. the Lorp Bisuop, Vice President, in the Chair.

The proceedings of the February Meeting were read and confirmed,

and the accounts and vouchers of the preceding month were laid upon

the table.

The following gentlemen, proposed as members at the previous meet-

ing, were ballotted for and duly elected.

W. J. H. Money, Esq. C. S.

Capt. Bazely, Bengal Artillery.

Read letters—

From Captain J. D. Cunningham, Political Agent, Bhopal, forward-

ing facsimiles of inscriptions from Oodeypore and Rahutgurh, on the

Beena river.

From Charles Huffnagle, Esq. American Consul, forwarding a box of

shells and a parcel of books presented to the Society by Henry Wheat-

land, Ksq., Secretary to the Essex Institute, Massachusetts.

Read a letter accompanying these donations, in which Mr. Wheat-

land proposes correspondence and the exchange of objects of Natural

History with the Asiatic Society. Referred to the Section of Natural

History. ,

From Captain James Abbott, a note on certain remains of Greek

Sculpture found at Potowar.

From Major Boileau, giving a sketch of a small fish that had been

swallowed by a snake, and a drawing of the snake’s head.

284 Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. [| Marcu,

From Dr. Roer, Secretary Oriental Section, requesting the sanction

of the Society to a proposal by Dr. Sprenger to publish a small pamphlet

in Arabic on Shiite bibliography in the Bibliotheca. Sanctioned.

From Dr. Theodore Cantor, forwarding some remarks upon the Rev.

Mr. Mason’s Catalogue of Tenasserim land shells, by W. H. Benson,

Hsq.fC..S.

Mr. Laidlay submitted a transcript of a Bactrian edition of the

Edicts of Asoka copied by Captain Alexander Cunningham from a rock

in the Yusufzye country. At the same time a letter from Capt. Kittoe

was read enclosing a fragment of another inscription by the same Prince,

but in the lat character, found by him at Sasseram.

A suggestion having been made that the Society should purchase a

certain number of copies of Capt. Latter’s Burmese Grammar, for pre-

sentation to the learned Societies and individuals with whom the Asiatic

Society are in correspondence, it was resolved that the matter be referred

for consideration and report to the Oriental Section.

On His Lordship the Vice President retiring, the Chair was taken by

Dr. Lamb, when the Curators submitted their Reports.

J. W. Cotvite, President.

J. W. Larpuay, Secretary.

LIBRARY.

The following books have been received since the last meeting.

Presented.

Archzologia: or Miscellaneous Tracts relating to Antiquity, published by

the Society of Antiquaries of London. Vol. XXXII. 4to.—By THE Socrery.

Upadesaka, No. 27.—By tue EpiTor.

Oniental Baptist No. 27.—By Tue Epiror.

The Calcutta Christian Observer for March, 1849.—By Tue Eprrors.

A Report on the Insects of Massachusetts, injurious to vegetation. Cam-

bridge: 1841. 8vo.—By THE LeGiIsLATURE oF MASSACHUSETTS.

Reports on the Fishes, Reptiles, and Birds of Massachusetts. Boston,

1839, 8vo.—By THE SAME.

Report on the Invertibrata of Massachusetts, comprising the Mollusca,

Crustacea, Annelida, and Radiata. Cambridge : 1841. 8vo.— By THE SAME.

Reports on the Herbaceous Plants and on the Quadrupeds of Massachu-

setts. Cambridge: 1840. 8vo.—By THE SAME.

Tatwabodhini Patrika, No. 67.—By THE TATWABODHINI SABHA.

Journal of the Indian Archipelago. Vol. III. No. 1.—By rH Eprror.

1849. | Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. 985

Ditto, ditto (2 copies.) —By THE GOVERNMENT OF BENGAL.

Memoir, Geographical, Political, and Commercial, on the present state,

productive resources, and capabilities of commerce, of Siberia, Manchuria,

and the Asiatic Islands of the Northern Pacific Ocean, and on the importance

of opening commercial intercourse with those countries, &c. by A. H Palmer.

—By THe State or New York.

Meteorological Register kept at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

for the month of January, 1849.—By THe Deputy SurRvEYorR GENERAL.

Map of the district of Pooree or southern Division of Cuttack.—By THE

GOVERNMENT OF BENGAL.

An Analytical Digest of all the reported cases decided in the Supreme

Courts of Judicature in India, in the Courts of the Honourable East India

Company and on appeal from India, by her Majesty in Council. By W. H,

Morley. Part IV. of Vols. I. and Il.—By THe Same.

Exchanged.

The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal

of Science, No. 221.

Journal Asiatique, No. 55, for June, 1848

Purchased.

Atlas to Alison’s History of Europe, parts XX. and XXI.

Journal des Savants, for October, 1848.

The Zoology of the Voyage of H, M. S. Sulphur, Nos. IX. and X.

Comptes Rendus Hebdomedaires des Seances de |’ Academie des Sciences.

No. 18, for October, 1848.

Donation to the Museum.

From Babu Rajendra Mallika. A group of terracotta figures, representing

the manner in which thugs strangle their victims.

SARA OLLLLLLOO™

see bee etn

ny hat aq A

ihe oi he

bi} few Te oe sad

‘wes pth

kis) il to

puters

“af

‘yy

_ Meteorological Register hept at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, for the Month of March, 1849. a

Lat. 22° 33' 28”. 33 N. Long. 88° 23’ 42”. 84 East. Mag. Variation 2° 28' 36” East. Mag. Dip. 27° 45’.

Days of the Month.

joe

Observations made at sunrise. Maximum Pressure observed at 9b. 50m. Observations made at apparent noon. Observatious made at 2h. 40m. Minimum Pressure observed at 4 p. m. Observations made at sunset. AMaximum and Mini-/é @'|Rain Gauges

- = — rc

& Temperature. | Wind. ES Temperature. | Wind. 2 Temperature. | Wind. Et} Temperatur Wind. Temperature. | Wind. & Temperature. | Wind, | = 5 | Elevations,

2 2 mers 2 = g es

= 5 3 3 3 = 3 3 28 | Feet.| Feet! |

z i & | Ms = 2 : F S WE i = 5 £ i NEE |e i 3 ae) opel

s 2 2 = is 3 e a |

alles Wall ai ee .| 5 3 | 3) |s 5 = 2 22/3 2/4 3 2 AS ‘: zu| 3 & ‘s j g

3| 2 S 3 s 2) 5) 2/2 = = = 3 =| a & 2/2 3 = 5 i | 2 = 2 = s 2 = Sis 5

83 | 2 al ¢ = allied |leeaallliet als s a |= g = et Pst | |) 3 zls/2/| 8 S ES 8 s a |e =|2

Ba = 3 3 Bs/ 2 2/2 3 ch 2 2 3 3 PY los 3 Pe | ee SS = ry ‘2 2 z 5 g gs] ie

52 | 2 =| 3 2 Bais ele 2 IS 2 z & a | el le & ed fet lean | eee a Sales é 2 8 | 2 |3)| 8) & (sls

a |S 5| 4 < A | oO | o|o | A s S a = 6/95 | 95 < pS |Sie] a < 5|5 a s 2/38ia\5\38 8

2 ° ° opie. |S oa | Fem Ie ° ° © IInch, [incl | |} |

65. (Clear. 78.0 13, 88 Clear. 87.9 | 86.6 | 73.0 Cumuli, 2. Clear. 78,1 | 66,0 |109,3) .. BS 1

ne o 81.6 15. Clear, 89 Ditto 89.8 | 88.3) 71 (Clear. Y.Ditto. .3 | 80.3 M20} 6. | 4. [pte

7. Cloudy. 79.8 15. Ditto a1 Ditto 90.9 | 89 7 Ditto ' 82,2 107.6) .. Fh 3

7. (Clear. a Ditto 92. Ditto Om Ditto 0 | 82.8 Nod) Be 4

68 V.) Ditto 7. Ditto 0 fs Ditto i 2 6 |N |. E, | Ditto 80.5 | 09.0 [112,9) .. 5

65: Ditto 9 | 67: Ditto A 1 Ww. Ditto We r W. [Ditto 5 | 79.8 | 66.0 |117,0) 6

6 Ditto , A ) 6 Ditto 4 Ee h 12 |N. EB. [Ditto a . i x 41S... [Ditto B17 | 68.4 |117,8) 1

Soallia oo Nets ss = con Palle 5 a a WE | eee | 8

rs o}.8

Foggy. B10 Clear. . N.W- |Comuli, -208| 9 5 |W.S.W.IClear. 85 | 67.2 |W. Ic $ 71.0 |N.W.. |Clenr. a | 0.7 it

Ditto 83. Ditto 4 \ 7 |W.S. W.|Ditto 5, 5 Hy B Ditto F 9 W.S. W.| Ditto. z 5 7 1S. Ditto 84.6

Cirro cumuli. BA Ditto ’ ht i Ditto " E S. W,|Ditto We {Ditto “ K 5 |S. W. |Cloudy, 85.8

Foggy. 86 Cumuli. 905 (Ditto i i + |Ditto : 5 : Ditto y Clear. 86.2

V,|Clear. 85. Clear. f .9 | 90.3 | 66,3 |N Ditto 4 | 92 + [Dito ; K - [Ditto 3, W.|Cirri, 83,8

Girro strati. BL: Ditto { [Ditto +911) 92.3 | 93 x Ditto . wT 1S. We ¥ Cirro strati. 83.5

Fogg: 83, Ditto 4 y. |Ditto 825 70.4 |s.W. Ditto ; f 5 |W.S.W./Ditto 83.8

Cloudy. 793 Clouily. 79.6 Cloudy. E \ 0 |N. W. |Rainy 2 | 68. + |e i x Rainy. TA

Ditto c ‘Cloudy. 55.6 Cumulo strati. 2 5 Cumulo strati, | . | .S.E, Ki Cloudy. 75.1

Curnuli. 5 ‘umulo strati B54 Dio *778 | 90. 3.8. W. |Comulo strati. | a Cumulo stra. 845 Curulo strati. 83.2

/\Cumulo strat, | 5. We Ditto 87.6 Ditto : 2 A 5 Ditto 4 2, 3 . {Ditto 86.9 Generally clear, 83.0

Cloudy. 3. » |Ditto 89.7 Clear, “ | 79. Clear. 7 ine 4 |S. S. W.)Ditto 83.0 Cirro cumuli. B68 | 77.8 )115,2) 25

W. ro stra, . E ‘Cirro cumuli. 90.7 »\Cirro cumuli, 5 3. ~~ W. |Cirro cumuli, re =} + |Cirro cumuli. 88.8 Ditto 86.1 | 76,9 |113,9) oo 26

\Cirro cumuli. al 7, Clear. 92,7 Clear. 5 2 |S. Clear. 3.1 ~ Cirri. 87.8 Ditto 85.9 | 74.0 )116,7 a7

Cumuli. Ditto 994 Ditto d 4 | 80.8 |5. Ditto : 63 2 Cirro cumuli. 88.0 Cloudy. B71 | 76.7 |113.0) 2. | [8

Ditto 94.9 IS. W. Ditto 606 | 71.9 |W.N.W,Ditto 6 2 $s. W. |Clear, . (Clear. 83,0 . 29

Ditto 246 3. W.|Ditto , 6, -W. [Ditto a V Ditto E Dito 86,7 (30

Ditto 93.4 S. Ditto c 3 | 96 Ditto ‘ f 4 |S. Ditto q Ditto 8a2 Dia

ean OF the Corresponding mouth of last year,

29.882 89,7 | 89.2

731 741 722 29,899 83.8 83.7 75.1 29,858 90.0 89,7 75,7 29,777 93.8 93.1 76.1 94.0 926 75.1 29,764 88.0 86,3 15.7 969 6. ae we (82 O41

1at—The Barometer is a standand Instrument by Newman, diameter of the tube 0.504 Inches. Ihe following is the comparative shewing of this Lostrummeot and those Barometers which wgre in use ut the Observatory prior to Ist of Juae, 1844. Barometer by Troughton used prior to the Ist of June, 1844. Observations reduced to 92° Fahrenheit,

Ditto Pa mi FF - » 0514 Dittor — to... Ditto Col. Everest used from lst of Juno to dist of August, 1844. «

by ‘No. 52 Staudard Barometer by Newman used from Ist of September, 184

2o4,—The Thermometer is w Standard Instrument by. Newman, on metal Scale and graduated to $ of a degree, P No. 66.... Dilto.s+» Ditto «+.--» Ditio.s..«.from 3d of April, 1847, ito -Ditto -

Srd-—Wet Bulb Hygrometer by Newman, graduated to single degree divisions, the difference between Stundurd Thermometer and dry Thermometer of this Tastrumentis -+ 0.2, the Temperature of the dry Bull istaken from the Standard Thermometer, and io the event of the quantity moisture, dew point, oF dryness, being required, itis necessary the difference adver

iaken into calculation,

4th,—Maxinum and Minimum Thermometer by Newman, The difference between these instrum

Sth.—Uhe Fernperature shewa ia Columa 44 of a Uhermometer, in suo’s rays, is ucquired by mea

of Solar reflectiva.

ind the Standard Thermometer is + 0.7 for the former and 0,23 for the latter,

Newinsn's Maximum Vhermometer haviag u black bull,—he above Instruments, excepting the Thermometer placed in the sun's rays, are fixed atabove 4} feet from the ground, to a post, in a thickly choppered house, and are freely exposed (o the airand sheltered from any influence

The height ofthe Surface ofthe Mercury inthe Cstera of the Standard Barometer in the Observatory atiached to the Surveyor General's Ofice above the Mean Level ofthe Sea, having been deduced from a Serie of Tide Observations taken from « Register hept at Kyd's Dock Yard, the results recorded for genera information.

bid feet.

a i. L. THULLLIER, Cheraany

Officiating Deputy Surveyor General,

ra charge Surveyor General's Office.

Lowest Monthly Average of Mean Tides in the Months of February and March, above the Zero of Gauge at Kyd's Dock Yard, Calcutta,

Differeace of Level between the Zero of Tide at Kyd’s Dock Yard, and the Standard Barometer at the Observatory,

» q Height of Standard Barometer above the Level of the Sea,..

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JOURNAL

OF THE

ASIATIC SOCIETY.

PII

APRIL, 1849.

SLLLPLPL LILLIA

On the Snow-line in the Himdlaya; by Ineut. R. Stracuey, Lngi-

neers. Communicated by order of the Hon’Bue THE LiEvT.-

Governor, North Western Provinces.

The height at which perpetual snow is found at different parts of the

earth’s surface, has become an object of enquiry, not only as a mere

physical fact, but as a phenomenon intimately connected with the dis-

tribution of heat on the globe. In M. Humboldt’s efforts to throw the

light of his knowledge on this question, he has, when treating of the

Himalaya, been unfortunately led much astray by the very authorities

on whom he placed most reliance ; and his conclusions, though in part

correct, cannot lay claim to any pretension to exactness. That he was

indeed himself conscious of the deficiencies in the evidence before him,

is manifest from his ending his disquisitom by a declaration, that it

was necessary, “de rectifier de nouveau et par des mesures bien précises

dont tout le détail hypsométrique soit publié, ce qui reste de douteux

sur la hauteur comparative des deux pentes de l’ Himalaya, sur |’ influ-

ence de révérbération du plateau tubétain, et sur celle que l’on suppose

au courant ascendant de lair chaud des plaines de lInde. C’est

un travail 4 recommencer’’ (Asie Centrale, T. 3, p. 325). Men of

science will still long have to regret that this illustrious traveller was

prevented from visiting the east; Englishmen alone need remember

that he was prevented by them.

The result of M. Humboldt’s investigations on the position of the

snow line in this part of the Himalaya is thus given by himself :—‘* The

No. XXVIII.—New Series. 2P

288 On the Snow-line in the Himalaya. | APRIL,

limit of perpetual snow on the southern declivity of the Himalaya chain

is 2030 toises (13,000* feet English) above the level of the sea; on the

northern declivity, or rather on the peaks which rise above the Tartarian

plateau, this limit is 2600 toises (16,600 ft.), from 30} to 32° of Lati-

tude, while under the equator in the Andes of Quito it is 2470 toises

(15,800 ft.). I have deduced this result from the collection and com-

bination of many data furnished by Webb, Gerard, Herbert, and Moor-

croft. The greater elevation to which the snow line recedes on the

Thibetian declivity is the result conjointly of the radiation of heat from

the neighbouring elevated plains, the serenity of the sky, and the infre-

quent formation of snow in very cold and dry air’ (Cosmos. Trans.

TAL. p. 363. Noted).

The portion of the Himélaya to which allusion has most generally

been made, in treating of the suow line, is that which lies between the

north-western frontier of Nipal and the river Sutlej, and it is solely to

this part of the chain that my remarks are intended to apply. It ex-

tends from about the 77th to the 81st degree of east longitude, and its

entire breadth, from the plains of India on the south, to the plains of

Tibet on the north, is about 120 miles. The mountains on which per-

petual snow is found, are confined within a belt of about 35 miles in

width, running along the northern boundary of the chain, and they all

he between the 30th and 32nd degree of north latitude.

If we now examine the structure of the mountains more closely (vide

sheets 47, 48, 65, and 66 of the Indian Atlas), we shall find that from

the sources of the Touse, (Long. 78° 30’), to those of the Kali (Long.

81° 0°), a space which includes the provinces of Garhwal and Kumaon,

all the great rivers, viz. the Bhagirati, Vishni-ganga, Dauli (of Niti),

Gori, Dauli (of Darma) and Kali, run in directions not far from perpen-

dicular to the general direction of the Himalaya. Further, that they

are separated one from another by great transverse ranges, on which all

the highest of the measured peaks of this region are to be found. It

will also be seen that the sources of these rivers} are in the main water-

shed of the chain, beyond which a declivity of a few miles leads directly

* The reduction of toises into English feet is every where given to the nearest

hundred only.

+ I mean the most distant sources of the tributaries, for several of the rivers that

I have mentioned, nominaily end in glaciers to the south of the water-shed.

a oe eS ee

1849. | On the Snow-line in the Himalaya. 289

to the plains of Tibet. A lme drawn through the great peaks will be

almost parallel to the water-shed, but about 30 miles to the south of it.

To the west of the Touse the arrangement of the drainage is very

different. From the source of this river an unbroken ridge extends to

the Sutlej, almost on the prolongation of the line of the great eastern

peaks, but more nearly east and west. On this range, which separates

Kunawar from the more southern parts of Bissehir, and which, as it

has hitherto received no distinctive name, I shall call the Bissehir range,

are the Rupin, Gunds, Burendo and Shatil passes; and no perpetual

snow is to be found further south among these western mountains. To

the north of this range and almost parallel to it, run several others of

somewhat greater altitude, between which the streams of eastern Ku-

nawar flow into the Sutlej, from 8. E. to N. W., nearly parallel to the

upper, and perpendicular to the lower part of the course of that river.

If we now follow two travellers into Tibet, one from Kumaon or

Garhwal, and the other from Simla or the western hills, we shall be

prepared to find that the circumstances under which they will cross the

snowy mountains will be very different. The former will proceed up

the course of one of the great rivers before alluded to, and ascending

the gorge, by which it breaks through the line of the great peaks, will

pass unobserved the true southern limit of the perpetual snow; he will

leave the great peaks themselves far behind him, and will finally reach

the water-shed of the chain, where he may possibly for the first time

find glaciers and snow. He will here cross straight into Tibet, from

what will appear to him the southern, to what he will call the northern

declivity of the Himalaya.*

The western traveller, on the other hand, will find almost at his first

step a snowy barrier drawn across his path, and he will naturally sup-

pose that he crosses from the southern to the northern face of the snowy

range, when he descends from the Shatul or some neighbouring pass into

the valley of Kunawar ; and in this idea he will probably be confirmed,

by the total change of climate which he will perceive, and by his being

able to penetrate to Shipke, the frontier village of Tibet in this quarter,

* This does not exactly apply to the passes usually crossed between Juhar and

Tibet, which will be mentioned more particularly hereafter. There is a pass how-

ever, the ‘ Lashar,’ though from its badness it is not used, which affords a direct

communication.

2P2

290 On the Snow-line in the Himdlaya. [ApRILs

without meeting any further obstacle on his road at all comparable to

that he has passed, or perhaps even without again crossing snow.*

Without waiting to enquire whether either of our travellers has in

fact come to a just conclusion, it will be sufficient for my purpose to

point out that they mean totally different things by their north and

south declivities ; and it will be indeed surprising if they agree as to the

position of the snow line. It is manifest therefore that before we can

expect to arrive at any correct results, we must get rid of the confusion

caused. by the ambiguity of the terms north and south declivity ; terms

which at the best are very ill adapted to convey definite ideas of posi-

tion in so vast and complicated a mass of mountains. In spite of every

eare, they will constantly be liable to misconception, as must always be

the case where a restricted signification is arbitrarily applied, in a dis-

cussion of this sort, to expressions which of themselves have an extend-

ed general meaning.

As a substitute for the declivities then, the best standard that occurs

to me, to which to refer when alluding to the elevation of the snow-

line at any place, is the general mass of perpetual snow found on the

more elevated parts of the Himalaya, the belt of perpetual snow, which

as I before stated, is about 35 miles in breadth, and runs along the

northern boundary of the chain. Instead of the height of the snow-line

on the northern or southern declivity, 1 shall therefore say, the height

at the northern or southern limit of the belt of perpetual snow, where

the limits of the belt of perpetual snow, are to be understood as having

exactly the same relation to the snowy surface in a horizontal plane,

that the snow-line has in a vertical.

It remains for me to define clearly what is meant by the snow-line,

and I cannot do better than adopt the words of M. Humboldt, who

says, “the lower limit of perpetual snow in a given latitude is the

boundary line of the snow which resists the effect of summer ; it is the

highest elevation to which the snow-line recedes in the course of the

whole year. We must distinguish between the limit thus defined, and

three other phenomena; viz. the annual fluctuation of the snow-line ;

the phenomenon of sporadic falls of snow, and the existence of

glaciers’ (Cosmos. Trans. T. 1. p. 327).

* The ordinary route lies up the bank of the Sutlej.

f¢ As a specimen, vide Capt. Hutton’s papers noticed hereafter.

1849. | On the Snow-line in the Himalaya. 291

Having disposed of these preliminaries, which are essential to the

proper apprehension of the subject, I shall proceed to examine the data

from which the elevation of the snow-line is to be determined. In doing

this it will I think be more convenient for me, both for the northern

and southern limits, to explain first my own views, and afterwards to

follow M. Humboldt’s authorities, and point out the errors into which

they have fallen.

1. Southern limit of the belt of perpetual snow.—In this part of the

Himalaya it is not, on an average of years, till the beginning of Decem-

ber, that the snow-line appears decidedly to descend for the winter.

After the end of September indeed, when the rains are quite over, light

falls of snow are not of very uncommon occurrence on the higher moun-

tains even down to 12,000 feet ; but their effects usually disappear very

quickly, often in a few hours. The latter part of October, the whole of

November, and the beginning of December, are here generally cha-

racterised by the beautiful serenity of the sky ; and it is at this season,

on the southern edge of the belt, that the line of perpetual snow is seen

to attain its greatest elevation.

The following are the results of trigonometrical measurements of the

elevation of the inferior edge of snow on spurs of the Tres] and Nanda-

devi groups of peaks, made before the winter snow had begun in No-

vember, 1848.*

Height as observed on face exposed to the East. |Height on face

Point exposed to West

observed. > observed from

From Almorah,| From Binsar, Wied’ imarahe

(height 5586 ft.)|(height 7969 ft.)

No. 1. 16,599 feet. 16,767 feet. 16,683 feet. 15,872 feet.

7d 16,969 17,005 16,987

3. 17,186 17,185 17,185 14,878

4, 15,293 15,361 15,327

* These measurements make no pretension to accuracy, but are sufficiently good

approximations for the purpose for which they are intended. The heights are given

as calculated from observations made both at Almora and Binsar, to show in some

degree what confidence may be attached to them. The heights of Almora and Bin-

sar are, on the authority of Capt. Webb’s survey; the distance of these places, which

is used as the base from which to calculate the several distances of the points ob-

served, was got from a map of trigonometrically determined stations obtained from

the Surveyor General’s office.

292 On the Snow-line in the Himdlaya. | APRIL,

The points 1, 2, and 3, are on ridges that run from the peaks Nos. 11

and 12, ina 8. Westerly direction. The dip ofthe strata being to the

N. East, the faces exposed to view from the south are for the most part

very abrupt, and snow never accumulates on them to any great extent.

This in some measure will account for the height to which the snow is

seen to have receded on the eastern exposures, that is upwards of 17,000

feet. On the western exposures the ground is less steep, and the snow

is seen to have been observed at a considerably less elevation ; but it

was in very small quantities, and had probably fallen lately, so that I

am inclined to think that its height, viz. about 15,000 feet, rather indi-

cates the elevation below which the light autumnal falls of snow were

incapable of lying, than that of the inferior edge of the perpetual snow.

It is further to be understood, that below this level of 15,000 feet, the

mountains were absolutely without snow, excepting those small isolated

patches that are seen in ravines, or at the head of glaciers, which of

course do not affect such calculations as these. On the whole therefore

I consider that the height of the snow-line on the more prominent

points of the southern edge of the belt, may be fairly reckoned at

16,000 feet at the very least.

The point No. 4 was selected as being in a much more retired posi-

tion than the others. It is situated not far from the head of the Pin-

dur river, and lies between the peaks Nos. 14 and 15. It was quite free

from snow at 15,300 feet, and I shall therefore consider 15,000 feet as

the elevation of the snow-line in the re-entering angles of the chain.

I conclude then, that 15,500 feet, the mean of the heights at the

most and least prominent points, should be assigned as the mean eleva-

tion of the snow-line at the southern limit of the belt of perpetual snow

in Kumaon, and I conceive that whatever error there may be in this

estimate, will be found to lie on the side of diminution rather than of

exaggeration.

This result appears to accord well with what has been observed on

the Bissehir range. The account given by Dr. Gerard of his visit to

the Shatal pass on this range, which he undertook expressly for the

purpose of determining the height of the snow-line, contains the only

definite information as to the limit of perpetual snow at the southern

edge of the belt, that is to be found in the whole of the published writ-

ings of the Gerards; and the following is a short abstract of his obser-

1849. | On the Snow-line in the Himalaya. 293

vations. Dr. Gerard reached the summit of the Shatul pass, the eleva-

tion of which is 15,500 feet, on the 9th August 1822, and remained

there till the 15th of the same month. He found the southern slope

of the range generally free from snow, and he states that it is sometimes

left without any whatever. On the top of the pass itself there was no

snow; but on the northern slope of the mountain it lay as far down as

about 14,000 feet. On his arrival rain was falling, and out of the four

days of his stay on the pass, it either rained or snowed for the greater

part of three. The fresh snow that fell during this time did not lie

below 16,000 feet, and some of the more precipitous rocks remained

clear even up to 17,000 feet.*

The conclusion to which Dr. Gerard comes from these facts is, that

the snow-line on the southern face of the Bissehir range is at 15,000

feet above the sea. But I should myself be more inclined from his

account to consider that 15,500 feet was nearer the truth; and in this

view I am confirmed by verbal accounts of the state of the passes on

this range, which I have obtained from persons of my acquaintance,

who have crossed them somewhat later in the year. The difference

however is after all trifling.

Such is the direct evidence that can be offered on the height of the

snow line at the southern limit of the belt of perpetual snow, some

additional light may however be thrown on the subject generally, by

my shortly explaining the state in which I have found the higher parts

of the mountains, at the different seasons during which I have visited

them.

In the beginning of May, on the mountains to the east of the Ram-

ganga river, near Namik, I found the ground on the summit of the

* Tours in the Himalaya, T. 1. pp. 289-347. M. Humboldt apparently inter-

prets Dr. Gerard a little too literally, when, with reference to Dr. G.’s statement,

that ‘‘ Hans Bussun,’’ a peak said to be 17,500 feet high, ‘‘ had lost all its snow’’ and

looked ‘‘ quite black and dreary,’’ he asks, ‘‘ Quelle pent étre la cause d’un phéno-

méne local si extraordinaire ?”? (Asie Centrale, T. 3. p. 318, note.) The extreme

summit of the peak of Nandadevi, which appears to be a perfect precipice for several

thousand feet, is often in much the same predicament of ‘black and dreary,’ and

many people are disappointed with its appearance for this reason, contrasting it

with the beautitul pyramidal peak of No, 19 of Pénch-chuli, which is always entirely

covered with the purest snow.

294 On the Snow-line in the Himdlaya. [APRIL,

ridge called Champwa, not only perfectly free from snow at an elevation

of 12,000 feet, but covered with flowers, in some places golden with

Caltha and Rananculus polypetalus, in others purple with Primulus. The

snow had in fact already receded to upwards of 12,500 feet, beyond

which even a few little Gentians proclaimed the advent of spring.

Towards the end of the same month, at the head of the Pindur, near

the glacier from which that river rises, an open spot on which I could

pitch my tent could not be found above 12,000 feet. But here the

accumulation of snow, which was considerable in all ravines even below

11,000 feet, is manifestly the result of avalanches and drift. The sur-

face of the glacier, clear ice as well as moraines, was quite free from

snow up to nearly 13,000 feet; but the effect of the more retired posi-

tion of the place in retarding the melting of the snow, was manifest

from the less advanced state of the vegetation. During my stay at

Pinduri the weather was very bad, and several inches of snow fell; but

excepting where it had fallen on the old snow, it all melted off again in

a few hours, even without the assistance of the sun’s direct rays. On

the glacier at 13,000 feet it had all disappeared 12 hours after it fell.

On revisiting Pinduri about the middle of October, the change that

had taken place was very striking. Now not a sign of snow was to be

seen on any part of the road up to the very head of the glacier. A

luxuriant vegetation had sprung up, but had already almost entirely

perished, and its remains covered the ground as far as I went. From

this elevation, about 13,000 feet, evident signs of vegetation could be

seen to extend far up the less precipitous mountains. The place is not

one at which the height of the perpetual snow can be easily estimated,

for on all sides are glaciers, and the vast accumulations of snow from

which they are supplied, and these cannot always be readily distin-

guished from snow in situ; but as far as I could judge, those places

which might be considered as offering a fair criterion were free from

snow up to 15,000 or even 16,000 feet.

Towards the end of August I crossed the Barjikang pass, between

Raélam and Juhar, the elevation of which is about 15,300 feet.* There

was here no vestige of snow on the ascent to the pass from the south-

* This pass is so far within the belt of perpetual snow that it cannot be held to

afford any just arguments as to the position of the snow line on the extreme southern

edge of the belt.

1849. | On the Snow-line in the Himalaya. 295

east, and only a very small patch remained on the north-western face.

The view of the continuation of the ridge in a southerly direction was

cut off by a prominent point, but no snow lay on that side within 500

feet of the pass; while to the north I estimated that there was no snow

in considerable quantity within 1500 feet or more, that is nearly up to

17,000 feet. The vegetation on the very summit of the pass was far

from scanty, though it had already begun to break up into tufts, and

had lost that character of continuity which it had maintained to within

a height of 500 or 600 feet. Species of Potentilla, Sedum, Saxifraga,

Corydalis, Aconitum, Delphinium, Thalictrum, Ranunculus, Saussurea,

Gentiana, Pedecularis, Primula, Rheum and Polygonum, all evidently

flourishing in a congenial climate, showed that the limits of vegetation

and region of perpetual snow were still far distant.

In addition to these facts it may not be out of place to mention, that

there are two mountains visible from Almora, Rigoli-gidri in Garhwal,

between the Kailganga and Nandakni, and Chipulé in Kumaon, between

the Gori and Dauli (of Darma), both upwards of 13,000 feet in eleva-

tion, from the summits of which the snow disappears long before

the end of the summer months, and which do not usually again become

covered for the winter till late in December.

The authorities cited by M. Humboldt in his Asie Centrale, give the

following heights to the snow-line on the southern slope of the Himé-

laya.*

Toises. English feet.

DBRS. i ee I Se ae 1954, or 12,500

Woleproekesy ye Pd ee 2032 — 13,000

eed esGny sti kl ee eal 2110 — 13,500

A + Gerdriy. 0. ee. CORE om Va 2080 — 13,300

SAeguemonty. 1.6. eee i eet ce —- EBOO? "11,500

Webb, Colebrooke, Hodgson. Immediately before the list of heights

just given, M. Humboldt quotes the followmg part of a letter from

Mr. Colebrooke: ‘There is a paper of mine in the Journal of the

Royal Institution for 1819 (Vol. 17, No. 13) on the limit of snow. I

deduced from the materials which I had that the limit of constant

* Asie Centrale, T. 3. p. 295. Itake no account of the height assigned by

M. M., Hiigel and Vigne, as they do not refer to the region to which I confine my-

self,

296 On the Snow-line in the Himalaya. [ APRIL,

congelation was 13,000 feet in the parallel of 31°. according to Capt.

Hodgson’s information, and 13,500 feet at Lat. 30°, according to Capt.

Webb’s.”* Tam unable to refer to the paper here alluded to, but a

number of the Quarterly Journal of Science (T. 6, No. 11, pp. 51—57),

has come into my hands, in which is a paper entitled “height of the

Himalaya mountains,” signed H. T. C., and evidently written by Mr.

Colebroke. From this I extract the following sentences: ‘‘The limit

of congelation is specified by him (Capt. Webb), where he states the

elevation of the spot at which the Gori river emerges from the snow,

viz. 11,543 feet. This observation it may be right to remark is conso-

nant enough to theory which would assign 11,400 for the boundary of

congelation in Lat. 30° 25’? Now as Mr. Colebroke was not an

original observer, the way in which he talks of the limit of snow and

then of the limit of congelation, using them as synonomous terms,

would, independently of any other error into which he may have fallen,

afford strong grounds for our supposing that he had no very precise

ideas as to the meaning of the expression, limit of snow. But all doubt ©

on the subject ceases, when we learn that ‘the spot at which the Gori

river emerges from the snow,’ is neither more nor less than the extre-

mity ofan immense glacier ; and when we see, as I have done, that at an

elevation not 150 feet less great, and within a mile of this spot said to be.

at the limit of constant congelation, is situated Milam, one of the largest

villages in Kumaon, where crops of wheat, barley, buckwheat, and

mustard are regularly ripened every year; and that no snow is to be

found in the neighbourhood in August or September at an elevation of

at least 16,000+ feet or 4,500 feet above the spot alluded to; it is

evident that Mr. Colebrooke either used the term limit of snow in a

sense very different from that now applied to it, or has been left alto-

gether in the dark, as to those facts on which alone an opinion of any

value could be formed.

I am without any means of discovering whether Capts. Webb or

Hodgson ever published any distinct opinions as to the height of the snow-

line, but it appears probable that the information to which Mr. Cole.

* The numbers in M. Humboldt’s list do not agree with this ; they have possibly

been transposed by accident,

+ I say 16,000 feet, as up to that height I am certain, but 18,000 is more pro-

bably the truth.

1849.| On the Snow-line in the Himdlaya. 297

brooke alludes is simply their record of the heights of places. At all

events however their evidence must be considered of little value, as they

neither of them knew what a glacier was. Capt. Webb, as we have seen,

talks of the Gori emerging from the snow, when we know that in reality

it rises from a glacier. Capt. Hodgson falls into a similar error in his

description of the source of the Ganges, (vide Asiatic Researches, T. 14,

pp. 114—117). He says ‘‘ the Bhagirati or Ganges issues from under a

very low arch at the foot of the grand snow bed,” and from the almost

exact coincidence of the heights it is plain that this is his limit of snow.

There is not however the slightest doubt that the low arch was merely

the terminal cave of a glacier, and that it was far below the lower limit

of perpetual snow, though when Capt. Hodgson was there in the spring

the place was probably snowy enough.

A. Gerard. I have not the means of reference to the passage quoted.

by M. Humboldt in support of the height given by Capt. Gerard, but

in the “account of Koonawur,’”’ which may be presumed to shew Capt.

Gerard’s latest views on these matters, he says :—‘ The limit of perpe-

tual snow is lowest on the outer Himalaya,” (by which he means the

Bissehir range), ‘and here the continuous snow beds exposed to the

south are about 15,000 feet.”* It is not impossible that the height

which M. Humboldt gives refer to some line of perpetual congelations

on a number of different varieties of which Capt. Gerard remarks, such

as where it always freezes, freezes more than it thaws, freezes every

night, or finally where the mean temperature is 32° Fahrenheit. These,

however interesting in their own way, are not the snow-line.

Jacquemont. The height given by this traveller is fully explained

by the note that M. Humboldt adds, “au nord de Cursali et de Jum-

. nautri ou la limite des neiges est horizontalement trés tranchée.””—

Jacqu: Voy. dans V Inde, p. 99. Now M. Jacquemont visited Jam-

notri in the middle of May;.when no doubt he found the snow line

* Account of Koonawar, p. 159. It appears to me possible that the Gerards,

who knew as little of glaciers as Webb or Hodgson, did not fall into similar mistake

in their estimate of the height of the snow-line on the Bissehir range, because there

are no glaciers or none of any size on that face, owing to the small height, less than

2000 feet, that the average line of summit rises above the snoweline. This however

is only conjecture, for though I am satisfied that glaciers do exist on the north face

of that range, I have in vain endeavoured to come to any conclusion as to the south.

ern face. It may be proper to add that I have never been there myself.

2: Que

298 On the Snow-line in the Himalaya. [APRIL,

‘trés tranchée’ at 11,500 feet. I have already shewn that I found the

same thing myself at Pinduri, where the snow in the autumn had all

disappeared up to 15,000 feet or more. If his visit had been made in

January he would probably have found the snow below 8000 feet, but

this is not perpetual snow.

These heights therefore must all be rejected; nor can it be consi.

dered at all surprising that any amount of mistake as to the height of

the snow line should be made, as long as travellers cannot distinguish

snow from glacier ice, or look for the boundary of perpetual snow at

the beginning of the spring.

2. Northern limit of the belt of perpetual snow.—My own observa-

tions on the snow-line in the northern part of the chain were made in

September, 1848, on my way from Milam into Hundes, vid Unta-dhira,

Kyungar-ghat and Balch-dhura, at the beginning of the month ; and on

the road back again via Lakhur-ghat at the end of the month.

Of the three passes that we crossed on our way from Milam, all of

them being about 17,700 feet in elevation, the first is Unta-dhura, and

we saw no snow on any part of the way up to its very top, which we

reached at about 4 Pp. M. in a very disagreeable drizzle of rain and snow,

The final ascent to the pass from the south is about a thousand feet ; it

is very steep at the bottom and covered with fragments of blacktslaty

limestone. The path leads up the side of a ravine, down which a small

stream trickles, the ground having a generally even and rounded surface.

Neither on any part of this, nor on the summit of the pass itself, which

is tolerably level, were there any remains of snow whatever ; the ground

being worked up into deep black mud by the feet of the cattle that had

been lately returning to Milam. On the ridge to the right and left

there were patches of snow a few hundred feet above; and on the

northern face of the pass an accumulation remained that extended about

200 feet down, apparently the effect of the drift through the gap in

which the pass lies. Below this again the ground was everywhere quite

free from snow. On the ascent to U’nta-dhira, at perhaps 17,000 feet,

a few blades of grass were seen, but on the whole it may be said to have

been utterly devoid of vegetation. On the north side of the pass, 3 or

400 feet below the summit, a Cruciferous plant was the first that was

met with.

The Kyungar pass, which is 5 or 6 miles north of Unta-dhira,

1849.] On the Snow-line in the Himalaya. 299

was found equally free from snow on its southern face and sum-

mit, which latter is particularly open and level. The mountains on

either side were also free from snow to some height, but on the North,

as on Unta-dhiira, a large bed lay a little way down the slope, and

extended to about 500 feet from the top. On this pass a Boragineous

plant in flower was found above 17,000 feet ; a species of Urtica was also

got about the same altitude, and we afterwards saw it again nearly as

high up on the Lakhur pass.

From the Kyungar-ghat, a considerable portion of the southern face

of the Balch range, distant about 10 miles, was distinctly seen apparent-

ly quite free from snow. In our ascent to the Balch pass no snow was

observed on any of the southern spurs of the range, and only one or

two very small patches could be seen from the summit on the north

side, The average height of the top of this range can hardly be more

than 500 feet greater than that of the pass, and as a whole it certainly

does not enter the region of perpetual snow. As viewed from the

plains of Hundes it cannot be said to appear snowy, a few only of the

peaks being tipped.

We returned to Milam vid Chirchun. The whole of the ascent to the

Lakhur pass was perfectly free from snow to the very top, 1. e. 18,300

feet, and many of the neighbouring mountains were bare still higher.

The next ridge on this route is Jainti-dhura, which is passed at an ele-

vation of 18,500 feet, but still without crossing the least portion of snow.

The line of perpetual snow is however evidently near; for though the

Jainti ridge was quite free, and some of the peaks near us were clear

probably to upwards of 19,000 feet, yet in more sheltered situations

unbroken snow could be seen considerably below us, and on the whole

I think that 18,500 feet must be nearly the average height of the snow-

line at this place.

M. Humboldt’s list of heights for the Northern slope is as follows :

Toises. English feet.

1 SRE Sea Pera ay ye aoe Fee Ste - 2600, or 16,600

OTC 6 Oe 2900 — 18,500

PURRTCTOEA, cde seis he ev ecncty, “S200 — 20,500

MERION, OS cee ogee v's eos 5078 — 19,700

Webb. The height given on the authority of Capt. Webb is simply

that of the Niti pass, which Capt. Webb crossed without snow in

300 On the Snow-line in the Himdlaya. [ApriL,

August 1819, and Moorcroft in June* and August 1811. The Niti

pass is notoriously the easiest of all the Garhwal and Kumaon passes,

and remains open long after those from Juhar, which I have described

above, have become impracticable ; and it is held to be a certain way of

escape from Tibet, by the Juharis, should a fall of snow more early

than usual stop their own passes, while they are to the north of the

Himalaya. It may therefore be fairly concluded that the snow-line

recedes considerably above the Niti pass, as it should do if my estimate

of its height be correct.

Moorcroft. The passage quoted in support of this height is as

follows :—‘*‘ Now Mr. Moorcroft had his tent covered two inches deep

(with snow) when close to Manasarowar and on the surface of the ground

it lay in greater quantities ; and if his elevation was 17,000 feet} we

have clear evidence that the climate of the table-land, notwithstanding

the increased heat from the reverberation of a bright sun, is equally as

cold as in the regions of eternal snow in the Himalayan chain, although

the country of the former exhibits no perpetual snow except at heights

of 18,000 and 19,000 feet.” (Tours in the Himalaya, T. 1. p. 319).

The words are those of Dr. Gerard, who on his own authority thus

gives 18,000 or 19,000 feet as the elevation of the snow-line in the part

of Tibet near the Sutle]; and this, as far as it goes, corroborates the

conclusion to which I have come. ©

A. Gerard. Inthe absence of the books to which M. Humboldt

refers, I conclude that the height here given is that to which Capt. Gerard

supposed the snow receded on the ridge above Nako. But this is to

the North of the Sutlej, and therefore is not in the region to which I

have confined myself. In the “‘ Account of Kunawar’’ however the fol-

lowing remark that is applicable, is to be found :—“ In ascending the

Keoobrung pass, 18,313 feet high in July, no snow was found on the

road,” (p. 159). This pass is situated on the water-shed of the Hima-

laya about 20 miles east of the great bend in the Sutlej, and about 8

miles to the south of that river; it is on the northern limit of the be!t

* Not January, as is erroneously printed in the ‘ Asie Centrale’ Vide, Asiatic

Researches, Vol. 12, pp. 417—494.

+ The elevation of Manasarowar, as M. Humboldt correctly conjectured, is about

15,200 feet only.

1849. | On the Snow-line in the Himalaya. 301

of perpetual snow, the ground between it and the Sutley not being of

sufficient height to be permanently covered with snow.

Jacquemont. The Keoobrung pass of Capt. Gerard, under a name

slightly changed, is the same as that from which M. Jacquemont made

his observations, ‘‘Sur le col de Kioubrong (entre les rivitres de Buspa

et de Shipke ou de Lang zing khampa) 4 5581 métres (18,313 feet) de

hauteur selon le capitaine Gerard, je me trouvai encore de beaucoup au-

dessous de la limite der neiges perpétuelles dans cette partie de Hima-

laya (lat. 31° 35’, long. 76° 38’).”” “ Je crois pouvoir porter la hauteur

des neiges permanentes dans cette region de |’ Himalaya a 6000 metres

(19,700 feet,”’) (Aste Centrale, T. 3. p. 304). Iwill admit that M.

Jacquemont’s estimate of the height of the snow-line on the southern

face of the range, is not such as to induce me to place implicit confi-

dence in this either ; but allowing for some little exaggeration, there can

be no room for doubting that the snow-lme must here recede nearly to

19,000 feet.

Whether the result at which I have arrived from what I saw on the

Juhar passes be too little, or this too great, or whether there may not

be in fact a difference of elevation, are matters of comparatively small

importance. As I purpose to point ont hereafter, the chances of error

in the determination of great altitudes by single Barometrical observa-

tions are very considerable, more particularly when as is most generally the

case, there is no corresponding observation within 60 or 70 miles. All

of these heights are deduced from such observations, and errors of 150

or even 200 feet on either side of the truth, or differences of 300 or

400 feet, may, I am satisfied, quite easily arise in the calculations. I

shall therefore continue to call the height of the snow-line at the North-

ern limit of the belt of perpetual snow, 18,500 feet; not that I con-

sider my own calculation as worthy of more confidence than Capt.

Gerard’s, or M. Jacquemont’s, but that it is, in the present state of our

knowledge, sufficiently exact, and certainly not exaggerated.

As the principal object of the present enquiry is the elevation of the

snow-line in the Himélaya I have in the foregoing observations con-

fined myself strictly to that region of these mountains that I at first

specified ; but it is not the less important to notice the heights at which

we find perpetual snow still further to the north. Capt. Gerard, after

mentioning the Keoobrung pass, goes on to say, “In August when I

302 On the Snow-line in the Himalaya. [| APRIL,

crossed Manerung pass, 18,612 feet,” a pass on the range that divides

Piti from Kunéwar, “there was only about a foot of snow, which was

new and had fallen a few days before.” ‘In October on the ridge

above Nako,”’ about 5 miles north of the great bend in the Sutlej, “ we

ascended to 19,411 feet, and the snow which was all new and no more

than a few inches deep, was only met with in the last 400 or 500 feet ;

this was on the face of the range exposed to the west, but on the oppo-

site side no snow was seen at almost 20,000 feet.”—(p. 160). During

the whole of our expedition into Hundes in September 1848, we only

saw very small patches of snow in two places, on both occasions in

sheltered ravines; but in the part of the country through which we

passed perpetual snow is not to be looked for, the highest mountains

probably not exceeding 18,000 feet in height. In the true plains of

Tibet, snow would be just as difficult to find in the summer months, as

in the plains of India. From my own observations made in this journey,

I infer that the height of the limit of snow on the southern face of

Kailas is not less than 19,500 feet ; and there is nothing now on record

that I know of, that indicates the latitude beyond which the snow-line

again begins to descend.

From a review of the whole of the facts that have been brought for-

ward, it may I think be considered as fully established, that M. Hum-

boldt, though underestimating the actual elevation of the snow-line, was

certainly right in what he advanced as to the relative height on the two

opposite faces of the chain. The doubts that were raised by Capt. Hutton

on this point in his paper entitled ‘‘ Correction of the erroneous doctrine

that the snow lies longer and deeper on the southern than on the

northern aspect of the Himalaya,” were perhaps almost sufficiently

answered by Mr. Batten at the time they were first brought forward ;

but as I have reopened the whole question I will add afew words on

this subject also.*

* Vide M’Clelland’s Journal, Nos. 14, 16,19, 21. Captain Hutton’s first letter

begins thus; ‘‘ Previous to my trip through Kunawar in 1838, I had frequently

heard it contended that the snow lay longer, deeper, and farther down on the

southern exposure of the Himalaya than it was found to do on the northern aspect,

you may therefore easily imagine my astonishment, when crossing the higher

passes through Kunawar, Hungrung and Pitti, I found the actual phoenomena to be

diametrically opposite to such a doctrine, and that the northern slopes invariably

1849. | On the Snow-line in the Himalaya. 303

The doctrine that Capt. Hutton attacks as erroneous, undoubtedly

is so. But it is a doctrine that was never inculeated by any one.—Capt.

Hutton having misunderstood the true enunciation of a proposition,

reproduces it according to his own mistaken views, and then destroys

the phantom that he has raised. The fact that Captain Hutton saw to

be true was this,,that as a general rule, snow, sporadic, as well as perpe-

tual, will be found to lie at a lower level on the northern, than on the

southern aspect on any individual range in these or any other mountains.

In drawing his conclusions from this fact, the first error into which he

fell was to confound the north and south aspects of the individual

ridges, with the north and south aspects of the chain ; and he somewhat

complicates matters by neglecting to distinguish between snow and per-

petual snow. These mistakes having been pointed out to him, he tried

to correct them, but still could not get over the terms north and south

decliwity ; for he ends by assuming that they apply to the north and

south aspects of the Bissehir range, which he conceives to be ‘ the true

Himalaya, the central or main line of snowy peaks.’ Here he falls into

an error of logic no less flagrant than the former ; he restricts the term

* Himalaya’ to this range, which may or may not be central, for that has

nothing to do with the matter, and then assumes that this Himalaya of

his own, is the Himélaya of whose north and south declivities we speak,

when we repeat that the snow-line 7s at a greater elevation on the

northern than on the southern face of the chain.*

carried more snow than the southern exposure.”’ (No. 14. p. 275.) In his last

letter he says, ‘‘ I have already acknowledged the faultiness of my first letter; in so

far as regards my having omitted to state in sufficiently distinct terms, that my

remarks referred to the actual northern and southern aspects of the true Himalaya

or central or main range of snowy peaks, and not to the aspects of secondary groups

and minor ranges.’’ This ‘true Himalaya’ is the Bissehir range of which I have

oftenspoken. I say nothing of Capt. Hutton’s views regarding perpetual snow, the

existence of which, as far as I can understand him, he appears te doubt.

* The word ‘ Himalaya,’ which to the natives of these mountains means only the

snowy peaks, isin the language of science applied to the whole chain, and in my

opinion properly. Any division of the chain into ‘ Himalaya,’ or snowy ranges, and

‘ sub-Himalaya’ ranges not snowy, such as has I believe been made, appears to me

objectionable, not only as unusualin the terminology of physical geography, and

therefore likely to lead to confusion such as that of which we have just had a specimen;

but as artificial and unnecessary. I repeat artificial, for in spite of the specious

304 On the Snow-line in the Himdlaya. [APRIL,

The height to which the snow-line has been shown to recede on the

southern face of the Himalaya, though considerably greater than had

been supposed by M. Humboldt, still does not exceed what the analogy

of mountains im similar latitudes in the other hemisphere might have

led us to expect. In the central part of Chili, in Lat. 33° S. we find

that the lower limit of perpetual snow is at 14,500 or 15,000 feet, while

in Bolivia, in Lat. 18° S. it reaches 16,000, and even on some of the

peaks 19,000 feet.* There is therefore no appearance of any thing

unusual in the general height of the snow-line, which need induce us to

suppose the existence of any extraordinary ascending current of heated

air, regarding which M. Humboldt enquires. The exceedingly high

temperature, surpassing that known at any other part of the earth’s sur-

face, which the air over the plains of North-Western India acquires dur-

ing the summer, must of course produce a sensible effect in heating the

upper strata of the atmosphere. But as far as I am enabled to form an

opinion from the few facts that have come to my knowledge regarding

the temperature of the higher regions in these mountains, I think there

is little doubt that the same cause which produces this great tempera-

ture in the plain, that is, the direct radiation of the sun, acts immediately

so powerfully in heating the surface of the mountains, and thereby

raising the temperature of the air over them, and in melting the snow,

that the secondary effects of the heated air that rises from the plains of

India must be almost imperceptible.

From the way in which the term north declivity was introduced into

the enunciation of the phcenomenon of the greater elevation of the

snow-line at the northern edge of the belt of perpetual snow, an idea

naturally arose that it was observed only on the declivity immediately

facing the plains of Tibet, and M. Humboldt, in the quotation I before

gave from ‘Cosmos,’ is careful to restrict it to the peaks which rise

appearance of the distinction it will not bear examination. Theassociation of moun-

tains into chains should be based upon the physical character and affinities of the

mountains themselves, quite irrespective of any adventitious circumstances of snow

or of vegetable and animal life. Botanical or zoological regions will almost always

be found to follow closely the configurations of the earth’s surface, on the accidents

of which they chiefly depend; but to make the classification of the latter depend

upon the former would be a manifest absurdity.

* Asie Centrale, T. 3, pp. 275, 277, 329.

1849. | On the Snow-line in the Himdlaya. 305

above the Tartarian plateau. But-this, as may have been inferred from

what I have already said on the state of the three ranges that are cross-

ed in succession between Milam and Tibet, is quite a mistake ; the fact

being that the greater elevation is observed on the Tibetan face in

common with the whole of the more northern part of the chain. From

the remarks before made on the state in which I found the Barj-kang

pass, it will be seen that even so near as it is to the southern limit of the

belt of perpetual snow, a perceptible increase of elevation had already

taken place. M. Jacquemont, as quoted by M. Humboldt, says, ‘* Les

neiges perpetuelles descendent plus bas sur la pente méridionale de

’Himalaya, que sur les pentes septentrionales, et leur limite s’éléve

constamment 4 mesure que I’ on s’éloigne vers le nord de la chaine qui

borde Inde.” (Asie Centrale, T. 3. p. 303.) With the proviso that

the rise here spoken of is not regular, but more rapid as we cross the

first great masses of perpetual snow, I entirely concur in M. Jacque-

mont’s way of putting the case.

That the radiation from the Plains of Tibet can have nothing to do

with the greater height to which the snow-line recedes generally in the

northern part of the Himalaya, is evident, for it must be all intercepted

by the outer face of the chain; and that its effects even on this outer

face are of a secondary order, seems to me sufticiently proved by the

consideration, that on the Balch range, which rises immediately from

those plas, what little snow is to be seen is on the Northern slope

exposed to the radiation, while none whatever remains on the Southern

slope, which is quite protected from it, exactly as is the case with every

mountain anywhere.

It may therefore be concluded that some other influence must be in

operation, the effects of which are generally felt over the whole of the

more northern parts of the Himalaya, and such an influence is I

conceive readily to be found, in the diminished quantity of snow that

falls on the northern, as compared to the southern part of the chain.

The comparative dryness of the climate to the north of the first great

mass of snowy mountains, is not now noticed for the first time ; itis

indeed notorious to the inhabitants of Simla, and travellers often go

into Kunawar with the express object of avoiding the rains. Capt.

Gerard thus describes the climate of the western part of the Himalaya :

“In the interior (i, e. of Kundwar) at 9000 and 10,000 feet snow is

2R 2

306 On the Snow-line in the Himalaya. [ApRIL,

searcely ever above a foot m depth, and at 12,000 it is very rarely two

feet, although nearer the outer range four or five feet are usual at heights

of 7000 or 8000 feet. In these last places there is rain in July, August

and September, but it is not near so heavy in the lower hills. When

Hindustan is deluged for three months, the ‘upper parts of Kundwar

are refreshed by partial showers ; and with the exception of the valley

of the Buspa, the periodical rains do not extend further to the eastward

than Long. 77°.”* (Account of Kundwar, p. 61). He again says

relative to the most northern parts of Kunawar and the neighbouring

portion of Tibet, ‘‘ With the exception of March and April, in which

months there are a few showers, the uniform reports of the inhabitant

represent the rest of the year to be almost perpetual sunshine, the few

clouds hang about the highest mountains and a heavy fall of snow or

rain is almost unknown.” (Ibid, p. 95.).

The testimony of Capt. J. Cunningham, who passed a winter in

the most northern part of Kunawar, as to the small quantity of snow

that falls, is particularly valuable. He says, ‘‘ In this country a south-

erly wind and the sun together keep slopes with a southern exposure

and 12 and 13,000 feet high, quite clear of snow, (except when it is

actually snowing,) and this too towards the end of January and begin-

ning of February, or I may say at all times.’ Also “here I am (4prif

6th, 1842) about 9000 or 9500 feet high, wind generally southerly,

no snow whatever on southern slopes within 15 or 16,000 feet, apri-

cot trees budding, but on northern slopes and in hollows abundance of

snow. + (M Glelland’s Calcutta Journal of Nat. History, No. 14, pp.

281, 282).

* That the fall of snow at 7000 feet is ever 5 feet in any part of these hills

may I think be doubted. The Buspa is the river that runs immediately at the foot

of the north declivity of the Bissehir range; and I suppose that Capt. Gerard

means, that the rains do not extend up the Sutlej beyond the point where the Buspa

falls into it.

7 These paragraphs are taken from extracts of letters of Capt. Cunningham,

given by Capt. Hutton in support of his arguments as to snow lying lower on North

than on South exposures, which accounts for the last sentence. But whatever the

quantity of snow may have been on the north slopes, compare the heights here

given as being clear of snow early in April, viz. 15,000 feet, with what I have above

shown to be the limit to the South of the great peaks as late as the middle of May

viz. 12,500 feet.

1849. | On the Snow-line in the Himdlaya. 307

From my own experience I can also speak of the remarkable change

of climate that is met with in the month of August, in passing from the

south to the north of the line of great peaks, by the vallies of the Gori

and Ralam rivers. A straight line joining the peaks No. 14, (Nanda-

devi), and No. 18, (the northern of the Panch-chuli cluster,) cuts the

Gori a little below Tola and the Ralam river about five miles further to

the east near the village of Ralam. The road up the Gori being at

that season impracticable, I went up the Ralam river to Ralam and

thence crossed over to the Gori by the Barji-kang pass, which is on

the ridge that separates the two rivers and that terminates in the peak

No. 16 (Hansa-ung). From the limit of forest to the village of Ralam,

the elevation of which is about 12,000 feet, the vegetation, chiefly

herbaceous, was of the most luxuriant growth and boundless variety,

and the soil was saturated with moisture. On crossing the Barji-kéng

pass and descending to the Gori, we were immediately struck with the

remarkable change in the character of the vegetation, which had already

lost all its rankness. Buta mile or two above the village of Tola the

alteration was complete; the flora had shrunk within the most scanty

limits, the bushes hardly ever deserving the name of shrub, the few herbs

that were there were stunted and parched, the soil dry, and the roads

quite dusty. At Melam the still closer approximation of the climate

to that of Tibet, is clearly shewn by the occurrence of several plants

undoubtedly Tibetan, that are not found farther to the South. Such

are Caragana versicolor, the ‘Dama’ of the Bhotias, which covers the

plams of Tibet; a Clematis, dwarf Hippophaé, Lonicera, and two or

three Potentillas ; and no doubt several others might be named.

Now although it is to the winter and not to the summer rains,* that

the precipitation of snow on these mountains is to be ascribed, yet the

circumstances under which the vapour is condensed appeared to be the

same at both seasons. Southerly winds blow throughout the year over

the Himélaya, in the winter with peculiar violence ;+ and whatever be

* Although it does not appear to be so well known, the winter rains of North

Western India are as strictly periodical as those of the summer.

+ The Southerly winds that prevail at considerable heights in the Him4laya, and

in the countries to the north, are diurnal phenomena, evidently dependent on the

apparent motion of the sun; and in their time of beginning of maximum and of

ending, greatly resemble the hot winds of the plains of India, which have a similar

origin.

308 On the Snow-line in the Himdlaya. [ApRIL,

the more remote cause of the periodical recurrence of the rains, there

can I think be little doubt, that the proximate cause of the condensa-

tion of by far the greater portion of the snow or rain that falls on the

snowy mountains, is that the current from the south is more damp or

hot than the air in contact with the mountains against which it blows ;

a relation which holds good in the winter as well as in the summer.

Thus the air that comes up from the south, no sooner reaches the

southern boundary of the belt of perpetual snow, where the mountains

suddenly rise from an average of perhaps 8,000 or 10,000 feet to nearly

19,000 or 20,000, than it is deprived of a very large proportion of its

moisture, which is converted into cloud, rain or snow, according to cir-

cumstances. And the current, in its progress to the north, will be

incapable of carrying with it more moisture, than is allowed by the very

low temperature to which the air is of necessity reduced in surmounting

the snowy barrier, 19,000 or 20,000 feet in altitude, that it has to pass.

Nor can any further condensation be expected at all comparable in

amount to what has already taken place, as it would manifestly demand

a much more than corresponding depression of temperature ; and this

is not at all likely to occur, for the most elevated peaks being situated

near the southern limit of perpetual snow, the current on passing them

will more probably meet with hotter than with colder air.

It is, I conceive, to precisely similar causes, that we should attribute

the great amount of rain that is known to fall at Mahabaleshwar, on the

Western ghats, at Chira-punji, in Sylhet, and generally, though the quan-

tity is far less, along the most southern range of the Himalaya itself

and it is curious to observe that the comparative dryness of the less

elevated country to leeward also holds good in these cases. In the

Deccan, the country immediately to the east of the western ghats, Col.

Sykes tells us, that “the rains are light, uncertain, and im all years

barely sufficient for the wants of the husbandman.” On the same

authority we find, that while the mean fall of rain for 3 years at Poona

was about 27 inches,* that at Mahabaleshwar for 1834 was no less than

302 inches.+ Although I have not the exact figures to refer to, I know

that the rain at Nainee Tal on the external range of the Himalaya, is

about double what falls at Almora, not 30 miles to the north.

* British Association’s 7th Report, p. 236.

{ Ibid, 9th Report, p. 15, (Sections.) The exact amount is 302.21 inches.

1849. | On the Snow-line in the Himdlaya. 309

It will therefore be seen that as I hold the direct action of the sun

to be the primary cause of the great general height to which the snow

line recedes, so I consider that the increase of the height in the northern

part of the chain chiefly depends, not on any additional destructive

action, but on the smaller resistance offered by a diminished quantity of

snow, to destructive forces, which are not indeed constant throughout

the whole breadth of the chain, but whose increase appears to have no

dependence on increase of distance from the southern limit of the belt

of perpetual snow. Among the more evident causes of the irregularities

in the melting of the snow, may be mentioned, the powerful action of

the heavy summer rain on the southern face, as compared with what

falls as little more than a drizzle on the northern; the protection

afforded from the radiation of the sun by the heavy clouds so frequent

on the south, contrasted with the relative slight resistance of the less

dense, but not uncommon clouds on the north; the differences in the

temperature of the air that acts on the lower edge of the snow produced

by the difference of height of the snow-line on the opposite faces of the

chain; and lastly, the differences of the temperature of the air and of

the amount of radiation and reflexion dependent on the differences in

the state of the surface of the earth, which on the south is densely

clothed with vegetation, while on the north it is almost bare.

Before concluding I will observe, that the height at which it is cer-

tain that snow will fall every year, in this region of the Himalaya, is

about 6500 feet; and at an elevation of 5000 feet it will not fail more

than one year out of ten. The least height to which sporadic falls of

snow are known to extend, is about 2500 feet; and of such falls there

are only two authentic instances on record since the British took posses-

gion of Kumaon, viz. in 1817 and 1847. Thus we see that the regular

annual fluctuation of the snow line, is from 9000 to 10,500 feet, and it

occasionally reaches even 13,000 feet. M. Humboldt informs us that

under the equator at Quito the fluctuation is 600 Ts. (3,800 feet) ; that

at Mexico it reaches 1350 Ts. (8,600 feet) ; and the greatest fluctuation

that he mentions is that in the south of Spain, which amounts to 1700

Ts. (10,900 feet).*

A brief recapitulation of the principal results of this enquiry will

show us, that the snow-line, or the southern edge of the belt of perpetual

* Asie Centrale, T. 3, p. 279.

310 Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the | APRIL,

snow in this portion of the Himalaya, is at an elevation of 15,500 feet,

while on the northern edge it reaches 18,500 ft.; and that on the

mountains to the north of the Sutlej, or still further, recedes even beyond

19,000 feet. The greater elevation which the snow-line attains on the

northern edge of the belt of perpetual snow, is a phenomenon not

confined to the Tibetan declivity alone, but extending far into the inte.

rior of the chain ; and it appears to be chiefly caused by the quantity

of snow that falls on the northern portion of the mountains, being

much less than that which falls further to the south, along the line

where the peaks covered with perpetual snow first rise above the less

elevated ranges of the Himalaya.

Notes on the Languages spoken by the various tribes inhabiting the

valley of Asam and its mountain confines. By WitLiAM RoBINsON,

Inspector of Government Schools in Asam.

(Concluded from page 237.)

PART II.

Our subsequent remarks, according to previous division, will have

reference to the second great class or group of languages. These are

spoken on the southern confines of the valley, and appear, more inti-

mately than any of those already examined, to be connected with the

great Chinese Stock. .

A striking peculiarity in them all is, the absence of inflections, which

to the classic reader appear almost essential to the existence of human

speech. That this deficiency is opposed to the formation of long and

sonorous words, is certain, for it is chiefly to the numerous and varied

inflections employed by the Greeks, for instance, we are to attribute

their ability to produce that full and majestic volume of sound which

so peculiarly distinguishes their language. But among rude and semi-

barbarous tribes remarkable for their comparative taciturnity and pre-

ference of plaim sense over the flowers of oratory, such deficiencies it

may be supposed are unimportant ; especially when we consider that

among the languages of the Western nations our own comes nearest to

the Chinese stock in this respect; the utmost number of variations

which an English verb undergoes never exceeding seven.

1849. | valiey of Asam and its mountain confines. 31]

The deficiency referred to, however, is made up for by the use of

small particles and appendages, though more frequently by the relative

position of words in the formation of sentences, which is found amply

sufficient to remove all ambiguity. Indeed, we find with respect to

many English verbs (the verb to ew¢ for imstance) that of the two

hundred and sixteen verbal variations which it undergoes, position

alone is found equal to the task of forming two hundred and eleven,

only five being formed by the addition of terminations to the original

monosyllable ; namely, cuttest, cuts, cutteth, cuttedst, and cutting.

What the English language then effects in so great a degree by posi-

tion, these languages do almost wholly thereby.

The first of the group that demands our attention is

THe Kuamrtt,*

which in common with the Siamese, Burmese, Laos, Shyan and Ahom,

is only a dialect of the language usually known as the Tai; a language

more or less prevalent through all that wide tract of country extending

from Siam to the valley of the Brahmaputra.

In a language so extensive in its use, it might be conjectured that

local peculiarities would have given rise to a great diversity of dialects,

so that the Khamti and Siamese, spoken at the extremities, would have

presented but few links of connection. On the contrary, however, we

find that the discrepancies between the two are very trifling.

Mr. Brown’s investigations lead him to the conclusion, that upwards

of nine-tenths of the fundamental words are the same in these two

dialects, with the exception of a few slight variations in pronunciation.

These variations are mostly confined to a few letters, viz. ch, which the

northern tribes change to ts; d, for which they use] or n; r, which

becomes h; and ua which is changed for long o.

- Different systems of writing have been introduced to express the

sounds of the different dialects of the Tai. The Khamti and Shyan

alphabets are evidently derived from the Burmese; the Laos is nearly

related to the Burmese, but more complete and better adapted to the

wants of the language than the Shyan; while the Siamese character

bears only a remote resemblance to the Burmese.

* Tam indebted to the kind assistance of the Rev. N. Brown for my notes on

this language.

é | 28

312 Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the | APRIL,

These alphabets are here presented in a tabular form for the sake of

comparison. Both in their arrangement and in the power of the par-

ticular letters they seem to coincide with the Sanskrit Alphabetic Sys-

tem, from which they have evidently been borrowed. To provide for

the expression of the varieties of accent and intonation common to the

colloquial use of these tongues, double and triple combinations of letters

occur (as in Bhotia) varying in extent according to the exigencies of

each particular language. In Khamti, each of these letters is varied:

by sixteen simple accentuations, and by thirty-six complex ones. Hence

it may be supposed that this dialect approximates very closely to the

delicacy of the Chinese accentuation.

The Khamti is a purely monosyllabic language, and more powerfully

accented than any of the Indo-Chinese languages spoken on the Asam

frontier. In some degree, indeed, it seems connected with some of the

Chinese dialects, especially the Mandarin or Court language, with

which its numerals, as well as a few other terms, coincide, but these are

not very numerous. Jy its finely modulated intonations, sounds orga-

nically the same are often made to express totally different ideas. Thus,

ma, for instance (with the rising tone) signifies a dog; ma, (the Italic

m denoting the falling tone) signifies to come ; while the same syllable,

with an abrupt termination, or a sudden cessation of the voice at the

end of it, m4, denotes a horse.

Or Nouns.

As inflections are unknown to the language, the accidents of Case,.

Mood, and Tense are expressed by means of particles, generally follow-

ing, but in some cases preceding the nouns or verbs they serve to modify.

The Nominative and Accusative cases do not need the aid of particles ;

they are merely the nouns in their natural state.

The expression of the Genitive case, depends solely on the juxta-

position of the two substantives in which, contrary to the idiom of the

Chinese, the latter substantive is understood to be in the genitive case.

Thus; mii, hand, and man, he, when placed in juxta-position, mti man,

signify his hand. Wang, a tail, and pa, a fish. Hang pa, a fish’s tail.

The Dative case is sometimes denoted by a prepositive particle to

mark the person receiving, or, more frequently by the position of the

noun before a donative verb,—a usage by no means foreign to the Eng-

lish language, in which such expressions as, I sent George a book, I gave

1849.] valley of Asam and its mountain confines. 313

a ball to James, are extremely common. ‘The preposition Hang is

most commonly used as the particle to denote the dative case. Thus:

2 Bile <i 1 Biv 3 I 42 1 2

Hang man haii da. Give (it) to him. Hang man mati po. You beat

him.

The other Cases, denoted in Sanskrit by the names of the Instru-

mental, the Ablative, and the Locative, are supplied by the use of pre-

positive particles.

The Khamti noun admits of no plural form. In those instances in

which the noun does not express a collective or a plural idea, a numeral

added to it renders the expression sufficiently intelligible.

To express the difference of gender in the inferior animals, the term

Thuk, is used to denote the male ; and Me, the female.

A horse, Mase. Ma thuk ; Fem. Ma me.

A deer, Masc. Nyi thuk; Fem. Nyi me.

A goat, Mase. Pe thuk; Fem. Pe me.

A tiger, Mase. Sit thuk ; Fem. Siti me.

A dog, Mase. Ma thuk; Fem. Ma me.

A cat, Masc. Miau thuk; Fem. Miau me.

For individuals of the human family the term Sau is used to distin-

guish the male, and Ying, the female.

Masculine. Feminine.

Kum sau, man. Kun ying, woman,

Tuk sau, son. Tuk ying, daughter.

Pi sau, brother. Pi ying, sister.

Kun sau an, boy. Kun ying an, girl.

In some cases however gender is indicated by the use of distinct

words. Thus; Po, father; Me, mother. Pho, husband; Mé, wife.

Or ADJECTIVEs.

An adjective generally follows a substantive; examp. Kun ni, a good

man.

Ma ma ni, a bad (not good) dog. Pu pi, a fat sheep.

In forming the comparative degree of the adjective, the word Leu,

beyond, than, is added to it in its positive form. Thus; yaii, great ;

yaii leu hiin, greater than the house. Kat, cold. Kat leu nam, colder

than water.

The superlative degree is formed by the addition of the words Leu

2s 2

314 Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the —‘[ APRIL,

peun. Thus, Noi, a mountain; Sung, high; Noi sung leu peun, a

mountain higher than all, or the highest mountain.

NUMERALS.

The Khamti numerals are the same as those used by the Siamese.

1. Ning. 3. Sam. 5. Ha. Je bsets 9. Kau.

2. Song. 4. 8¢. 6. Hok. SeePet: 10. Sip.

After which the ordinals are repeated and compounded.

11. Sip-it. 21. Sau-it.

12. Sip-song. 22. Sau-song.

13. Sip-sam. 23. Sau-sam, &e.

14. Sip-si. 30. Sam-sip.

15. Sip-ha. 40. Sé-sip.

16. Sip-hok. 50. Ha-sip.

17. Sip-tset. 100. Pak.

18. Sip-pet. 1000. Heng.

19. Sip-kau. 10,000. Min.

20. Sau. 1,00,000. Zan.

Numeral affixes, or as they have sometimes been called, generic

particles, are in common use. These particles are affixed to numeral

adjectives, and serve to point out the genus to which the preceding

substantive belongs.

To, is the numeral affix applied to animals. When the number to

be expressed is one, the generic particle precedes the numeral, as in

Tsang td ning, one elephant ; in every other case it follows the numeral.

1 2 3 6 5 4

Mé kakhin mizn Kai Sam toau_ kwa yau.

Last aah jacket epee off ‘eee fowls.

Pe ei fle on ae ote td.

1 2 3 4 5

That goat has two kids.

Bai, is the numeral affix applied to such nouns as leaf, paper, um-

brella, &c.

Nue, is applied to things round ; Thep, and Phen, to flat substances ;

Phiin, to pieces of cloth ; Sen, to things having length ; Ho, to bundles,

packets and the like ; Lem, to sticks, posts, spears, &c. Khot, to ropes,

and such articles that can be coiled up; and Ban, to villages, hamlets,

towns, &c.

1849. | valley of dsam and its mountain confines. 315

Or PRONOUNS.

Gender has no place in the Khamti personal pronouns, nor do they

undergo any variations indicative of case. As far as they are used as

substantives, they form the various cases by receiving the prepositions

already described as forming this branch of Khamti grammar ; number,

in nouns, as we have already remarked, is determined wholly by the

context, or by certain circumstances attending the substantive. But as

the pronouns, particularly in discourse, are frequently introduced with-

out that connexion which could instantaneously enable the hearer

to decide, whether one or many were intended, the Khamtis have

adopted a mode to determine this independently of the connection ; and

im consequence make use of distinct pronominal terms to express the

plural number.

The personal pronouns are

Kau, I. Hau, We.

Mai, thou. Mai si, Ye or you.

Man, Fe. Man khau, They.

The reciprocal pronouns are formed by adding the pronominal

adjective Eng, to the personal pronouns, as Kau eng, I myself. Hau

eng, we ourselves. Maii eng, thou thyself, &e.

The relative pronouns are Yang, and Siing, who; Siingti, which ;

and Khru, that which.

The Interrogatives are Phaii, who ? An nati, which ? Sang, What ?

The demonstrative pronouns are An nai, this, and An nan, that.

The simple indefinite pronouns are, Kan phong, some ; Tang, other ;

nang nal, such.

Or VERBS.

Verbs which have no inflection, can have nothing in them analogous

to conjugation as in Greek, Latin and Sanskrit. The various kinds of

verbs in Khamti must therefore be denominated wholly from their

meaning and signification, as active, passive, neuter, causal, &c.

In the Indicative Mood the verb is in its simplest state, aud uncon-

nected with any other to modify its operation.

Only three tenses can be traced in this language, the Present, the

Past, and the Future. In the Present, we have the verb in its simple

state, in the Past, a particle is added, denoting completion or fulfil-

316 Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the [| APRIL,

ment. And another particle, expressing will or determination, marks

the Future.

The following will serve as a model for the variations a Khamti verb

undergoes.

Kin, fo eat.

InpicativE Moop.—Present tense.

1. Kau kin, I eat. 1. Hau kin, We eat.

2. Mat kin, Thou eatest. 2. Maui si ‘in Le eat.

3. Man kin, He eats. 3. Man khau hin, They eat.

Past tense.

The particle yau is added to the verb.

1. Kau kin yau, I did eat or have eaten.

2. Mai kin yau, Thou didst eat, Se.

3. Man kin yau, He did eat, Sc.

In the same manner through the plural number.

Future tense.

The particle ta is prefixed to the verb.

1. Kau ta hin, I shall eat.

2. Maii ta kin, Thou shalt eat.

3. Man ta kin, He shall eat.

And so on through the plural number.

The participial form is denoted by the particle an, put before the

verb :—An Ain, eating.

The Imperative Mood, which is used only in the 2nd person, is de-

noted by the particle Da subjomed to the verb Kinda, eat thou. Kwa

da, go thou. This particle, however, is often omitted in common con-

versation. Asin English, the Khamti admits of the introduction of

another verb in the 3rd person. Hu, give, is used as the auxiliary verb

det. Hii kin, let him eat. Hii yi, let him stay.

The Potential Mood, which includes the idea of power or ability, is

commonly expressed by

Pe, can. Man kin pe, He can eat.

Kau khan-khan len pe, I can run fast.

Duty or obligation is expressed by prefixing the particle Naz.

Man nai kin, He must eat.

Kau hang maii ta nat pe I must beat you.

The Sudjunctive Mood, which is used to give a conditional force te

1849. | valley of Asam and its mountain confines. 317

the verb is expressed either by Sang, prefixed, or Zam, affixed to the

verb ; Kau kin zam, If f£ eat.

Sang tiit hang man, ta khan, If (you) pull her tail (she) will

scratch (you.)

The Prohibitive form, is denoted by the particle Pai, or Ya, prefixed

to the verb.

Pai kin, eat not. Maii pai lak, thow shalt not steal. Ya nye, do

at not.

Simple Negation is implied by Ma, or Mo prefixed to the verb.

Kau ma kin, I do not eat.

Man mo pengasang, He does nothing.

When a question is asked the particles Gai and Kai, are usually add-

ed to denote interrogation.

Mai kwa thati gai? Where have you been.

Hang man mai po, ma cai gai? You beat him, did you not ?

Tan phi di hiat kai? = Is this man angry ?

Kai kit, kati kai? = Is it far or near ?

PARTICLES.

Adverbs. An adverb generally follows the word which it modifies,

whether it be an adjective or a verb—

Maznai, to dry. Pela, when.

Manga, yesterday. Ti lang, afterwards.

Sin, the day before yesterday. Phé, here.

Maphok, fo-morrow, Han, Pin, there.

Tsau, early. Lang, immediately.

Meu isaii, early in the morning. Koi, slowly.

Nam, jirst. Khin, quickly.

Lun, last. Metin meiin, equally.

Kia, ever. Pera het, wherefore.

Mai hia, never. Pera nan, therefore.

Sakti, at once.

The Prepositions in common use are :

Ti, in, at, to. Kap, with.

Tuk, from. Neu, wpon.

Kon, after. Lum, below.

Nai, in. Lang, behind.

Him, near. Dang, according to.

Bon, above. Tongna, in presence of.

Hang, Thiing, to, unto. Ha mai, without, destitute of.

318 Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the [Aprit,

The Conjunctions are—

Tak, Le, and. Ik, besides, moreover.

Khau, #f. Ik lau, yet again.

Unkan, unless. Tewd, but, except.

Pera, because. Hu, or.

The construction of the language is simple and inartificial, adhering

to what philologists term the analogous idiom, that is, ideas are ex-

pressed in the natural order in which they occur to the mind. The

nominative regularly precedes the verb, and most frequently the verb

precedes the case which it governs.

SENTENCES.

The following sentences are introduced to exemplify the preceding

remarks :—

Ma hau, The dog barks.

Miau ta wim nu, 4 cat will catch mice.

Lapséng ko han pe, She can see in the dark.

N6k nai hong ma nai nyin gai? Do you not hear that bird singing ?

Khai man mati pai lak, Do not steal her eggs.

Sang mati lak, tang wan man ta hai yau, If you steal them, she will

ery all day.

Yong, duk on ni, Yong is a good boy.

Kau ma pin pe, man ma wd, He does not say, “ I cannot do” (it.)

Kadnghau lang nin nai phat té mad? Who made the heavens and the

earth ?

Tue Lorp’s Prayer 1n Kuamri.

Po tt kha, an t ni kéng hau nai, nang cii* mdii cau, rosé kéyam

hati, yang nui né; haii ma té man, té ming maii cau, nui né; nang alo

mai cau, khaii cati nu f& kdng hau pyé zong nang hu ko, lang nn

miing kang haii, pin nang nan ta kha ta. Hang au mana ca kin haw

nui ta kha ta. Kun phit hang hau nai hau poi nang hii ko, apet

ti kha khau poi hati many naz ta khé ti—Apet kyam naz hang hau

pai haiti com ; ti hai ti yak poi lot hati nui ta kha ta.

Tue SincpeuHo.t

The territories occupied by the Singphos extend from the Patkoi

range to the Brahmaputra, or from the 27° to the 28° N. Lat. and from

* C is sounded as in Czar, or like Ts.

+ My acknowledgments are due to the Rev. M. Bronson for the kind assistance

received from him while drawing up the following remarks.

1849. | valley of Asam and its mountain confines. 319

the frontier of Asam to the Langtang mountains on the east. Their

language is common to numerous tribes occupying all the northern

portions of the Burmese empire. About one fourth of its vocables are

allied to the Burmese, and an equal proportion to the dialect of Mani-

pur. Its intonations are similar to those of its cognate, the Burmese,

and its grammatical construction precisely the same. It is peculiar for

its combinations of consonants, many of which would at first sight

appear quite unpronounceable to a European. It has properly no

numbers, cases, nor flections in its nouns; nor conjugations, moods,

tenses, or persons in its verbs. Many words have a substantive, adjec-

tive, or verbal signification, according to their position in a sentence ;

but in general, the names of objects, qualities and actions are sufficient-

ly distinct from each other. Hence, in its structure and expression,

the language is exceedingly simple.

Or Novns.

Cases are usually denoted by post-positive particles. As in all lan-

guages, the Nominative is the noun in its simple state.

The Genitive is sometimes denoted by its position before another

noun, but more frequently by the particle N4, put after it. As in

Kansu-na rung, or Kansu rung, a cow’s horn.

The Dative case is usually marked by the particle Fe; though it is

not unfrequently omitted when the noun is used before a verb signify-

ing to give, &c. in which instance the case of the noun is sufficiently

intelligible. Hxvam: Singpho oraw4 ngai ngt yaéha, I gave that man

rice. Negai-fe lik nang galoui nyadai, You never gave me a book.

.The Accusative case is the same as the nominative, distinguished

only by its position in a sentence. Hxam: Nang mumiung miriha {?

Did you buy the mangoes? Ora kansi cu nyadai, That cow does not

give milk.

Under the case generally termed the Ablative, is included a variety

of ideas, distinguished in Sanskrit by the Instrumental, the Locative,

and the Ablative. These may all be expressed in Singpho by the use

of post-positive particles.

Mba, a cloth. Mbai kactli, Wipe it with a cloth.

Sira, place. Khina sira-i-dau, Put it in its place.

Simi, a lamp. Simi-goi naman datu, Put oil into the lamp.

Sometimes the particles are omitted: as in Ndi ncin datu, Fill the

pitcher (with) water.

ane

320 Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the [ApriL,

A Singpho noun admits of no change to indicate the plural number.

Except where the noun itself expresses a plural idea, a numeral adjec-

tive is usually added.

Nor are there any traces of a distinction of gender by the use of —

terminal affixes. Yet the language is not entirely destitute of substan-

tives descriptive of the gender. In the case of human beings gender is

usually distinguished by distinct terms: as in

Singpho, man. Numsya, woman.

Wa, father. Nu, mother.

Mang, doy. Siwi, girl.

In the case of the inferior animals, the words Lasa, male, and Nim-

sa, female, are added to the specific terms.

Or ADJECTIVES.

The position of an adjective in a sentence is invariably after the noun

it serves to qualify.

Nein punglim khou, pour (in) hot water.

Singpho kunkhan galoui-mung nsi-a.

An idle man never can be rich.

As the language rejects terminations of every kind, it of course has

none to mark the degrees of comparison. Comparisons are therefore

made by particles expressive of number or quantity.

Ngai sindi baha, I am very weary.

Ndai latai graudai, This is the greatest of all.

NUMERALS.

The Singpho numerals are—

1. Aima. 3. Mastim. 5, Manga. 7. Smit. 9, Cekhu.

2. Nkhong. 4. Meli. 6. Kru. 8. Macat. 10. Si.

After which the ordinals are repeated and compounded.

11. Si-ai. 100. Lat-ca.

12. Si-nkhong. 200. Ni-ca.

13. Si-masim, &e. 300. Masitim-ca.

20. Khin. A400. Meli-ca.

21. Khun-ai. 500. Manga-ca.

22. Khun-nkhong, &e. 600. Kri-ca.

30. Tumsi. 700. Sinit-ca.

40. Meli-si. 800. Macat-ca.

50. Manga-si. 900. Cekhu-ca.

60. Krisi. 1000. Hing.

70. Sinit-si. 10,000. Mun,

80. Macat-si. 100,000, Sen.

90. Cekhi-si.

1849.| valiey of Asam and its mountain confines. 321

Or Pronouns.

The Personal pronouns are Ngai, I, Nang, Thou, and Khi, He, She

or It; the specific signification being distinguished only by the connec-

tion in which it stands. Distinct terms are used to express the plural

number. I, we; Nithen, ye ; and Khini, they.

The variations of cases are indicated in the same manner as in the

case of substantives.

The Possessive pronouns are the same as the personal, with the geni-

tive particle affixed.

The Relative pronouns are, Gadaima, who; and Gadéma, which ;

used also in an interrogative sense, with Phakaima, what ?

The Demonstrative pronouns are, Ndai, this; and O’rd, or O'rawa,

that.

Or VERBS.

The moods and tenses of verbs are expressed by means of particles,

or significant words.

InpicATIvVE Moop.

Present tense. The verb in its simple state is often used as the form

of the present tense, Ngdi dup, I strike. Khi si, He speaks. The

verb Dai, fo Ge, is sometimes added as an auxiliary. Ngai dup-dai, J

strike or am striking. Ngai st-dai, I speak or am speaking.

Past tense. This tense is denoted by the particle ha. Thus Khi

dup-ha, he did strike. Nang si-ha, thou didst speak.

Perfect tense. Here the particle ha, and the verb dai are conjoined.

Thus, Ngai dup-ha-dai, I have struck. Nang st-ha-dai, thou has spoken.

Future tense. The particle 4 added to the verb denotes future time.

Khi dup-a, he will strike. Ngai su-a, I will speak.

The Infinitive Mood, or more properly, the Gerund, is indicated by

the addition of the particle Ij6i, for, for the purpose of. Duip-ij6i, to

strike. Si-ij61, fo speak.

Participles.

Present. Diip-yang, striking. Su-yang, speaking.

Past. Langdi, having taken. Su-ngdi, having spoken.

The Imperative Mood is formed by the addition of the particle U,

to the root of the verb. Asin commanding, it is obvious it is only

the 2nd person that is addressed, this mood may be said to exist only

in that person.

Dup-t, strike thou. St-u, speak thou.

272

322 Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the {Aprit,

Prohibition is implied by prefixing the word Phung, or Kim to the

form of the imperative.

Phung dip u, do not strike. Kim lug-t, do not steal.

Negation is expressed by the suppressed sound of the letter N ; put

before the verb in its different tenses. Ngai ndup-dai, I do not strike.

Ngai ndip-ha, I did not strike. Ngai ndap-a, I will not strike.

PotenTIAL Moop.

When power or capacity is intended to be implied, the word Nguta,

able, is added to the root of the verb.

Ngai dup nguta, I can strike. Khi st: nguta, he can speak.

In the negative form it becomes Ngai dip n-nguta, I cannot strike.

Khi sti n-nguta, he cannot speak.

Desire is expressed by the verb Ra, to wish, put between the root

of the verb and the auxiliary. |

Ngai dip-ra-dai, I wish to strike. Khi st-ra-dai, he desires to speak.

Interrogation is implied by the particle I, added to the verb, provid-

ed the verb ends the sentence.

O/ra wa ning-chin-dai, Nang aka-i? That bird sings, do you hear (it) ?

Nang-ne ngkhrita 1? Do you dread (it) ?

When there is no verb in the sentence the interrogative particle Ma

is commonly used.

Ndai lik gadéma ma? Whose book is this ?

These particles are omitted when any other word in the sentence

implies interrogation.

Nang khi-fe pharai dup-ha-dai? Why have you struck him ?

Particles.

Adverbs in Singpho usually precede the verbs they serve to qualify.

Galau, quickly. Galéu di-t, do it quickly. ;

Luima, a little. Lima khring-u, wart a little. :

Aidi, well. Aidi ding-t, sit prettily.

Nong-nong, daily. | Nong-nong ngai-fe tsu ra-dai, I want milk daily.

Leni khringi, every Leni khringi joi ngai fe wa radai, I want a pig

other day. every other day.

O’rate, yonder. O’rate phung s4-d, do not go yonder.

Tukhui, 77. Tukhui ling-t, come in.

Singindi, out. Singandi pri-t, go out.

Gade, how much, or Nana muming gadé nga? how many mangoes

how many. have you ?

1849.] valley of Asam and its mountain confines. 323

The Prepositions of occidental languages are, in Singpho, rendered

by Post-positive particles.

SENTENCES.

Marang tu-a, 2¢ will rain.

Chong 1a-4, dring an umbrella.

Jan ja pyou-dai, the sun zs very hot.

Nana lagong gagri cudai, your feet are very dirty.

Khai sau kicinu, go to the river and wash them.

Nang phakai mungli di nguta? what work can you do ?

Nang phakaima ngtidai? what do you say ?

Ngaiea ga sti-yango, nang phung sii-u, when I am speaking, do you not

talk.

Nana mungli di phung malap-u, do not forget to do your work.

Ngaina letta ketsin yang, khi sa hadai, he went when I was washing my

hands.

Nana lung ningdung khai midit-u, dip the end of your finger in water.

Ngai sigd yango galau sau, when I call come quickly.

Nangi ntséng yango, khi madin-a, 7f you do not know he will show you.

Phra aima nga-dai, there is one God.

Phra ndai mt sijo-ha-dai, this God built the heavens.

Khi nga sijo-hadai, he created the earth.

Negai-fe, nang-fe, sgpho yong-fe khi sijo-hadai, he made me and you

and all men.

- Phune ketsing, tso-de bum, khé-nu guba, jan, the green tree, the high

hill, the great water, the sun.

Sita, sigan tidal, sijo-hadai, the moon, the shining stars, he made.

Yong sera-i mu-dai, he sees in all places.

Ningtho-i midai sat, ningtsi-ni mang midai, as he sees in light, so he

sees in darkness.

Nang di-dai theng, khi yong chéng-dai, whatever you do, he knows all.

Tue NaGa.

That large extent of mountainous country, bounded on the west by

the Kopili river, the great southern bend of the Barak, and the eastern

frontier of Tipperah, in nearly east longitude 83° ; on the north by the

valley of Asam; on the east and south-east by the hills dividing Asam

from the Bor-Khamti country in longitude 97°, and the valley of the

Kyendrens ; and on the south by an imaginary line, nearly correspond-

324 Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the [Aprit,

ing with the 23rd degree of north latitude, is inhabited by numerous

tribes of Highlanders, known to the Asamese by the general name of

Nagas. Whatever may be the origin of the word, it appears that the

appellation is entirely unknown to any of the hill tribes themselves.

They are divided into numerous communities or races, and they know

themselves by the designations of their respective tribes only, and not

by any name common to all the races.

There appear however to be some marks by which these tribes are

distinguished from their neighbours, and some common ties by which

they are all bound together as one people, though at present divided

into tribes by a diversity of dialects. These dialects are sometimes so

different that two adjoining tribes cannot converse together, except

through the medium of a third dialect common to both; yet they are

said to intermarry and form connexions and alliances with each other,

which they do not do with tribes not belonging to the Naga community.

The Nagas also appear in general to be distinguished from their

neighbours by physical conformation ; for though there is much differ-

ence in this respect amongst them, yet they are in common remarkable

for extremely coarse, savage countenances, and dull, timid, heavy dispo-

sitions.

My investigations, for the present, have been confined to the dialect

spoken by the Namsangiyas, a tribe occupying the hills near the sources

of the Boori Dihing river. To the Rev. Mr. Bronson of Nowgong, |

am indebted for the valuable aid he has afforded me in these enquiries.

Or Nouns.

Comparatively copious as is the grammatical apparatus of this lan-

guage, it possesses no affixes by which to designate the cases of its

nouns.

The Genitive case is denoted merely by the juxta-position of the two

substantives, the former being understood to be in the genitive.

Kien ngiupo phyet-6, Milk the goat, (or literally,) draw the goat's

milk.

In the other oblique cases, the noun is followed by the distinguishing

adjunct, Nang ; sometimes with, though more frequently without the

addition of a post-positive particle.

Ham-nang vanrd, Bring a mat.

Yra minyaéng-nang lako-tak, I gave it fo that man.

1849. ] valley of Asam and its mountain confines. 325

Sén-nang lam-6, Put it in the sun.

Jé-nang Kien-6, Fill it with water.

The particles Ma and Pa are frequently used as affixes to nouns

singular, but they seem to be merely euphonic, and have no definite

signification attached to them.

The particle He, is employed in the same manner, but only in cases

where plurality is implied. It is, however, often omitted; and then

the plural number is distinguished by the collective or plural idea

expressed by the noun, or by the addition of a numeral adjective.

The difference of gender in individuals of the human family is denoted

_ by distinct terms; in the case of all other animals, the appellatives

Péng, male, and Nyong, female, are added to the noun.

Masculine. Feminine.

Mi-nyan, man. Dehiek, woman.

Dela, husband. Tang-ngyu, wife.

Va, father. Yng-yong, mother.

[pho, brother. Ing-yah, sister.

Man-pong, a bull. Man-nyong, a cow.

Hi-pong, a dog. Hu-nyong, a bitch.

Kien-pong, a he-goat. Kien-nyong, a she-goat.

Or ADJECTIVES.

In composition, an adjective invariably follows the noun it serves to

qualify.

bint? 3 A a OY ARN RS 3

Tra kien ngiu-po asan ko-a, that goat gives good milk.

Adjectives in this language admit of no variations expressive of num-

ber, case, or gender, or even of the degrees of comparison. But as the

comparison of one person or thing with another so as to ascertain the

relative quality possessed by each, must necessarily exist in every lan-

guage, we find that the general mode of forming comparison among the

Namsingiyds, is merely by placing the adjective after the noun with

which the comparison is made, the noun being put in the oblique form.

Ngama ira mi-nyan-nang ald, I am taller than that man, or literally, I

that man tall,

Ngaémé iranangma aja ilamang, I want more than that.

J6 or Linjo is often added to an adjective to express a quality as exist-

ing in the highest degree,

326 Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the [ApRIL,

Yra dehiek phangsan j6, that woman is very handsome.

Ava arimaé asan linjo, that fruit is exceedingly nice.

NUMERALS.

The numeral system of the Namsangiy4s is emphatically decimal—

of the ten fingers. Thus they count.

1. Vanthe. 3. Vanram. 5. Bangi. 7. Yng-it. 9. Ikhu.

2. Vanyi. 4. Beli. 6. Trok. 8. Ysat. 10. chi.

and then throwing their fingers in an imaginary heap they exclaim,

Ruak, a decade.

11. Ichi vanthe, 10+1. 20. Ruak nyi, two decades.

12. Tchi vanyi, 10+2. 30. Ruak ram, three decades.

13. Ichi vanram, 10-+-3, &c. 40. Ruak beh, four decades.

and so on till they come to Cha, a hundred.

100. Cha-the. 300. Cha ram, &e.

200. Cha-nyi. Cha ichi, ten hundred or 1000.

Or Pronouns.

The personal pronouns are, Nga, [; Nang, thow; and Ate, he, she,

or if. As the pronoun, is next to the verb, the most important part of

speech, and that from which the verb chiefly derives its precision, we

find in this language the use of distinct terms to express the plural

number. They are, Nima, we ; Nema, ye ; and Sening, they.

In, what we have termed, the oblique form, these pronouns take the

particle Nang after them, as in the case of nouns.

Nganang. Nangnang. Atieng.

Nimanang. Nemanang. Seningnang.

Atieng, appears to be merely a contracted form of Ate-nang, the one

term is as commonly used as the other.

The possessive pronouns are I, my or our ; Ma, thy or your ; and A,

his, or their. ‘They are invariably used before the nouns with which

they are connected.

Arapa 1 lah, this (¢s) my kite

Mama va ngyong-nang ved, honour thy father and mother.

In this sentence the first syllable ma, is the pronoun, the second

euphonic particle.

Anappa ajun jd, his hair (is) very soft.

The particle rang, is often added to the above pronouns.

Trang mok itonga, the horse is mine.

Arang hum itonga, the house is his.

1849. | valley of Asam and its mountain confines. 327

The demonstrative pronouns are, Ara this ; and Yr, that, with their

plurals Arahe, these, and Traéhe, those. They precede the nouns they

serve to point out.

Tra khat-pé ilamang, I want that cloth. Ari-pa jo-k6, drink this

water.

The iuterrogative pronouns are Hana or Hanma, who ? and which ?

and Chenna, what ?

Or VERBS.

The Namsangiya verb appears to be the most interesting part of its

grammar. It has but one form of conjugation, and the various modifi-

cations of an action are expressed by the addition of terminations to

the verb expressing the action. The terminations are the same in both

the singular and the plural numbers.

Thien, To Put.

Inpicative Moop. Present tense.

1. Thien-ang, J put. 2. Thien-6, thou puttest. 3. Thien-a, or é,

he puts.

Past tense. 1. Thien-tak, I did put. 2. Thien-to, thou didst put.

3. Thien-ta, he did put.

Perfect tense. 1. La-thien-tak, I have put. 2. La-thien-td, thou

hast put. 3. La-thien-ta, he has put.

Future tense. 1. I-thien-ang, 2. I-thien-6, 3. I-thien-4, or é. Gerund.

Thien-rang. Participle continuative. Thien-lima, or lama.

The Imperative form is the same as that of the 2nd person Present

tense.

When it is necessary to give a conditional or subjunctive force to the

verb, the particle O/ko is affixed to the verb in its various forms.

Thienang oko, if I put. Thieno oké, ¢f thou put. Thiend 6k6, if he

put, &e. &e.

The potential form, used to express power or ability, is denoted by

the use of the verb Td, ¢o de able, as an auxiliary.

Ta thienang, I can put.

In conjunction with this form of the verb, we find a peculiar use

made of the possessive, instead of the personal pronoun. ‘Thus instead

of saying Nga té-thienang, I can put. Nang ta-thiend, thou canst put,

we find, the conventional form to be,

2 U

328 Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the [APRIL,

1. [ta thienang, J can put. 2. Mata thiend, thou canst put. 3. Ata

thiena, he can put.

The negative form is denoted by the addition of the negative particle

Mak, to the auxiliary verb.

1. Tté mak thienang, I cannot put. 2. Matamak thiend, thou canst

not put. 3. Ata mak thiend, he cannot put.

When the zecessity of an act is to be expressed, Thing is com-

pounded with the verbal root.

Nga thien thing, I must put. Nang thien thing, thou must put. Ate

thien thing, he must put.

Prohibition is expressed by the use of the negative particle Mak, or

Nak, immediately before the verbal root.

Ma dak nak sako, do not lay your hand (on it).

Tnang mak kano, do not go there.

To express simple negation the particle Mak, or Ma is put after the

root of the verb.

Aré hi-maé kak ma, that dog does not bite.

A ingyong-ma koméa-ta, his (or her) mother did not give (it).

Minyaén moot ahd dang-ma-ok6, if the man has not any work.

Interrogation is denoted by the particles ne, 4, or le added to the

end of the sentence.

J6 alo le? is the water deep ?

Nang-ma chenna lam-6 4? what do you seek ?

Maja nang soijang ma luto ne? did you not catch a pea-fowl yes-

terday ?

Or ADVERBS.

Adverbs are used to qualify verbs and adjectives ; and in composition

they usually precede the verb, and follow the adjective.

Achénmé, fast. Achdnmé lu-d, hold fast.

Jo, very. Tyra nata-ma alang j6, that boy (is) very cross.

Taja, to-day. Ha lo, afar.

Ni-nap, to-morrow. Rangyjanang, in the evening.

Maja, yesterday. Rankhanang, tn the morning.

Dokko, now. Khorok, quickly.

Anang, here. Aré, slowly.

Ynang, there.

1849. ] valley of Asam and its mountain confines. 329

The ConsUNCTIONS are

Trokova, and. Irdékomin, but.

Min, akomin, also. Cherangma, for, because, Se.

Oko, if.

Post-Posirive PartTicues are used in this language in the same

manner as the prepositions of occidental tongues.

Pungma, with. Nyunang, within. Akhan, under. Va, from.

Nyu, 7. Khonang, upon. Dumnang, by means of.

SENTENCES.

Rang 1-patha, [¢ will rain.

Khat-huip vanro, Bring an umbrella.

San-ma lang-ma sai hang, The sun is very hot.

Ma danang mak achang jo, Your feet are very dirty.

Jonang kal-o ma suan-o, Go to the river and wash them.

Nangma chen méot i-ta-moo? What work can you do ?

Nangma chen ngait-o? What do you say?

Ngémé ngin mathu mathoithak, iraphimé nang nak tho thdo, Do not

talk when I am speaking.

Nangmé moot moot rang nak lako, Do not forget to do your work.

Nga idak matima suantak, até 14-k4-té, He went when I was wash-

ing my hands.

MA dak stititinpa jo-nang limsi-o, Dip the end of your finger in

water.

Nangma ma jet-koko, atéma chen i-khésaka, If you do not know then

he will show you.

Katakrang van the itonga, There is one God.

Tra katakrang-pa rang tiek-ta, This God built the heavens.

Até-ma ha min tiek-ta, He created the earth.

Nga, nang-nang, hueri minydn nang tiekté, He made me and you

and all men.

Bang ahing ha ho aciiong, joa dong, san, dafe, mérik achim, tiekta,

The green tree, the high hill, the great water, the sun, the moon, the

shining stars, he made.

Phang-tang lat-nang ekhe-4, He sees in all places.

Rangvonang maré ekhé-a, rang-ngyak-nang min iro ekhé-4, As he

sees in light, so he sees in darkness.

2u 2

330 Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the [APRIL,

Tue Lorp’s Prayer.

Tra ni rang nang tongte V4, ma ming puj4 chen ddngd, ma nok

ngyarang chen songd; rang nang marda, irda hd-nang maddki chen

songa. Teja ni aphak achali ninang kohi. I’rokova ni_ tha-pétenang

nima marorang lietang, irarangrang ni thapé pa tinghi. Ninang téam-

nang nak kathi, ikov4 ninang cham cho tiko pamhi ; chenmé réantang

roanjang nok, 4komin chan, akomin mohima, urahé marang, ird chen

danga.

THe Mitr.

The Mikirs occupy a tract of hilly country situated within the boun-

daries of the District of Nowgong in Central Asam, which covers an

area of about 1710 square miles. Besides the unmixed communities

that occupy these hills, numerous families of Mikirs are scattered all

over the south bank of Lower Asam. They are always changing their

locations; seldom continuing above three or four years in one place;

and are mostly employed in cultivating the land for rice and cotton.

At the lowest computation the entire population of the Mikirs may

be estimated at about 26,000 souls.

Living as they do in a rude state of society, and possessing no written

language, it is no easy matter to trace their origin. They have a tra-

dition that their ancestors originally came from the Jaintia hills ; which

might be assumed to be correct, from the circumstance of their having

afew Jaintia words mixed up in their vocabulary. I have had no

opportunities yet of making any comparison between the two languages.

This task I reserve for a more convenient season. 3

The sounds of the Mikir language are pure and liquid, and in a great

measure devoid of gutturals or strong aspirates. A slight nasal mflection

and an abrupt cadence common to many of the vocables, are peculiari-

tics this language possesses in common with all the Indo-Chinese mono-

syllabic dialects.

Or Nouns.

Nouns admit of no variations expressive of number ; the plural state

is generally defined by a numeral, or some other word expressive of

quantity. Thus, Arleng, a man. Apanang drleng, or Akd-dng arleng,

many men.

Acharong, a cow ; Jonphungd achorong, five cows.

Nor are the accidents of ease, distinguished by any inflections or dif-

1849. | valley of Asam and its mountain confines. Jol

ferences of termination. The Genitive case is denoted merely by the

juxta-position of the two substantives ; the former being understood to

be in the genitive case.

Oi ati, a bird’s nest. Jdlong dnuk, a buffaloe’s horn.

The Accusative is the same as the nominative, and is distinguished

only by its position in the sentence.

The other relations of nouns are marked by the use of post-positive

particles.

Yok, or Ayok is most commonly used to mark the person receiving,

or as the Dative particle.

1 2 3 3 1 2

Ne mit ayok taramo, I have called my brother.

ig ce) eke ae a 1

Arweng ne yok pi, Give me a feather.

The Ablative is expressed by the particle Para, or Rem-para; and

the other cases are denoted by corresponding significant particles as in

English.

Gender, in individuals of the human family, is marked by the use of

distinct terms.

Pens6d, man. Apinghan, husband. Apo, father, Ate, brother. Tmu,

ditto.

Arloss6, woman. Apiso, wife. Aid, mother. Bai, sister, Ingjil, ditto.

Tn the case of the inferior animals, the appellatives Alo, male, and

Ape, female, are added to the noun.

Ingnar, an elephant, Mas. Ingnardlo, Fem. Ingnérape.

Musung, a deer, Masc. Musungilo, Fem. Musungape.

Kipi, a monkey, Masc. Kipialo, Fem. Kipidpe.

Nouns derived from verbs, usually have the particle, ‘‘ po’’ affixed to

the original form of the verb. Thus, from Kichihang, to beg, we have

Kichihangpo, a beggar.

Or ADJECTIVES.

Adjectives do not alter their terminations to express either number,

case or gender. They always follow the nouns they qualify.

Aléng kéngsim, cold water, Lek aklak, white beads. Aso kéngtuk,

a fat boy.

Grades of quality are denoted by the particles Si and Sat subjoined,

or by such words as Arlo, and Jatsi, put before the adjective. Compari-

son, whether expressed by distinct words, or incrementory particles, is

unknown to the language.

332 Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the [APRIL,

Akengsi, very great. Arlo dkleng, exceedingly

Akleng, great.

great.

Akiding, long. Akidingsat, very long. Ngodah, bad. Jatsi ngodah,

thoroughly bad.

The mode of numeration that obtains among the Mikirs, presents us

with a few interesting peculiarities.

Tur NUMERALS are

Veli, es ek 1.

Hini, . . 2

Katham, .. os

i 2d SA aaa 4.

Phong, 5

‘Thorok, =)"

“Naorekr, &22 7. this is Thorok 6, and Ichi 1=—=7.

Nurkepse? 2 8. literally 10—2=8.

Chirkep, .. Dun, : 10—1—9.

1) Cae ee 10.

Then follow Kepaichi .. 11, or 10+ 1.

Kepahini, .. 12, or 10 + 2, and so on till

we come to Kepakep, .. 20, or 10 +10, which is also

expressedbyIngkol,.... = @ score. Then follow

Ingkol-ichi,. 21.

Ingkol-hini,. 22.

Ingkol-katham,. . 23, &c., till we come to the third

decade, Katham-kep, .. 30, or 3X10.

Hiniingkol, 40, or two score.

Hini ingkol 14 kep, 50, or two score plus ten.

Phere Vee aee:

The above numerals as far as siz, that is all the simple ones, it will

be observed, assimilate to those in use by the Garos, and are most pro-

bably to be traced to the same origin. It is also worthy of remark,

that the peculiarity noticed in the use of the Garo numerals, as applied

to men, to inferior animals, and to inanimate things, exists also in the

specific application of the Mikir cardinals.

When enumerating individuals of the human family, the word Bang

is prefixed to the numeral. Ate bang hini, two brothers.

When the numeral is applied to any inferior animal, the word Jon is

used instead. Jon phongo achorong, five cows.

1849. | valley of Asam and its mountain confines. 333

And Hong, and Pap, are indiscriminately prefixed to numerals when

applied to inanimate objects.

Or Pronouns.

There is no distinction of Gender in the pronouns of this language.

In the case of the Ist and 2nd person, the sex is supposed to be known,

and in the 3rd person it must be inferred by a reference to its antece-

dent.

The Personal pronouns are—

Singular. Plural.

Ne, I. Ali, we.

Nang, thou. Nali, you.

Alang, he, she, it. Aniéli, they.

The relations of cases are denoted in the same manner, as already

exemplified with reference to nouns substantive.

Ne ne sal inghol, I do my work.

Ne yok sang biso he, give me a little rice.

The Demonstrative pronouns are Lapen, the proximate, and [l4pen,

the remote. These are reduplicated to denote the plural. Lapen

lapen, these. Ilapen ilapen, those.

The Interrogative pronouns are Inghone, who? and which? and

Mpopi, what ?

Relative pronouns are very vague, indeed I am not aware of the

existence of any ; the sentence being generally so rendered as to obviate

the necessity of them. Thus, instead of saying ‘‘the man who went,”

a Mikir would say, Arleng gidam, the gone man.

Or VERBS.

The various kinds of verbs in this language must be denominated

wholly from their meaning and signification, as active, passive, neuter,

causal, &c.

The Indicative Mood, is the verb in its simplest state, unconnected

with any other to modify its operation.

The relations of time are expressed by affixes, except in the present

tense, which may be taken as the root of the verb.

Verbs undergo no modification consequent on number or person.

Present tense. Ne doh, I am; Nang doh, thou art ; Alang doh, he is.

Ali doh, we are; Nali doh, ye are ; Anali doh, they are.

And go in the case of any other verb.

334 Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the | APRIL,

Ne Cho, I eat. Ne Inghol, Ido. Ne Da, I go.

Present definite. Ne Chodoh, I am eating. Ne Ingholdoh, I am

doing. Ne Damdoh, I am going.

Past tense. Ne Cho loh, I did eat. Ne Inghol lok, I did do. Ne

Damoh, I did go.

Future tense. Ne Choye, I shall eat. NeIngholye, Ishall do. Ne

Damye, I shall go.

Future, implying a determination, Ne Cho bo, I will eat. Ne Inghol

bé, I will do. Ne Da bo, I will go.

Future, a more expressive form. Ne Cho bang, Ne Inghol bang,

Ne Damlang.

The Gerund is denoted by prefixing Ki, and adding Ayok to the

root of the verb.

Ki-cho-ayok, to eat, for the purpose of eating.

Ki-inghol-ayok, more frequently contracted into Nanghol-ayok, fo

do, for the purpose of doing.

Ki-dam-ayok, to go, for the purpose of going.

PARTICIPLES.

Present. Chosi, eating. Ingholsi, doing. Damsi, going.

Past. Cho po, having eaten. Inghol-po, having done. Dampo

having gone.

Continuative. Chosido chosido, continuing to eat. Ingholsido,

continuing to do. Damsido damsido, continuing to go.

The Imperative Mood, is used only in the 2nd person.

The simple verb in the present tense, 2nd person, is often used in an

imperative form.

Nang Cho, eat thou. Nang Inghol, do thou. Nang Dam, go thou.

Sometimes the particle Nod, is added to give more force to the com-

mand.

Cho noh, Inghol nok, Dam noh.

Prohibition is denoted by the use of the particle Ne after a pro-

noun, or Ye, after a verb. Thus,

Cho nang ne, eat thou not. Cho ye, eat not.

Inghol nang ne or Inghol ye, do it not.

Da nang ne, or Da ye, go not

The Potential Mood, expressing ability, capacity, &c. is denoted by

the use of the word Un, can. Thus,

1849. | valley of Asam and its mountain confines. 335

Ne cho un, I can eat. Ne inghol un, I can do.

Ne dam un, I can go.

Ne cho un ye, I cannot eat. Ne inghol un ye, I cannot do. Ne

dam un ye, I cannot go.

Interrogation is implied by the particle Ma, placed after the verb.

Nang 4n cholo ma? Have you eaten rice ?

Ne inghoayok piye ma? To whom shall I give it ?

When any other word is introduced into a sentence rendering the

interrogation clear and explicit, the particle Ma, is omitted as unneces-

sary.

Nang anga kodak dolo? Where were you before ?

Simple negation is expressed by the particle Iong, introduced at the

end of the sentence. It is sometimes changed into He.

Lebangso olangpi 6k iong, there are no fish in this river.

Alang ikotang inghol he, he does not do any thing.

PARTICLES.

The prepositions used in occidental languages are in Mikir rendered

by post-positive particles.

1 2 a: 4 3 anit teal

Nang dung phurul do, there zs a snake near you.

1 ae ila ea 3 ey 2 1

Ladag para me wan, bring the fire from that place.

Adverbs appear to be used indiscriminately either before or after

the verbs to which they are joined.

Mon, Monon, now. Minap, to-morrow.

Aphel, afterwards. Timi, yesterday.

Adaprang, early in the morning. Bibiso, by degrees.

Anuethu, in the evening. Liahe léhe, slowly.

Arnithu, always. ~ Damsrak, quickly,

Mini, to-day.

SENTENCES.

Nang men mpd? what ts your name ?

Ne men ge Domai, my name (is) Domai.

Nang bozariyok dam lagi, you must go to the bazar.

Nang Asipini mpot kangholo? what have you done all day ?

Nang gethek po mpiyok thanthe? ifyou know why do you not speak ?

Ne ekotah thanthe iong ngo, I did not utier a single word.

Hem kikemayok kopho langno, look for bamboos to build a house.

336 Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the [| APRIL,

Nang tirklong, ne tirklong kiding, my spear is longer than yours.

W6 wokak prege bi, put the fowls and ducks apart.

Ialang-so a-bi 416 ma ape? is this a male or a female goat ?

Ne ngo do nang ne, do not stand before me.

Ne mu-dyok taramo wangye iongo, I have called my brother, he will

not come.

Alang théadoh minap wangye, he says he will come to-morrow.

Minap Adaprang wang noh, come early to-morrow morning.

Iwot drleng dsopenso bang hini, one man (had) two sons.

Sopo dpibiso dbithéng 4-nang apd-ayok thaloh, the younger said to

his father.

La 4-ning apd, O! my father !

Ne apo a-dhon 4-bhég neté hrong he, give me the share of my

father’s wealth that falls to me.

Aléng 4pé 14 4 bolor ji dhon kadak kiding laprak-e thag loh, his

father then divided between them his wealth and substance.

Timi timidi nigan hini nigan githom, after a few days.

La 4 para 4sopo 4muso jidhon kadaék kiding ensi deh sari damoh, the

younger son taking his wealth and substance departed thence to a far

country.

THe Kassia.

The tract of mountain territory inhabited by the Kassias borders on

Kachar to the east ; the district of Sylhet to the south ; the Garo hills to

the west ; and the valley of Asam to the north. It forms an irregular pa-

rallelogram, the length of which, from north to south, may be assumed

at about 70 miles, and its average breadth at 50, giving an area of about

three thousand five hundred square miles.

The language spoken by the Kassias is very simple both in structure

and expression ; but it abounds with those intonations that form so

striking a feature in the languages allied to the Chinese. The short,

abrupt sound at the termination of a word or syllable, is especially fre-

quent. The Kassias are also very lavish of words to express their most

common ideas, and often make use of terms very specific in their appli-

cation. For instance the verb to wash, has no less than six synonymes

in this language. Tet, to wash the hands; Baté, to wash the face ;

Sleh, to wash the head; Sum, to wash the body; Kling, to wash a

vessel ; and Sait, to wash clothes.

1849. | valley of Asam and its mountain confines. 337

Or Nouns.

Nouns are of two genders, masculine and feminine, distinguished by

their specific prefixes. U, denotes the masculine, and Ka, the femi-

nine.

U tanga, husband. Ka tanga, wife.

U hanmen, elder brother. Ka hanmen, elder sister.

U para, younger brother. K4 para, younger sister.

U skei, buck. Ka skei, doe.

U kla, tiger. Ka kla, fagress.

U Sier, cock. Ka Sier, hen.

In a few instances, distinct terms are used to denote the male and

female members of a family, as Kapa, father ; Kami, mother. Yet the

prefixes are seldom or never omitted.

U kapa, father. Ka kami, mother.

U kapana, pat. uncle. Ka sangkenkha, pat. aunt.

U kant, mat. uncle. Ka kamina, mat. aunt.

The feminine particle K4, is prefixed to the names of most inanimate

objects.

Nouns are the same in both numbers. The plural is distinguished

by the use of the prefix Ki, in both masculine and feminine nouns.

U mon, a man. Ki mon, men.

Ka sim, a bird. Ki sim, birds.

Ka knam, an arrow. Ki knam, arrows.

The various relations of nouns, usually termed cases, are represented

in Kassia by prepositions.

The Genitive case is donoted by the particle Jong.

Ka karteng jong u mon. The name of the man.

Ki baniat jong u kla. The tiger’s teeth.

When the particle is omitted, the case is indicated by the juxta-posi-

tion of the two substantives, the latter being understood to be in the

genitive case.

Ka reng u blang. The goat’s horn.

The other cases of Sanskrit nouns are represented by such particles

as, 1a, to; Na, from; Bad, with ; Ha, or Sha, in; Hapoh, into, &c.

Or ADJECTIVES.

Adjectives are generally placed after the nouns they serve to qualify.

U kanna babha. A good child.

2x 2

338 Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the [ApRIL,

U lim bajerong. A high mountain.

Gradation, without comparison, is usually expressed by the word Eh,

hard, put after the adjective.

U lam bajerong eh. 4 very high mountain.

The comparative degree is formed by the word Kham, put before the

adjective. And as adjectives, especially if used without a substantive,

have generally the particle Ba prefixed, the word kham is usually intro-

duced between the prefix and the adjective.

Ba klain, strong. Ba kham klain, stronger.

Ba bha, good. Ba kham bha, etter.

Bajerong, high or long. Ba kham jerong, longer or higher.

Ka sim jong nga ka kham jerong ia ka jong phi, my spear is longer

than yours.

The language has no definite form for constructing a superlative

degree of comparison. The usual mode of expressing it, is by the use of

the word Tam, much, in conjunction with kham, and placed after the

adjective.

Ba klain kham tam, strongest.

Ba bhé kham tam, Jest.

Ba jerong kham tam, longest or highest.

NUMERALS.

The followmg is the cardinal series of numbers adopted by the

Kassias :—

1. Wei. 13. Kéd-lai.

2. Ar. 14. Kad-sdu.

oe Lal. 15. Kad-san, &c.

4. Sau. 20. Ar-phon, two decades.

5. San. 21. Arphon-wei.

6. Hinriu. 22. Arphon-ar.

7. Hinian. 23. Arphon-lai, &c.

8. Prah. 30. Laipon.

9. Kandai. 40. Saupon.

10. Shipon or kad, a decade. 50. Sanpon, &c.

11. Kad-wei. 100. Shi-spah.

12, Kad-ar. 1000. Shi-hajar.

The numerals generally stand before the nouns to which they are

jomed. Lai sngi, three days. Ki kadar mon, twelve men.

1849.] valley of Asam and its mountain confines. 339

Or PRonowuns.

The personal pronouns are Nga, J, Mé, or Pha, thou; U, he, and

Ka, she ; with their plurals, Ngi, we ; Phi, you ; Ki, they.

The accidents of case are marked by prepositive particles, as in the

case of nouns.

The relative pronouns are Ei and Nah, signifying who, which, and

what.

They are distinguished according to gender by the particle U, or Ka,

prefixed. U ei, or U nah, who, masc.: Ka ei, or Ka nah, who, fem.

The plural form is expressed by the plural prefix Ki, Ki ei, Ki nah.

The same terms are used as Interrogative Pronouns.

The demonstrative pronouns are Ta and Neh, which appear to be

used indiscriminately for this and that. The particles U and Ka, are

prefixed to indicate the masculine and feminine, and Ki, to denote the

plural.

The indefinite pronouns are Unah unah, whosoever. Ka nah ka nah,

whatsoever, or Kumnah kumnah.

Or VERBS.

There is apparently but one regimen for the conjugation of all Kassia

verbs, accomplished by the use of pre-positive particles, and which may

be exemplified in the following paradigm.

Rakhi, laugh.

INDICATIVE.

Present tense. Ngarakhi, I laugh. N.B. Verbs admit of no va-

riation on account of number or person.

Past tense. Nga la rakhi, I did laugh.

Perfect tense. Ngala lah rakhi, I have laughed. The verb Iah,

have, is sometimes compounded with the verbal root. Thus, Nga 14 iah

rakhi, I hwe laughed.

Future tense. This tense is marked by the addition of the letter N

to the preceding pronoun.

Nga n rakhi, I will laugh.

A sort of Paulo-post-future, Ngan sa rakhi.

The absence of any definite form for the Imperative Mood is supplied

by the use of the present or future tense of the Indicative. Thus; Leit

sha ka shnang, go into the village.

340 Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the [APRIL,

Hangta ruh phin iaishang, and stay there, or literally, there and you

will stay.

The Subjunctive Mood is formed by prefixing Lada to the usual form

of the Indicative. Thus;

Lada nga rakhi, ¢f I laugh. Lada me rakhi, if thou laugh. Lada u

rakhi, ¢f he laugh, &c.

The Potential Mood is denoted by the use of the word Lah before

the verb.

Nga léh rakhi, I can laugh. Ka lah rakhi, she can laugh.

Gerund. Ban rakhi, to laugh, for the purpose of laughing.

Participle. Da rakhi, laughing.

Prohibition is indicated by the word Wat, put before the verbal

root.

Wat tuh, do not steal. Wat khang 14 ki, forbid them not.

The sound of the letter M, is often used in composition, to express

negation.

Neim 1a wallam u kan, we did not bring the rice.

Kim tet 14 ki kti jong, they wash not their hands.

Besides the use of interrogative particles, the only sign to denote

interrogation, is the raising of the voice at the end of the question, and

giving to the last syllable a lengthened articulation.

Ueiuta? Who is this?

Don ai uh pat? What lack I yet.

U neh um u ktm jong u? § Is not this his son?

PARTICLES.

Haba, then, at which time. Handa kumté, at that time, when.

Man, Mannah, when, when ?

E’m, no. Hadi in, lasé.

Shisha, truly. Biang biang, diligently.

Shiwa, first.

Conjunctions. Ruh, and. Nabi, for, because.

Lane, or Lada, af.

From the illustrations already furnished and those that follow, it will

be observed that the Kassias make use of a large number of insignifi-

cant particles, most of which are merely euphonical. Such are Ba,

Nab, Té, &c.: in addition to an apparently too prodigal repetition of

the pronominal particles Ka and U.

1849. | valley of Asam and its mountain confines. 34}

SENTENCES.

et ae geo, SO “NG rh ee ae 6

Khat i4 ngé, bé ng ruh ngan leit, call to me, I and (even) I shall

7 :

go.

1 ae Mae. 1 2 3 Ay 8

Tad-lanoh ngan shong bad phi? How long shall I stay with you ?

Mn G2 | 2 3 2 1 3

Ka tari jong nah ké neh? whose knife is this ?

1 2 3 4 5 1 4.5 3 2

KA neh ka iing u kapa jong nga, this is my (of me) father’s house.

1 Biba Ag 4 1 En: 4

Hangnoh me shong manhanin? where were you yesterday ?

ae 3 An Ue es 4

Nga la shong ha ka klau, I was in the jungle.

1 Ze 4. 3 ae ae aE:

Pha la bam j4? have you eaten rice ?

1 2 Sf Fd ON ante OR RUG Bee 9 hii ite

U 14 shim ka ja na ké kti jong nga, u 1a ai ruh ia u ksen, he took the

aos, va CEM Bole 8d. Ge 9 10

rice from my (of me) hand, and he gave it to the dog.

ees RO gk eg

Ka m kam shu, she does no work.

ae es, 4 5 Ss ela 5

M don dokha ha ka wah, there are no fish in the river.

1 2 Ses 6 its 8 Nd oo de ae A

U 14 pha nah id ki sha k4 klau ba, ki 1a leit nah ruh, he sent (to)

AGE ihe! aay: 8

them into the yungle, and they departed.

Tue Lorp’s PRAYER.

U kapa jong ngiu ba ha baneng; long bakdid ka karteng jong mé.

Wan k4 hima jong mé; long ké mon jong mé ha ké kandeu, kum ba ha

baneng ; 4i 14 ngi manta ka jing bam jong ngi ka ba biang. Map ruh i

ngi ka rang kang jong ngi kum ba ngi map id ki ba leh sniu id ngi.

Wat idlam ruh i4 ngi shé k4 ba panshoi, hinrei stimar i4 ngi nd ka bas-

niu. Naba ka hima, ka bor ruh, ka btirom ruh ki jong mé, hala karta.

Amen.

The list of Khamti words given in the annexed vocabulary has been

very kindly furnished by the Rev. N. Brown of Sibsagor. For the

Singpho and Namsangiyé Naga words I am indebted to the kindness of

the Rev. M. Bronson of Nowgong, and for the Kassia, to the Rev. T.

Jones of Charra-punji.

Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the [APRIL,

342

‘PW P31

“Su Vy ey

"uvUg By

"Sur vg

‘Suvjyey vq

“neq

"WS BY 10

‘uy A

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“urd

‘deSN ¥x 10 0

‘yesull By

"qeyg yuq ‘ydueg

*yourejning

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“But idey 1yy

"Suvyg ey WAND BML

(‘witag aa4auab OAz)

TuIeg BY

“uvw weg

‘Suopsul ey

‘gurrey By (“20/17 )

“eyuaysueg vy (77d)

ley

rodup 1

“BUY BY

‘uLep vy

BELA

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yolwd

“suosoleny

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sued]

Suojty,

Tuy

WOW

yepouy

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yody

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md-¥ld

qey, ‘eyodny,

oq4ryo

we kosoyy- weoyy,

19T

(wosy) sed

oydoy-ya49

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sunuy

(70) Duy (99d) UV

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des],

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sunqi

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‘oydhury

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weAr

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sunyd

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10d

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CRATE

SugyyL,

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(7070)

nes} (79d) ‘WV “10

wey

nv,

JOIN

uvyysury, ‘ueyy doy,

QT Vesy,

Suosuns

LOT:

nus

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poets

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124

ang

Pld

qnue310q

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Sag

aoq

qeog

pivog

(u) 1e9g

sprog

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ooqueg

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bad.

juny

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soysyv

MOLY

JOMSUY

losuy

vA0QY

‘ys bug

343

fines.

in Con

valley of Asam and its mounta

1849.1

qeyuRry ‘Oey

deSuey, ey 10

ULE [ey

Og ‘VIA ‘suerte y

SSB PM

vue, YL

(710g 07 Ajsadosd)yayg

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yee ‘elpid “ery

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WOME TEES

sununy

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NBA

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0"UM

doy,

CAyvaifiaads pasn)

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ery SL Oe

gaeq ‘ueq

“uepT 9 (tabunoh)

‘uouueHy 1 (“ap7q)

uypl eg

PAV ITY AN

Chyva

-yfiaads pasn) ‘y1ed

“avg ‘yeipey ‘ule yy

SuOULY By

Liked, I

Huey YS

sunys By

LUA A

nioyg

AYAN

UeMYUIY

suo1oyy

Uwe

usweg

Suvper ‘suopyg

*(uabunoh)

‘(4apya) _ 2V

aq) suviy

nuy

yoqueqy

193d

YO ‘Oso

nynyeq

adery

*(uabunoh)

yeuy ‘(4apja) ondy

Suop vuy

O1UB A

03 oAs ye-nsyy

(Cusp) ‘foug

eyeNt

dey-ye-oq

qeiy

nuvyyey

ndyiqy

BuO

ose Tl

nsuey

Suu Su0,7,

n-npIs

38381

PUM SUIN

sav

tqis

ned SUINT

NeA-Ne'T

nesig

ndny

nea

BIN

* (uabunoh)

‘(sopja) nd

edeg

awy

NeN

n-0g

LISe yy

Suey

UgPN

suein

seu yy 97,

95N

Budu SUOZ

dunyy

yon ‘eyd suey

eud

Savy

yey

Way

nos],

ney

su9s

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sued

ey IST,

TEAL

"(4abunoh) ves

“y8uony ‘(4appa) wesyeg

suey

puny

eH Ud

SUN] SU0,Z,

uOoyWyT

suoy

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peyxooly

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(A) Yoo9

smog

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4919

ung

PTD

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qozey

yey

Auegy

Ang

ang

OTPPN

IQIOIG

prog

sang

year

ssRig

fog

(a) aog

eu0g

Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the — [Aprit,

344

yequery ey

qeleyy ey

UU By

ePpod ey

sulp ey

HeULys ey

wedey ‘yepey ‘yeys vy

IgUg ey

qlomeyy ‘Surydayg

edey

presug eq

yemey ey

yeuey ey

We ey 10

yieq Suey, ey

Sual[ed &y

weg

150 ULIAl

nopuey By

1OAS BY

ueH

SueTyey

uIsy al

ULL

dey

uUlTie

JO [eH

isug ey

uny ey

ung

peys

“DUSSO ST

wey savy

suey

TAL

osuny,

Zurouey

suaMiy

e104 g

ody

youl

o[ye®

yor ‘suvlry

Suyyyuy

youy

Jeusuy

PSV

LT @)

o”uD

suey IN

a[suery

uy ‘out

AS-OM

suaidy ‘we, suey

une

duu J,

LAY

snuay

suoyy suey

oj1ouy

odosy

YOY Surysuy

“MYT

Surry

od-Sugy9

BSN

UB A

us eq

ou Ue UeYy

deny

welyony9

PA9L

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orn

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Sul] TIN,

suosey

ueqis

ean

UeAL

sony

nyeyqy usyd

LENS

SUIS}"SUIN,

n-neueyl

‘oydburs

Unt TL,

uly,

OWN

ney

yus WH

uny yy

AML

Sues,

reuy

uly

yo ueyy

ULNT

Ssudyy

(4ajum joa) WeUu ULY

qSo10,4

yoo

JOMOpT

asia

Olt

Jasuy

laqyeay

Ieog

Joye

leq

yong

(tpn) hg

Joyysneq

yieg

s0ueg

‘ysybug

345

am confines.

valley of Asam and its mounta

1849.]

JeN A

yodery ‘ey

youmny youuin yy

wuy ()

suvyd &y

(wa) ONT)

vqq vq

1esy Py

Pig A

Sued YM 10 9

WoT

puuny vy

yoy

* HOS vy

PIO vy

PIM

ulqgosuy

BIW

Yel Wysog

ueysuidy

Ws FY

WEpoyD “Tosty

[PYION

qnuy

1eud

Suo] suzy

Tae

Sujal ‘yepuyy

nly

MES

Suv} suey

my)

iesanjoy, ‘yoy

uoN

JeSun}0} YeyOA\

Iag

weU-Uly

lg ‘og

oui

epg ‘Hexe

990999,

wey

Sued yeyjey

uly

O°

py yorqed

Omer

OPEL

ude

suviuins)

suny

wnq nyduey

ap-Os J,

“PN

ndueny

suog

rep BSN,

nyeszey

29'T

Buea

Pquy

SUIS,

bed |

vlen

Badd

mvUleg

WIT

neu Oey

IesN ‘Sues y,

ney

oud

qury ‘uoPy ‘teqy

Mg saat

uv suré uny

PIL

ENB

maT

UuOlE

Ajajerpsumy

purqsnzy

esnoyy

40]

OSIOFT

uloyy

o10FT

1vofT

peo

°H

OAR

oVe FT

prey

pueH

UeTy

yearn

Sseiy

2S00x)

Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the [| APRIL,

346

sue wedi ey

BqIUOTAL

JOSIE FI

Hokdela ls

JIN PO

aed,

UAE oe

Suypuey vy

uelen

SudzIVy By

TS TL

bin igh |

reued 1

BUS Besos

puqd Ya

NUT

Suoial eg

Chm Z

yroe yy

TOT By

reyseg vy

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347

fines.

am CON

valley of Asam and its mounta

1849.]

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Languages of the various tribes inhabiting the [APRIL,

348

wy) Pst

Bay

wey nN C2)

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suouys vy

sud vy

qyelurg vy

PHL PM

leysery

yung ey

eM A

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(w.ta} Josauah ON)

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é Heseg ey

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qa vg

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ese]

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349

valley of Asam and its mountain confines.

1849.]

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350 Aborigines of Southern India. [ApriL,

Aborigines of Southern India.—By B. H. Hoveson, Esq.

To the Secretaries Asiatic Society.

GENTLEMEN,—In prosecution of the steps already taken by me and

recorded in our Journal, for obtaining ready and effective means of com-

paring the affinities of all the various aboriginal races tenanting the

whole continent of India, I have now the honour to submit a comparative

vocabulary of seven of the Southern tongues. Five of them belong to

the cultivated class of these tongues, viz. Tamil, Malayalam, Telugu,

~ Carndtaca, Tilava ; and two to the uncultivated class, viz. Curgi and

Todava. The former are given both in the ancient and modern form,

and care has been taken to procure the genuine vocables instead of those

words of Sanscrit origin which are now so apt to be substituted for

them, especially in intercourse with Kuropeans. I am indebted for

these vocabularies to Mr. Walter Elliot of Madras, whose name is a

sufficient warrant for their perfect accuracy.

In regard to these cultivated tongues of the south, among which we

are led by history and reason to look for the prototype of all the abori-

ginal languages of the continent,* Mr. Elliot observes that the aptitude

of the people at present to substitute prakritic words for aboriginal ones

is such a stumbling block in the search for affinities as it requires pains

and knowledge to avoid; and he instances (among others) the common

use of the borrowed word rakta for blood, in lieu of the native term

néthar, by which latter alone we are enabled to trace the unquestionable

ethnic relationship of the Gdnds, (even those north of the Vindhia)

with the remote southerns speaking Teligi, Cannadi and Tilava.

On the subject of the local limits and mutual influence at the present

day of the cultivated languages of the south upon each other, Mr. Elliot

has the following remarks :—‘ All the southern dialects become consi-

derably intermixed as they approach each other’s limits. Thus the

three words for egg used indifferently by the people speaking Canarese,

(matté, tetti, gadda) are evidently obtained, the first from the Tamulian,

* Journal, No. 197, for November last. The Himalayan languages form an

exception to this assumed general prevalence of the Tamulian type of speech. See

Journal for December 1847, and December 1848.

1849. | Aborigines of Southern India. 351

matta; the last, from the Telugu, gadda. This intermixture, which is

of ordinary occurrence in all cognate tongues, is here promoted specially

by extensive colonization of different races, as of the Telugis into

Southern India under the Bijaynagar dynasty, where they still exist as

distinct communities—and of the followers of Ramaniija Acharj into

Mysore, where they still are to be seen as a separate class speaking

Tamil in their families, and Carnataca in public. The Reddies also, an

enterprizing race of agriculturists, have migrated from their original

seats near Rajahmandry, over the whole of Southern India, and even into

the Maharashtra country, where they are considered the most thriving

ryots, and are met with as far north as Poona.’’*

Of the uncultivated tongues of Southern India Mr. Elliot has been

able to procure me on the present occasion only incomplete vocabularies

of two, viz. the Curgi and Todava. But further assistance may be

looked for from him in regard to this class of tongues, as to which he

observes that ‘“ the dialects of the Curambers and Irulers and other

mountain races of the south are well worth exploring.”’ I have likewise

myself made fresh application to Colonel Low, to our Residents at

Baroda and Sattara, and to other parties residing at Gumsar, the Nil-

giris and Ceylon, with a view to completing the comparative vocabulary

of all the continental and Insular aboriginal languages; and to our

authorities in Assam and in various parts of the chain of mountains

dividing our provinces from those of Ava, in order to obtain the Indo-

Chinese series of border languages—all upon one uniform plan.

These shall be hereafter forwarded as received, with such remarks as

the study of the whole may suggest.

* For the ordinary and proper locale of the several cultivated tongues of Southern

India, see Ellis’ Dissertation and Wilson’s Makenzie Manuscripts. Mr. Elliot

speaks in illustration of the general and well known facts of the case.

[ APRIL,

of Southern India.

igines O

Abor

352

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393

Aborigines of Southern India.

1849. |

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’

| APRIL,

Aborigines of Southern India.

304

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355

Aborigines of Southern India.

1849.]

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360 Journal of a trip through the [APRIL,

A Journal of a trip through the Kohistan of the Jullundhur, undertaken

at the close of the year 1847, and commencement of 1848, under

the orders of the Supreme Government of India, for the purpose of |

determining the Geological formation of that District. By W. H.

ParisH, 2nd Lieut. Bengal Artillery. Communicated by H. M.

Exuiot, Esq. Secretary to the Government of India.

The plain of the Jullundhur Doab is but scantily wooded. It pos-

sesses a high sandy soil which can be rendered very productive by

means of extensive irrigation. Its fruits and vegetables are of a superior

description, and might be brought to the highest state of perfection by

improved culture. The heat of summer is generally moderate, whilst

the sharp frosts of its winters are very invigorating to European consti-

tutions. Moreover, the climate all the year round is particularly healthy.

The plain of the Doab is somewhat triangular in shape, it being includ-

ed between the Sutle} and Beas rivers, and the Hoshyarpoor range.

Beyond this range lies a country surpassed by none for the fertility of

its soil or the beauty of its landscape, and remarkable as a hill coun-

try for the facilities of access and intercommunication which it possesses.

2. Four miles to the northward of the large and populous town

of Hoshyarpoor is situated the Naree Pass which leads over the Pamrai

or Hoshyarpoor range into the Jaswun Dhoon. After entering the

ghat the road lies along the bottom of a winding ravine for about five

miles and then gradually ascends until it reaches the crest of the range,

where, crossing over some table-land, it finally descends and enters the

valley at Amb-mota. Just within the entrance of the pass is a well of

excellent water, and a never-failing spring is met with about four miles

further inward, at a place called Naree. To this spot the first march

from Hooshyarpoor is usually made. The village consists of half dozen

bunyea’s shops, alongside of which is an ample space for a small

encampment. It being situated at the bottom of the ravine the heat

of the place is very great. The road is sandy and easy for horses.

Camels can also travel over this ghat. The general aspect of this outer

range of hills is barren and naked, for, with the exception of some

scanty jungle in the damper glens, and here and there a sprinkling of

stunted cheel (Pinus longifolia) hardly any vegetation is to be seen for

1849.] Kohistan of the Jullundhur. 361

the greater part of the year. The little village of Amb-mota is, how-

ever completely hidden from sight by trees.

3. From this point to Amb-bagh across the valley, is about six

miles. The large village of Ambee is placed on the edge of the Jaswun

range, overlooking the valley, and the garden, after which it has been

named. This last isa pleasant spot to encamp in; the cypress, the

mangoe, the mulberry and other fruit trees forming an agreeable and

shady retreat for the traveller. The fruits produced in this garden are

of a fine description. It is kept constantly watered by means of a

“‘kool’’ which conducts the water from an immense distance within

the Jaswun range. This kool enables the villagers to cultivate many

acres of land which otherwise must have remained unproductive. The

great drawback to any extensive cultivation in this valley is the scarcity

of water, and the sandy nature of the soil. The Sooan is almost dry

during the hot weather, and the little water there is usually in it cannot

be used for irrigation, as it already flows along the lowest level. It is

a great pity that so noble a valley should be under such a disadvantage.

The same objection obtains against the table-lands on the surrounding

hills. These lands can now produce but one crop a year, whereas they

could easily yield three under more favorable circumstances. The only

crops I had as yet seen in these hills were the cotton, sugar-cane,

motee (trigonella ?) bajra, (Panicum specatum of Rox.) and a vegetable

like a very large radish, called I believe moolee, (Raphanus sativus ?).

The grain crops had been sown and were just springing above ground.

I left Hooshyarpoor on the 26th October, 1847.

4. Cheenee ghat is about 14 miles east south-eastward of Hooshy-

arpoor. The intermediate country is prettily wooded with mangoe

topes, and intersected by numerous deep gullies which drain off the

water from the hills. The entrance to the pass is any thing but tempt-

ing ; not a tree nor ashrub is to be seen until the traveller nearly reaches

the crest. As at the other ghat the road first runs along the bottom of

a ravine and then ascends, and passing over the summit descends as

rapidly again into the valley at Isapore. The ravine is much narrower

and more tortuous, the ascent and descent are also more abrupt, and

consequently more difficult than those in the Naree ghat. This one

moreover, lies out of the direct route to the interior, which circumstance,

combined with the other objections, have prevented any extended traffic

3A 2

362 Journal of a trip through the [ApRIL,

being carried on by this thoroughfare. The village of Isapore is situ-

ated in a wooded dell formed by two spurs projecting into the Jaswun

Dhoon. From this spot may be seen to the eastward and across the

valley, the high ridge of Kotlehr, with the detached forts on its summit;

from Isapore to Amb-bagh is about 15 miles, which allowing 7 for the

pass, makes the total distance from Hoshyarpoor to the last named

village at least 35 miles, whereas by the former route it cannot be more

than 22 miles; although my distances are mere guesses, they will not be

found very far out, as I have had a good deal of practice to assist me in

judging of distances from place to place. My constant habit of noting

down the supposed number of miles and the time occupied in going over

them has enabled me to calculate with tolerable accuracy the lengths

of marches. From the road to Amb-bagh but few villages are visi-

ble, from their being generally built on the slopes of the hills on either

side of the valley. Within a mile of the garden is a small jungle of

dawk (Butea pondosa), which being in full blossom when I passed

through it in April last added much to the beauty of the scenery by its

crimson flowers.

5. The third march is to Kulao-ke-hutta, distant about 12 miles.

There is but little difference between the Rajpoor ghat and the others.

It is however more elevated and the slopes of the ravine are better wood-

ed and consequently more picturesque than either of the former. The

ravine leading up to the summit of the ghat is also much wider, but for

two or three miles is covered with boulders, which makes it a painful

journey for beasts of burden. The descent is sudden and steep, and

the road is shockingly stony. About half way stands a handsome

gateway on the edge of the khud, and looking down into it. This is

the remains of the old fort of Rajpoor, which once commanded that

pass. Behind the gateway is a considerable village, apparently in a

flourishing condition. Kulao-ke-hutta, consisting of a few bunneas’

shops, is situated within the angle formed by the junction of two torrent

beds descending to the Beas. All around is a dense jungle, which I am

told, is full of game. On the several occasions that I have had to en-

camp there the surroundiug woods appeared to be alive with jungle

fowls which kept up an incessant crowing.

6. The next march is to Joala Mukhi. At first the road passes over

the spur on the left hand (or the northern one) descending afterwards into

——————————=_=ZiE——L—C_ Ct

— 7 al

1849.] Kohistan of. the Jullundhur. 363

the stony bed of a nullah, when it ascends the second spur, along which

it continues until it reaches the river. From the right bank the direct

road across the Joala valley is over an undulating country, and in

parts bad for horses, but the road to the right or more southern one is

as flat and as good as the queen’s highway in England. The distance

from the ferry to Joala Mukhi is good six miles. The march isa

pleasant one, the scenery being agreeably diversified by woods and

stream, hills and valley, with here and there picturesque hamlets and

villages embosomed in trees. One mile from the river, on its left bank,

is a considerable village (with a large tank in the centre) the name of

which I did not note down at the time, and have since forgotten it.

The lofty peepul trees growing in and about that village are usually

covered with a large species of bat (Galeopithecus volans?) or flying

fox, as they are often called. I tried on several occasions to obtain one

but never succeeded. A boat and ferrymen are kept at the ghat to

convey over the river men and baggage. The boats used on the Beas

are similar to those used on the Sutlej. A Sutle} boat is an oblong platform

having three of its sides raised two feet high, and the fourth, or stern pro-

jected up into a peak some six feet or more above the water. I cannot com-

pare these singularly constructed sterns to anything else but the sharp

points of native shoes, to which the curved ends are about as useful and

ornamental as the elevated sterns are to the boats. The Beas at the

ferry is very deep and from 50 to 60 yards wide, but its waters scarcely

cover a fourth part of the bed they occupy during the rains, for then it

cannot be less than a quarter of a mile wide. On my way to the ghat

in October, I passed through some fields of ‘Sunn’? (cutalaria jimcea)

which the villagers were then cutting. The cotton was also being ga-

thered.

7. From Kulao-ke-hutta there is a road or rather beaten track to

Nadoun, which follows the course of the river. Our unfortunate coun-

tryman, Mr. Moorcroft, travelled by this route when proceeding to Shu-

janpoor Jira. This one diverges from the former road about a mile

from Kulao-ke-hutta, and continues along the crest of the first spur un-

til its termination at the Beas, where it descends into the valley at

Kolehsan ghat. Thence it proceeds along the left bank of the river to

Nadoun. There are no boats kept at that ghat. The Beas, through-

out its course in the Joala valley, presents broad sheets of water broken

364 Journal of a trip thvough the [APRIL,

here and there by falls. The spurs of the Jaswun range are in general

well covered with low bush jungle, in the midst of which are many ham-

lets. The distance is about 10 miles, but the better way of getting to

the last named place is by crossing the river at Chumba ghat and then

proceeding directly to Nadoun. The highest point of the Hooshyarpoor

range does not exceed 2,200 feet, and that of the Jaswun range 2700

feet above the sea. The elevation of the Joala ridge may be as great

as 3,000 feet.

8. That portion of the Joala valley immediately adjoining the holy

city is known by the local name of “ Belear Dhoon.”’ It is fertile and

well cultivated. The town of Joala-mukhi is large and straggling, and

is built at the base of the western slope of the Joala-mukhi or Chungar-

ke-dhar. The town, with the wooded slopes of the Chungar forming

the back ground, and the valley spread out before it, has a very pic-

turesque appearance from a distance. There is nothing interesting,

however about the town, it being filthily dirty and badly built. Even

the celebrated temple itself is not free from its share of all manner of

filth. It possesses no architectural beauty nor any thing worthy of no-

tice, excepting the natural jets of gas. As in all other holy cities, so it

is in Joala-jee, prayers and monkeys, sacrifices and debaucheries, priests

and bulls go hand in hand. Judging from their conduct at their holy

cities one cannot say much in favor of the “mild Hindu!’ However,

in all parts of the world there is not a view of human nature which is

not sufficient to blight the seeds of pride! Through the town and up

the range is an excellent flight of steps about two miles in length and

leading up to a ghat at the summit. To the left, on a peak somewhat

higher, is a neat little fort built of sandstone. This was erected by the

Sikhs with an eye to plundering the temple below whenever an opportu-

nity occurred, and it was supposed the priests had amassed a considerable

amount of wealth. An extensive view of the Joala and Kangra valleys

and of the Chumba range is obtained from this elevated spot. This

range furnishes excellent sandstone for building purposes. Nearly

the whole town is built of this material. There is a cool burra-duree

outside the town open for the reception of travellers. In the ‘‘ Report”

on the Kohistan of the Jullundhur;*:I hinted at the probability of

iodine being found in the saline springs below the temple; I have since

learnt that it is not an uncommon ingredient in such springs.

* Vide Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, April 1848, page 285.

1849. | Kohistan of the Jullundhur. 365

The numerous lime springs, as well as masses of rock salt which

are contained in the red marl seems to offer additional proofs of the

marine origin of these deposits, smce Dr. Daubeny has shewn that in

many of these saline sources there is an admixture of iodine, a princi-

ple which is confined to the sea, and its productions. This argument is

not however to be considered decisive, but only as forming a portion of

cumulative evidence, which taken in conjunction with that of the remains

occurring in the deposits of this age on the continent, fortifies the con-

clusion that the salifereous marls are of marine origin, for it might be

said that iodine and chloride of sodium have been derived in the first

instance from the interior of the earth, and that the ocean may have owed

its saltness to beds of rock salt, as well as that rock salt owed its origin

to the evaporation of sea water.’’*

9. The next march to Ranee-ke-taloa, is about 14 miles in length,

and the country is very pretty. The road passes through several vil-

lages, where many a rustic lane, shaded by trees, and enclosed by hedge

rows, fragrant with the wild rose, the honeysuckle and violets, greets

the English traveller and makes him sigh for the land in which every

village has its own “love lane!’ The road proceeds north-westward

along the base of the Joala range until the latter has so much de-

creased in height as hardly to be distinguishable from the lower hills,

when it turns suddenly to the north-east and passing over a low gap

enters a small dell in which the tents are generally pitched. The vil-

lage stands on the flattened crest of a short spur from the Joala range,

and is about 300 feet above the encamping ground, which is situated in

a quiet sequestered nook.

10. Passing through the village of Ranee-ke-talao the road des-

cends to the bed of the stream which flows under the walls of Kangra

and re-ascends on to some table-land. Four miles more of tolerably

level road brings you to the thriving village of Dowlutpoor, thence,

however, the road rises considerably and afterwards descends as rapidly

to the level of the stream, crossed shortly after leaving the last encamp-

ment. The bed of this stream is some 200 feet below the town of

Kangra. A steep flight of steps leads to the fort gateway on the one

hand and into the town on the other. The length of this march is

about 10 miles. A road direct from Chumba ghat to Ranee-ke-talao,

is a desideratum, as it would shorten the distance by five miles.

* Vide Muzchison’s Silurian system.

366 Journal of a trip through the [AprRIL,

11. The fort of Kangra is built on a piece of land between two

mountain streams* which unite shortly after flowing past it. It con-

sists of bastion upon bastion and wall within wall, and has been built

after no particular plan or model, but at various times. The outer

wall is two miles or more in circumference. The summit of the citadel

must be fully 500 feet above the level of the stream which flows under-

neath. It is sadly out of repair and must soon fall to pieces. The an-

cient portions of this stronghold are built with sandstone, compact and

fine grained, but the modern additions have been made with burnt

bricks. ‘With a stout-hearted garrison inside it would be almost im-

possible to take the place by storm, but as the whole of the interior is

commanded by the surrounding heights, the garrison could be shelled

out. By order of Lord Hardinge a single eighteen pounder has been

left there, to which the silly mountaineers make propitiatory offerings.

The fort is garrisoned by the 2d or Hill regiment of Sikh Local In-

fantry, under the command of three European Officers and a noncom-

missioned officer ; there is also an European Apothecary attached. The

Regiment is 800 strong, divided into 10 Companies of 80 men each.

The officers are selected from the Regiments of the line, and consist of

a commandant, a 2d in command, an Adjutant and Quarter-Master, and

a Serjeant Major. Within the fort are the remains of Hindu temples

which are covered with elegant sculptures. One of them is much cele-

brated and is annually visited by hundreds of pilgrims. Both the town

and the fort of Kangra are built upon an indurated calcareous conglo-

merate. The former contains between five and six thousand inhabi-

tants. A short mile from this town is the still more populous one of

Bhawun, built on the north-western slope of a hill called Mulkéra.

Between the latter and the base of the Chumba range, distant about

six miles in a direct line, lies the picturesque and fertile Pergunnah of

Kangra ; most of the houses in the towns have roofs slated with slabs of

micaceous clay-slate. The streets are narrow, and generally dirty, and

are seldom anything better than flights of steps paved with boulders

which have become so polished by constant friction as greatly to in-

crease the difficulties of walking, but this very circumstance makes

them the more agreeable to persons without shoes. In the centre of

Bhawun is a neat Hindu temple with a gilded dome, which enhances

the pleasant appearance of the town from a distance. The two modern

* The principal one is called the Ban Gunga, which flows on the south-east.

1849. | Kohistan of the Jullundhur. 367

houses lately built on the summit of Mulkeéra hill have any thing but

improved the look of the place. The entire management of this vast

district of Kangra, extending from the Ravee, where it enters the plains

to Spiti, is under the control of two Civilians, a Deputy and an Assist-

ant Commissioner !

12. The view from the top of the gateway on Mialkéra hill is very

fine. Immediately below lies a level valley divided by deep torrent

beds, and subdivided into fields, each set of the latter having its own

hamlet in the centre, embosomed in trees. Rising out of the valley,

and to the north appears the fort of Rilloo, peeping out of a dense

forest of pines (P. longifolia). To the south-east a low wooded range

with a fort* on its highest peak shuts out the elevated plain of Pul-

lum. Straight before you, rising aloft, are the rugged peaks of

Chumba, topped with snow. Lower down the range a dark belt marks

the limits of a long extended forest,+ below which again are exten-

sive woods of oaks and rhododendrons, and lowest of all sloping into

the valley, lies the noble plain of Dhurmsala, with here and there a

village shaded by the graceful bamboo or umbrageous mangoe tree.

Again, on turning one’s back to this charming scenery another equally

as novel is spread out before you. The fort and town of Kangra, the

village of Doulutpore, and little Hindu temples perched on conspi-

cuous peaks first attract your notice ; beyond these are seen the Joala

range, with the faint outline of the Jaswun stretching out in the

dim distance, and lastly to the westward is a complete chaos of low hills

intersected by countless ravines.

13. ‘To the south-eastward of Bhawun is a very singular natural

archway of conglomerate ; its span, 3 feet above the ground, is 23 feet,

height 15 feet, and the solid mass above the arch, the crown, is from 3

to 4 feet high, and from 2 to 3 feet thick, but this portion I was

unable to reach for the purpose of exact measurement. This interest-

ing object was discovered whilst strolling about one day in January

1847. Passing through the town of Bhawun I went through a few

fields and came upon a plot of uncultivated ground strewed over with

rubbish and the traditionary sight of one of Aurungzebe’s palaces.

* Pullum Puthan.

ft The Pinus Webbiana, Horse Chesnut and Walnut trees are found in this forest,

but no Deodons.

368 Journal of a trip through the [A PRIL,

There numerous springs issue from the ground, and fiowimg down

various fissures finally reach one of the streams which encircle the fort

of Kangra. The braéhmans, who always select spots for their temples

in some way or another favored by nature, in order I suppose to in-

crease the sanctity of their idolatrous religion, have chosen one of the

springs and endowed its waters with certain efficacious principles. This

little brook, after working its way through several tanks, at last falls

into a deep hole, which it has worn away for itself, escaping at last

under the archway after a fall of about 25 feet. Entermg from below,

that place has the appearance of a large cavern with a considerable

body of water falling from above. The constant force of the water

has washed away the entire roof, leaving the arch standing out by

itself some three feet beyond the rest of the conglomerate as a curious

monument of the power of water when unremittingly exerted for

several ages. On the top of it is built a paltry little temple witha

bridge and staircase leading up to it. There are numerous other tem-

ples scattered about, and one is perched on the top of a precipice close

by. Between this spot and the other is another deep fissure likewise

worn away by a limpid stream. Near to where the water descends is

a dripping spring, which oozing through the conglomerate, forms sta-

lactites and encrusts every thing within its reach. There is also a

similar spring three miles on the opposite side of Bhawun. Imme-

diately under the former one is a large block of quartz crumbling away

under its destructive influence, but whilst the solid rock is yielding to

the corrosive power of that spring, a delicate little fern drinking deep

of its waters flourishes and grows luxuriantly. I believe the latter to

be a species of adiantum. I have sent specimens of it with the rest of

the plants forwarded to Calcutta in April last.

14. There are many pleasant rides and walks about Kangra. Dhurm-

sala is a pleasant resort. That plain is about nine miles distant, and

the intermediate country is prettily wooded with clusters of bamboo,

topes of mangoe, peepul and other trees, with here and there a stately

palm. Leaving the lower valley, the road ascends into the plain at

its south-western extremity. It is an extensive grassy plateau sloping

up rapidly towards the snowy range. The sunken bed of a torrent

separates it on one side from the adjacent lowland, and a low ridge

covered with small Cheels* bounds it on the other, Its extreme length

* Cheels, Pinus longifolia.

1849. | Kohistan of the Jullundhur. 369

is about 14 mile, with a breadth varying from 150 yards to 600 yards.

The highest end has been calculated to be about 4700 feet above the

sea. The soil is alluvial, having a covering of six inches of vegetable

mould. It was pronounced favorable for the cultivation of the tea

plant by Dr. Jameson, and has been selected by him for that purpose.

Although the fall in its slope is great, it nevertheless can be irrigated

with the greatest facility by means of two Kulus* of water which

have been conducted from the snows by the Puharees.t The greater

part is at present uncultivated. At the head or highest part are a few

blacksmiths’ huts. They obtain the iron which they use from the

ferruginous sandstone found in the neighbourhood. Further up is

another cluster of huts with an orchard or two, and in one of them,

amongst other fruit trees, such as the Apricot and Cherry, &c. I met

with two or three plantains apparently thriving, although exposed to the

cold nights of January at an elevation of 5,400 feet. That plan-

tains can survive the effects of frosts and snow I have lately had indis-

putable proofs. On the 2nd February 1847, snow descended and con-

tinued falling for one hour and twenty minutes, which ultimately

covered the valley and the surrounding hills to the depth of an inch.

My Farenheit’s Thermometer fell to two degrees below the freezing

point during the night, and did not commence re-ascending until one

hour after sunrise on the following morning. Several times both before

and after this trying night we experienced very severe frosts. Now in

and about the valley, are the mangoe, bamboo, a species of palm, pee-

pul, banian and the plantain, every one of which survived the severity of

the weather. Moreover adjoining the plain of Dhurmsala and near the

road leading to it is a slightly elevated ridge, along the crest of which

may be seen several old peepul trees and clumps of bamboos. On that

ridge snow usually falls about once a year to the depth of four inches

or more, so that those ancient trees must have withstood the rigors of

many a stormy winter. Again, on the 2nd of February of this year

(1848) a heavier fall occurred, and the snow remained on the ground

much longer than in the preceding one. I happened to be at that time

at Shajanpoor Tira, where near the summit of an exposed hill is a

garden} adjoining the palace of the oreo Samsar Chund, and contain-

* ‘6 Kool,’’ a Conduit, + Puharees, Mountaineers,

t An approximation, which may be 100 feet more or less than the truth, gives it

an elevation of 3000 feet.

a Be

370 Journal of a trip through the [APRIL,

ing a large number of plantains. At sunrise the next morning, after

the fall I went to examine how they had fared, I found their fronds

covered with frozen snow and drooping under its weight, but in the

afternoon when I visited them again I found that they had regained

their natural position, and shewed no signs of having suffered from the

cold. We had also some severe frosty weather afterwards which

affected them but slightly. The severe weather in these hills is gener-

ally ushered in by storms of wind and rain. This is accompanied with

an abundance of thunder and lightning, with showers of hail, which

ultimately descends in flakes of snow. It commences pretty regularly

about the end of January in each year. Besides torrents of rain

during the wet season, and a sufficiency in January, slight showers fall

in each month, which circumstance must be attributed to the proximity

of lofty mountains having an elevation of 16,000 feet. But we must

now return from this digression and proceed with the journal. Above

the village of Dhurmsala, and at an elevation of 7200 feet above the

sea, the Commissioner of Jullundhur has built a house on a spur of the

Chumba range, and in the midst of a forest of oaks and rhododen-

drons. The view thence is magnificent ; clay-slate and limestone form

the middle, whilst saliferous sandstone and marls form the lower, and

granite the highest, portions of the Chumba range.

15. Lug, another place to which sportsmen are fond of resorting,

is situated immediately above Killoo, and between 7 and 8000 feet above

the sea. It is the name of a hamlet, above which is a level area of one

or two acres in extent. Between this and the snowy range is a deep

wooded dell in which the menal and argus pheasants abound. But all

over the Chumba range game of every description is plentiful ; numbers

of fine large mahseer and other fish are found in the deep pools which

exist in most of the mountain torrents crossing the valley. These

streams are fed entirely by rains and melted snow, The longest mah-

seer was caught under the walls of Kangra, and weighed 28 lbs. I be-

lieve. There is a large forest of fine Cheels around Killoo and else-

where along the base of the snowy range. Killoo is the name of a

village with a fort, and is about 10 miles to the north of Chawun.

16. It is also about 10 miles to the village of Shahpoor, the usual

halting place after the first march from Kangra toward Noorpoor.

Excepting at the stony beds of nullahs, of which there are several, the

sss hace | al

1849. | Kohistan of the Jullundhur. 371

rest of the road is tolerably level and good. About another 10 miles brings

you to Kotila (or Koteleh). The road is not so good as on the former

march. ‘The fort at this place is of the same style as the one at Kan-

era, but not nearly so strong. It possesses all its disadvantages only in

a much greater degree. It is likewise built on a conglomerate rock.

One company under a native commissioned Officer of the 2d Sikh Regi-

ment has charge of it. The fort is raised about 200 feet above the level

of two streams, which unite under its walls. Within this angle and at

the bottom of the ravine is placed the large village of the same name.

About a couple of miles before one arrives at that place the road passes

through the village of Jhullugnath, inhabited by Cashmiris, who are

employed in the manufacture of shawls. Close by there is a large

‘forest of oaks in which I noticed several instances of the peepul growing

out of the oak.

17. Noorpoor is about 12 miles from Kotila, and is the largest town

in the Kohistan of the Jhullundhur. The other large towns are

Kangra, Bhuwun, Joala, Monkhee, Shajanpoor, Tira, and Mundiuggur.

Next to these come Nadoun, Sookeyt and Sultanpoor. Noorpoor con-

tains about 10,000 inhabitants, principally Cashmiris, whose chief

employment is in the manufacture of shawls. Working from sunrise

to sunset, with only one hour’s relaxation, they earn but $ anna a day

each ; boys from 6 to 8 years are employed as well as men. The method

of manufacturing shawls has often been minutely described and there-

fore it is needless for me to do so in this place. The fort looks more

like a dilapidated Serai than any thing else. Two companies of native

infantry under a Captain, from one of the regiments of the line station-

ed at Cajeepore, occupy it. The town and fort are built on a tongue

of land formed by a considerable nullah making a broad sweep. This

stream flows a hundred feet or more below them in a narrow and_tor-

tuous ravine. For eight months of the year it is nearly dry. The town

covers a considerable space but the streets are narrow, and dirty and

the inhabitants squalid and miserable. The whole is overlooked by

high hills. A fort, the name of which I forgot to note down, is perched

on a conical peak bearing nearly due north. The country round Noor-

poor is very hilly, and the road between it and Kotila is decidedly bad.

Before the road reaches the former place it passes through a small un-

dulating valley which is not distinguished by any particular name that

Svc Journal of a trip through the [| APRIL,

I could learn. The young rajah of Noorpoor, an interesting little fellow,

is allowed 5000 Co.’s Rs. a year by Government, which is the total

amount of his income, as I believe he possesses no jaghir.

18. Soohahlee is about 12 miles further to the north-westward. It

is a thriving and neat village, entirely buried in trees and situated in a

small but picturesque valley ; Dhurr or Dharr, a hamlet some three

miles to the north-west of the former, is inhabited chiefly by black-

smiths, who obtain the iron they work from an adjoming wooded hill.

From that spot to the Ravee is a rugged hilly country, and the road is

bad.

19. From Noorpoor to Puthankot (or Patan Kot), is fully 14 miles.

The road lies along the stony bed of the nullah which flows under the

former. Puthankot is built on the line of junction between the hills

and the plains, where the spurs of the former gradually lessening in

height, are lost in the latter. From Roopur on the Sutlej, to Cajeepoor

on the Beas, is a long range of hills (the Hooshearpoor) presenting pre-

cipitous slopes to the plams; but between the latter and Pathunkot

and even beyond, the hills throw out numerous spurs which abut into

the plains. At this place is a small fort anda mangoe tope to encamp

in. The town did not appear either large or flourishing. A fine view

of a portion of the Chumba range is obtained hence. That part seen

through a gap in the lower and intermediate hills must be removed a

considerable distance from the plains, as is retains its snow when that

near Kangra is quite bare. Its crest also appears more deeply serrated

than that of the latter. The boundary in this direction of the British

territory is marked by the Hosali canal, which is drawn from the Ravee

at the foot of the hills near Sadhori and flows past both Umritsur and

Lahore.* It is crossed by a small bridge soon after leaving Patan

Kot.

20. The populous town of Adeenugegur is about 12 miles from the

last named place, and on the high road to Umritsur and Lahore. From

the canal the water is conducted in numberless rills to irrigate the sur-

rounding country. In consequence of this system of irrigation the road

is bad, as the deep ruts in which the water is made to flow traverse it

in various directions, and not unfrequently overflow on to the road. A

* T am indebted for the above information, to Captain A. Cunningham of the

Bengal Engineers.

1849. | ‘ohistan of the Jullundhur. 373

short distance from the town are the ruins of a palace built on the right

bank of the canal, over which a bridge has been thrown to connect the

opposite portions of the domain. The buildings are rapidly falling into

ruins, but the dense groves of mango trees still remain, and afford evi-

dent signs of former magnificence. Distant about 8 miles is an extensive

swamp (jeel) which abounds with waterfowl and fish. It belongs to

one of the numberless Sings of Lahore. Adinahnuggur was built or

named by Adinah Beg towards the end of the last century. He was

the Fojdar or Military Commandant of Jalandhar.*

21. Twelve miles E.S. E. of Adinanuggur is Andoorah, the former

place being south-west of Noorpoor. Itisa large village built on a

hillock composed of compact sand, of which kind there are several in

the neighbourhood. It is situated within the British territory—a

small stream, which flows into the Beas below Hajeepoor making the

boundary. I saw nothing worthy of notice at this place.

22. To Juck-o-burr isa march of 15 miles. It is situated just

within the hills. In this neighbourhood the general appearance of the

low sandstone hills as one approaches them is cheerless and inhospi-

table. No verdure clothes their naked flanks, and the long coarse grass

which covers their slopes looks scorched and dead. The adjoining

plain country is also any thing but pretty, the soil being sandy and

almost destitute of trees. The road however is tolerably good, and

passes through several villages. I travelled along it towards the close of

November last. Juck-o-burris a small village situated in the mouth

of a ravine and half a mile from the right bank of the Beas at Rae-ke-

puttun. The river between this and Rae on the left bank is divided

into two parts by an island. At the abovementioned ghat the force

sent against Kangra in May 1846 crossed the river. On the range

(Hooshearpoor) behind Rae is a dense bamboo jungle filled with wild

boars.

23. A winding ravine, about five miles in length, brings you on to

a small piece of table-land on which stands the hamlet of Koonhur, a

sweet pretty spot, whence is seen a confused mass of hills and glens

bounded to the eastward by the snowy range. Another narrow and

tortuous ravine nearly three miles in length, leads on to a similar piece

of upland, over which the road passes and descends at Dhumata ito

* For this also I am indebted to Captain A. Cunningham.

374 Journal of a trip through the [APRIL,

the Joala valley. A couple of miles south-east of Juck-o-burr, and

on the opposite side of the Beas, the Jaswun and Hooshearpoor ranges

unite, and throw out a single ridge as far as Hajeepoor, whilst the

principal chain keeps a north-westerly direction, after allowing a free

passage to the Beas. From the right bank of the river, and from be-

tween Dhamata and Juck-o-burr, this sandstone range stretches out in

one broad belt towards the north-west, and passing between Noorpoor

and Puthankot, reaches the Ravee, beyond which river I suspect that

lofty hills of the saliferous formation abut immediately on to the plains.

However, that portion of the sandstone range lying between the Beas

and the Ravee maintains its usual characteristic features. They consist of

strata of compact sand, soft friable sandstone and loose gravel. But the

hilly track between Noorpoor and the Chumba range is formed of sand-

stone and marls with thick conformable beds of calcareous conglomer-

ate indurated into a solid rock. This formation extends also to the

Ravee and composes probably a large portion of the territory belonging

to the Rajah of Chumba.* This is under the protection of the British

Government, to which he pays an annual tribute.

Dhamata is a considerable village on the banks of a dry nullah. It

is well wooded. From there a road through Hurreepore leads to Joala-

mukhi, which is about 25 miles off. The jaghir belonging to the

Rajah of Hurreepoor. Golche is a very small village and situated on

the right bank of the Beas.

24. Nagrota is likewise a large village built on some rising ground

on the left bank of the Guj. It is also situated at the entrance of a

ravine which affords a passage from one valley to the other for the Guj

that there enters the Joala-mukhi valley. The distance between

Nagrota and Dhamata is about 9 miles, which is somewhat more than

the width of the valley at this point, as the road crosses it diagonally.

The former is tolerably level, and the latter good. Besides the Guj,

another considerable stream flows across the valley, into which the

former empties itself before reaching the Beas. In May 1846, large

quantities of tobacco were growing in the fields, also the Oleander and

Cassia fistula were in full blossom, adorning the glens with their red

and yellow flowers, as well as scenting the air with their fragrance.

* The saliferous formation of the Kangra district rests on the Siluvian, according

to Dr. W. Jameson.

1849. | ‘ohistan of the Jullundhur. 375

Near Nagrota, but on the opposite side of the stream, grow a couple

of the largest silk cotton trees (Bombax heptaphylla) I have ever

seen. ‘Phe one I measured was 24 feet in girth. There is a banian

tree at Juck-o-burr measuring 38} feet in circumference, but what are

these to the noble cypress trees of Mexico, or the still more extra-

ordinary jana trees of Australia, and the locust trees of southern

America ?*

25. The next march and a half are about the most tiresome that

could be imagined. ‘The road lies along the bottom of a deep and ser-

pentine ravine with the Guj flowing through it, which stream has to be

forded 51 times before the Kangra valley can be entered !—several of the

fords are 3 feet deep, the current is strong, and the bed of the torrent

covered with boulders of every possible dimension. Travelled masses

of granite too, those stumbling blocks to erratic geologists, are every

where scattered about. This ravine is about 13 miles in length and is

by no means a safe route to take, as any sudden shower of rain in-

creases considerably the depths of the fords and renders them danger-

ous, if not impassible. Its average breadth is about 300 yards, but it

contracts a good deal in some parts, whilst it widens in others and

forms valleys. Some low bush jungle with a few cheels grow on the

hills on either side. The dates are well cultivated, whilst here and

there the gentler slopes are terraced into fields. The siege train was

taken by this route in 1846. Tutti-paniis the usual halting place,

and is 9 miles from Nagrota. This spot has derived its name from a

hot spring which issued from the hills forming the north-western boun-

dary of the valley. The hills around are composed of strata of sand-

stone and marls and conformable beds of conglomerate. The length

of the valley is about 1} mile and its breadth a quarter. It is more-

over divided into two nearly equal parts by a low spur. The soil at its

base is a stiff red clay well suited for brick making. The brahmans as

usual have taken advantage of the hot spring and covered it over with

a temple, surrounding the exterior with peepul and other trees. They

have also fixed an artificial stone pipe for the jet-d’eau to run

through, whilst they collect its tepid waters in a small tank for the pur-

pose of enabling the pious Hindu to bathe in.

* Vide Humbolt’s‘‘ Personal Narrative,’? Landor’s ‘‘ Bushman, or Life in a

new country,’ and Lindley’s ‘‘ Vegetable Kingdom.”’

376 Journal of a trip through the [ APRIL,

26. Having wound your way through four miles more of this irk-

some ravine you enter at last the long wished for valley of Kangra.

One mile further is Bunda ghat. This ghat is over a considerable

stream which joins the Guj at the mouth of the pass. The town of

Bhawun is four miles N. EK. of this, and the road is along a level coun-

try intersected by three or four deep torrent beds. There is however

another route by-which a good deal of the unpleasant work of fording

may be avoided. This can be done by following the course of a very

narrow ravine which turns off to the right about a mile from Putti-

pani. It brings you out upon a high hill, from which the road descends

into the valley along the crest of a spur and joims the other one mid-

way between Bunda ghat and Bhawun. The distance is rather in-

creased by the latter route. There is also a footpath which leads over

the hills from Nagrota to Kangra, but I have never travelled along it.

In a village not far from Bunda ghat, and looking down on to the

Guj, I saw a bair tree (Zizyphus jujuba) measuring 33 feet round,

which appeared to me of rather an unusual size.

27. Having arrived at the point from which I started, and not

wishing to go over the same ground twice, I will make a fresh start

from Joala-mukhi. Kotlair and the former place lie nearly due north

and south of each other and about 25 miles apart. I purpose describ-

ing this route in the first instance, and afterwards that through Muhul-

mooree and Sookeyt to Mundi-nugeur.

28. From Joala-mukhi tothe Beas opposite Nadoun, is 9 miles.

The road is level and good. Nadoun can hardly be called any thing

more than a small town or large village, although the numerous Hindu

temples, and extensive ruins, remind one of its former greatness. It

is built on the left bank of the river and rather more than 100 feet

above it, but the opposite bank is very low, and shelving. A fine flight

of steps, made of sandstone, leads down to the water, which here

presents a wide unruffled surface. Its width is probably 150 yards,

and the current is barely perceptible, although its average rate cannot

be less than four miles an hour. The latter of course varies according

to the season. In the shallows shoals of fish may be seen basking in

the sun. There are plenty of fine trees in and about the town, and the

country around is decidedly pretty. There is an old saying “ whoever

comes to Nadoun who would wish to leave it?’ which might have

1849.] Kohistan of the Juliundhur. 377

been true in the days of its prosperity, but I cannot say that the place

now holds out any particular inducements to take up one’s residence there.

I had with me both Mr. Moorcroft’s and Mr. Vigne’s travels, and was

much struck with the general accuracy of the former, but I cannot say as

much for that of the latter, for whose inaccuracy I can only account by

supposing that he did not make sufficiently ample notes on the spot»

but trusted too much to his memory. Of course I can only speak of

that portion of Mr. Vigne’s work which relates to this Kohistan.* Jod-

beer Chund, the Rajah of Nadoun, is a tall, stout and handsome man.

He is the natural son of the great Sansar Chund, the late Rajah of

Cotoche. His jaghir is worth 32,000 a year. He has a nice house

situated on the banks of the river, and about a mile from the town.

Near the house is a Changan,t on which in former times hockey on

horseback used to be played. From Nadoun are three roads leading

to as many different places. The principal one is that which passes

through Muhulmooree and terminates at the Sutley opposite Bilaspoor.

The next one follows the course of the Beas and enters the Kangra val-

ley at Shujanpoor. ‘Tira,t the third one, is the route to Kotlehr.

29. The first march in the last named direction is to Dhanata, a

village about 8 miles off. It is built on the north-eastern slope of the

Chou-mukhi (or Sola-singha) range, the highest peak of which rises

fully 1500 feet above the valleys on either side. Between Nadoun and

this place the surface of the Joala valley is very uneven, and intersected

by many deep watercourses ; the one which we crossed several times on

the road is called the Mamke-nuddee. It empties itself into the Beas

below Nadoun, whilst the Koonhar, another tortuous stream to the

north-eastward of the Mam, does the same above that town. The ex-

ternal configuration of the Pergunnah of Muhulmooree as seen from a

height resembles a heavy swell at sea. Dhomata is remarkable for hav-

ing an excellent stone aqueduct which conducts the water from the range

in the rear to the tank within the village. It is about three-fourths of a

mile in length, and was built by the present Rajah of Nadoun, in whose

jaghir it is situated. I was told that the entire village was destroyed by

* J have since learnt that the gentlemen of the Thibet Mission also found Mr,

Moorcroft the more accurate of the two.

{ Changan, a level field.

t Shujanpoor is 12 miles from Nadoun.

378 Journal of a trip through the [AprRiL,

fire in 1846, or a twelvemonth before I visited the place, yet I could

discover no traces of the occurrence. Just above where the spring issues

which supplies the village with water, immense calcareous blocks are

lying about that were probably formed by the agency of some spring

in the neighbourhood, but which has now ceased to flow. This leads

me to say a few words concerning Captain Newbold’s theory of the

formation of kunkur.

«The kunkur, as may have been collected from what has been just

stated, is not of zoophytic origin, like coral reefs, nor does it appear to.

have been generally deposited or chemically precipitated from the waters

of an ocean or inland lake, but like the travertines of Italy it may be

referred to the action of springs, often thermal, charged with carbonic

acid, bringing up lime in solution and depositing it, as the temperature of

the water gradually lowered in rising to the earth’s surface or in parting

with their carbonic acid. After depositing a portion of calcareous mat-

ter in the fissures of the rocks by which it found a vent, the calcareous

water appears to have diffused itself in loose debris, régur, gravels, and

clays, usually covermg the rocks, and by force of chemical affinity the

disseminated particles of lime gradually congregated into the nodular

and other forms which we see them assume. These nodules are some-

times arranged in rows like the flints in chalk, and from some of them

project delicate spiculee of carbonate of lime, which would have been bro-

ken off had they been drift pebbles, as is supposed by some.”’* Of the

tufaceous origin of kunkur there can be no doubt ; but to my mind the

latter part of the above theory, viz. that “by force of chemical affinity

disseminated particles of lime gradually congregated into the nodular and

other forms,” is anything but satisfactory, and as to the existence of deli-

cate spiculce being a proof of the masses not having been drifted, I think it

insufficient, for by taking a lump and causing water to be slowly filtered

through it spiculze will be formed ; the spiculze in question therefore may

have been formed by the agency of rain-water percolating through the

bed of kunkur ; the chief difficulty however is to account for the nearly

universal dispersion over India of the kunkur formation, for as Captain

Newbold says, “‘the kunkur formation is irregularly distributed in over-

lying patches over perhaps one-eighth of our area. I know of no tract

entirely free from it with the exception it is said of the summit of the

* Geology of Southern India, by Captain Newbold.

1849. | Kohistan of the Jullundhur. :

NA?

Nilgiris. Ihave seen it however at the height of 4000 feet above the

sea, among the ranges on the elevated table-lands. It is most abundant

in districts penetrated and shattered by basaltic dykes, and where metal-

lic developement is greatest, for mstance in the copper district of Nellore

and the chrome and iron tracts of Salem. It is perhaps least seen in

localities where laterite caps hypogene or plutonic rocks.”’ Thus it appears

by no means certain or even probable that each bed was formed at the

locality in which it is now found, and I believe I am right in saying that

a substance analogous to kunkur is now being formed only in the Hima-

laya. In the Kangra district rounded lumps may be seen scattered

about the surface on the table-lands, and hill-sides, as well as in all the

ravines, in the same manner as boulders. As there seems no doubt of the

bursting of lakes in former times, one would suppose that great quanti-

ties of that kind of calcareous matter must have been swept into the

plains, and thus extensive beds might have been formed adjacent to the

hills.

30. The road leading over the Chow-mukhi ghat is very steep and

bad. The fort of the same name is a mile to the south-eastward and

somewhat higher. About half a mile beyond this again, and on the

opposite side of a gap in the ridge, is the Sola Singha fort perched on

the highest peak. The positions of these two forts are very strong,

being defended by precipices on three sides, and a sharp rocky ridge on

the other, on which it would be difficult to effect a lodgment, but these

natural advantages are more than counterbalanced by the absence or

water, to obtain which the garrison would have to proceed beyond the

protection of their guns. The range on which these forts stand is in

parts densely wooded with bamboo jungle. I obtained the following

bearings from the summit near the Chow-mukhi :—

Forts Joalo-mukhi and Nadoun, Due north.

The forts of Kotlehr, Due south.

Ditto of Kumleh-gurh, N. E. by E.

Beas visible below Nadoun, N. N. W.

The range runs N. W. and S. E.

The views on all sides are both extensive and beautiful. Doongla or

Toongla, is about 6 miles from the last halting place. It is a small vil-

lage prettily situated in the Kotlehr Dhoon. On the slope of the

Chow-mukhi range immediately in its rear is a thick bamboo jungle in

380 Journal of a trip through the [ApRIL,

which game is said to be plentiful, but I should think it would be

next to impossible to get at it.

31. The march across the Dhoon is particularly interesting to the

geologist. Its surface presents a singularly disturbed appearance, and

at about the middle of the valley the road enters a large basin-shaped

hollow where the strata slope outwards with a somewhat qua qua ver-

sal dip. It looks like the remaims of an ancient crater, but such

I think it could never have been, as I could discover no signs of

igneous action. However the whole of this valley deserves a most

attentive examination. One principal stream which empties itself into

the Sutlej serves to drain the valley. This march is about 10 miles

long and terminates at a hamlet, called Dhook. It is situated at the

base of the high ridge of Kotlehr, the ascent of which is rendered

tolerably easy by a broad pathway made at the order of the rajah

who owns the jaghir. The rajah of Kotlehr is an old grey-haired

man with nothing peculiar in either his manners or his person. His

estate produces him I believe an income of 17000 Rs. a year. On

the summit of the Kotlehr ridge is an extensive fortification composed

of five detached works. ‘The three principal ones, as well as the forts

of Chow-mukhi and Sola-singha, were partly dismantled whilst I was

there. From the highest point the views of the Sutlej, of the Jaswun,

Sekunder, and Chumba ranges, with the intermediate valleys, are very

beautiful. ‘The pergunnah of Kotlehr is separated by the Sutlej from

Kylore, from that part of it at least which lies within that remarkable

bend the Sutlej makes to the north-westward. The saliferous forma-

tion crosses the river at that poimt and passing through Kylore and

Subathoo, extends I believe as far as Almorah.

32. From Dhook I travelled north-eastward across the valley and

over the Sola-smgha range to the hamlet of Bursur. It is built on

the north-eastern slope of the range, which is there covered with cheel.

Thence also a large forest of* the same stretches out in a northerly

direction towards the Joala range. This march is 9 miles long. The

road is bad, especially up to the ghat, the ascent to which is very

steep for horses. The crest of the pass may be elevated 1000 feet

above the valleys on each side.

33. Bohota is a large village pleasantly situated, and about 12 miles

* Vide Appendix.

1849. | Kohistan of the Jullundhur. 381

distant. Before, however, you can get there the Joala range has

to be crossed, which from thence to the Sutlej is very low, and might

be easily passed over without being noticed but for the difference in

its composition from the surrounding country, which is covered with a

boulder formation interstratified occasionally with coarse sandstone. The

Joala range on the contrary is composed of sandstone and marls of the

saliferous period.*

34. About four miles further is the small village of Koorooe, the

residence of the Rajah of Muhulmooree, the ex-Rajah of Cotoche,

the grandson of the great Sansar Chund. The village is situated

in the midst of low rounded hills covered with coarse grass ; the road

from Nadoun to Bilaspoor is crossed between this and Bohota. Mr.

Vigne thus accurately describes the place :—“ At a place called Kruhin

(Koorooe?) situated in the midst of low and treeless hills covered with

rank herbage I found the residence of the ex-Rajah of Tira, and his

brother, the grandsons of the once powerful Sinsar Chund’”’...... ‘‘ The

residence consisted of two or three low thatched houses, and they were

in the receipt of 30,000 Rs. (8000£) a year, which were collected

from the surrounding country by permission of the Maharajah” (Run-

jeet Sing,}...... ‘The elder of the two brothers, and the rightful

Rajah of Tira, were very civil and gave me a breakfast on the morning

of our departure. Being Hindus they did not eat with me themselves,

but a table was placed for me beside them, and they talked to me

during the repast, which was served up in dishes made of dock leaves

sewn together, and my drinking cup was also of the same material.

The Sikhs are less particular in these matters than the natives of

Hindoostan, and will eat twice and oftener out of the same plate,

and many of the Sikh Sirdars are in possession of Kuropean China, but

the Hindu, more especially the Brahmin or the Rajput, of which

latter caste was the Tira Rajah, will not eat twice out of any vessel that

cannot be cleaned with earth, and consequently they are eternally scour-

ing their brazen cooking pots. When therefore they play the host the

Hindus (and the Sikhs also in many instances) cause their dishes to be

made of dock leaves (Butea frondosa) which are thrown away after they

* Vide a report on the Kohistan of the Jullundhur.

* + For further particulars of this family vide travels in Cashmere, &c. by G. T’. Vigne,

Esq.

382 Journal of a trip through the [ APRIL,

have been used, and expense of purchasing new crockery is avoided.

The comparative absence of superstitious ceremony on the part of the

Sikhs would render them as Sipahis better adapted for actual service

than the other natives of Hindoostan.”........ “The young ex-Rajah

shewed me a friendly letter which his grandfather had received from

Lord Lake by the hands of an envoy whom he had despatched to wait

upon his Lordship after he had followed Holkar into the Punjab, and

also a chit, or writing, by Mr. Moorcroft, given to, and in favor of Rajah

Sinsar Chund, in which that open-hearted, intelligent, but unfortunate

traveller, had spoken in the warmest terms of the kindness and atten_

tions he had received by him.” The British Government has not only

left the Rajah in the undisturbed possession of his jaghir, but has in-

creased his income by an annual grant of 18000 Rs. I saw the man

Mr. Vigne writes of ; his name was Runbeer Chund, and that of his bro-

ther, the present Rajah, is Purmode Chund. What Mr. Vigne describes as

having occurred on his visit, took place in nearly the same manner when

I was there. My friend and myself dined with them* on Christmas Day,

but we had our own plates and dishes, as well as chairs and table. As

wild hogs abound in the neighbourhood the principal dish was a fine joint

of roast pork, besides palaws, curries, &c., and afterwards pastry covered

with tinsel made by the ladies of the zenana! TI could not help com-

paring the whole affair to the feeding time at the Zoological Gardens

in England, when people congregate to see the wild beasts fed. Whilst

the Rajah and his brother the Meer Sahib were trying their best to

amuse us with an endless variety of questions, I could see that what-

ever we eat or drank, every motion in fact was attentively watched by

themselves as well as by their courtiers, who sat in the adjoming room,

and to add to our bewilderment, I discovered that the ladies were secretly

glancing and simpering! To refuse the racy dainties made by such

delicate hands while their fair owners were looking on would have been

extremely ungallant, so, seeing no help for it, we set about our task with

the best possible grace, but, alas! after such a hearty meal of pork there

was little relish for the oleaginous delicacies so kindly prepared for us.

So having put a bold face on the matter we ordered our kitmutgars to

clear the table amidst many a gentle reproach of wah! wah! wah! from

behind the curtain. After dinner the letters of Lord Lake, Mr. Moor-

* Runbeer Chund died a few days afterwards.

1849.| Kolustan of the Jullundhur. 383

croft and Mr. Vigne were produced, and read, after which my friend

translated from the works of the last two gentlemen several passages re-

lating to the Rajah’s family and their reception whilst passing through

his jaghir, but when he came to the passage in which Mr. Vigne

mentions that the Rajah and his brother had dark complexions, he just

reversed the sentence and read out that they were fair! In an instant

the eyes of the Royal brothers sparkled, and they looked at one another

apparently much delighted, a fair complexion being considered an indi-

cation of royal blood ; nothing pleased them so much as that sentence.

Tlowever, the Rajah need not have been ashamed of his complexion, for

his aristocratic and gentlemanlike manners shewed at once that he was

born a prince. His manners were particularly refined and his gestures

graceful. He was the first native 1 had met whose society was agreeable

to me. His features were mild and had evidently been handsome. How-

ever of late years he had been a great sufferer from a large goitre which

disfigured his neck. That frightful disease slowly wasted away his

frame and at last killed him, on the Sth January 1848, only a few

days after we left him.

Mr. Moorcroft thus writes of this man’s grandfather :—“<In the

evening I waited upon the rajah at his desire, and found him with his

son and grandson in an open building ima garden.* Rajah Sansar Chund

is a tall, well formed man, about sixty. His complexion is dark but his

features are fine and expressive. His son, Rai Anirudha Singh, has a

very handsome face and ruddy complexion, but is remarkably corpulent.

He has two sons, one of twelve and the other of five years of age, both

darker than himself. Sansar Chund was formerly the most powerful

Rajah from the Sutlej to the Indus. All the potentates from the former

river to Kashmir were his tributaries, or dependants, and he was ex-

tremely wealthy, possessing a revenue of thirty-five lacs of rupees. He is

now poor and in danger of being wholly subjected to Runjeet Singh.

His misfortunes are mainly owing to himself, and his decline presents a

remarkable contrast to the rise of his neighbour, and now paramount

lord, Runjeet Singh.”+ As Mr. Moorcroft paid his visit on the 16th

June 1820, the late rajah must have died at the premature age of forty,

* At Shujanpore Tira, afterwards described.

+ Vide ** Moorcroft’s travels in Bokhara, Affghanistan,’’ &c., for further inter-

esting particulars.

o Dn

384 Journal of a trip through the [ApRIL,

and his brother must now be about 33 years of age. The present

rajah is a large, stout man with a plebeian countenance. He is a merry

good-natured fellow, and puts one in mind of a jolly English hotel-

keeper. He has an only daughter, and seems likely to die without an

heir, in which case his property will escheat to the Government. Be-

fore I return from this long digression and continue my journal, I must

mention what every body conversant with Indian history will acknow-

ledge as a singular instance of fraternal love and a proof of the amiable

disposition of the present rajah. During the long illness and helpless

condition of the late rajah, his brother took the greatest care of him

and managed his estate. The latter, moreover never forsook his bro-

ther when the Sikhs were treating him with every kind of indignity

and depriving him of the fairest portions of his jaghir, giving them to

his illegitimate brothers, who espoused their cause. Such has been the

noble conduct of Purmode Chund, although by treachery and murder

he might have possessed himself of his brother’s property many years

ago, as well as have ingratiated himself into the favor of the Sikhs, who

were then overrunning the country. When we compare such conduct

to that usually pursued on similar occasions by Indian princes we can-

not but feel convinced of the purity of the attachment. What a re-

freshing contrast does this instance of disinterested devotedness form to

the murderous treachery of the successors of Shah Jehan !*

35. Leaving Koorooee we marched over about five miles of low

naked hills until we came to the ridge which separates this uninterest-

ing country from the Seel-khund. An ascent of 500 feet brought us to

the summit, whence we descended into a long and fertile valley. It

appears to stretch out as far as the Sutle] in the neighbourhood of Bi-

laspoor, having its northern extremity bounded by the rugged pergunnah

of Kumleh-gurh, and its eastern flank by the picturesque heights of the

Sikunder-ke-dhar. A stream called the Sirr I believe, which is nearly

dry at this season of the year, flows down the centre and empties itself

into the Sutlej. Once in the valley our road turned to the southward,

and crossing it diagonally brought us to the foot of the ghat which leads

over the Sikunder range into Sookeyt. We encamped at a small village

* [ regret having now to add that Purmode Chund, as well as the Rajah of

Jaswun, has been weak-minded enough torebel against the British Government,

and has consequently forfeited his jaghir.

1849. | (ohistan of the Jullundhur. 385

called Buttail, distant about 15 miles from Koorooee, and situated at the

base of the last mentioned range. The sides of the latter have been

terraced into fields to a very considerable height wherever the slopes per-

mitted, whilst the remainder is covered with forests of pine (P. long.)

Amongst the cultivation are numerous thriving villages and hamlets.

The greater part of the Seel-khund* belongs I believe to the rajah of

Mundi-Buttail, is not the. regular halting place, but a village higher up

the range called Hutli.

36. After along and tedious ascent by a good road through alesis

and pine woods we arrived at the summit of the ghat. Looking over

our previous day’s journey the most conspicuous objects were the shat-

tered peaks of the Chumba range far below which rises the serrated

ridge of Kumleh-gurh. Then follow the low and treeless hills of Mu-

hulmooree, which in their turn are succeeded by the Joala range, and

this last in the far west by the Chou-mukhi and Kotlehr ridges. The

range on which we were standing separates the Seel-khund from the

Bul Dhoon, a profound valley bounded to the eastward by the lofty

Nautchney-ke-dhar. In the depths of the valley appears the town of

Sookeyt, surrounded by dark woods, near which glides the Sookeytee

river, flowing to the northward and glittering in the rays of the sun like

a silver cord. On isolated peaks of the Nautchney-ke-dhar, as well as

on the Sikunder range, are many towers or forts, which but a short time

ago afforded shelter from the merciless swords of the Sikhs to hun-

dreds of wretched beings. To these strongholds the peasantry used

to flee for protection from the rapacity of their heartless rulers. By a

steep and good road we descended into the valley and halted at the

first village. In the Seel-khund we passed an extensive encampment of

gypsies, the first I had noticed in this country. Also just after leaving

Buttail I remarked a heap of stones placed in the centre of the road.

These are formed I believe by Tartar tribes who invariably pass them

on their right hand, as well as throw a fresh stone on the pile.t The

above however, must not be confounded with the conical piles raised on

conspicuous points or peaks in honor of their gods by almost every

tribe of mountaineers in the world, whilst they are in a state of barbar-

* I believe it to be the same as the one which Mr. Moorcroft calls the Bathel

valley.

t Vide Loyd’s and Gerard’s ‘‘ Travels in the Himalaya.”

7 DZ

386 Journal of a trip through the [ApRiL,

ism. It is also a favorite practice of the Moguls in Central Asia to erect

these heaps to the honor of their gods, by whom they are called

““obos.’?*

37. Yesterday’s march being a fatiguing one of 14 miles, we were

not a little glad at finding the Sookeyt was but 5 or 6 miles off, and that

the road was level and good. The residence of the Rajah of Sookeyt is

about two miles from the capital, and is built on the western slope of

some high hills, whilst the town is placed at the foot, where their slopes

are much more precipitous. The situations of both are picturesque, and

a fine view of the Dhoon is obtained from the former, but the building

itself is not worthy of a description, nor has the town any thing pecu-

liar about it save its extreme unhealthiness in consequence of being

surrounded by a dense jungle, The Rajah and his sons have very

plebeian countenances, and are not polished in their manners, but these

deficiencies are fully compensated by their frank and open way of speak.

ing. The Rajah is evidently above bespattering Europeans with loath-

some flattery, and telling lies for the sake of pleasing, like he of

Mundi. When it was mentioned to him that we had been given to

understand that he was a great friend of the Rajah of Mundi, he replied

«Yes, you may call us friends, for it is of no use our quarrelling, as the

British Government will not permit us to fight. The Mundi-walla

however openly pretends to be a great friend of mine, but in reality is

ever striving to do me as much harm as he possibly can.”” Were the

British influence withdrawn but for a short period it is not difficult to

foresee what would be the result. These two rival Rajahs would in

collision with each other, depopulate villages and lay waste fields; and

it would indeed be difficult to say to how great an extent barbarities

might be practised upon the vanquished by who ever became victorious.

The will of the Rajah of Sookeyt is law within the limits of his own

jaghir,+ which is said to be worth about 60,000 Rs. a year. Out of

that sum however, he pays the Government 11,000 Rs. annually. .

38. The Bul Dhoon, or valley of Sookeyt Mundif is very fertile and

entirely under cultivation, excepting a small swampy preserve which sup-

* Vide travels of the Russian mission through Mongolia to China, by George

Timkowski.

{ As is also that of his neighbour in Mundi.

~ So called because part is in Mundi and part in Sookeyt.

1849.| Kohistan of the Jullundhur. 387

plies the table of the Mundi-walla with game, and sport in procuring

it. The wild boar abounds in the wooded heights around, from which

they descend and commit great havoc in the fields of wheat

and sugarcane. The villages are generally situated on the slopes

of the mountains, where the inhabitants escape the effects of malaria.

On the Sikunder range are many picturesque-looking villages

and plots of terraced land which are limited at their upper extre-

mities by forests of pine, but on the opposite side of the valley

the slopes are more precipitous and covered with larger tracts of

jungle and forest, whilst the hamlets are more scattered and the cul-

tivation is less extensive. The summits of the Nautchney-ke-dhar are

also more lofty and are frequently covered with snow. Mundi-nuggur

is about 12 miles north of Sookeyt, and the road all the way is excellent.

It runs through the valley for the first 10 miles or so, and then passes

through a narrow ravine along the left bank of the Sookeyt river. Al-

together it is one of the most delightful marches I have ever made, for

the road is nearly as level as a bowling green for the greater part of

the distance, and look whichever way you may one cannot fail to admire

the majestic scenery. On the road we met scores of coolies carrying

on their backs kilta-loads of the Mundi salt. I have seen some of it

in the bazars of Loodiana and Subathoo. Itis very impure and causes

the body to swell. From this circumstance I should suppose the peo-

ple either do not or cannot cleanse it sufficiently. There is a curious

custom practised in this neighbourhood. The women, gaily dressed,

assemble in groups to greet the stranger with songs as he enters each

village, for which honor he is expected to bestow a rupee on each knot

of Syrens which I thought was dear enough for such melody. The

rajah of Mundi is a handsome man, but his appearance and manners

are rather effeminate. He has two sons and is himself the natural son

ot the late Rajah.* His income is reckoned at four lacs of rupees a

year, nearly the whole of which is derived from his salt and iron mines.

Half of the above sum be pays annually to Government. The present

Rajah is very fond of copying English customs, such as shaking hands,

driving a buggy, &c. Adjoining his zenana, which is a great ugly

building, he is erecting a palace of sandstone which promises to be a

handsome residence. In front of this is a large square tank, around

* For an account of this man see Moorcroft’s travels.

388 Journal of a trip through the | APRIL,

which hes the town, alarge and thriving place. A small garden enclosed

by high walls, in the centre of which the Rajah has built a small two-

storied house after an English model, likewise adjoins the zenana. The

rooms are covered with elegant paper, the windows and doors are glazed

and have curtains hanging on each side moving on brass rods. The

furniture consists of a rose wood table, chairs, sofa, chandeliers, mir-

rors, and pictures, whilst excellent Brussels carpeting covers the floor.

The pictures consist of an engraving of the Queen in her coronation

robes, and then of Her Majesty taking a ride in Windsor Park, and

one of Prince Albert, shewing the bust encircled with a wreath of sham-

rock, thistle, &c. I am able to give but few particulars of Mundi-nugegur

which are not already known.* It is divided into three parts. The

town is built within the angle between the left banks of the rivers

Sookeyt and Beas: a space between the town and the mountains in the

rear being set apart for the lowest caste of the inhabitants. The next

portion may be called the suburbs, which consists of scattered dwellings

on the slope of the Gogar range, which terminates abruptly on the

right bank of the Beas. The last les between the right bank of the

Sookeytee and the left of the Beas. It is a level piece of ground, of a

triangular figure and about seven acres in extent. This field (for it is

nothing more) has an excellent road all around it (on which the Rajah

takes his drives in a buggy) and may be styled the mall. Our tents

were pitched on the centre of this plateau. The town has a neat appear-

ance from the circumstance of all the houses having slated roofs. On

the summit of a spur behind the town, the Rajah has built a neat Hin-

du temple ; he was also building another on the left bank of the Beas.

He has caused many of the streets to be widened and levelled to enable

him to drive about in his gig. Perhaps at no distant day the inhabi-

tants may be indebted to the vanity of their ruler for wholesome

sanitary reforms, as they are already for facilities of travelling. I fancy

that pigeons are held sacred, as there are several cotes in the principal

streets filled with that sort of bird. The sides of the enclosing moun-

tains are precipitous, and mostly covered with dense jungle, m which

hogs and various kinds of deer abound. The climate is as hot as that

at Rampoor on the Sutlej during the hot weather and rains, but snow

falls at both the places during the winter. The vegetation is decidedly

* Vide Thornton’s Gazetteer of the Provinces adjacent to India.

1849.] Kohistan of the Jullundhur. 389

tropical ; a species of palm, plantains and peepuls, thrive here, although

pines and stunted oaks grow nearly at the water’s edge in the ravine

which unites it with the Bul Dhoon. I saw one or two stunted peepuls

near Bajoura in Kulu, which cannot be less than 4500 feet above the

sea, as Sultanpore, but six miles higher up the stream, is 4584 feet. The

winters are very severe in Kulu, although the summers are hot.

39. After taking leave of the Rajah we commenced our journey

towards Kulu on the 10th January. We crossed the Beas in a boat

and proceeded for about two miles along its right bank and then com-

menced the ascent of the Goger range, a long and tedious operation.

The descent from the ghat to the right bank of the Hulhu (or Oohl)

is very sudden and steep. That river is nearly as large as the Beas at

Mundi-nuggur. We crossed it by a Sanga and kept along its left bank

until we came to the point where the Ootursal flows into the Hulhu ; we

then continued along the left bank of the former until within a mile of

the hamlet of Kamaud, where we halted at a Barra-durree built at

the expense of the present Rajah of Mundi. It is placed in a deep

glen, and the surrounding mountains present either bare precipitous

cliffs or smooth but steep declivities covered with coarse grass. As

from the Barra-durree no trees save a few cheels are visible, and the

encircling mountains are rocky, precipitous, and barren, the surround-

ing scenery is desolation itself. This gloomy spot is about 10 miles

from Mundi-nuggur.

40. When we arose the next morning a sharp hoar frost covered the

ground and a covey of Chukor* were feeding around our tents. Having

started we kept on the left bank of the Ootursal for about 14 miles, and

after fording it we turned off to the left up a ravine which leads to the

pass over the high range of Tiri. Passing through some fields of wheat

and by some hamlets, we came upon a few rhododendrons and oaks,

some of the former being in full blossom ; afterwards for the last 500

feet we ascended through a continuous forest of oaks, rhododendrons,

“and other trees, and though the sun shone bright and was hot, a hard

frost covered the ground, and large patches of snow lay here and there

in the pass as well as on the higher peaks. Cedars, oaks, and pines,

cover in dense forest the crest of the Tira range. The eastern slope

was likewise bound up in snow and frost, and is covered nearly to the

* Perdix Chukor.

390 Journal of a trip through the [ApRIL,

bottom with a dense forest impervious to the sun’s rays. Through

this we descended many hundred feet over beds of frozen snow, and al-

though the great exertion of ascending had caused us to perspire freely,

the instant we commenced the descent on the other side all perspira-

tion was checked, and it was as much as we could do to keep ourselves

warm. The path the whole way continually crossed and recrossed the

bed of a torrent, until we halted at Bajoura, in the valley of the Beas in

Kulu, from which river we were then scarcely half a mile. At that

place is a large Serai-like enclosure divided into two unequal parallelo-

grams, and called a fort. At each corner is a quadrangular tower divi-

ded into four stories, and surmounted with a Chinese sort of slated roof.

The Himalaya between the Ravee and Sutlej rivers and the Chumba

range usually presents towards the plains abruptly steep fronts and

comparatively gradual slopes, m the opposite direction from the strata

dipping in general to the north-east, and as this is frequently repeated,

we have a succession of ascents and sloping sides, with a deep and often

wide valley intervening between the successive ranges, and thus in

travelling across this tract we have a succession of ridges and valleys

to pass over, and, in proportion to the elevation to experience changes

of climate, and to witness a repetition of geological structure and of

animal and vegetable forms which are dependant on this and on the

climate.

Thus far the physical features of this district accord with those of

that portion of the Himalaya which lies between the Sutlej and Kalee

rivers, and then the similarity ceases, for in the latter a deep and nar-

row ravine generally intervenes between two successive ridges, in which

usually runs a small river flowing either towards the Ganges or into the

Jumna, or their feeders, or into those of the Sutlej or Kalee, but the

drainage of these great rivers is every where separated by transverse

ridges which connect the parallel ones, having their points of junction

often projected into peaks.* By proceeding along these spurs one may

penetrate far into the interior without having occasion to descend into

the ravines, a plan which cannot be adopted in the Kangra district.

41. A march of six miles along a good and level road on the right

* Vide ‘‘ Report of the Mineralogical Survey of the Himalaya mountains lying

between the rivers Sutlej and Kalee,’’ by Capt. Herbert. Jour. As. Soc. 1842, also

Dr. Royle’s ‘‘ Flora of the Himalaya mountains.”’

1849. | Kohistan of the Jullundhur. 391

bank of the river brought us to Sultanpore, the capital town of Kulu.

This portion of the Beas* flows through a ravine rather than a valley.

At some places the ravine must be nearly a mile in width. The hills

on both sides, excepting just at their crests, are bare and treeless, a

great part of the valley strewed over with trunks of trees, boulders, and

silt, which were brought down by the great flood that occurred during

the rains of 1845. We passed only one hamlet on the road, for the

majority of the inhabitants reside high up on the slopes of the sur-

rounding hills, to avoid fever and ague, which are prevalent in the

valley during the rainy season. Sultanpore is a small straggling town,

nearly a fourth part of which is composed of the Rajah’s residence and

out-buildings.+ The Rajah is constantly complaining that the Govern-

ment promised him a jaghir worth 12,000 Rs. a year, but gave him

one worth only 8,000. He isa diminutive and insignificant little be-

ing. The Serbari flows from the westward to the Beas at Sultanpore,

which is built within the angle formed by those two rivers. Beyond

this the valley of the Beas contracts and the enclosing mountains appear

to be more lofty. When I saw them, they were covered with snow to

nearly their bases which circumstance prevented my proceeding further

in that direction. For the same reason I was unable to visit the lead

mine which exists in the neighbourhood, and I believe within the Rajah’s

jaghir.

42. Disappointed at not being able to proceed northward I deter-

mined to make the attempt to the eastward and therefore fixed upon

Maruni-karu as the goal. From Bajoura to Brahma-kotee is about 10

miles, and the pug-dundee, or foot path is very bad. I was obliged in

consequence to leave my horse behind. Two miles above Bajoura the

Beas is crossed on bullock skins, and for the rest of the way the route

lies along the left bank of the Parba or Parbati, which flows many

hundred feet below. Within the angle formed, on the left bank, by the

two above mentioned rivers, is the village of Bho-en which was a thriving

place until nearly destroyed by the Sikhs. After leaving that village

we entered the glen of the Parbati, which for the first two miles is very

narrow and the sides of the mountains precipitous. Afterwards, how-

* The Beas is divided into two parts by an island covered with jungle, near Bho-

en, and below and above Sultanpore.

+ There is a fair held in the town during the rains. (Vide Appendix C.)

3 E

392 Journal of a trip through the [ APRIL,

ever, it widens and the slopes of the hills on the left bank become much

more gradual and are laid out in fields and villages. Brahma-kotee is a

large and thriving village. At certain seasons of the year woodcocks

and pheasants are plentiful in the neighbourhood.

43. To Main-karu is another ten miles, the path ascending and |

descending as often as in the march before. For a good part of the

way we went through a forest of pines and cedar trees, which latterly

reached the edge of the water. We also passed through several popu-

lous villages, and saw extensive plots of cultivation. Within a mile of

our destination we crossed the river by an excellent sanga, under which

the water roared and fretted in its contracted bed. During the winter

months the frost is seldom if ever disturbed by the rays of the sun,

which then penetrate but for a few hours daily the gloomy depths of

the ravine. When I arrived a hoar frost covered the ground, whilst a

little higher upon each side the slopes of the mountains presented one

vast unbroken sheet of snow, the dazzling whiteness of the latter being

relieved by the dark green pines, which appeared darker by the con-

trast. To the eastward also it appeared as if the ravine were abruptly

terminated by a colossal mountain of snow from which chilling blasts

of wind every now and then swept through the glen. Then again the

mysterious jets of steam, which slowly curling upwards and uniting

formed one vast column of vapour until lost in air, contributed not a

little to enhance the solemn majesty of the scene. A remarkable in-

crease in the temperature is perceptible within a hundred yards of the

boiling springs, and the surrounding atmosphere is so charged with the

steam that it saturates every thing within its influence. In a few

seconds I found every thing about my person quite wet, and when I

ascended to some bare cliffs, on which the snow was not lying, to

examine the rocks, my clothes were immediately frozen as stiff as

pasteboard, and greatly impeded my walking. In fact it is a difficult

matter to find a spot for one’s tent free from this inconvenience, for

should the wind veer, which it does frequently, the whole body of

steam blows over your tent and baggage, wetting them through in a

minute, which as soon as the blast is over or driven in another direction,

are taken possession of by the frost, only to be relinquished again how-

ever at the next visitation. As I was not suffering from any malady,

but on the contrary never felt better in my life, I felt no relish for

1849. ] Kohistan of the Jullundhur. 393

vapour baths and icy accompaniments, so I retraced my steps and en-

camped on the opposite side of the river near the wooden bridge, which

spot I recommend all future travellers to select, without they wish to un-

dergo the same severe treatment. The springs are very copious, and issue

from the ground in half a dozen different places. They all deposit large

quantities of calcareous matter, which is first of a brick red color and

afterwards when dried, of a yellowish brown. It resembles in fact cal-

careous sinter. The temperature of the water is sufficiently great to

enable the pilgrims who annually resort there to cook their rice in it,

doing which is considered a holy act, though not so much so as bathing

in it, for which purpose some of the water is collected in a tank and

covered over with a shed. The village of Mani-karu is without excep-

tion the most miserable of all I have ever seen. It consists of about

twenty houses in a most wretched condition, and their inhabitants are

squalid and poverty-stricken. ‘They appear to do nothing but sit on

their haunches on slabs of slate which being placed over a stream of hot

water, keeps them warm. Thus huddled together they seem to spend

their days in drowsy listlessness.* Unable to proceed any further to

the eastward I retraced my steps to Mundi-nuggur, and got over the

Tiri pass just in time to escape being blocked in by a heavy fall of snow,

which occurred shortly after.

44, The sloping flanks of the mountains are cultivated with an

industry almost incredible wherever there is a sufficiency of soil. The

fields on these slopes are generally long narrow strips of ground, which

rise one above another in terraces to great elevations, and even up steep

acclivities. Each terrace is raised above the one immediately below

it from one to twelve feet, according to the abruptness of the slope.

They are levelled with great care, and are watered by rills conducted

from a distance, which is sometimes considerable. These generally flow

into the highest and thence the water runs successively into each of the

others. In many places the fields are carried to an extraordinary height,

and there the effects of increasing elevation upon the temperature and

upon the crops are strikingly observable in the diversity of tints the pro-

duce assumes. The highest is in fresh blade, and brilliantly green,

while the lowest is sere and ripe. These effects of aspect and elevation

upon the cultivation are often very remarkable, for, while on the uplands

* Mani-karu is probably about 4,800 feet above the sea.

3 E 2

394 Journal of a trip through the [APRIL,

the produce is green, it has been reaped and carried at the base of the

valley! Perhaps these are no where so extraordinarily exemplified

as in the Kangra valley, where, on the Chumba range, the vegetation of

temperate regions predominates, whilst but 3,000 feet lower in the

valley the majority of the fruits and vegetables belong to the tropical.

The hamlets in Kooloo seldom contain more than from fifteen to twenty

houses, but generally not so many. Single houses are numerous, and,

from their being scattered amongst the fields, give an agreeable variety

to the bold landscape. This distribution of houses arises, however,

more from necessity than choice, because the lands available for cultiva-

tion are usually of small extent and widely separated, and consequently

could not support large communities. It is also imperatively necessary

for the husbandman not to place a ravine or any other impediment

between his hut and _ his fields, as all communication with them would

probably be cut off during the greater part of the rains which, as every-

body knows, is an important season of the year in India. The case is

somewhat altered, however, on the left bank of the Parba, where there

is more than the usual quantity of arable land, and consequently the

villages are large, thriving, and numerous. On the right bank of that

river the slope is much more precipitous and has been left in conse-

quence almost entirely unoccupied.* In those districts near Simla

which border on the plains the dwellings have flat mud roofs, but here

where snow falls in winter the houses have pent roofs, which are covered

with slabs of either sandstone or clay-slate. Wood is seldom, if ever,

employed, and very little attention is paid to the splitting of the slabs,

which consequently are of every size, and thickness. From that circum-

stance the majority of the scattered huts have a very untidy appearance,

They are generally two-storied, the lower being invariably used for cat-

tle and the upper occupied by the family. The upper one is generally

surrounded by a low covered gallery, in which the inhabitants usually sit

when at leisure. Some of the houses, however, are nothing less than

four-storied, quadrangular towers. Their average height is about twen-

ty-five feet, each story being seldom more than five feet high and ten

feet square. Many of these larger houses and all the temples, have

* This prosperous portion of Kulu lies within the jaghir belonging to the petty

Rajah of Sultanpoor ; whose ancestor possessed the whole of Kulu until deposed by

the Sikhs.

1849. ]| Kohistan of the Jullundhur. 395

roofs after the Chinese fashion, which gives them a singular but pleasing

appearance. The pitch of these roofs is great, being formed of either

two or four concave surfaces joined at the summit and diverging down

to the walls, where they project horizontally three or four feet into eaves.

The walls are generally built of wood and stone without any cement, and

they look substantial. Between every two or three feet of stone is

placed a thick plank of fir, and thus stone and wood are employed in all

their domestic buildings. There are a couple of temples on the left

bank of the Parba bult entirely of wood of the cedar (Keloo). They

are elaborately carved and stand upon square platforms of stone raised

three feet above the ground. Their roofs are pyramidal and project

beyond the walls, like those of Chinese buildings. All around the edges

or eaves are suspended wooden drops neatly carved and so loosely hung

that they rattle in every breeze. Their interiors as well as exteriors are

also richly carved and decorated with figures of deities.

45. The natives of Sookeyt, Mundee, and Kooloo, have sallow com-

plexions and appear to be the same race of men as the inhabitants of

Bushair. In fact many of the coolies employed in carrying baggage

between Simla and Kalka are men from these states, who are attracted

there by the very extravagant rate of wages, which average one anna a

day in their own districts, but from four to six annas on the left bank of

the Sutlej. The men are generally tall and strong, but few of them

are handsome. Many of the young women are pretty, but at the age of

20 or 25 become coarse and stout. The dress of both sexes is nearly

the same. It consists of a drab-colored woollen frock, trowsers of the

same, or of leather, and a flat skull cap, generally black, with sandals

made of coarse grass. The woollen cloth called ‘“ puttoo’’ is manufac-

tured by themselves and resembles thick coarse blanketing. It is sold

In pieces of 10 inches in width and about 21 feet in length at 2 Rs.

8 as. or 3 Rs. a piece, according to the quality. Both sexes wear a

girdle around the waist, and the men generally go bare-legged during

the hot weather. They seldom if ever, wear shoes, the richer classes

however wear worsted stockings and shoes when they go out. The

women instead of the cap sometimes have a colored piece of cloth tied

round the head, and occasionally twist their hair into one long plait, the

end of which is then ornamented with slips of colored cloth or shreds of

worsted, The plait is by no means unbecoming to the young. The

396 Journal of a trip through the [ ApRIL,

dress of the women on the western side of the Seukundir range consists

on the contrary of a tightly fitting body and sleeves with a full petticoat

having a broad border at the bottom. ‘Their favorite color is a light

yellowish chocolate, whilst the border is generally ef a deep blue or of

some other dark color. A veil isthrown over the head and shoulders,

as in the plains. If they meet an European they stop and turn their

backs to him until he has passed, acustom which always reminded me

of the ostrich. The men dress pretty much in the same manner as

those on the plains. Like all Asiatics, the women of Kulu and the

adjoming states are inordinately fond of ornaments, which are of the

usual description, with the exception of mother o’pearl amulets, which

none are without, not eventhe males. The amulets consist of small thin

plates of mother o’pearl of various sizes and engraved with mystical

figures. Several of these are slung around the neck and hang conspi-

ously on the chest. I believe polyandry is unknown amongst them, nor

are they guilty of infanticide, but polygamy is general. Travelling is

generally performed in jaunpauns by those who can afford it. The

jaunpaun is like a large tea tray with a pair of bamboo shafts behind as

well as in front. I cannot say I admire this kind of vehicle, for one is

either toppling over in front or slipping out behind, or falling headlong

over the side into the Khud, to say nothing of the difficulty of packing

one’s legs, &c. &c. The ladies have theirs covered over with a scarlet

cloth. All agricultural labors, with the exception of ploughing, are per-

formed by the females, while the men too commonly sit idlmg at home,

but such indeed is the state of the weaker sex in all uncivilized communi-

ties ; the corn is cut with the sickle, and burdens are usually carried in

kiltas or large conical baskets over the shoulders on to the back, the

general mode of carrying loads in the Himalaya mountains. The moun-

taineers of those parts have long been much in the habit of ill-treating

their wives, and since the introduction of our laws the desertion of their

husbands by the women has been pretty general. Themen of Kulu

laid their grievances before the proper authority, by whom they were

told that since, before the British rule, they valued their cattle more

than their wives, they must now reverse the custom, and take greater

care of their wives, a system of valuation they evidently could not ap-

preciate, as wives were more plentiful than cattle.

46, About Subathoo one sometimes sees infants wrapped up like little

1849. | Kohistan of the Jullundhur. 397

mummies and laid in such a position that a small rill of water falls on their

heads. These infants are usually watched by some elderly female apparent-

ly their great-grandmother, whilst their mothers are employed in the fields.

The natives believe that this ordeal strengthens the children and renders

them hardy, and that it cures dysentery and various other diseases.

But the common object is I believe to keep them asleep, and that this

is found to be the most effectual means of doing so. I could never as-

certain whether the inhabitants of the mountainous district on the right

bank of the Sutlej adopted this plan or not, but should think it most

likely that they did. The chief wealth of the people consists in cattle,

a small horned kind, sheep and goats, with occasionally a few buffaloes.

The rest of their subsistence depend upon their crops. The majority

are intelligent, often shrewd and very inquisitive, but with all this in

their favor they are frightfully superstitious. In fact it is almost im-

possible to believe that human beings could be such idiotic dupes as

those poor simpletons undoubtedly are. They have great dread of the

“evil eye,” and are constantly having recourse to the magic art of witch

finders, who feign the power of discovering all evil spirits which wander

over the mountains in the tangible form of witches. If a cow or any

other living creature dies its death is immediately attributed to some

“evil eye,” and a witch finder is employed to discover it. This im-

postor having selected some old woman who has no means of

propitiating him by gifts, places his victim in the centre of a

group, whilst all who are interested in the case sit around her ina

circle. He then commences dancing round the poor creature, and ulti-

mately nods his head towards her, whereupon all the lookers-on do the

same, which coincidence is deemed an all-sufficient proof of the poor

woman’s guilt. She is subsequently condemned to be burnt to death!

But since that district became a British Province these inhuman pro-

ceedings have not been allowed to take place, but another method almost

as cruel has been substituted in its stead. In this case they declare the

victim of their superstitious credulity an outcast, and refuse her the

commonest necessaries of life, thus she is abandoned to her fate, and

would probably starve to death but for the timely gift of a goat ora

sheep by some one of her relatives to the witch-finder, who forthwith

fastens the guilt on some other person in hope of extorting in a similar

manner from the relatives of the last accused. In this way these im-

398 Journal of a trip through the | APRIL,

postors, aided by the credulity of the people, thrive, and though some

might wish to have them expelled from their villages, fear of the power

of these miscreants to call the wrath of their gods upon them, prevents

it. However, the apprehension and punishment of some of these ras-

cals have lately done much towards dispelling the implicit faith put in

their supernatural powers, and the people begin to think that the evil

spirits are afraid of the English, and consequently obey them! Now it

appears to me that education, and that alone, would open the eyes of

the people to these monstrous absurdities. Moreover, that it would be

folly attempting to convert them to Christianity until their faith in such

things was first shaken by the mild influence of education. I will ven-

ture to make some additional remarks on this subject in an Appendix.*

47. The inhabitants of the Chumba range appear to be a different

race of men. They are shorter and appear much stronger, and are

certainly cleaner about their persons. They call themselves Rajpoots,

and say they belong to the Guddee jat, which is the coolie caste, I be-

lieve. They area sharp set of fellows and are consequently able to

impose upon their less knowing neighbours. Most of the witch-finders

are Chumba guddees, which says a good deal for their craftiness. When

Europeans made their first appearance in the Kangra valley these men

had very slight notions of caste and would eat or drink any thing the

former gave them, whereas now since their contact with the natives of

the plains, they have become as bigotted as any Hindu, and moreover

have learnt the art of cheating Europeans in great perfection. The

Chumba guddees may always be known by their peculiar conical caps,

with lappets to turn down over the ears like an English travelling cap.

As we proceed from the plains into the interior it is very interesting to

remark the gradual change in the features, from the Hindoostanee to the

Tartar-like countenance of the Lahoulees. These last are a totally

distinct race from any of the former. The Lahoulees are a short sturdy

set of men, very ugly and filthily dirty. The women are decidedly plain,

The costume of both sexes consists of a pair of loose woollen drawers,

with a frock of the same material, whilst a wrapper is also often wound

around the body by being thrown over the shoulders and fastened by a

brass clasp in front. Their dress is generally of a black color or a kind

of plaid, and their caps are of the same. The women wear their hair

* Vide Appendix D.

1849. Kohistan of the Jullundhur. 399

either in long plaits fastened at the back of the head with a profusion

of red wool and coloured shreds, or comb it back off the forehead, tying

it in a lump behind, and adorning it in a similar manner. Around the

flat circular caps are strong large white shells like cowries, glass beads,

and pieces of amber. Around their necks both men and women wear

amulets of mother o’pearl, pieces of amber, turquoises and other preci-

ous stones. Hach man has hanging to his belt, a tinder pouch and a

brass instrument for striking fire, with many other nondescript imple-

ments. They spend 6 months of each year in Kulu on account of the

severity of the winter season in Lahoul. The greater part of that time

they pass in dancing and drinking. On their jubilees they set off fire-

works and make a tremendous noise, whilst the women dance. These

exhibitions do not terminate until they are all too drunk to continue

them. All the mountaineers are fond of spirituous liquors, especially of

brandy, but I believe do not often drink it to excess. By special invi-

tation I went to witness the commencement of one of their orgies ; I

never laughed more heartily than at the grotesque figures I saw around

me on that occasion. The women were most ridiculously decked out,

especially the aged dames, who appeared to me as the very personifica-

tion of witches! Many of the young damsels had beautiful eyes, of

which they made the utmost use by staring at the stranger. Their

characteristic costume, their long cues of hair, and telt caps stuck co-

quettishly on one side, and the peculiar bunchy knot peeping out behind,

to say nothing of the ornaments, produced a most ludicrous effect, whilst

they shuffled and wriggled their bodies about in the dance. The men

were all this while either quietly looking on or beating tom-toms and

other indescribable instruments, with which they succeeded in making a

most disagreeable noise. I cannot say whether such a tamasha prevails

on ordinary occasions.

48. There are two routes from Mundi Nuggur to Shujanpoor, pass-

ing by Drung,* the first follows the course of the Beas until it escapes

through the Sekunder range.+ The road then turns off to the right or

* In my report on the Kohistan of the Jullundhur, I most unaccountably placed

Drung on the eastern flank of the Gogar range, whereas it is situated on the western.

+ Whether the Sekunder range has been named after Sekunder Lodi of Delhi, or

Alexander the Great, I am unable to decide, but am inclined to coincide with the

former opinion. I made every enquiry after the altars built by the latter, but ob-

tained no clue.

3 F

400 Journal of a trip through the [Aprit,

northward, and passing over the last named range, arrives at Gunha,

whence going through Hara-bagh, Beijonath and Jeysingpoor, reaches

Shujanpoor Tira, the road between the ghat over the Sekunder range

and Beijonath passes through a rugged mountainous country, where it

alternatively ascends and descends, and is generally bad. Gunha and

Beijonath are two villages, the former is built on the slope of a moun-

tain and near some salt mines, whilst the latter is a still more miserable

place. By this route it is six marches, and by the other via Kumleh-

gurh, five to Shujanpoor.

49. From Mundi-nuggur to Sekund is about 12 miles. We com-

menced the march by ascending about 1000 feet to the top of the range

in the rear, or to the west of the town. The road then wound round

along the table summit of the hills to the north-westward for several

miles, and at last gradually descending brought us to a knoll at the foot

of the Jinneytree ghat. About half way we obtained a fine view of the

Bul Dhoon and Sookeyt ; I was not a little surprised at finding a species

of palm, the mango, and the peepul growing on the heights above

Mundi-nuggur, which is 2637 feet above the sea. I saw a species of oak

and the rhododendron growing much lower. There is to be seen an

immense deal of cultivation on either side, and but few villages and

woods, excepting on the highest ridge; the march nevertheless was a

delightful one, for we were surrounded with delightful scenery of a wild

and romantic character.

50. On leaving the hamlet of Sekund we commenced the ascent of

the highest ridge of the Sekunder-ke-dhar. The first part of our route

up to the summit of the Jimneytree (or Janitri) pass was through a

beautiful forest of oaks and rhododendrons, many of the latter being in

full blossom. It put me in mind of, Simla, but the site has many ad-

vantages over that of the latter sanatarium. Its proximity to the

Chumba range and the snowy peaks of Kulu, with fertile valleys below,

are no slight recommendations. The view besides, from the Janitri

ghat far surpasses that from Jacko. However at first sight it does not

appear so accessible as Simla, but I suspect a road could be made along

the upper part of the range as far as the Sutlej opposite Bilaspoor,

whence to Roopur a good road already exists. I have before attempted

to describe the view obtained from the ghat* and therefore need not do

* See report on the Kohistan of the Jullundhur.

1849.] Kohistan of the Jullundhur. 401

so here. There are some,persons whose dispositions are so contented,

and whose wishes are so limited that they are happy in the performance

of the daily duties which their situations impose upon them ; satisfied

with the spot where their destiny has fixed them they never allow their

minds to be disturbed by sighing for a change, and are willing to remain

jn one place for the whole period of their lives. What a different dis-

position is mine. Restless and uncomfortable when obliged to be sta-

tionary, I am forever longing to visit the least frequented recesses of the

earth, or to sail over the boundless ocean in search of some unknown

shore. Nothing is so gratifying or so refreshing to my feelings as mo-

tion, and whilst my love of wandering often urges me to travel over

untrodden paths, I have felt that my mind could never weary of explor-

ing the wonders and admiring the beauties of nature. Often have

I gazed on the solemn death-like majesty of the Himalayan range, the

outlines of whose summits covered with eternal snow are so beautifully

qeveloped by the cloudless azure of an Indian sky, and as often whilst

thus silently gazing on those mysterious works of nature a thrilling awe

has involuntarily crept over me and filled my mind with delightful

melancholy. |

At this point the western face of the Sekunder range is very barren

and steep. This abruptness and sterility are caused by the strata dip-

ping to the east and out-cropping to the west. It is a general observa-

tion that the south-west and west aspects of mountain ranges are preci-

pitous and rugged, while their opposite faces slope less rapidly and

spread over a greater extent of country. These characters are peculiarly

striking throughout the various ramifications of the Himalaya, and no-

where more remarkable than in the Sekunder range. With the excep-

tion of a few stunted oaks and rhododendrons which we met with dur-

ing our descent of the first 500 feet, and here and there a peepul plant-

ed at the turns of the road, we saw no others until we got into the less

exposed dells, where mangoe and other forest trees were growing luxuri-

antly. When we arrived at the bottom of the Soane khud we halted at

Dhurrumpoor, a village completely hidden by trees. The Soane is a

small stream which empties itself into the Beas, and is nearly dry for the

greater part of the year. This last march is about 10 miles long but it

is very fatiguing. ‘The ascent from Dhurrumpoor to the Janitri ghat

must be very trying, as the descent is tiresome enough.

”

or 2

402 Journal of a trip through the [ApriL,

51. On the following day, the 26th January 1848, we marched up

the Soane khud for about a mile and then turned tothe nght up ano-

ther and very tortuous ravine. This led us to the foot of that remark-

able ridge on which Kumleh-gurh stands. The Soane khud is prettily

wooded with bamboo, the mango, and the silk cotton tree (Bombax

heptaphylla) but the hills generally are very barren, and are covered

with coarse grass. The sections exhibited an indurated and calcareous

conglomerate interstratified with coarse sandstone, and occasionally

lignite in the shape of trees. Kumleh-gurh is built on a long narrow

ridge of the same materials running nearly due north and south, and

throwing out spurs in various directions. Between the spurs its slopes

are very precipitous, and often perpendicular. Its summit is also deeply

serrated, and on these somewhat isolated peaks are situated the fortifi-

cations, insignificant in themselves, but strong by position. It is ap-

proached by good paths from the east and west, which unite within a

quarter of a mile of the gateway, and terminate within a hundred feet of

the same. Thisis succeeded by a rude flight of stone steps and a move-

able wooden ladder which completes the ascent. The gateway is built

in a serrature between two peaks. The entrance 1s effected through a

common door-way leading into a dark winding passage. After this

come afew more steps, and then a quadrangle, which would probably

hold about 500 men. The apartments are arranged along the sides.

Passing through the quadrangle, we came upon an excellent flight of

steps which led us to the top of the highest point, on which is a Hindu

temple. The view from that is very fine. The Chumba and Sekunder

ranges, the palace of Tira and the hill of Asapooree, with the fertile

pergunnah of Jeysingpore and the silvery Beas at its feet, form scenery

of a most varied and romantic character. On the points adjoining the

temple are other small buildings capable of holding a few men each.

Some of them however, have been lately pulled down by order of the

Mundi Raja, as they entailed too great an expenditure. When Lord

Hardinge visited Kumleh-gurh he compared it to Gibraltar, which he

must have meant as a mere compliment, for had His Lordship really

thought so, he would not have made it over to the Raja of Mundi. The

Sheiks evidently considered it an important position and kept a strong

garrison there. It labours, however, under the usual disadvantage—a

scarcity of water. If I recollect rightly the only water near at hand is

1849.] Kohistan of the Jullundhur. 403

procured from a stagnant pool near the gateway. Sinking wells in the

hard conglomerate rock would be fruitless, so the evil cannot be reme-

died. In the details given of the place I may possibly err a little, as I

did not like to pull out my note book and make notes on the spot, I

preferred trusting to my memory and committing the result to paper on

my arrival in camp.* Leaving Kumleh-gurh we descended by the

western path into the stony bedof a ravine, which we followed for a

short distance, and having ascended some rising ground entered a fertile

and picturesque valley. After the cheerless and desolate hills we had

just traversed, such a sight was indeed delightful, the pleasure moreover

was greatly enhanced from its not having been anticipated. We were

ignorant of the existence of such a lovely spot until we met with it.

We viewed it moreover under very favorable circumstances. All the

fields were sown with grain, and the wheat was just springing up under

the influence of some seasonable showers and a genial sun. On the

left bank of the Beas the terraced slopes, gradually decreasing in height,

are blended with the fields which skirt the river. On the opposite side

are the fertile pergunnahs of Raj-ghirri and Jeysingpoor, separated by

low wooded hills from the elevated plains which slope up to the Chumba

range. Throughout its whole extent the valley is studded with populous

villages and wooded hamlets, and its fields with picturesque groups of

bamboo, mango, or silk-cotton trees. Here and there also a solitary

palm rears its graceful crest regardless of the chilling blasts which de-

scend from the adjacent snows. Through this charming vale the Beas

also winds its way and presents a glassy surface, broken every now and

then by gentle falls, down which its waters roll in mimic cataracts. It

must be confessed however that the wide sandy bed of the river detracts

somewhat from the general beauty of the scenery. Unfortunately all

Indian river scenery lies under the same disadvantage, excepting those

in the Province of Bengal. In the hills the river beds are usually

covered with boulders, bleached by the sun, and im the plains (at least

in the North-Western Provinces) with fine white sand. This must

always be the case wherever rivers periodically extend the limits of their

beds. Having performed a march of 15 miles or more, and moreover,

having been on our legs from sunrise until sunset, we were glad to reach

* Mr. Moorcroft’s description of the place is quite unaccountable ; he must have

received it from interested parties.

404 Journal of a trip through the [APRIL

our encampment at the little village of Sunghole, which is pleasantly

situated near the river, and in the valley above mentioned. The Bar-

kur Khud throughout its whole length forms I believe the boundary

between the British and the Mundi Raja’s territories. A part of the pic-

turesque valley above described, and which I propose calling the Sung-

hole Dhoon belongs to the latter.

52. The march to Shujanpoor is about 9 miles in length. The

usual route lies along the left bank of the Beas, but we crossed it about

a mile below Sunghole, and passed over into Jeysingpoor, a part of which

belongs to the Meer of Raj-ghirri. He is a natural son of Futteh

Chund the traitor.* The pergunnah of Jeysingpoor is very level (at

least that portion of it which I saw) and contains many thriving villages

situated amidst luxuriant fields and shady copses. The adjoining per-

gunnah is that of Raj-ghirri, which appears almost as fertile. We passed

by the ruinous palace of Bijapoor and the cemetery of the rajas of Coto-

che; I did not remark any thing worthy of notice about the tombs or

saw any inscriptions on them, but I am no antiquary, nor have I any

partiality for antediluvian fragments or for pillaging vespertillian abodes.

Roodur Chund, the Meer of Raj-ghirri, has a jaghir which produces him

an annual income of about 35,000 Co.’s Rs. He is an old man posses-

sing the usual amount, or rather deficiency of intellect, which most

native princes rejoice in. His residence is not worthy of description,

although it is prettily situated on the right bank of the river and in the

Sunghole Dhoon.

53. The position of Shujanpoor Tira is difficult to describe. Any

person reading the account of that place in the Gazetteer of the coun-

tries adjacent to the North-Western Provinces would imagine that it

stands on a hill or some rising ground, whereas its situation is just the

reverse, or down ina dell! It is built on the north-eastern half of a

level plain some 5 or 600 acres in extent, lying on the left bank of the

Beas, and enclosed on three sides by low, naked hills. The fourth or

north-eastern front opens into that part of the Kangra valley which I

have called the Sunghole Dhoon. It consequently enjoys a magnificent

prospect of the Chumba ranget and the low wooded hills in the rear of

* For this man’s history vide Moorcroft’s travels.

+ The Chumba range, so often mentioned in this journal, is visible from the sum-

mit of Jacko at Simla, from N. 30° west to N. 70° E. Also from Koteghur, from

N. 8° E. to N. 28° east.

1849. ] Kohistan of the Jullundhur. 405

Raj-ghirri, with Assa-pooree and others. The Beas flows in a wide

channel about 100 feet below the plain, and escaping through the gap in

the Chungur-ke-dhar enters the Joala valley near Nadoun. The town

is large and populous, containing about 5000 inhabitants. In the centre

is a large quadrangular space covered with turf, and called, I believe, a

“‘chaugan.” There Sansar Chund and his courtiers were in the habit

of playmg the game known as “hockey on horseback.’”? The whole

town is completely overgrown by trees, scarcely a single house being

visible from a short distance. It covers but half of the plain. What

a splendid parade ground the remainder would form! What a delight-

ful situation for a Military station! the neglected portion of the plain

would form a parade ground sufficiently large for three or four regi-

ments, and the level summits of the surrounding heights would afford

any localities for barracks and houses.. The plain is elevated 2470 feet

above the sea, and the climate is agreeable, snow occasionally falling

during the winter, whilst hot winds, or sand storms rarely sweep over

the place. The palace of Tira is in a dilapidated state, and is situated

on the hills overlooking the town, and about 300 feet above it. On the

same side to the eastward, but two miles distant, stands a fort which

appeared to be going to decay, but I did not visit it. On the opposite

side of the river to the north-east is the garden of Alempore, where our

countryman Moorcroft was received by the Raja of Tira, and ex-Raja

of Cotoch. Those pleasure grounds are now to be converted into a tea

garden. The Government made over to the present representative of

Sansar Chund the useless place without the garden of Alempore, thus

depriving the gift of all appearance of disinterested generosity. I

must here notice the custom of writing the names of adjacent towns,

villages, or places of note whenever they are mentioned, thus the palace

and town are always spoken of as Shujanpoor Tira; again the Bul

Dhoon is called Sookeyt Mundi; also Kangra, Bhawun ; and Pallam,

Puttiar, &c. are commonly used.

54. We left Shujanpoor on the 4th February, having been delay-

ed there by the weather, which had been very changeable. Sharp frosts

were succeeded by snow, or sleet by torrents of rain, and violent gusts

of wind, accompanied by thunder and lightning. How thrilling it is

to behold the mountains when dark clouds are rolling along their steep

flanks and the vivid lightning is playing on their peaks, and whilst the

406 Journal of a trip through the [ APRIL,

loud thunder reverbrates against their sides the sound is re-echoed

through every glen. But how different is the sensation when the tu-

multuous roar of the elements has been succeeded by death-like stillness,

and we behold the distant summits covered with fresh snow standing

out in bold relief against the deep azure of an eastern sky. We march-

ed onthe day above mentioned to a small village called Thoorul, situated

about seven miles north of Tira. The road runs parallel to the Joala

range and passes through corn fields and pretty hamlets. Between the

hill called Assa-pooree and the ridge which separates the pergunnahs of

Kangra and Pallam, the valley consists of an extensive plain, which

slopes downwards from the Chumba range. It is intersected by several

torrents which flow along the bases of deep ravines.

55. About nine miles further on in a north-eastward direction we

came upon the flourishing village of Bhurwurnah, which is but five

miles distant from the base of the Chumba range and near the centre

of the pergunnah of Pallam. We encamped within a large plot of

ground which was being laid out for the cultivation of the tea plant.

The road all the way is excellent and passes through a most delightful

country. The numerous villages are adorned with a profusion of man-

goe and silk-cotton trees and copses of bamboo. The rippling brook

and the hedgerow on either side, with stately trees overhanging the road,

gave quite an English aspect to the scenery, the similarity of which was

not a little increased by the occurrence of patches of snow in the shady

hollows. I noticed that the boulders buried in the alluvial strata, and

of which sections are visible on both sides of the road, were in every

stage of decomposition or disintegration. Some of them were so far

gone as scarcely to be distinguishable from the clay in which they are

embedded. In many instances merely the outlines shewing the original

size and shape of the boulders are left. They had been originally

blocks of quartz, granite, sienite, sandstone and various kinds of schist.

In the clayslate composing the hill called Jacko at Simla I remarked

similar outlines within which were invariably materials of a different

nature to the hard clay with which they were surrounded. They puz-

zled me greatly at the time, as I was then unable to account for their

presence, but I now feel convinced that they also must originally have

been boulders, and that they have been decomposed since their deposi-

tion in the strata. It seems almost impossible to account for them on any

1849. | Kohistan of the Jullundhur. 407

other supposition. The streams which flow from the Chumba range

appear to have cut their way through many feet of strata, leaving flat

terraces at different levels and at corresponding heights on both banks.

The surfaces of these terraces are not horizontal but parallel to those of

the streams, or the general inclination of the valley. Their formation

ean only be accounted for by supposing a rising of the land to have

taken place at intervals, whilst the work of denudation has been going

on incessantly. The upheavals, whether gradual or sudden, must have

been intermittent, and long pauses have occurred between each, during

which the streams had sufficient time to encroach upon their banks.

If the above hypothesis be not adopted we must have recourse to ano-

ther, which is not supported by analogy. We must suppose that when

those rivers first began to flow their volumes of water were much greater

than they are at present, and that they were from time to time suddenly

decreased until they became as small as they are, a supposition totally

unsupported by any similar facts, whereas the phenomena of the eleva-

tions and subsidencies of land are going on at the present day.

56. Although Kangra was but 14 miles distant, we preferred making

two marches of it, and therefore halted at a large village called Nagrota,

about nine miles from Bhurwarnah. The road is good, and passes over

some low rounded ridges of sandstone and marls. The country is

exceedingly pretty, but the whole valley of Kangra is the same. At

Nagrota another Government garden was being laid out for the recep-

tion of the tea plant: the one at Bhawan had been sown, and the seeds

had germinated before I left the district, in the beginning of April last.

From what has been said of the geology of this district, the nature of

the soils in the several valleys may be easily surmised. In the first

place the soil of the Jaswun Dhoon is sandy, with an admixture of clay,

mica, and lime, the summits of the two enclosing ranges are also sandy,

and mixed up with a large proportion of gravel. The soil of the Joala

valley on the other hand is composed of a marly clay, having sand mixed

with it in variable proportions. But that of the Kangra valley is the

most fertile, and is made up of the debris of the rocks composing the

Chumba range, viz. granite, clay-slate, sandstone and marls. During my

rambles through the hills I noticed the following kinds of crops, some

of which I have not mentioned before, viz. sugarcane, rice, cotton,

barley, wheat, tobacco, poppy, linseed, turmeric, ginger, potatoes, sunn,

onG

408 Journal of a trip through the [ APRIL,

molee, bajra, hemp, and the castor oil plant, besides the following fruit

trees—walnut, pear, apple, cherry, plaintain, mango, mulberry, apricot,

various kinds of oranges and lemons, grapes and figs, as well as several

species of the bair and the corinda (carissa carandas).

57. Iam indebted to Captain A. Cunningham for the following

elevations. They are to be taken as approximations, which may be 100

feet either more or less than the truth.

Adinanagut,i.0:. eee ap nove den. Ek, oo ieee

Pathankot, eos 6d caves eae ae ee cee eT 200

NOG Poors! uc’ s sewdiaasy. Sa Le ee hee 1665

Kotilayensi isn oken 2 idan oh ae 1370

Mangere; ws ses dwarn Ce eee een cig, ey

Joala Miu; 3/sp es eels View 1% a er 1805

tay soie alt eoemlicne keaeepepen) Be dint} dodanie 2470

Mundiyirnucde cae eee Booed cate 2657

Sultanpoorsvdseis® wisald: ghee. ye pe: ealiteca ese ».. 4584

Hoshiarpoor, ye: we bss) nh gelian den deed teem ee Oe

Koumlehrourbyn.c::iprotly akliar.t.|.dudinmnaca le see ss

Navi jGhaut,watlscnmacieis tod melt bcs R09

Rajpoorsidittoynnncttoyanh®. «decent Al. ae 2500

Sekuncder ditto es shekome vaste ioc Se ee 5430

JaINATL GUO, |. ss: sik Bel ters loeyaekieenaciaak cee 5632

Gogar.,Passs 0). % gdadurapes aisles aanddyeeet net eens

AL Ypt ittO5 bey ci terarpe gt Uda cud iioradabes Ces hates 6484

The following particulars of two storms which occurred at Kangra in

1847, may not prove uninteresting. On the afternoon of the 24th Janu-

ary, the weather set in wet and continued so until the evening of the

29th. We hada smart fall of hail on the 27th, and a severe storm on

the 29th. The annexed are the variations of one of Fahrenheit’s ther-

mometers observed during the storm. The thermometer was suspend-

ed three feet above the ground in an exposed position.

20 cminutesebetore StORM; 0.5 246d: oie eine Beereioneok alae 48°

Commmieneemieint: wade tecye lanes) ia: tyascadh Yortbepecsvaiedaeien ears 43

IVE lle ail Paaribe te apteteoncpea sich ha raire catdipaie pele eireigia bed deren ohametes eee 33.

Eiri ngs Spe eek Wiese het oi0 ey boone Aime dered damasat ected 33

iA OUT bET irae pets are letere le <tzoddtowperen) wal cet ee 38

Diet ARGO Rue pian ni cehaatlsr dia. eivciarihe' meemncrensnsatdest Aas 39

DO CLOGS INL, ap iis hsb a wv cd ene aan oly

1849.] Kohistan of the Jullundhur. 409

It commenced at 3 past 4 o’clock, p. m. and lasted 113 minutes.

When the storm was directly overhead 3 and sometimes 2 seconds only

elapsed between the lightning and the thunder. The hailstones were

very large and looked like small balls of snow. The greater part re-

mained on the ground a full hour after the clouds had cleared away.

The clouds travelled from east to west. On the morning of the 30th at

aquarter of an hour after sunrise the thermometer stood as low as

330, and here and there were still to be seen masses of hailstones. On

the morning of the 2nd of February, snow fell for two hours and 20

minutes. It covered the whole valley of Kangra as far as the Joala

range. The thermometer stood on that day as follows :—

At 82} a. m. (clouded and commenced snowing,).... 36°

‘ee a BOUURCIOUMEt, uti noite alas tal errca “POO

yao 10 Bs GIELONCIECOswes Swscie. oe Lteaeercede well”. Shas 37

sabi | ‘. a few minutes of sunshine, .......... 38

SPL Banc; ceased snowing (clouded,) .......... 39

eh Eo if GLOMUS. Bee ele, Oe MEI ae 41

PERN ttt; 2). 2 oes cic neta heise ab caw cree ota AL

Doe tee 99 EiTGXROMRwEe SUS - ALF i ie pion ik teste Zn 8h SAN 49

Ree! 5 ELLEN erent one, Seances Meany besa, s eSercuosdtiatissa (TAL

3 ss GUTTER cWa, AUST orcs eile ed ie AL 5 46

3 ny CEE CRE, PTT ge Paha UND. Con ble. jy A

eet AA CHEE 7am MMe AD. BOA, antes ult sty eis

on CTLRIOR tah Sowing) ES SEA gE 42

6 es CLO yee pee Oe eR a Eh Lal, 4]

7 % AGOs Levis Se « Roe eae, Gee ee ot 40

nate ue Gittog 22 OO wlio ete. 39

From the above it will be seen that the thermometer indicated a

greater intensity of cold during the hailstorm.

Kangra is situated in latitude 31° 57’; Longitude 76° 4/*

On the following morning an hour after sunrise my thermometer was

standing at the freezing point! The ground was covered with hoar

frost and the snowy range appeared in all its glory, free from clouds and

mist, and glittering with ineffable brightness. No pen could have des-

eribed the sublimity of the Chumba range as it then appeared clothed

from head to foot with its chilly mantle.

* Vide Thornton’s Gazetteer,

410 Miscellaneous. [APRIL,

MISCELLANEOUS.

A Notice of a very remarkable local deviation of the Compass near

Saugor in Bundelcund, communicated by Captain J. H. CAMPBELL,

B. A.— By Henry PIpDINGTON.

In November last I received from Captain J. H. Campbell, B, A. Commissary

of Ordnance at Saugor in Bundelcund, a letter of which the following is an

extract :—

“A friend of mine was lately surveying the line of road from this northward

to Heerapore, when the following strange incident took place, and which I give

you in his own words.

‘T send you the account of the magnetic attraction, | observed on the

banks of a nullah close to the village of Sarraroo, 335 miles hence on the

Nowgong road. The instrument I used was a Prismatic Surveying Compass,

4 inches in diameter, and the disk divided into twice 180°. I was sur-

veying the road, and found on arriving at station ‘‘ 6” on the banks of a stony

nullah, that the back bearing to station “a” was 165°, S. E. ; thinking that this

was anerror | placed the instrument at station “‘ a” and found the bearing of ‘¢ 6”

to be 60° N. E. of a Peepul tree on the right of the road 71° 40’ N. E., and of

the sun (which had risen about 3 an hour) 105 S. E.; I then measured to the

Peepul tree 68 yards, and planting the instrument there found the bearing, of

station ‘* b” 58° N. E., and of the sun 106° 40’ S. E, After this I rturned to “6”

and found the bearing to “a” 165° S. E., the Peepul Tree 163° 30’ S. E.,

and to the sun 35° N. E. I next passed 232 yards beyond station “ 6” and

placing my compass in exact alignement with flags ‘‘ a” and “ b,” found the

back bearing to “a’’ to be 60° S. W.,, thus proving that the forward bearing

from “ a’ to “ 6” was perfectly correct, and that there must be some magnetic

attraction at station “ b.” On returning to “6” I found the forward bearing to

“¢c” was 177° N. W., whereas at ‘‘c’”’ the bearing of “ b” was 72° 30’ S. W.

This was on the 20th of October last month. On my returning on the 23d

October, I tried many experiments, and found that the attraction was confined

to the spot ‘‘ b,” as 10 paces from it all round the needle was not affected.”

Such is this officer’s account of this strange occurrence. At his request I

tried some experiments in the Magazine here, near piles of shot and shells, to see

if iron alone could affect the needle to such a degree ; I took one of the same sort

of Prismatic Compasses which I have in store in the Magazine, and applied it in

the same manner as the above officer did in his experiments, and on placing the

instrument near a small pile of 6i6 shot found the attraction to be 2°, and near

a large pile of 24 pr. shotit was 6°, I tried this two or three times, but never

1849. | Miscellaneous. 41}

found it to exceed the latter. Thus apparently shewing that iron alone could

hardly have been the cause of the attraction at ‘Sarraroo.’ I may as well men-

tion that the above officer has been surveying for some years, and has had his

compass in use for 5 years, and never found it play such tricks before. All that

part of the country is famous for iron ore, and a great deal of it is smelted by

the natives not very far from Sarraroo, though not at that place.”

It was evident from this that at the station “ b” a deviation of some 105° was

occasioned by some hidden cause, and in reply to Captain Campbell, after

quoting to him the well known instances of deviation occasioned by basaltic

rocks, and that of Captain W. F. W. Owen in Canada, who found a difference

of 5° to 22° in bearings taken on different sides of his own house,* I suggested

that by digging at the spot a mass or vein of magnetic iron ore, or even a meteo-

rite (of which I had some hopes I confess) might be found. In his reply to me

in March last he states that they had dug and found at a depth of about 5 feet

a highly magnetic stone in large masses, occupying a space of about 10 feet

square, and in return for some specimens which he required from the Museum

of Economic Geology for the public service, he was good enough to forward me

a specimen of it by banghy, which is now exhibited to the meeting. Upon exami-

nation it proves to be simply a Dioritet with a strong admixture of magnetic iron

ore, givingit distinct polarity, but yet not enabling it to attract even small filings ;

and with numbers of minute amygdaloidal semi-crystallised grains of the me-

lanite variety of Garnet interspersed in its substance. Its coating is of the usual

ferruginous earthy kind, seen on common iron ore and basalts; and Captain

Campbell informs me that the earth about it was much of this kind ; I suppose

aferruginous loam or gravel. He adds that none of the basalts found in the

neighbourhood are magnetic, nor are there any rocks of this kind in the vicinity.

I have carefully examined it for Nickel and Chromium, but it affords no trace

of them, and is thus purely and simply a highly magnetic Diorite.

But we have here the remarkable geological fact of a considerable boulder of

avery remarkable rock buried in the alluvium (or diluvium) of probably a

distant district, and discovered by a very singular hazard ; and it may thus become

of high interest, when its parent rock or vein shall be found, to trace the road by

which it must have travelled to its present position ; for the rock is sufficiently

remarkable not to be passed over even as a mere geological specimen, indepen-

dent of its extraordinary magnetic powers, and I have thus deemed it well

worthy of permanent record.

* Naut. Mag, 1840, p. 293.

+ A mineral composed of Felspar and Hornblende.

412 Miscellaneous. [APRIL,

Further remarks on the Ball Coal of the Burdwan mines. By HENRY

PippinGtTon, Curator Museum of Economic Geology.

Mr. Homfray having at my request furnished us with a block of the coal

from the seams of which the ball coal is taken, I have examined it very carefully

and the following are my results.

Description.

The block of coal averages about 10 inches by 9, and is somewhat more than

6 inches thick, so that it may be, in round numbers, about the third of a cubic

foot.

At the top and bottom of the seam the block has the usual soft, velvet-like

coating of carbonaceous matter, with traces of fossil plants, so frequently found

upon the seam sides of coal of all kinds, and in which impressions, more or less

distinct, of vegetable forms are usually seen. The cross fracture however is

difficult to describe. It is on one face tolerably vertical and perpendicular to

the planes of the upper and under surfaces, like a block of English coal, but in the

direction of the layers of alternate bright and dull coal of which it is composed,

it is wavy, though not very deeply so. But upon the other three faces its struc-

ture and fracture can only be described by calling it a sort of flattened, globular

concretionary one, having much the appearance of many softened globula,

masses of coal pressed into flattened layers amongst layers of common coal, and

where a lump is detached it assumes an irregularly elongated form, globular or

bulging at the ends and sides, and flat above and below ; appearing as if, when

free from pressure, it had been of the rounded form of the balls of coal, and

yet (and it is this which constitutes the difficulty of imagining any hypothesis to

account for this kind of structure), the horizontal layers of dull and bright glance

coal run through the globular and conchoidal projections and hollows of the com-

pressed balls, as regularly as through the simply stratified or foliated parts.

The only thing indeed one can liken it to geologically, would be a mass of

gneiss just decomposing and separating into irregularly shaped globular or ovoidal

concretions, as granite does into spherical ones, but preserving its stratification,*

We have one concretion detached from the mass about 4 ins. by 25 and 14

thick which is very distinctly a flattened and elongated ball, and it has left a

hollow mould in the large mass where imbedded, yet it is distinctly formed of

* Boase (Primary Geology, p. 114,) describes various kinds of conglomerated rock-

and of mica amongst others, but the nuclei of his instances are all different from the envel-

oping mass, but our balls are perfectly identical with it !

1849. | Miscellaneous. 413

one large layer of bright coal and a number of dull ones with minute bright folia

amongst them on both sides of the bright layer.

Examination.

The sp. gravity of a carefully chosen piece with part of a globular con-

SMM MEEIEPETC CHS AS. Sold e c:afas o.areclaie¥s atdle a < betas ws sles d ve We neces 1b. 26

HM contamsin.100.parts.;. Hygrometric Water, ....<eccecesers eee: 3. 90

Gaseous matter, eesceeeoevoeeewteeoeneeoveeG@@Geeo eee e ®2e 09% 8 © 28 e 2 e890 18. 90

MOR isc cs oe pose he ne tateetee ns teens @eeouvnen2ege © © @€88@ 6868 *#86 6 6l. 75

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100. 80.

It will be seen that this makes it an inferior coal to the ball coal formerly

analysed, but this is of little consequence, since it is not the quality of the coal,

but its singular structure, which we are now investigating. I have been informed

by Captain Powell of the P. and Or. Company’s service, that in a steamer in

which the coals were found to be on fire, but were extinguished, that the whole

of the heated mass (of English Coal) was more or less softened, so that they were

obliged rather to cut it like soft clay,soas to dig it out for throwing over-

board! If this was the effect of heating under the light pressure of a steamer’s

coal-bunker, we may readily suppose that a whole bed of coal may, when heated

under the pressure in the mine, so far soften as upon gradual cooling to be at

liberty to affect this semi-concretionary form, as so many half liquified bodies

do, and as we see is shewn to be in granites and traps, when they decompose,

their tendency also. But as we co not yet know how far this structure of the

coal extends, and how it passes into the common laminary form and cubical frac-

ture, we must suspend our judgment and our speculations as to what can have

really given rise to this singular variety of coal. At present the few specimens

we possess do not allow me to sacrifice any of the complete little shining nodules

which may have an homogeneous structure, for examination.

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL

For Apri, 1849.

The usual monthly meeting of the Asiatic Society was held at the

Museum on Wednesday, the 4th April, 1849.

The Hon’sie Sir James Couvite, President in the chair.

The proceedings of the March meeting were read, and the accounts

and vouchers of the preceding month laid upon the table.

Letters were read from the following gentlemen, intimating their

desire of withdrawing from the Society :— ;

W. Grey, Esq. C. S.

J. J. Macxenziz, Esq.

J. Kerr, Esq.

A. CurisToPHER, Esq.

Dr. McRag, a candidate for election at the April meeting, was pro-

posed by Dr. Roer, seconded by Mr. Laidlay.

Mr. WatTensacH having returned from Europe and signified his

wish to rejoin the Society, his name was restored to the list of members.

Read a letter from R. Thornton, Esq. Secretary to the Government

of the N. W. P. conveying His Honor the Lieut. Governor’s acknow-

ledgments of the 200 extra copies of Lieut. Maisey’s Antiquities of

Kalingar, forwarded to him by the Society.

From W. Seton Karr, Esq. Under Secretary to the Government of

Bengal, presenting for the use of the Museum of Economic Geology, a

plan of the Fort of Monghyr, and of the lands adjacent to it.

From W. Grey, Esq. Under Secretary to the Government of India,

conveying the thanks of the Hon’ble the President in Council for the

copies of the map of the localities recently occupied by the British and

Sikh armies, presented by the Society to the Court of Directors.

1849.]

Proceedings of the Asiatic Society.

415

From Captain Newbold, forwarding a note on the strata cut through

in excavating for coal in Wadi Sheraiet, by Hekekyan Bey.

From the Rev. Mr. Pratt, an additional note on the subject of Iron

Tension Bridges, containing a reply to certain remarks upon his former

paper by Major Goodwyn.

From Major Anderson, forwarding a memoir on the Geography of

Western Affghanistan.

Read extracts from an interesting private letter from Captain Kittoe,

detailing the progress of his present Archeological researches on the

banks of the Gandak, and fowarding a beautiful and spirited sketch of

the capital of the column at Mattia, surmounted by a lion.

From Captain Thuillier, the Meteorological Register for the month

of March.

From Dr. Roer, the subjoined letter containing sundry propositions

of the Oriental Section, which were approved and adopted by the So-

ciety.

To Dr. W. B. O’Suavcunessy, Senior Secretary, Asiatic Society, Bengal.

Dated Asiatic Society, the 5th March, 1849.

Sir,—I have the honour to submit to you, for the approval of the Council

and Society, the subjoined propositions of the Oriental Section with regard. to

the works next to be printed in the BisiioTHeca Inpica.

Extract from a letter from G. H. Busu-

BY, Esq., Secretary to Government of In-

dia, to Dr. W. B. O’SuHavcunessy, Senior

Secretary, Asiatic Society, No. 685, dated

the 29th July, 1848 :—

-3. With reference to the employment of

their grant in the publication of the Vedas,

you will be pleased to inform the Society,

that the Honourable Court have sanction-

ed the printing of the Rig Veda in Eng-

Jand. It will therefore not be necessary

to undertake the publication of that work

in Calcutta. There are, however, other Ve-

das or portions of them, which it is desirable

to preserve through the means of the press,

and which may very properly become the

objects of the Society’s attention.

1, With reference to the paragraph

in the margin, from G. H. Bushby, Esq,

Secretary to the Government of India,

to the Senior Secretary, by which the

co-operation of the Society in the pub-

lication of the Vedas is requested, the

Section beg to purpose—

To collect, with the least practicable

delay, MSS. of the text of the Tuit-

tareya, or Black Yajur Veda, and of

Sayana Acharya’s Commentary to the

same, with a view of its early publica-

tion, editions of all the other Vedas,

with the exception perhaps of the Athar-

va, being prepared in Europe,

2. The Sanhité and Brémhana of the black Yajur, accompanied with the

commentary, being very extensive, the publication of the work, if undertaken by

one individual, would be much delayed. The Section therefore would recommend

To entrust this work to two Editors, and to publish the Sanhita and the Bram-

hana at the same time, so as to print two numbers of the Journal every month.

Babu Rajendra has offered to undertake the edition of the Bramhana, while the

Secretary is willing to publish the Sanhita.

3. As the edition of the Brihad Aranyuka Upanishad is nearly finished, and

the Kadamvari, which, at the recommendation of the Section, the Society had

resolved to print, has since been prepared for the press by a Pundit in Calcutta ;

416 Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. [ApRIL,

further, as the collection and collation of the MSS. of the Black Yajur

cannot be completed in a time short of a year ; and lastly, as the two works at _

present in the course of publication (viz. Dr. Sprenger’s Arabic work, and the

Kamanduki Niti Sastra) will not fill more than two numbers of the Journal,

the Section propose the following works to be printed in the meantime :—

1. The Chandogya Upanishad, with the commentary of Madhava A’charya,

and Tika of Ananda Giri (not published before.)

2. The Shiksha, one of the Vedangas, with the commentary of Madhava

Acharya, (There is a beautiful MS. of this work in the Library of the So-

ciety).

Z In consideration, that it is impossible for one individual to publish and

at the same time to translate such voluminous works as those recommended for

edition, and yet that a translation of them is of the highest importance for the

usefulness of the Journal, the Section beg to suggest—

That the Society should offer for the translation of any work published in the

Journal, a remuneration of Co.’s Rs. 1-8 per page, provided of course that the

rendering has met with the approval of the Section.

I have the honour to be, Sir,

Your most Obedient Servant,

E. Roetr,

Secretary Oriental Section Asiatic Society.

From the same, recommending, on the part of the Oriental Section,

the purchase of some copies of Captain Latter’s Burmese Grammar

for distribution among the learned bodies with whom the Asiatic Society

is in correspondence. The consideration of this subject was postponed

to the May meeting.

From the Rev. Mr. Long, proposing a more active intercourse with

the Orientalists of Holland.

A fine collection of copper ores from the mines of Burra burra, just

received by Mr. Laidlay from Mr. Andrew Berry of Adelaide, as

exhibited and presented to the Museum of Economic Geology.

For all the above communications and donations the thanks of the

Society were voted, and the meeting adjourned.

J. W. Coutvite, President.

J. W. Latpuay, Secretary.

LIBRARY.

The following books have been received since the last meeting :—

Presented,

Sardakalpadruma, Vol. VI.—By Ra‘sa’ Ra’pua’kanta Deva.

Bibliographical Index to the Historians of Muhammadan India.—By H. M,

Elliot, Esq. C. S. Vol. I. Calcutta, 1849, 8vo.— By tHe AuTHoR.

Catalogus Collegii Harvardiani seu Universitatis Cantabrigiensis, in Repub-

lica Massachusettensi, Cantabrigie : 1848.—By WiLiiam Tuapeus Harris,

Esq.

1849.| Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. 417

A Catalogue of the Officers and Students of the University at Cambridge for

the Academical year 1847-48.—By THE SAME.

A Catalogue of the Students of Law in Harvard University, 1848.—By THE

SAME,

The Oriental Baptist, No, 28.— By tHe EpiTor.

The Upadesaka, No. 28.—By tHE Epiror.

The Caleutta Christian Observer, for April, 1849.—By THe Eprrors.

Tatwabodhini Patrica, No. 68.—By THE TatwaBopuHInI’ SaBHa’.

Meteorological Register kept at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, for

the month of February, 1849.—By tue Deputy Surveyor GENERAL.

The Oriental Christian Spectator, for January and February, 1849.—By THE

EDITOR.

Journal of the Indian Archipelago, Vol. III. No. 2nd.—By tue Epiror.

Ditto ditto, (2 copies.) —By THE GOVERNMENT OF BENGAL.

Purchased.

Comptes Rendus, Hebdomedaires des Seances de l’Academie ces Sciences,

Tome XXVII. Nos, 19—24.

Journal des Savants, Novembre, 1848.

The Annals and Magazine of Natural History, Nos. XII, XIII. N.S.

The Edinburgh Review, No, CLXXIX.

Huchanged,

The Atheneum, Nos. 1104—507.

Dur-ul-Muktar. On Muhammadan Law, 1 vol. 4to.

Tysir-ul-Osul. Ditto, 1 vol. 4to,

Risas-ul-Ambia. History of Muhammad, 1 vol. 4to.

Mekamat Hariri. On Rhetoric, 8vo.

Mohit Zwavete Dewani. A Persian version of Marshman’s ‘‘ Civil Guide.” 4to.

Bahar-ul-Jowahir. Dictionary of Medical terms, 4to.

Sharch Asbab, On Medicine, 4to.

Akhlak Hindi. Persian Translation of the Hitopodesha, 8vo.

Ujaizah. On Medicine, 8vo.

Tafsir Ahmody. A desertation on Religion, 4to.

Ajal Ajab. On Rhetoric, 8vo.

Masnavi-e-Gulzar. A Poetical version of the Romance entitled Gulebakawali.

Lucknow, 8vo : (lithographed.)

Tib-e-Nab-wi. A medical work containing prescriptions recommended by

Muhamed. Lucknow, 8vo.

Sahrir-ush-Shahadatain, Chronicles of the Imams, Lucknow, 1847, 8vo.

Sir-ush-Shahadatain. Ditto, 8vo.

Fawaed-e-Samdia. Persian Grammar, 8vo.

Hakikat-ul-Islam, A treatise on the moral and religious duties of the faith-

ful, 8vo.

Saukiat-e-Kisran. On Letter Writing, 8vo.

Naho Mir. Persian Syntax, 8vo,

Sahifa Shahi, On Letter Writing, 8vo.

Mozhab-e-Eshk. A Romance, 8vo.

Sharch Miat. Rules of Grammar, 8vo,

Rauzat-ul-Ahkam. On Muhammadan Law, 8vo.

Fawaed-ul-Awam. History of the Prophets, 8vo.

Gaet-ul-Bayan. Persian Grammar, 8vo.

Tozhiz Takhfim. On Muhammadan Ceremonies, 8vo.

Dewan Atash-e-Khaud, <A Collection of Odes by Atesh, 8vo.

Sharch Mohemmani, On religious duties, 8vo,

418 Proceedings of the Asiatic Society.

Tekahe Akbar. On Law, 8vo.

Masnavi-i- Mir Hassan. A Poem, 8vo.

Gulestan Mahusa. Gulestan with Commentary, 8vo.

Bostan Mahusa. Bostan with ditto, 8vo.

Majmu-us-Sanani. A Collection of Letters, 8vo.

Kissa-e-Bahram Gor. The History of Bahram Gor. A Poem, 8vo.

Déwan Gani. A Collection of Odes by Gani, 8vo.

Rukka-at Lakshminarayan. The Letters of Lakshminarayana, 8vo.

Insha-e-Fuez Rasan. On Letter Writing, 8vo.

Rukkaé-at Mirza Be-dil. The Letters of Mirza Be-dil, 8vo.

Mehar-ul-Fasahat. A Collection of Letters of Fasul-Akbari, On Law, 8vo.

Chahar Shariet. Select Rules on Letter Writing.

Report of the Curator Museum of Economic Geology for the month of

April.

Geology and Mineralogy.—I have put into the form of a notice for the Jour-

nal the account of a very remarkable instance of an apparently isolated boulder

of a highly magnetic Diorite which was discovered to be buried in the earth, at

a surveying station near Saugor, Bundelcund, by an extraordinary deviation of

the Compass. It is to Captain J. H. Campbell, B. A. Commissary of Ord-

nance, Saugor, that we are indebted for the information which first led to this

discovery, and for the specimen of the mineral now exhibited.

Mr. J. Weaver has sent us a remarkably fine specimen of a shell conglome-

rate from Junk Ceylon Island.

Museum of Economic Geology.— Mr. J. Homfray has at my request sent us a ¢

specimen of the coal from the mine in which the Ball Coal is found, which :

upon examination proves to be itself a mass half composed of compressed yet f

regularly stratified balls, or something very like it. I have put into a paper ;

for the Journal my examination of this coal, and trust soon to obtain a suffi-

cient supply of the large and small balls for comparative experiment.

H, PIDDINGTON,

ee. Aa a ee ee ee er

Meteorological Register kept at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, for the Month of April, 1849.

Lat. 22° 33/28”. 33 N. Long. 88° 23’ 42”. 84 East. Mag. Variation 2° 28’ 36” East. Mag. Dip. 27° 45’. |

g = 1

5 ry]

Observations made at sunrise. Maximum Pressure observed at 9h. 50m. Observations made at apparent noon, Observations made at 2h, 40m. Minimum Pressure observed at 4 p,m. Observations made at sunset. Maximum end Mint-/= @'|Rain Gauges]

; 5

° s a 2 2 2 s Bs

= = & “| 3

4/3 i s 3 $s 5 g e 5 3 3 s |é a = |e 2 3B) Fst) Feet FI

4 3 . i Los : & H - é 5 les 4 & x a 15 ‘ 5 a

217.| 2 Ay Wiel | 3 3 %.| 5 4| 2 |ts\e 2/4 gs #2 4]: ee ieee 4 el i:

eelea ele eects 2 Bailsallinan izes &, calle su leen tse lee = ret I) Sa ei lt St 2 igs sla| = /s#/El/s|a 2 alg 2\3

Sees eneee= Wdelaneiveeen 3 lal e Se |e eae Sra Se ES sia) 2 Veeieialal % if; BE

BEAN SEE) GE WPS ere tat UP eee sd ee ee et ten PUR eZ (E12) £ IelziziEl 2) 3 dja |e 2 |

|| =| —— amie alas males alla =e = rs 5 =

is 78.9 87.3 | 87.9 Clear, 73.9 |W.N, 97.9 | 97,0 | 73.0 Clear, 96,2 | 71.7 LW, 93.0 | 91 ‘Clear. 89,2 194)

. 785 88,0 | 86.2 ito S. {Ditto d Ey 73.6 Ditto 90,0 | 78.0 W.|Cloudy. 86,8 | 5. ‘Cloudy. 87.1 A

‘ 689 810 | 820 Clear. S. |Cumuli. y 20 | 76.7 |S. 8. E)|Cumuli. 89.7 | 762 Cumulo strat, 86.8 Gumus stent. 81,5 111.3)

5 75.2 | 154 | 73.9 | S. E. |Cloudy. 85.3 | 81.0 Cumulo strati, ~ |Cumulo strati. | Cumulo strati. 85.8 aba lor.)

6 890 | 77.0 | 77.7 | 74.0 ee Cirro cumuli. esos - . . 5 EES .

6 | 76,9 | 73.5 ) E. Joudy. Pi o A PA . as . . . . +. 26

is| too] qe | coe ino ICumuto strati, | ‘3 | si Clear. 4 | 8, Clear, : 6 ats | “8, a8

9 609} 78,0 | 78.3 Clear, Ditto ! .0 | 76.1 Ditto . .3. |S, sharp,|Ditto 90.4

10 ae - a BF I Bit ae a. e ae a ee 90.7

r 708 | 80, {Clear. .780 5 -W.|Ditto 4 ; 72, lear, lear. 91.0

a | as| 182 | 87 Ditto y 10 | S.W. [Ditto 70; Ditto Ditto 910

75 | 7 Ditto i {Ditto 824 Ditto 5 . Ditto 88.5

i5s| :759| 805 | 81.2 Cumulo strati, ; Y |. |Ditto 82,7 Ditto a i! W 3! Ditto 49.9

16 -159| 79.7 | 80.2 Clear, A x i Ditto 83.2 \Cirro cumuli. Af 3 B |Cirro cumuli, 89.0

“ 79,3 | 79,8 W. |Ditto Ht . f Ditto 82,7 Clear. (Clear. 190.9

1 BE 78.3 ies -|Ditto 5 |100,. » {Ditto BLO Ditto Ditto 788

19 753 | 79,0 | 79,9 .0 |S. Ditto 2 2 | 75 8. W. {Ditto 80.7 Ditto Ditto 79.8

2 .779| 79.7 | 80,3 | 76.9 | S. W. |Cirro cumuli. Ditto i ft I S, - |Cirro cumuli, m9 \Cirro strati,. \Cirro strati. “ ) fi Cirro cumuli. 80.3

21 | 791] 79.4 | 80.2 | 76.7 |S.8. W.|Dino 850) a8.0 | 981 | 78.0 . |Cumuli. £ a | S.W. |Cloudy. 16.6 Cumuli. Cumuli, \ s . 8. W.|Ditto 80.2

22S] .768) 79.9 | B03 | 78,0 s. Ditto 817 | 89.7 | 89.8 | 79.8 ‘Comulo strati, x S. W. |Cumulo strati, 779 Cloudy. Cloudy. F 2 S. Cloudy. 80.5

23 .786| 78.8 | 79.3 | 75.5 |S. W. |Cloudy 821} 89.7 | 89,0 | 76.5 ‘Cirro cumuli. iy FE jt Fi .|Clear, 77.8 “|Clear, iClear, -6 f 5 5. Ss. \Cirro strati, 5

a4 | (759| 78.7 | 79.0 } 76.3 |S. S.W.|Clear, <780| 90.7 | 90.2 | 79,8] 8. ” |Clear. : : i Ditto j els (Cumulo strat Rainy. 4 3 | 85.5 | 79, Cumulo strati, 4

25 | ,668| 79.8 | 203 | 77.0 |S.8, W.|Cirro cumuli | .699| 91.2 | 90.4 | 80.2 |S. S. W.|Cirri. 0 | 79, irro cumuli. 79.8 Ditto Cumulo strati. | 9 | 93. Ditto

26 | s63| 79.9 | 806 | 758 |S.8, W.\Clear. Clear. Clear, Bia Ditto itto Clear,

a7 606 | 81.0 | 81,8 | 79.3 |S. S, W.|Diuo Ditto . 4 » |Ditto 78.3 ‘Clear, E.|Clear, Ditto

9 | .646) 812] 81.8] 79.0] S. {Ditto Ditto i K E. [Ditto 80,2 « Ditto ‘Comulo strati, Ditto

gos| 735] 815 | 820] 793] Ss. [Ditto aren 9 |8.S. W,|Ditto 83,3 Cumulo strati, | .643 96, W. |Cloudy. 8. |Cirro strati.

30 | '726] 81.3 | 820 | 788 |S. S. W.\Cirro cumu Clear, . S.W. [Ditto 817 ‘uuli. 2 ,|Cumule strati. 2 Clear.

Monn! 29.734 738 | 798) TAA mA

‘Meno of the Corresponding mouth of Tast year

29,720 794 79,9 77.2 29,782 89.5 89,1 80,0 29.748 93,3 B16 29,675 94.9 944 BIL 29,651 94.1 29.659 884 87.8 79.5 99.9 An aA e 219 Lal

‘These Observations have been made for the most part, with a supply of new and first rate Instruments received into the Observatory, by orders of the Bengal Government ; a brief description of the Instruments seems necessary.

W—The Barometer i astandard Insrument by Newman, dumeter ofthe tube 0.504 Inches. The following is the comparative shewing of this astrumeat and those Barometers which were in use atthe Observatory prior to Ist of Juno, 1844.

itto ” ” ” ” » 0514 Ditto,

Srd-—Wet Bulb Hygrometer by Newmua, graduated to single degree divisions, the diference between Standard Thermometer and dry Thermometer of ths Tastrament i + 0.2, the Temperature ofthe dry Bulb istakea from the Standard Thermometer, and 10 the eveat ofthe quantity moisture, dew point, or dryness, Veing required, itis necessary th

taken into calculation,

4the—Maximum and Miainium Thermometer by Newman. The difference between these instruments, and the Standard Thermometer is + 0.7 for the former and 0,23 for the latter.

Sih. The Temperature shewa in Column 47 ofa Thermometer, in suas rays is woquited by means of & Newinaa's Maximum Thermometer having a black bulb.—Ihe above Lostruments, excepting the Thermometer placed in the sua'srays, are fixed atabove 4 fet from the ground, toa post, i a thickly choppered house, and are freely exposed tothe uirand sheltered from any influence

of Solar reflectiva, i

The height of the Surface ofthe Mereury in the Cistern of the Standard Barometer ia the Observatory attached to the Surveyor General's fice above the Mean Level ofthe Sea, having been deduced from a Series of Tide Observations taken from a Register hept at Kyi's Dock Yard, the result is recorded for general information.

‘ect.

Lowest Monthly Average of Mean Tides in the Months of February and March, above the Zero of Gauge at Kyd’s Dock Yard, Calcutta, 833 2. N,

Differeace of Level between the Zero of Tide Guuge at Kyd’s Dock Yurd, sad the Standard Burometer at the Observatory, «+s 26,59 Ofietating SE TEE pone? :

Height of Standard Barometer above the Level of the Sea, 18.21 In charge Suroeyor General's Office.

— —— eee : - ~~ eS ED Bell

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nia } et. ‘

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ray qacinivlls re ty path) habe ee Bt a hats es initio w i ee, ba ie earns a % lf aga. yt Y

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Bares ee 1 She se aii oth ig 2 :

le aaa ansgegeid rica Snopes

JOURNAL

OF THE

ASIATIC SOCIETY.

LLL LOL LLLP DOr”

MAY, 1849.

LLLP LLL DLL LNA

Notes, chiefly Botanical, made during an excursion from Darjiling to

Tonglé, a lofty mountain on the confines of Sikkim and Nepal, by

J.D. Hooker, M. D., R. W., F. R.S., Sc. Honorary Member of the

Asiatic Society. (Communicated by the Hon. Sir James Coutvite,

PresIDENT As. Soc.

May 19th, 1848.—Left Darjiling in the forenoon of this day, accom-

panied by my friend, C. Barnes, Esq. We took with us a small tent,

about 15 Lepcha and Ghorkha coolies, together with as few servants as

possible, these being bad mountaineers, and our route involving much

ascent and descent. The direction is W.; the distance, in a straight

line, little above 12 miles; but occupying good 3 days’ march ; for we

have to descend from Darjiling 5000 feet to the intervening river beds,

cross these and as many spurs of 1000—1500 feet, and thence ascend

to a summit 10,000 feet above the sea. The route is of course wholly

within the sub-Himalaya, and always through the forest region. What

clear spots we saw were artificial, and large trees extend to the top of

Tonglo ; which is however below the lower limit of Alpine Pines in

this parallel, and of the Arctic vegetation of the loftier Himalaya.

A Lepcha carries his load in similarly formed, but much ruder bas-

kets, than those used by the Nepal races, and I observe that he uniformly

used shoulder straps, with or without the belt across the forehead, which

latter is most frequently wholly dispensed with.* The weight thus

* May not the use of the head-strap be a predisposing cause of goitre, by in-

ducing congestion of the Laryngeal vessels? The Lepcha is certainly far more

free of this disease then the Bhothea, or than any of the tribes of E. Nepal I have

No. XXIX.—NeEw Series. 3.1

420 Notes, chiefly Botanical, made during an — { May,

transported to great distances is very surprising; on an average our:

Lepcha loads weighed 100 to 120 Ibs. On our return we had the

curiosity to weigh the then sodden tent, which was 180 lbs., and had

been carried for 10 hours both up and down hill in this state. To

keep the contents of the basket dry, the Lepcha makes a large hood of

bamboo platting, enclosing layers of leaves of Scitaminee ; this fits over

their heads and baskets, reaching as low as the hips, but open in front,

and leaving both the upper and lower limbs free.

In point of climate Tonglo shares the excessive humidity of the rest

of Sikkim, though when viewed from Darjiling it is often seen to be

clear when all the northern and much nearer eastern and south-eastern

mountains are wrapped in clouds. This arises from its position, and

its protection from the S. E. or rainy wind. It rises as a long saddle,

from that great southern spur of Kunchin-jinga, (which should bear

the general name of Singalelah) and which, dividing Nepal from Sikkim

throughout its whole length, extends from the perpetual snows of per-

haps the loftiest mountain on the globe, to the plains of India. The direc-

tion of this ridge is of course meridional. At right angles to, and a little

south of Tonglo, the Sinchul ridge of 9000 feet, meets that of Singale-

lah, and thus two sides of a box are formed, one of which, the meri-

dional, encloses Sikkim to the west, whilst the other shuts it off from

the plains on the south. Darjiling, placed on a spur projecting N. from

Sinchul, is a ridge parallel to that of Tonglo, which bounds its western

horizon. Throughout the greater part of the year the 8. E. wind pre-

vails, rising at sunrise, and its vapors are condensed at once on the

forests of Sinchul; billowy clouds rapidly succeed small patches of

vapor, and rolling over to the N. side of the mount, are carried N. W.,

mixed with, and he is both more idle and less addicted to the head-strap as a porter.

I have seen it to be almost universal in some villages of Bhotheas, where the

head-strap alone is used in carrying in both summer and winter crops, as who

amongst the salt traders, or rather those families who carry the salt from the passes

to the Nipalese villages, and who very frequently have no shoulder-straps, but invari-

ably head bands. I am far from attributing all goitre, even in the mountains to

this practice, but I think it is proved, that the disease is most prevalent in the

mountainous regions of both the old and new world, and that in these the practice of

supporting enormous loads by the cervical muscles is frequent. It is also found in

the Himalayan sheep and goats, which accompany the salt traders, and whose loads

are supported in ascending, by a band passing under the throat.

1849. | excursion from Darjiling to Tongld. 421

-over a broad intervening valley, to Darjiling. There they bank on the

east side of the spurs, and this being clear of trees, the accumulation is

slow,* and always first upon the rare clumps of woods. Very generally

by 9 a. m. the whole eastern sky, from the top of Darjiling ridge, is a

dense fog, the western exposure enjoying sunshine for an hour or two

later. At 7 or 8 A. M., very small patches are seen to collect on Ton-

glo, which gradually dilate and coalesce, but do not shroud the mount

for some hours, generally not before 11 a. m. or noon. Before that time

however, masses of mist have been rolling over Darjiling ridge to the

westward, and gradually filling up the valleys, so that by noon or

1 p. M. every object is in cloud.

Towards sunset it falls calm, or a light S. W. wind springs up. In

the former case the mists rise, first from the S. E. mounts, and especially

if the S. E. wind, exhausted of its surplus vapors, still blows. This

raises the clouds first from Sinchul, and when this is not. clear, Tonglo

breaks through the western mists. If on the other hand a 8. W.

breeze sets in, or a W., or N. W., Tonglo clears first.

In descending from Darjiling the zones of vegetation are marked well

at a little below 7000 feet, or between 6000 and 7000 by—(1.) The

oak, chestnut and magnolia, the main features of 7000—10,000 feet.

(2.) Immediately below 6500, the Tree-fern+ appears (Alsophila gi-

gantea, Wall.), a widely distributed plant, common to the Himalaya from

Nepal eastward to the Malayan Peninsula, Java and Ceylon. (3) Palms,

a species of Calamus,t the ‘ Rhenoul’’ of the Lepchas. This, though

* I have the singularly good fortune to occupy in Mr. Hodgson’s house the most

favorable spot in the-station, for watching the diurnal march of atmospheric pheno-

mena. My host’s house is placed on an eminence, 500 ft. above the main body of the

Darjiling spur, and at its upper or southern extremity ;—it commands an unimpeded

prospect to the N. W. and E. having the snows of Kunchin-jinga to the N. and the

superb sweep of 80 miles of snow from its summit round by N. E. to E. To the

S. E. Sinchul :—and to the west the Singalelah range, from Kunchin to Tonglo. The

station stretches N. in full front, as a sharp ridge. TI have found it difficult to make

old residents of one or other side of Darjiling spur, believe, that whilst their house

in the western slope is enjoying hours of sunshine the whole western side is enve-

loped in fogs.

t Of this I have seen but one species in the mountains, a very similar, or possibly

distinct species, grows at the foot of the outer range.

+ The fruit of all the Calami are eaten by the Lepchas and the stems of larger

species applied to various economic purposes.

6D te”

422 Notes, chiefly Botanical, made during an [May,

not a very large species, climbs lofty trees, and extends some 40 yards

through the forest ; 6500 feet is the upper limit of palms in the Sikkim

Himalaya, and one species alone attains so great an elevation. Four

other Calami range between 1000 and 6000 feet, on the outer hills,

some of which are found 40 miles distant from the plains. The other

Palms of Sikkim are, ‘‘ Simong’’—a species of Caryota, which I have

not procured flower or fruit ; it is rare, and ascends to nearly 6000 feet.

Phenix,* a small stemless species, probably P. acaulis, Buch. (P.

humilis, Royle?) which grows on the driest soilin the deep valleys

(Schaap of the Lepchas). Wallichiat+ caryotoides, apparently the

plant described by Roxburgh,t and if so, having a very wide range

(Assam and Chittagong). It is the “‘ Och” of the Lepchas, who make

no use of it.—Dr. Campbell and myself, during a recent journey in

Sikkim, found that it is an admirable fodder for horses, who prefer it

to any other green food to be had in these mountains. A species of

Areca unknown to me, is the 8th and only other Palm of these moun-

tains, but a Cycas (C. pectinata) occurs in the deepest and hottest val-

leys, with the India-rubber fig,—the western limits of both these in-

teresting plants. Of Pandanus there is one graceful species at elevations

of 1000 to 4000 feet, (‘‘ Borr,’” Lepcha.)

3. The third striking feature in the vegetation in descending from

7000 feet, is a wild plantain, which ascends to above 6000 feet ; (‘* Lukh-

lo,’ Lepcha.) This is replaced by another and rather larger species at

lower elevations; both of them ripen their austere and small fruits,

which are full of seed and quite uneatable ; good specific characters are

to be drawn both from the male flowers, and the size, form and color of

the seeds. The commonly cultivated plantain of Sikkim is, I am always

assured, an introduced stock, (nor have the wild species been ever cul-

tivated,) it is very large, but poor in flavor and does not bear seeds.

The zones of these three conspicuous plants are very clearly defined in

descending any where from Darjiling, and especially if the traveller,

standing on one of the innumerable spurs which project from the ridge,

* The feathery fronds of the Phenix are used as screens in hunting, no other use

is made of any part of the plant except the young seeds being eaten.

+ Von Martins in a forthcoming part of his superb work, retains Roxburgh’s

generic name of Wallichia for this palm. ;

t Roxb. Fl. Ind. v. 3, p. 621, (Wrightea).

1849. | excursion from Darjiling to Tongld. 423

cast his eyes up the gorges of green on either hand. Firing the forest

is so easy in the drier months of the year, that a good deal of cultiva-

tion is met with on the spurs, at and below 5000 feet, the level most

affected by the Lepchas, Limbos and Sikkim* Bhotheas. The moun-

tain slopes are so steep, that these spurs, or little shelves, are the only

sites for habitations between the very rare flats on the river banks, and

the mountain ridges, above 6000 feet, beyond which elevation cultiva-

tion is rarely if ever carried by the natives of Sikkim. The crops are

the usual ones of the plains, and the agriculture similar, with one im-

portant exception, that rice is hardly ever irrigated. This appears the

more remarkable, as on crossing the Singalelah range into Nepal, in

localities there as steep as those covered with rice-crops in Sikkim, irri-

gation is almost universally resorted to. The varieties of grain are

different, but as many as 8 or 10 kinds are grown without irrigation by

the Lepchas, and the produce is described as very good (80 fold).

Much of this success is due to the great dampness of the climate ;

were it not for this, the culture of the grain would probably be aban-

doned by the Lepchas, who never remain for more than three seasons

on one spot.

At the bottom of the valley is a small village of Lepchas, Limbos

and Murmis, the tribe aggregated in groups, on one spur, and surround-

ed with small fields of the usual summer and winter crops of the plains.

The Lepcha house is far more roomy and comfortable than that of the

others ; it is generally square, built on posts, with a stage in front of the

door, and low-eaved thatch of bamboo stems, split and laid flat. The

walls are of bamboo wattle-work. In all respects it resembles the Bho-

teea house, but these are larger, better, and the framework is of strong

wooden beams, for it is not worth the Lepcha’s while to render his habi-

tation strong and durable. Both Limbus and Murmis build smaller

houses, often on the ground, but more frequently raised ; the roof is of

grass-thatch or occasionally of a piece of bamboo work matting.

* J apply the term Sikkim Bhotheas to the more recent immigrants from Thibet,

who have settled in Sikkim, and are an industrious, well conducted people. The

Bhotheas again of Bhotan, to the eastward, rarely reside, except at Darjiling, and

bear the worst reputation (and most deservedly) of any of the numerous people

who flock to this station. These should not be confounded with any other Bhothean

tribes of Thibet, Sikkim or Nepal.

424 Notes, chiefly Botanical, made during an [ May,

The soil at the bases of these hills is very fertile, owing to the wash-

ing down of vegetable mould from above, the rapid decomposition of the

rocks and the ashes of the burnt forest. Beneath the mould is gener-

ally a stratum of red clay which uniformly covers the hills at all

elevations, and to a greater or less depth, even 15 feet. This varies

much in quality, apparently owing to the admixture of matter from the

subjacent rocks. Of the latter some gneisses decompose with the

greatest rapidity, others resist for ages the elements. A clayey soil

covers even the sharpest ridges, retained in its position by the arboreous

vegetation; much of it makes excellent bricks, from containing a very

large percentage of alumina.*

A large bamboo (‘‘ Pao,’ Lepcha) is the prevailing plant near the base

of these valleys; it attains a height of 40—60 ft. and the culms average

in thickness the human thigh ; it is unarmed, deep green, or purplish;

and used for large water vessels. Besides this there are nearly a dozen

kinds of bamboo known to the Lepchas, and all have been pointed out

to me. Whether these are different species or no it is impossible to

say, for different genera are too similar in their foliage to be thereby

specifically distinguished. Three kinds usually flower, one commonly,

and of these, two bear no leaf on the flowering plant, which dies after

seeding. A certain patch of ground or clump of plants seem to flower

at the same time, but I could not detect, nor do the Lepchas recognize

any cause for this isolation of the flowering plants. Bamboos, in the

general acceptation of the term (for remotely allied genera bear the

same trivial English name,) occur at all elevations below 12,000 feet,

forming even in the Pine-woods and above their zone in the skirts of

the Phododendron scrub, a small and sometimes almost impervious

jungle. It would take many pages to describe the numerous purposes

to which the various species, even in Sikkim, are put. In an economi-

cal point of view they may be classed into those which do, and those

which do not split readily. The young shoots of one or more are

eaten: and the seeds of another, raw, cooked, and made into a fer-

mented drink.

Gordonia is here the common forest tree; (G. Wallichii ?) an erect

and singularly handsome tree, much prized in all parts of the sub-

* Nearly 30 per cent. according to the analysis of my friends, J. and C. Mul-

ler, Esqs.

1849. | excursion from Darjiling to Tonglé. 425

Himalaya, and universally adopted for ploughshares and other pur-

poses requiring a hard wood: it is the “‘Sing-brang-kun” of the Lep-

chas, and ascends 4000 ft. on the mountains. In very dry soils it is

replaced by “Sal” (Vateria robusta), and more rarely by the Pinus

longifolia.

Toon’ (Cedrela toona) ‘‘ Simalkun,”’ Lepcha, and another species,

probably C. serrata, Royle, accompany the Gordonia, as does Engle-

hardtia, which ascends to 6000 ft. and several leguminous trees, Acacia,

Dalbergia, Terminalia and a Sonneratia. Oaks at this elevation occur

as solitary trees, of species different from those of Darjiling. There

are 3 or 4 with a corn-formed fruit at this elevation, and 3 with spinous

eups enclosing the nut, which generally affect a dry clayey soil.

Phyllanthus emblica, Grislea, Symplocos and other small trees and

bushes of the plains, occupy the more open spaces near the streams.

Cucurbitacea, Marlea and scandent Leguminosa skirt the forest. Ticz

and Cloranthus with Ferns inhabit rocky places, and an amaran-

thaceous plant (Arrua?) climbs over the loftiest trees; its copious

inflorescence, like hops, whiten the forest in some places. Sterculie, of

2 species, are common, as is Pederia feetida, which, as well as many

Cucurbitacee peppers, Gnetum, Porana, a few Convolvulacee and

many Asclepioidee, Hoya, &c. climb high.

Though the temperature of the airwas only 77° at noon, these valleys

are close and oppressively hot: the streams small and varying in tem-

perature, according to the exposure of their banks; that of the first

we crossed was 70°.

Some low steep spurs which we crossed, were well cultivated, though

the angle of the field was upwards of 25°. The crops, chiefly maize,

now sprouting. The maize is occasionally hermaphrodite in Sikkim,

the bisexual flowers forming a large drooping panicle and ripening small

grains. This is a rare occurrence, and the specimens are highly valued

by the people.

On the ridge a “‘Semul” tree (Bombax) grows, at upwards of 3000

ft.; it is a very rare tree at this elevation, or any where else within the

mountains. Mussenda is conspicuous for its white calycine leaves

snowing the tree. A Lysimachia, very like the L. nemorum of Europe,

grew near its foot. |

Descending to another stream, the path led through a low dense

426 Notes, chiefly Botanical, made during an | May,

jungle of bamboo and figs* of several species. Indeed the general

prevalence of these and their allies, the nettles, is a remarkable feature

in the botany of the Sikkim Himalaya, up to nearly 10,000 ft. Of

figs there were here 5 species, some bearing eatable fruit of enormous

size and very palateable, others with the fruit small and borne on pros-

trate creeping leafless branches, which spring from the root of the tree

and creep along the ground. The wild Mulberry is a common small

tree in these situations, with three species of nettle,+ several of Beehme-

ria,t Procris, Trophis, Celtis and Conocephalus. Of shrubs are Randia,

Gardenia, and Rondeletia, Citrus, Rotlera and other Euphorbiacee,

some Sapindacee and Terebinthacee. Scitaminee were not above

ground, grasses are rare, and indeed most monocotyledonous plants at

this season. Of terrestrial Orchidee there are several species, Dendro-

bium takes the place in the valleys of Celagyne, the common epiphy-

tical genus at Darjiling.

A troublesome Dipterous insect swarms on the banks of the stream,

it is very small and black, floating like a speck before the eye. The

bite of this (the ‘‘ Peepsa’’) leaves a small spot of extravasated blood

under the cuticle, very irritating if not opened.

Temperature of the water (the Little Rungeet river) 69° at 4 P. o.,

and of the air 75°.

Crossing the Little Rungeet we ascended another steep spur from the

base of Tonglo, and camped.

Night calm and clear, with a little cirrus, but no dew formed. A

Thermometer sunk 2 feet in rich vegetable mould stood at 78° two hours

after it was lowered, and the same after ten hours interval on the follow-

ing morning. This probably indicates the mean temperature of the

month at that spot, where, however, the dark color of the exposed loose

soil must raise the temperature considerably.

May 20th.—Temperature at sunrise 67° ; morning bright, clear over-

head, but the mountains looked threatening. Darjiling perched on a

ridge 5000 ft. above us, has a singular appearance. Descended from the

* One species of this very tropical genus ascends almost to 9000 ft. on the outer

range of Sikkim.

+ Of two of these cloth is made, and of a third cordage. The tops of two are

eaten, as are several species of Procris ?

¢ Two species yield a fibre, one the ‘* Poa,’”’

1849. | excursion from Darjiling to Tonglé. 427

spur to a narrow ravine, choaked with Calam:, Figs, and the Wallichia,

and crossing a stream ascended the Simonboug spur of Tonglo, so

called from a small village and Lama convent of that name on its

summit. The cultivation is of rice, murwa (Lleusyne), millett, yam,

brindjal, bhang, buckwheat of 2 species, fennell and cummin, &c.

A white flowered Rue, Ruta albiflora, is sometimes cultivated, and very

common; truly wild at elevations of 3 to 7000 ft.; it is commonly

used for all diseases of fowls, mixed with their food.

Aquilaria, Myrsine, Embelia, Ardisia and Mesa all occur at 3 to

6000 ft., and we passed through groves of a handsome shrubby Tephro-

ria in full purple flower. Near the top of the spur Rudi and Osbechia

appeared, the former of several species; and hence upwards the bram-

bles are very frequent, to 12,000 ft., between which and this level

upwards of 12 species occur. These flower at different seasons, one

was already in fruit, bearing large-sized well-flavored yellow fruit, as

big asa raspberry.

At noon, arrived at the top of the spur, and passing some chaits,*

gained the Lama’s residence and temple. The latter, nothing more

than a rather large wooden Bhothea house raised on a stone platform.

As we stopped here on our way down I shall allude to it afterwards

more particularly.

Two species of bamboo, ‘‘ Payong’’ and ‘ Praong”’ of the Lepchas,

here replace the “Pao” of the foot of the hills. The former flowered

abundantly, the culms, 20 ft. high, being wholly a diffuse panicle of

inflorescence. ‘The ‘“ Praong’’ bears a round head of flowers at the

apices of the leafy branches. Wild strawberry, violet, Lysimachia of

several species, Geranium, Polygona, Veronica, &c. announced our

approach to the temperate zone. In the outskirts of the temple were

potato crops and peach trees. The potato thrives extremely well in

Sikkim, though I think the root cultivated in Purneah district, from

the Daryjiling stock, is superior both in size and flavor.

Peaches never ripen in Sikkim, apparently from the want of sun ;

* The chait of Sikkim (borrowed from Thibet) is a square pedestal, surmounted

with a hemisphere, the convex end down and terminated with a cone, crescent and

disc. These are erected as tombs to Lamas, and in memory of illustrious people,

and are venerated accordingly, the people always passing them from right to left,

often repeating the invocation ‘¢ Om mani Padmi hom.”’

428 Notes, chiefly Botanical, made during an [May,

the tree grows well at 3—7000 ft. and flowers abundantly, and its fruit

makes the nearest approach to maturity (according to the elevation)

from July to October. At Darjiling it follows the English season,

flowers in March and fruits in September, when the scarce reddened

and still hard fruit falls from the tree. .

It is curious that throughout this, the temperate region, there is

hardly an eatable fruit except the native walnut.* English cultivated

fruits are extremely poor; the native are confined to the walnut, some

poor brambles, of which the “ yellow” and ‘ ground” raspberry is the

best, some insipid figs and a very austere crab-apple. The European

apple will hardly ripen, pear not at all. Currants and gooseberries

shew no disposition to thrive, and strawberries, which grow well, ripen a

flavorless berry. Vines, figs, pomegranates, plums, apricots, &c. will

not succeed even as trees.

European vegetables again grow and thrive remarkably well through-

out the summer of Darjiling, and the produce is very fair to look upon,

sweet and good, but inferior in flavor to the English.

Of tropical fruits cultivated below 4000 ft. the orange and banana

alone are frequent, with lemons of various kinds. The season for these

is however very short, that of the plantain might with care be pro-

longed, but the fruit, as I have said above, is poor; oranges abound in

winter, and are excellent in flavor, but neither go large or free of white

pulp as those of South America, the W. Indies or W. coast of Africa.

Mangoes are brought from the plains ; they do not thrive in the valleys,

and though I have seen the pine-apple plant I never have its fruit.

A singular and almost total absence of sun’s-light in the fruiting

season, and of the heat of his direct rays, is the cause of this dearth of

fruits. Both the farmer and orchard gardener knows full well in Eng- —

land, the value of a bright sky as well as a warm autumnal atmosphere.

Without this his corn does not ripen and the fruit trees blight. The

winter of the plains of India, being more analogous in its distribution |

of moisture and heat to an European summer, such fruits as the peach,

vine and even plum, the fig, strawberry, &c. may be brought to bear

* The walnut of Sikkim has the shell extremely hard, of Bhotan as remarkably

thin, in both the kirnel is excellent; but not worth the trouble of freeing from the

shell in Sikkim. Bhotan walnuts are largely exported from that country, and are

in all respects excellent.

1849. | excursion from Darjiling to Tonglé. 429

well in March to April and May, if they are only carefully coaxed

through the previous hot and damp season, which is, in respect to the

functions of flowering and fruiting, their winter.

Hence it appears that, though some English fruits will turn the

winter solstice of India (November to May) into summer, and then

flower and fruit; neither these nor others will accept the summer of

7000 feet on the Himalaya, though its temperature so nearly ap-

proaches that of England, as a compensation for the accumulated evils

of its excessive rains and fogs. Further, they are often exposed to a

winter’s cold no less rigorous than the average of that of London, the

snow lying for a week on the ground, and the thermometer descending

to 25°. It is true that in no case is the extreme of cold so great here

as in England, but it is sufficient to check vegetation, and to prevent

fruit trees flowering till they are fruiting in the plains. There is a great

difference herein between the climate of the central, and eastern and

western Himalaya, at equal elevations. ‘There the winters are colder

and more comfortless than in Sikkim. The summer warmer and less

humid. The rainy season is shorter and the sun shines so much more

frequently through the heavier showers, that the apple and other fruits

are brought to a much better state. It is true that the rain guage

shews a greater fall there, but this is no measure of the humidity of the

atmosphere, or still less of the amount of the sun’s direct light and

heat intercepted by aqueous vapor. It takes no account of the quanti-

ty of moisture suspended in the air, nor of the depositions from fogs,

which are far more fatal to the perfecting of fruits, than the heaviest

brief showers. :

In the valley of Nepal, Mr. Hodgson informs me, that at 4000

feet the apple, though flavorless, ripens well and is a good fruit, as are

two varieties of the European fig, but these follow the seasons they do

in the plains, the winters being so mild that snow is hardly ever seen,

and never lies on the ground. There however the plantain and mango

do not ripen, nor the orange always. It is too warm for gooseberries,

currants and raspberries, and too rainy for the vine. Apricots may be

produced with care, but hardly peaches.

The Indian solstices, which are marked by one season of excessive

drought, and the other of excessive humidity, can never be favorable

to a copious fruit market. The obstacles to the produce of good Euro-

3K 2

430 Notes, chiefly Botanical, made during an {May,

pean fruits, either in the plains or hills is manifest, nor do the tropical

flourish as in other quarters of the globe, where the seasons are not so

contrasted. Hence there is not one good fruit peculiar to the country,

and perhaps but one which arrives at the highest perfection ; I mean

the mango. The plantains are good, so are the oranges, pine-apples,

but all these are far more abundant, most of them of much better kind,

and all of them enjoying a much longer season in other warm

climates. Who that has walked the fruit-markets of South America,

the West Indies, or Western Africa, has not been struck with the peren-

nial profusion of all the above fruits, and many more besides, which

are unknown to India. | |

On ascending Tonglo, we left cultivation, and the poor groves of

peaches at 4—5000 ft., and this on the eastern exposure, which is a

good deal the sunniest, and at the average level to which agriculture

reaches in Sikkim. Both in Bhootan and in E. Nepal cultivation is

carried much higher, the more flourishing salt trade, and probably

easier nature of the passes, favoring the formation of fixed habitations

much nearer to the perpetual snow than in Sikkim, where the enor-

mous mass of Kunchinjinga, intrudes its snows considerably south of

the main range, and forbids cultivation within upwards of fifteen miles

from its summit, in any direction. The uniform clothing of the

forest too allows of no pasturage.

Above Simonborg the path to Tonglo top is little frequented, and

chiefly as one of the many routes between Nepal and Sikkim which

cross the Singalelah spur of Kunchinjinga, at various elevations, gener-

ally less as they are remote from the Himalaya crest, and varying from

6000 to 7000 ft. As usual, the track runs along ridges wherever these

are to be found, very steep, and narrow to the top; through deep

humid forests of oak, and Magnoliacee, many Lauri; both Tetran-

thera and Cinnamomum, one species of the latter ascending to 8500 ft.,

and of Tetranthera to 9000. Chesnut and Walnut here appeared, with

Eleocurpus, and some leguminous trees, which however did not ascend

to 6000 ft. Scarlet flowers of Vaccinium serpens strewed about, an

epiphytical species, and above these the great blossoms of a Rhododen-

dron and Magnolia lay together on the ground. The Rhododendron*

* A drawing and description of this are preparing for publication in England

under the name of R. Dalhousie.

1849. | excursion from Darjiling to Tonglé. 431

is a beautiful epiphytical species, growing on the larger oak limbs, and

bears clusters of 6—8 flowers of greater dimensions than any known

species ; these are pure white and deliciously scented of lemon. This

Magnolia forms a large tree very densely foliaged, the leaves a deep

shining green. Most of the flowers drop unexpanded from the tree,

and have a very sweet aromatic smell ; they are as large as the human fist,

the outer sepals purple, the inner pure white. Ovaria collected into an

ovate, acute, very short, dense head. It may be the Liriodendron

litifera, Wild. (Rox. 2, p. 654). The fruit differs from either Mag-

nolia or Michelia, and I need not say equally so from Liriodendron.

In every flower I picked up, there was either a coleopterous grub,

or lamellicorn beetle, in the centre of the receptacle.

Heavy rain came on at 3 p. m. obliging us to take insufficient shelter

under the trees, and finally to seek the nearest camping ground. For

this purpose we ascended to a spring, called Sinasibong, at an elevation

of 6000 ft. The narrowness of the ridge prevented our pitching the

tent, small as it was, but the Lepchas rapidly constructed a house, and

thatched it with bamboo and broad leaves of the wild plantam. A

table was then raised in the middle, of 4 uprights and as many cross

pieces of wood, lashed with strips of bamboo. Across this pieces of

bamboo were laid, ingeniously fiattened by taking lengths, crimping the

cylinders all round, and then cutting it down one side, so that it opens

into a flat slab, several inches across. Similar but longer and lower

erections, one on each side the table, formed couch, bed or chair; and

in one short hour, half a dozen men, with only the long knife and

active hands, had fitted us with a tolerably water-tight furnished house.

A thick flooring of bamboo leaves keeps the feet dry, and a screen of

these and other foliage all round, renders the habitation tolerably warm.

It is at a little below this elevation, 3—5000 ft., that great scandent

trees of the forests, enveloping trunks of others wholly or twisting

round them, strangle the greatest of these, which decaying from out

their folds, leave the reticulated sheath of climbers, as one of the most

remarkable vegetable phenomenon of these mountains. Such belong to

several orders, and may roughly be classified in two groups, 1. those

which merely twine, and by constructing certain parts of their support,

produce death; 2. those which form a reticulated mass or network round

the trunk, by the coalescence of their lateral branches and rootlets, &c.

432 Notes, chiefly Botanical, made during an [May,

These wholly envelope and often conceal the tree they enclose, whose

leafy bowers then appear aloft far above those of its future destroyer.

To the first of these groups belong many natural orders, of which the

most prominent are Leguminose (Bauhinia, Cesalpinia, Dalbergia,

Galedupa, Butea, Robinia, Mimosa). Vines, Pothos, Bignoniacee,

Menispermacee, Malpighiace, and a few other natural orders. The

inosculating branched ones are almost all figs.

At night the Lepchas sit late chatting round the fire, wretchedly

housed, miserably clad, and very insufficiently fed. A more thoroughly

happy people it would be difficult to find any where; they very rarely

quarrel amongst themselves, and their disposition is singularly cheerful

and lively. The flute is their favorite and only musical instrument ; it

is of bamboo, has only 4 equi-distant holes, situated far below the

mouth-hole, which again is remote from the butt end of the instrument.

It is very difficult to sound, the tone low and sweet. I have often

listened with real pleasure to the simple music of this rude wind instru- -

ment; its voice is singularly eolian, as are the airs usually played,

which fall by octaves ; it seems to harmonize with the solitude of their

primeeval forests.

A thermometer sunk 2 feet 4 inches in the deep vegetable mould and

clay, fell to 62°, and stood at 61.7 on the following morning.

Except for the occasional hooting of an owl, the night was profoundly

still for several hours, after dark, it being too early in the season for

the Cicadas. A dense mist shrouded every thing and the rain pattered

on the leaves of our hut. At midnight a tree frog broke into the

stillness with his curious metallic clack, and others quickly taking up

the burthen, they kept up their strange intercourse till morning. This

is called the “ Simook’’ (Lepcha), and like so many Butrachians, has a

voice less like that of an animal, than any organized creature I know.

The cries of beasts, birds and imsects are all more explicable to our

senses, and we can recognize most of them as belonging to such or such

an order of animalia. But the voices of many frogs are like nothing

else, and allied species utter noises which betray no affinity between them.

In some, as this, it is the sound of the concussion of metals, in others

of the ringing of steel or brass, any thing but the natural effects of

lungs, larynx and muscles.*

* A very common Tasmanian species, utters a sound that appears to ring in an

underground vaulted chamber beneath the feet.

1849. | excursion from Darjiling to Tonglé. 433

May 2\st.—arly this morning we proceeded upwards, our pros-

pects more gloomy than ever. The road, still carried up steep ridges,

is very slippery, owing to the rain upon the clayey soil, and only passable

from the hold afforded by interlacing roots of trees. At 8000 feet some

enormous detached masses of micaceous gneiss rise abruptly from the

ridge; these are covered with mosses, ferns, Cyrtandree and Begonia

and creeping Urticee. Such masses occur on all the sharp ridges, and 3

at all elevations, they project awkwardly through the soil, and are

strangely confused and distorted in the stratification, down even to the

ultimate lamination of the mica, felspar and quartz. They are split

and never in situ, generally strangely shattered, and are evidently not

the mere exposed top of any continuous rock forming the nucleus of the

mountain. The invariably sloping faces of these hills and spurs, never

broken into precipices, and never presenting flats or table-lands, are

signs of their internal composition being a shattered mass. A uniformly

dipping stratified rock of any extent would, if raised at the angle of

the slopes of these hills, present a precipitous face somewhere; but

the ranges of 4—8000 ft., ramify and imosculate in all imaginable

directions, without presenting a bold face any where near Darjiling.

The road cuttings from the plains to the Sanatarium, as well as the

landslips, reveal highly inclined continuous strata, all variously distorted

and much dislocated, but these are only at the foot of the hills. Above

4000 ft. all appears a strangely piled mass of gneiss rocks, with no

uniformity of dip. Amongst these the red clay lies deeper or shallower

as the masses are so disposed as to retain it or otherwise.

These rocks are sealed by the roots of trees, and from their summit

(7000 ft.) a good view of the surrounding vegetation is seen. The

mass of the forest is formed of (1) oak, 3 species of which, q. annulata?

with immense lamellated acorns, and leaves sometimes 16 inches long,

is the noblest in stature and the most abundant. (2) Chestnut. (3)

Laurinee, of several species, beautiful forest trees, straight-holed and

umbrageous above, chiefly Tetranthera and Cinnamomum. (4) Mag-

noliace, three species of Michelia. Other trees are Pyries, Sauraya,

both an erect and climbing species, Olea, Cherry, Birch, Alder, Maple,

(Acer), Hydrangea, and one species of Fig, Holly, several dralaceous

trees, Sambucus arborescent Rhododendrons commence here with the

fh. arboreum, which only occurs at one spot near Darjiling, (Mr.

434 Notes, chiefly Botanical, made during an [ May,

Hodgson’s grounds on Jillapahar, 7500 ft.,) Helwingia* and brambles

are the prevalent shrubs. Ferns are not fully expanded yet, and the

tree ferns upper limit is passed. This is the region of pendulous mosses,

lichens, and many herbaceous plants; of which latter, except runs,

few had yet appeared above ground. ;

The pendulous mosses are chiefly species of Hypnum, Nerkena, &c.

the Lichens, Borrera and Usnea. Of drums, a Speciosum parti-

cularly effects this level, with some green spotted compound leaved

kinds, and the small Remusatia (vivipara) on the rocks and trunks of

trees. Neither Pothus (Scindapsus) officinalis, decursiva,}+ nor Scan-

dens are found higher up the mountain; Arum curvatum, Roxb., and

several species of Arisema- are very frequent. Calla, Colocaria and

Lasia are confined to lower levels. | |

Peppers reach this elevation, but no higher, whilst very prevalent

shrubs are ddamia cyanea, Pittoporum; Eurya and Camellia in drier

places. Hypericum japonicum ? Some species of Vitis ascend thus far,

and several Cucurbitacee, Zanthoxylon and Sapindacee. Still ascending

along very slippery paths, a considerable change is found in the vegetation

of the following thousand feet, from 8000 to 9000. In the forest trees,

by two gigantic species,of Magnolia, replacing the Michelias, and just

past flowering. The Quercus annulata is less abundant. Chesnut

disappears, with several Lauri; other kinds of Maple are seen, and the

Rhododendron arboreum is replaced by a much larger species, with

capitula of very large white flowers and magnificent foliage, 16 inches

long. Cornea, Viburnum, and Lonicera are frequent, with two or three

Hydrangeas ; many Laurine and some new oaks. |

Helwingia is still more abundant as a bush, with climbing and

shrubby Smilacinee, epiphytical and other Vaccima and Qualtherie

Stauntonia forms a handsome climber, with beautiful pendent clusters

of lilac blossoms. The <dArabacee are chiefly scandent species, and

* A new species of this most remarkable genus, which I propose naming after M.

Decaisne, the able describer of the natural order, which hitherto included but one

species, a native of Japan. The natural order, whose place in the vegetable king-

dom has been considered doubtful, I regard as next to Araliacee.

+ The juice of this is used by Lepchas and Botheas for fixing the poison of Aco™

nitum, and other plants, on to their arrow-heads. It is said to increase the effeet

of the poison.

1849. | excursion from Darjiling to Tonglo. 435

herbaceous, as pseudo-ginseng. Symplocas, Limonia and Celastrus are

common shrubs, and small trees. Cipus capreolata clothes the trees

up to this height. I have not observed Cyrtandracee or Begonias to

ascend higher than this.

At 9000 ft. we arrived on a long flat spur or shelf of the mountain,

covered with lofty trees, and a dense jungle of small bamboo. Mag-

nolias here formed the majority of the trees, with a few oaks, (annulata

very rare). Great Pyri and two other species of Rhododendron, both

attaining the height of 30 to 40 feet, R. barbatum, Wall., and R. arbo-

reum, Wall., var. roseum, D., C. Kadsura and scandent -4rabacee and a

Saurawja climb the loftiest trees : Stauntonia crawls round their base,

or over lower bushes. Limonia is the common shrub and Symplocos.

A beautiful orchidzeous plant, with pale purple flowers (Ceelogyre Wal-

lichit ?) grows on the trunks of all the great trees, and perhaps attains

a greater elevation than any other epiphytical species, for I have seen

it at 10,000 ft. A very large, broadly cucullate spathed Arisaema, first

appears at 8000 ft. and is abundant thence to the top of the mountain,

where smaller kinds also abound at 10,000 ft.

It is to be remarked that Leguminose nowhere appears in Sikkim

above 6000 ft. except the Parochetus communis, which however I did

not see on this ascent. This total absence of one of the largest and

most ubiquitous natural orders, through 4000 ft. of elevation, is most

remarkable, and characterizes the whole Himalayan range of Sikkim. I

know of no parallel case to this any where on the globe. In the equally

humid forests of South Chili and Fuegia, the order is extremely rare,

but species do exist, and the whole flora of those countries is much poorer

than this, in numbers of plants. Grasses also are extremely scarce,

anywhere above 4000 ft. and below 10,000 ft., always excepting the

ubiquitous bamboos, which by their giant dimensions may fancifully be

supposed to compensate the want of many herbaceous species: or it

may perhaps be stated better thus :—where the proportion of trees is

very great, both in number, species and individuals, arboreous grasses

replace the herbaceous species of less jungly regions.

A loathsome tic infests the small bamboo, and a more hateful insect

I never encountered. The traveller cannot avoid these coming on his

person (sometimes in great numbers) as he brushes through the forest.

They are often as large as the little finger nail, get inside one’s dregs

3 L

436 Notes, chiefly Botanical, made during an [| May,

and inserts the proboscis deeply without pain. Buried head and

shoulders, and retained by a barbed lancet, it is only to be extracted by

main force, which is very painful. I have devised many tortures, me-

chanical and chemical, to induce these disgusting intruders to withdraw

the proboscis, but in vain.

Leeches* swarm at below 7000 feet, a small black species above

3000, a large yellow brown solitary one below that. They are trouble-

some, but cause no irritation. In August and September these absolutely

swarm, and are no less troublesome to man than to the feet of poneys.

The rain continuing heavily, we rested the men by some large pools

on the flat. A small Lobelia, Chrysosplenium, Procris, and Callitriche,

formed a sward on the banks, amongst which some Ranunculus grew

(Diffusus, Wall, and a similar species) a large and handsome Carez,

flourished in the water.

Ranunculus, though so common a genus literally almost everywhere

else, is extremely scarce in the temperate and tropical zone of the Sik-

kim Himalaya ; R. scelevatust abounds in the plains close to the foot of

the hills, but between that elevation and 10,000 feet, I have nowhere

seen this or another species. Here and probably elsewhere in the Hi-

malaya, the genus is very rare in this zone, though perhaps more

abundant in the Asiatic zone above.

Crucifere is another natural order very frequent in the temperate

and mountainous regions of all the world, except the Himalaya. A

variety of Cardanime hirsuta? is absolutely the only plant of this

order, occurring wild between the plains of India and the summit of

Tonglo.

* T cannot but think that the extraordinary abundance of these Annelides in all

the grazing ground of Sikkim, may cause the death of many animals. Some marked

murrains have followed very wet seasons when the leeches swarm more than ever,

and the disease in the cattle described to me by the Lepchas as in the stomach, in no

way differs from what leeches would produce. It is a well known fact that these

creatures have lived for days in the fauces, nares and stomachs of the human subject,

causing dreadful sufferings, and death in the latter case. I have seen the cattle

feeding where the leeches so abounded, that 50 or 60 were frequently together on

my ancles.

+ I never could satisfy myself that this most abundant gangetic plant was truly

wild in India. The natives have no name for it ; it especially swarms in fields of

wheat, flax, mustard, &c. and along the borders of greater and smaller rivers, near

or below cultivated spots,

1849.| excursion from Darjiling to Tonglé. 437

Composite again are far from represented in the scale they are every-

where else. Though about Darjiling, where clearances have been

effected, the amazing prevalence of Gnaphahum and Anaphalis, &c.,

give this an appearance of the usual abundance of Composite, these very

species will be found elsewhere scarce in the temperate zone of Sikkim.

Labiate are also poorly represented, except in clearances,

As far as I can guess, this paucity of representatives of orders for

which the temperature of the Sikkim Himalaya is admirably adapted,

can best be attributed,—(1.) to the uniform luxuriance of the arboreous

vegetation, and the absence of either precipices or naked spots of any

kind. (2.) To the humid atmosphere; for some of these groups, as

Leguminose, are very rare in the only temperate climates which in the

respect of humidity and equability of temperature, can be compared

with Sikkim, namely New Zealand and Fuegia. There, as here, Cru-

cifere, Composite, Rammeuli, Labiate, and above all, Leguminose and

grasses are very rare in the forest region.

Our ascent to the summit was by the bed of a watercourse, now a

roaring torrent, for the rain was heavy and incessant. A small Ana-

gallis (like tenella) and a scapeless Primula, grew by its banks, also

some smaller Carices, and an Androsace. The top of the mountain is

another flat ridge, with depressions and broad pools or small lakes, in

which grew an Jris. <A square platform (raised by the Surveyor

General, whose party were the only Europeans who had previously to

ourselves visited this mountain) and which had been cleared from jungle,

only the 8 months before, was already fast getting choked with bamboo

and. various trees.

Upon the very top, though only 500 feet or so above the flat,

the number of additional species was great, and all betokening a rapid

approach to the alpine or arctic region of the Himalaya, though large

forest trees still abounded. In order of prevalence the trees are Rho-

dodendrons of 4 species. (1) R. arboreum, var: roseum,* which covered

the ground as large bushy trees, 40 ft. high. These ramify from the

ground, the lower branches being low and patent, and the apices of all

loaded with the superb scarlet inflorescence. (2) R. barbatum, a tree

of nearly the same height, but not so spreading ; flowers as copious and

* Leaves rusty colored underneath, and cordate at the petioli; probably a new

species.

3L 2

438 Notes, chiefly Botanical, made during an [ May,

beautiful, but foliage brighter, more luxuriant and handsome. (3) R.

Falconeri,* MSS., in point of foliage the most superb of all the Hima-

layan species ; trunks inclined, 30 ft. high, branching but little, bark

very smooth and papery. Branches naked, except at the apices, where

clusters of small white flowers are borne; the corollas are 10 cleft and

the stamens numerous. Leaves 18 inches long, very thick above, deep

green and wrinkled underneath, covered with a rich deep chesnut-brown

tomentum. Next in abundance to Rhododendrons are shrubs of Limo-

nia, Symplocos and Hydrangea, forming small trees, but there are still

a few Magnolias, very large Pyri, of three species, and Yew,+ the

latter 18 ft. in circumference; besides these, Anisodus luridus, now in

flower, Pieris, Andromeda, Olea, Celastrus, Cerasus and Daphne canna-

bina. A white flowered rose, R. sericea ?{ was very abundant, growing

erect, its numerous inodorous flowers pendent, apparently as a protection

from the dashing rain. Kadsura, Ochna, Stauntonia and Clematis

acuminata, were the prevailing climbers. I met with a cucurbitaceous

plant at this great elevation, a Smilax and Asclepiadeous genus (Holos-

tenura?). A currant was common, always growing epiphytically on

trunks of large trees. Two or three species of Berberris, and maple, I

think nearly complete the list of woody plants. Amongst the herbaceous

and smaller shrubby plants, were many of great interest, as a Rhubarb,

Rheum (Webbianum?) Aconitum palmatum§ a very pretty species,

which as well as an undescribed congener, yields the ‘ Bikh” poison of

E. Nepal, Sikkim and Bhotan. Thalictrum, one species. Anemone

vitifolia, Fumaria, two Viole. Stillaria, Hypericum, Geranium 2 species,

2 Balsams. Epilobium, Potentilla, Paris (7—10,000 ft.) Panax pseudo-

ginseng, and another species, Meconopsis Nepalensis, 2 species of Gen-

* JT have now upwards of 20 distinct species of this superb genus from the Sik.

kim mountains alone,

+ The red bark of the Yew is used as a dye and for staining the foreheads of the

brahman Ghorkkas in Nepal,

t This is the only species of rose occurring in Sikkim below 10,000 ft.

§ Probably Bikh is yielded by various Aconita. The name of both the Sikkim

Aconites is Bikhegniong by Lepchas and Bhotheas, who do not distinguish the two

species by the roots. Another, far more powerful Bikh, is yielded by a plant of

the order Composite, which I have gathered abundantly at 10 and 9000 ft. and it

requires care to distinguish its root from that of the Aconites ; when mixed the

Bhotheas could not separate them.

1849. | excursion from Darjiling to Tonglé, 439

tiana and 2 Crawfurdie, 2 Arisaema, Anagallis, Ardrosael and Ajuga,

Disporum, and three Comallarie, one with verticillate leaves, whose

root is another ‘ Bikh,”’ and considered very virulent. Graminie

were very few in number, but a large Carew covered the ground, amongst

the bamboo.

Still the absence or rarity of several very large natural families at

this elevation, which have numerous representatives at and much below

the same level in the Western Himalaya, indicates a certain peculiarity

in Sikkim. These are the following :—Ranunculacee, Fumarie, Cru-

cifere, Alsinee, Geranie, Leguminosae, Potentilla, Rosa, Epilobium,

Crassullacee, Saxifragee, Umbellifere, Lonicera, Valerianee, Dipsacee,

various genera of Composite, Campanulacee, Lobeliacea, Gentiane,

Boraginee, Scrophularinee, Primulacee, Graminee.

All the above are genera of the north temperate and subarctic zones,

which seek a much higher level in Sikkim than in the Western Hima-

laya or Bhotan. The difference in this respect being very much

greater than the small disparity of latitude, will account for, or than

any (if there be any) difference of mean temperature, for the snow line

is certainly very little different here, from that of the N. W. Himalaya.

On the other hand, certain tropical genera are more abundant in the

temperate zone of the Sikkim mountains, and ascend much higher there,

than in the Western Himalaya. Of this fact I have cited conspicuous

examples in the palms, plantains and tree fern ascending to nearly 7000,

and in the presence of many other orders at great elevations, figs,

peppers, Lauri, &c.; and to these could be added many others, none

more remarkable than Balanophora, of which there are several species

above 4, and even 6000 ft. one ascending to 8000.

This ascent and prevalence of tropical species, is due to the uniform

humidity and the equability of the climate in this temperate zone,

and is perhaps the direct consequence of these conditions. An appli-

cation of the same laws accounts for the extension of similar features

(tropical) of vegetation so far beyond the tropical limit in the southern

ocean; where various natural orders which do not cross the 30th and

40th parallel of N. Latitude, are extended to the 40th, 50th and 60th

in Tasmania, New Zealand, the so-called Antarctic Islands south of

that group; and to Cape Horn itself in Fuegia.

The forest region, encroaching so far upon, and in fact covering the

440 Notes, chiefly Botanical, made during an [ May,

temperate zone of the Sikkim Himalaya, and the snow level not being

proportionally higher, it follows that, caeteris paribus, the belt occupied

by upland alpine and the Arctic species, is more confined, and in all

probability less prolific in species than it isin the N. W. Of this the

rarity of Pines (themselves indices of a severe drought in the air or soil)

would appear to afford a proof; for between the level 2500, the upper

limit of the P. longifolia, and the Taxus, 10,000, which also coincides

with the lower limit of Adies, there is no coniferous tree whatever in

Sikkim ; except perhaps in the mountain faces immediately subtending

the perpetual snow; and there they may descend 1000 ft. lower.

There are only 6 species of Conifer, including Taxus and Juniperus

in Sikkim, of which two are not common to the N. W. mountains, and

these six are by no means abundant in individuals ; I shall however soon

have the honor of laying before the Society, a short sketch of the

limits of these, and shall therefore suppress further details here.

We encamped amongst the Rhododendron trees, on a spongy soil, of

black vegetable matter, so oozy that it was difficult to keep’ dry-shod.

The rain poured in torrents all the evening and thus, the calm, and wet-

ness of the wood prevented our enjoying a fire. Except a transcient

view into the Nepal, a few miles west of us, nothing was to be seen,

the whole mountain being wrapped in dense masses of vapor. Gusts

of wind, not felt in the forest, swept over the gnarled and naked tree

tops, and though the temperature was 50° this produced cold to the

feelings in walking about, and exposure to it.

Our poor Lepchas were miserably off, but always happy under four

posts and a bamboo-leaf thatch, and with no covering but thin single

cotton garment. They crouched on the sodden turf joking with the

Hindus of our party, who, though supplied with good clothing and

shelter, were doleful companions.

I made a shed for my instruments under a tree ; Barnes ever active

and ready, floored the tent with logs of wood, and I laid a “ corduroy

road’’ of the same to my little observatory.

During the night the rain did not abate; the tent-roof bagged and

leaked in torrents, so that we had to throw pieces of wax-cloth over

our shoulders as we lay in bed.

May 22nd.—There is no improvement whatever in the weather. Two

of the Hindus crawled into the tent during the night, with fever and

1849. | excursion from Darjiling to Tongld. 44]

ague.* The tent being too sodden to carry, we had no choice but to

remain where we were, and there being abundance of novelty within

20 yards of the tent, there was no difficulty, with such a pursuit as

Botany, in gettmg through the day. Observing the track of sheep we

sent two Lepchas on the scent, who after being absent the whole day,

returned from some miles west in Nepal, with two sheep and as many

lambs. The shepherds were Goorongs of Nepal, who were grazing

their flocks on a grassy mountain top, from which the woods had been

cleared; probably by fire. These to the Lepchas was a great boon,

but the Hindus would not touch the flesh, and several more sickening

during the day, we had the tent most uncomfortably full.+

Our inability to obtain a view was extremely disheartening, the moun-

tain commanding a superb prospect. It embraces nearly 100 miles of the

snowy range, from far west in Nepal, to Kunchinjinga and its five sister-

peaks, varying from 20,000 to 28,000 ft., and from which an uninter-

cepted succession of snowy ridges sweeps round to east. The culminant

points of this rise several to 21,000, and many to upwards of 18,000

ft. Chamalari, on the Thibetan plain, rears its head above the eastern

amphitheatre of snows, at a distance of 80 miles. S. E. are the sub-

Himalayas of Bhootan, and all between the billowy mountain masses of

Sikkim. South, the eye should have ranged over the plains of India,

~ the courses of the Teesta, the Konki, the Cosi, and the innumerable

smaller streams which debouche on the plain.

During the whole of the 22nd, from 7 a. m. to 11 p. m., the Ther-

mometer never varied 6° 5 degrees, ranging from 47.5 in the morning

to 54°, its maximum, at 1 p. m., and 50.7 at night. At 7 the follow-

ing morning it was the same. A Thermometer sunk 2 ft. 6 inches in

deep vegetable mould and clay, maintained for two days the constant

* It is a remarkable fact, that both the natives of the plains under many cir-

cumstances, and the Lepchas, when suffering from protracted cold and wet, take

fever and ague in sharp attacks. The disease is wholly unknown amongst Euro-

peans residing above 4000 ft., similar exposure in whom, brings on rheumatism and

cold, even in constitutions predisposed to the former, by repeated attacks of fevers

in other climates.

T This was a most convenient hill tent, kindly lent us by Major Cromelin of

Darjiling ; it goes on one man’s shoulders, and accommodates two persons with a

little management.

442 Notes, chiefly Botanical, made during an | May,

temperature of 50.7. In spite of the heavy rain and fog the dew

point was always below the temperature, with which I am somewhat

surprized, for more drenching weather could not well be. The mean

dew point was 50.3, and consequent humidity 0.973.*

These observations, and those of the Barometer, were taken some 60

feet below the summit, to which I moved the instruments on the morn-

ing of the 28th. At a much more exposed spot, the results would

have differed no doubt. A Thermometer then sunk to the same depth

as that below, stood at 49.7; or one degree colder than 60 ft. lower

down. 7

The summit of Tonglo, by my Barometrical observations, taken simul-

taneously with those of Calcutta, gives the height 10,078.3 ft. Col.

Waugh’s, by Trigonometry, 10,079.4 ft., a marvellous imstance of the

perfection to which these instruments are brought, and above all of the

accuracy of the tables+ from which the altitudes are deduced. I hope

shortly to have the honor of laying before the Society some proofs of

the accuracy with which elevations by the Barometer may be obtained,

together with some account of the most recent tables now in use, and

which are no less remarkable for their comprehensiveness than sim-

plicity.

May 23rd.—We spent a few hours of alternate fog and sunshine on

the top of the mountain, vainly hoping for the most modest view. The

air, which was always foggy, was alternately cooled and heated, as it

blew over the trees, or the open space we occupied, sometimes varying

5° and 6° in 4 hour. Whenever a lull occurred the fog was sensibly

heated by the sun’s rays.

The number of mosses, Hepatice and Lichens, growing near and on

the summit, is very remarkable. There were various species of Ferns,

and a small Agaricus grew on decayed twigs ; Lichens infested the naked

branches of the Rose, Barberry and Cherry. The trunks of both the

Rhododendrons, owing to their smooth papery bark, and the bamboo,

are remarkably free from Cryptogamic vegetation.

Having partially dried the tent in the wind, we commenced the

* As expressed by the quotient of the tension at the temperature of the dew

point divided by that of the air.

t+ There are Bessel’s Tables, translated by Col. Sabine, and published in the ——

number of Taylor’s Scientific Memoirs.

De eeeeeeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEGV0GV7Vu5u5u—-

1849. | excursion from Darjiling to Tonglo. 443

descent, which owing to the late torrents of rain, was most fatiguing and

slippery ; it again commenced to drizzle at noon, nor was it till we had

descended to 6000 feet, that we imerged from the region of clouds.

Then I met with a species of Balanophona, pushing through the soil ;

it is a new species, monoicous, the earliest flowering of any in Sikkim,

and may be distinguished from its congeners by its cyathiform involucre

round the middle of the pedicel.

By dark we arrived at Simonbong, having descended 5000 feet at the

rate of 1000 feet an hour, and here we were kindly received by the

Lama, who gave us his temple for the accommodation of the whole

party. We were surprised at this, both because the Sikkim authorities

had falsely represented the Lamas as very averse to Europeans, and

because he might well have hesitated, before giving ingress to a promis-

cuous horde of some 30 people, into a sacred building, when the little

valuables on the altar, &c. were quite at our disposal. He made but

one request, that the Hindus should not smoke their hookahs inside.

Simonbong is one of the smallest and poorest Gumpas (or monas-

teries) in Sikkim,* unlike the better class, it is built of wooden beams

only, and has no monuments, except the Chaits mentioned on our way

up the mountain. It consists of one large room, with small sliding

shutter-windows, raised on a stone foundation, and roofed with shingles

of wood ; opposite the door, which is at one end, (the east,) the altar is

placed, of wood, chequered with black white and red diagonally ; to the

right and left are shelves with a few MS. books, wrapped in silk; a

model of Symbonath at Nepal, in wood ; a praying cylinder, and some

implements for common purposes, bags of Juniper, &c. On the shelves

are English wine bottles and glasses, with tufts of Abies Webbiana,

Rhododendrons and peacocks’ feathers.

On the altar seven little brass cups are ranged, full of water; a large

shell carved with the sacred lotus ; a brass jug from Lhassa, of beautiful

* There are upwards of 20 Lama establishments in Sikkim, numbering 800 monks.

Many of these are of excellent masonry, Chinese in architecture, gorgeously decorat-

ed, and for so poor a country, richly endowed. During my more recent travels in

Sikkim I have visited many, been an inmate in the monasteries, and met with the

greatest kindness and hospitality from the good fathers. As the first European who

has ever lived with the monks, this was the less to be expected. Dr. Campbell, who

afterwards joined me, and whose delightful society I visited others, records the

same opinion of these good-humored people.

444 Notes, chiefly Botanical, mude during an | May,

design, and a human thigh bone, hollow and perforated through both

condyles. The shelves above contained various trifles, clay ornaments

and offerings, and little Hindu idols brought from the Hurdwar fair.

Facing the altar is a bench and chair, and on one side a huge tam-

bourine, with two carved iron drum sticks. The bench was full of mys-

terious implements, bells handsomely carved with idols, censers with

juniper ashes, the dorge which the priest holds in his hand during

service, and various water vessels; on the stool or chair was a large

platter, with a brass egg-cup inserted in it.

Of these the human thigh-bone is by much the most curious; it is

very often that of a Lama, and the longer they are the more value is

put upon them. As however the Sikkim Lamas are burned, these

relics are generally procured from Thibet, where the corpses are said to

be cut in pieces and thrown to the kites, or into the water.

The Lama was consecrated at Chungachelling, one of the oldest

Sikkim convents (three centuries) and unfortunately was not an edu-

cated or intelligent fellow.

Two boys usually reside in the temple, and their beds were given up

to us, which being only rough planks laid on the floor, proved clean in

one sense; but contrasted badly with the springy couch of bamboo the

Lepcha makes in your tent, and which renders carrying a matrass or

aught but blankets superfluous.

May 24th.—We were awakened this morning by the discordant

orisons of the Lama, these commenced at sunrise by the boys coming

in and beating the great tambourine close to our ears for several minutes;

then blowing the conch shells, and finally the thigh-bone, each as long.

Shortly the Lama entered, clad in scarlet, shorn and barefooted, with

a small red silk cap. He walked along, slowly muttering and groaning

his prayer to the end of the apartment, whence he took a small red bag in

which were a brass bell and dorge. Sitting down he commenced matins

before the chair with the brass cup, which he filled with water and

placed again in the platter,—took off his beads and continued counting

them or beating the bell, uttering most dismal prayers in a very depre-

catory tone, of which ‘ Maliva oh Maliva,”’ was the burthen. After

various disposals of the water-jugs, cups and platter, which were filled

and refilled, rice added and sprinkled about,—a large bell was violently

rung for some minutes, himself snapping his fingers and uttering most

1849. | excursion from Daryjling to Tonglé. 445

unearthly sounds. Having put away those instruments, incense was

brought, of charcoal with juniper sprigs. This was muffled about, and

put through many evolutions, and finally, with the water, thrown out of

the window, when to our great relief the morning service was concluded,

for the noises were quite intolerable.

After breakfast the Lama came to visit us, bringing rice, a few vegeta-

bles, and a large basket of fermented Murwa; the latter is invariably

given to the traveller, either in the state of the fermented grain, or

more commonly in a bamboo jug filled right up with warm water and

grain ; the fluid sucked through a reed is a refreshing drink.

A species of Péris at Simonbong (which is very common elsewhere

in Sikkim,) attains a height of 14 feet, as great as I ever remember

having seen itself or congeners in New Zealand.

Leaving Simonbong, we descended to the little Rungeet, and crossed

it lower down than before, thus avoiding some troublesome spurs; the

heat of the valleys is very great, 80° at noon, and of the stream 69°; the

latter an agreeable temperature for the coolies, who plunged teeming

with perspiration into the water, catching fish with their hands.

We reached Darjiling late in the evening, and again drenched with

rain, our people, Hindus and Lepchas, imprudently tarried for the night

in the valleys below. Owing probably as much to the great exposure

they had lately gone through and the sudden transition from a mean

temperature of 50° in a bracing wind, toa hot close jungly valley at 75°,

no less than seven were laid up with fever and ague.

Few excursions from Darjilmg can, for their length, give a better

idea of the general features and rich luxuriance of the Sikkim sub-

Himalaya than one to Tonglo. I was amply rewarded, and my ever

cheerful and active companion, pronounced himself so too, though we

both had fully expected better weather, and some, however transient or

confined, a prospect. It is always mteresting to roam with an aboriginal,

and especially a mountain people, though their thinly inhabited valleys,

over these grand mountains, and to dwell alone with them in these

forests, however gloomy and forbidding. No thinking man can do so

without learning much, though slender be the resources at his com-

mand for communion. A more interesting and attractive companion

in this respect than the Lepcha, I never lived with ; cheerful, kind and

patient with a master he is attached to: rude but not savage, ignorant

3M 2

446 The Polecat of Tibet. | May,

and yet intelligent ; with the simple resource of a plain knife, he makes

his house and furnishes your’s, with a speed, alacrity and ingenuity that

steals away that well known long hour, when the weary pilgrim frets

for his couch. In all my dealings with them they have proved scrupu-

lously honest. Except for drunkenness and carelessness, I never had

to complain of any of the merry troop, some of whom, bare-headed

and. bare-legged, with absolutely nothing but a cotton garment and long

knife, followed me for 3 months (on a recent occasion, from the scorch-

ing plains to the everlasting snows ;) ever foremost in the forest or bleak

mountain, and ever ready to help, to carry, to encamp, collect, or cook,

they cheer on the traveller by their unostentatious zeal in his service ;

and are spurs te his progress, for who would not go forwards where

such followers are behind.

The Polecat of Tibet, n. s. By B. H. Hoveson, Lsq.

With a Plate.

Every addition to the Mammalogy of Tibet is of high interest from

the light it is calculated to reflect upon those very subtly varying cir-

cumstances which determine parity of climate in relation to organic

development and. distribution ; and I have therefore much satisfaction

in presenting to the Society the following description of a new species

of Weasel, bearing nearly the same remarkable resemblance to the ordi-

nary Polecat of England as do the Raven, Magpie, Chough and Nut- °

cracker of Tibet to those of our own country. Ere long, when the results

of the recent scientific expedition to Gnari shall have been placed before

the public, the mean elevation and temperature, the moisture and the

soil of the Western Province of the great transnivean plateau will, it is

hoped, no longer remain matters of speculation and doubt. But we

possess not, nor have any prospect of soon. obtaining, similar data in

reference to the central province of U'tsang, or to the eastern province of

Kham. Humboldt has, indeed, assigned 10,000 French feet for the

Corrections to Mr. Hopagson’s paper on the Polecat of Thibet.

Page 446, last line, for 10,000, read, 9000.

» 447, first line, for inferentially only, read, the environs of

Lassa are comparatively low, vide M. Huce’s narrative An.

Propag. pp. 236-7.

» ~ 447, line 6 from top, for nearer 15,000 feet, read, at least 3

to 4000 feet above Humboldt’s estimate above cited,

» 447, 8 lines from bottom, for 16,642, read, 16,700.

» 447, 7 lines from bottom, for 15,746, read, 17,500.

ae |

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1849. | The Polecat of Tibet. 447

elevation of Lassa, but inferentially only ; and it is difficult to advert

to what we now know of the surpassing elevation of the Himalayan

peaks and ghats opposite to U'tsang,* in connection with what is cre-

dibly alleged of the very trivial descent from those ghats+ to the plain

of Utsing, without coming to the conclusion that the mean height of

the central province of Tibet must be nearer 15,000 feet. On the other

hand, the received ratio of decrement of heat with increasing elevation{t

would, on such a supposition, reduce the temperature of U'tsang to an

arctic rigour inconsistent with much that is alleged of the vegetable

productions of that province, and with much that is known of its wild

animals, among which antelopes and large felines make a conspicuous

figure.

The whole of my quadrupeds and. birds of Tibet were procured in

Utsing. Amongst the latter I have just adverted to four species, than

which none are more common in, and characteristic of, Britain at once

and Tibet. Nearly the same thing may be said of that singular Tibetan

analogue of our familiar English Polecat, which I am now about to

describe, merely observing in the meanwhile that a Boreal, though not

a strictly British character, is strongly impressed upon the general con-

tents of my Tibetan Catalogue and upon the additions since made to it,

as recorded in the Journal between 1543 and 1848.

Felidee. Carnivora.

Mustelina. Gray. Mustelidee. Waterh.

Putorius. Mustela.

Putorius Larvatus. nae

Mustela Larvata. satis

* Peak of Kangchang 28,176. Ghat of Wallangching 16,642. Ghat of Kangla-

chema 15,746, the fomer determined by Col. Waugh, the latter by Dr. Hooker.

Peak of Dhavalagiri 27,000, (Herbert.) Of Chumalari, 24,000, (Waugh.) To all

which add Deodhtinga,a peak which (as well as Dhavalagiri) is believed to rival

Kangchang.

ft Journal, No. 197, pp. 495 and 499, and 499, and Turner’s Tibet, at entrance

into Tibet.

¢ Herbert’s Report on Darjiling, p. 3.

‘

448 The Polecat of Tibet. | May,

Black-faced Polecat of Tibet.

Tail one-third of the entire length. Soles clad. Fur long. Above

and. laterally, sordid fulvous, deeply shaded on the back with black.

Below, from throat backwards with the whole limbs and tail, black.

Head pale with a dark mask over the face. Snout to vent 14 inches.

Head less 3. Tail only 6. Tail with hair, 7. Palma 13. Planta 23.

Habitat, the plain of central Tibet.

My specimen of this interesting animal was obtained in the district

of U’, on the south of the Sanpu, and was brought to me this spring

along with a second specimen of the Tibetan Badger (Taxidea Leucu-

rus.) The skin was in good condition, and had the limbs and scull

complete. It is seemingly a male, and certainly, a mature animal. The

length from snout to vent is 14 inches and the tail is 7 more, so that

Toufzeus only of Tibet, and Flavigula of the Himalaya, can compare with

it in size. The copious pelage more resembles that of the Yellow-neck

of these mountains than that of the Sable-like Tibetan species. The

fur is of two kinds, or hair and wool, both abundant, especially the

wool; and the hair is as much longer than the wool as it is less thick.

The structure of the animal is typical. The face short and bluff, the

head long and depressed ovoid, the neck of medial length, and as thick

as the head, the body very long, the tail longish and cylindrico-tapered ,

the ears, as usual, remote, truncately rounded and fissured behind; the

limbs short and strong, the fore digits being rather the larger, and the hind

limbs more plainly the longer, of the two. The soles of the feet, fore

and aft, are completely furred, save only the digital balls and a very

small carpal one ; and this would seem to be the case with most of the

mustelines, our Cathia and the Javanese nudipes appearing to be quite

exceptional in regard to the nakedness of the soles of their feet. The

digits of the Tibetan Polecat are andromorphously gradated upon the

whole ; but the two central fingers are more nearly equal than in the

human hand, and the inner digit or thumb is small and remote, as usual

with the congeners of this species. The nails, by their length and acute-

ness, indicate scansorial habits more proper to the Martens than to the

Weasels, strictly so called, though the number and character of the

molar teeth leave no doubt that our animal belongs to the latter divi-

sion. The ample pelage has the hairy piles 24 to 24 inches long upon

1849. | The Polecat of Tibet. 449

the body. Upon the tail they are shorter, and tend to a point at its

extremity, where however they do not much surpass the true tail, less so

than in the English Polecat Upon the head and limbs the hair is short,

harsh and void of woolly subfleece. Elsewhere the hair is long, fine,

straight, elastic, glossy, but much scanter than the very thick, soft

woolly piles below it. The colour of the animal isa sordid fulvous,

deeply shaded with black. The limbs and tail are wholly black, and

so is the whole under surface of the body, save a narrow band proceed-

ing from the fulvous flanks round the centre of the belly. A black

mask covers the face, as far as the eyes, inclusive, and the nostrils ex-

clusive. And this dark mask is rendered more conspicuous by being

completely surrounded by the pale fulvous hue, which prevails over the

lips, chin, cheeks, ears and crown of the head. The dimensions of the

animal and of its scull are given in detail below. But I may here add

ju reference to the scull that it has greater height and greater arcua-

tion along the culminal line than in most other true weasels, the Eng-

lish Polecat perhaps included. The teeth are §. 4.7. 4.4. The incisors

above are disposed in line; but below, the intermediate teeth stand

interiorly to the rest. The canines are large and somewhat curved,

especially the lower ones, which however have no heel at their base.

The first molar above is simple, conic and small. The next also conic,

is larger with a quasi heel before and behind the cone. The third or

carnassial tooth has two cutting, compressed lobes and a small internal

heel placed anteally. The 4th or tubercular molar of this jaw, is trans-

versely set, parallelogramic in form, and shows two blunt and rugged

conic processes centrally divided by a transverse dip. In the lower

jaw the three first molars are conic and uncompressed with more or

less of heel before and behind the central lobe of their crowns. The

4th or true carnassier is, in this jaw, very trenchant, and much com-

pressed, with three lobes, of which the hindmost is the least. This

tooth has no trace of an internal heel, but its posteal lobe assimilates

somewhat with the tubercular of this jaw, which is a small round flat-

topped tooth fitted for crushing only. The excellent drawings append-

ed to the above description will, I hope, complete whatever more is

needful to an accurate appreciation of the species.

450 The Polecat of Tibet. [May,

Dimensions of the Animal.

Siomt tO VER ee ee Skee rE Whew Ciecdle Cate Trir2? 0

Hiead ress Ek Se Pa SL -. P ee

A COTE talc agin a eI AS a 0 7 0

Manoulys OF Rae Se go ot Re

Pola, with nails, So 0-Fee. Saas ee 01 2

Planta; avithenails,£ oo Pee ay 8S SOS OS

Dimensions of the scull.

Length, . Lig ee ee ole et at drt aS

Height, . Ue. 3 Soh we Da ee

aiidinanetteenti ee vite ieee ee tena sek Silo 0 1 2

Width between bases of parietes,...........-.. Oeel 2

Length of upper jaw, symp., intermax to hind

edge of last molar, -........--2+-- e002 eee Ov'els*0

Length of lower jaw to last molar, ...........- 0/1.

P. S.—The following enumeration of the Mustelide of Tibet and

the Himalaya may be serviceable :—

1. Martes Toufous.

Martes Flavigula.

Mustela Erminia.

Mustela Canigula. Hodgsonii of Gray.

Mustela subheméchalana. Humeralis of Blyth.

Mustela Cathia vel auriventer.

aoe & 2

Puttorius larvatus.

1, 3 and 7 are confined to Tibet. The rest are Cisnivean, but

belong in general, exclusively to the northern region of these moun-

tains ; 5 and 6 however are also found in the central region, and 2 is

almost confined to that region. None are found in the southern region.

1849. | On the Aborigines of Nor-Eastern India. 451

On the Aborigines of Nor-Eastern India. By B. H. Hopason, Esq.

Pursuant to my plan of furnishing to the readers of the Journal a

glance at the Ethnic affinities of the Aborigines of India, from the

snows to Cape Comorin, I have now the honor to submit a comparative

vocabulary, uniform with its precursors, of the Dhimél, Bddé and Garé

tongues, preceded by the written and spoken Tibetan, for a reason that

will presently appear.

I regret that I could not on a recent occasion, nor can now, give the

Chépang vocables on this model. But it is many years since I have

had access to that secluded people, and I cannot now calculate on hay-

ing it again.

As I have already, in a separate work, given the Dhimal and Bodé

languages upon a scale much ampler than the present one, and as I

have, moreover, in that work demurred to the sufficiency of summary

vocabularies, it may be asked why I repeat, myself, on the present occa-

sion, and in the very manner I have myself objected to? My answer

to this question is ready, and I hope will prove satisfactory. Three

years have now elapsed since I published the work alluded to, and in

that time I have had ample opportunity to observe the general indis-

position to enter the field of Indian Ethnology, bent upon serious

labour like the author of that work. Now, general co-operation is the

one thing needful in this case: and, since I feel certain that there is no

want of mental vigour in this land, I am led to ascribe the slackness I

have experienced: in obtaining co-operators according to the suggested

model, to the novelty of the subject, whence it happens that few per-

sons can perceive the extensive bearings and high interest of that

subject.

By the present series of summary vocabularies I hope to make these

points apparent, when I confidently anticipate that many able men who

could not be won to give their time and attention to the elucidation of

the barbarous jargon of this or that insulated and petty tribe of abo-

rigines, will yet be stimulated to efficient exertion upon being made

aware, that the question, in fact, relates to the fate and fortunes, the

migrations and improvement or deterioration, of the largest family of

human kind. No question of ethnology is insulated. It is quite the

contrary, and that by its very nature. So that wherever we begin,

3.N

452 On the Aborigines of Nor-Eastern India, [ May,

even with the humblest tribe, we must soon find that we are dealing

with the history, and with a material portion of the history, of some

great mass of the human race. Thus, the latest investigators of the

general subject of human affinities include in the great Mongolian

family, not merely the high Asian Nomades, or the Turks, the Mongols

and the Tangts, but also (with daily increasing, though not yet con-

clusive, evidence) the Tibetans, the Chinese, the Indo-Chinese, and the

Tamilians. The Tamiulians include the whole of the Aborigines of

India, whether civilized or uncivilized, from Cape Comorin to the

snows ; except the inhabitants of the great mountainous belt confining

the plains of India towards Tibet, China and Ava. These last are, in

the Nor-West, derived from the Tibetan stock ; and in the South-East,

from the Indo-Chinese stock ; the 92° of East longitude, or the Dhansri

river of Assam, apparently forming the dividing lime of the two races,

which are each vastly numerous and strikingly diversified, yet essen-

tially one, just as are the no less numerous and varied races of the

single Tamulian stock. Thus, we cannot take up the investigation of a

narrow and. barren topic like that of the Kuki, the Chépang, or the

Gond tribe without presently finding ourselves engaged in unravelling

some, it may be, dark and intricate, but truly important, chapter of the

history of one of those large masses of human kind, the Indo-Chinese

the Tibetans, or the Tamulians. Nor can one prosecute this investi-

gation far without perceiving that our subject has yet ampler relations,

connecting itself by indissoluble yet varied links with those tremendous

warriors who planted their standards on the walls of Pekin and Dehli,

of Vienna and Moscow. Much of their fate and fortunes belongs to

history, but much more to pre-historic times, when vast bodies of these

so called Mongols poured themselves upon India, from the North and

from the East, both before, and subsequent to, the great immigration of

the Arian Hindis. Have you no curiosity to learn what may be learnt

anent these important, and for us British denizens of India, domestic,

events? Or do you doubt the validity of any available media of proof?

If the latter, as is probable, be the ground of your objection to such

inquiries, I would say, in the first place, look steadfastly at any man of

an aboriginal race (an ubiquitarian Dhanger for instance) and say if a

Mongol origin is not palpably inscribed on his face? Or, again, take

a score of words of his language and compare them with their equi-

1849. | On the Aborigines of Nor-Eastern India. 453

valents in Hindi, Urdi, or any other Prakrit, and say if you are not

sensible of being in a foreign realm of speech? And what can that

realm be but the North and Nor-Kast, the Nor-West being no way

available to your purpose? In the second place I would observe that

every medium of proof which has been employed to demonstrate the

unity of the Iranian family is available to demonstrate the unity of the

Turanian ; whilst, with regard to prima facia improbabilities, much

greater ones once encompassed the now admitted fact that Hindis,

Persians, Germans, English, Irish, Russians, are members of one family,

viz. the Iranian, than can attend any similarly perfect demonstration,

that Tamulians, Tibetans, Indo-Chinese, Chinese, Tangis, Mongols and

Turks are so many branches of another single family, viz. the Turé-

nian, Nor are these questions of interest only to the speculative phi-

losopher. They are, on the contrary, of vital importance to the States-

man who may be led into the most serious practical errors for want of

such lights as Ethnology affords. I will give a striking and recent

instance. The Chief Secretary of the Government, who is likewise one

of the most able and accomplished men in India, in speaking of the

educational improveability of the Hindus, has formally alleged the zm-

possibility of making them worthy and vigorous men and citizens by

reason of their race,* when it is really as certain as that 2 and 2 make

4, that the race of the Hindis is identical with Mr. Elliot’s own! Glot-

tology and Anatomy combine to place this great truth (and in every

educational view it is pre-eminently such for all those who are now

seeking to make this splendid country capable of adequate British, and

eventually in the fullness of time of self-government) upon an un-

shakeable foundation. Would that the science of Law, national and in-

ternational, stood upon an equally stable basis of numerous, largely and

irrefragably inducted facts.

Having said so much by way of encouragement, upon the extensive

bearings and high importance of Indian Ethnology, I will now add a

few words by way of caution. Mr. Robinson, in a recent paper upon

sundry of the border tribes of Assam,+ has not scrupled confidently to

* Preface to the Moslem Historians of India. I cordially assent nevertheless to

the justice of Mr. Elliot’s strictures. But I find the cause of the actual evil else-

where.

+ Journal, No. 201, for March 1849.

454 On the Aborigines of Nor-Eastern India. { May,

assert the affinity of these tribes (the Bodo and Garé amongst others)

with the people of Tibet. This may, or may not, be so. But I appre-

hend that this alleged affinity demands larger and more careful investi-

gation than Mr. Robinson has yet had leisure to apply to it, and that in

thus deciding upon a most interesting and difficult point, he has ad-

duced maxims which are not very tenable. In the first place, he has

wholly neglected the physical and psychical evidence which are, each of

them, as important as the glottological towards the just decision of a

question of ethnic affinity. In the next place, whilst adducing a copi-

ous vocabulary which makes against, anda curt survey of the mechanism

of language which (we will allow) makes for, his assertion, he proceeds

to lay down the doctrine that the former medium of proof is worthy of

very little, and the latter medium of proof (thus imperfectly used and

applied) is worthy of very much, reliance. In the third place, whilst

insisting upon the indispensableness of a written and fixed standard of

speech, he has neglected the excellent standard that was available for

the Tibetan tongue, and has proceeded to rest upon two spoken stand-

ards, termed by him Bhotia and Changld, but neither of which agrees

with the written or spoken language of Lassa and Digarchi. In the

fourth place, he speaks of Bhét alias Tibet, and Bhutan alias Lho, as the

same country; and also gives his unknown Changlo a position within

the known limits of Bhitaén,* without the slightest reference to the lat-

ter well-known country ; besides, speaking of the cis-Himalayans and

sub-Himilayans (p. 203) as separate races!

These remarks are by no means captiously made. But some sifting of

the evidence adduced is surely indispensable when a question of delica-

cy and difficulty is (I must think) preyudged upon such grounds.

Mr. Robinson is possibly not aware how much of the mechanism of

the whole of the Turanian group of languages is common to every

one language of that group, nor that the Tamulian and Tibetan lan-

guages are held to be integral parts of that group. Yet such are appar-

ently the facts,+ whence it must surely result that a cursory and exclu-

sive view of the organization of one of these languages, such as Mr.

Robinson gives and rests on, cannot be adequate to settle the Tibetan

affinities of the Bodds and Garos (interalia), since the points of lingual

* Viz. 923 East longitude.— Pemberton’s Report.

ft Prichard, Vol. IV. p.—, and Bunsen’s Report.

1849. | On the Aborigines of Nor-Eastern India. 455

agreement cited may be neutral quantities, that is, characteristics com-

mon (say) to the Tamulian and Tibetan tongues, or to the Chinese and

Tibetan : and certainly some of them are so far from being diagnostical-

ly, that is, exclusively, Tibetan, that they belong to Hindi, Urdu and even

to English! We have yet much to learn touching the essentials of the

structure of the Indo-Chinese tongues, the Chinese and the Tibetan ; and

until a-philosophical analysis shall. have been made of these languages

it will be very hazardous to rest upon a cursory view of the supposed

distinctive (structural) characters of Mr. Robinson’s exclusive standard,

or the Tibetan ; in regard to the structure of which tongue, moreover, he

has scarcely more fully availed himself of De Cords’ grammar than he has

in his vocabulary of De Cords’ dictionary. Under these circumstances

I am disposed to place at least as much reliance upon Mr. Robinson’s

copious list of vocables* as I can do upon his incomplete analysis of

structure; and with regard to Mr. R.’s disparagement of the words of

any unwritten and uncultivated tongue as evidence of ethnic affinity,

I must say there seems to me a good deal of exaggeration.

Whoever shall take an adequate number, not more than Mr. Robin-

son’s, of well selected words, and shall take them with such care as to

be able to reach the roots of the words and to cast off those servile par-

ticles, whether prefixes or postfixes, among which deviation is ever most

rife, may confidently rely upon his vocabulary for much sound informa-

tion respecting ethnic affinities, supposing of course that he has a good

* This list seems to gainsay Mr. R.’s theory, for if the Bédds (for example) were

of Tibetan origin, it is hardly credible that their ordinary vocables should not more

plainly reveal the fact, seeing that they have never been out of actual contact with

races of the same descent as that ascribed to them. The sub-Himalayan dialects

differ from the trans-Himalayan standard: but identity is here shown in the roots

as well as in the mode of agglutinating the servile particles; not to mention that

the snows form such a barrier in this case as exists not in regard to the Bod inter-

course with tribes of Tibetan origin.

The same general result follows from a careful examination of the vocabularies

now forwarded. Apparently the Tibetan, like the Hindi, words, are adopted ones.

+ Mr. Kemble has lately made most important use of the Saxon of the Hep-

tarchy, of its words, and words only, Saxons in England. A yet higher and strictly

ethnological use has been made of the vocables of the old Iberian tongue, by the

younger Humboldt, who was yet reduced to glean these vocables from maps! What

would not Bunsen give for 100 plain words of the old Egyptian tongue, as spoken.

456 On the Aborigines of Nor-Eastern India. [May,

standard and makes the proper use of it. Of course, I reject, with Mr.

Robinson, as neutral quantities, all adopted, imitative and interjectional

words. But when I find Mr. R. insisting upon “ casual’’ resemblances

as a class of words equally worthless with the three above enumerated,

I desire to know what this chance means ; for, one of the highest of

living authorities on Ethnology and Glottology, and one too who insists

almost too much upon the mechanism of language,* declares that “the

chance is less than one in a million for the same combination of

sounds signifying the same precise object.” With these cautionary

remarks, which are given in a spirit of perfect courtesy towards Mr. R.

I now conclude, any further observations being unnecessary to explain

my purpose in appending the written and spoken Tibetan, the former

from De Cords; the latter, from a native of Lassa, to my present series

of vocables.

Comparative Vocabulary of the Tibiten, Dhimal, Bédé and Garé

tongues.

Tibetan.

English. |\—-———_____ Dhimdal Bédé. Garo.

Written. Spoken.

Air rSingma_ | Shakpa Birima Bhirma| Bar H Lampar

Ant Grogma Théma Nha mii Hasa brai Gonga,Sambir

Arrow mDah Da Kher Bala Phéé

Bird Bya Chya Jiha Dou-chen Tou-chap

Blood Khrang Thak Hiki Thoi Chi

Boat Gru Koa, Syen |Nawd4r H Nou H Rung

Bone Ruspa Rak6 Hara H Bégeng Kéréng

Buffalo Mahi. s. |Mahé Dia Moisho Moishi

Cat Byila Simi Mén khou Mouji Myou

Cow Ba Pha chik | Pia Mash-hi-jo |Masha

Crow Khata Ablak Kawa Dou-kha Koura

Day Nyinmo |Nyi mo Nyitima T (|Shyan Rasan, San

Dog Khyi Uyo Khia T Choi ma Kai T

Ear Sa Amché Nha tong Khoma Machér

Farth rNa Sa Bhoénoi Ha Ha

Ege sGdénga Gong na Tai Dou-doi, Tou-chf,

fowl’s water) |\(fowl’s blood)

Elephant jgLangchén |Lamboche |Naria Moi gédét Napl6

Eye Mig Mik Mi T Mogon Makar

Father Pha Pala Aba Bipha Aba

Fire Ma Mé Mé T Wat Ver, Wal

Fish Nya Gna Haiya Na T Na T

Flower Métog Méntok Lhép Bibar Parr

Foot irKangpa |Kango Khokoi |Yapha Chaplap

* See Bopp’s remarks on the structural diagnostics of Sanscrit and Arabic

— Comp. Gram.

+ Bunsen’s Report to the Brit. Assoc.

1849.]

English.

Goat

Hair

Hand

Head

Hog

Horn

Horse

House

Tron

Leaf

Light

Man

Monkey

Moon

Mother

Mountain

Mouth

Moschito

Name

Night

Oil

Plantain

River

Road

Salt

Skin

Sky

Snake

Star

Stone

Sun

Tiger

Tooth

Tree

Village

Water

Yam

Thou

He, she, it

On the Aborigines of Nor-Eastern India.

Tibetan.

Dhimal. Bodo.

Written. Spoken.

Ra Ra E’écha Buarma

sKra, sPa |Ta. Kra |Mdi ta Khanai, Kho-

mon

Lag pa Langé Khir Akhai

mG6 Go Paring Khéré

Phag Phak Paya Yoma

Ra Rajo Dang Gong

rTa Ta Onhya Kérai H

Khyim Nang Cha Nod

1Chags Chhya Chir Chirr

Loma Hyodma —s | Lhava Lai

Hod Hwé. Eu |Sanékaé Chirang,

Shrang

Mi Mi Waval, Diang|Hiwa Manshi*

sPréba Tyt Nhoya Mokhara

zLava Dawa Tali N6ékhabir

Ama Ama Ama B.ma

Ri Ri Ra T Hajé

Kha Kha Nai Khouga

Sanba, Syé dongma|J4ha Thamphdi

mChurings

Ming Ming Ming T Ming T

mTshanmo |Chénmé —__|Nhishing Hor

hBrimér |Num Chiuiti Thou

Caret Grala Yumphi Thalit

gTsang po |Chang pd |Chi Doi

Lam Lani Dama T Lama T

Tsha Chha Désé Shying kare,

Sayung kri

Pag spa Pag-pa Dhalé Bigtr

Nam khah |Nam Sérgi H No khorang

sBral Deu Painha Jibou

sKarma Karma Pharé Hathot khi

rDé D6 Unthar Onthai

Nyima Nyi ma Bela H Shan

sTag Tak Khina Mocha

S6 S6 Si tong Hathai

lJonshing |Shin dong |Shing T Bong-phang

Yal tsho |Thong Déra H Phara H

Chhia Chha Chi T Doi

Déva Théma Ling Tha

Na Gnya Ka Ang

Khyod Khé Na Nang

Kho Khia Wa Bi

Nachag Gnanjo Kyel Jong

Khyodchag.|Khenjo Nyel Nang char

Khochag |Khonjo Ubal Bi chair

Nahi. Nayi|Gna yi Kang Angni

Khoyod kyijKhé yi Nang Nangni

Khoyi, Kho yi Wang Bini

Khohi

Nachaggi |Gnanjo yi |King Jong ni

Khyod, Khenjo yi |Ning Nang charni

Changgi

457

Giro.

Partin

Kaman,Hourw

Chakréng

Dakam

Vak

Korong

Ghora H

Nagou

Sharr

Léchak

Klangklang

Miva

Kouwé

Rang rét

Ama

Ha char

Hotong

Sotsa

Ming T

Phar

Tél H

Laktai

Chi

Lam T

Syang

Holop

Sérg H

Dap

Laitan

Léng

San, Rasan

Matsa

Pha tong

Pan

Song

Chi-ka T

Han

Ang

Nang

Ning

Nan6ék

O’nédk, Wondék

Angni

Nangni

Uni

Ning ni

Nanokni.

* Diang and Manshi express mankind, met. F. Waval and Hiwa, man only.

458

Bodo.

Bichirni

Man-ché T

Man-né T

Man-tham

Man-bré

Man-ba

Man-dé

Man-chini

Chokai-ba Bi-

sha-ché

Caret

Bisha né

Caret

Bisha ba

Phra

Jong

Lago, Jong

O’nga, Géya

Chon, Nou,Ou

Dané

Obéla H

Mabéla

Diné H

Gaébin

Mia

Imbo

Hobo

Mouha

Chha

Sying

On the Aborigines of Nor-Hastern India.

Tibetan.

English. | ———_——_—_ Dhimai.

Written. |{ Spoken.

Their’s Khochaggi |Khonjo yi |Ubal ko

One gChig Chik E’-long

Two gNyis Nyi Nhé-long T

Three gSim Sam Sam-lang

Four bZhi Zhyi Dia-long T

Five Hna Gna Na-long T

Six Drak Tha Tu-long T

Seven bDin Dian Nhi-long

Eight br Gyid (|Gyé Yé-long

Nine dGu Gih Kuha-long

Ten bCha, Chih Té-long

Thamba

Twenty Nyishi |Nyisha — |E’long bisa

Thirty Simcha {Simchi |Caret

Forty bZhibchi /|Hip chai |Nhé bisa

Fifty Hnabchi |Gnap chi |Caret

Hundred |brGydtham-|Gya, Gya|Na bisa

ba thamba

Of Kyi, Gi, Hi,|Gi K6

To La, Ta, Da,|La E’ng

Ra, Sa

From Nas, Las |Né, Diné {Shé .

By, inst. Kyis, Gin\f Déng, Ou

S. His, Yis

With, cum,|Lhanchig (La, Da Dopa, Dosa

Sath in

Hindi and

Urdu

Without, & 3 Thana Manthi

sine, Bina

in Hindi

In, On La, Na La Rhuta

Now Déngtsé, Da|Thanda E’‘lang

Déng

Then Dé tsé Thi dwi Kéla

When ? Gang tse, |Khadwi Hélou

Nam

To-day Déring Thiring Nani

To-morrow |Sang, Thoré/Sang Jamni

Yesterday |mDang Dang Anji

Here Hadina Dicho Ysho

There Héna Hacho Usho

Where ? Gangna Khacho Hésho

Above sTengna |Teng, Ghe Rhata

yégi

Below Hogna W6, Syd, Léta

Magi

[ May,

Géro.

O’nokni

G6é-sha

Gi-ning,

ning

Ga-tham,

tham

Bri

Bonga

Krék T

Sining

Chet

JuT

Chi T

A-

Rung sha*

Ring sha chi

Ring ning

Rang ning chi

Rang bonga

Tong chani ga-

mang

Pam vai, Pir vai

Tayan

Té éng

Biba

Tingni

Ganap

Mi vai

Yayan

Wang

Bié

Pir vai

Chiarik vai

* Bisi, Bishaé vel Ring is a score, and the system of enumeration is one score,

one score and ten, two score and so on to 5 score for 100.

Cho kai ba in the Bodo column is 5 groats or Gandas for 20.

1849. | On the Aborigines of Nor-Eastern India. 459

Tibetan.

English. Dhiméai. Béde. Garo.

Written. | Spoken.

Between Bar, du Bhar Majhata H Géjér Majar vai H

Without, |Phyi, rohna|Chi Bahiro H Bahirou H Babir vai H

Outside

Within Nang, na_ |Nang Lipta Singou, Sing |Puma vai

Far Né, Nyé |Tharing |Daré H Gajang Pijang

Near Ring Thani Chéng sé Khatai Katai

Little Nyang Nigiva Atoisa Tisi, Kitisi |Kiték si

Much Mang, Tu-|Ma gia E’shito Gabang Takkri

How much ?|Tsam, Tso- |Kha chevé |Hé joko Béché bang |Bipang

As, rel. Hadétsig |Khanda Jédéng Jirin Jéganda

So, corr. |Détsig Thénda Kédong Urin Uganda

Thus, poz. |Jitsing Dinda Udong Urin Uganda

How? Tsag, Chit-|Khaché, Hé sa, Hé dong |Bré Biganda

sug Khanda

Why? ee Kha in Haipali Mané Atang

Yes oa In Jéng* O’ngé* Ha

No Ma, Mi Mén Ma, Manthi T |Onga Aha

(Do) not ds Ma Ma T Da Ta

Also, and |Yang Yang Caret Bi, Bo Ba

Or “ Mo Na Na Na

This Hadé Di Ithoi Imbé Ymara

That Dé Phi-di Uthoi O’bé O’mara

Which, rel. oe Thinda Jédong Jé, Jai H Jon H

Jén

Which, corr. as Thé Kodong Bi, (that) Won H

Ton

Which? /|Gang Khangi Hai, Héti Ma Ato, Biyo

Kon

What? Kya/Chi Khang Hai Ma Até

Who? Kon|Sa, Kha |Khangi, Sa Héti Chir Chang

Any thing,|Chizhig Kha in Hété,Haidong |Maingbo, Jish- |Harj murj

Kacch lap

Any body, |Sizhig, Su in Hété Jishlap Jaeta ?

K6i Khachig

Eat ! Zo Sé Cha Ja Sa

Drink ! hThang |Thing Am Ling Ling

Sleep Nyan Nyé Jim Madalang Gir

Wake =P Caret Lho Jakhang Sarai

Laugh _—(bGad GA Léng Mini Mini

Weep Na, Sham /|Gné Khar Gap Hép

Be silent |Khrog Chim Chika pahi, ({Srith4 Tapchilip tong

Madép

Speak brJod, Caret Dop Rai Brot, Borot

Smros

Come Hong, Syo Lé Phoi Phoi

sByon

Go Séng, Grd,|Gyo Hadé Thang Loi

Gyu

Stand up = jhChhar Léng Jap Jakhang Chap

Sitdown /[hDig Deh Yong Jé Abak

Move, Walk|hGro Gyé Ti, Hadé Tho, Thang |Loi

* Jéng and O’ngé mean rather it is, hast in Persian, than simple assent.

460 On the Aborigines of Nor-Eastern India.

Tibetan.

English. Dhimél. Bédé.

Written. Spoken.

Run rGyug Gytigé, Dhap Khat

Chong

Give hBah, Phul, Thona|Phing Pi Hot

Take bLan, Jang, Hén |Léng, Ya |Rhi La, Na T?

Strike bDian, rDig Dang DanghaiT /|Sho

Kill Shig, Sod, hGum |Sé Sé T Shothat

Bring hKhyon, sKych |Ba syo Chi ma La bo

Take away hKhir, bKhyer |Bak song |Ching pa Lang

Lift up,raiselhDég, Slon, sNyob|Khar Lhopa Bokhang

Hear Nyam, gSon Nyén Hin Khana chong

Understand |/Soms, Go Sam Bajhtérha |Bajila H

Tell, relate |bShod, hChhod Lap, Chwé Dop Rai

Good Bazang-po Yappo Elka Gham

Bad Nang-po Dikpo Maelka Hamma

Cold Grang-po Thammo = /!Tirka Gishta

Hot Tsha-po, Dropo |Chabo Chaka Guiding

Raw a Zyémbo Sinkha Gathang

Ripe Sminbo Chémbo Minka Gamang

Sweet ae Gnarmo = |Tadka Gadoi

Sour ee Caret Dakka Gapha, Gakhoi

Bitter as Khako Khakka T. Gakha

Handsome |Dsésmo, sTagpo |Jébo Rémka Majang

Ugly MidsesmaMistugpo|Mén jébo |Maéremka Chapma

Straight Dranpo Thangbo |Ghenka Thing jang

Crooked |sGuarbo, Tadpo Kakpo Kyoka Khangkra

Black Nagpo Nakpo Daaka Gatcham

White dKarpo Karpo Jééka Giphat

Red sMutkpo Marpo rka Gaja

Green hJang kha Jhanga Nélpa Samsram,

Khang shir

Long Ringpo Rimbo Rhinka T Galou

Short Thingpo Thin ding |Téték4 Giching

Tall, , nn ee Thombo Dhangaka Gajou

Short as Mab6 Bangraka Gahai

Small Chhing, Phra Chin ching|/Mhoika Miadti

Great Chhénpo, sBombo |Bombo Dhamkaé Gédét

Round zLumpo Riri Guirmaka Duallat ni, To-

lotni

Square Grab zhi (angles 4)|Thazi Dia thini ka) Konamanbréni

(angles 4): (angles 4) (ké6na is H)

ee \ oe Caret Sarika Soman ni H

evel

Fat rGyagspo Th6 thembo|/Dhamka Giphtng

Thin Srobbo, Ridpo |Mabo? Syenka Gaham

Weariness ee Gyak Caret Myéng dang

Thirst sKém Khakim {Chi amli Gang dung

Hunger 1Tégs Tok Mhita Unkwi dang

| May, ;

Garo.

Talok

Lé, Lau

Tok

Tok tat

Lapha

Lélang

Paicho

Natam

Bajai H

Borot

Péném

Sarcha

Chikrop

Gutang

Piting

Papman

Shama

Phakka

HA4ni

Néma

Sarcha

Préng dén

Kakréi

Pénék

Bok lang

Pisak

Heng jeléng |

Pillo

Bandék

Pillo

Bandék

Pamar

Géda

Géglot ni

Kona bri ni —

(kéné is H),

Gakshan

Kanéntwa

Jot kréng

Réwe kou

Chika lang

noitwa

Mays phitwé

N.B. T post-fixed indicates a Tibetan etymon for the word, and H post-fixed, a Hin

or Urda origin.

Thus it appears that there are, out of the above 190 words, derived from Hindf or fro

Tibetan, in Dhimal, in Béd6 and in Gard, as follows :—

Hindi Tibetan

Dhimal 8 19

Bédo 10 6

Gard 8 7

Out of a total of 190 words of prime use and neces

Ergo, these are adopted words ?

===>

1849. | Journal of a passage down the Nerbudda. 461

Journal of a passage down the Nerbudda, from Chikuldah to Baroach,

with notices of the most important obstructions to the Navigation.

By Captain Fenwick. Communicated by order of the Hon ble the

Lievut.-Governor, N. W. P.

No. 127 of 1849.

From A. SHAKESPEAR, Esq., Asst. Secy. to the Government, N. W. P.

To the Secretary Asiatic Society, Calcutta.

Dated Agra, the 1st Feb. 1849.

General Department, N. W. P.

Str,—In continuation of the letter to you from this Department,

No. 746, dated the 31st May last, I am directed to forward, for sub-

mission to the Asiatic Society, a copy of Captain Fenwick’s Journal of

his passage down the Nerbudda, from Chikuldah to Baroach, in charge

of boats laden with coal.

2nd. Iam desired at the same time to forward the accompanying

copy of an abstract of the two Journals which has been prepared in this

office, and contains a notice of the most important obstructions to the

navigation, which are met with in the course of the river. The matter

contained in the Journals has not been found sufficiently full or con-

nected to admit of the compilation of a clearer narrative. }

3rd. It is probable that the Society may not consider Captain

Fenwick’s Journal, or even the abstract, sufficiently important to merit

publication, yet as much regarding the navigation of the Nerbudda has

already appeared in the Society’s Journal, the Lieutenant-Governor is

desirous to place on the records of the Society, the fullest information

upon the subject, and hopes that some prominent notice of Captain

Fenwick’s passage and of its result may appear in the Journal.

I have the honour to be, Sir,

Your must obedient servant,

A. SHAKESPEAR,

Asst. Secy. to the Govt. N. W. P.

Agra, the 1st Feb. 1849.

30 2

462 Journal of a passage down the Nerbudda, [May,

Copy.

July 29th, 1848.—Left Chikulda at 8 a. M.

Miles.

12 To Dhurmrall. Not a rock nor a ripple.

1 Hurnphal. No rocks in the channel nor any difficulty.

+ Enter the Borekheree rapids. Had all the boats put to on the

right bank, and taking with me four of the best boatmen, viz.

Mudun, Bholoo, Bunnia, and another, proceeded in my boat to

examine the passage.

1 Borekheree. Channel at the narrowest part about 60 feet very

bad from the high waves. The boatmen sent back for the

rest of the boats. All shipped in water. The double boat the

most.

2 River studded with bluff rocks, some of them several feet above

the water, some just under the surface. This is a very bad

passage. The channel in some places 40 feet wide ; waves very

high. All the boats shipped in water.

3 Very, very bad. High waves. Channel very rapid. Rocks every

where, and with difficulty avoided. One of the boats got fixed

on a rock in the middle. Other boatmen had to swim to it,

and it took some time to get it off.

1 Very bad rocks. The Channel very winding, intricate and

dangerous. :

Rapids. Very bad channel. Studded with rocks; 30 feet pas.

sage. Just below it a boat was dashed on a rock and completely

lost ; 38 bags of coal gone. The boatmen swam ashore ; a bildar,

who could not swim, was left on the rock during the night and

brought off the next morning. Could not do it in the dark of

the evening.

Put to on rocks; no village. The fleet separated for the night:

3 boats got down 3 mile. Mine and two others below the rock

and rapid, and three boats above it.

July 30th.—Put off at 8 a. M.

Some rocks in the channel and rapids ; a very small pointed rock in

the middle of the river which widens here, and becomes free

from dangerous rocks on each hand.

3 Clear and deep, only two or three rocks visible.

bol

to|~

1849.| from Chikuldah to Baroach. 463

Miles.

A huge barrier of rocks across from bank to bank; 30 feet chan-

nel near the right bank. This place is called Kalee Kuraie.

High waves, rather bad ; no other practicable channel.

At 300 yards a bad rock in the middle under water, very danger-

ous. Current very rapid and rushing on it.

1 Isolated rocks all the way. Channel not bad, being broad and

deep, near the left bank.

1 Clear and deep, Bluff high rocks in several places; three chan-

nels, not difficult. The left hand one is the best.

A whirlpool, but not bad at present.

1 Clear.

A rapid head of the Dussana barrier and falls. Dangerous. rapids

from the channel not being well marked. Very high waves

for 400 or 500 yards. All the boats shipped in water, except

the large boat, Rewa Sunkur. The double boat the most.

1] A field on the right bank belonging to Dussana.

Dussana.

A rapid.

High waves the whole way; rocks in the channel, which is 40

feet wide, 10 feet deep, as almost all the channels are just now.

1 Rocks the whole way, but pales not difficult or dangerous, being

broad and deep.

A rapid, but not dangerous, deep water and good channel.

4+ Bad rocks in the middle of the channel,

1 Not difficult.

A rapid for 300 yards ; waves; a whirlpool, but not bad just now.

Rocks under water, channel broad and deep.

1 Deep water ; rocks immersed and isolated all across; waves. The

river has widened for the last two miles.

Bad rocks, some under water, some appearing. The channel near

the right bank ; deep and good.

Kurhall, on the left bank. Found the lost boat on a rock, one

side smashed in altogether, totally useless.

2 Clear. Abundance of water.

Some rocks in the middle of the river and near the right bank,

passage wide and easy ; ripples.

bs|[~

bole

464 Journal of a passage down the Nerbudda, [ May,

Miles.

2 Clear, deep and broad.

A huge, rock island on the right hand at the confluence of the

Hutnee Belin rocks on the left hand. Passage broad and deep.

-2 Clear and deep from bank to bank.

A village, or cultivations on the right bank.

A bluff, long, rock, island near the left bank. Broad, clear and

deep stream on the right hand.

1 A long range of bluff rocks in the middle of the river, deep ; good

channels on either side.

+ A rock island near the right bank. Passage on the left hand.

13 A barrier, and rapid. Rocks and waves across from bank to bank.

Channel on the left hand near the shore—only 20 feet wide.

1 The head and first of the Bheetara barrier, falls and rapids ; very,

very bad. The river studded with low rocks, from bank to

bank, and apparently no passage.

Six bags of coal were taken out of the double boat this morning

and put on some of the others. Rewa Sunkur taking 4 maunds

more, making her cargo 5 marrees and 10 maunds.

Put to at 3 after 2p. m. on rocks on the left bank opposite

Bhutara.

3 Strong current. The boats let down with ropes, brushing along

the sides of perpendicular precipices 20 to 30 feet high, along

the left bank ; the current rushing towards the barrier.

This barrier, or ridge of rocks, extends for about 300 yards.

Studded with rocks, some just above the water, some under ;

no practicable channel. The boats were let down with ropes,

and by the hand, knocking and bumping on the rocks the

whole way, and in some places dragged over ; 20 bags were

taken out of Rewa Sunkur and carried over the rocks for about

150 yards. It and the double boat were taken over with much

labour and difficulty, and we did not get over the work before

12 o'clock.

This passage is very tedious, but not so dangerous, or attended

with the same risk, as in that below the Hirnphal for about 6

miles. Three ropes cannot be used, or punting be resorted to,

and the oars are not powerful enough to command the boats

1849. | From Chikuldah to Baroach. 465

Miles.

through the winding channels—the current rushing on rocks on

all hands.

% Pretty good. .

The Beytana Ghat barrier. Rapids and falls; put to on the right

bank to examine them. Forbidding and fearful. The main

stream is on the left hand, very, very, very bad for 300 yards.

High waves. Almost a direct fall, carried my boat over with 4 of

the best boatmen to test it. The boat nearly filled. The

laden boats could not have been taken down by this channel ;

examined a narrow passage between rocks for 300 yards on the

right bank. This is bad too, but there is no other; it is about

18 feet wide.

All the Chikuldah boats were lightened of 12 maunds each, Rewa

Sunkur 13 maunds, and the double boat 24 maunds. The two

latter and two of the Chikuldah, largest and best boats, were

taken down the left or main channel, and four of the latter by

the narrow one. The latter were managed with bamboos, the

former with oars and paddles. Ropes cannot be used here. All

shipped in water, and the double boat, as usual, a good deal.

The right hand channel is dangerous, from not being more than 18

feet wide, with pointed, projecting rocks on either hand. In

one place the waves, here too, were very high. Almost a direct

fall. The water several feet deep. The coal, which was landed,

was carried over the rocks for some 500 yards.

1 Put up on the rocks on the right bank a little below the village of

Bheetara and the rapids, the boatmen being knocked up and it

being late.

Left from below Bheetara at 7 a.m. The river has fallen about

2 feet since yesterday evening. Leaving the rest of the boats

moored, I proceeded in my boat with Mudun, Bholoo, Bun-

nia and another, to examine the passage below, which appeared

to be full of rocks and rapids.

At 300 yards there is a pointed rock in the middle of the passage,

badly situated, just above the surface, the current rushing on it

with great force ; deep water.

1 Rocks and rapids the whole way, channel not well defined. My

boat was put to and the boatmen sent back for the others.

466 Journal of a passage down the Nerbudda, | May,

Miles.

1 Hailkurree. A gut or strait, between perpendicular, precipitous

cliffs, 20 and 30 feet high, near the right bank. Deep water

and slight current ; width 70 or 80 yards. A very remarkable

passage.

4 High rocks on either hand ; channel about 150 yards or so; deep

water ; a bad place for whirlpools, as the villagers say.

Serkurree, on the right bank.

Serkurree barrier and rapid, called Gulchee Ghat or Tar, a very,

very, very bad passage : rocks across from bank to bank, some

just above the water, some under. The latter are the worst ;

only one difficult channel in the middle about 40 feet wide ; deep

water. Current rushing. Half the day lost in bringing the

boats over.

For 100 yards channel from bank to bank, hen rocks. “A

whirlpool and then a very deep pool.

A deep broad pool, a formidable, large whirlpool, dangerous; a

single mango tree on the left bank points out the spot.

At 400 yards the village of Sadree on the left bank. A broad,

deep pool.

At 300 yards a rapid, broad channel in the middle of the river.

On either hand very bad rocks.

A village just below on the right bank. A little cultivation on

either hand.

Deep pool. Several isolated rocks. Channel deep and broad in

the middle.

Rocks and ripples.

For first 300 yards, broad and deep channel on the left hand.

Deep pool.

Rocks on the right hand. A rock island, channel on each side.

A pool.

A bad rock in the middle just above the water, a very little ripple

to denote it.

A village on the left bank ; a deep pool ; rocks on the right hand.

Fields on the left bank.

Clear.

Rocks on the right hand.

dj-

Dale ale

d|e

Rito

1849. ] | from Chikuldah to Baroach. 467

Miles.

i Nanka Ghat, barrier, rapids, &c. very, very, very bad. The boat-

men compared it to Shabe Surannah ; I examined the largest

channel, which is in the centre, in my boat, and found it fear-

fully obstructed with rocks, rapids, rushing current, and their

attendant perils ; waves peculiarly high, and little whirlpools, or

eddies. The water swelling and curving over the rocks and then

falling headlong into a deep trough. All this extends for } mile.

Rewa Sunkur was dashed against a rock and nearly lost. Lucki-

ly none of the laden boats came down by this channel. Signals

were made in time to prevent them. They took to the left

bank and came through another passage along the shore. Shal-

low, with rocks, and waves, but nothing to be compared to the

other.

Put to at sunset below the falls, on the left bank, Selakda village ;

on the right bank Gunnoo Patail.

2nd August, 1848. Left at 6 a. M.

13 A deep pool.

A bad rapid channel near the left bank.

2 A very bad rapid and whirlpool ; obliged to use ropes.

3 Apool. .

A very bad rapid ; high waves ; passage along the left bank.

14 Rocks, rapids and high waves ; avery bad passage. I came down

in my boat by the left-hand channel, which we found not prac-

ticable for the laden boats ; sent back the boatmen to bring them

down by the right-hand channel, which is very shallow.

+ Deep strong current, clear channel.

Put to to examine below ; rocks everywhere ; one of the boats, the

Pundeth, struck a rock and was nearly lost.

The village of Chipha on the right bank.

13 Half the way clear, then bad rocks, rapid and high waves.

As usual, I took my boat down with Mudun, Bholoo, Bunnia

and others, to examine the passage ; found this one not practica-

ble for the laden boats. The channel to the right was selected,

and they went back for them. To prepare for accidents I had

my boat ready below the rapid in the worst place. Ropes could

not be used. There is a whirlpool under-the fall or rapid; one

3 P

468

Miles.

Journal of a passage down the Nerbudda, [ May,

of the laden boats first coming down, struck on the rock in the

middle and at the head of the channel, but got off; and was

enabled to reach the shore and land the coal before it filled.

Shortly afterwards two boats, although they avoided the rock,

were dragged into the rapid and waves, swamped and went

down bodily; nothing more seen of them; then some of the

boatmen swam ashore. Some were picked up by my boat;

one young man got into the whirlpool and I gave him up for lost

fortunately he got hold of an oar, and being an expert swim-

mer, landed himself low down. One of the two latter boats

being under water for some time, rose again to the surface,

almost erect in the centre of the whirlpool, and was brought to

land. All this happened in the evening about 1 mile above

Hanep.

61 maunds or bags of coal lost to-day.

Some of the builders and several of the boatmen have lost every

thing they had—pots, pans, clothes, &c.

This morning, when leaving Selakda, the followmg arrangements

were made and orders given accordingly :—Mudun was appointed

chief, Bholoo and Bunnia his deputies. My boat was to lead

at 200 or 300 yards or more in advance, according to circum-

stances. Rewa Sunkur to follow, then the Sangur or double

boat. The rest were named too, and to come next according to

their appointed order. The Karkoon’s boat with only 5 bags of

coal, was to bring up the rear; a red, a black and white flag was

kept in my boat to make signals ; on the red being hoisted all

the boats were to pull ashore to the left bank instantly. The

black pomted to the right bank, and the white directed to

follow my boat.

3rd August, 1848.

Left above Hanep at 9 a.m. The two boats were repaired, 13

bags of coal put on board the small one, and 23 bags on the

other, and 7 bags were taken in my boat. The Sangur, or

double boat, was also, consequently lightened. ;

1 A deep pool.

A bad rapid. Rocks just above the water in the middle.

1849. | from Chikuldah to Baroach. 469

Miles.

Bhurroorgam, on the left bank.

2 A strong current and whirlpool.

]

Bhallagooree called Byjee ka Phur, a very narrow passage. High

rocks on each hand, a very bad and dangerous whirlpool, very

high waves ; some of the boats had narrow escapes.

A narrow passage. Huge rocks on either hand ; stopped here of

two hours and sent on boatmen to examine the rapid and passage

below.

A very bad channel near the left bank. A bluff rock island.

A bad rock in the middle of the channel. High rocks on each

hand. A whirlpool.

2 Strong current ; a whirlpool; a rapid. Two rocks in the middle.

High waves.

= Rocks, rapids and waves. A very bad and difficult passage.

ee)

bol bole

bole

bo|=

bol

Peepulchope on the left bank. .

Put to at 5 p. m. on the left bank.

Half of the boat which was lost yesterday, found here.

Ath August, 1848.

Left below Peepulchope at 7 a. M.

The river has risen a good deal.

Stream rapid and broad.

A rock island on the right hand.

Rocks in the channel. A rapid and waves.

The same as above. There are two channels here, some of the

boats came down by the right hand one, and some by the left

passage. The latter is the worst.

Clear. Put to to examine below.

Rocks and strong current in the channel.

A rapid ; rocks on the right hand.

A rapid ; rocks on the left hand. Cultivation along the right bank

teak trees.

A bad rock on the right hand, the current rushing on it.

A village on the right hand.

A rapid and high waves.

A bad rock in the channel; a rapid; high waves. Two date

trees on the left bank. Cultivations.

3.P 2

470 Journal of a passage down the Nerbudda, [ May,

Miles.

A large bad whirlpool.

Put to to examine the rocky passage below.

Strong current. A rapid; very bad rocks in the middle of the

channel. Bamboo bushes begin to appear.

Ble Ble

bol

High rocks almost across the river. Put to on the right bank to

examine the passage. Channel along the left bank, not bad.

2 Clear channel along the right bank and middle, very strong current.

A village on the left bank. River rising.

1 Rocks in the middle of the channel. Put to examine and allow

the boatmen to take their breakfast.

1 Rocks, rapids, waves, very bad ; my boat was dashed against a small

pointed rock in the middle of the channel. It filled partially,

heaved, swung round and plunged into the trough and waves

below, but got out again; a laden boat would have gone down.

Put to to examine below.

A very bad rock, and below it a whirlpool,—very formidable. Almost

all the boats got into it, were taken round and round for several

times, dashed against each other, and got jammed on the vortex

for a minute or two.

ble

Bad rocks and rapids. River still rising.

Very bad, whirlpools, waves, &c.

Bl Ble Ble

A very bad rock in the middle of the channel, and a strong cur-

rent rushing on it very dangerous.

Put to to examine the channel below.

A rock on the right hand of no consequence.

ble Sie

Beautiful plantations along the right bank, of palms, mangoes,

Mowah trees and cultivations, interspersed with huts the whole

way.

Two bad rocks in the middle of the stream.

Rocks in the middle, strong current, plantations, &c., continuing

along the right bank, belonging to the village of Gudier.

bol

1 Clear broad stream ; put to to examine a rapid below.

Strong current, rocks on either hand but not dangerous. River

still rising slowly.

1 Very, very bad rocks, a rapid and whirlpools, Surpon barrier, &c.

Sulpan or Surpon ; Mahadeo temple on the left bank.

Put to under Surpon at 5 p. m.

1849. | from Chikuldah to Baroach. 471

Miles.

5th August, 1848.

8 a. m. at Surpon, boatmen attending the temple. The river has

risen a little during the night. Heavy rain all night and now

continued.

Put off at 9 a. m. Took another boatman on my boat to-day,

having hitherto had only three.

Rocks on the left hand to be avoided ; strong current.

Rocks on the right hand. Current strong.

Ale fhe

Rocks ; a rapid ; caution required. Dangerous waves and a bad

whirlpool.

Rocks on each hand. Channel good.

A pagoda on the right bank.

alos

A village on the left bank ; palms, mangoe trees, and cultivations

and huts along the right bank.

2 Rapids; currents and rocks but not bad.

Commencement or head, of the Mookree Ghai, Phal Tar or bar-

rier falls, &c.

Put to to examine the passage. Huts, palms, &c. &c., along the

right bank.

Rocks all over and across the river. Channel in the middle 40 or

50 yards wide, very strong current and high waves.

Clear.

Strong current; a rock on the right hand ; channel along the left

bank.

Strong current the whole way ; very bad rocks in the middle. Chan-

nel near the left bank.

A whirlpool in the middle, rather formidable current rushing

Ble

Sale

towards rocks on the right hand, very dangerous ; numerous

eddies or little whirlpools.

Mookree village, on the left bank.

Rocks, rapids, waves, whirlpools ; all very bad.

A large, huge rock island in the middle; my boat took the left

channel, which proved to be very bad and dangerous. Whirl-

tole

pools, waves, strong current, &c. all very formidable ; we thought

ourselves in peril for awhile. The boat was whirled and spun

round and round, nearly filled by the waves and was dragged

472

Miles.

Journal of a passage down the Nerbudda, [ May,

towards some rocks on the right hand, and just escaped by a

few feet from being dashed to pieces. The boatmen, especially

Bholoo, shewed great energy and presence of mind, and expert-

ness, on this occasion. His coolness was completely unmoved

by the emminent danger; with a few strokes of the paddle

he kept the head of the boat off from a rock which we expected

it would be impossible to avoid.

1 Put to on the left bank ; all the other boats were carried or forced

into the right hand channel, which luckily proved to be not so

bad ; got down safely and put to on that bank.

River studded with rocky channels. Current rushing through

them with sluice force, all very bad. It took some time to

make a selection by trying an empty boat over some of them.

consider this Mookree barrier as one of the very worst in the

Nerbudda. I had a good view of it and the river for two

miles or so, above and below, from a high rock, and it certainly

looked quite frightful. The boatmen think the river half full,

and say that it was higher when Captain Evans went down last

season.

The Karkoon’s boat was first taken down, the boatmen returned and

carried over three others, with 6 men to each, and so got the

whole down safely. My boat came into the right hand channel

with a great deal of difficulty.

1 Very, very bad rocks. A rapid and a whirlpool at the bottom of

the channel, all the above from the upper part of the Mookree

falls, &c. There is a worse passage yet below. At 2 p. m. all

the boats arrived below the above whirlpool, and put to on the

right bank.

+ Strong current, a torrent, rapid waves, &c. &c. along the left bank,

and in the middle ; no boats could possibly live there just now,

and this is the main channel. The boats were let down with

ropes, along the rocks, and over shallows on the right bank ;

tedious work.

The main channel, or stream on the left, above alluded to, is

studded. with destructive rocks, the waves raging and lashing over

them in spray and foam, numerous little whirlpools, or eddies

1849.| from Chikuldah to Baroach. 473

Miles.

moving down in circular sweeps, and bubbling up from the

bottom with a roar.

From nearly the middle of the river, to the right bank, there are

bluff rocks with narrow passages of 10 and 12 feet, with little

falls, of 2 and 3 feet, and then suddenly deep.

4 Along the left bank the torrent passage continues worse than ever ,

nothing could live in it.

Neemree on the right bank. Thonia on the left bank, abreast of

the worst part of the channel.

Just below there is the fearful whirlpool. It embraces the whole

bed of the river, and I thmk we have scarcely encountered any

thing so awful and terrific. The boats were let down with ropes

along the rocks, on the right bank, still with much apprehen-

sions, for had they come within its influence nothing could have

saved them. I take the river at this place to be between 300

and 500 yards wide or more.

Rocks on either hand.

For 400 yards strong current. Eddies and little whirlpools.

Deep pool, no rocks in the river. The hills are receding, villages,

cultivations, plantations and topes and palms and other trees, all

the signs of civilization and of a thriving people, are here exhi-

bited on both banks of the river.

Fine broad little pools.

Last of the hills on the left bank.

Pool ; a noble stream.

bole

—

Current and waves, sunken rocks dangerous from their not being

visible.

A pagoda on the right bank.

Rocks and rapids, dangerous from the rocks not being seen, but

immediately under the surface.

bo|~

Put to at Emrio ; on the right bank Rajpeela Elayua, at 6 p. M.

Just at this moment the empty boat with the Pundeth struck on

a rock 3 mile above, filled and got fixed. Luckily the river is

falling. Took my boat with seven selected boatmen. Mudun

and Bholoo, Bunnia, Gylia and others, and after great exertions

got up to the rock, when it became completely dark. In trying

474 Journal of a passage down the Nerbudda, | May,

Miles.

to approach it near enough to throw over a rope, we found it

could not be done, the current dashed us away past it, and we

were obliged to leave the Karkoon and the three boatmen to

their fate for the night, relymg upon the river not rising, in

which case they would be quite safe.

However to provide against every thing, I had one of the boats

emptied forthwith, and kept ready to pick them up in the event

of the boat floating off the rock. At this moment (it was

pitch dark) we heard a shout, and soon after the voices of per-

sons in the water, and shortly after all the four landed safely

where we had put to. The boat having missed them. The Kar-

koon too had managed to reach the shore with the help of a

couple of bamboos lashed together, but he was nearly exhausted ,

The rock is in the middle of the river, and the stream here is 4

mile broad, or more.

6th August, 1848.

The boat was brought off from the rock this morning.

Left Emrio at 10 a. m., having repaired the boat as well as we

could, but it is quite shattered and will barely keep afloat.

1 Rocks in the middle, a pagoda on the right hand. Small sunken

rocks and ripples over them on the right.

1 Gurhasur; on the right bank a Gurhee on the top of a small

hill and a pagoda at the foot. Some sunken rocks and ripples

along and near the right bank.

1 Aktesur pagoda on the right bank; nothing to remark, not a rock

nor a ripple; smooth stream, from bank to bank; arrived at

Chaudode in the evening and put up in an old house of the

Guikwars.

7th August, 1848.

Left Chaudode at sunrise and arrived at Leeloora, or Lalore, at 5

p. M., on the right bank.

8th August, 1848.

Left Lalore at 4 a.m. Inspected the Kubar Bar on Muhunt’s

Island. Put to on an island at 4 p. M.

9th August, 1848.

Left the island at 6 a. m. and reached Baroach at 8 a. M.

1849.] from Chikuldah to Baroach. 475

Note on Captain Funwicx’s passage down the Nerbudda in charge of

boats laden with coal.

Captain Fenwick (late of the Nizam’s service) started with ten boats

laden with coal, from below the Dharee falls, on the 5th of April, 1848>

under instructions from the Resident of Indore, and has noted minutely

in his journals all the difficulties and obstacles which he met with, but

as we have ample information regarding the river from the Dharee falls

to Hirunphal, and as it is allowed that no absolute obstructions to

navigation exist in the lowest portion, i. e. from Tulluckwarrah to the

sea, it will be sufficient to notice here only the most prominent points

connected with those parts, and confine ourselves chiefly to the portion

between the Burkhery rapids, just below the Hirunphal, to near Tul-

luckwarrah, respecting which we possess the least information, and which

at the same time is evidently, (irrespective of the detached obstructions,

such as those at the Dharee and Sahesurdarah falls, and at Hirunphal),

by far the worst part of the river to navigate.

Captain Fenwick reached Chikuldah from the Dharee falls without

any accident, on the 20th of April, having been 15 days on the way.

The distance he calculated to be 862 miles, which he divided as

follows :—

April 5th.—To Sillanee 9? miles ; no unusual difficulty met with.

April 6th.—To Alliagaum, 124 miles. <A narrow passage with four

feet water and 3 turnings, difficult for laden boats, which were let down

with ropes ; met with 2 miles from Sillanee ; 14 mile further on Bhalerai

rapid, very difficult passage, extending for more than 100 yards; from

this to Katghurra 7? miles, nothing particular. The Katghurra rapid

extended for about 600 yards, studded with rocks, channel dangerous,

with 4 or 5 feet water. Laden boats eased down with ropes.

It appeared to Captain Fenwick that in the then state of the river

between Dharee and Alliagaum, boats of more than 6 feet beam, 30

or 35 feet long, with 23- feet wall sides, flat-bottomed, the bottom side

planks of one log, scooped out, would be the only ones that could be

generally used. During the monsoon he thought no boats could live

at some of the places, where most dangerous whirlpools and high waves

would be formed at that season. The boatmen corroborated this

opinion.

Se)

476 Journal of a passage down the Nerbudda, | May,

April 8th.—72 miles to Murdana Ghat. Several places mentioned

as dangerous from rapids, rocks, and shallow water.

April 9th.—To Mundlusur, distance 12 miles, Murdana rapid extend-

ing 300 yards, channel in some places 8 feet wide with 2 feet water.

For 2 miles before reaching Soolgaon, rocks all the way and shallow in

many places.

April 13th.—To Myhesur 3} miles.

April 15th.—To Suhesurdhara, one mile ; falls, rapids and very bad

rocks in the channel, empty boats eased down with ropes with great

difficulty. |

April 16th.—To Akburpore, 5 miles ; chief difficulty a rapid about

half way. Channel 8 feet: four feet fall and 2 to 3 feet water. Very

bad rocks on eitheir hand. The boats were half emptied and let down

with ropes, men holding on each side, and reladen at the end of the

rapid, which winds along for 30 or 40 yards, dashing against the rocks

on either hand with great force.

April 17th.—To Kuttora, 83 miles. At Akburpore changed two of

the boats, which were old and in a leaky state. Several rapids and

shallows in this portion, of which the Bhownesur rapid was the worst.

Length 40 yards, 2 feet water over the rocks, eight feet passage, channel

winding, difficult and dangerous, boats let down with ropes with much

trouble. ‘This is one of the worst rapids in the river. At the bottom

there is a fall of 3 feet, 7 feet passage, rocks on each hand, and a very

bad and dangerous one in the middle of the outlet, to be feared the

most. This rock should be removed.”

April 18th.—To Kairnee, 123 miles. Several troublesome obstruc-

tions met with. The boats were taken over one fall of 2 feet on

bamboo poles.

April 19th.—To Lahna-Burda, 6 miles. Very shallow water in

several places ; below Oordunna “a very shallow part, 9 inches water.

A channel had to be made by removing the loose stones from the

middle and piling them up on each side for 150 yards, to deepen the

stream to 15 inches, when the boats were dragged over. Half the day

taken up in the above work.’’ Two more similar shallows overcome

in the same way, about 7 of a mile lower down, and then a bad rapid

to be worked through very cautiously, succeeded by rocks and shallows.

Note by Captain Fenwich.—“ The laden boats require 18 inches of

13849.] from Chikuldah to Baroach. 477

water to float freely. The largest boat 1s 31 feet long and less than 5

feet wide, laden with 23 marries.

April 20th—To Chikuldah, 83 miles. Thenavigation characterized

by the usual impediments. A very bad rapid met with below Piplade,

15 inches water, rocks in the channel, against which the current rushed

with great force. A fall of 3 feet, over which the boats were dragged.

April 22nd.—Captain Fenwick started from Chekuldah with a single

boat, measuring 30 feet in length by 43 wide, to examine the Hirun-

phal, which he describes thus :—Deep channel, 8 feet wide, current

not strong in fall. Two bluff rocks in the middle of the river, one on

either hand from the Phal.’? Deep channel between rocks, 10 or 12

feet wide. Deep narrow pool, slight current ; Hirunphal Ghat, a fall

of 6 feet in 30, passage 8 or 10 feet, with projecting pointed rocks on

each side, very bad and dangerous, 100 yards rapid.”

On the 23rd of April Captain Fenwick returned to Chikuldah, and

appears to have proceeded shortly afterwards with two carts laden with

48 maunds of coal to Tulluckwarrah, and had reported his arrival at

Ali-Rajpore on the 30th of April, and expected to reach Tulluck-

warrah on or about the 6th of May. It was after his return to Chi-

kuldah from this journey, I conclude, that he again embarked in

charge of some boats laden with coal on the 29th of July 1848, from

which date the second portion of his journal dates.

July 29th.—Left Chikuldah, and as far as the Hirunphal, 13 miles,

met with no rocks in the channel nor any difficulty. Entered the

Bhurkhery rapids, very difficult navigation. A boat, carrying 38 bags

of coal was dashed on a rock and completely lost. Distance traversed

183 miles by guess. Put to for the night on rocks.

July 30¢h.—After a short distance the river widened, but then came

*‘a high barrier of rocks across from bank to bank, 30 feet channel

near the right bank. This place, called Kalee-Kuraee. High waves,

rather bad, no other practicable channel. At 300 yards a bad rock in

the middle, under water, very dangerous. Current very rapid and

rushing on it; about 3 miles further a rapid. Head of the Dussana

barrier and falls. Dangerous rapids from the channel not being well

marked, very high waves for 400 or 500 yards. All the boats shipped

in water, except the large boat, the double boat the most.’ From this

no particular difficulty till within } of a mile of Bheetara, on the right

3Q 2

478 Journal of a passage down the Nerbudda, . [May,

bank, where the falls and rapids were very bad. ‘The river studded

with low rocks, from bank to bank, and apparently no passage. The

cargo of the large boat was here increased by 4 maunds, (taken out of

the double boat, making her cargo 5 marries and 10 maunds.) Dis-

tance traversed 20 miles by guess. Put to on rocks on the left bank

opposite to Bheetara.

| July 31st.—At } mile distant ‘a strong current. The boats let down

with ropes, brushing along the sides of perpendicular precipices, 20 or

30 feet high, along the left bank. The current rushing towards the

barrier. This barrier, or ridge of rocks, extends for about 300 yards,

studded with rocks, some just above the water, some under, no prac-

ticable channel. The boats were let down with ropes and by the hand,

knocking and bumping on the rocks the whole way, and in some places

dragged over. Twenty bags were taken out of Rewa Sunkur (the large

boat) and carried over the rocks for about 150 yards. It and the double

boat were take over with much labour and difficulty, and we did not get

over the work before 12 o’clock. This passage is very tedious, but not

so dangerous or attended with the same risk as in that below the

Hirunphal for about 6 miles. There ropes cannot be used, nor punting

be resorted to, and the oars are not powerful enough to command the

boats through the winding channels, the current rushing on rocks on

all hands.” For half a mile, pretty good and then the ‘ Beytana

Ghat barrier. Rapids and falls. Put to on the right bank to examine

them. Forbidding and fearful. The main stream on the left-hand,

very bad indeed for 300 yards. High waves. Almost a direct fall:

carried my boat over with 4 of the best boatmen to test it. The boat

nearly filled. The laden boats could not have been taken down by this

channel. Examined a narrow passage between rocks for 300 yards on

the right bank. This is bad too, but there is no other; it is about 18

feet wide.”

All the Chikuldah boats were lightened by 12 maunds each. Rewa

Sunkur (the large boat) 13 maunds, and the double boat 24 maunds.

The two latter and two of the largest and best Chikuldah boats were

taken down the left or main channel and four of the latter by the nar-

row one. The latter were managed with bamboos, the former with

oars and paddles. Ropes cannot be used here. All shipped in water,

and the double boat, as usual, a good deal.

1849.| - JSrom Chikuldah to Baroach. 479

“‘ The right hand channel is dangerous from not being more than 18

feet wide, with pointed, projecting rocks on either hand. In one place

the waves here too were very high. Almost a direct fall. The water

several feet deep. The coal which was landed was carried over the

rocks for some 500 yards.”

Put up on the rocks on the right bank, a little below the village of

Bheetara and the rapids, the boatmen being knocked up and it being late.

Distance traversed in the day, 2 miles by guess.

August \st.—The river had fallen about 2 feet since the preceding

evening. Leaving the rest of the boats moored, Capt. Fenwick pro-

ceeded in his boat to examine the passage below, which appeared to be

full of rocks and rapids. Rocks and rapids and usual obstacles met

with for about 23 miles, and then an extremely bad barrier and rapid at

Sirkurree. Half the day spent in bringing the boats over.

At 4 mile from Silakda, where they put to, another extremely diffi-

cult barrier Nanka ghat. ‘The boatmen compared it to Sahesur-

darah. I examined the largest channel, which is in the centre, in my

boat, and found it fearfully obstructed with rocks, rapids, rushing cur-

rent and their attendant perils ; waves peculiarly high, and little whirl-

pools or eddies: the water swelling and curving over the rocks and

then falling headlong into a deep trough. All this extends for 4 mile.

Rewa Sunkur (the largest boat) was dashed against a rock and nearly

lost. Luckily none of the laden boats came down by this channel.

Signals were made in time to prevent them. They took to the left

bank and came through another passage along the shore. Shallow,

with rocks and waves, but nothing compared to the other.”

Distance gone in the day 5} miles by guess.

August 2nd.—The whole distance of six miles traversed on this day

was characterized by serious impediments, several of which were hap-

pily surmounted without mishap, but at one mile from Hanep they

were not so fortunate. On examining Captain Fenwick found that the

left hand channel was not practicable for laden boats, and the right was

selected. ‘‘To prepare for accidents,’ Captain Fenwick writes, “I

had my boat ready below the rapid in the worst place. Ropes could

not be used. There is a whirlpool under the fall or rapid. One of the

laden boats, first coming down, struck on the rock in the middle and

head of the channel, but got off and was enabled to reach the shore

480 Journal of a passage down the Nerbudda, *[ May,

and land the coal before the boat filled. Shortly afterwards two boats,

although they avoided the rock, were dragged into the rapid and waves,

swamped and went down bodily, nothing more seen of them then.

Some of the boatmen swam ashore, some were picked up by my boat-

One young man got into the whirlpool and I gave him up for lost:

Fortunately he got hold of one oar, and being an expert swimmer, land-

ed himself low down. One of the two latter boats bemg under water

for some time, rose again to the surface, almost erect, in the centre of

the whirlpool, and was brought to land. All this happened in the even.

ing about 1 mile above Hanep.” 61 maunds of coal were lost on this

occasion, several of the boatmen and bildars losing every thing they

had.

August 3rd.—Before starting “the two boats (which had been

damaged) were repaired ; 13 bags of coal put on the small one and 23

bags on the other, and 7 bags were taken in my boat. The Saugor,

a double boat, was also considerably lightened. At Bhallagooree, a

very narrow passage, high rocks on each hand, a very bad and dan_

gerous whirlpool ; very high waves; some of the boats had very narrow

escapes.” Similar difficulties were found in the whole of this day’s voy-

age, which was calculated at 8 miles.

August 4th.— Left below Peepulchope and went about 14 miles to

Soolpan, about 5 miles from which place Capt. Fenwick’s boat had a

narrow escape— A laden boat would have gone down.” At ashort

distance below this almost all the boats got into a formidable whirlpool,

in which “they were taken round and round for several times; dashed

against each other and got jammed in the vortex for a minute or two.”

Some very bad rocks, a rapid and whirlpools near Soolpan.

August 5th.—To Emrio, on the right bank, about 103 miles. At

the Mokree barrier, ‘“‘ rocks all over and across the river.” After

passing the village, a large rock island in the middle of the river. ‘‘ My

boat took the left channel, which proved to be very bad and dangerous;

whirlpools, waves, strong current, &c. All very formidable. We thought

ourselves in peril for a while. The boat was whirled and spun round

and round, nearly filled by the waves, and was dragged towards some

rocks on the right hand and just escaped by a few feet from being

dashed to pieces. The boatmen, especially Bholoo, shewed great energy

and presence of mind, and expertness on this occasion. His coolness

1849.]. From Chikuldah to Baroach. 481

was complete. Unmoved by the eminent danger, with a few last strokes

of the paddle he kept the head of the boat off from a rock which we

expected it would be impossible to avoid. ‘‘ All the other boats were

carried, or forced into the right hand channel, which luckily proved to

be not so bad: got down safely.” River studded with rocky channels,

current rushing through them with sluice force. All very bad. It

took some time to make a selection by trying an empty boat over some

of them.”

“I consider this Mokree barrier to be one of the very worst in the

Nerbudda. I had a good view of it and the river for two miles or so,

above and below, from a high rock, and it certainly looked quite fright-

ful. The boatmen think the river half full, and say that it was higher

when Captain Evans went down last season. The Karkoon’s boat was

first taken down. ‘The boatmen returned and carried over three others,

with 6 men to each, and so got the whole down safely. My boat came

into the right hand channel with a great deal of difficulty.”

Three quarters of a mile below, the main channel or stream on the

left, is studded with destructive rocks, the waves raging and lashing

over them in spray and foam. “Quarter of a mile further worse than

ever ; nothing could live init. A little below there is a fearful whirl-

pool. It embraces the whole bed of the river, and I think we have

scarcely encountered any thing so awful and terrific. The boats were

Jet down with ropes along the rocks on the right bank ; still with much

apprehension, for had they come within its influence nothing could

have saved them. I take the river at this place to be between 300 and

500 yards wide or more.”

Close to Emrio, on the right bank, where they put to for the night,

one of the boats struck on a rock in the middle of the river, filled and

stuck fast. ‘The four boatmen and the Karkoon got safely to land

fortunately, and the boat was brought off from the rock next morning.

August 6th,—Passed Gurreysir and Aktesur, and stopped at Chau-

dode.

August 7th.—From Chaudode to Leelore on the right bank.

August 8th.—Put to on an island beyond the Muhunt’s island.

August 9th.—Reached Baroach.

Mr. Hamilton, the Resident at Indore, in forwarding this Journal,

reported that 11 tons and 10 ewt. of coal had been delivered in the dock

yard at Bombay by Capt. Fenwick.

482 Journal of a trip to Sikim. | May,

Journal of a trip to Sikim, in December 1848, with sketch map. By

Dr. A. CampBe ty, Member of the Asiatic Society.

I had long wished to visit Sikim, but in vain. At last it came about

as follows. In September last the Governor General, Lord Dalhousie,

in reply to an application of mine for his authority to procure the per-

mission of the Sikim Raja for Dr. Hooker’s travels in his territory, di-

rected me to address the Raja, and inform him that his Lordship ex-

pected, as an earnest of his constant professions of friendship for the

British Government, that he would afford Dr. Hooker every facility for

the prosecution of his scientific researches in his territory.

The Raja was addressed by me in suitable terms, but the result was

in reality a flat refusal ; although it was speciously attempted to be

concealed under various pretexts, the chief of which related to the

dreaded wrath of the guardian deities of Sikim if their sacred land

should be invaded by an English gentleman.

The whole of Sikim was said to be thus sacred ; the most sacred,

and. most jealously guarded of all its parts was Kunchinjinga,* and this

was the special object of the traveller’s research, as I had informed His

Highness.

On the receipt of this letter I expressed to the bearer of it, and to

the Raja’s Agents with me at Darjeeling, how fully and palpably it dis-

played the real unfriendliness that existed at the Raja’s Durbar, instead

of the kindly feelings the Governor General had relied on, as evidenced

in the Raja’s correspondence with me, and with my Government. I

pointed out how forcibly this view of the matter would strike His

Lordship : and if the Raja was desirous of standing well with my

Government, I informed them that no means could have been better

devised to thwart the intention than the refusal of this simple, but

direct request to His Highness. They expressed their entire coincidence

in my view of the case, and urgently begged of me not to report the

Raja’s answer to Government until they could refer to the Durbar, and

get fresh orders. This they expected would take 10 days ; and the

Agent assured me that the required permission would in all probability

be accorded. I waited accordingly for the required time, but to no

* Elevation of Kunchinjinga, 28,176 feet.

1849. | Journal of a trip to Sikim. 483

purpose, and was just despatching a letter to the Raja fully explaming

my opinions on his Agent’s proceedings, and on his own letter, when

fresh orders arrived. They were not of a much more friendly tenor

than the letter to myself, at least as they were communicated to me

by the Agent ; but the upshot was, after much expostulation, and every

effort made by me to ascertain the real nature of the orders, that the

| Agent agreed. to allow Dr. Hooker to proceed, and to procure safe con-

duct and good treatment for him through Sikim to the Nipal frontier

of Kanglanamoo via Paimiongchi and Jongri. It was Dr. Hooker’s

purpose to go on from Kanglanamoo to the Kanglachema pass of the

snowy range, and to enable him to do this I had previously procured

the consent of the Nipal Durbar through the Resident, and a guard

consisting of a Havildar’s party came from Ilamgurhy* to Darjeeling

to escort him.

After all the preparations were made the Raja’s Agent raised a new

and unexpected difficulty. He refused to allow the Nipalese guard to

pass through Sikim with Dr. Hooker, and by this means fairly, or

rather unfairly discomfitted me; for I did not feel quite at liberty to

say that his objection to the passage of the Nipalese, although forming

part of Dr. Hooker’s escort, was altogether unreasonable, and as he

rested the-ruin of the project on this only, he gained his point—which

was delay. TI ascertained to my full satisfaction, that from the begin-

ning he had no intention of allowmg the journey, and I believe that

the objection to the Nipalese was a mere pretence to save himself from

openly refusing the permission he had previously granted.

I had long ago made up my mind to the impossibility of carrying on

business satisfactorily with the Sikim Raja, through his officers, unti|

they should be differently and better instructed. The death in 1847;

of the Dewan Ilam Sing, removed from the Raja’s counsels the only

man of any honesty, or to be at all trusted, in word or deed. Of this

I have ample evidence, and was fully satisfied,+ and as the Agent on

refusing leave to the passage of the Nipalese guard, asked my permis-

sion to return to the Durbar, I gladly gave it, and wrote to the Raja

an account of his proceedings, and said that what I had long felt as

to the impossibility of transacting business with his officers would now

* Nipalese post, on eastern frontier.

tT See my Office Records, passim.

484 Journal of a trip to Sikim. | May,

be apparent to himself, and that as his Agent had left me, I should

report the whole affair to the Governor General, and await his orders.

I did so through the private Secretary, pending my formal report, and

asked permission to visit the Raja, as the only means I now had of

ascertaining his real sentiments and feelings towards our government.

With a confidence in my good intentions, for which I feel most grateful,

His Lordship readily gave me the required permission to visit the

Durbar, but without any specific diplomatic powers for the occasion.

This permission reached me on the 22nd November, my preparations

were put in hand at once, and on the 29th I despatched a letter to

the Raja communicating my purpose of visiting him. 1 imformed him

that I should leave Darjeeling about the 6th of December, and at the

same time that I had that day sent 30 porters with grain, &c. in

advance under charge of a Havildar, and 8 Sepoys, and I requested

the Rajah’s officer at Namgialachi to let the party proceed as far as

the Teesta River, there to await my arrival.

On the 3rd, at daylight, when I was at Kursiang, I received a letter

from my Moonshi with the food and guard at Namgialachi, as follows :

“‘ Starting from Darjeeling on the 29th, and arriving at this place on

the evening of the Ist instant, I made over your Honor’s Purwannah

to the Neboo of Namchi, as well as the letter for the Sikim Raja, and

I informed him of my orders to proceed as far as the Teesta river, to

which he replied, that he was unable to let me proceed without his

Raja’s orders ; that he would report the same, and further consult with

the Mahapun Kada, and 2 or 3 other officers, whose arrival he was ex-

pecting that day; further, he said that he would not allow you, Sir, to

proceed, but that if you: wished to go by force then they would lose

their lives.”

This was a bad beginning. I returned from Kursiang at once, hurried

all my preparations, and started from Darjeeling at 2 p. m. of the 4th

December for the guard-house above the Rungeet river, where I arrived

at 5 o’clock, and found my servants and all things ready to receive me.

My equipment is as follows:—A tent made of two Nipal blankets,

which when pitched covers 10 feet of ground by 8, and with the poles

and carpet is an easy load for one man. It contains my bed, a chair,

and a 3-foot square table. I have two ponies, two table servants, a

valet, 4 Chuprassies, a Moonshi, an Interpreter; a guard of 8 Sepoys,

1849. | Journal of a trip to Sikim. 485

and a Havildar, 38 porter loads of rice, flour, salt, gram and choorah,

with 20 more loads of personal baggage of my own and the servants,

and 3 sirdars for their coolies. A double-barrel gun, a brace of pistols,

a compass and thermometer, and a Nipal dandy or litter—in case of

illness, or accidents end the list. The further sinews of travel are 400

rupees, principally in small coins, and some articles for presents, con-

sisting of broadcloth, beads, snuff, rum, coral, rings, and some crystal

vessels. *

At the guard-house, elevation 1600 feet, the feeling of warmth was

delightful. The Thermometer stood at 68° and fell 4° only during the

whole night ; I hate cold, and all below the sixties is of this sort. It is

greatly the fashion in the east to praise the weather when you are half

frozen. Give meatemperate clime for comfort and pleasure ; any thing

lower than 60° of Faht. feels cold, and cold, except in the subsequent

re-action, is decidedly uncomfortable. It was a lovely morning on the

5th, a thin light purple fog rose from the noisy Rungno at daylight,

and spreading itself over the deep valley of this stream to the south of

the guard-house, had scarcely enveloped our gipsey-like encampment,

when the sun, rising in perfect splendour, instantly dispelled it.

Not a drop of dew was formed at our encampment during the night.

The grass was quite dry and the standing hairs of my blanket tent were

without a globule. I do not understand this; but will consult Hooker

about it. Ivery much wish that he was with me. We were on a

| ridge half a mile lower down on the side of the spur, and all the way

to the Rungeet there was a heavy dew.

The Pooah Hemp plant, Boehmeria nivea, is very abundant, and

grows luxuriantly between the guard-house and the river.

We started at 3 past 7 and had crossed 2 ponies by swimming, nid 30

loaded men by a bamboo raft to the left bank of the Rungeet by + past

9. The cane bridge—elevation above the sea 1000 feet—is in a very

ricketty state indeed; but I ordered the Badamtam Lepchas, who came

down to ferry our party, to remain there a couple of days, and repair

it. It was their duty under the old regime, Sikim Rajahs, to do this

annually, and it may well be the same for the future. The Lepchas are

expert enough ferrymen with the raft. It is made something like a

boat, but more like a wedge, for it is very wide and open behind. The

* These particulars may be useful to future travellers.

Me» UR

486 Journal of a trip to Sikim. | May,

water rushes through it, and over it too; but it is quite safe. It is

pulled to and fro across the river by a party on either bank. Strips of

the large bamboo are used instead of rope for this purpose. Horses

are badly and cruelly used in ferrying by the Lepchas, who give this

noble beast no credit as aswimmer. They take him along side of the

raft, holding his head high on the bamboos, and thus tow him across.

The following is a much more simple plan, and causes little delay to

the traveller. Take a log-line in your hand and cross on the raft ; let

it be long enough to stretch across the river, leave one end on this side,

and pay it out as you proceed. When you have landed look out for a

good landing place for the horse some yards lower down. With the

log-line tied to his bit let him be pushed into the stream, and you can

with perfect ease guide him to the spot you have fixed for landing him,

and he swims all the way unhampered and unchoked. My Lepchas

never saw ponies swim alone before. They greatly praised the nata-

tory performances of mine to-day.

When across the Rungeet you find a road running parallel to the

stream S. E. and N. W.; the turn to your left leads to Namgialachi ;

the right one via Chadam to the Teesta and Dukeeling. After $a

mile or so of level road you ascend in an easterly direction along a steep

path through long grass, and Sal trees, for a couple of miles, when you

cross a bubbling brook running rapidly down the hill from the south of

you. Beyond this brook the hillside is a fine open expanse of small

bamboo grass with Fir* and Sal trees ; the soil, whitish clay, dry and

hard; and it continues so for 3 or 4 miles, when you top the ridge of

Meksneeoo. Here the road takes a northerly direction, you lose the

Sal, Pines and grass, and have the vegetation of 3000 feet. I have

noted bearings from this spot, which are appended. The road con-

tinues to skirt the south face of Meksneeoo and Silukfoke, which is

rocky and precipitous, until you come to an open space at the west

end of a ridge, which running east connects Namgialachi with Siluk-

foke and Tendong. Namgialachi is about half way between Silukfoke

and Tendong, and about 3000 feet I think lower than Tendong. Not

being able to reach Namgialachi on the 5th, we halted ata spring

of pretty good water, about 4 miles short of it. There was scant

room to pitch the tent, but my bed and table were levelled with stones,

* Cheer, or Pinus longifolia.

1849.] Journal of a trip to Sikim. 487

and I was soon quite snug. The Thermometer did not fall below 50°

during the night, but it felt nevertheless very cold ; started at 3 past 7

of the 6th, and reached Namgialachi via Silukfoke at 11 a. m., dis-

tance 4 miles. The road from the Rungeet is generally rideable. The

distance may be 12 miles. The whole tract is very poorly supplied with

water ; there are but 3 streams I think altogether. A little repair to

the road and alteration of the line in some places would render it a

pleasant day’s trip from Darjeeling. At Namgialachi there is not much

to be seen. The encamping ground is overrun with high wormwood

jungle. The top of Silukfoke however is well worth visiting. It is the

round green knoll commonly called Namgialachi at Darjeeling, and very

conspicuous from its smooth grassy look. The Lama of Namchi, (abbre-

viation for Namgialachi,) was waiting for me where the road turns off to

his house, and accompanied me tothe top. I reckon it to be 500 feet

lower than Darjeeling. It is a very sacred peak, and like Kunchinjinga,

is probably reckoned so because it is not fit for the plough or spade.

There is no water for irrigation, and the soil is so dry and barren that

it is not fit for crops of any sort. It is an open, and very level expanse

of 20 acres or so, all under a coarse sort of grass. The view is very

fine in all directions ; the valley of the Rungeet apparently, nght up to

the snow, Singalelah, Phugloot, Tonglo, and the crest of Sinchul to the

westward,—Sandoopchi, Tendong, Numdoomrum, Sankarjong and La-

kharry to the eastward, and Darjeeling, with the Jilla Pahar, Tugvor,

and Lebong offshoots, is an exceedingly pretty landscape to the west ;

Kunchinjinga was not out; but I have noted a bearing of the snowy

peak, “‘D 2” of Waugh’s Chart, as well as bearings of the hills to the

west and east. Numdoomrum is a level saddle, running north and

south and connecting Sandoopchi on the north with Lingdam to the

south, Sankarjong is the southern continuation of Tendong, and is a

very red wall-like ridge visible from the Darjeeling hill; Lakharry is a

rugged and higher peak which terminates Sankarjong to the south ; both

overhang the Teesta, which runs east of them. The ‘ Manpeen”

stream rises from Sandoopchi, and after receiving a tributary which

rises at Numdoomrum, runs westerly to fall into the Rungeet a mile

below the cave bridge; Manbroo is the ridge stretching from Tendong

to the N. W., and its highest pot is named Tingbi. I walked out

at Namgialachi in the evening and had a fine prospect of the country

A488 | Journal of a trip to Sikim. — [ May,

to the N. and N. West, the monastery of Pemiongchi, the ridge of

Rinchinpoong, with the valleys of the Kullait, Roho, Ratong and Rum-

man. The Kullait, rising in Singalelah, runs in an eascerly direction to

the great Rungeect, and south of the Pemiongchi mdge. The Roho,

nearly parallel, runs south of Rinchinpoong. I have noted bearings of

these places. The only cultivation at Namgialachi is wheat, which is

just now springing above ground. ‘The Meboo, or local officer of the

Raja stationed here, and 8 or 10 other Bhotiah families have rather

extensive fields well tilled and fenced in round their respective houses,

which are of wood on raised posts and thatched with split bamboo.

The land is fertile. A light loam, and with manure of cow-dung, yields

an annual crop of wheat ; rice is grown a little lower down. There are

some good turnips here, and the light yellow hill plantain ripens also.

A plant named ‘‘ Moon,” the grain of which is like millet, is grown for

the oil of its seed. The whole of the cultivated ground is overrun

with rank wormwood. ‘The Meboo Lama, and others, have fine herds

of cows, and butter is procurable at 3 seers, (6 tbs.) perrupee. A littls

rice is also procurable from the neighbouring hamlets at 18 seers per

rupee. I heard nothing of the Raja’s officers all day, nor did any of

them come near me. As they had stopped my advanced supplies here

for 6 days, thereby putting me to heavy charges for the hire of 40 coolies

who are setting idle, and had thus done my journey all the harm in

their power, I had no wish to have more to do with them. After

dark they sent to say they would visit me, but I declined on account

of the lateness of the hour, and as they had left me all day to shift for

myself, I preferred doing so for the night also. If an answer to my

letter to the Raja announcing my visit had reached them, it would have

been announced. From them therefore I anticipated no offers of civi-

lity, and I avoided proffered meivility, with a good excuse for putting

off their visit.

The Lama of Silukfoke is the most polite man I have yet met with,

although I have fallen in with but one saucy fellow ; and more than a

hundred Sikimites met us yesterday en route to Darjeeling. A string

of 50 stout Meches returning from Namgialachi having deposited loads

of rice, sugar, tabacco, and other produce of the Morung there in transit

to the Raja; and about 20 or more Lepchas loaded with oranges from

Temi Burmeok and other places near the Teesta, proceeding to Darjeel-

1849. | Journal of a trip to Skim. 489

ing, formed the bulk of them. The encounter with the saucy fellow

was as follows. He was a young Bhotia of jaunty air, and considerable

pretension. We met ina very narrow path, I was at the head of my

long line of companions, he was heading half a dozen of his ; a few paces

behind me was my Lepcha interpreter. The gentleman brushed past

me rather rudely, and with hat in hand made a very low obeisance to

the interpreter. ‘‘That is my servant,” I said, pointing to the inter-

preter ; “am I no one, and who are you to behave so rudely?” He

became flurried, and said ; ‘‘ I did not see you.”’ *‘ You see me now, and

my servant has told you, who I am, I expect you in common courtesy

to salute me as well as my follower ; it is the habit of all the world for

men to interchange salutations when they meet in this way, and not

pass like pigs or horses. Is it not so ?’’ He agreed, and blushing deeply,

while his companions laughed heartily at him, he salaamed; and then

we chatted amicably altogether. His manners were probably borrowed

from the Sikim officials; and theirs to European gentlemen are very

indifferent, otherwise I could not have pained myself as I did by this

shew of exigency.* Now to the civil Lama of Silukfoke. He is as

fat as Falstaff, and puffed most effectingly as he followed my long strides

up the mountain. We passed his house soon after he met us, and as I

halted to look at it, he sent a messenger within who speedily re-appeared

with two Choongas of fresh Murwa Beer, each rolled up in a clean piece

of new American sheeting, and followed by a boy carrying two drink-

ing reeds with the mouth-pieces rolled up in bits of fresh plantain leaf,

I was presented with one, and the Kaji, my interpreter with the other.

I drank to our host, and found the beverage far from bad. The Lama

was communicative on all subjects, without any restraint, and on our

return from the top of the hill he took me to his house, and I sat half

an hour with him in his study, where his books and professional para-

phernalia made a very respectable appearance. On the shelves was one

religious work just received from Thibet, of which I have a half pro-

mise, “ The Bhoom,”’ in 12 large volumes. Then there was the large

double-headed drum, like two Tambourines joined together, with a long

handle to it; a couple of bells; a couch of two human thigh-bones

* P.S. This was the first and the last rudeness I met with during my trip, and

I have no doubt that my notice of it reached the Durbar, and brought about the

non-repetition of it.

490 Journal of a trip to Sikum. [ May,

rolled round with brass wire, and trumpet ended with brass used for

calling to prayers. A bamboo quiver for holding the little rods of

spikenard used as incense ; some flowers fresh laid on the table, and a

bottle of milk. As we entered the sanctum a young and blooming

woman slipped out past us. Mayhap the flower girl of His Holiness.

Silukfoke is infested with leopards or lynxes, who often carry off the

Lama’s young pigs and goats. His cows are numerous and healthy. I

asked him about the murrain which is occasionally so fatal at Darjeel-

ing, and is raging there now. He knew of it, and attributes its spread

to the cows grazing where people urinate, who have eaten of the flesh

of animals dead of the disease.

A party of Thibetans has arrived here to-day en route to Darjeeling,

and the Titalya Fair. They have 30 baggage sheep and goats, and with

20 women, children of all ages, and as many men, they form the dir-

tiest Kafila I ever set eyes on. They make their way by begging, and

have a good deal of merchandise im musk, chowrees, salt, blankets,

turquoise and striped woollens. There is the ruin of a monastery

here of some size. It is of stone, very well built, without mortar, three

storied, 75 feet long by 33, with narrow Gothic arched windows, and

divided into one large centre and two smaller end apartments. No one

can tell how long it has been abandoned, or when it was built. Pro-

bably the Goorka conquest of Sikim was the date of the former. There

is a row of barberry trees round it, and some pink-flowered Cinchona

trees, Sumbrung Koong, near at hand. The present Goomba is a

stone building not half the size of the old one, badly built and dis-

proportioned. It is more like a lime-kiln than a monastery, and has

an ugly grass thatch roof withal. The rum reminds me greatly of the

Old Roman Catholic Churches in the Highlands of Scotland, which

have been converted into places of burial by the Protestants, who, it

would appear, from their abandoning them as places of worship for the

living, were still tolerant enough to retain them for the use of the

dead.

The prettiest thing at Namgialachi is a long solid stone edifice on

the road, with a pathway on either side of it. It is called a “‘ Mundong.”

It is 64 feet long by 10 or 12 broad, and 16 high. It is a solid stone

edifice, covered with engraved slabs, which are let into it. Most of these

slabs have merely the “Qm, mane paime, Om,” in the Thibetan charac-

1849. | Journal of a trip to Sikim. 49]

teron them. The others have various texts from the Thibetan scrip-

tures. On the flat top of the ‘* Mundong” are five little Chaityas, of the

usual round shape; at the east end of it are two large Chaityas, and

at the south another.

So much for Namgialachi, which I purpose quitting to-morrow, and

which has turned out to be of greater interest than I had anticipated.

Temi, December 7th.—Started from Namgialachi at 6 a. m., and hav.

ing gone over the top of Tendong and descended to the Temi road on

the N. W. face of the mountain, arrived here at 4 p.m. I reckon the

distance by the regular road 12 to 14 miles. It is passable for ponies,

and one half of it may be ridden over easily enough.

Two hours and a half of steep ascent brought us to the top of

Sundoopchi. This peak overhangs Namgialachi. The whole way is

finely wooded ; near the summit oaks, five species, are abundant. From

this the road runs along the ridge which connects Sundoopchi with Ten-

dong, it is an avenue of fine trees all the way to ‘‘ Lamchook,” and

may be 4 miles long ; total distance from Namchi about 6 miles. About

half way between Sundoopchi and Lamchook there is an immense mass

of quartz, about 30 feet high and twice that length. Its shelter is

used as a resting place, and called a ‘ Lahup,”’ or cave ; a mile nearer

Lamchook there is a fine flat spot on the ridge with water close by,

and well suited for encamping on. It is named Baktchin,

At Lamchook, which the term implies, two roads diverge. That to

the left is the high road to Temi, the other leads right up Tendong

and over its summit to Burmeok, the residence of a Kaji, and above the

Tuksmapoo, or Tuk ghat of the Teesta.

The top of Tendong, 8600 feet, is a spacious flat 100 yards square or

more, with fine swelling shoulders on all sides. There is a stone Chaitya

in the centre, about 20 feet high, and some remains of a Goomba which

was commenced a few years ago, but sunk in its foundations. A Lama

is stationed here for two months during the rains to perform religious

exercises. There is a spring of excellent water near the top, and the

forest, which is gigantic, is almost entirely composed of oaks, and 3

species of Rhododendron, viz: the scarlet, the large and the smaller

white. I have collected a large quantity of the seed of the two last in

fine order. The other striking plants are the Hally, a Penax, with large

plumes of purple seeds, Hypericum, the large-flowered species of a small

492 Journal of a trip to Sikim. [ May,

plant covering the ground with scarlet berries, and raspberries. Descend-

ing on the north side of the mountain, which is quite precipitous and rocky,

yet bearing gigantic oaks and Rhododendrons we reached the Temi

road in halfan hour. I never travelled on a steeper path ; itis what the

Yankees call Slantindieular, i. e. more than perpendicular! My knees will

ache for a fortnight, whenever I think of it. After joiming the Temi

road we came on a portion of it roughly flagged with stone. This was

pointed out as the work of the Bhootanese, who it appears made an

inroad into Sikim as far west as the old Durbar, before they were re-

pulsed. This was in the time of the present Raja’s grandfather.

At ‘ Atooknot,”’ 8 or 9 miles from Namchi, a road goes off to the

left leading to Daling Goomba, and Yangang, and a little further on the

descent begins which continues to Temi, it took us npwards of 2 hours

and a half without any halts, direction easterly. I never saw a nobler

forest than it is all the way from Lamchook. The chesnuts and oaks

of great girth and shaft, are finer than anywhere I have been yet; I

measured the former to 26 feet in circumference, and the latter to 22

feet.

From a knoll above the station of Temi I had an extensive pros-

pect, although the snowy mountains were not visible. The Teesta

running southerly, and I reckon 4000 feet below us, is a fine stream

even at this distance.

The valley of it appears to stretch N. 29° EK. right up to the snow,*

with numerous spurs from lofty mountains on either side running down

to it. On the west the peak of Mainomchoo, bearing N. to W. is the

most conspicuous to the N. E. and forming the opposite bank to

this is Badong (A.) Further to the east is the Goomba of Rumtik, bril-

hantly white in contrast with the wooded ridge it stands on. It is 2

journies from this across the Teesta, and on the N. bank of the Rung-

bo river. To the east is another Badong, a fine mountain, probably

7000 feet high ; also across the Teesta, and to the south east is Bur-

meok the residence of a Kaji, and a spur from Tendong.

Tendong, elevation 8660 feet, as it is the most remarkable feature in

the country between tne Rungeet and the Teesta, on account of its eleva-

* See Journal of Dec. 12. This is the Rungmo or Rungmon feeder, rising in

Kali Kongri, that bears N. E. from Temi,

1849.] Journal of a trip to Sikim. 493

tion, and rounded form, is also remarkable. as the centre of a number

of prominent spurs and ridges. |

To the south it throws off Sankarjong and Lakharry; to the west

Sundoopchi and the Namgialachi ridge, which connects it with Silukfoke

to the N. W. and N. Manbroo, and Atooknot to the S. E. the spur of

Burmeok. The whole of this extensive tract is, I think, remarkable for

scarcity of water at high elevations. Certainly so as compared with

the Sinchul or Darjeeling division of Sikim. The road travelled to-day,

not including my topping of Tendong is nowhere, I think, of a higher

elevation than 7000 feet, yet in 12 or 14 miles there are, but two

springs of water,i.e. at Baktchin and Atooknot, and they are some

way below it. On the Auckland road, Darjeeling, 6900 feet, which runs

for 3 miles round the west of the Jilla Pahar, which is only 7600 feet ;

there are at least half a dozen of springs, and all of them rising well

above the road. 'Tendong has the rock cropping out freely on the N.

and west faces indeed it is very rocky, whereas the Jilla Pahar is on its

N. and W. sides covered with deep soil, and hence perhaps the differ-

ence. The same peculiarities as contrasted with the Tendong region

apply to Sinchul. From Atooknot to Temi, direction E., the soil is

rather stiff, reddish and clayey. Temi is the station of a Phipun ; he is

subordinate to Mahapun Kada, who manages the country between the

Teesta and Namchi, exclusive of Burmeok, which is under the Kaji of

that name.

We heard to-day that they have had great doings lately at the

Raja’s on the occasion of his eldest son’s marriage. The bride is a

Thibetan lady, fresh imported for the occasion. Her relations have

accompanied her to the Durbar to grace the bridal ceremony with their

presence, and to carry back the remainder of the endowment money,

(Vulgo, purchase money.)

In 1841 the second son, and heir-apparent of the Raja, died without

issue. The eldest, Tubgain Lama, was the high priest,—head Lama

of the kingdom,—and bound to celibacy, so that there was no presump-

tive heir except a boy of illegitimate birth, the nephew of Dunia Nam-

gay, now the chief minister. It was first recommended that the Raja

should take unto himself a young wife in the hope of raising an heir

to his house, and he did so: but to no avail. Then it was tried to pro-

cure the recognized succession for the illegitimate son, but this has failed,

3.8 2

494 Journal of a trip to Sikim. [ May,

also ; almost all the chiefs of the country, the priesthood generally, and

the people, as far as they care at all about the matter, were strongly in

favor of Tubgain Lama’s succession, and they carried the point, he

being nothing loath ; but he required a dispensation from the Pope at

Lassa to enable him to resume secular pursuits, and to marry. This

was sometime ago obtained, and the marriage is the first result.

There was great feasting, and some rejoicing ; all the chiefs of fitting

degree, amounting it is said to 150, were entertained by the Raja for

18 days, the proper period, from the Royal Kitchen, and served in a

large hall; the chief minister, and the Lama of Pemiongchi presiding.

As I was starting this morning the Meboo* of Namchi, came with a

letter to me from the Raja, which he said he had received during the

night, and that it was the Raja’s wish that I should stay at Namchi

for sometime, or go on to Burmeok, one march, and stay there. Thus

advised ofthe probable contents of the letter, I told the Meboo I

would take it on with me to Temi, and read it there, and as some of

my people had started on that road, I should do so too rather than go

by Burmeok. I was lead to this by a feeling amounting almost to

certainty that it was a plan to delay me, and it has so turned out, for

I hear that two officers are gone from the Durbar to that place to meet

me, and endeavour to put obstacles in the way of my journey. Under

what pretext, I do not know, nor do I desire the knowledge. I bade

good bye to the Meboo, and gave } and 3 anna pieces to some old

women and children, who brought me eggs, fowls, and some rice.

Namphok right bank of Teesta, 8th December.—Was up, and

dressed before sunrise, and if not rewarded for my vigilance by

any new and grander view of the snows, I was so fully by the

prospect up the valley of the Teesta, and by the gradual illumina-

tion of the snowy peaks at its source.t An hour later, and from a

point above and another below Temi, I had a fine view of Kunchin-

jinga, and of a peak which is not visible from Darjeeling. It is E. of

the highest poimts of Kunchin, and appears to be behind it. It may

be Biddulph’s Pundeem, which was seen from Changachiling, and which

is not Waugh’s peak of that name. The mountain of Mainomchoo

shuts out the full view to the base of the K. faces of the Kunchin

* Officer of Police.

T See entries in this journal of the 12th, for these peaks.

1849. | Journal of a trip ot Sikim. 495

peaks. The prospect thence must be superb, and I hope to live to see

it. That, anda clear day on Tendong, would satisfy me for a long

time to come. I am now on the best road to Mainomchoo, which is

reached. via. Yangang Goomba, close above this.*

From Temi the descent of yesterday is continued, and very steep

the whole way to the Rungni, which is the first western feeder of the

Teesta met with on this route. It is 4 hours’ work. The direction as

far as Turke is northerly, thence it runs north and parallel with the

Teesta, descending steeply to near the junction of the Rungni with the

Teesta. Cross Rungni to Beng, and in a northerly direction close to

Teesta you have a beautiful level ride of a mile through an open forest

of Toon, and other tropical trees, to the Rungpo, a second western

feeder of the Teesta. This is a deep, and brawling stream, and crossed

on a bundle of long bamboos with a rail to hold by.

From the Rungpo to this place there is a short steep ascent, and

bad road to the Yangang spur—direction north. The Teesta is close

below us, bright green, and very noisy. Orange groves are abundant

in the Teesta valley ; principally close to the river, and two species of

oak are most abundant here, and all the way from the Rungni. One

of them is now in flower; Pooah abounds ; but not a tree, (Fern) since

we left Lebong. Elevation I reckon not 1,000 feet above the river. The

Rungni falls into the Teesta at its bend to the eastward round Badong.

Temperature of air at Rungni 11 a. m. 66°. Temperature of the

stream 610°. |

The following are the ghats, (Ferries)—of the Teesta, from the

south :—

1. Katong Sampoo, (for Chadam road.)

2. Rushap, a little above the former.

3. Tuk-Sampoo, (for Burmeok, and Temi road to Tumlong and

Chola.)

4, Lingjoo, just below Temi.

5. Bangsong, (for Temi road to Tumlong, the Raja’s residence.)

6. Balla Samdong, below Gorrh.

At the Rungpo, I was met by the Lassoo Kaji, and the Lama of

Pemiongchi. They were ordered by the Raja to come so far to meet

me, and accompany me onwards ; but I had come upon them rather

* See further on for visit to Mainomchoo.

496 Journal of a trip to Sikim. [May,

suddenly, as it was intended I should travel by the Burmeok route

to the Took ghat of the Teesta, where the Dewan would probably

meet me. The Kaji pressed me to halt for the day, and he had pre-

pared sheds for me; but I find the Raja’s officers manifest such an

anxiety to delay me, that although I cannot clearly see the reason, I

am quite satisfied it is for some tricky end that would not serve my

objects in desiring to see the Raja, and I am therefore resolved not to

delay until I am shewn some good cause for slackening my pace.

Innumerable excuses are made about the bad state of the road, the

propriety of mending them for me; and that this would have been

done had more time been given, and indeed now it would be done if I

would only halt a day or two, &c. &c. This road excuse is an unlucky

one. It would take years, not to talk of days, toimprove them. I

therefore put the Kaji off by telling him that we were all hylanders,

that the state of the roads was a matter of moonshine to us, but the

provisions were a great thing. If he would furnish them it would be

acceptable, but that I had nevertheless a good supply of my own for

the present, and would take my chance of the road and proceed: I did

so, and he came with me evidently vexed, but very civil. The Bur-

meok Kaji has sent me a very kind and friendly message, with oranges»

rice, a kid, fowl, milk, eggs, and butter. He would come all the way

nearly, 15 miles, to see me, but was ill; he was very glad indeed I had

come this way ; he was an old friend of mine; he and his father were

old friends of my government, and above all he hoped to see me on

my return, and would make a point of doing so whatever road I took.

This is all very well; I have been exchanging civilities with the old

gentleman for the last 10 years by long shots of sweet words, and

small presents between his place and Darjeeling, and shall be right glad

to find him hospitable in his own country. There is no part of the

world I know of in which civil messages are better concocted than in

Sikim, and pretty well for this in, Bootan too. They always begin by

a reference to the antiquity of the alliance between the raja and Chiefs

of Sikim, and the Company ; its closeness and durability is then touched

upon, and its perpetuity insisted on. Yet not one Bhotia chief of

Sikim, or Bootan, that I know of can pass a word on which I would

put the least dependence away from sight, or easy reach. They have

negative qualities of some use to their neighbours ; they are not brave

1849. | Journal of a trip to Sikim. 497

or adventurous, but the reverse; they shrink from violent measures,

and I believe, that however much they might bluster to deter a solitary

European unattended and unprotected, from travelling about the

country, his person would be perfectly safe and inviolate. This relates

to Sikim, and is a good deal. To me they are all perfectly polite and

very well bred at present.

Bansong Ghat, on the west bank of the Teesta River 9th December.

—A very heavy march for loaded coolies and not an easy one by any

means for the traveller. The road runs all the way along the west

bank of the river over spurs, and across streams; the general line of

it varying, I think or rather guess, from 1 to 3000 feet above it. We

started soon after day-light, and it was after 3 p. M., when the rear

guard came in. I adopt a very useful plan—Naik and 4 Sepoys go with

the fastest travelling coolies, and the Havildar with 4 more comes in

with the last men. No deviation from this is admitted. Shortly after

starting we crossed the Namfoke feeder of the Teesta ; its course is due

east to the river, and about a mile or more further on we came sud-

denly on a very grand, and also a most delightful prospect. It is the

basin-like valley of the Rungoom, a large and very rapid feeder of the

Teesta. I wish I could describe the impression it made upon me as I

first surveyed it: and it is not a whit less beautiful throughout its 3

sided circuit. On the North W. of it are the two peaks of Mainom-

choo, 11,000 feet, their sides of bare brown rock, the ridges having

numerous spikes of rock also. Forming the W. and 8. W. margin of

)

the basin is ‘‘ Yangang,”? which was above our stage of yesterday.

The bottom of the basin is a mass of the richest foliage, through which

3 or 4 perpendicular masses of rock protrude themselves. Mainom is

the first bare rocky-peaked mountain I have seen in Sikim. The effect

of this solitary change of character in the scenery is very striking.

The view of Rungoom alone is well worth the pains of the journey

from Darjeeling.

At the north margin of Rungoom our road is joined by one to

**Yangang,” which leads via Daling Goomba to Islimbo, and also to

old Sikim. Although many of the trees in the Teesta valley are of

Immense size, one we passed to-day surpassed them all. It measured

45 feet round, inclusive of 2 not large buttresses. It must be 35 feet

round the solid stem.

498 Journal of a trp to Sikim. [| May,

At % past 9 reached “ Neh ;” the last part of the ascent to the ridge

of this spur is excessively steep, and the path is overhung by a pre-

Cipice as steep as the one on its lower side. The top of this pass is

celebrated as the place whence the Goorkhas were driven back in their

conquest of Sikim to the Teesta.

The Sikimites made a gallant stand here, rolled stones, and flew

vallies of poisoned. arrows at the enemy and succeeded in driving them

back to Brom, which was the furthest point on the Teesta attained by

them, and they never crossed it. It is 61 years since this event, i. e.

it occurred in A. D. 1787.

The father of my interpreter, who for the remainder of this trip

will be called ‘‘ the Kaji,” commanded the Sikimites on that occasion,

and his son, although by no means disposed to be a warrior, is very

proud of it, and well he may be. The annals of Sikim have no doubt

their Wallaces and Bruces, if one could get at them. There is a Men-

dong at Neh, smaller than the Namchi one, and an upright stone

against which travellers measure themselves and cut their mark on its

edge; I overtopped all the marks by a very long chalk ; at least 6

inches.

The maximum stature in Sikim does not exceed 5 feet 7. From

Neh there is an easy descent to the Sungkoom, a feeder of the Teesta

from the west, and after crossing a narrow spur the road descends to,

and crosses the Mungshing. At 4 past 11 I had headed the line a

good way, reached Turboling, from which there was a fine view up the

Teesta terminated by snowy peaks ; crossed the Runnett at 3 past 12, a

rapid and large feeder of the Teesta; and arrived at this ground,

Bangsong, soon after.*

The Teesta has a cane suspension bridge over it here; it is a good

deal larger than the Rungeet, beautifully green but turbid and not. very

violently rapid. Its roar however is somewhat deafening, as I now

write, and have to shout to my people instead of speaking. Water

* T pushed on ahead of my people in the hope of getting across the Teesta and

on to the Durbar before the Dewan arrived at the ghat, to perplex, delay and thwart

my purposes, as I expected he would; but he was there before me, although he

concealed himself ; and when I came to the cane bridge I found its end fastenings

loosened, so that an attempt to cross on it would have been certain death; I then

went on to the Ferry, and here I found the raft moored on the other side.

1849. | Journal of a trip to Sikim. 499

boils at 209°. Temperature of the river 52°, at 3 and 5,re.m. Of

the air in the shade at the same hours 70° and 62°, Thermometer

without, black bulb in the sun at 3 p. m. 80°.

Last night at Lamfoke I had a long visit from my Mehmandar, the

Lassoo Kaji. It was all directed on his part to induce me to halt and

delay, to give the Dewan time to prepare for my reception on the

Teesta ; but I replied to all his solicitude that I should be perfectly

content to meet the Dewan in any way and at any place on the road

the Durbar that might happen ; I find that the routes I compiled for

Hooker are wonderfully correct considering all things.* It appears

that there isa lake of some magnitude on the road to Chola, and not

far from that pass. Its water runs to the Teesta. There is also a lake

near the Natolah Pass, and it is the source of the Natolah river,

which forms the upper boundary between Sikim and Bootan.

At daylight this morning as I was leaving Namfoke I had a visit

from the Lassoo Kaji, and the old Lama of Pemiongchi, a very pic-

turesque old fellow, with a red mitre-shaped cap, red robe with yellow

satin collar, and a long staff in his hand. Another wish to make me

halt, although half my things had started, but of course that would

not suit me. They then presented me on the part of the Raja with a

bull, a large quantity of oranges, rice, turnips, bhanghans, and millet

for beer. The oranges were distributed forthwith, and my fellows

sucked them all the day. It is the height of the season for this fruit,

and it must be very plentiful in this valley. All the people we meet

are eating or carrying them ; and they offer me some to eat, as I come

along,—at least the Lepchas do. They are fine cheerful people, and

well disposed to Europeans. I am improving my colloquial in their

language. The Lassoo is of this tribe. He does not speak Hindus-

tani or Parbuttia, and is much pleased, amused—at my efforts. The

index to peoples’ hearts in the east is certainly through their lan-

guages. The coolies were cheered as we came along with my promise

to slaughter the Raja’s bull at the next ground, and it was done accord-

ingly. The beast was tame enough after his journey, and made no

objections to being tied to a stake; I put a pistol to his forehead, he

came down at once, and then we had my cook, a Muhammedan, to cut

his throat with prayers, so that the flesh was good for all hands.

* See Journal As. Soc. for November 1848, for these routes and this pass.

500 Journal of a trip to Sikin. | May,

The Lepchas minutely examined the pistol, which takes but a pea

ball, then the beast’s forehead, into which they poked a slip of bamboo,

and putting cause and effect together, unanimously agreed that this was

the best possible mode of slaughtering.

They are very clumsy at this sort of work* with pigs and bullocks,

they drive them mad with arrows, and when they are weak from

hemorrhage, they hamstring them.t We have two cases of fever

to-day. The Namfoke portion of the Teesta valley is notoriously

malarious in the hot weather. I hope it is not so now.

There is a pretty little orange grove belonging toe the Raja a little

way from my tent, and a pine apple garden at one side of it, with a

pomegranate tree in flower in the centre of it.

The orange trees are planted in clumbs of 8 or 10, and are large and

fine ; north of this, in the Teesta valley, the fruit is said to be inferior

to what it is southwards. ‘‘ Wherever the flooded rice grows, there

oranges will flourish.” |

10¢h.—Halt here for to-day. The Dewan of the Raja with two

other chiefs arrived on the opposite side of the river past evening, and

this morning the Dewan and I exchanged salaams across the ferry. He

shot an arrow with a letter across to say that he hoped to come over

to visit me durimg the day. He was attended by a retinue of about

50 men dressed in long loose scarlet jackets, striped cloth robes to the

knees, conical caps of coloured cane work, with peacock feathers in front,

bows in their hands and quivers at their backs. The chief was dressed

in a light blue silk bukoo-wrapper, reaching to his ancles, a yellow sash

* This pistol, the barrel of which is a portion of an American pea riflle of very

heavy metal, and small bore, caused a great sensation, and the greatest envy among

the Sirdars. The Raja’s son and the Dewan both tried every means of getting it

from me. The Dewan declared that with such a ‘‘multum in parvo’’ he should

feel his life safe anywhere, and he entreated of me, as I would not sell it to him, to

get him a similar one at any price.

+ The appropriation of the bull’s carcase was rather amusing. I had bespoken

a couple of the marrow-bones only for soup, and my man disjointed them as soon as

the legs were skinned. The Lepchas I observed preferred the ribs to any thing

else. The Moormies, I fancied, looked mostly to rump steaks; and the Bhotiahs

without doubt affected the tripe, and other offal. Not a bit of the beast was left

in 20 minutes except the horns. The Bhotiahs actually divided the skin, and

ate it.

1849. ] Journal of a trip to Sikim. 501

and black velvet cap. With the Teesta rolling in front, and the almost

precipitous side of the Kumbulpoong mountain, wooded to its summit

in the background, the effect was highly pleasing, if not grand. A

hundred yards or so below the ferry is the cane bridge of which, and

the land beyond, an artist would make a fine picture. The river takes

a bend at the bridge, and this brings a low wooded spur of the oppo-

site bank quite across it; over this spur, and in the distance to the

S. E. is the Badong mountain, a fine mass of 6000 feet high at least.

On the opposite bank of Kumbulpoong, there is a spike of rock ap-

parently 50 feet high, It is regarded as a natural Chaitia, and rever-

enced. accordingly.

Hot to-day in my small tent, which is not shaded. Thermometer at

1 p.m. 72°

Kedong, west bank of the Teesta, 11th.—The Dewan not having

come across to see me by noon as he promised, and having no inten-

tion of doing so at all that day, as I had good cause to believe, I made

up my mind to have him over in the speediest manner I could think

of, and that was to announce my purpose of quitting the ghat ona

trip northwards, until the arrangements for taking me across the river

in progress to the Durbar should be completed. I announced this

to Lassoo Kaji, and he made some objections to it, but said he would

report to the Dewan.

The Dewan did not wish me to move for a number of insignificant

reasons; and I believe that he and the Lassoo kept up a correspond-

ence about it, shot across with arrows, all the afternoon. In the

meantime I went on with my arrangements to start on the Lachoong

road at daylight, and merely asked the Lassoo to give me a guide, who

knew the road. When I went to bed he had not promised this or

refused it. At daylight, when I was all ready to start, I was informed

that the suspension bridge had been put to rights during the night, that

the Dewan would be over immediately to see me; and that it was

supposed I would then wait, where I was. I breakfasted then, struck

my tent, gave the word to be off to the coolies, and then sure enough,

the Dewan did come. I received him as I was, and we sat on the

Sitringee of the little tent, which was still spread. Then came a host

of enquiries about my journey, which had been so rapid and unexpected,

a number of excuses for not ferrying me yesterday; a great deal

3 7T 2

502 Journal of a trip to Sikum. [ May,

about giving me a proper reception at the Durbar, and many profes-

sions of friendship, beginning as usual with the “ancient alliance,” and

ending with the unalterable nature of it for the future. I was most

amiable and acquiescent in all this, and to the expressed anxiety about

my reception, I merely said that whatever the Maharaja might think

worthy of himself on the occasion would be quite satisfactory to me.

It was then agreed that as it would be necessary, according to the Dewan,

to refer to the Raja before I went to see His Highness, and as this

would take some days, I should go ona trip to the north along the

Teesta, and return whenever the Dewan should send after me to say

that the preparations for crossing the river were completed. He then.

appointed three men to accompany me as guides and cicerones, and I

started, the Dewan coming with me as far as the Raja’s orange garden,

where he had a basket full plucked and presented to me.

We talked of shooting hare, when the Dewan gave me a broad hint

fora gun. He examined mine, a borrowed one by the way, and also

a pair of pistols, with which he made me show off my firing at a

mark, and then tried it himself. We parted in mutual good humour:

at least I was very well pleased to get away from the ghat for further

travel, and he said he was well pleased at meeting me. I have not the

smallest dependence on any thing he said. He is the most deceptive,

and lying, of all the faithless Sikim chiefs and officials. He will mar

my purposed visit to the Raja if he can.

We started at 3 past 8 a. m. and arrived at Kedong at 2 o'clock ; all

hands up and fairly tired. It is the severest march I have yet made

in the hills, although far from being the longest. The general direction

is north.

We came principally in the bed of the Teesta to the junction of the

Romphup, a western feeder running due east. This took us an hour.

Then up the bed of this stream for a mile or so, crossed it over on

bamboos, and commenced the ascent of Lingkeang, a shoulder of

Sungdampoong, which we attained after 3 hours and half hard work ;

it is almost perpendicular ; the road, so to call it, is the very narrowest,

and in many places it is rather alarming from the immense dip of

rock on the lower side. In many of the narrowest places a slip would

be inevitably fatal. No ponies to-day ; left them at the ghat, and it is

well, I did so ; and none of the coolies carry more than 20 seers, which

is Just the load for easy and fast travelling.

1849.| Journal of a trip to Sikim. 503

From the crest of Lingkeang the view is very grand. To the north

is still Sungdam, rugged, precipitously steep, and barren. The cha-

racter of the country is evidently changing, and the first sign of it was

in the peaks of Mainom, overhanging the beautiful basin of Rungoom.

Instead of well soil-clad mountains, as at Temi, and further west,

rockiness and scanty soil, with constant precipices, is now the character

of the Teesta valley, and more so on the west than east bank certainly ;

at elevations above 5,000 feet there is scarcely any thing but rock,

whitish clay slate, and gneiss. I have noted bearings from Ling-

keang to the N. and S., ‘‘ Sikim” to the south, and on this side of the

Teesta, is the largest piece of cultivation we have seen. ‘The fields are

well railed in, and the ground turned up with the spade ready for

wheat, which will be sown next month. This is full two months later

than west of the Rungeet. The harvest itis said will be in May, as

there. The vegetation on Lingkeang is not altered I think from that

of similar elevations further S. and W. but about this place (Kedong)

there is grass, whenever there are bits of soil for it to grow on,—and

that is rare. We passed an old Lepcha, who looked half starved, and

was turning up the scanty soil for a buckwheat crop. ‘* Have you any

cows, and can you give us a drop of milk,” I said. “‘ Cows!’ was the re.

ply, “there is nothing for them to live on here, it is all that the Thar and

Ghoral* can do to get a subsistence.’ These are really the only ani-

mals known hereabouts, and they are very scarce, nor are there any

birds ; during the two days, I was at the ghat, I did not see a single

bird ; and there is said to be no fish. The fishes of the Teesta on the

plain are the best river ones I know of. The Romphup water is a

drumly white, and carries down a very fine white silt from its source,

which we saw at a distance, and isin a hill of apparently clay slate.

All the other feeders like the Teesta itself are green and clear, and this

is its character on the plains, where its water is unrivalled for drinking.

We had a good view of some snowy peaks before reaching this place,

The Powhunny of Waugh’s chart I think. (See bearings.) We meta

party of Thibetans going to Darjeeling; they were 10 days from

Lachoong, which they assert to be to the east of the Lachen Pass.

At Temi, we were told the contrary; and Hooker had a similar story

told to him in Nipal.

* Antelopes.

D04 Journal of a trip to Sikim. [ May,

This question may be settled a little further on. There is no doubt,

I now think, that both these Passes are to the west of Waugh’s Pow-

hunny. There is a stream of good water at Kedong, and just enough

flattish ground to place my tent on; around it are fine large rocks under

which the Lepchas sleep.

“The Koor,” “ Borh,”’ and ‘ Oope Palms,” are very abundant on

the Lingkeang ascent. No tree ferns, Oaks, and birches at Kedong,

Water boils at 2003°. Thermometer in shade at 2 p.m. 58°. Tem-

perature of stream 54°.

Started at 7 a.m. and after hard work over such a road as I have

only heard described, but never travelled on, halted here at noon. All

hands up half an hour after, right glad to find that I had reached water,

and did not purpose passing it to make a longer march. Gorrh is the

usual halting place. We got there at 11 a. m. and the Raja’s guides

in attendance tried to dictate a halt to me there, on which account I

mainly . pushed on to satisfy them that they were sent for my conve-

nience, not for their’s. They are very civil fellows on the whole, and

do my bidding cheerfully. If they tell a hundred lies during the day,

about the names of places, and other things which I have in my own

knowledge, and by means of those who are with me, the power of

correcting, it is the fault of their training, and I cannot help it. After

an hour’s walking with a good deal of ascent, and along a perfect

precipice principally of solid rock, with loose stones here and there, we

rounded the N. E. shoulder of Sungdam, and suddenly turning north-

wards, I was rewarded with a torrent of delightful emotions such as

one but rarely experiences, and which form the sunny spots in the

book of life, when they do occur. When we started it was cloudy,

and threatening rain; sudden gusts of S. W. wind came violently up

the course of the Teesta, and we were enveloped in dense mist.

Despairing of seeing any thing for this day, and expecting to have

to return to-morrow to the Dewan and the chiefs at the ghat, I

early rosolved to halt at Kedong. How glad I am that I did not, for

on turning to the north the horizon was quite clear ahead, and dis-

played a noble view of the snowy mountains. The Teesta valley

running due north, seemed to penetrate deep into the range, which

looked close to us, and semicircles of snowy mountains flanked it on

the east and west. It was more than beautiful, a fresh and bracing

1849.] Journal of a trip to Sikim. 505

breeze came blowing right in our faces, the nearer hills on either bank

of the river rising from its bed from 6 to 7,000 feet, were bright in

sunshine; all around was indisputably grand, and I was perfectly

happy.

The road from Kedong to this shoulder of Sungdam, which is pro-

bably from 5 to 6,000 ft. high, runs mostly on a narrow ledge of rock,

with the Teesta on the right, and perpendicularly below you; the peaks

of Sungdam overhead and of bare rock, a variety of long grasses

occupy the soily portions of the mountain side; and at the shoulder

there are some stunted trees of the scarlet Rhododendron, Alders, and

the handsome yellow Daphur now in full flower. The bark of this

plant is as tough as that of the real paper plant ;* but it is not used,

I believe for that purpose. It abounds all the way to Tukbrum, where

it is a good sized tree.

From Sungdam shoulder, the road descends very steeply to the Rett

or Ronglo, a rapid stream running east to the Teesta, crosses it, and

ascends precipitously to Gorrh, we come through barley and wheat

fields just above ground, and then along more rocky precipices to this

place. I believe that my route to Lachoong,+ which gives the road

as descending to the Teesta at Gorrh, is quite correct, but there is

evidently a great jealousy with the Sikim officials of our crossing the

Teesta, and as I satisfied myself at Gorrh, that the snow may be

reached or nearly so by the left bank, I did not press hard questions

about the ferry, and came on.

The Runkoom, an eastern feeder of the Teesta, joins it opposite the

foot of the Sungdam shoulder; and the Rungmon from the E. by N.

coming from the snowy peak, noted yesterday as Powhunny, joins it

nearly at the same place. At Tukbrum is a feeder of the same name,

which comes down im a cataract over the rocky valley of its bed, and

roars as loudly as the Teesta itself at Bangsong. On the east bank,

and north of this is the Rhato; and from the west, and between

Tukbrum and Rahlang Ghat, is the Nukdung, and some other feeders

of which I have not the names. At Rahlang the Teesta takes a turn

to the eastward, and it is the Rieng which comes due south from the

shows, and appears to be the north source of the river. To the north-

east of the junction of the Rieng it is joined by the united streams of

* Daphne also. ft Jour. As. Soc. for November, 1848.

506 Journal of a trip to Sikim. [ May,

Lachoong and Lachen ; to the N. and west of the latter of these, its own

source is in the snows, and far east of Kunchinjinga.* I have made

incessant enquiries as to the possibility of seemg Kunchinjinga from

any of the mountain tops hereabouts, but it is universally said that it

is not visible, that mountains partly snowed, and not snowed, intervene.

The people at Tukbrum point a little 8. of W. to the situation of

Kunchinjinga.

The people hereabouts and onwards to the snow are Lepchas

and Bhotiahs mixed; all the way from Bangsong they look starved

and miserable. No wonder; it is a sterile land,—rice does not grow,

and they live it out the best they can by bits of wheat, barley, mur-

wa, and buckwheat cultivation among the endless rocks. On the east

side of the Teesta it is better, and there are some nice looking farms

occasionally seen from the river upwards to 5 or 6,000 feet. They are

generally fenced in, and are for the most part permanently cultivated ;

the Lepchas not being so erratic on the Teesta as on the two Run-

geets, the Balasun, and Mechi. The manuring is done solely by

penning the cows in different portions ot the little farm. They rarely

have pigs, and fowls even are scarce, goats unknown, and so are sheep.

Darjeeling and its free expenditure of ready cash has wonderfully ame-

liorated the condition of the people who resort to it and live near it.

This was well described to me yesterday as we came through a wretch-

ed field of buckwheat. ‘‘ Here a man cannot exist unless he grows

something, however bad, from barren soil; at Darjeeling he can live

well on good rice, and not cultivate at all. There, leaves, bamboos,

rattans, and all sorts of yams, and vegetables will fetch him money.

Here there is no money, and little to sell if there was; so the people

are starving; grass is used for thatch hereabouts instead of bamboo.”

There is a Cartus tree here, the first ever seen by my Lepchas, and the

first by me in Sikim, also some tobacco plants, but of no use.

Water boils at 204°. Temperature of air at 1 p. m. 60°; of water

56°.

* P.S. TI leave this exactly as it was noted at the time, but when at Mainom-

chi with Dr. Hooker, I came to the conclusion that the feeder of the Teesta which

I call the ‘‘ Rieng”’ is the proper source of the Teesta. If Dr. Hooker succeeds

in getting to the Lachen and Lachong passes, we shall have accurate information

on the sources of the Teesta.

1849.] Journal of a trip to Sikim. 507

I have a letter from the chiefs at the ghat to say that the Raja has

written, and wishing me to return, which I do to-morrow according to

my promise. I wish they would keep their’s to me in like manner.

_ Kedong, 13th.—Last night at Tukbrum at 9 o’clock the sky was

lowering heavily, and threatened rain. The Thermometer stood at 54° ;

a great change at this elevation in 9 hours. But it had snowed heavily

on the peaks to the northwards; was now bright and clear, and a

gentle northerly breeze was blowing. I do not know if the proximity

of Tukbrum to the snowy range at all affects the variations of its tem-

perature, but the rapid descent of it last night is, I think, unusual. It

was with great reluctance that I turned my back upon the snow, and

even as I did so I was half irresolute, for yesterday I had encouraged

dreams of further delays at the ghat, and of my reaching the snow,

before the summons of recal should overtake me, but I could not

help it ; it is reported that the Raja has come in person to the river to

meet me, and it would not do to keep the sovereignty of Sikim kick-

ing his heels for me, in his own dominions. I wish most heartily that he

had staid at home, and ordered me to the presence at Tumlong. Be-

sides the pleasure of a couple more marches in new places, I might

have got to the lakes of Chola, which are the newest of all the new

things I have lately heard of. They lie, one on each side of the road

near the Pass, and on this side of it, and two day’s journey from the

Durbar.

The road to-day seemed rather better than it was yesterday, and

constant travelling over the like of it might reconcile you to it, and

even lead you to defend it, as a thing you had a property in. This is a

very common feeling with people in India about their stations, officers,

&c. &e. But it was not a whit the less terrific along the face of Sung-

dam. It is a mixed mood of elation and depression to find yourself

for an hour together moving on a ledge of rock which is sometimes not

more than 6 inches broad; a rocky wall of 1,000 feet over your head,

and below another of 4 or 5,000, with the certain knowledge that

a single slip would in a few seconds bring your earthly progress to a close

for ever.

At the Ronglo stream we saw about a dozen large bee-hives on the

face of an inaccessible precipice. There was a village near, but the

people could not manage to get at them, as there was no tree above

3 U

508 Journal of a trip to Sikim. | May,

the precipice to which they could attach a rope, and thereby descend

to the hives, as is the fashion to do in like cases. These were the large

black bees of Sikim, with a little yellow below the wings. They are

called <‘ Vott’? by the Lepchas, “ Piabeany”’ by the Bhotiahs. Their

honey is pretty good; the quantity of wax they yield is very large.

The small bee of these hills is like the English one. The Lepchas call

it ‘‘ Hoo,” the Bhotiahs “ Seviang.” Its honey is very fine,—its wax

very little. The honey of both species is intoxicating while the white

Rhododendron is in flower, and they feed onit, 1. e. in April and May.

The Pupa of both, as well as of a very large black hornet with yellow

head, are much prized as a delicacy in Sikim.

Bangsong, on the Teesta, \4th.—We arrived here from Kedong at

11 a. M., having started at $ past 7. It was very pleasant to tread the

bit of level road near the ghat, after 4 days of incessant climbing and

descending, not to speak of sleeping off the level; for the Machan is

always higher at one end, and mine on this occasion had by no means

an even surface, being made of sticks instead of bamboos, I have

pitched my little camp in the Raja’s orange grove, and cleared the jun-

gle that shut out the view of the river. It is a fine spot of 2 acres, or

so, quite level; the river rolling in front, and Sungdam rising precipi-

tously behind it to 6,000 feet at least. On my arrival the Dewan met

me, and took me to the house he has fitted up for his quarters. His

reception was polite, and almost kind. His enquiries about my trip

very amusing. Why or wherefore I went such a road without direct

necessity he could not yet understand ; nor could he at all sympathise

with me in my expression of pleasure at what I saw. The end of the

house was fitted with a bench raised about a foot, on which was spread

a rug of soft carpetting, blue and white, and of Chinese or Thibetan

manufacture. On this he insisted I should sit alone, he taking another

carpet on my right hand, and some paces down the room. Between us

on the floor were his devotional implements, and on the bench beside

him a Thibetan dagger with silver handle, and an English pistol. The

walls were hung round with white and coloured furs and sheep skins,

China satin bukoos, (cloaks), a shield, and 4 or 5 enormous China

hats of white straw, or matting, lined with blue silk and studded over

with worked silk figures of butterflies, &. About a dozen dirty

brawny fellows in blue or purple long woollen wrappers, loitered out

1849.] Journal of a trip to Sikim. 509

and in the apartment, and two fat Lamas occasionally muttering

prayers and counting their beads completed the group. My host’s

ponies—3 good ones,—were picketed close to the door. A high peaked

tartar saddle, and a lower peaked Chinese one, lay in a corner of the

room, and the whole menage had a much more Tartarian appearance

than I have ever met within the hills. We talked on many subjects ;

horses he is very partial to, and he drives a trade in them besides,

between his own country and Darjeeling. He asked about our extra-

ordinary anxiety to visit the snows, and other questions regarding the

Himalaya, and was greatly astonished at learning that it extended from

the Indus to the Burrampootur, and that we knew something about it

throughout this immense tract. He made what I believe isa true

remark, that this is the nearest way to Thibet from India. It was not

from him I expected this corroboration of my own notions. After

regaling myself with a good pull at a Choonga of quite cold Murwa

beer, and some oranges, both of which were most grateful after the hot

walk from Kedong, I took my leave. He visited me at my tent during

the day, and we are very amicable. At his visit he said he would

follow the fashion of Thibet, by presenting me on the first occasion

with a tray of yams,* some dried plums, a side of yak beef, and two

haunches of venison. That after the same fashion it was his duty,

and he would like to provide my meals regularly as long as I staid

with him, but that as he had come very hurriedly he could not do this ;

but would request permission to send me such provisions as the country

afforded. I replied, that he was unrivalled in these parts for his

acquaintance with Thibetan manners and usages, which in the present

case were very hospitable and agreeable. I shall probably have a much

more respectable sort of offering during the day, or to-morrow, for these

Sikimite officials are on all occasions pertinacious holders back in their

civilities as in their official acts, opening out with extreme caution, and

always with seeming reluctance, even when their politeness is, as in this

case, quite voluntary. Iam informed that the Raja is engaged in some

unavoidable annual exercises of religion, which will occupy him till the

* This yam is like the radicles of a larger root, not thicker than a quill; brown,

and like Ipecacuani, crisp white, and sweet, and is eaten raw, as well as boiled.

It is called ‘‘ Somah ;”’ the plant is said to be a creeper, and not unlike the yam

plant in Sikim.

a: 2

510 Journal of a trip to Sikim. [ May,

new moon, (a fortnight,) and will write to ask me to meet him next cold

weather. In the morning I heard that he was at the ghat waiting

for me. |

We shall see how it is to be arranged. Meantime. as before, I

believe nothing I hear regarding his movements or intentions.

Bangsong, 15th.—The Dewan and the Lassoo Kaji arranged with me,

last night, that I should remain here for two days, in the course of

which I should know exactly what the Raja was about. They know

well enough, but will not say; and the Dewan’s system of secrecy is

so complete, that itis in vain to try among his people for correct

information on the subject. I require a day’s rest, and so do the coolies;

who have been with me to Tukbrum ; I also hear that Hooker has

penetrated into Sikim, on his return from Walloongchong, and is

making for me here. I should like exceedingly to have him here at all

events, and if the Raja comes, it will be more of Sikim for him to see

than he will again have any chance of. I am not obliged to be back

to relieve Mr. Kemp, who is so kindly carrying on my office for me,

till 25th, so that I shall wait with pleasure for the time specified. It

rains to-day, and threatens a continuance, I fear, but as I have 40

Lepchas with me, we soon housed all our party. The plaintain leaf,

Fresh, is an excellent thatch, and it is very abundant here ; so is the Oopi

palm, which the ponies prefer to the bamboo, or any other leaf I think.

At noon the Dewan called, and as I half expected, he came out stronger

im the hospitable line than he did yesterday. He presented me on

behalf of the Raja with a yak, two Thibet sheep, two loads of rice,

two quarters of mutton sun-dried in Thibet, some Lassa Macaroni,

milk, yams, a piece of yellow China satin, and a pair of Tartar boots,

drab lined with pale blue. I gave his people, who brought the largess,

20 Rs. When he left me he said that the Raja was on his way here,

and he actually went across the river to prepare shedding for his royal

master. If this be true he must have known of it last night when he

told me that all sorts of things would prevent the Raja from coming.

First, there was the religious exercises. 2nd. His extreme old age, (he

is 70.) 3rd. The road to this ghat is not fit for Doolie travelling. 4th.

The time for preparation was so short. 5th. The Lassa people might

be jealous, and alarmed at his coming to meet me, and prevent his

going to Teshoo Loomboo next year. 6th. When he met Colonel

1849. | Journal of a trip to Sikim. 511

Lloyd at the Took Ghat, 12 years ago, the meeting took two years to

arrange; and, lastly,—yet I think that was the last reason,—the Boota-

nese may be jealous, and annoyed at his friendliness with me, and come

down upon him for it accordingly.* Certainly this Dewan is the

aptest story-teller I know of,—a pattern minister, I reckon, for a Bhotia

Raja. His qualifications may get him promotion across the snows, and

I hope he may get it soon. I think he is not likely to come by much

honor in his connection with the British government ; as yet he has

always done the reverse.t Iam right glad for the sake of my temper,

and patience that I am not entrusted with any special matter of busi-

ness to be transacted on this occasion; as it is, I can wait to see the

end of his lies, and be none the worse. I have information however,

which leads me to think that his position is just at present none of the

easiest to maintain; and is a precarious one for the future. He is not

at all in favor with the lately married Lama, the Raja’s eldest son, and

who is now acknowledged by all the chiefs and people as the heir-

apparent. If the old Raja dies before the son, farewell to the Dewan-

ship of my hopeful host. He got his present influence over the Raja,

through the ladies, one of them a relation of his wife’s, and by alienating

the Raja from his eldest son, to whom he has not even spoken for years.

The marriage lately effected took place in spite of the Dewan, and was

all arranged in Thibet by Aden Chiboo, his enemy, the right hand man

of the heir-apparent, and the present destined Dewan for the new

reign; but he puts his trust in princes, and has a crafty fellow to deal

with in the meantime, and that is the present minister, who is backed

by the Raja, and all the female interest of the household, in his purpose

of putting the illegitimate son on the throne at the death of his father,

* To all this, I replied, that I needed proof of the Raja’s own inability or unwill-

ingness to see me, and that I would wait for it at the Teesta, or go to the Durbar, if

he would let the passage of the river be as free to me as it was to every one else.

Late at night he sent me a letter bearing the Raja’s seal, and dated from the Dur-

bar, in which he excused himself from seeing me! I pronounced it to be none of

the Raja’s, and avowed my purpose of regarding itas a manufacture of the Dewan’s

until I had assurance from the Raja of the contrary. This resolve decided him on

leaving matters alone, and he accordingly produced the Raja, who at the very time

I got the letter had been two days en route to the ghat tosee me. The purpose of

the Dewan was to drive me away in anger at the Raja.

+ See Review of Sikim Politics, Nov. 1846.

512 Journal of a trip to Sikim. [-May,

and thereby securing to himself the continuance of his ministry. These

are all and singly even sufficient to keep a new man, who rules his

fellows more by force of favoring circumstances than from superior

talents, on the qui vive; and doubtless my affairs, as they are not very

pressing, are held inferior to any of his own. If furthering my

wishes could materially serve his own purposes, I might through him

accomplish something for the more satisfactory transaction of business

with Sikim ; but it is not so; and if I do not see the Raja, or seeing

him, do not find that he is able or willing to amend matters, I must

wait for some other opportunity or try some other mode of bringing

this about. As it is, a great point has been lately gained in the permis-

sion to Dr. Hooker to return by Kunchinjinga, and by the facilities

given to my own travelling im Sikim.

Bangsong, 16th.—Ueavy rain all last night. The river has risen a

little, and although its waters are still green they are turbid, and the

pace is quickened. It is always a matter of deep interest to me to

watch the endless current of a stream, however sluggish, to the insati-

able ocean. But the headlong course of mountain torrents, equally

unceasing, I can never look on without feelings of great wonder. How

is the rate of these currents ascertained: I have never met with any

observations to this end.

While waiting for breakfast this morning I saw the Dewan, whose

house is close by, having his ponies trotted up and down, with their

grooms mounted, over a piece of rocky and rough ground just in front

of his door ; I joined him, and we talked of horses—a very favorite topic

with him, and of which he has some curious information ;—I asked if he

knew the Giangtchi breed of Thibet, which is a favorite with the chiefs

in Nipal, and if it was not a very good one? He said, “1 know

Giangtchi well, and the ponies you allude to, but they come from a long

way east of that place, although the Nipalese may perhaps buy them

there. They are very fine ones. There is a lake in their native district

out of which a noble stallion was produced by miraculous means. He

passed a season on its bank, and this is the origin of the celebrated

Giangtchi blood, and there is no better in Thibet.” I remarked, “ that

the bit in the mouth of a fine colt that the groom was awkwardly

shewing off was too severe, as it was bleeding.’”’ ‘Oh no,”’ he replied,

“itis not Ais blood, it is what he has just been eating. Pig’s blood, and

1849. | Journal of a trip to Sikim. 518

liver, that he has every morning in the cold weather!’ Come, thought

I, this is coming a little too far north of my zoology, but I was wrong ;

a brass basin was brought from the stable half full of raw blood, and

bits of liver, the man dismounted, unbitted his nag, and the beast ate

the horrid mess with evident pleasure, and seemed quite used to it.

This is always done in Thibet, while the horse is growing, by those who

can afford to do it, and it is said to greatly increase the fire and endur-

ing power of the animal.

When travelling, animal food, fresh or dried, is always given, and on

this diet the condition is maintained under the severest work. In the

warm season oil and eggs are substituted for the blood and liver. “ Will

you sell me the Hubshee colt, Dewan Sahib?” ‘No, I cannot,” he

replied. ‘‘ He, and that little bay are dedicated to the gods; but the

mare in foal, and the chesnut are for sale.’ The gods have much the

best of the Dewan’s stable, and he takes good care of, and good work

out of their property. It is the usage in Sikim to consecrate some

animals of all sorts belonging to you (except the dog) and these are

never sold nor given away, so that I cannot buy the young Hubshee,*

which is a very good one.

The Dewan’s huntsmen, and dogs have been out to-day for deer but

it is a blank day. They started early to the brow of the hill just above

our encampment, which is 1500, or 2,000 feet higher, and covered

with a thick forest of palms, plantains, bamboos, and other tropical

plants, and they beat it all down to the river without a find. The

day before I returned from Tukbrum, they were more successful in the

same locality ; they drove a Rutwa right through the sleeping place of

my guard, into and across the Teesta, the men and dogs followed on

the bamboo raft used at the ferry, he took to the hill, but they hunted

him again in the river, which he recrossed ; and was killed on landing.

I had mince collops of the haunch yesterday, which were delicate, and

fine-flavored. The dogs all give tongue, when they are close upon the

chase; but out of a pack of a dozen it is reckoned good if more than

a couple give tongue upon the scent. In the warm whether the deer

when driven to take the water often swim down for miles, keeping the

middle of the stream, and thus escape their pursuers, but in the winter

they cannot stand the cold of the water and rarely do more than cross

* Hubshee, African, so called from the curly hair of this sort of poney.

514 Journal of a trip to Sikim. | May,

direct. The temperature of the Teesta to-day is 52° ; of the air in the

shade 62°. Weather still cloudy and threatening.

Bangsong, 17th.—After my hunting entry of yesterday, the men

took a fresh cast into the forest south of my tent, and between it and

the suspension bridge. In an hour there was a great deal of whistling,

shouting, a rush of bow and arrowmen past my door, and the dogs

were in full cry at some distance. I followed the crowd down to the

river gun in hand, but a horrible pair of thick-soled English shoes put

on for the damp of the morning quite crippled me in scrambling over

the immense boulder of clay slate, which are quite polished and very

slippery from the action of the water in the rainy season, which raises

the level of the river 15 or 20 feet more than it is now. The deer

however, soon driven out, took to the river at once, and was swept

rapidly across to the other side, where the Dewan was preparing for

the Raja’s camp, and shot him. The blood was brought over in a

small Choonga for the colt, and the venison sent to the kitchen.

At daybreak this morning, the hunt was off again; they crossed the

river to beat the opposite bank, and about noon, there was great shout-

ing and whistling, and a rush of people to the bank. All eyes were

directed to a landslip, opposite which was a perfect precipice of loose

rock and stones ; and here it was said the deer would issue. Sure enough

he did so, and jumped into the foaming stream most gallantly. The

Dewan, the Kaji, and I had guns loaded only with shot. All the others

had bows and arrows. A volley was fired at the deer as he swam

down with the current, but no mischief done to him by any of us.

He put back to his own shore, swam strongly up the eddy along a

ledge of rock until he found a landing place, and then took right up the

hill just as the dogs and his original pursuers reached a point of the

river 100 yards above him. The swim must have refreshed him, for

he was not found again.

It was a good sight to see my ally, the Dewan, running over the

huge and slippery stones to get a shot. He was barefooted, and that

helped his paces: but his figure is fat and bunchy. His dress was a

fawn coloured figured China Satin Bukoo, down to his heels, and lined

with long woolled, white sheep skin ; his head was bare, with a queue to

his waist, and this with a green and gold Nipal Chatta in his hand,

gave him any thing but a sporting look. I laughed, and could not

1849. | Journal of a trip to Sikim. 515

help it. He did so too very good-naturedly, and complained of the heat

of the sun in these vallies. He was full of eagerness, and as joyous as

a boy. In spite of his official quibbles and deceits there is something

simple and pleasing in his manners, and I dare say that if we were on a

hunting party only, and I was to reproach him with all his falsehoods

he would say they were ‘‘ quite Pickwickcian,” i. e. Ministerial.

The preparations for the Raja’s arrival are going on briskly to-day,

and he will be here to-morrow I believe. Strings of goats and kids

are coming in. Firewood is being collected in heaps. The sheds are

almost ready and people are hourly arriving to see the fun ; more than

all, the Dewan sent to me this morning for some soap to have a regular

scrubbing, I take it, and I sent him my only spare cake of brown

Windsor, my bearer remonstrating, and saying that Dhobies’ soap

would do as well, and so it would; but there is not a bit even of this

among us all!

Heavy rain last night again, and it is still cloudy. This is hailed

with great pleasure by all the people along the Teesta, as it is just at

the best time for the young wheat and barley crops. The small range

of the Thermometer is remarkable in this situation,—all day yesterday

it only varied from 58° to 62°, and at 6 p. M. and 6 a. M. this morning

it stood at 59°.

There is no saul along the bed of the Teesta as on the Rungeet,

and oaks abound ; together with a profusion of the three palms already

noted, bamboos and plantains at the river edge. The chesnut and

wild mangoe are in the same locality. The wormwood which infests

the abandoned clearances up to 4000 feet in all parts of Sikim that I

have seen, is collected here as food for goats; and they devour it

greedily. There is a tree very common here, the outer bark of which

is quite smooth and shining, and of a light stone or nearly white colour,

it is the “‘Seling Koong’”’ of the Lepchas, and peculiar powers are

attributed to it. If a woman in the early part of her pregnancy

touches the bark, her offspring will be fair and finely skinned like

this tree. The leaf is like the toon and ash; it is not now in fruit or

flower.

Bangsong, 18th.—The Raja arrived on the opposite side of the river

about 9 o’clock this morning. About 7, while I was dressing, the

Dewan came to me to say he was off to meet his Highness. Te was

3 xX

516. Journal of a trip to Sikim. { May,

accompanied by the Gantoke Kaji, and 3 or 4 other minor Sirdars, and

had an escort of a dozen Lepchas armed with muskets, and dressed in

long scarlet jackets, conical caps with the peacock feather in front, and

black cross and pouch belts. The party looked very striking crossing the

river on the bamboo raft manned by halfa dozen wild lookmg Lepcha

ferrymen. The raft here is pulled straight across the stream. There

is a rope of 4 or 5 ratans stretched across, and fixed on either bank, by

which the ferrymen pull the raft.

This is quicker than the plan on the Rungeet, where it is pulled

across by a party on each side with attached ropes. In this way the

raft is each time carried some way down the stream and has to be pulled

up to the landing place. The ferrymen here and on all the ghats of

the Teesta are so by an hereditary tenure. They can reckon 100 years

of it here, from father to son. They get no pay, nor any ferry fees,

but they are exempt from payments of all kinds, whether in money,

grain or other service. All the ferries are exempt from transit duties

on merchandise, &c. except the Katong one, and there although the

levy is irregular in amount, it is not heavy. It is generally taken in —

kind on goods.

The system of Begarree (unpaid carriage labour) is the law of Sikim

everywhere, and it is managed ona plan by no means harrassing to

the people. There are fixed stages beyond which the people are not

expected to travel, and they do not generally exceed two days’ journey

with a load. A man is therefore rarely more than 3 or 4 days at a

time away from his home on these occasions; but he has to provide

his own food, and the frequency of the calls upon him are quite uncer-

tain.

This has been a very busy day indeed at the ferry. All the provi-

sions for the Raja’s party are sent by the Dewan from this side, and all

the people from the country between the Teesta and the Rungeet, as

well as westwards to the Nipal frontier, are flocking in to make their

salaams to the Raja. It saves them a longer trip to the Durbar ; be-

sides it is a great novelty to find his Highness in this part of his terri-

tory, which he has not approached since 1837-8, when he met Colonel

Lloyd at the Took Sampoo, 30 miles or so, south of this.

The provisions do not look very tempting as they pass by, but

Bhotia cookery may do much for them. They consist of great sides

1849.] Journal of a trip to Sikim. 517

and rumps of yak, and bull beaf, carried on the greasy shoulders

and filthy heads of Bhotias, who never wash, and who wear a gar-

ment from its making untilit is in rags, and shining in every part

with the friction on sweat and dirt. Then there is butter in great

quantities rolled up in leaves, and tied with strips of bamboo. This

is cleaner, but peers out occasionally covered with dust, and in contact

with the carrier’s neck or arms, which is very sickening. Pigs, goats,

kids, milk, fowls, eggs, sun-dried mutton, venison, rice, fermented murwa

for beer, spirits, oranges, and plantains, I think complete the list. All

good things enough, but the touch of a Bhotia ruins all in my esti-

mation, and the recklessly filthy way in which they keep their food,

and carry it about is altogether disgusting.

I have all day been an object of great curiosity to the new arrivals,

very few of whom have ever seen a European before. Immediately

the Raja arrived his followers came down to the opposite shore in

groups to take a peep at me across the river, and after having seen me

at the long range for some time, they would cross over, approach cauti-

ously at first, salaam, and then commence their closer scrutiny. The

texture of my coat, the bit of velvet on its collar, my pantaloons, and

shoes, were all carefully touched and examimed. One would say they

were Chinese, another, Calcutta, a third neither one nor either. Then

it would be asked, “Is the watch chain of gold, and the pencil case,

and the ring.’ All being handed round, and examined, the parties

passed on to the little tent, examined the bed, the table, its cloth, the

chair, the gun, the writing materials, and this was all it contained,—and

to conclude their survey, the little kitchen close by, the saddles and

ponies had their full attention. ‘This sort of thing continued all day.

Never was a wild beast at a country fair more run after, or sought for

than I have been since morning. With all this intrusion and with the

most familiar conversation going on between us all day, I did not

once meet with the slightest rudeness‘or impertinence. The Lepchas

are such cheerful fellows that even with the little I can speak of their

language, I could raise a hearty laugh among them in few words, and

often did so. The Bhotias are much more grave; but they join

generally in cheerfulness, and were equally devoid of offence or annoy-

ance, although quite as inquisitive.

The Maha Ranee is with the Raja. She is rather young I hear, and

3.x 2

518 Journal of a trip to Skim. [ May,

rode astride on horseback, when he travelled in a doolie ; occasionally

riding a mile where the road admitted of it. Her women, and many

others came during the day to the ghat to look at me, but none of

them crossed over. Many women from this side took the usual survey

of me, and all my chattels.

While walking out last evening, 1 came on a party of 8 fine young

Lepchas on the river-side near the cane bridge. They were engaged

at quoits, and after some talk they asked me if I would take a hand ;

I did so, but did not make much of it. The quoits are thick pieces

of slate weighing a seer or more, selected at the time, by the players.

The distance is about 30 feet, and they deliver the quoit with a rotatory

motion as we do. Each player has two quoits; and the number of

players equally divided fora match. We played at the stump of a

small tree, at the root of which a peg was driven into the ground. If

a quoit rests on this peg it is equal to a ringer, but if an after one

rests on the first it alone counts, the first rmger being superseded and

cancelled. We then had a turn at putting the stone, at which I beat

them, all easily, when I saw the best they could do. They practise

with “ putting” a heavy and “drawing” a light stone, just as we do

in the highlands of Scotland. They attributed my victory to my

greater stature. There is something in that no doubt, but much more

in having the knack of the game from childhood.

After the Raja arrived, I wrote to say 1 was glad to hear of his

safety and well-being from the Dewan, and that I had been hereabouts

for 8 days. Soon after the Dewan and Aden Cheboo Lama waited on

me with the Raja’s compliments, and said that a propitious time was

sought for for my visit, and that as soon as it was known, I should be

informed. It was my extreme pleasure, I said, to await the Raja’s

convenience, but should be glad of an early audience, if it so happened.

We then had a great deal of talk on sundry subjects, and they took

their leave.

19¢h.—The astrologers have made a very happy cast in my favor,

for it is announced that all is arranged for my visit to take place to-day

at noon. This a happy exercise of enlightenment in an occult science.

All is bustle and preparation over the way; the ferry is plying at

double tides, and I am getting a few attendants made as clean as possi-

ble to accompany me. This is not easy, for we have been a fortnight

out, and they have had no washings.

1849. | Journal of a trip to Sikin. O19

For the present, I close my journal to put on my own best for the

occasion.

20¢th.—I was summoned to the presence at 1 o'clock yesterday.

The Lasso Kaji came to escort me, and I crossed the river on the raft

with my own Kaji, a Moonshi, 3 orderlies from the guard, and a couple

of Chapprassies. There was some demur at the ferry to my taking

the Sepoys. ‘Colonel Lloyd had none, none had ever crossed the

Teesta before, the raft would be overloaded, &c. &c.’? I remarked

that they were merely my personal attendants, being unarmed ; and

that if there was a real objection to their going across, it should have

been made before I quitted my tent, and not actually on the ferry boat.

After a little delay and consultation, in which I took no part, we were

pushed off. The river is about 100 yards wide here, very deep indeed,

the stream smooth, and water clear and green. We had about 500

yards to walk to the place of reception. On nearing it, the Dewan,

very handsomely dressed in a light brown Satin Bukoo, and a large

deep fringed crimson cap, came down the bank to meet me. He said

that the Raja was all ready to see me, and that the visit would be entirely

formal. I had previously asked if I should introduce any matter of

business on that occasion. The reception room was a temporary

building of wood raised on posts about 4 feet from the ground, with

walls of split bamboo and a roof of green plantain leaves. The inner

walls were hung round with drapery of crimson and gold China Bro-

cade, figured principally in dragons and moons, which gave the apart-

ment a subdued light, and a Chinese character. At the further end

from the entrance was a temporary throne covered like the walls, 6

feet high at least, with steps leading up to it; on the top of this, and

well back sat, the majesty of Sikim, a little old man with sharp and

rather regular features, and fair complexion, dressed in a yellow satin

robe, and a little yellow sailor-like hat, over the crown of which hung

a profusion of scarlet fringe. On the right, and standing like draped

statues against the wall were 4 fathers of the Church, viz. the Lama

of Pemiongchi, a Lama, an illegitimate son of the Raja, the Raling and

Rumtick Lamas; they were all dressed alike in long robes of purple

blanketting ; their heads closely shorn, not shaved, and all were stead-

fastly counting their beads. But for the slight motion of their lips in

counting, they might have passed for inanimate fixtures. Below the

520 Journal of a trip to Sikim. {May,

Lamas came the Gantoke Kaji and other chiefs. On the left, close to

the throne, and between it and the wall, stood two very fine looking

young men handsomely dressed like the Dewan ; they were brothers of

the Ranee, Thibetans, from Turding near Digarchi, where their father

is a respectable chief. Then came my chair, and beside me stood the

Dewan and Aden Cheboo, who interpreted for me. My own Kaji,

Moonshi and other folks of whom I know not any thing, completed

that side. No one sat in Durbar, but myself, and there was not a

person inside or outside the walls, who wore arms of any kind ; I never

saw amore peaceful looking collection of men in my life. There was

an unmistakeable and undescribable quiescence over the whole party

that was very striking. It was clear ata glance that the genius of

Lamaism prevailed here over all things, and I now fully appreciated

what had often perplexed me, that was the manners of the Sikim Sirdars

approaching so often to stolidity and abstraction. It is the mannerism

ofa priesthood, widely spread and deeply percolating the higher classes

of the laity,* |

The conversation was set and formal, but quite friendly. “ Did I

meet with any mishaps on the road? WasI well? How was the Go-

vernor General? Was all well at Calcutta?’ and some other common

places. The Raja believed I did not speak his language (Thibetan) and

this constrained him to use an interpreter. This last however was very

pointed, and I expressed my extreme regret at the fact; but hoped

that his Highness would excuse it, and kindly listen to any thing I

might say through another person. Then came my turn. This was

a day I had long wished for; and it was now my happiness to express

in person the friendly feelings of my Government for the Raja, and to

shew as much as I could, how fully I participated in the same my-

self. The Raja replied in all sincerity I think, ‘‘The Company and

I have long been friends, are so now I hope, and will always continue

so.’ Then passed some formal questions and replies, about health,

and the journey, in the course of which the Raja said that his age did

not make him a good traveller now, and that he had been ailing, but

the journey, in his desire to meet me, when he heard I was so near, had

done him good instead of any harm. Then came in 3 trays of dried

* It is mannerism only, for they are sharp enough when self-interest or other

pressing matters rouse them.

1849. | Journal of a trip to Sikim. 521

fruits, which were presented to me, and I begged his Highness to accept

a few things from myself which were in two trays on the floor, and I

took my leave. There was an apprehension on his part, I think, that

I would suddenly come upon matters of business with him, of which I

had no intention then, and I told the Dewan so. Before starting to

the visit I was told that Colonel Lloyd, to comply with the usage of

the Raja’s Durbar, had presented his sword, which was the oualy thing

he had with him, that it was given back to him, and that if I would

present something in conformity to the usage, it would not be returned

either. I said at once that I had no wish to disturb the usage, and that

a few things I had brought should be presented after my visit. I took

the articles* with me on two English tea trays, intending to present

them on coming away, but they were smuggled in ahead of me, and

Jay on the floor during the visit. I do not grudge the Raja the satis-

faction of putting me down in the annals of his house, as a bearer of

presents on visiting him.

In the evening the Raja sent us the materials of a feast, consisting

of two yaks, 8 fowls, 5 loads of rice, half a maund of yak milk-butter

from Thibet sewed up in yak skins, a skin of tea, a_ bag of salt, some

spirits, oil, milk, garlic and radishes. This amendment on the dried

fruits was on the ruling principle in Sikim, which is to mend your man-

ners, and improve your presents by degrees. It isa standing maxim

in this country noé to put “ your best foot foremost,” and an equally

prevalent one “‘to hurry no man’s cattle.” Don’t shew a leg at all if

you can help it, is the rule, but if you have to shew, let it be reluctantly

and very slowly. At best it is an ungainly foot when it zs produced,

and ungraciously done always, but it is not a cloven foot I think. With

all their obduracy, reserve, jealousy and some alarm in contact with

Europeans I would not at all look for treachery at their hands, and this

is a redeeming point in people of their grade in the scale of civilization.

So much is it the habit to hold back, that it is good manners to wait

on the Raja for the first time in your worst attire, and you never ought

to present any thing but the meanest trifle in food, or otherwise, on the

* Two English tea trays ; two Scotch plaid shawls, 33 yards of scarlet broad-

cloth, a canister of snuff, a cut crystal decanter, 3 strings of large imitation amber

beads, a pair of Britannia metal dishes, and some Derbyshire spar table ornaments,

value in all about 70 Rupees.

522 Journal of a trip to Stkim. { May,

first occasion. If the mtercourse goes on, improve your manners,

and your presents. That is the etiquette. I expect Hooker here ina

couple of days. I was anxious about him lest he had been caught in

the snow in the late bad weather, when crossing the Kanglanamo from

Nipal. The Dewan knew of my anxiety, and had some days ago sent

off to the frontier for intelligence. To-day he came running down to

my tent with a letter from Hooker to me in his hand, and was quite

pleased at my satisfaction in receiving it. He is like other folks, an odd

compound off business ; he can be quite pleasing almost, and engaging.

He tells me that the wild yak in Thibet is larger than the wild buffalo

in India.

«<The lungs alone are a load for a tame yak, he is quite untameable

and horridly fierce, he falls upon you with his chest, if he catches

you, and rasps you with his tongue, which is so rough that it rubs the

flesh off your bones. The Bhotias shoot him with a bell-mouthed

blunderbuss of large bore, which has a rest attached to it. They are

good marksmen, and will hit a target with it, at a distance that you

cannot distinguish between a white horse and a black.”

Talking of the cold in Thibet the other evening, he told me that it

was so intense and increased so suddenly in some of the high passes

of that country that persons had been frozen stiff while in the act

of climbing up a mountain, and remained standing with the chin resting

on a stick, until the sun of next day had thawed them, and the bodies

tumbled down. Out of Lassa, Digarchi, or Giangtchi, and a few other

towns, it is, he says, a wretched country to livein. ‘The land pro-

duces nothing but wheat, the wind is so sharp that it cracks the

skin of your face, and as for wood to burn, or build with, there is not

a bit anywhere. At Digarchia stick the size of this tent-pole, 6 feet

by 3 inches, would readily fetch 3 Rupees. Sheep they have however,

in great abundance, and the wool is of beautiful quality; but for all

that neither the Thibetans or the Chinese can make anything with it

equal to English broadcloth. ‘‘ What did that coat on you cost in

Calcutta? there is nothing like your Bunat anywhere,” and thus he

went on replying to my questions. All Thibetans have the greatest

admiration for our broad cloths, and for purple, brown and dark yellow

colours will give high prices. “Is there any opium smoking at Lassa !”’

I asked at one of our meetings. ‘There is some, and they are mad to

1849. | Journal of a trip to Sikim. 523

get it, but the Chinese have put many persons there to death for using

it. Nevertheless it is to be had; and I have known as much as 30

Rupees paid for one pipe of it.” “Is there any sent from Nipal ?”’ “ Yes,

a good deal, but it is at a tremendous risk to the smugglers.” I put

this question, as I knew that our opium agents in Sarun and Tirhoot

used some years ago, and do so now probably, to make opium advances

in the Nipal tarai, which yields superb poppy. If the Goorkhas took

to smuggling into Thibet as our traders do along the coasts of the

Flowery Land, we might have successful rivals for the Sycee,* but

they have not a taste for this sort of dangerous traffic, nor for outraging

the;laws of China on its own soil.

2ist.—I had purposed leaving this to-day on my return to Darjeel-

ing, but I wait for Hooker. THe will like to see these Sikimites at

head-quarters, and will have no other chance of doing so. The people

still continue to flock in from the westward to make their obeisances to

the Raja and present their little offerings. These consist entirely of

articles of food—in pork, kids, rice, fowls, eggs, milk, Murwa for beer,

butter, spirits, plantains. At their departure they are honoured with

presents of salt, tea, and blankets ; all Thibetan articles are highly valued

in Sikim.

I came this evening in my walk on an invalid taking the warm bath,

which is such a favorite remedy in Sikim, (the Sachoo, ) and before say-

ing more about it, I wish to guard other travellers against mistaking

these baths, when the Lepchas describe them for warm springs which

have the same denomination.+ It was close to this on the river-side.

The bath is hollowed out of a rough log, and is 7 feet long, about 3

deep, and 2 wide. The water is warmed by throwing in hot stones

until it is of the desired temperature. The patient was in the bath

when I came up to it; at the foot of the tub was a large log fire, in

which were a number of stones about 4 tbs. weight each; hot and

ready for use. An attendant kept the fire going, and every now

and then as the water cooled, and at the patient’s bidding, he put in a

stone extracted from the fire with a pair of bamboo tongs. I felt the

water and thought it rather hot, soI sent for the Thermometer. It wag

110° of Farenheat, and just then a stone was put in which raised it to

114°, and this was the point the patient kept it at while I staid. He

* Ingots of China silver. + Sa, hot—choo, water,

3 y

524 Journal of a trip to Sikim. [May,

was quite red in the face and was sweating profusely. Now and then

he washed his face with cold water, and took a mouthful to rinse and

swallow. When rather exhausted he came out, sat on the tub side

naked for some minutes and went in again. He had been at it in this

way for some hours, and said he would repeat the process for the same

time for two or three days. He was in the open air, which was how-

ever very mild. The Ther. stood at 60°. His complaint was pain in

the chest.

We had very heavy rain again last night. It has rained here less

or more nightly for a week. The Thermometer was down to 49° at

daylight, when it was clear; a heavy fog formed soon after which did

not disperse till near 9 o’clock. The river rose about a couple of feet

during the night. I reckon by the rattan which is stretched across for

the ferry-raft.

27th.—Top of Mainomchoo. Elevation 10,500 feet—2 feet of snow

on the ground. Ther. at noonin the shade 32°. Bright, clear and

very pleasant. It rained almost all day of the 22nd, and was unplea-

sant enough, as I had no means of moving about. In the evening I

had a note from Hooker saying he would be at Yangang, one march

off, that night. He came in to Bangsong on the 23rd in fine health

and spirits, well pleased with his trip, and still purposing to prolong it.

He had reached the top of the Walloongchoong pass into Thibet,

about 16,700 feet high, having travelled the last 8 miles of the distance

with snow on both sides up to the shoulders. From Walloongchoong

he descended along the Tambur river to the junction of the Yangma,

and then ascending that feeder of the Tambur failed in reaching the

top of the Kanglachema pass, which appeared to be considerably higher,

for he reached 16,000 feet and still far from the top. The Kanglanamo

had been closed for 3 months. In the Yangma valley he found distinct

remains of ancient glacial formations in dry lake beds and terraces, with

boulders deposited along their margins.

The trade with Thibet is carried on entirely by Bhotiahs, and is

principally in salt from the lakes; yaks and sheep are alone employed

in the carriage of it. At Walloongchoong, which is two journies from

the pass, there is a salt interpdt whence the Nipalese of the lower

regions supply themselves; a few planks was the only thing he saw

taken to Thibet. The yaks breathe hard and laboriously in the snow,

1849.] Journal of a trip to Stkim. 523

but toil most enduringly. From the Yangma valley, not being able as

originally intended to enter Sikim by the Kanglanamo pass, which had

been snowed up since October, he crossed the Nango ridge, 16,000 feet,

into the Kambachen valley, and thence crossed the Choongjerma range,

15,000 feet, into the Yalloong valley, whence over the Singalelah ridge

he reached Lingchoon in Sikim.

From Lingchoon he joined me via Pemongchi, Dalling, and Yan-

gang, having crossed the Great Rungeet above Rinchinpoong.*

The meeting with Hooker has been a most gratifying one. It was

quite delightful to listen to his frank and modest account of his labori-

ous and tedious journey, in the course of which he had to encounter

what to many men would be great privations. For 18 days he had to

subsist on 8 days’ provisions, and was at last reduced to coarse boiled

rice, and Chili vinegar! THis discoveries in glacial Geology are alto-

gether new in this part of the Himalaya, and although the lateness of

the season deprived him of many of the plants of the higher regions,

he has still made large collections. He has 18 species of Rhododen-

dron for instance, many of them hitherto unknown.

On the 24th we had an interview with the Raja, at which I took my

leave, and Hooker made his first and last appearance. It was on the

whole satisfactory for my affairs, and I greatly rejoice at having made

this trip to the Raja, in the course of which I have largely added to my

knowledge of himself and his people, and consequently to my power

of improving our own position with them, and adding to their know-

ledge of me and my Government. On the latter, and on the real

nature of our power in India, and England, they are wofully ignorant,

and not a little misinformed. I had, and took some good opportuni-

ties of talking with effect on this latter subject to the Dewan.

On the 25th started from Bangsong and returned by my outward

route via Lingmoo and Neh, to Brom, whence, instead of keeping along

the bottom of the Rungoom basin, we ascended via Sok to upper Nam-

fok, near the residence of the Lassoo Kaji, and a well peopled place,

with neatly fenced fields of wheat and barley, and some patches of

mustard and radishes. ‘The profile of Mainomchoo from this is very

wild and bold. Perpendicular cliffs of rock dipping to the north-

* I am answerable for any inaccuracies that occur in this outline of Hooker’s

journey.

a MZ

526 Journal of a trip to Sikim. [May,

east, and sharp peaks rising in different places along it. Hooker has

made a striking sketch of it. Thermometer at 6 Pp. mM. 46°; 10 Pp. mM.

43°; fell during the night to 36°.

On the 26th started for Mainomchoo, about 500 feet above last

ground, and two miles distant, in a westerly direction, came to Yan-

gang, where there is a Goomba, and just below it, in a very pretty spot,

a small piece of water 400 yards in circumference, and said to be 15 feet

deep. Put up a Woodcock here. From Yangang commenced the ascent

of Mainomchoo. For the first hour we rode our ponies over a good

road, and easy ascent, at the end of the second hour we came to oaks,

chesnuts, Rhododendrons, and the paper plant. At the 3rd hour

came upon patches of snow in shady places, birches and pretty pur-

ple primrose just coming into flower. Road steep, and overgrown

with jungle. After 5 hours slow ascent we were obliged to halt for the

coolies, and encamped 500 feet from the top, ina foot and a half of

snow. Elevation 10,000 feet. Ther. at 6 vp. m. 34°; fell during the

night to 24°. Surface of the snow 36°.* It was wretched work for

our bare-footed servants and coolies, who had to clear the ground of

the snow for places to cook and lie down on, and cold enough for any

one even with better appliances than theirs. One of the men went

tumbling down the hill with his load, and we have lost all our stock of

wine, brandy, butter, and almost all our sugar. The snow water, which

is all we had, makes very good tea; but beware of getting it smoked in

the melting.

Started at 7 this morning, and in an hour reached the summit of the

hill. Snow two feet thick, and just hard enough to bear our weight.+

A bright and clear morning—ascent very steep, and no road ; cut our way

through an under jungle of small bamboos, with a forest of pines, pinus,

Webbiana, birches, and Rhododendrons. There is a small Goomba of

two rooms, which occupies all the cleared portion of the summit, and in

this we have taken up our quarters, for the Lamas do not come at this

inclement season. In the outer room is our kitchen, we occupying the

inner one. It is open at both ends of the roof, and has a very poor

* All the Thermometrical observations since the 23rd were kindly given to me

by Dr. Hooker.

+ We came upon a covey of the beautiful Chilmia; their scarlet legs and

bright plumage enabling us to see them a long way as they ran over the snow.

1849. | Journal of a trip to Sikim. 527

covering of 4 feet long thick shingles of pine loosely laid on rafters.

We burn fires of pine and Rhododendron in both apartments, and bar-

ring the smoke, which is abominable we are snug enough. Hooker likes

fires, and is indifferent to smoke. I do not like one or the other in the

jungles, and prefer cloaking up to the cold. Here there is a full view

of all the snowy mountains in Sikim, and of nearly the whole lower

hills besides. It isa rare peak for the Geographer and admirer of

mountain scenery. But Kunchinjinga is by no means so fine as from

Darjeeling, the full view of it is cut off by the peaks of Nursing to the

right, and Pundeem on the left. The great Rungeet, which rises from

a spur of Kunchin bearing N. by W. from this, sweeps by a westerly and

southerly course to Tassiding, which is a very remarkable place (and the

connection of Mainomchoo with Kunchinjinga on the N. W. is by a

saddle to the N. of Gongong.) It (Tassiding) bears from this 8. 78°

W. and isa nearly insulated eminence, round the N. east and south

sides of which the great Rungeet flows, the Ratong flowing by its N.

and W. sides. Tassiding is the most sacred spot in Sikim I believe,

and besides the goomba has many tombs of famous Lamas. It is

compared to the hill of Sumboonath in the valley of Nipal, on which

there is a beautiful Buddhist temple. The two hills are somewhat

similar in form ; but there is no building in Sikim to be compared to

that at Sumboonath for size or beauty.* On the ascent to Mainomchoo

I had a peep at Tumloong, the residence of the Raja. It was but for

a minute, while clouds broke over it : and 1 did not get a bearing. It

appeared to be on a spur from Chola: the Ryote river running to the

east, the Runnett to the west of the spur. From the position of ‘ La

Ghep” of the Chola route, which I got from Mainomchoo, I think that

Tumloong bears about 70° east from Mainomchoo.

28th.—Yangang, about 5000 feet above the level ofthe sea. Return-

ed here to-day from Mainomchoo. The descent, which is upwards of

5000 feet, took us above 4 hours. It was a beautiful morning on the

top of the hill, clear sky, bright sunshine, and hard frost. The ther-

mometer fell during the night to 21°, and at 10 a. m. on the surface of

the snow was 25°. On our arrival here the Lamas of the Goomba

* T feel that the correctness of this remark is doubtful, since I have carefully

examined the Goombas at Pomiongchi ; I give the palm for beauty to Sumboonath

nevertheless.

028 Journal of a trip to Sikim. [May,

paid us a visit, bringing rice, eggs, butter, milk, &c. &c. They apolo-

gised for not bringing kids, or oxen, lest they should be accessary to

the destruction of life, which is against the tenets of their religion.*

They suggested that we should assist with some contribution towards

roofing the new Goomba with copper instead of bamboos. The party

consisted of a principal, and 6 or 8 companions, all fat, placid, and

well-bred men. ‘‘ Now, that you have seen Sikim, what do you think

of the country?” said the spokesman. ‘It is just the sort of wild

country we like to travel in, and the people are very pleasing and hospi-

table,”’ was the reply, and this is the truth. Kindness to strangers’ frank-

ness, and hospitality eminently distinguish the people. The outer

walls of the monastery are built of stone with a white mud mortar,

decomposed mica slate, the inner ones of mud mixed with sand and

pebbles of clay slate, which is beaten and stamped into wooden frames

six feet long, and 3 feet wide, and tiers of this are laid one over the

other. It is similar to the Pisi work of Italy, and answers very well

for walls not exposed to wet. Thermometer at 9 p. m. 45°. Water

boils on Mainomchoo top at 1923°.

29th, Lingdam.—We visited the Goomba at Yangang this morning

before starting, and found the Lamas at their morning religious exer-

cises. They were civil and polite asusual. It was term-day with their

tenants, who were collected round the Goomba; some to pay their

house, or family tax, which takes the place of land-rent in Sikim, and

some to make offerings of rice, murwa for beer, beef, &c. The library

we saw did not exceed 20 volumes; and there were about a dozen

images of gilded brass and painted clays, ranged in a bookshelf like a

‘cabinet, one image in each compartment. In the centre was the image

of Sakya, called Sakya-thoba, in Sikim; the names of the others were

altogether unpronounceable.

After Hooker had taken a circle of bearings we started for this

place at 10 a.m. and reached it at } past 3 p.m. having stopped

an hour atthe top of the Raklang ridge. Taking this march altoge-

ther it is an exceedingly interesting one, and the scenery from this

side of Raklang is very fine indeed. Our route from Yangang lay

N. W. along the west face of Mainomchoo, descending gradually into

the bed of the Rungpo, which we crossed; and thence ascended

* They do not eat the less beef on this account.

1849. | Journal of a trip to Sikim. o29

rather steeply to the saddle of Raklang, which is the connecting

point of the Tendong division of Sikim with the mountain of Mai-

nomchoo. ‘This saddle is about 7000 feet high, and two roads diverge

at the point we made it; one to Raklang Goomba, one march in a

northerly direction, and the other to the west to Pomingchi, and the

old Sikim Durbar via Lingdam, Kazing and Tassiding. In fact we have

come to-day along the high road from the N. W. districts, and from

the old to the present seat of Government. A very fair road it is too.

The last mile up to the saddle of Raklang runs through a fine forest ;

and this fine avenue continues on this side for more than a mile, when

suddenly emerging from the forest, Tassiding and Pomiongchi on the

opposite side of the Rungeet, burst upon you right in front and to the

west. ‘Tassiding is from all points of view avery remarkable and strik-

ing feature, and it shall be more particularly described anon. To the

N. W. is Sunoong, a small Goomba, and beyond it in the same direction

is Powhunny, a flat-topped mountain, probably 8000 feet high, greatly

resembling Tendong, with a decaying Goomba onits summit. Further

west is the Kechoppery Goomba, on the north of which is said to be a

lake of the same name. From Lingdam 11 Goombas are visible ; they

are named, and bear by compass as follows: Mainomchoo N. 50 E. ;

Raklang N. 30 W. ; Sunoong 45 W. ; Kechoppery 73 W. ; Malli 77 W.;

Tassiding 77 W. ; Pomiongchi W. ; of Dalling Powhunny, Mangberoo,

and Changachiling I did not get bearings. 7

There is a high cliff on the west face of Mainomchoo, which has a

large patch of greenish blue on it. The people believe it is of tor-

quoise, for it is quite inaccessible. Hooker informs me that it is a

Lichen. After crossing the Rungpo we came upon a large rock 30

feet by 13, with “Om, Mane, Pemi, Om,’’* carved on it in gigantic

letters 3 feet long, and in numerous places the same invocation in smaller

letters. At the upper left hand corner of the rock there is a large

inscription in the Thibetan character, which is supposed to record the

time at which the large letters were engraved, and something concern-

ing the person who engraved them. He was the head Lama of the

neighbouring Goomba at Raklang. This however is not authentic.

It is usual and proper for travellers to walk along the face of the rock

* See a most interesting notice of this popular prayer by M. Huc, p. 238 of No.

49 of the Annals of the Propagation of the Faith,

530 Journal of a trip to Sikim. | May,

on a 2-inch ledge which runs over the top of the large letters. This

may be done easily enough by bare-footed persons holding on with the

hand; but that has no merit, and it is only he who walks 3 times

along it without holding on, who does a righteous and holy act.

There isa filled up lake here, (Singdam,) about 100 yards across, with

a clear stream running out of its bed, which crosses the road and pre-

cipitates itself over a rock, about 40 feet high, and close to the road.

Thermometer fell during the night to 39°. Probable elevation 5,500

feet ; some neat houses close to our encampment, surrounded by fields

of wheat and barley, and well fenced. The inhabitants in this neigh-

bourhood are principally Bhotiahs, and they are generally well housed,

comfortable, and good-looking.

Suneek, a village on the ridge N. of Tassiding.

30¢h.—We had hoped for a bright morning, and a grand view of

Kunchinjinga from Lingdam, but awoke toa cloudy day and limited

prospect. This is comparatively speaking, for with Mainomchoo, the

singular Tassiding, Sunoong, Raklang, Dallmg, and Pomiongchi, toge-

ther with the swelling and level spurs of Lingdam itself, we had a scene

of much beauty and interest. Soon after starting we passed through

Bamfoong, and two miles further on in a westerly direction came to

Kayzing, all the way by a nearly level and wide road. A buggy drive

of 3 miles might be constructed along the Lingdam Leang at little

cost, and used with perfect safety, so swelling and nearly level is it

throughout a great part of this extent. It is the finest situation by

far I have seen in Sikim for farming and grazing purposes. The plough

might be used most easily, and there are numerous sites for commodi-

ous farmsteads above and below the road. In such a locality the

industry and perseverance of colonists, like our excellent German ones

at Darjeeling, would be turned to full account.

From Kayzing, we descended steeply to the Great Rungeet, crossing

the Runeok, a feeder of it from Lingdam. There is a bamboo suspen-

sion bridge over the Rungeet below Tassiding, of simple and singular

construction. Three large bamboos, the ends of which are held down

by stones on either bank, form the arched parapets by their smaller

ends being pulled down and lashed together. From these parapets

are ratan suspenders, on which the roadway also, of 3 bamboos, lies,

cross uprights fixed in the ground support the ends of the roadway.

1849.] Journal of a trip to Sikim. 531

The river is about 80 feet across here. The ascent to Tassiding is very

steep indeed ; it took an hour anda half. The summit is 2500 feet

above the river, and is entirely occupied by temples, chaityas, men-

dongs, and the dwelling houses of the Lamas ; a very remarkable place

indeed. The hill, which is rounded to the south, rises abruptly from

the Rungeet and Rotong rivers, which flow along 3 sides of it, and

unite their waters at its southern extremity ; it is well wooded to the

top. Darjeeling bears due south, Sinchul 8. by W. ; our road lay through

all its buildings, whence we descended a short way to Suneek, as there is

no water nearer.

. 3lst, Suneek.—We halted here to-day, and went up to Tassiding to

examine it more carefully. The buildings consist of 3 Goombas, two

large and a centre smaller one, which is painted red on the outside, with

a border along the top of the walls of white skulls with black teeth.

This is the Goomba now used for every day worship, but it was origi-

nally dedicated to the devil, and other deities of evilomen. All the

Goombas are built of stone, with very little mortar of whitish clay.

The masonry is admirable, and although the buildings at Pomiongchi

of the same sort are said to be from 3 to 400 years old, they are in per-

fect preservation. The northern and largest Goomba is a handsome

edifice, about 80 feet long, 40 broad, and 35 feet high. It tapers from

the foundation to the summit, and has a pitch-roof of bamboo thatch

rounded at the ends, and projecting about 10 feet beyond the top of

the wall, so as fully to protect the base. The only entrance to the lower

story of the temple is at the eastern end, it is 3 stories high, and in each

story are narrow windows of lattice-work. The body of the lower story

is divided into a vestibule, which runs the whole breadth of the build-

ing, and into the temple proper, which is 42 feet long by 33 feet wide.

Tt is equally divided imto a centre aisle and two sides, by three pillars

on each side. The pillars are of wood, very handsomely painted in

vermilion and gold, and support 3 massive architraves, which extend

across the building and are beautifully painted in squares and diamonds

of bright vermilion and gold, with dragons in white, vermilion and

gold. Overeach pillar is a gilded Lion with black terminal tail-brush.

The effect of the painting, as it is in very brilliant colours, is extremely

good. ‘The centre aisle has a low bench on each side covered with yel-

low and purple felts, for the seats of the Lamas only, on great occasions

3 Z

532 Journal of a trip to Sikim. | May,

of public worship. At the head of each bench is a raised square otto-

man covered with leopard skin, for two of the higher Lamas, or for

the officiating ones, as may be. These benches were the only things in

the Goomba which the Lamas were particular about not being touched

by our followers.

The western end of the temple is oceupied by a range of 11 large

images. The principal one, about twice the natural size of a man,

occupies the centre. It is named **Chomden Day,’’* which means

‘‘God ;” it is in the sitting posture, cross-legged, with the right hand

resting on the right knee. In the left is a black bowl, said to be for

food. On the right and left of the great image is a tonsured Lama, or

Chela, standing each with a black bowl m hand, and said to contain

food for the deity. The right hand one is named kungan, the left

mangah. These images are flanked on either side by 4 handsome images

holding flowers in their hands, and said to be attendant satellites from

India ; “‘ Gyagur”’ is the Thibetan for India, ‘‘ Gynak” for China. All

these 11 images are gilded and 10 are standing erect. In the wall behind

them, the sun and moon are painted, the former on the right of the

centre image, the latter on the left.

The whole of the inner walls from the ceiling to 2 feet from the

ground are painted with figures. On the right of the entrance door

are 3 very good figures. The centre one represents the 3rd Raja of

Sikim, who was also the Pontiff of his own kingdom, and who bestowed

his daughter in marriage on a Lama of Sunoon Goomba, the monks of

which were privileged to marry, and whose descendants are still at

Dobtah in Thibet enjoying the same immunity from celibacy.

On the left of the Raja is his daughter—a young and captivating dam-

sel, in a broad-brimmed Chinese hat ; on his right is the reverned Lama

the favored spouse of the lady. The ‘“ Lama Raja,” which is equivalent

in Sikim to ‘Sovereign Pontiff,” and his fair daughter are very excellent

paintings. |

On the south wall to the right of the images is a large red painting

of an 8-handed Shiva trampling with the right foot on two white

human beings; with the left on one black, and one yellow human

figure. This large Shiva is surrounded by 8 smaller ones, and beyond

these are innumerable Lamas sitting cross-legged, some dressed in red

* Chomden Das is Sakya Singha.—De Coros.

1849. Journal of a trip to Skim. | 533

and yellow robes with conical red caps, and some with bare tonsured

heads, some sittmg in contemplation, others apparently expounding.

On the left of the images, north wall, is another large, many-handed

figure with a conical head-dress, which is thickly studded with eyes

and human skulls. With the right foot it is trampling down an ele-

phant and lion. With the left, an elephant, a human beimg, and a

snake. This image has 10 pair of arms in all, one red and nine blue.

On either side are 4 smaller 12-handed figures of the same image paint-

ed blue and trampling on human beings. One of them trampling on

a buffalo. Around are numerous Lamas in silent contemplation, or

with hands upraised, expounding. In the whole of this temple there

is not one lewd or indecent figure. Not one hooded snake of Vishnoo.

Not one Trident of Mahadev. Not one figure of Krishna, nor any

figure with the brahminical string. Between the above group and the

‘Lama Raja’s” group is a large figure of Vishnoo in the sitting pos-

ture, surrounded by leaves, flowers, and unexpanded buds of the

Lotus, which is named ‘ Pe-dong’? in Thibetan. ‘The flowers are of

3 sorts—white, pmk, and red. This deity is named “Lobe Pema

Toongni,” which being translated is, ‘‘ self-produccd of the Lotus.” At

his right foot isa female deity of Gyagur* or India, coloured white

with bead necklaces. At the left foot is a female deity of Thibet,

named “ Kando Ishe Sage,”’ also white with bead necklaces, all around,

as in the other groups, are innumerable figures of Lamas. So much for

No. 1, or the northern Goomba.

No. 2, or the southern one, displays a different style of images. Fac-

ing the doorwayt and at the termination of the aisle is a recess, about

10 feet deep, containing the principal images, which are 5 in number.

In the centre of the recess, and raised above the others, is ‘‘ Lobe

Runboochi,” in a sitting posture, holding the ‘* Dorge” in his right

hand ; which rests on the right knee ; in his left, a cup for holy water to

be sprinkled on the congregated worshippers. Supported by the left

arm is the Trident of Mahadeo, on the shaft of which are pierced

human heads and skulls, with 3 dorges. In front of the head-dress is

* Gya-nak, China—Gya-gar, Indian Gya var Russian.—Klaproth.

+ All the Goombas have the great entrance to the east, and their length is east

and west.

a2 2

534 | Journal of a trip to Sikim. [ May,

a Lunar crescent. surmounted by the sun. At his feet is a plume of

Lotus flowers and buds. Large ear-rings hang from the pierced lobes

and a robe of blue and gold closing over the right breast, with an under

garment of red and gold, complete the costume and the symbols of this

compound deity.*

On the right is a female image, “ Kando Ishe Sage,” holding a cup

of water in the left hand, while she sprinkles the great image from it

with the right. Further on the right is the image of a Lama named

Lapchen Chimboo. He is in thesitting posture—his legs crossed. In

his right hand he holds a human thigh-bone used for calling to prayers,

in the left a cup for food. The left arm supports a trident with hu-

man hands, skulls, and dorge on the shaft, and the head-dress is orna-

mented with a wreath of human skulls. This image. is painted pale

blue and has necklaces of beads.

On the left of the great image are two Lamas, one of them is offer-

mg him the ‘ Nurbo,”’ the other a human skull. The Nurbo is an

arrow-shaped piece of gold with 3 jewels set in it; at least it appeared

sotome. Itis said to be the offering of highest price, and to emit a

spontaneous light at night.

This was all I could make of what the Lamas knew of the

* Nurbo.” /

In the vestibule:are two large devilish figures painted on the walls

on either side of the doorway. One is black with white teeth, and

claws and horrid goggle eyes. The other is yellow, and of similar

stamp. They represent deities, who destroy ghosts and other demons.

This Goomba, No. 2, contains the Library, which at present has only

82 volumes.

These were very neatly ranged in two cabinets, which occupied re-

cesses in the centre of each side of the body of the temple. For each

volume there was a separate compartment, and in the centre of each

* The trident and ‘skulls being Shivaite symbols, the dorge and cup Lamaical.

The whole of the symbols belong to Nathism, as recognised by the northern Bud-

dhists. The dorge is the Viswavagra, or double thunderbolt, and the deity de-

scribed is Goroksha-nath, from whom the Gorkha nation and the district of Gorakhe

pur derive their names. Heis the great Yogeshwar or Natheshwar of these regions.

His foilowers are called Yogis or Jogis on this side the snows; Ningmapa on the

other side.—B. H. Hodgson.

1849.| Journal of a trip to Sikim. 538

eabinet the image of a Lama sits enshrined. These images are gilded,

and hold a blue bowl, called Soongjup, in the right hand. The cabinets

are handsomely painted in gold, vermilion, and blue, and had a very

good effect. The volumes were of the usual kind, 2 feet long 9 inches

broad, and 9 inches thick, composed of loose leaves rolled up in cloth,

and two carved wooden boards strapped over them for binding.

Next to the Goombas, the ‘‘ Place of Tombs’’ is the most interesting

object at Tassiding.

It lies at the south end of the terrace, and contains 26 Chaityas or

funeral monuments, of various sizes, all built of stone, with a little clay

mortar, and in excellent order. The centre of the group of tombs is

occupied by the largest of them, which is a fine looking, and well pro-

portioned monument. The basement is 27 feet square, and rises by

4 steps. From the top of this platform springs the shaft, which is

about 4 feet high, and is surmounted by a cornice projecting 4 feet ;

over this is a second shaft which tapers by 5 steps, and resting on this

is what may be called the bowl of the Chaitya. It is in some instances

a hemisphere, but much more frequently is a truncated oval. From

out of the bowl rises the Pinnacle, which is 4-sided, and tapers to a

point, or is occasionally surmounted by a wooden apex representing a

Lunar crescent with the sun’s orb in the centre. The height of this

Chaitya, which has a basement of 27 feet square, may be 25 feet. Near

it is the monument of the heir apparent of Sikim, who died in 1841,

and was not a Lama. At Pomiongchi, the Chaitya built to the memory

of a great ally of mine, the Badong Kaji, was -pointed out to me. It

was in all respects the same as others built in honor of holy Lamas,

and I believe that these monuments to the laity share the veneration

that is accorded to those of the priesthood. Chaityas and Mendongs

in Sikim, on the road and elsewhere, are always passed on the right

hand.

On the north side of Tassiding, and close to the summit, there are

some rocky crevices which emit heated air; at 5 p. m., the external air

was at 51° of Faht., in one of these crevices it was 64°. |

January 1st, 1849.—Pomiongchi Goomba.—We left Suneek at 8

A.M., after an hour’s steep descent in a N. W. direction we reached the

Ratong river, which we crossed by a very ricketty bamboo bridge, like

the one over the Rungeet below Tassiding. Both banks of the Ratong

536 Journal of a trip to Sikim. [May,

very precipitous ; breadth of the stream 50 feet. At the top of the first

ascent is Kamett, a small hamlet of Lepchas ; further up is “ Tashong,’’

where the road to Darjeeling by Rinchinpoong goes off to the left, and

next is Sakiong, the site of a decayed Goomba. Here there was a good

deal of wheat and barley cultivation well fenced in. From Sakiong

the ascent is steep, and through a fine forest all the way to Pomi-

ongchi. From the Ratong it took us 23 hours good marching.

* #* * [never go fast up hill when marching. This I have adopted

from the coolies, who never quicken their pace to the sweating poimt,

unless very much urged, and then they knock up.

Elevation of Pomiongchi 7000 feet.* The Goomba commands a

superb prospect of the snowy range, and almost of the whole of Sikim. -

It is beautifully built of stone, is 3 stories high, about 30 feet, is 80

feet long by 40, and has stood for 8 reigns of the Sikim dynasty, which

the Lamas reckon at 400 years, i. e. an average of 50 years per reign,

which is doubtless too much. The present Raja however has reigned

64 years. He came to the throne at 6 years old. His father, who fled

at the Goorkha invasion, and died in Thibet, reigned 33 years. The

particulars of other reigns are not known.

When the Goorkhas invaded Sikim the Sikimites assembled to op-

pose them at Nagri, (the Nagarcote of our treaty of 1816 with Nipal,)

but while a portion of the force kept the Sikimites in occupation at

Nagri, the main body turned their flank to the north, and came over

Islimbo into the valley of the Kullait ; so rapid and sudden was the

incursion that the Lamas at Pomiongchi had not time to remove their

books or other monastery property, but fled to the Ratong, where they

died of cold and hunger.

The library, which had 400 volumes of Thibetan works in gold letter

press on black ground, was burned, and a similar fate fell upon the

books, &c. at Rabdenchi, the old Durbar, which is close by Darjeeling,

bears S. 4 E. from Pomiongchi, and is distant about 30 miles. |

The following are the principal figures and images in the Goomba :—

In the vestibule—

1 Tangla.—A Thibetan deity mounted on a white horse.

* The elevations noted in this journal are from Colonel Waugh and Dr. Hooker.

They are respectively Trigonometrical and Barometrical results.

a a

1849. | Journal of a trip to Sikim. 537

2 Loot Poomoo.—A female deity (mermaid like,) all under the navel

is a snake, the head is crowned with snakes. She is the daughter of

Nagarjun, the great snake king or snake God of the Hindus—a form

of Shiva.*

3 Dorle.—A Thibetan deity. He is mounted ona sphnix, or it may

be a lion.

The body of the temple is a good deal like the Tassiding ones al_

ready noted. Three pillars on each side, very handsomely gilded and

painted, form the aisle. Felt seats raised a foot from the ground run

between the pillars ; they are exclusively for the Lamas.

The side walls are painted in numerous groups and figures, from the

ceiling to within 3 feet of the floor. The images are in a deep recess

at the west end of the aisle, and nearly as large as life. They are as

follows :—

1 Sakya Thoba.—The great Apostle or Avatar of Buddhism. He

occupies the centre of the recess and of the group.

2. <A tonsured Lama on the right of Sakya, standing with the pas-

toral staff in hand.

3. Ditto ditto on the left of Sakya.

4. A red-faced male image witha 4-armed female one clasped round

him,—left of Sakya.

5. A red-faced image of Shiva,t with ornaments of human skulls,

and a woman clasped round him in indecent attitude. Left of Sakya.

6. A white-faced male image with a trident over the left shoulder,

human skulls, heads, and the Dorje on shaft of trident; right of

Sakya.

7. A blood-red image of Devi, the goddess of destruction, war and

pestilence ; right of Sakya.

8. A red male deity sitting cross-legged with the hands folded over

the knees. *

9. A white image with the Dorje in hand.

* Nagarjun is one of the beatified sages of Buddhism, to whom Mount N. Ajon

in Nipalis dedicated. The snake king is Kakotak, a Buddhist deity, also after

whom Nipal is called Nagbas.—B. H. H.

tT These are images of Tantrica Buddhism, not of brahmanism, as commonly sup-

posed.—B, H. H.

538 Journal of a trip to Sikim. [May,

10. An image of the first Raja of Sikim, who was deified. It is

treated as that of a deity.

The walls are principally occupied with paintings of Lamas, white

and yellow skinned, sitting in deep thought or expounding, the right

arm being raised. There are also, among others, the following marked

figures :—

1. A Shiva, I suppose.* Face and body red, the shoulders and

body partially clothed with skins of human beings, tigers and snakes.

It has but one foot, which is placed on the back of a gigantic human

being, who is crawling with his load, the features of his face painfully

distorted.

2. Another —Face and body blue. Bow and arrow in hand, neck

and head ornamented with human skulls.

3. Namgemoo.—An 8 -handed 4-faced figure. The face colours are

white, red, blue, and yellow—a face of each.

4. A full length painting with a Lama’s mitre-crowned cap; the

Dorje in the right hand, and the trident in the left. This, as well as

many of the images and figures already noted, unite the Shivaite sym-

bols of Hindooism with those of Lamaism, and this union is I think

the true representation of Buddhism at Pomiongchi.

The convertion of the Lepchas to Lamaism was not rapid. It

took 3 reigns before it was general ; it is by no means universal yet.

The indigenous Bhotias of Sikim, Arhats, held back from the new

religion less than the Lepchas. The Magars and Limboos, were and

are the most recusant of all. When they quit their own religion, (if

sacrificmg fowls and pigs to propitiate evil spirits can be called religion,)

they adopt a sort of Hindooism. The Lamas of Sikim are however

the most tolerant of priests, and not to follow them in the faith does

not bring persecution or mischief to any man’s door, We had hard

frost at Pomiongchi onthe morning of the 2nd; at 7 a. . the ther.

in the air stood at 32°. On the ground at 25°. Here I was to leave

Hooker after 10 happy days spent together. He had to start for

Jongri next day ; 1 did so for Darjeeling, and marched to Tadong.

He accompained me as far as the Gayzing Mendong, which is about

2000 feet below Pomiongehi, and to the south of it. It is the most

extensive of all the Mendongs in Sikim ; it is 200 yards long, about 10

* See second note, p. 537.

1849. | Journal of a trip to Sikim. 539

feet high, and as many broad. At the north end isa Chaitya, and

at the south end an upright stone 9 feet high, fixed in a basement of

dry stone masonry. At 4 feet from the ground, and along both sides,

is a line of inscribed and figured slabs, 708 in all. The figures are

principally Buddhas in the usual sitting posture—the others are Hindu

deities. ‘The inscriptions are in the “ Oochen”’ and “ Lencha’’ cha-

racters of Thibet. Uchen and Ranja* of some pronunciations. The

slabs are generally from a foot to 2 feet square. This 9 feet upright

stone has writing all over its southern side.

From Gayzing I reached the Kullait river. After an hour of steep

descent forded the river ; it was 40 feet wide, thence ascended by a hor-

rid road, which is very little used, to Tadong, ‘‘ which is to the west of

and above Rinchinpoong ; crossed the Rungsong, a feeder of the Kullait

near Tadong. Ther. at 7 a. mM. 40°.

January 3rd.—Started at 7 A. M.; about a mile above Tadong well,

fell into the high road from Rinchinpoong, at a saddle in the Kaluk ridge,

where there is a Mendong. From this point the “ Zhen lah,” a ridge

with 3 remarkable conical peaks, comes in view tothe south. The cen-

tre peak of the 3 bears S. 20 W. The Kaluk and Zhen lah ridges are

separated by the Rishi, which runs easterly tothe great Rungeet. On

the eastern continuation of the Zhen lah is the Lenchi Goomba. It

bears 8S. 15 E. An hour and half from Taluk Mendong we crossed

the Rishi by sticks laid from one boulder to another, through a very

rapid current, into which one of the coolies fell. From this we ascend-

ed to a saddle between two of the Zhen lah peaks ; crossed the ridge at

the elevation of 3500 feet, I reckon, and at a Mendong. Thence we

descended to the Rahto, a feeder of the great Rungeet, and running

easterly, and by a tedious ascent ina south direction, we reached a

saddle on the ridge of Chakoong, which saddle is 5000 feet, I think,

and 6 hours good marching from Tadong. There is a Mendong at the

saddle, and some Lepchas’ houses, but water is distant, so we crossed

Chakoong and descended about a mile on its southern face to a small

stream of water. From Chakoong the head of the little Rungeet bears

S. 52 W,, and Talom, a very large flat terrace, 8. 70 W.

There is iron ore in the Chakoong range, and a mine was at one

time worked there, but is now closed, as the Lamas pronounce it an

* Ranja, Sanscrit—and Outza, Tibetan,—B. H, H.

540 Journal of a trip to Sckim. | May,

unhallowed work to dig into the bowels of the earth! The large lime

deposit which I visited six years ago, is also in the Chakoong range.

Found tree ferns on the Rishi—the first I have seen since I crossed

the Rungeet on the way out.

January 4th.—Descended ina S. West direction to the Rumam

river, which we crossed to the Kirmi range over bundles of bamboos

laid from rock to rock over a furious current. A little lower down

there is a suspension bridge for the rams. From the Rumam, the road

runs by the river on the Kirmi side for about 2 miles, and is nearly

level; then it ascends to the Goke spur, crosses it at a Mendong, and

descends to the little Rungeet opposite the Police Chowkey, which is

in our territory, and about 10 miles from Darjeeling via the Vah spur,

and Tugvor. I arrived at Darjeeling very tired, and just one month

from the day I started.

METEOROLOGY. Sikim, Dec. 1848.

Date. | Hour. Place. Shade. | Sun.|W.B Wind, &c. &c.

Dec. 4.5 Pp. mM. |Rungeet Guard house.| 68° | ..| ..{/Calm S. clear.

6 2.” os oe ee 68 --| ..|Ditto Ditto.

8B oo oe oe “9s 64 --| ».|Ditto Ditto.

Orme s oe ee 64 -.| ..|Cloudy.

* 516 A. M ee Se 58 sah (ie. tClear: a;Nowdew.

ih oleh sie ae as 59 .-| {Ditto and Calm.

8 .. .. |Cane bridge. 64 ..| ../Temp: of river 59°.

4 p. M. |Selukfoke. 59 ..| 53 |Heavy frost; calm.

D ee es ee ee 54 --| 50 |Slight air North.

AHL Nate oe L 54 Ui e> aie Ditto:

9 ws «- oe es 53 aol) ose Clea.

* 6/6 A. M. oe ee 51 --| «.|Light breeze.

10.. .. |Peak of Silukfoke. POL Wise oe we

11.. .. |Namgialachi. 69 |100 | 62 pe se

Ware es oe oe 70 --| 64 ee ee

5 P. M. os ee 56 sell tiers ee ee

Bisa, iis ee ee 63 aie lmeaei ee ae

GE SORRY gs es 52 ..| «+ {|Moon light; cloudy.

DD aacs ‘ af 52 : ..|Water boils 2013.

* 7/4 A. M. AG oe 44 ..| «.|Very heavy dew.

D “ie fete ee ee 45 . ee ee ee

8 «. «- |Sundoopchi. 50 o-| + (Cloudy

10.. «- jLamchook foot of

Tendong. 45 ee| «. |Ditto.

11... .. |Tendong top. 46 oe | oe DELCO.

4 ep. M. |Temi. 50 -»| «(Gentle breeze N. E.

Scare? aye oe ap 50 --| ».|/Water boils at 202.

10.. a ae o° 50 e»| «+ |Calm and clear.

Tt 8/5 a. M. ee vie 50 .»| «-|Very heavy dew.

11.. .. |Rungni River. 66 --| .»./Temp: of stream 61°,

4 ep. m. |Namfok. 64 ..|Water boils 208°.

* Tn a small Blanket tent without shade. + Without Black Bulb.

1849.]

Journal of a trip to Sikim.

o4l

Dat

Dec.

CAPT OCUNRN WIDOW

. |Teesta, Bangsong.

Teesta, Bangsong.

Upper Namfok.

. |Mainomchoo shoulder

|Top of Mainomchoo.

Shade. |Sun.|W.B

“* |Fine bright forenoon.

**|Rain all day, now pour-

Wind, &c. &e.

..|Water boils at 209°.

..|Temp: of river 52°.

.. |Brilliant night.

..|Temp: of river 53°.

6 |Calm.

Temp: of stream 54°.

Calm.

_ |Water boils 2003.

Cloudy and dropsof rain.

rr Temp : of streamlet 56°.

ve Water boils 204°.

_.|Very cloudy overhead

and to the N.

Snowed heavily on the

mountains during the

night. Bright and clear.

ing heavily,

Temp: of river 52°. Rain

ceased at day light.

Ther : 60. Water boils

208%ths. Fell to 36°.

during the night.

.. (Fell during the night to

24°. Two feet of snow

on the ground.

..|Fell to 21° during the

night ; very hard frost.

Temp : of the snow 26.°

Water boils at 1923,

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL

For May, 1849.

The usual monthly meeting of the Asiatic Society was held on

Saturday, the 5th May, 1849.

The Hon’sie Sir James Couvittze, President, in the chair.

The proceedings of the April meeting were read and confirmed, and

the accounts and vouchers of the preceding month laid upon the table.

Dr. Macrae, having been proposed at the April meeting, was bal-

lotted for and duly elected.

The following gentlemen were proposed as members :—

Cecil Beadon, Esq., C. S. proposed by Mr. Piddington, seconded by

Mr. Laidlay.

Dr. Row, Superintending Surgeon, Dacca, proposed by Lieut.

Staples, seconded by Mr. Laidlay.

R. V. Thurnburn, Esq., proposed by Dr. McClelland, seconded by

Dr. Walker.

Raja Radhakant Deb intimated his desire to withdraw his name

from the list of members. |

Read a letter from H. M. Elliot, Esq. Secretary to Government of

India, with the Governor General, forwarding for publication Journal

of a Trip through, the Kohistan of the Jullunder, by Lieut. W. H.

Parish. (Ordered for publication in the Journal.)

From A. Shakespear, Esq. Officiating Assistant Secretary to the Go-

vernment N. W. P., transmitting Capt. Fenwick’s Journal of his passage

down the Nerbudda from Chikulda to Baroach. As also abstracts of two

Journals containing a notice of the most important obstructions to the

navigation.

1849.] Proceedings of the Astatie Society. 543

From C. Allen, Esq. Officiating Secretary to Government N. W. P.

forwarding a note by Lieut. R. Strachey of the Engineers, on the snow

line in the Himalaya, for publication in the Journal, and requests to be

furnished with 100 copies of the same.

From W. Seton Karr, Esq., Under-Secretary to Government of Ben-

gal, conveying (in reply to the application of the Council) the orders

of Government regarding the authority the Council of the Asiatic

Society are to exercise over the Curator of the Museum of Economic

Geology and his expenditure. The following reply has been received.

No. 545.

From the Under-Secretary to the Government of Bengal,

To J. W. Larpuay, Esq., Joint Secretary to the Asiatic Society.

Dated Fort William, the 14th April, 1849.

Sir,—Your letter to the address of the Secretary to the Government of

India, in the Home Department, dated February last, having been transferred

to this Office, Iam directed by the Deputy Governor of Bengal to forward,

in reply, a copy of a letter which was addressed to Mr. Piddington on the

21st November 1846, No. 761.

2. His Honor further directs me to beg that the contingent bills of the

Museum of Economic Geology may be passed, as heretofore, by the Secre-

tary, who, as being responsible under the Society’s Council for the due

application of the Government Grant, has the power to disallow any exces-

sive or unreasonable charges contained in those bills. I am also directed to

state that every consideration will always be given by the Government to the

recommendation of the Council, either for the appointment or for the re-

moval of the Curator.

3. The Society are requested to correspond direct with this Office for the

future.

I have the honor to be, Sir,

Your most Obedient Servant,

W. Seton Karr,

Under-Secretary to the Government of Bengal.

No. 761.

From G. A. Bususy, Esq., Secretary to the Government of India,

Home Department,

To H. Pippineron, Esq. Curator Museum Economie Geology.

Dated the 2\st November, 1846.

Sir,—I am directed to acknowledge the receipt of your letter dated the

6th instant, with enclosure, and in reply to state that the Government would

544 Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. [May,

not appoint to the Office of Curator to the Museum of Economic Geology

but on the recommendation of the Asiatic Society, and the President in

Council would not wish in any way to interfere authoritatively with the

appointment in question.

I have, &c.

(Signed) G. A. BusHBy,

Secretary to the Government of India.

(True Copy.)

W. SeTron Karr,

Under-Secretary to the Government of Bengal.

From Professor Holinboe of the Christiania University, announcing

the despatch of a collection of objects of Natural History.

From B. H. Hodgson, Esq., forwarding a description of the Polecat

of Tibet.

From the same, forwarding a note of the Aborigines of Southern

India.

_ From the same, forwarding a valuable MS. copy of Lalita Vistara,

for publication in the Bibliotheca Indica.

Ordered, that the thanks of the Society be presented to Mr, Hodg-

son, and the subject referred to the Oriental Section.

From Dr. Hooker, Botanical notes made during an excursion in

Sikim, presented by the Hon’ble the President.

From J. Christian, Esq., forwarding a Sanserit inscription on a slab

of stone from a temple near Monghir, and its translation.

From Baron Hammer Purgstall, presenting the Vienna Review and

Transactions of the Imperial Academy of Sciences.

From Professor Fliigel, acknowledging a copy of Abdool Razaq’s Dic -

tionary, and requesting to be nominated a member of the Asiatic

Society.

From W. Neal, Esq. Collector of Oriental Translation Fund, Lon-

don, acknowledging the Society’s remittance of £ 21 in payment of

subscription to the Oriental Translation Fund, for 1847-48.

From Prince Golam Muhamud, presenting donation of books to the

Society.

From Captain Hollings, presenting a small collection of coins.

From F. Taylor, Esq. Officiating Secretary of the Local Committee

of Public Instructions, Delhi, soliciting a copy of the Journal of the

Society for the use of the Delhi College,

1849. | Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. 545

Ordered, that the Society regret that they cannot comply with Mr.

Taylor’s request, in consequence of having refused similar applications.

From Dr. Roer, Secretary to the Oriental Section, the following

letter :—

To J. W. Larpuay, Esq. Secretary Asiatic Society.

Dated Asiatic Society, the 28th March, 1849.

Sir,—I have the honour to return to you my Report of the 6th ult. and

to state for the information of the Council and the Society, that the Oriental

Section have agreed to the proposals therein submitted, with the exception

of the first, concerning the MSS. to be lent to Dr. Miiller, which they

beg to refer to the decision of a General Meeting of the Society.

2. With regard to the third proposal, it is the view of the Section, that

Mr. Koenig’s request should be complied with on the condition, that he pays

for the copies. No opinion, however, has been offered on the Oriental works

which I proposed for exchange, and which ought to be in our Library, and I

therefore beg leave to recommend the purchase of them by the Society.

I have the honour to be, Sir,

Your most Obedient Servant,

KE. Rorr,

Co-Secretary Asiatic Society, Oriental Department.

To Dr. W. B. O’SHauGuNEssy, Senior Secretary, Asiatic Society, Bengal.

Dated Asiatic Society, the 5th February, 1848.

Sir,—I have the honour to submit to you, for the consideration of the

Council and the Asiatic Society, a report on the following subjects :—

1. Dr. Muller, the editor of the Sanhita of the Rig Veda, has repeatedly

expressed to me his anxious desire to obtain some more MSS. for the

second Ashtaka of the Rig Veda, if possible the MS. of a private Library,

as those of public Libraries are almost all copies of the same original. I

have not succeeded in procuring a MS. of this kind, but it occurs to me,

that the Society is able to assist Dr. Muller in his undertaking by granting

him the loan of the Rig Veda Sanhita with commentary, in its Library, and

also of the parts of the Rig Veda that have been copied at Benares for the

Society. The MS. of the Society, unless compared with other MSS., is

quite worthless, as it is very incorrect and defective. Yet it has been of great

use to me, since it contains sometimes passages which are not met with in

any other MS., and I therefore believe it would be a valuable assistance also

to Dr. Miller. Although it is not usual to lend the MSS. of our Library

to gentlemen not residing in Calcutta, I think the Society should make an

exception on an occasion as the present; for beside, that every learned

546 Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. | May,

this kind, Dr. Miller’s publication is made under the auspices of the Court

of Directors.

2. Dr. Weber from Berlin, has sent a specimen of his edition of the

Vajasaneyi Sanhita, or the Sanhita of the White Yajur Veda, for the inspec-

tion of the Society. The first parts of the first and second volumes (each of

160 pages) will probably appear in March, at Co.’s Rs. 10. The whole work

is to contain: 1. Vajasaneya Sanhitd, with the commentary of Madhava. 2.

Sata Patha Bréhmana, with extracts from the commentaries of Madhava,

Parswami and Dwiveda Ganga. 3. Katydyana Sranta Sztra, with extracts

from the commentaries of Yajnaka Deva,—all three works accompanied with

complete indexes. The whole is calculatad for 7 Rs., of about 320 pages each.

The author requests the patronage of the Asiatic Society for his under-

taking, and as its success partly’ depends on the number of subscribers, J]

would propose that the Society subscribe for twenty copies, to be paid from

the Oriental Fund.

3. In a letter received by the last overland mail, Mr. Koenig repeats a

request, made by him already sometime ago, that the Society be pleased to

despatch to him regularly every month, through Messrs. Allan & Co. 25

copies of the Asiatic Journal, either on payment or in return of books

printed in Germany, or in countries connected with it. As there are a great

number of Oriental works printed in Germany that are not in our Library

I would suggest that Mr. Koenig’s proposal be accepted by the Society. i

annex a list of some of the works, alluded to. (No. 1.)

4, With a view to procure a more extensive circulation for the Bibliotheca

Indica and to make the best use of the works, patronised by the Society, I

beg to recommend :—

1. That a copy of the Bibliotheca Indica and of Dr. Heeberlin’s Sanserit

Anthology, be presented to such Societies and scholars as have favoured the

Society with their publications. I forward, for the approval of the Society,

a list of parties entitled to this mark of attention on the part of the

Society. (No. 2.)

2. That the Members of the Oriental Section should also receive a copy of

the Oriental Journal.

3. That a copy of Mr. Hodgson’s work, “On the Aborigines of India,

and of Mr. Laidlay’s translation of Fa Mian from the French, be given to such

Members of the Society as may apply for them.

I have the honour to be, Sir,

Your most Obedient Servant,

E. Rorr,

Co-Secretary Asiatic Society, Oriental Department,

1849. | Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. 547

No. 1.

1. Kritische Grammatik der Sanskrit Sprache in kirzerer Fassung, von

Fr. Bopp. Zweite Ausgabe, Berlin, Nicolai, 1845.

2. Kortfattet Sanskrit Formloere of N. L. Westergaard. Kjoébenhavn,

1846.

3. Uber emige altere Sanskrit Metra, von G. A. Ewald, Gottingen, 1827.

4, Sanskrit Chrestomathie, von O. Bothlingk, St. Petersburg, 1845.

5. Sanskrit Leesebog of N. L. Westergaard. Kjobenhavn, 1846.

6. Indische Gedichte in deutschen Nachbildungon, von A. Hoefer. Leipzig,

1844, 2 Vols.

7. Brihadaranyaka, &c., herausgegeben von L. Poley. Bonn, 1844.

8. Bruchstiicke aus Walmiki’s Ramayana, tbersetzt von A. Holtzmann.

Karlsruhe, 1841.

9. Rama, ein indisches Gedicht nach Walmiki, von A. Holtzmann. Karls-

ruhe, 1843.

10. Ueber die Sprache und Weisheit der Indier, von Fr. Schlegel. Heidel-

berg, 1808.

11, Nala. Aus dem Sanskrit iibersetzt, von J. G. Kosegarten, Jena, 1816.

12. Nal und Damajanti, von F. Rickert. Frankfurt, 1828.

Zweite verbesserte Auflage, 1838.

Dritte Auflage, 1845.

13. Bhagavad Gita, ed. A. Schlegel. Second Edition. Bonn, 1846.

14. Brahma-Vaivarta Purana, Specimen. Ed. A. F. Stenzler. Berol. 1829.

15. Devimahatmyam, Markandeyi Purani sectio. Ed. L. Poley. Berol.

1844,

16. De nonnullis Padma-Purani capitibus, Ed. A. E. Wallheim. Berol.

1831.

17. Funf Gesinge der Bhatti- Kavya, Aus dem Sanscrit von C. Schiitz. Bie-

lefeld, 1837.

18. Bharavi’s Kiratarjuniyam. Aus dem Sanskrit von C. Schitz. Bielefeld,

1845.

19. Maghas, .... der Sisupala, iibersetzt von C. Schiitz. Bielefeld, 1837.

20. Bhartriharis Sententiae. Ed. P.a Bohlen. Berol. 1833.

21. Ghatakarpara, ed. G. M. Dursch. Berlin, 1828.

22. Mahamudgara, Sanscrite et Germ. Ed. H. Brockhaus, 1841.

23. Urwasi, der Preis der Tapferkeit, itbersetzt von K. G. A. Hoefer. Ber-

lin, 1837.

24. Probodha Chandrodaya. Krishna Misri Comoedia. Ed. H. Brockhaus,

Leipzig, 1845.

20, Probodha Chandrodaya. Koenigsberg, 1842.

548 Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. [May,

26. Hitopadesa, iibersetzt von M. Miiller. Leipzig, 1844.

27. T. H. Windischmanni Sancara, sive de theologumenis Vedanticorum.

Bonn, 1833.

28. Alt-Indische Geburtshilfe, von J. A, Vullers. Giessen, 1846.

29. Das alte Indien, von P. v. Bohlen.

30. Bernfeyr Altindische Literatur (?).

31. Boller’s Sanskrit Grammatik.

To these works I add a list of some other Sanskrit publications, not in our

Library.

1. Dasakumaracharitra, by H. H. Wilson. London, 1846,

2. Vedanta Soutras, par L. Poley. Paris.

3. Elements of the Sanscrit language, by W. Price. London, 1823.

4, Grammaire Sanscrit-Francaise, par M. Desgranges. Tome I. Paris

1845.

5. Grammar of the Sanscrit Language, by Williams. London, 1846.

. Monuments littéraires de l’ Inde, par A. Langlois. Paris, 1826, 1 Vol.

. Etudes sur les hymnes du Rig-Veda par F, Neve. Louvain, 1842.

. Oupanischats, par L. Poley, (Livr. 1—6). Paris, 1 Vol.

. Kathaka Oupanischat, traduit par L. Poley. Paris, 1835-4.

10. Mundaka Oupanischat, traduit par L. Poley. Paris, 1836.

11. Kena et Isa Upanishad, Sanscrite, Gallice et Persice, ed. G. Panthier,

1837.

12. Ramayana, poemo Indiana di Valmicis, per G. Gorresio, 3 Vols. 1843

—1845.

13. Fragments du Mahabharata, traduits en Francais, par Th. Panie,

Paris, 1844.

14. Le Bhagavata Purana, traduit, publié par E. Burnouf, 2 Vols. Paris,

1840—1844.

SON

No. 2.

. Royal Asiatic Society of London.

. University of Oxford.

—_— Cambridge.

—_—_——_—— Dublin.

Christiania.

. Asiatic Society at Paris.

. Deutsche Morgenlandische Gesellschaft.

ONAT SR wd

. Royal Academy at Berlin.

Munich.

10. ———————. St. Petersburg.

1849.] Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. 549

11. Branch Royal Asiatic Society in Bombay.

12. Literary Society at Madras.

13. College of Fort William.

14. Sanscrit College at Calcutta.

15. ————_——————- Benares.

16. Bishop’s College.

17. Tattwa Bodhini Sabhha.

18. Honourable J. Thomason.

19. Mr. J. Muir.

20. Raja Radhakant Deb.

21. Professor H. H. Wilson.

22. Professor E. Burnouf.

23. Professor J. Mohl.

24. Major Troyer.

25. Mr. Panthier.

26. Dr. M. Muller.

27. Baron Hammer-Purgstall.

28. Professor Chr. Lassen.

29. Mr. F. Riickert.

30. Dr. Weber.

31. Professor Bothlinck.

32. Professor Fr. Bopp.

33, Dr. J. Mill.

ResotveD, That the Society adopt those suggestions contained in this

letter which are approved of by the Oriental Section, but with refer-

ence to the transmission to England of the MS. of the Rig Veda now

in the Society’s Library, it is contrary to the established rules of the

Society, and cannot be sanctioned—Dr. Roer however is authorized to

communicate with Dr. Miller, and should that gentleman require a

copy of the MS. in question, to offer to prepare a copy at his expense.

Read extract of a letter from Mr. Hodgson, offering to send down a

valuable collection of drawings illustrating the Antiquities and Architec-

ture of Nepal, should it be the Society’s intention to carry out the

work proposed some months ago on the Archeology of India.

The Secretary submitted to the Society for purchase a copy of the

Tarikh-i-Abu Sazad, for 33 rupees. Referred to the Oriental Section.

James Wn. Cotviuue, President.

Hl. Wauker, Officiating Secretary.

4a 2

550 Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. | May,

LIBRARY.

The following books have been received since the last meeting :—

Presented.

A sketch of the war with Tippu Sultan. By Lieut. R. Mackenzie, 2 Vols.—

PRESENTED BY Prince GoLtAM MuHAMMAD. —

Asiatic Annual Register, Vol. XI.—By Tur sAME.

A view of the Origin and Conduct of the war with Tippu Sultan. By

Lieut.-Col. A. Beatson.—By THE SAME.

A narrative of the Campaign in India which terminated the war with

Tippu Sultan. By Major Dirom. London, 1793. 4to.—By THE SAME.

An account of the war in India between the English and French on the

coast of Coromandel, from the year 1750 to the year 1760. By R. O. Cam-

bridge, Esq. London, 1761. 4to.—By Tur same.

British India Analysed. London, 1795, 3 Vols. 8vo.—By THE SAME.

Salmond’s Review of the Origin, Progress and Result of the decisive war

with the late Tippu Sultan. London 1800. 8vo.—By Tur samr.

The captivity, sufferings and escape of James Scurry, who was detained

a prisoner during ten years in the dominions of Hyder Ali and Tippu Saheb.

London, demi 8vo.—By THE SAME.

Authentic Memoirs of Tippo Sultan, by an officer in the East India Service.

Calcutta, 1820.—By THE SAME.

An Historical Sketch of the Princes of India. Edinburgh, 1833. 8vo. By .

THE SAME.

Journal of the American Oriental Society, Nos. I. 11.—By tue Sociery.

Jahrbiicher der Literature for 1847. By tua Baron von HaMMER

PURGSTALL.

The Prem Sagar: translated into English. By Capt. W. Hollings. Cal-

cutta, 1848.—By THe TRANSLATOR.

The Bytal Pucheesee, translated into English. By Capt. W. Hollings.

Calcutta, 1848.—By THE SAME.

Annales des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles d’Agriculture et d’ Industrie,

publiées per la Société Royale d’Agriculture, ete. de Lyon. Tome X.—By

THE SOCIETY.

Bulletin de la Société de Géographie. Tome VIII.—By tue Society.

Annales de la Société Linnéenne de Lyon. Années 1845-6.—By THE

Sociery.

Zeitschrift der Deutschen morgenlindischen Gesellschaft, herausgege-

ben von den Geschaftsfiihrern. LErster Band, Heft L—IV. Zweiter Band,

I.—III. Heft—By tue Epirors.

1849. | Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. 5351

Jahresbericht der Deutschen morgenlandischen Gesellschaft, fiir 1845-6.

—By Tue Epiror.

Report of the Calcutta Public Library, for 1848-9.—By Tum CaLcurtTa

Pusxic LIBRARY.

Journal of the Agricultural and Horticultural Society of India. Vol. VI.

Part IV.—By THe Society.

Journal of the Indian Archipelago. Vol. III. No. 3.—By tut Mapras

LITERARY SOCIETY.

Madras Journal of Literature and Science, Vol. XV.—By THE SAME.

The Oriental Baptist, No. 29.—By THe Epiror.

The Calcutta Christian Observer for May 1849.—By tHE Epirors.

Upadeshaka, No. 29.—By Tue Epiror.

The Oriental Christian Spectator, Vol. X. No. 3.—By THE Epiror.

Tattwabodhini Patrica. No. 69.—By tHe TartwaBoDHINI SABHA.

Rede des Prasidenten der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften,

Freiherrn von Hammer-Purgstall.—By THe Baron von HAMMER Pure-

STALL.

Archiv fiir die Kunde Oesterreichischer Geschichtsquellen.— By THE SAME.

Sitzungsberichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Lrstes

Heft.—By THE SAME.

Meteorological Register kept at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, for

the month of February, 1849.—By Tur Deputy Surveyor GENERAL.

Dr. Morten ucceb Katekismusas. Kristianiast, 1837, 12mo.—By THE

Royau UNIVERSITY OF CHRISTIANIA.

Bibel-Historia mailme sivnedume rejast Moses jubnrem ragjai bibel jecas

Saniguim muittaluvoum ; ja 22 David psalmak. N. W. Stokflethast. Kris-

tianiast, 1840, 8vo.— By THE SAME.

Ucceb asaturvum Altar Gisjas. Kristianiast, 1840. 8vo.—By THE SAME.

Rokkus-ja Oappo Girje, Samas Jarggaluoorim N. V. Stokflethast. Kris-

tianiast, 1840. 8vo.— By THE SAME.

Abes ja Lakkam Guyje. Kristianiast, 1837. 8vo.— By THE SAME.

Den Aildve Edda. Samling af Norrone Oldkuad in Seboldende Nordens

AEldite Guge-og Helte-Sagu, udginet af P. A. Munch. Christiania 1847,

8vo.— By THE SAME.

Fagrskinna. Udginet af P. A. Munch og: C.R. Unger. Christiania,

1847.—By THE SAME.

Norsk Flora. Af M. R. Blytt. Forste befte. Christiania, 1847, Svo.—

By THE SAME.

Nyt Magazin for Naturvidenskra berne. Femte Binds. Christiana, 1846-

8.—By THE SAME.

552 Proceedings of the Asiatic Society.

Konge-Speilet et Philosophisk-didaktisk skrift for fatted i norge mod

slutningen af det tolfte Aarhundrede. Christiania, 1848, 8vo.—By THE

SAME.

Herramek ja be ustamek Jesus Kristus Adda Testament, Christiania,

1840, 8vo.— By THE SAME.

Norske Universi tets og Skole Annales, 3 vdi befte. Christiania, 1847.

Pamphlet.—By THE SAME.

Enumeratio Plantarum Vascularium, quee circa Christianiam sponte nas-

cuntur, Auctore M. R. Blytt.—By THE SAME.

Grammatik i de Lappiske Sprog, af N. V. Stockfletch. Christiania, 1840.—

By THE SAME.

Catalogue of books received into the Royal University of Christiania, dur-

ing the year 1847.—By THE SAME.

Sanskrit og Aldnorsk, en Spoogsammenlignende Afhandling af E, A.

Holmboe. Christiania, 1846, 4to. Pamphlet.—By THe same.

Det Aldnorske Verbum, oplyat vid Sammenligning med Sanskrit og andre

spoog af Summe Aet. Af C. A. Holmboe, Christiania, 1848, 4to. Pamphlet.

—By THE SAME.

Norges Gamle Loue indtil 1387. Christiania, 1848. 2 Vols. demi folio.—

By THE SAME.

Fauna littoralis Norvegiae, von M. Sars. Erstes Heft.

Exchanged.

Athenzeum, Nos. 1112—14.

Philosophical Magazine, Nos. 222—3.

Purchased.

Comptes Rendus, Nos. 25—6.

Edinburgh Review, No. 180.

Calcutta Review, No. 21.

North British Review, No. 20.

eteorological Register hept at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, for the Month of May, 1849. ,

Lat. 22° 33' 28’. 33 N. Long. 88° 23’ 42”. 84 East. Mag. Variation 2° 28’ 36” East. Mag. Dip. 27° 45’.

Observations made at sunrise. ‘Maximum Pressure observed at 9th, 50m. Observations made at apparent noon. Observations made at 2h. 40m, Minimum Pressure observed at 4 p.m. Observations made at sunset. jt

sof the Month.

reduced to 32°

meter in sun's rays,

Fabrenbeit.

Fuhreoheit.

Fabrevheit.

Barometer reduced to 32°

Direction at 9h, won|

Direction at sunrise.

Aspect of tho Sky.

Of the Mercury.

Aspect of the Sky.

Direction at noon.

Aspect of the Sky.

Of the Mercury.

Aspect of the Sky.

Direction at 4 p.m.

Aspect of the Sky.

Of the Mercury.

Aspect of the Sky.

Of Wet Bulb.

Of the Air.

! Barometer reduced to 92°

| Of the Mercury.

o | Of the Mercury.

o| Of the Air.

| Of the Air,

Clear, (Clear.

Ditto

. (Cloudy.

E,|Cumulo strati.

Cumuli,

Clear,

Ditto

Cloudy.

Clear. . Clear,

Ditto 734 .' if W,|Ditto V.|Ditto

Ditto Ditto Cumnlo strati,

\Cumulo strati. | A 2. ‘Cumulo strati, -646 |100, x 2 » |Ditto

SSS o! OF Wer Bulb.

SES o) of Wet Bulb.

g2e

BBE o| of Wet Bulb,

baad

bhow

SERS

aS SESS ,| orwerBulb.

18,

. |Cirro cumuli.

Cumulo strat.

Cloudy.

(Ciro cumuli.

Ditto

|Clear.

Cloudy,

Ditto

.|Cirro cumuli, B31) .\Cirro cumuli- “ . E Ditto E. | Ditto 3 8 |. |Cirro camali.

V.|Clear, A .: . W.|\Cumuli, ¥ .: - E.) Ditto ¥ E 6 Cloudy. 782 2, . W. |Deizaly,

Ciro cumuli, 4 2) 93, ; ~ |Cumulo strati, 3 | 98. i .8 | S. W. [Ditto 4 . . BE] Kain & Thong) - \ 8. [Cloudy,

Ditto 3 uv it Ditto ce . S.E. |Cloudy & Thu 682 . . Cumulo strat. | i . |. |Cirro atrati,

Bae

eeue

Se essen seme [Daancema

\Cumulo strati. yi 9 Ditto 5 5 b -_ |Cumulo strati. 5. 8.: Ditto +65 ,t . |Camulo strati,

Ditto 7 | 98 Ditto : § Ditto i S. E. sh,| Ditto Cirri.

» [Ditto x 3 (9 | N.E. |Ditto 4 h Ditto E . Ditto E i A ‘ E._ |Cirro cumuli,

» \Cloudy. 6.) 3 . . | Drizaly. . . f V. E. |Ditto Ad hs o f » |Cloudy, “ m N.N.EJCloudy,

aie.

> ee

. \Cirro strat,

W.|Cumuli.

Cloudy.

Y,| Ditto

Cumulo strati. ‘ 3 .0 | W.S.W,\Cumulo strat. | ~ B sf . Ditto if W.\Cumuli, . . E, S. EB. Scattered cloud:

Cloudy, 37 9 15 | S. W. [Ditto . Ditto 5 | 93. ,|Cloudy. : 3 |. [Cirro stratiy

\Cumulo strati, 5 6 . 3,2 |S. W. sh. Ditto “ 5 .| Ditto 3 3. .{Cumulo strati, Fe x S. |Cloudy.

Cloudy.

Ditto

p, Generally clear,

Cumulo strati.

Cloudy.

Ciro cumuli,

rt)

Curmulo strati. 3 3 §. W. |Cumulo strati.

S. itt 0 | 84. Cumuli. ei

IS. S. E,|Cirrocumuli, | .596| 93,3 | 92 2,5 « |Cumulo strat, 7 i .0 | 82 EB. |Ditto

Cloudy.

Ditto

BER

See:

112.8)

112.0)

»|Cirro cumuli,

Ditto

E. |Clear.

Cloudy.

.|Cirro cumulie

“Cloudy,

Ditto

Dito

.|Ditto S. E, {Ditto 2 | 82. Ciro cumuli, | sf S$, |Cirro cumuli.

(Cumuli. {Ditto 19} 94.3 | Bl, . B, |{Cumulo strat.

Bee

cae

: SER

SSS 2

|Curuli. : . S._ |Clear, : f 3 |S. [Clear

Ditto 3 z 2 |8. 8. W.|Ditto’ Ditto

2 5. sharp,| Ditto i i .8 |S. sharp,|Cirn,

S. sharp. Ditto 2.7) 92.2 ) 80.8 |S, sharp.|Clear,

Ss.

S. |Cumuli.

'S. S. W.\Cirro cumuli.

S. |Cumulo strat,

eeee

Ditto

Cumuli. 5

(Cumulo strat, |» 2 hi .e Cirro eumoli,

Clear,

Cloady.

‘Scattered clouds

|S. sharp.'Cumuli.

Fp. Ditto

Cumolo-strati.

bis

SEE BERR

aS as

ste

2 S58 SS55 Ess

ale

29.662) 94.6

ean Of the Corresponding mouth of last year,

29,603 80.6 813 784

29,702 914 90.6 BLS 29.670 94.8 93,9 82,1 29,601 96.2 95,0 821 29.571 95.6 93.9 B14 29,509 89.6 B88 803 Ch a i 2) CL!

‘These Observations have been made for the most part, with a supply of new and first rate Instruments received into the Observatory, by orders of the Bengal Government, a brief description of the Instruments seems necessary, ¥

Ist—The Barometer is a standard Instrument by Newman, diameter of the tube 0,504 Inches The following is the comparative shewing of this Instrument aad those ‘Barometers which were in use atthe Observatory prior to Ist of June, 1844. Barometer by Troughton used prior to the Ist of June, 1844, Observations red

Ditto ” ” ” ” » 0514 Ditto. Ditto. Ditto Col. Everest used from Ist of June to 3ist of August, 1844, Dit

No. 62 Standard Barometer by Newman used {rom Ist of September, 1844,,

2od,—The Thermometer is a Standard Instrument by Newman, on metal Scale and graduated to 4 of a degree. 3 No. 86... Dittoss«+ Ditto .«+--+ Ditto. -.«+.from 3d of Apri,

mee Bulb By rometer by Newman, graduated to single degree divisions, the difference between Standard Thermometer and dry Thermometer of this Instrument is -+ 0.2, the Temperature of the dry Bulb istaken from the Standard Thermometer, and in the event of the quantity, moisture, dew point, or dryness, being required,

¢ taken into calculation,

4th,—Maximum aod Minimum Thermometer by Newman. The difference between these instruments, and the Standard Thermometer is + 0.7 for the former and 0,23 for the latter. r

mihi hs Renoaralars shewn in Column 47 ofa Thermometer, in sua’s rays, is ucquired by meaas of & Newman's Maximum Uhermometer having a black bulb.—I'he above Lastrumeats, excepting the Thermometer placed in the sun's rays, are fixed atabove 4} feet from the ground, to a post, in a thickly choppered house, and are freely oxposed to the airand sheltered from any influence

of Solar reflection, ' 5

‘The height of the Surface of the Mercury in the Cistern of the Standard Barometer in the Observatory attached to the Surveyor General's Office above the Mean Level of the ES been deduced from a Series of Tide Observations taken from a Register kept at Kyd’s Dock Yard, the result is recorded for general information,

ect.

658 H, L. THUILLIER, Carram,

Officiating Deputy Surceyor General,

In epi haaaa General's Office.

«Ditto

is necomary the difference adver

Lowest Monthly Average of Mean Tides in the Months of February and March, above the Zero of Gauge at Kyd’s Dock Yard, Calcatta,

Difference of Level between the Zero of Tide Gauge at Kyd's Dock Yard, and the Standard Barometer at the Observatory,

Height of Standard Barometer above the Level of the Sea,

A) aa

He ee F4

es ska

SHANE]

—3 ee

4 ad 5

Se te,

woe “y

into

Few

th 10 =

}

(<a

> a RE yer Sewhcet od .

ceyiywe aa ve Paige rode Raree

‘Se

mB i

‘y

A dd tae egaxertings J brn

Su DET of SARL vA

7 - ad bi? - = a h a —

wet TG gist ste BALM CF

Vhs ee,

we” 8

Ble 7) Bh aera

“ ‘ r 6 ’ ; bal

— 7

ll wore, Teer et

™" WE ROOTS, m a fd oe

JOURNAL

OF THE

SoLATIC SOCIETY.

JUNE, 1849.

SNARRAARAD LSS PSL PADA OP LIPID PLONE SIVUE WPL ISS IS ove

Notes on the Geography of Western Afghanistan. By Major Wi-

LIAM ANDERSON, Bengal Artillery.

Any person attempting comparative Geography, soon learns how

very little dependance is to be placed on the geographical written proper

names of even the best classical authors; words evidently intended to

be identical, may be traced through all possible forms of spelling, exhi- —

biting any near approach to each other. It occasionally happens, that

authors of no repute may from accidental circumstances have learnt the

real correct form of a word, of which the most learned commentator

has been entirely ignorant. The Greek and Latin geographical writ-

ings on Asia are chiefly composed by learned authors, in their closets,

from laborious studying and. reading of more ancient works of travel and

of history; little discrimination was exercised over the various facts, in

rejecting repetitions or in distinguishing between the same relation given,

with only a few slight variations of circumstances ; hence, the greater

accumulation of error will be found in the latter authors, who often con-

tain undigested all those mistakes to be found in previous writers.

Very little dependance can be given to the names of places, distances,

directions or bearings, in the relation of the movements of the soldier,

merchant or mere traveller; they are often, I suspect generally, subse-

quently compiled from memory, than which nothing can be more

treacherous or liable to err. Let any one attempt from mere recollec-

tion to recall any long line of marching ; and he will often, very often

find himself unable to determine with precision which places preceded

each other in the route, although he may be able to give a very fair

No. XXX.—NeEw SERIEs. Ac

554 Notes on the Geography of Western Afghanstan. [JuNE,

general account of the whole line of march, and a particular version of

many occurrences. The relation of time and order is not well remem-

bered. Many intermediate points between two important ones are often

entirely forgotten and omitted, or misplaced. Almost the whole of

the details of the geography of Asia were obtamed by the Greeks and

Romans from the hearsay evidence of travellers and merchants ; it was

hence less to be relied upon as the distance explored was greater. It

certainly was not the custom of earlier times, for merchants to make

the venture of the entire line of traffic ; the merchandize of Hindustan

was carried by Indian merchants to Afghanistan ; by the merchants of

this country to Persia; and by the traders of this quarter to Syria or

Egypt, and so on; the inhabitants of one end of this chain, received

but a very confused and indistinct account of the proceedings of

those at the other end. Yet much of the information so obtained, is

now matter of geographical comparison. Let the confusion made

in Asiatic names by Europeans of the last century be borne in mind

and then we shall not be astonished at the little progress now made in

tracing out the districts and nations of antiquity ; the more so when

we add the errors of copyists for 2000 years. Nor are we quite assured

of the real measure of all the terms used for distance, time, weight, or

motion.

The attempts to graft measured distances, or assumed travelled dis-

tances, on positions established by astronomical principles, is also a con-

stant source of error; as little allowance is given for ‘the reduction

necessary to constitute a right lme; or to the difference of the length

of the degree under different latitudes. It is this last error which

has carried out all places in central Asia, so far to the East of their

proper position.*

The intermixture of systems has also caused endless trouble. The

travels of one man are conceived in his mind, and perhaps so written

down, on a certain scale, those of a second writer on a greater or a less

scale, while a third person, attempting to combine the two on the idea

of their bemg formed on an equal mental measure, would produce most

erroneous results—it is this which transposes places on the maps. Also

is to be remembered another constant but now untraceable error, confu-

* The error of a traveller being well established between some determined plages,

might enable his whole work to be reduced to an approach to fact.

1849.] Notes on the Geography of Western Afghanistan. 555

sion in the meridians whence the longitude is to be measured.* From

these and many other causes I believe the greatest license may be taken

in fixing towns or districts or people, which are not firmly determined

by more than one proof or argument.

The usually accepted measures are,

1.087 Greek stadii = 1 English furlong.

8.69 ,, 3, == T English mile.

125 Roman passi = 1 Greek stadium.

FS5S! 3; » == 1 English furlong.

1.087 Roman Millia passuum 1 English mile.

These are founded on the passus being considered what in England

would be called a double pace—or supposing the legs to be viewed as a

pair of compasses ; one foot fixed in the centre and the other describing

a circle, the English pace is the radius, but the Roman passus the

diameter.+

Again, are to be well distinguished the natural divisions of countries as

indicated by rivers and mountains; the proper or acknowledged dis-

tricts as marked out by long established boundaries; the political as

held under the temporal power, constantly changing of different dynas-

ties ; this last is a grand source of error in eastern travels. For instance,

we find Kundahar noted as a province of Persia, of Herat, of Seestan ,

of India, of Kabul and even of Cashmir. Language, religion, and pro-

ductions, also afford a means for classification.

According to Pliny, the Geographers of the Alexandrian expedition,

* The first Meridian of Ptolemy is some point of the Canary Islands. Say

W. 14°. Others consider the first Meridian to be some point of the Azores

Say W. 24°. A difference of ten degrees, which we do exactly find to exist be-

tween some of the Arabian tables of Longitude. Others assume a western point of

the mainland of Spain, and afew authors conceive the point to be a central town

of Spain. Hence to mere map-makers the confusion.

+ The Muhummadan measures are extremely variable and difficult to fix ; the

commonly accepted version is—

4000 Zurua = 1 Meel $ Zurua = 1 Guz khuyatee.

3 Meel =—1 Fursukh 98000 Guz = 1] Fursukh.

Assuming the Zurua = 21 inches.

The Guz = ols inches.

The Fursukh i A British miles or 4,31 Roman miles.

The Arabian Meel = 1,32 English miles.

4c2

556 Notes on the Geography of Western Afghanistan. (JUNE,

took a fresh departure from the Caspian Gates, and calculated 3000

stad to Zariaspa, a city of Bactria, and 5000, more to the Jaxartes or

modern Sehon ; distances measured no doubt along a high road and

from ferry to ferry of the rivers. S. 18, C. 16, Book 6, says :—

** A Caspiis ad orientem versus regio est Apavortene dicta, et in ea,

fertilitatis inclytee locus, Dareium.’’ This I conclude to be the modern

Abeverd, or Bavurd, the district round Kelat ; the birth place of Nadir ;

near it our maps do place a Dereguz. Justin says, the first Arsaces

founded this place, Dareium, among the mountains of Zapaortenon ;

“Cujus loci ea conditio est, ut neque munitius quiquam esse neque

ameenius possit ; Ita enim, et preeruptis rupibus cingitur, ut tutila loci

nullis defensoribus egeat; et soli circumjacentis tanta ubertas est, ut

propriis opibus expleatur.”’

Khojah Abdol Kureem, who accompanied Nadir on his return from

the invasion of India, says :—‘‘'The town of Kelat is surrounded by

high mountains so perpendicular as to be absolutely inaccessible ; on

the side of Meru is a large gate where the guards examine every per-

son who goes in or out ; this leads toa pass so narrow, as to addmit only

one horseman at atime, and over which the mountains meet at the

top in a most astonishing manner ; forming a natural arch. The canal

upon which the cultivation of Kelat depends enters the town on the

side of Mushud, and goes through the pass of Meru. Abiwurd is a

populous town, it is also called Baward.” Kelat thus appears a very

similar place to, if not identical with, Dareium ; and in Abeward or

about Mushud, we have the centre or starting point of the Parthian

nation,“ a desideratum in ancient history. Next, to the eastward we

may trace Margiane in the modern Moorgab. And in Merve-ol-rood,

ov Merve,} on the river, I have no doubt we may accept the city built

by Alexander, destroyed by the barbarians and restored by Antiochus.

Pliny uses the words ‘‘ interfluente margo.” Isidor adds, ‘ Avtioxea 4 Kar-

odpevn &v vopoos,’? all pointing to the designation still maintained in ““Merve-

* It is worthy of observation as a curiosity, the introduction by Justin of the

letter Z as in Zapaortenon. This is as an example of the dependance to be placed

on proper names. Our printed words have obtained a prescription of correctness

to which perhaps they are all ill entitled.

+ This second Merve has been placed by some writers, either on the banks or

close to the Oxus; and hence carried to the North of Merve Shabjuhan ; in place of

being some 80 miles South-East of this place.

1849.| Notes on the Geography of Western Afghanistan. 557

ol-rood.’’ Orodes here carried his prisoners after the defeat of Crassus.

From it, over the mountains of Caucasus existed, as at present, the road

to Bacrria, (Balkh:) Of the numerous tribes mentioned by Pliny, I

can only speculate on Ochani, which may have reference to the Ooghans.

The Harmatotrophi “ qui curules equos alunt’”’ as having some connec-

tion with Andakhoo or Muimoonuh, very celebrated marts for large Tor-

komanee horses.

Canpari are the tribes of Kundahar. Paricani those of Furah.

Sarangee those of Zurung. The Gel, quos Grzeci Cadusios, appella-

vere, may be the modern Kords round Mushud, or the inhabitants of

Ghoor. Heraclia built by Alexander, destroyed by the natives, restored

by Antiochus, and called Achaida, looks very like the oft repeated

history of Herat.

I am inclined to consider the Ochus and Oxus to be the same river

under different modes of writing, a mistake created by the mal-location

of Merve-ol-rood. The present stream of Bulkh, called the Bulkhab,

is certainly not navigable, and its water does not in all seasons reach

the Oxus.

The Sarzphi mountains, dividing Aria from Margiana, are those round

Surukhsh. The river Jararte, quod Scythee Silin vocant ; “has a very

near approach to the modern term of Sehon. In seven days it was

reported to Pliny goods could be carried from India (Kabul, its

frontier) to the Icarum river of Bactria, flowing into the Oxus, and

down that river into the Caspian, and hence be distributed over Asia

Minor from the river Kur or Cyrus.’ No doubt goods might reach

the Oxus in seven days from the top of the ranges, the frontier of

India; the only real omission in this very general outline being the

second land trip from Kheva to the Caspian. For in these mountainous

districts there can hardly be rivers navigable for boats ; their course is

too rapid, their beds too rocky and the fall too great. I doubt if a boat

exist in the country till the Oxus on the one side reaches the sandy

deserts near Termez; or the Helmund on the other side debouches on

the level flats of Gurmsail. But roads all lie along the beds of these

streams, for the sake of water or of passage round the rocks,—hence a

native going from Guznee to Kundahar invariably adds, “ down the

Turnuk,” or ‘down the Argundab,” without the slightest idea of the

intervention of a boat. Icarum has a shade of the word Ghor, which

558 Notes on the Geography of Western Afghanistan. [JuNeE,

would thus be the stream passing Kunduz ; this process would occupy,

as it does at present, the merchants, of four nations. The routes of mer-

chandize depend chiefly on the safety of the roads and protection

afforded by chiefs, as well as on the seasons ; my belief, nay my experi-

ence is, that mere traders are entirely ignorant of every thing beyond

their own beat of trade. The Lohanee merchant of Guznee who brings

the beautiful fruits of Kabul to the imperial city of Delhi, could give

on his return home but a very imperfect account of how the same fruit

reached the port of Calcutta, and so it was in the days Pliny wrote.

The following are given by this author as the distances measured by

Diognetus and Beeton, with the army of Alexander.

Roman Miles. Perhaps.

From the Caspian gates, to Hecatompylos, .. 133

», to Alexandfia of Aria, (0.55... .<.-021 OU ineree

$5 80, PROUMELDANIG, otis & Glaiten tae ete ieee 199 Furah?

»» tO Afachotiorim Oppidum,) 2. 22... 1. 515 Kundahar.

,», to Orto spanum, trivium e Bactris, ...... 250 Near Guznee.

», to Alexandria sub-Caucasa, ............ 50 Near Mydan.

», to the river Copheta et oppidum Peucolaitin, 227 Peshawur.

3; LO Une Indus-aMd Laxtia, face, oes. ccalcue 60 Atock.

5g 0, CMO TEV OASICS, 5 seus Ryaters.-c cc syajsus ota sy YOO ute een

py sbO WAV IDASIS, 5c. cae) 6 Settee etn aus le ue feateles 294. [Either this

river is intended for the Acecines, or as I find some one has indicated by

a pencil note in the Asiatic Society’s copy of Pliny, that CL. have fallen

out from the CLX XIX. in the distance of 179 miles. |

The name Imaus, Hemdlaya, in the language of the natives signified

<* Nivosum,” or covered with snow.

Having worked round the coast of India Pliny returns up the Indus,

to the Peucolaitce, Arsagalitce, Geretoe, Asoi; the former of whom are

identified in Pukulee, and the last may be the modern sa nation ; for

no less a term than nation will describe the present Hsa Khuel. Four

provinces are then mentioned which were by some considered as Indian,

by some made Persian.

Mountains surrounded the districts next the Indus river. One pro-

vince was called Capissene—had a capital Capissa, camioa, also written

Caphusa ; this capital was destroyed by Cyrus. The city and district

1849.] Notes on the Geography of Western Afghanistan. 559

had clearly the same name. I am inclined to assume that Capis and

Kabul are intended to represent the same word.

Another of these four provinces is Arachosia, with a capital and

river of the same name; which last some considered to be the river

indicated by the term Cophen. The town was built by Semiramide.

The river Erymanthus flowed past Parabesten of the Arachotii.*

To the South of the Arachotii was the third Province of Gedrosia ;

probably round the modern Kedje. To the north was the fourth of

the Parapamisade. In this last district, there is mention made of

a city called Cartana, under the mount Caucasus ; afterwards called

Tetragonis. Also of Alexandria in Bactria, and of another city of

this name under Caucasus. Tribes are called Syndraci, Dangale,

Parapiani, Cantaces, Maci.

Cartana has a trace of reference to the Ghor of Ghorbund, and

Charikar may have relation to Tetragonis ; Parapiani has been consi-

dered to exhibit a vestige of Hupian, north of Estalif.

Ifthe Par, Por, Boor may be thus relinquished, I would propose

Bamean as a type of Pamisus or Bamis ; we might almost fancy the range

of Para Khoaltrus being but Kohulturusuh or Mount Taurus ! so Para

'Pamisus ; and assuredly in Arabic or Persian wlls and wli<b would

be hardly distinguishable.

Huree, dria; Keran, driana, are often confounded together ; in re-

gard of the former Pliny mentions ; cities Artacoana and Alexandria on

the Arius; the river being clearly the Huree rood, also Artacabane

restored by Antiochus.

A people are called Dorisci.

One river is named Pharnacotis, and a second Ophradus, probably

the Furah rood ; Prophthasia is given as acity of Zurung, hence of

Seestan. |

With respect to the ranges of mountains, Caucasus, Kou-Kosu

is used as a term for the whole; Paropanisus or Paropamisus, for those

towering above Kundahar and Guznee. The Emodus constitutes the

* This is clearly the modern Best, the prefix Para may be a misreading, or may

be but the word Poor or Boor, used for city, as the ‘‘town of Best.’’ It might be

well known that there was both a capital and a river in the district of Arachotia,

although their proper names were unrecorded. Arabian authors all attribute the

foundation of Kundahar to a queen of Arabia, perhaps Assyria, called Bulkees.

560 Notes on the Geography of Western Afghanistan. [June,

Northern, and Imaus the Eastern and Southern branch of the grand

Hemalayan cham. The whole of Pliny’s references to these parts bear

the appearance of an assemblage in a common-place book of all that

could be found relating to them in other works.

Mistaking places of the same or nearly the same name, but of

entirely different locality, has led to much confusion, of which the

followmg appears to me an instance. ‘On the borders of Bactria,

conterminous with India, is the district of Choarene, the nearest coun-

try to India occupied by the Parthians ; according to Strabo it is 1900

stadii from Ariana, and yet he says Craterus marched through it on

his way from India, to the country of the Arachoti, which would

bring it within the limits of Ariana itself. The statements are clearly

incompatible, and it is not easy to conjecture a situation for a province

of which no other notice occurs.” Such is an extract from Wilson’s

Ariana. But if we accept Bactria for Bakhtur, as considered by

Moslem authors ; including Gurmsail and the countries N. W. of the

Helmund, and read Kharan for Choarene, we have a province oe

shall fulfill all these required conditions.

The Nuzuhut-ol-Kuloob of Humdallah Kuzweenee, gives the following

routes and distances :—

Rue

Dure ameen,.. 6 The Wurameen of maps—once a large town of Rue.

The Dur may have reference to Pyle.

Khawtit...8 12

Ras-al-Kulb,.. 12

Semnan, .... 10

Damghan, .. 20 Supposed to be Hecatompylos.

Bostam, asiucvals

‘Jajurum, .... 23

Neshapore, .. 42

Boochegan, .. 38

Herat. 2) 30

Balen says Hecatomphilos takes its pane *¢ for that all the pas-

sages of the neighbouring countries join there ;”> now Humdallah makes

two roads from Khorasan unite near Damghan; but from Bostam he

earries off the grand northern road to Kharism, which is more in the

sense of Polybius. From Bostam to Herat is 133 Fursukhs x 4.25 ==

1849.| Notes on the Geography of Western Afghanistan. 561

566 Roman miles ; from Semnan to Bostam is 33 Fursukhs x 4.25 =

140 Roman miles,to meet Pliny’s 133.

To cover the distance of 199 Roman miles to Prophthasea, we have

the distance measured by the British Embassy from Herat to Sheheruk,

on the Furah rood, of 131 British miles, with 20 more to reach the old

city of Furah; and as this was the very shortest cut for a small party,

we may grant that the large Army of Alexander, marching with the

waters, would have covered 183 British miles, or 199 Roman miles to

near this spot,—I believe a numerous party would go round the range to

the south of the city of Herat.

The 515 Roman miles to Khundahar is not so easily established ;

but I believe Alexander, in taking the city or capital of the Zurungze of

Seestan, to have marched round the lake of Seestan and up the Hel-

mund to Best, and thence to Kundahar.

An intelligent sergeant of sappers fixed the Fort of Joween in Lat.

31° 31/ 56”. The Latitude given for Zurung by most Arabian and

Persian authors is 30° 30’.

The distances will then stand :—

Furah to Joween,............ ZN Sena auecetate aN

PALLETS Ne eo ea eo? “aller Rahn ares Ad

Direct over the desert to Ghereesh, 118 ;if by the

banks of the

Helmund 186

Bip NAAAR. ice. Cog sasouten GAO he ee male 7605)

Ot wie gy as 325

Hence there is a deficiency of 190 miles to make up the 515 of Pliny.

It is not impossible that this may be an error ; and it is strange that in

the last distances of his route, from the Hydaspes to the Hypasis, we

find an apparent omission of 150; the grand total being nearly cor-

rect.

In the Geography of Moses of Chorenene, written in the Armenian

language in the fifth century, and translated into Latin in 1736, we find

a list of the districts forming many countries of the East ; and from them

we might expect names obtaiming previous to the Moslem conquests ;

but alas! the nearest approach to most of them are not satisfactory ; but

562 Notes on the Geography of Western Afghanistan. |JuNe,

as it often happens that a second reader may hit on a word which has

escaped the search of a previous one, therefore I have copied the names,

although the authenticity of the work is doubtful.

Persia is called Chuste Neemroz, touching the eastern border of

Chuzastan, and the confines of Media; containing twenty Provinces.

Pers zdem. Pars.

Aspahan iam. Esfuhan.

Mesun iam. Mazunderan ¢

Hacar iam.

Panat zam.

Cerman iam. Kerman.

Curan iam. Kharan. '

Macuran zam. Makaran.

Send am. Scinde, lower.

Hend am. Hind ; round Ser-Hind.

Meran am. Mehran ; banks of the Indus, upper Scinde.

Petvastan iam. Punjabistan.

Segastan cam. Segestan.

Aplastan iam. Afghanistan ?

Deram. Delum, in the Persian Gulf.

Melam. Malia.

Mahic zam. Mahie, of Cambay.

Maun tam. Mandavie, a place of considerable trade.

Chozerhastan 2am. Khezeristan.

Palham.

Ebuham.

Rhesira Parhasania. Producing the best Pearls. Bahrien.

Aria, is called Chuste Chorasania ; lying between Media, Persia, the

Caspian and India.

Comis za. Comis.

Hyrcan 7a. _ Goorgan, Hoorkan.

Apersaria. Abewurd ?

Meru ma. Merve.

Arovastia. Arachotia? Hureeswatia? Kundahar ?

Rheucatesania.

Nestimanaca.

Beznia. Boozjan, near Jam ?

1849.] Notes on the Geography of Western Afghanistan. 563

Salcan ia. Talkan.

Docan 7a. Damghan ¢

Anaplia.

Heru ma. Huree ; Herat.

Zambyr us. Subzwar ?

Naxeria. Neeshapoor ?

Dezina. Zoozen.

Avazachia.

Varzania. Beerjun ?

Mansania. Muzeenan ?

Zaxtana. Kohestan ?

Bahlia que et Parthia. Balkh.

Domatia. Dumadutha; Dumadoot: or Deemut of

Dumawund.

Larimanacia.

Siria. Saree ?

Baricania.

Dobonia.

Scythia is called Apachtaria, Bactria, and Turchia, extending from

the Volga to the Himalaya, even unto Zenia, China ; itis inhabited by

many nations, among them the Sogii, Thocarii, and Hepthalii.

Moses Chorenensis is considered to have written his history and his

geography in the fifth century. It is clear, that he had consulted the

works of Ptolemy and other Grecian as well as Latin authors,—but

whether his Persian and Asian Geography is based on European or

Eastern authority, is a question of interest to be decided. Perhaps other

readers may hit on better identifications of the names than those I have

given, and may add to the list. The time has reference to the reign of

the great Buhram, of Persia, for whom Moslem authors claim extensive

conquests in India, embracing Scinde, the Punjab, and the N. W. pro-

vinees of India round Sirhind. This last always appears to me as the

districts indicated by the word Hind. If Aplastaniam is Afghanistan,

this date destroys all the fanciful etymology of the Persians for the

word, and certainly its position between Segistan and various ports on

the sea coast, warrants the assumption.

And if Maunia be Mandavee, the conquests of the Persian kings by

means of their ships were more extensive than is usually supposed.

4p 2

}

564 Notes on the Geography of Western Afghanistan. [JuNz,

From the intimate connection between Armenia and Persia we may

fairly grant a distinguished scholar of the former country might have

obtained a correct account of the names of the larger districts of the

latter country, but whether the words are attempts to write spoken

terms, or are transcripts in Armenian of originals in Zund Puhluvee, or

Duree, is a question to be determined by those who have the knowledge

and means. There runs an apparent analogy through the words, which

warrants something better than mere spoken corruptions.

The Armenians interchange D with T; B with V, and add an initial

The author would no doubt be in terms of friendly communication

with the various Nestorian Christians scattered through Persia; and

from them obtain information ; thus Domatia, Dumadutha is recorded

by the Nestorians as the seat of a bishop of their faith.

The next link in the geographical chain which is accessable to me,

lies in the Persian works on this subject, or English translations from

the Arabic ; for alas! the original works are not procurable.

In a country where the revenue is almost entirely obtained from a

tax on the various produces of the soil; where with few exceptions the

land and the water are considered as the property of the superior

power, to be by it distributed, under reservation of portions almost

rendered fixed and permanent by time and prescription, in such a coun-

try almost every fertile spot, every well-watered acre of land, is known

perfectly by the durbar of the local authorities, and generally, though

less minutely by the grand officers of the capital. Such lands are mark-

ed out as prizes to be obtained in jageers by the courtiers. A much

greater amount of such statistical knowledge did exist in the revenue

offices of the East, than it is usual to suppose. These offices could

tell to a fraction, the names, area and production, of a particular place,

although entirely ignorant of any data to position obtainable from

Longitude or Latitude—the situations as known to them being de-

termined by very general bearings from some capital, and the usual

marches for travellers—or for revenue collectors. Thus if we examine

any particular history of a place, Herat, for instance, we find record-

ed all the fertile spots, all the well filled canals, all the pretty villages ;

their extent and fruits; with the various places of pilgrimage, and

all the wonderful productions of nature in hot springs, caverns, or

1849.} Notes on the Geography of Western Afghanistan. 565

rocks, and last, but not least, the names of all learned or religious men

to which the spot has given birth. All such are fully recorded, and

had time spared sufficient particular histories, I believe a most com-

plete general map could be produced.

Moslem authors do not forge facts of science, though they often

misunderstand and misrepresent them ; and taking too much for granted,

do not sufficiently distinguish and examine ere using the statements of

others. More attention is paid to embellish a fact with words, tropes

and epithets, than to examine the correctness of the fact, or its bearing

to the subject under discussion.

I believe the names of places do not change to the extent supposed ;

and that more is traceable to the mistakes of copyists and of readers,

and to modern forcing of names, to suit particular theories.

We must also bear in mind, that the seat of the supreme authority

has been so often removed, that there is hardly a district in the capital

of which the dominant power over Southern and Western Asia has not

resided. From Mecca it has advanced to Kofa, Baghdad, Merve, Bo-

khara, Sumurkund, thence retraced its steps to Khewa, Guznee, Seestan,

Herat, Ardewan, Demascus, and Constantinople. Even Kara Korum,

in Chinese Tartary has been the residence of a mighty chief, whose

sway extended over the whole of Asia; while Abewurd, Balkh, and even

Kundahar, are not without their claims to be considered as royal

residences. Hence in the various histories of these places, now lost,

I have no doubt could be traced ample means to fill up all the blanks

in all our modern maps.

The professed works on Geography, in which recourse has been

taken to determine the positions of places by the means of latitude and

longitude, are many, and of two distinct classes ; the first class embraces

those of which the authors were both travellers and men of science,

who could determine their own position at any period by rules of

science, and reduce other neighbouring places to a fairly correct posi-

tion, such I have no doubt were Ebne Huokul and Aboo Rehan ; both

celebrated authorities on geography, whose original works would prove

treasures of great value ; Although their absolute longitudes and lati-

tudes are not very correct, when compared with the scientific calcula-

tions of modern days, still they were close approximations in the case of

the latitude, to the truth,—sufficiently near to answer all the required

566 Notes on the Geography of Western Afghanistan. [JUNE,

purpose. The longitudes are all far more remote from reality, and

when extended over a long space, are nearly valueless ; still when the

authors have been in person on the spots, the differences of both lati-

tude and of longitude will be found nearly correct enough to determine

the position of places at no great distance from each other. Thus

would I give much weight to differences of bearings of places from

Guznee, as a first meridian, when quoted from Aboo Rehan.

The second class, is that of historians and the framers of geogra-

phical dictionaries, who compile books from the labours of the first

class. These form systems of their own, under which they endea-

vour in their studies to reduce the discoveries of others.

Some form lists according to the letters of the alphabet ; others accord-

ing to the climates, and into these they insist on introducing all that

can be found written by those who have preceded. No discrimi-

nation is used to discover either the correct reading of the written

words, the proper position of the vowels and marks, the undoubt-

ed letters of the Abjud numeration giving the latitudes and longi-

tudes, or lastly, the credit due to the authority; and thus the more

modern the author, the greater chance he has of containing the accu-

mulation of all the errors on these pomts committed by his prede-

cessors. Of the errors of the kind of not correctly reading the words,

T can give an excellent example; and a proof of how little dependance

is to be placed on these written proper names.

Sir William Ouseley’s translation, of what he considers Ebne Huokul,

contains a list of the rivers of Herat, being in reality the various canals

branching from the Huree rood, and watering the cultivation as far as

certain villages on their banks of which the name of the most distant

or principal is given ; these canals are 3 to 4 feet wide, and deep accord-

ing to circumstances. Edresee contains a similar list; and though I

have no doubt in my own mind that the type of both is identical, yet

hardly two words are now the same, and hardly one correct; all this

results from constant re-copymg, and such is the worth of the labours

of some of our best orientalists, and probably occidentalists.

1849.] Notes on the Geography of Western Afghanistan. 567

Payee So 4-n | =. Bas a. 2

o FS eon o a ot —

Fs |eaee| 222 | 33 O.S6| 83

a) 5) on SB + °S wer osgS4| sas.

oo n ews Seiyrian tS Ge SES S| we ED

a Ss oD ee =) ° a ros} =) Son

Sr 2S oO 2 23 |o,55 ne

oS & an) Elie ml & no mite o| 2 Sad

an See os) a 2S =O ep ae eae

so Sous] & ws S aoc Se esr eH

Ses | ehod!] § Sh S Son) fans

— oO Zz Z Z Z

[ 9g 83/9 pd Siw lOdAw ESiwel die cs9> a) CS _y> 9

uSS.09

LS wll T LAs pave low ga wl='s)! Way!

tt wla9* wis Silas C) Ce OL Soc

reaies een stast | aestonl® class aut

wha, Le

BlyeS yl yo SF | by oy SF KAS KIS

haw eS dd Bm CP > Din AES on) hie

Jas’ wo td Just ® Edsa00 o> pee

A very slight knowledge of Persian will show how easily these

words may be corrupted in writing and copying. When the word nehr

is used for canal, the authority is Arabic; when the term Bulook is

used, the source will be Toorkee.

In matters of mistake, regarding the value of the Abjud numeration,

any common table of latitudes has only to be opened to prove that they

are endless.

For instance, in the tables of Abol Fedae, regarding Khorasan, No. 11,

is placed between Zoozun of Kohestan, and Khurjurd of Herat. (Khosh-

568 Notes on the Geography of Western Afghanistan. [Juns,

ruo jurd dy49_~%S,) a place called Khoost of Bulkh, said to be between

Indurab and Tokharestan ; and it is so placed because the Ve of the Long.

= to 90°, has been read_» = 80, and the ¢ of the Lat. = 8°, has been

read ¢ = 3°; thus it stands :—

Khoost, Long. 83—47 ; Lat. 33—20; but should be, I think,

93—47 ; — 38

Even with the correct description in the printed text the errors have not

been noticed.

The geographical work known by the name of Ebne Huokul, is said

to exist in the library of Leyden, in the original Arabic; Sir William

Ouseley has given to the world a translation from a Persian work on

geography, which he considers to have been made into this language

from the original Arabic of Ebne Huokul; and certainly, if not a

direct translation, the identity of the passages would warrant the Per-

sian work being considered as a compilation from the Arabic. No par-

ticulars of the author appear known ; but Sir William Ouseley considers

the work may bear date between A. D. 902 and 968. The notices of

Persia (Fars), are so much more complete in detail of districts, rivers,

capitals, tribes, families, and even proper names and characters of.

persons, as to sanction the idea of Ebne Huokul being a native of that

province, or perhaps of Arabian Eerak, therefore his accounts of these

portions of the east are more to be depended upon. He traces

Mavaolnuhr, as a visitor or traveller would do, while his remarks are

full, though not complete on the route of Kerman, Seestan and Merve,

lying between Fars and Bokhara. This last city he must have visited in

the days of Nooh bin Nusr, the 4th of the Samanian dynasty of Bo-

khara. Tables called Utwal and Urooz, bear the name of Ebne Hookul ;

but a work called Momalek and Musalek—the name of that translated by

Sir W. Ouseley—is by natives attributed to Uhmud bin Abu Yakoob

Ulkateb.

Aboo Rehan, a native of Beroon in Kharism, spent many years in

travel, and was ultimately employed by his king, Mamoon of Kharism,

as an agent at the court of Guznee, during the reigns of Muhmood

and Masood. He was one of the most subtile and clever men of his

age, and passed for a magician; his geographical work is called the

Kanoon ul Masoode, and with reference to the place in which it is written

should be good authority in matters connected with Afghanistan, at

the period from 1000 to 1050 of Christ.

1849.] Notes on the Geography of Western Afghanistan. 569

A writer on geography is also constantly quoted as Ebne Sueed, of

whom little appears known- D’Herbelot adds, that his name was

Othman, and that the title of his book was Ketab olmoccenna. ‘This

author is chiefly known as being an authority of Abool Feda.

The work of Edresee compiled in the year 1154, for Roger, king

of Naples, by Aboo Abdallah Mohummud, should be of authority

and weight in questions connected with the Mediterranian, Egypt,

the coast of Africa, and perhaps the interior of Asia Minor or

Syria.

Abool Fedae, Esmael bin Nusr, Prince of Hamah, in Syria, flourishes

as a royal author of a work on geography in the Arabic language. He

died in the year A. D. 1331 ; his work is entitled Tukweem ul Buladan,

and with reference to the country where written, it should have more

weight in questions connected with Asia Minor and Syria, than in rela-

tion to those at any great distance from his native place.

Itis a strange circumstance, and worthy of note, that Kundahar, as a

term for a capital, or even district, is not to be traced in the geographi-

cal works of common use as connected with the country, to which it is

now applied. This fact has created some astonishment ; so much so that

Professor Wilson is inclined to consider the name of modern origin.

Thus, if we consider the book translated by Sir Wm. Ouseley to be

the work of Ebne Huokul, we find not the word Kundahar where it

should be looked for, in the direct road from Best on the Helmund, to

Guznee ; but in the spot now occupied by Kundahar we find Shuhre

Rukhuj, being the capital of Arachotia. It may be questioned which

is the archtype on these two words, and which the corruption. But

we are to bear in mind that this work of Momalek and Mosalek, is not

proved to be the book of Ebne Huokul; that a work under this title is

attributed to another author, viz. Uhmud bin Abee Yakoob.

In the work of Edresee, in the same situation, between Best and

Guznee, we trace this identical route, with a few intermediate stations

added; giving Rukhuj and Punjwaee as occupying the position of

modern Kundahar, set forth in the 7th section of the third climate.

Hence, here we are disappointed in finding the name of the district,

although, as we shall show hereafter, names are given of places close to

the old city of Kundahar. This to a casual observer would be almost

conclusive, that the city, or its name was of date subsequent to the

570 Notes on the Geography of Western Afghanistan. ([Junz,

work of Edresee, But ona little closer examination what can be traced ?

Why, in the 87/ section of the second climate we find—

‘“‘Candahar est une ville considérable et trés peuplée; Les habitants

sont remarquables par la manicre dont ils laissent croétre leur barbe,

qui leur descend jusqu aux genoux; et qui est large et trés touffue, ce

quia donné lieu a une facon de parler proverbiale ; Leur figure est

ronde, il’s portent le costume turk Le pays product du ble, du riz,

diverses céréales, des moutons et des beeufs. Ils mangent les moutons

mort naturellement, mais jamais de bzeufs,, comme nous laoons dit

plus haut. De Candahar a Nahrawara on compte 5 journees en cha-

riot “Les peuples de Candahar sont souvent en guerre avec ceux de

Kaboul” laquelle est une ville indienne voisine du Tokharestan grand

et bien batie. Ses montagnes produisent du bois d’aloéus excellent, et

ses environs des noix de co-co et des myrobolans de l’espéce qui tire

son nom (Kabouli) de celui de cette ville, et qui croét dans les mon-

tagnes. ‘‘ Dans les liux bas, on séme des bulbes de safran en quantité,

et cette substance devient l’objet d'un commerce d’exportation consi-

dérable. C’est un objet d’un produit éventuel qui dépend de l’état de

Vatmosphere. La ville de Candahar est defendue par une citadelle

trés forte, située sur un rocher escarpé qui n’est accessible que par un

seul chemin elle est habitie par des Musulmans: il ya un quartier dont

la population est juive infidéle. Aucun roi ne peut preudre le titre de

chah, si ci n’est aprés avoir été inauguré 4 Kaboul. En vertu d’une an

cienne ‘loi, la prise de possession du pouvoir a lieu dans cette ville, ot

Yon accourt des pays ’etrangers de trés lom. Dans les terres fertiles

du pays de Kaboul on cultive beaucoup d’indigo de qualité supérieure

4 toute autre, et qui, par ce motif est trés renommeé et fait lobjet d’un

grand commerce. On y fabrique aussi quantité d’étoffes de coton qui

s’exportent en Chine, dans le Khorasan et dans le Sind.’ Il ya dans

les montagnes de Kaboul des mines de fer trés connues, le métal est

d’une couleur grise marbrée, devient trés-tranchaut, ———. This

we find dragged into a chapter, section and climate evidently confined

to Scinde and India.

Now the town here described was of India; the inhabitants were

not Torks, though wearing their dress,—the produce was rice, and the

people would not eat beef, and the distances were measured in journies

by carriages,—all circumstances of India ; yet the people were constantly

1849.} Notes on the Geography of Western Afghanistan. 571

at war with those of Kabul, a city of Tokharestan, and were at times

under the king of this Kabul. Hence these latter circumstances are

those of the present Kundahar of Afghanistan, of which at that period

the inhabitants were Torks, the produce hardly any rice, beef consumed,

while such a thing as a wheel carriage was never heard of in this moun-

tainous country. In fact, a wretched mixture has been made of two

descriptions obtained from other authors; one of Kundhar, a city of

Baroach, in Guzerat, of which country, the capital, Anhulpoor, was subse-

quently called Nehrwalah, according to the Ayeen Ukbaree and of which

as near the sea coast, the accounts must have been known to the Arabs,

and of the description of Kundahar near Kabul of Afghanistan. Thus

having disposed of both these places in the 8th section of the second

climate, Edresee finds himself at a loss when he reaches the correct posi-

tion of the second in the ¢hird climate, so blinks the question, and men-

tions a capital or a city of Arachotia; From Guznee he is forced by

propinguity to enter again upon the subject of Kabul, which is done in

a hesitating mode ; though the circumstances of the coronation again

mentioned, prove this town, now introduced in the 3rd, to be identical]

with that already mentioned in the 2nd climate. This is the great error

of all compilations not distinguishing between places under the same

name. It is also a very curious fact that in this quotation by Edresee we

find the inhabitants of Kabul are mentioned as Jews, and this too by an

Arabian author, who would be versed in the genealogies of his country.

If we proceed to Aboolfeda we trace the same error of compilation.

Rukhuj is given asa district of Segestan, of which a town was Punj-

waee, on the authority of Ebne Huokul ;—and on the authority of the

Kanoon, it is attributed to Lat. 32° 50’; Long. 93°, in the third

climate; while in the table of places in Hind, of which all the rest are

called of the latitudes of the twenties, and in the second climate, we

find a place designated Weehund, a town of Kundahar, with Lat. 33° ;

Long. 94° 50’, and the third climate, on the borders of the desert of

Scinde on the authority of Kanoon; almost identical with the above

fixings of Rukhuj by the same author. Ebne Saeed considered it one

of the seventeen Alexandrias built by the Macedonian conqueror ;

The error of Edresee in regard of Nuhrwaluh just mentioned, is

also brought forward. Ihave no doubt but that Weehund, o¢39 is a

clerical mistake for Punjwaee cs lyst, a town which now exists some 12

miles west of the old city of Kundahar.

4 Ez 2

572 Notes on the Geography of Western Afghanistan. [JuNE,

In the hope of arriving at some facts, in the matter of the recorded

latitudes and longitudes. I tabulated all I could collect of two such

celebrated places as Herat and Guznee. The Red book MSS. is so

carefully written by the hand of some man versed in the science of

figures, that I consider the readings to be correct, all the others being

from printed works are doubtful.

Herat. Latitude. | Longitude.

oO / i) /

Ayeen Akbaree, .. 34 30/94 + 20 \ 94° 95)

Sadek LEsfuhanee, 34 30 "94" "SO

Wirwalkeee oo So 0.) "65. 9"30

Ebne Sueed,...... 35 30 | 87 20 bag LF 7° 30°

Red book, a MS. 34 0) a Se a Ys

Major Sanders, .. 34 21/27 | 62 07

Kundahar.

Ayeen Akbaree, .. 33 0; 101 15) Tungee-], 01 02

Sadek Esfuhanee, 33 30 |. 100.4. .50 f, abad, =: =

Kanoots Way... coo 20 | 93 0 Rukhuj

Red book, .....’. 33 40.) 92*" 40 MEHR DP ERP kB

Major Anderson,.. 31 36/10 | 65 53

Guznee.

Ayeen Ukbaree, .. 33 26 |104 20

Sadek. elgs aso ede 50 Y 103 30

Utwal and Kanoon, 33 350 | 204

Red book, ...... 33 30 | 94

Engineers of the

army, 2.2... do oo of | 68) 15 - Wyld's Map:

ie 94 22 9° 13)

Kabul.

Ayeen Akbaree, .. 34 30 |104 £40

Stee 34. 30 | 104 og p 104 =

Wiwalee ai anes 34 30 | 94 40

Manson, souig. 261.38 hueso napa Re. cole alike vce

Engineers of ‘the

AEMNY, oe veers 5 04 OO 1S 0 69 0 Wyld’s Map.

The above table I believe to contain the quantities intended by the

respective authorities whence extracted. Now Herat and Guznee have

both been emporiums of science and astronomy and astrology,—the

former under Arab, Tork and Mogul dynasties,—the latter under the

Guzneevide race of Muhmood ; and at its capital must have been cal-

culated the Kanoon-e-Masoode of Aboo Rehan. Hence, as far as their

rules of science and art would carry, we may conclude the position of

these two places to be exactly fixed. The latitude of Herat differs

* Or, the capital of a chief of these parts, Teghe, who flourished in the days of

Subuktugeen.

1849.| Notes on the Geography of Western Afghanistan. 573

but a few miles from that established by Major Sanders ; while the lati-

tude of Guznee is identical with that ascertained by the Engineers of

the army of Kabul; proving that these Moslem geographers could fix

the latitude with precision. In the’ matter of the longitudes, we may

notice that those of the Ayeen and Sadek commence from a first Meri-

dian, distant 10° west of that used by the other authorities. Now the

difference of longitude between the Peak of Teneriffe, 16° 39/, and some

of the Capes onthe West Coast of Africa, say Cape Spartel, 5° 54’, is

about 10°. Again the differences of longitude stand thus between

Herat and Guznee :—

Long. Difference.

Herat Ayeen Tables, ...... 94° 20/

Guznee Ditto ditto,........ 104 40 10 20

Herat.Utwal ditto,........ Sp. a0 } ei Ws

Guznee Ditto ditto,........ 94 40 9 10

Herat English ditto, ...... 62 07

Guznee Ditto ditto,........ 68 15 6 08

And I believe the difference between 6° 8’ and 9° 45’ or one-third,

may be safely allowed as the error of equation to the equatorial mile

for distances estimated by marching or travelling, but also included in

it, the windings of roads, ups and downs of mountains, &c.

Kundahar is placed 2 degrees to the north of its correct position ;

whence I infer, it is fixed, not by actual observation, but by the esti-

mated bearings and distance of marching between Herat and Guznee.

Indeed the inhabitants of Kundahar appear always to have been con-

sidered a wild savage race, to be avoided. Until the days of Uhmud

Shah Dorranee it was never the capital of an empire. I conceive, if

the correct readings can be obtained, that with the equation above

noticed for longitude, differences of latitude and longitude, when not

large, may both be relied upon; but the greatest difficulty lies in the

obtaining the correct reading of the Abjud numeration.

The following memoral words contain these letters in succession of

their value in number, Abjud, Huowuz, Huttee Kulmun Suafuz Kur-

shut, Thukhuj Zuzhugh. Comparing this numerical scale with that

of the Greek or any other language, may point to a correspondence

between the written characters of the two nations. Both the epsilon

and the eta of the Greek correspond with the aspirate of the Persian.

574 Notes on the Geography of Western Afghanistan. [JuNzE,

Value. Persian alphabet.) Greek alphabet. | Hebrew alphabet.

] ! a N

F ~ B pe

: Y >

a é 5 7

5 8 € ra

6 3 5 )

7 3 ¢ t

8 zc n a

9 L 9 da)

] 0 cs t 7

20 iS Ik 2

30 J ; y)

40 ed & >

50 Ww v 3

60 Ses é D

70 c 0 y

80 re) pa 5

90 ce ey

100 & p ?

200 ») o i"

300 uP r w

400 w u

500 & &

600 c x

700 3 )

800 Use w

900 | £

1000 rd

These letters are thus combined :—

33=_)

‘a

38=¢!

1345—=Seme gTme

5010=,,2% «

135000=&/3 ane

In the Persian the highest number of each division comes first, and

the divisions in the same order. A mark below the letter in the Greek

indicates the division of thousands.

Now it is evident, that many of these letters are the same in form

and depend on their diacritical marks for their correct value. But, alas !

1849.] Notes on the Geography of Western Afghanistan. 575

in any but the most careful writing these marks are omitted, and much

confusion has resulted. In the common forms of hurried writing, the

mercy of the pots. Indeed, unless in a work copied by a scientific

arithmetician, it is first necessary to acertain the probable place of the

figure ere this numeration can be used with any chance of success.

Native authors give a few rules—for instance, to ¢ jeem for 3; the

tail is never drawn round, and it is thus written (7) to distinguish it

from ¢ hee, for 8; viz. 7, 3; ¢ 8,—but copiers never attend to this rule,

and in almost every printed table I have examined, I find three and

eight used at pleasure. Next it is ordered to distinguish w noon, for

50 ; from 5 zee, for 7,—that a twist in front be added to the former,

the rear, thus — 10. How little confidence is to be given to manu-

scripts copied for sale may thus be supposed.

The rule for determining the latitude is the same as that used by mo-

derns—the application of the declination to the zenith distance ; but

with no allowance for parallax or refraction. As regards the longitude

we are informed by the Ayeen Akbaree, that it may be settled by

watching the difference of local times, at which takes place some natural

phenomenon, as an eclipse of the sun or moon; but how the exact local

time of one place was to be transferred to another situation, is not given.

I fancy therefore, that this important calculation was rather determined

by estimated or even measured distances along high roads.

Mostem History or Heratr.—The first account of the early rise

of Herat runs thus,—‘‘ That when Tuhmoorus exalted himself as a

God before the people, and introduced into the world every species

of cruelty, some tribes of Kundahar wandered from Kabul to Ghoor

and settled at Oobah. The violation of a virgin led to a disagreement,

under which a portion migrated to Koowashan, on the present Malan

canal, where at length a lady, called Shumeeruh, of the race of Kue-

omuruth, became Queen, in the days of Heyatuluh domination over the

country. The fort built by her was much improved by a chief called

Khurnoosh, in the days of Moses, about 1830 years before the Hej-

ree, or some 1200 B. C. Again, in the days of Bahmun, a chief called

Urghanoosh, enlarged the city of Shumeeruh, and as the inhabitants

were now Christians, each bastion was surmounted with a cross!! this

576 Notes on the Geography of Western Afghanistan. [Junu,

event took place about 360 years before the Hejree, soon after the

departure of Christ from the earth. |

The second account makes Shumeran to be called after a daughter of

Bahmun, a king of Persia. Her name being also Homaee chehrazad ;

and that Dara bin Dara had commenced the works of Herat, which after

his death were completed by Alexander the Great ; but Eshk the Arsak

exerted himself to remove every mark of this conqueror, even to changing

the turns of the roads under the gates.

The third account gives the honor of the foundation of Herat to a

daughter of Zohak, at a period when a Prince called Jooghun, of the

race of Kue Kaoos, was settled in Badgheesh.

The fourth and most curious account is as follows :—

Alexander finding his country much distressed by the constant

inroads of the Torxs, obtained leave from his mother to proceed to

the frontier and build the city of Herat, on condition, that he did not

remain absent more than one year. During the progress of the work,

the people of Kohndez remonstrated against the building of so strong a

post. Alexander wrote for the advice of his mother; she ordered

her son to send up to the capital some of the soil from the foundation

of the new city, which she in secret placed under the carpet of her

council chamber.

Then she assembled her Roman councillors who all gave different

opinions,—she requested them to retire and to pause over their opinion

and to return next day,—durmg which she removed the earth of her

son’s new city, from under the carpets. On the following morning the

councillors all agreed that it was quite correct and advisable to build the

new city. The mother therefore wrote to her son to carry out his own

plans and intentions, as the qualities of the soil of Kohndez went to

prove its inhabitants were of vacillating disposition and not likely to

enforce their opinion, so Herat was built by Alexander.

The fifth account makes Alexander to find in a box an account of

the first building of Herat by Christians, according to the plan of which

he restored the city. The sixth account makes Herat to be founded

by Alexander Zowelkornuen mentioned in the Koran. The seventh

account is compounded of the former statements, that Seyawosh, Dara

and Alexander each built portions of the walls.

Many other versions are given: one Shaikh declaring that the pro-

1849.| Notes on the Geography of Western Afghanistan. 577

phet Khezer appeared and told him “the spot on which now stood

the bazars of Herat, where the good and bad were contending for the

things of this world, was once a sea, and that the fort was based on a

rock against which endless ships had been wrecked.”’

I have known learned men without number throw down this ac-

count as utter nonsense, from the apparent anachronisms contained in

it. The migration of the Kundahar tribes is recorded by Khondumeer

as taking place in the reign of Kobad, during the excesses of the Mani-

cheeun fanatics, about A. D. 490. But the appearance of the name

Kobad has given a reason for carrying back the account to the ancient

Kueanian king, who flourished in the mythological periods of Persian

history.

The most curious account is the fourth, and one which forms a basis

for most of the other statements, and is a key to much similar Persian

and Arabic history.

The fact is, this account is of a far different and very distant place,

viz. Heeruh, one of the seven cities of Urak, some two Fursukhs from

Koofuh. This I hit upon by finding the Kusre Khuwurnuk of

Heeruh of Urak, also located by some authors in Herat of Khorasan.

The work translated by Sir Wm. Ouseley contains the following :—

« Kadseyuh, Heeruh and Khuwurnuk are situated on the skirts of the

desert towards the west—the river Euphrates running by them on the

east * * * Heeruh is an ancient city and large, but when Cufa was

built Heeruh was drained of its inhabitants. Heeruh enjoys a pure air,

and is one farsang distant from Cufa.”’

Now we know that Alexander Severus was for some time employed on

this frontier against the Arsakian king, and subsequently against the

founder of the Sasanian dynasty—Ardashur. Hence near some older

fort or Kohundez, he may have built a new city called Heeruh, or re-em-

bellished an old one of this name. We have it recorded that he was

entirely under the authority of his mother Mammea, without consulting

whom he never undertook any enterprize of importance.

Herodian mentions the influence of the mother on the excellent dis-

position of the son; that he ruled the Roman world for thirteen years,

when the Persians crossed the Tigris and commenced to ravage Meso-

potamia. A large Roman army was destroyed from the non appearance

of the emperior with his division ; some attributed this to cowardice,

4 F

578 Notes on the Geography of Western Afghanstan. [JuNE,

and others to his being overruled in the affair by Mammzea. This in-

fluence of the mother was turned against the son by Maximine, his

murderer and successor, who urged on the soldiers “to abandon a

wretched woman and that easily dispirited boy who could truckle so

tamely to a mother’s tyranny.”

These coincidences of character will warrant the assumption, that

the Alexander mentioned is not the Macedonian conqueror, but the

Roman Alexander Severus, and the identifying of Heeruh of Erak

with Herat of Khorasan will cover the apparent anachronisms and false

statements of the cross on the walls in the days of Urghanoosh ; of the

inroads of the Torks or Partheans ; of the ancient and previous Chris-

tian inhabitants; and lastly, of Khojyuh Khezer’s assertion that the city

was on a rock of the waters; which might be the case previous to any

change in the course of the Euphrates. The first statement has I

suspect an eastern or Indian origin, having reference to a migration

westward of the Gundhara tribes of Buddhist Hindoos from the banks

of the Indus, and from them may the district of Arachotia have

assumed the name of Kundahar.

Perhaps some Latin author of the period may yet exist, whence the

Arabians may have translated their accounts of Heeruh, and thus have

furnished them to the Persian makers of histories; attention will I

suspect trace many similar mistakes, and alas! dishearten readers

from placing much faith in Persian or even Arabian histories of periods

earlier than the introduction of the creed of Mohummud.

The Nestorians make Herat to have been the seat of a Metropolitan

as early as A. D.411. That it was destroyed by Othman; at which

period there existed a celebrated fire temple called ‘“ Shurshuk.”’

The term Herat, in its largest extent, as the capital of any ruling

dynasty, may have been often so applied, as to include many distant

places, but in its proper restricted sense, it is a very small valley,

bounded by hills and intersected by a stream called the Huree rood;

the valley is about 80 miles im length, from Obuh to Ghorian and of

various breadth,—being about 20 miles in the longitude of the city.

This area constitutes Herat proper, but in the common acceptation of

the term, are also included many immediate dependencies bearing

distinct names. This area is well watered; on its northern side by

kareez, from the hills, and on its southern side by the canals taking

1849.| Notes on the Geography of Western Afghanistan. 579

off from the river, watering the cultivation and running to the principal

towns. The length of some of these canals proves the ancient wealth

of the district. The Malan canal, to the north of which is situated

the city, is said once to have been carried round the corner of the

southern range, and when in good repair, to have discharged its super-

fluous water into the Furuh rood. The main stream of the Huree

rood early in summer, when full by the melting of the snow, passes

beyond Ghorian, and always reaches a small village called Surrukhs,

east of Ghorian, and hence has arisen the idea that the waters of the

Herat river ran to the distant large districts of Surrukhs near Merve.

When Herat was the capital of Khorasan and residence of a powerful

prince, the whole of the above area was covered with most beautiful

gardens, orchards and farms surrounding the various forts of the differ-

ent chiefs and courtiers. Previous to the late frequent visits of the

armies of Persia and of Kabul, the spot is described in all its beauty

and fertility, by the most glowing terms of the writers, whether ofprose

or poetry. It truly deserved its title of the ‘garden of Khorasan.’?

The twelve canals passing by the various towns and villages have each a

name, as have also the many collections of houses here and there built on

the banks of the streams. In the early Arabian conquests, a collection

of such villages and hamlets obtained the name of the canal on which

situated, as the Rood Unjeel, but after the settlement of the Moguls,

the word Bolook—the Torkee term for a spring—was substituted, and

the same collection is now called the Bolooke Unjeel.

Until the days of the Temoorian prince Shah-rookh Mirza, Herat

was considered more in the light of a provincial town, than of a royal

residence,—it was not the chief capital of any Arsakian or Sasanian

king,—nor the residence of any of the Arabian Califs,—but considered

rather as a strong fortified frontier position; on the Mogul invasion it

rose to greater height; and under Shah Rookh the city reached its

present form, and perhaps its highest point of celebrity as to beauty

and embellishment, though not perhaps of extent. The walls then had

five gates,—the Urak, to the west ; the Khoosh to the east ; the Feeroo-

zabad to the south,—while to the north were two,—the Mulek and Ku-

tubchak ;—the foundation of the walls were considered 60 zurua broad ;

the walls themselves 30 zurua in height,—and each side 2000 zurua in

length ; while the external circuit was estimated at about one fursukh.

. 4¥r2

580 Notes on the Geography of Western Afghanistan. [JuNE,

The N. E. corner bastion was called Uleeusud,—the N. W. cor-

ner the Ful Khanah; the S. W. the Khakestur and the 8S. E. the

Khoojuh Abdal Misree. The separate citadel, originally built by

Mulek Fukhroldeen Kord in a temporary form, was reconstructed of

great strength and solidity by Shah rookh Mirza in 818 H.

In the Ebne Huokul, translated by Sir W. Ouseley, Herat, as the seat

of a governor from the Khalif of Bokhara, is not described as a place of

any very great beauty, fame or importance ; the only building mentioned

being a celebrated mosque ; as I have before proved, the canals then

bore nearly the identical names of the present day, and with a little

trouble I believe almost every proper name of that work could be

traced ina place of modern times. Edresee adds—‘“‘ that ere Herat

rose to its present importance, a town called Khorasanabad, 9 miles

west in the direction of Pooshung, was in greater estimation.”

Ebne Huokul mentions a mountain producing neither grass or wood,

or any thing but stones, which serve for mill stones. ‘‘ Here is a place

inhabited called Sekuh, with a temple or Church of Christians.’ This

is no doubt a portion of the mistaking of Herat for Heeruh, on the

Euphrates, where many hermits would have selected barren spots of

the sort described for their earthly place of mortifying the flesh.

The moment that the river fairly emerges from the mountains at

Oobuh, its waters are by dams forced into various canals, which running

parallel to the stream, by degrees diverge from it and irrigate the entire

valley, which thus. in times of prosperity form one extended mass of

gardens, vineyards, orchards and pleasure grounds.

Many of these delightful spots are by their fruit known and cele-

brated over all Persia. When Herat was the capital and emporium of

commerce, and had large funds to employ on agriculture, and ample

armies to defend its possessions, these gardens flourished ; but when

commerce failed by the introduction of new routes and sea voyages,

and the country was overrun by hostile armies, the water courses were

destroyed, the trees cut down for military purposes or fue!—and the

face of the valley reduced to its original feature of a stony upland.

Such destruction would be but the work of a season, but the re-

storation one of many years.

The various divisions with their canals are thus recorded :—

Guzaruh or Malan, to the South of the river and city ; Sultan

1849.| Notes on the Geography of Western Afghanistan. 581

Sunjer built a grand bridge over the Herat river, on the road to this

district, in the year H. 505. |

Unjeel. In which is included the-city of Herat.

Ulunjan. North of the river, but South of the city ; 5 fursukhs in

length from East to West.

Ghoorwan and Pastan. North of the river ; East of the city.

Tooran and Tooneyan. North of the river ; East of the city.

Kheyaban. North of river and city; near to the Unjeel district,

all the dead of the city lie buried in various portions of this division—

which is a large field of graves.

Subkur. North of river; East of city.

Purwanuh and Huwadushtuk. North of city. In it is situated the

hill Called Kazur Gah, celebrated for the tomb of Abdullah Ansaree,

and for the Tughoor Robat.

Kumburak. South of river.

Oodan and Teerzun. South of river.

Such are the immediate districts round the city whose taxes and grain

_ revenue are included in the collections of the city.

The more distant divisions are :—

Ist. The Heerat rood ; that is, the Herat river while confined into

a more narrow valley than after passing Oobuh ; the altitude and con-

sequently the cold and frost are much greater, hence we find fruits of

this kind of climate celebrated as walnuts, apples, almonds, &c. This

division also contains many minor districts, as Oobuh ; Kuwashan ;

Pooran ; Duk; Mulmuz; Feerooz-Koh, the ancient capital of the

Princes of Ghoor ; Cheshtee, the burial ground of the celebrated Saint

Kuajuh Moodood Cheshtee. A hot spring of some celebrity also flows

from one of its hills; these also contain quarries of white marble,

while Shafolan is celebrated for its mines of iron and lead, and a hot

spring, which cures many diseases and is in consequence much resorted

to by the sick and infirm ; this district of Herat rood lies between Herat

-and Ghoor. The river of Herat rises, according to Arthur Conolly

about 10 miles West of Yukaulung, at an elevation of 9,500 feet, pass-

ing Deh Zungee, Duolutyar, Badgah of Chukcheran the fort of a lead-

ing chief of the Feeroozkohees. After some miles more through this

almost independant EKmak, the river and its boundary lands constitutes

the district of Herat, called Herat rood. The country North of this

582 Notes on the Geography of Western Afghanistan. [JUNE,

line, circling by Muemonah towards the country of Balkh, is known as

Ghorjestan.

The division to the North-East of Herat is Khorukh, once a most

fertile and populous spot; it lies some 50 or 60 miles to the east of the

still more celebrated canton of Badgheesh.

This district is about 160 miles long by 120 broad, situated to the

North of Herat, being composed of both high mountains and corre

spondingly low vallies ; it enjoys a great diversity of climate, producing

both cattle, corn, fruit and timber; in particular a tree called Uroos,

which is seldom destroyed by rot or insects ; 70,000 Khurwars of grain

were with no difficulty collected from this division in the days of Sultan

Husuen Bahadoor Khan, as the grain revenue. Robate Khoosh is con-

sidered on the boundary between Herat and Badgheesh. A river of

some size, called the Purkhud, is mentioned in Badgheesh.

Three circars did compose this district—Lungur Umeer Gheeyas,

Chuhel Dokhteran and Jurlan.

The first owes its name toa holy Seyud of the days of Timoor ;

the second is watered by a rapid stream, and the third contains the

wonderful fort of Nurutoo, situated on the summit of a bare rock, with

only one narrow winding road to the gate ; than it is no stronger fort

in Khorasan. The climate is so cold that flowers appear here only in

the autumn of the lower altitudes. Tukhte Mulek is a small district

surrounded with mountains, which during even summer are capped with

snow.

Direct west of Herat, between it and Ghorian, lies Pooshung, with

its robat and musjed, the former being one of bad omen. Near the

hills round this robat are marks of feet imprinted on the stones, said

to be those of the prophet Abraham ; while all the stones are in the

form of birds and animals, being petrifactions ; there is also, a spring of

aperient water much visited by the infirm. Koosooyah is of this district,

celebrated for a defeat given to the Moghuls in the year H. 695.

Koosooyuh is the Kousert of Kdresee and Sir Wm. Ouseley’s work.

Felbundan is a large plain entirely devoted to the cultivation of

melons of the largest size ; to the eye of the stranger these white, round

immense melons scattered over the plains appear like sheep lymg down

to repose.

South of Herat rood, Kast and North of Furah, reaching to and at

1849.| Notes on the Geography of Western Afghanistan. 583

times including Zumeen deewar, lies an unexplored but often mentioned

country, Ghoor—described as a series of strong hills and narrow vallies,

giving rise to the several rivers running into the lake of Seestan ; it was

once the stronghold of a warlike nation, which conquering eastward

became celebrated as rulers of Guznee. The chiefs claim descent

rom Zoohak, others again contend they are descended from the lost

tribes of Israel, but allow that they embraced Eslamism at a very early

date in the days of Ulee ; whose firman they possessed till the days of

Buhram Shah, son of Sultan Musood.

The fort of Kheesar is celebrated for its strength, and for its resist-

ance to the armies of Chungeez Khan ; this king granted the district

to the chief in possession, Roknoldeen, who thus became the founder of

the Kord dynasty in Herat ; and a firm ally of the Moghuls.

The following streams flow South from Ghoor: The Moosa Kula

Khashnahr, Furah and Guz, besides many famous canals, as the

Ebraheemjoee.

Ahunguran, Khurshut, and Urmaj are mentioned as forts of this

country.

Below the range of hills bounding the valley of Herat to the

South, lies a large district usually considered a dependency of the city ;

it is called Esfezar, and is watered by a river of the same name. On the

banks of the stream are the ruins of what was once a fort of the greatest

strength of position and art, called Mozuffer Koh, and built by Ulup-

tugeen.

The fort was situated on the very top of a rock, the sides impervious

to horsemen, infantry, or almost even birds; there was one winding

entrance towards the river, the walls were nearly 30 feet broad ; so that

eight horsemen could ride abreast ; a stream of water also flowed from

the top of the rock. Another strong fort was Sharestan, on the other

side of the river, also celebrated for its strength, and said to have been

built by Balkuees.

Budrabad and Furumgan were also strong castles, now in ruins.

The two rivers of Udruskeen and Guz unite in this district, near

the town of Subzwar. This word Esfezar is considered a play on the

term Sepurzur ; and may be the position of the country to which one

of the silver shielded Regiments of Alexander was banished by his suc-

cessor for mutinous conduct. Declining southward in altitude, this

584 Notes on the Geography of Western Afghanistan. [JUN®,

district is extremely fruitful, its pears are celebrated, as also the small

unab, which are as delicate as grapes. The fort was once of great

strength. One district, Zawul, was celebrated for its kareez, the waters .

of some being so strong and ample as to turn mills.

Ubkal or Ookul to the South, and Junburan to the East, are districts ;

from the latter the road leads to Duolutabad.

Furumgan is mentioned as containing the beautiful carved. pulpit of

some early saint, which was destroyed by the barbarous Beloochees.

This place had the reputation of being older than even Herat.

To the South, on the Udruskun, were two small forts opposite each

other, called Dokhtur and Pesur.

The modern town of Subzwar is a mean place, consisting of a collec-

tion of mud huts.

Amply watered by the several streams issuing from the mountains,

this district was once considered the granary of Herat, but the absence

of security and good government has almost destroyed its prospects

and reduced it, with all the surrounding country, to a very barren, ill-

cultivated, inhospitable tract. The present population is Tajeek and

Persian—the dominant tribe Afghans, under a Sirdar from Herat.

South of Subzwar lies the country called Furah, sometimes consider-

ed independent,—indeed once said to have been the capital of a mighty

kingdom and the residence of the Persian hero Rostum. It was subse-

quently a district of Seestan, but is now claimed as an outwork of

Herat.

The chiefs of Furah have always asserted for themselves a very

illustrious descent, and have often struggled to obtain their hereditary

freedom ; opposing a foreign yoke. One Governor from Herat is men-

tioned as finding them so troublesome that he invited eighteen chiefs

to a feast, and murdered the whole ; only one escaping.

Near the town is a hill called Burunduk or Beechuk ; this contains

a natural arch and cavity, from which water constantly drops. This

phenomenon is by the vulgar connected with the divine author of all

things, and considered a mysterious proof of his hidden power, hence

it has become a place of pilgrimage and of votive offerings ; if the water *

increases in its droppings on the head of the devotee it is a sign of

success to his prayer. The place is called Take-sungee and Koh-hejur-

baran.

1849.| Notes on the Geography of Western Afghanstan. 085

Anar-duruh is a large district of this country, celebrated for its pome-

granates. The forts of Kah and Ook lie south of Furah. The

former west of the river ; Ook is the name of a sub-division lying be-

tween Furah and Seestan; a range of hills in it contains one of those

singular slopes of sand called Reg-ruwan, to roll down which is con-

sidered a very meritorious action. On this range is said to exist the

ruins of Tukhte Rostum, a stronghold of this warrior. Modern Furah

is a place of no strength and nearly deserted.

The river of Furah is a large stream, abut 30 miles above the city, in

July it was 35 yards broad, 24 feet deep, running 14 miles in the hour,

and just fordable, but during torrents often detained caravans.

Furah extends East to the river of Khash, South to Joeen, and North

to Aseyabad. Except on the banks of the rivers the face of the coun-

try is composed of large flat hard dushts separated by bleak ranges of

hills.

The aborigines are Tajeeks and Persians; the dominant tribe Af-

ghans, under a prince or chief from Herat.

To the South of Furah lies Seestan or Seegestan, sometimes called

Nemrooz. ‘The earlier inhabitants were called Sukan and Sukzee ;

which last some consider to have be arabized into Sug or Suj, and hence

Seejeestan. A tribe was also known as Sunjuree.

Lash and Joween are two strong forts on the frontier; between them

flows the river of Furah. We trace Joween in the work of Sir Wm.

Ouseley, and in Edresee, and from it have a distinct distance to Zurung,

the ancient capital; viz. to Peer or Dostar, one march ; to Gurgoonah,

(12 Arabian miles,) and to the capital 9 miles, more ; say a distance of

44 English miles. Ebne Sueed has recorded Zurung as 20 miles to

the north of the Helmund ; These forts are constantly in the mouths

of moderns as places of great strength ; Captain E. Conolly found the

former a mere castle on a cliff, but the latter a place of more strength,

and capable of resisting any eastern armies ; as it had often done those

of Herat.

The Furah river flows into the lake or Zuruh of Seestan, an expanse

of low marshy land intersected by bodies of water of various depth.

The lake is in books represented as nearly 100 miles in length by the

same in breadth; the exposed lands are culturable, the water swarms

with fish, and the reeds and jungle afford cover to endless hogs and

wild fowl. The down and feathers of the birds forms a large article of

586 Notes on the Geography of Western Afghanistan. [JuNE,

export. From the number of canals the land was formerly fruitful and

valuable; one author says, a kulbuh would in his day sell for 1000

Kubkee denars. By the account of natives of the present day the lake

is not above 30 miles in circuit.

We have no very good accounts of the country ; Captain Christie

passed through it in 1810, Captain E. Conolly made a rough survey of

the road, while a gentleman of the name of Forbes was murdered in

the attempt to reach Kundahar from Persia by the Seestan route.

According to histories the ancient capital was called Zurunj, situated in

Lat. 30° 30’, and distant 90 Arabian, or 118 English miles from Ghe-

reesh, the ferry on the Helmund. I think its position may be fixed with

some precision on these data, and will be found to correspond with the

ruins of Zero, No. 40 of Captain EK. Conolly’s map.

A fort called Rostum was situated near the lake; while a strong-

hold named Husne Tak, is mentioned having three separate cireum-

volutions of walls; between the Ist and 2nd were the fields and cul-

tivation, between the 2nd and 3rd were the houses of the people, and

within the third was supposed to be the prison, where criminals were

starved ; one author states he had seen a house containing 4000 skulls

of human beings.

Zurunj certainly existed during the Alexandrian expedition towards

India, and is mentioned in the early histories of Moslem conquests ; it

was also the capital during the supremacy of the Safar dynasty of

Seestan, and must have enjoyed great wealth and prosperity, as the centre

of the large dominion which included Fars, Kirman and Kho- rasan.

Tak was destroyed by Muhmood of Guzuee, who then took the name

of Soltan: and this capture might account for the abovementioned

heads in the inner fort. But there exist several places of this name.

Without minute inspection it is most difficult to settle such locations.

Sukwuh was mentioned to me as the capital, and I suspect occupies a

position south of the ancient Zurunj, being, I conclude, the city near

Koh-e-Khuajah, and identicai with Tak. It isthe residence of Muham-

mad Reza Khan Seestanee, who considers himself descended from the

ancient Keeanian kings ; the city is said to be half as large as Kundahar,

and to be 10 miles from the river Helmund. A place called Rukhuj

was mentioned as a very ancient ruin where are yet dug up old coins.

Zal is the position ofan old fort on the river : Zuenoon, or Juenoon ; near

the modern fort of Alum Khan is the poimt where the Khash river

1849.] Notes on the Geography of Western Afghanistan. 087

joins the Helmund, while Mean-rodee or Roodbar is the strip between

these two rivers constituting the base of the district of Gurmsael. Jula-

labad is a collection of hamlets, the property of Reza Khan. Shuhruk is

called the town of Mehdee Khan Sustanee.

I have no doubt, that in former times when the whole of this coun-

try in its largest extent, of the space between Kundahar, Kirman and

Herat, was subjected to avery powerful dynasty; life and property

safe; and the reward of labour secure; that the whole face of the

country was irrigated by canals taking off from all the rivers; but since

these have been destroyed, the body of water reaching the lake is much

augmented and hence its limits so extended as to have altered entirely

the face of the country.

The country contains many natural curiosities, as burning hills, pits

of sal-ammoniac, veins of sulphur, and beds of saltpetre ; the production

of this last mineral made the country valuable. Nader Shah made the

possession of it a subject of boast to the Porte, on this account. Peer

Kisree is celebrated for its salt and asafcetida. The following is an

attempt to reconcile several published routes.

Sir Wm. Ouse- ;

Edresee. ley’s trans- Capt. Conolly’s aoamon report. Capt. Conolly’s

lation. pes! be map.

eae SD |

Joween,....1)j. ee AS Joween, ...e.- *.

Dostar, ..12m.|Peer, ....1]. oe Shaitanuk,and f |Bunjar, ....41.,

Bunjar, .. | |Shyban, ....42,

Kurkooyuh,.. ..|Kerkoonuh4f.|Goorgooree, No.|Dushtuk,......|A town of Sha-

48. korhis.

Zurunj, ....-./Zurung,..3 f. uae gt Zero,|Sukwah, ... ...|Sekoha, .... 29.

o. 40.

Sharuk is the district marked Shakorhis by Captain Conolly.

The ancient road to India is thus given :—

° Y ? e

Sir Wm. Ouse-| Fareses, |C@Pt Conolly’siq, amon report. | 2

ley. map. =

Zurunj, ......|Zurunj, .... de Sukwah, .;....

Rusook, ......{Zuenoon, 1] j. se Bor} Ulum

HHA, cuss ae 1A

Ebraheem Bu-

looch.

Shuroor, ..1 j.|Surooroon, 1 j.|Chuknasoor.... |Chugnasoor,

Kuda, i ou(e tei 994

Hurooree,*.. 1 j. Hurooree, 1 j.|Hurreeree, ....

Dehuk, ....1j.

Abshoor, .. ke Dehuk, ..1j. rs Dehuk, ...... {12 /Of Khash ?

95 1j.jAbshoor, ..1. “J Abeshoor, .... }12|Tulkhab ?

Hustan, ....1j.|Kurooreen, 1. mw. a

Abdallah, ..1 j.|Huftchean, 1j. bee Huft chah, .... {24

Best, ......1 j.jAbdallah, I j. 4A Ry

Best, csi. ss oe i Best, secu ets (12

* Crossing the Khash rood.

588 Notes on the Geography of Western Afghanistan. [JUNE,

APPENDIX.

Notes by Mr. Jouannes AvDALL, on the extracts proposed from the

work of Moses Khorenensis..

Moses Khorenensis ((Podese Juep&tugh) an Armenian historian, rheto-

dician and bibliographer of great repute, flourished in Armenia in the

middle of the fifth century. He was well versed in Syrian and Persian

languages. He went to Athens and zealously applied himself to the

study of the works of Grecian writers and philosophers. His name is

well known to the philologers and antiquarians of Europe, by the publi-

cation of the text and a Latin translation of his history and geography,

by the two brothers, William and George Whiston in 1736. The

learned linquist and orientalist, P. E. Le Vaillant De Florival, professor

of the Armenian language at the Royal Academy of Paris, has lately

presented the literary world with a French translation of the history of

Moses of Khorene, which was published at Venice in 1841, together

with the text. Although the geography appended to, and published

with the history of Moses Khorenensis by the two Whistons is attri-

buted by some writers to another author, yet the genuiueness of its anti-

quity cannot in my opinion be at all questioned.

I have added the original Armenian to Major Anderson’s list. As

much of his attempts go to prove the great confusion arising from

the mistakes of proper names, I also subjoin the same list from a very

correct edition of Moses Khorenensis, as printed at Venice in 1843.

Many of the names are different, and several places omitted.

From the preface to this recent edition it appears that the veteran

Mechitharistic Society of Venice have experienced no small difficulty in

procuring correct manuscript copies of the geography of this ancient

Armenian author. Of this they possessed only five in their extensive

library. All of them were, however, without the least mention of the

dates and places in which they were respectively transcribed, and four

were altogether incomplete. After incessant inquiries they at last suc-

ceeded in obtaining a beautifully written and most correct and complete

manuscript copy of the work from the library of the convent of Ktch-

miatchin'in Armenia, (Q.pwmet [peo bSdpudtp) and thus they were en-

abled to publish in 1843 a revised and improved edition of the complete

works of Moses Khorenensis. A full Catalogue of this library, of

1849.| Notes on the Geography of Western Afghanistan. 589

venerable antiquity, comprising 121 pages, was published at St.

Petersburgh in 1840, by that distinguished and elegant orientalist and

Armenian scholar, M. Brosset, who undertook and completed the work

under the auspices of his Imperial Majesty the Emperor of Russia.

(Vide Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, No. CXXV., old series,

page 415—16.)

Fursukh is also an Armenian word, @upuafu, OF hupuwhe, OF Jypwuwfu

(Pharasanga, Latin) ; (papacdyyns, Greek) signifies a distance of three

miles or a league.

Major Anderson has certainly taken a great deal of pains in consult-

ing several Arabic writers. It would undoubtedly be very desirable to

give the dates in which these writers did respectively flourish. There

is no knowing, for instance, in what year Hamdallah Kuznevee wrote

his book, or in what century did he flourish.

A somewhat similar story of the fabulous qualities of the soil of the

country is mentioned in the history of Armenia, in connection with the

circumstances of the imprisonment of the Armenian king Arsaces by

the Persian king Sapor. (See Avdall’s paper, Journal Asiatic Society,

Vol. VI. page 81.)

It is not only customary, but a very common practice with the Ar-

menian nation to indicate the respective value of numbers by a

numerical scale of the alphabet of their language ; ‘i, for instance is

1, B> 2, rs) 3, 3) A, E Ds QD 6, Es 1) > 8, lt, 9, d, 10,

and so on. The numerical scale of Major Anderson’s valuable paper

will, perhaps, be deemed more interesting by the addition of another

column, exhibiting the characters of the Armenian alphabet, corres-

pondent in their numerical value with those of the other three lan-

guages alluded to in the paper. The following is a hurried specimen :—

590 Notes on the Geography of Western Afghanistan. [JUNE,

Value. Armenian Alphabet. Value. Armenian Alphabet.

1 w 100 2s

2 BE 200 J

3 ¢ 300 J

4 LE 400 b

5 E 500 2

6 1. 600 0

‘i E 700 £

8 ra 800 xy

9 [3 900 2

10 d- 1000 n.

20 b 2000 u

30 L 3000 df

40 fu 4000 wn

5U & 5000 e

60 4 6000 g

70 4 7000 L

80 a 8000 tf

90 L 9000 iP

From the edition of the two Whistons, printed in London in 1736.

Persia is called by Moses Khorenensis ‘‘ Chusti-Nemrozia,” touching

the eastern border of Khuzastan, and the confines of Media, containing

twenty provinces.

Armenian. Whiston’s reading. Identifications or approwt-

mations.

TNupop, Persia. Persia.

Ueyw4ub, Aspahana. Ispahan.

Pent Mesuna. Mazunderan.

Ewhwp, Hacara. ji

Duthuyfun, Panaetia.

yrtutr, Cermana. Kerman.

Yruputs Curana. Kharan.

Pukapw, Macurana. Makaran.

er, Senda. Scinde, lower.

1849.| Notes an the Geography of Western Afghanistan. 591

Armenian. Whiston’s reading. Identifications or approxi-

mations.

Ein, Henda. Hind ; round Sir-Hind.

pws, Merana. Mehran ; banks of the In-

dus, upper Scinde.

Nb indwyn, Petvastania. Punjabistan, the Punjab.

Juqwunut, Segastania. Sejestan.

Uuounnis Aplastania. Afghanistan.

bp, Dera. Delum, in the Persian al-

phabet.

urea Mela. Malia.

rush, Mahica. Mahie, Cambay.

Punt, Mauna. Mandavie, a place of con-

siderable trade.

JurtbSpuumut, Chozerhastania. Khazeristan.

N45, Palha. Bulharee, country of the

ben Suy, Ebuha.

feet yeupSuwir, Rhesira Parhasa- Producing the best pearls,

nia. Bahrien,

Aria is called by the above writer, Chusti-Chorasania, lying between

Media, Persia, the Caspian and India.

yr? Comsia. Comis.

CL phad, Hyrcania. Goorgan, Hoorkan.

Ware‘p, Apersaria. Abewurd ? |

reed; Meruma. Merve.

Upacumn, Arovastia. Arachotia? Hureeswatia ?

| Kandahar ?

& pl hunk uit, Rheucatesania. Kho Kakusus, Kabul ?

qyinbtatiwh, Nestimanaca.

Pipe, Beznya. Boozjan, near Jam ¢

Yoru, Salcania. Talkan.

Opn hut, Docania. Damghan ?

[Liew 5, Anapalia.

Epa’, Heruma. Huree ; Herat.

Q.wd phe pou, Zambyrus. Subzwar ?

yubstp, Naxeria. Neeshapoor.

592 Notes on the Geography of Western Afghanistan. [JunE,

Armenian. Whiston’s reading. Identifications or approai-

mations.

(py ht, Dezina. Zoozen.

(Leequd, Avazacia.

U wp Sut, Varzania. Beerjun ?

Petuwt, Mansania. Muzeenan ?

Dwhanuts, Zaxtana. Kohestan.

Sz app Bahlia, quae et Par- Balkh.

bt QuplF4 p, thia.

Opn Sun, Domatia. Dumadutha ; Dumadoot ;

or Deemut of Dumawund.

Lupino, Larimanacia.

Chel, Siria. Saree ?

Pw phhwt, Baricania.

Opoent, Dobonia.

Scythia ({j4/-/4huin Armenian) is called Apachtaria ((Lywfuuwpp)

Bactria or Thurchia, extending from the river Ethil (Volga) to the

Emavon ({;40h) or Hemalaya mountains (wizp d¢f upish 926biu:) even

unto Zenia (China.) Emavon (4c) is the loftiest and longest of all

mountains. Scythia is inhabited by forty-four nations, among them

the Sogii (Ue¢he) Thookharii (0 /wp}p) Hepthalii (€&A(¢wzp) and

several other barbarous races and tribes. The Sogii are famous for

their wealth and. love of commerce, and inhabit the country lying be-

tween Thurcastania ((@ppeumer) and Aria (wpbag w2fuwpSfi:) The

Sogii are perhaps the Sake.

From the Venice edition of 1843.

Persia is called by Moses Khorenensis, Chusti-Nemrozia, touching

the eastern border of Khuzastan and the confines of Media, containing

twenty provinces.

Armenian. Avdall s reading. Identifications or approxi-

mations.

Nwpup, Persia.

(Leyw Sut, Ispahan.

(Pe ond, Meshun.

Suhup, Hakar.

[Ltayfq, Anayid,

1849.] Notes on the Geography of Western Afghanistan. 593

Armenian.

yetan,

Quepu,

Yrwhon put,

U+4,

owt,

NF enfengin,

Yoquvnit

et,

dG 9

Ua,

yrs hh 5)

Purr,

Jur®ESpuumait,

Nord,

P-S2hp 7b QeSpouis

perp

Avdalls Reading.

Kerman.

Kuran.

Makuran.

Send.

Méran.

Petwasht.

Sagastan.

Aplastan.

Gher.

Mégh.

Mahik.

Mawin.

Kocheristan.

Palh.

Reshir, in the city

of Pahrsan.

Identifications or approxi-

mations.

Hend, omitted.

Ghor.

Cutch or Kedge.

Ebuha omitted.

Aria is called by the above writer Chusti-Chorasania, lying between

Media, Persia, the Caspian and India,

qe;

Wpyut,

Ware25e5

Urr’,

ULpocaunSpee ,

Quunk quit,

Ylonplul,

Pad fi,

Uru,

Grea,

[Lite 5,

Spat 5)

Ql 5

NEpnq,

“yu bea Ep,

Pftowywh,

Kéoéshm.

Virkan.

Aprshahr.

Mertm.

Arwasthréw.

Katéshan.

Nemanimak.

Bijin.

Saghkan.

Gozkan.

Anaplah,

Hirim.

Zam.

Perdz.

Nakhcher.

Dezinwazak.

Workan, Hoorkan, Goorgan.

594 Note on the transport of coal from the [| JUNE,

Armenian. Avdall’s Reading. Identifications or approxi-

mations.

Uap fur, Varjan.

[Pf whut, Manshan.

P whunuits, Jakestan.

Pus), op bb Mwp- Bahl, i. e. Parthia.

[dh.p,.

QanifLiuen, Gévmit.

D1 oppluirwh, Varimanak.

Chet, Shiri.

Pephhut, Barikan.

pofeod. Dovbon.

Note on the transport of coal from the pits at Sonadeh to Bombay, by

the Nerbudda.—By R. N. C. Hamitton, Esq. Resident at Indore.

No. 494 of 1849,

From R. Tuornton, Esq., to the Secretary Asiatic Society, Caleutta.

Dated Agra, the \st May, 1849.

General Department, N. W. P.

Sir,—In continuation of the letter addressed to you from this

Department under date the Ist February last, I am directed to forward,

for submission to the Asiatic Society, a copy of a note by Mr. R. N. C.

Hamilton, Resident at Indore, on the transport of coal from the Pits

at Sonadeh to Bombay, by the Nerbudda.

Qnd. The Lieutenant-Governor observes that the above note is by

far the best and most useful narrative of the experimental journies,

which has been compiled. The Society will, of course, decide whether

it is worth their while to publish more on the subject.

I have the honor to be, Sir,

Your most obedient servant,

R. THornton,

Assistant Secretary to the Government N. W. P.

Agra, the \st May, 1849.

1849.] puts at Sonadeh to Bombay. 595

Government having determined that the coal fields in the valley of

the Nerbudda should be examined and an attempt made to convey the

coal from the pits by the Nerbudda to Bombay, at the suggestion of Mr.

R. N. C. Hamilton, the Resident at Indore, Mr. A. Johnstone, of the

Steam Factory Establishment, was deputed from Bombay, to join Mr.

Hamilton at Sindwah Ghat, on the 15th of January 1848.

Having reached the coal fields at Sonadeh, between Hossingabad

and Baitool, the bed of the Bora-nuddee was carefully examined ; coal

was to be seen in both banks, but especially in the left, in which a

place having been selected, the sand being cleared, the coal seam was

exposed, situate in sandstone between two layers of shale.

The upper sandstone was 30 feet thick to the level of the surface of

the country, coarse-grained and soft ; next four inches of shale, then the

coal seam 19 inches, and again shale 4 inches, hard and firm; then

sandstone close.grained and difficult. The angle of the seam was 73 N.

by E., and from the appearance of the country, which formed a basin

surrounded by hills, there is every probability that the bed was as ex-

tensive, and would prove plentiful.

Excavation from the bank was immediately commenced, and about

500 maunds having been raised, arrangements were made to send it to

the Nerbudda.

Sonadeh to Hossingabad is about 40 miles on the road to Baitool,

but the Nerbudda between Hossingabad and the Dharee falls was found

by Lieut. Keatinge to be quite impracticable for laden boats.

Captain Fenwick left the Sonadeh pits on the 9th March with the

coal laden on Bunjarah bullocks, and arrived at the Dharee falls of the

Nerbudda on the 25th—the distance being about 100 miles.

Each bullock carried about 1} maund, or 1 ewt.; they however, re-

quiring to be daily laden and unladen, are not suitable for the transport

of coal, which is much broken and injured by the manner in which the

bags are turned over and let fall, when unladen ; carts can travel by the

route, and would take from seven to eight days to reach Dharee.

The cost of bullock carriage for grain is 5 Nagpore rupees per 100

maunds, for 100 miles.

To Dharee may be considered the first division of the trip, and here

should be a main depot, in which coal may be stored during the dry

season. |

4H 2

596 Note on the transport of coal from the [June,

At Dharee the coal was shipped, Captain Fenwick started on the 5th

of ,April in a small boat with three men and reached Mundlaisir on the

9th ; the coal came down in separate batches on boats of various sizes,

the largest carrying 23 manees, equal to 30 Bengal maunds. The

whole of the coal, about 400 maunds, reached the Sahesurdarrah barrier

and falls, below Mundlaisir, the first serious obstacle, on the 14th,

having been 8 whole hours in transit.

The following remarks explain the nature of the navigation. After

leaving Dharee the stream for a mile is narrow and confined between

high perpendicular rocks, when the river is very full whirlpools are

formed, but at this season the water was shallow. From Dharee to

Sillana, about 93 miles, no particular difficulty was met with ; from

Sillana to Alliagan, about 125 miles, two difficult channels were en-

countered at Bhyroopuran, and at Bhaleran-tur (tur denotes rapids

and shallows) through which the laden boats were passed with much

labour ; from Alliagan to Murdana Ghat, about 72 miles, several bad

places occur, the worst being Surkurree-tur ; from Murdana Ghat to

Mundlaisir, 12 miles, the whole way is obstructed by rocks, the water

in several places very shallow, but the navigation not particularly

dangerous; from Mundlaisir to the top of the Sahesurdarrah falls, 44

miles, the river is quite clear and deep. The falls and rapids at Sahesur-

darrah are impracticable for laden boats ; empty ones are let down with

considerable difficulty, with the help of ropes and bamboo poles.

It was necessary to take the coal over the rocks for about 600 yards

in bags on men’s shoulders, and re-ship it at the bottom of the rapids.

This may be termed the second division of the trip, and here there

should be a second store or depdt on the high bank, which affords a

favorable site.

On the 16th April Captain Fenwick left Sahesurdarrah with a fleet

of 15 boats, the coal being distributed among them according to their

sizes,—30 maunds was the largest cargo.

Between Sahesurdarrah and Akbarpore* (5 miles) the chief obstacle

met with was at Manawapat-tur; the boats were half emptied and

eased down the rapids with ropes, the villagers readily assisting and

holding on the ropes. The coal was carried over the rocks by the

boatmen.

* The ferry of the Agra and Bombay road.

1849.} __ pits at Sonadeh to Bombay. 597

From Akbarpore to Kuthora, about 83 miles, the water was generally

shallow, and at the rapid below Akbarpore, the boats were let down, as

before with ropes made fast to the stern. At Bhownosur-tur, the chan-

nel was not more than 8 feet wide between bad rocks.

From Kautora to Kirmee, about 124 miles, and on the Chikuldah, 15

miles passage Sotabonda at 6 miles several bad obstructions were over-

come, the channel narrow between rocks, was passed through by punt-

ing.

The fleet reached Chikuldah on the 20th April, and from the falls

immediately below the Harunphal being impracticable, a third depdt

must be at this place, where there is a bungalow belonging to the Bheel

Agent. Chikuldah is on the right bank, and is a Purgunnah of Holkar.

On the left is the petty state of Burwain, the chief town of which,

Burwain, is about 4 miles from the river opposite to the small town of

Chikuldah.

As further progress by water at this season (April) was impracticable,

the coal was housed and Captain Fenwick started by land for Baroach

on the 27th, with 48 maunds laden on 26 bullock carts; the road was

good via all Rajpore (which he reached on the 30th), Oodeypore (on

the 5th May), to Kunnolee Chandood on the Nerbudda, where he arri-

ved on the 10th. The cost of land carriage was 14 annas per maund.

Here the coal was again shipped on two small boats, and conveyed to

Baroach in three days without delay or impediment. Having made

the coal over to the Collector of Baroach, Captain Fenwick returned on

the 20th according to his instructions, by water, and sailed up to Akta-..

sur, about 15 or 16 miles above Kunnolee, arriving on the 26th, having

been six days en route. His further progress upwards was arrested by

there not being water enough to float the smallest boat he had with

him.

Between Chikuldah and Aktasur the Nerbudda, except in the rains,

is wholly impracticable and useless as a stream for the purpose of

commerce.

Captain Fenwick returned by land to Chikuldah and thence to Mund-

laisir, from whence he took down to Chikuldah two boats which had

been built for the experiment ; on the 10th July these boats were taken

over the Sahesurdarrah barrier with the greatest trouble.

On the 29th July, the river being pretty full, though the rains had

498 Note on the transport of coal from the [ JUNE,

been under an average, Captain Fenwick left Chikulda with about 400

maunds of coal on 8 boats. Captain Fenwick led the fleet, and a spare

boat with a native writer, brought up the rear; to the Harunphal, 13

miles, the fleet dropt down easily, not a rock or a ripple to be seen, and

passed the Bhore Kheeree rapids, extending for about 5 miles, under

great apprehension from numerous half sunken rocks, and the current

running with great rapidity. At the mouth of this channel one of the

boats was dashed on a rock and instantly turned over ; nothing more

was seen of it until the next day, when it was found broken and swamp-

ed. The boatmen swam to the shore; 38 maunds of coal were lost:

This was the first casualty ; the boatmen were alarmed, it however

served to render them more cautious.

The fleet proceeded on the 30th July, and passed first through a

channel 30 feet wide at Kulakurar, the current rushing with great

force, then the Dussana rapids, which were rather dangerous—the boats

shipping water from the high waves to Bhutara, which place was reached

without any damage. Total distance 20 miles.

On the 31st, for about } mile the boats were eased down with ropes

under high precipitous clifts, over shallow rocks. The passage of the

Bhutara rapid, 23 miles, occupied the day. The boats were first light-

ened and then passed down by two distinct channels—that on the left

being the most formidable.

On the Ist August, at two miles below Bhutara the fleet passed

through the Hailkurree Gap, the current not strong, between perpendi-

cular cliffs for half a mile, to the Serkuree shoal and rapids, extending

from bank to bank, leading to the formidable Noukoghat—one of the

worst places in the river, in getting through which some of the boats

had a very narrow escape. The progress this day was only 5} miles.

On the 2nd, about a mile above Hanep two of the boats became

unmanageable in the high waves of a rapid and were swamped, with 61

maunds of coal ; the boatmen saved themselves by swimming. This is

a very difficult part of the river, and about 6 miles of progress was only

made this day. The distance from Chikuldah Hanp is computed to be

514 miles.

On the 3d, shortly after leaving Hanep, is the narrow and dangerous

channel of Bhallagoree running between high precipitous rocks, and

extending for about 3 miles, and at the outlet a very formidable whirl-

1849.] pits at Sonadeh to Bombay. 599

pool was encountered. The distance accomplished this day was about

83 miles.

On the 4th August the fleet made 14 miles, the river the whole way

more or less obstructed with rocks, rapids and whirlpools; especially

bad near Surpan, where it came to.

On the 5th, the fleet passed the dangerous shoals and rapids of

Mookree, terminating in a whirlpool, and reached Emria, 10 miles.

The native writer’s boat, which brought up the rear, struck on a rock

and stranded. ‘The people swam to the shore.

Having got the boat off on the 6th, the fleet proceeded on without

further difficulty, and reached Baroach on the 9th, and deposited 302

maunds of coal in the Government Customs Godowns at that place.

Captain Fenwick left Baroach on the 3rd October, having freighted a

Botellah for Bombay with the coal. Off Taraparee Chunchun, the

storm, which set in on the evening of the 7th, drove the Patemars far out

to sea, and compelled them to put back some distance above Surat ; this

delayed the arrival at Bombay until the morning of the 15th, when

eleven tons and ten cwt. of coal were delivered at the Dockyard, and

the experimental voyage terminated.

The casualties en route were 3 boats, 98 maunds of coal, and the bag-

gage of the boatmen. No lives were lost, and no one suffered any per-

sonal injury from accidents. The crews were generally healthy, supplies

plentiful, and the Bheel tribes most attentive and useful whenever their

services were required.

Captain Fenwick having deposited the coal set out from Baroach on

the 15th September for Chikuldah dy water, with the six small boats he

had taken down, taking only the baggage of the boatmen and supplies

for the party ; the fleet reached Chikulda on the evening of the 7th

September, after great exposure, but without loss, or meeting with any

serious accident. Laden boats could not by any possibility have come

up in the then state of the river, generally about half full and latterly

very high. The Bareekheree shallows and the Huranphal rocks were

completely under water.

The result of the experiment may be summed up as follows: that

from Dhairee to Chikuldah it would be quite practicable, with a por-

terage at Sahesurdarrah, to take down coal after an average rainy season

throughout the year, in such boats as are at present employed in the

600 Note on the Sciuri inhabiting Ceylon. | Jung,

small intercourse between those two places. From Chikuldah to Ak-

tesur, the navigation in the rains, &c., when the river is full, will always

be attended with difficulty, danger and risk; but the impediments are

not insuperable, and having overcome them, there is no difficulty to

Baroach.

The actual cost of conveyance of the coal from Dhairee to Bombay

was 1 Rupee 2 annas per Bengal maund by contract, as follows :

Rs. As. P.

Dhairee to Sahesurdarrah, .. 20 .........,5.2. O74 90

Whikalday se. POS ee, SR. ROC oe 7 eee

Batoach,) £05. RT PORE, PB, 2 eee

Bombay 20eFo Pe ame ae oy re, 2 O27 2 a

Rupeel 2 0

It may be reasonably anticipated that this charge would be consi-

derably reduced, supposing depédts were formed and a regular system

introduced.

With regard to the practicability of laden boats being brought up

from Baroach to Chikuldah at any time, it is almost premature to form

an opinion. I should, however, say the Nurbudda navigation is im-

practicable for purposes of trade.

Note on the Sciurt inhabiting Ceylon, and those of the Tenasserim

provinces.—By K. Buytu.

Since the publication of my Report on the species of Squirrel in-

habiting India proper, Ceylon, Assam, and the whole: eastern coast of

the Bay of Bengal down to the Straits of Malacca (J. 4. S. XVI, 868

et seq.), my obliging coadjutors E. L. Layard, Esq. and A. O. Brodie,

Esq. in Ceylon, and Captain Berdmore at Maulmain, have favored the

Society with various specimens of Sciuwri, comprising some additional

species to those noticed formerly as inhabitants of their respective

regions.

Five species inhabit Ceylon, as follow:

1. Sc. bicolor (?), var.; n. s.? Sc. Teanentii, Layard. Resembles in

size and colouring the common large species of the whole eastern coast

1849. | Note on the Sciurt inhabiting Ceylon. 601

of the Bay of Bengal, except that the caudal hairs are always largely

tipped with white, save at the base and the extreme tip of the tail,—

there is no black moustachial mark nor black border beneath the eye,

but a large triangular patch of black behind it and reaching upward to

the ear,—also a rusty spot at the base of the ear posteriorly, and the

auricle is well fringed with hair, though less copiously than in Se. pur-

pureus,—finally there is much more fulvous-white upon the limbs,

leaving only the toes of the fore and hind limbs black. In the com-

mon Se. bicolor, the posterior limbs are wholly black externally, and

the anterior are wholly black behind, and more or less so externally. In

the Ceylon animal, both fore and hind limbs are fulvous-white all

round for the lower half, the extremities or toes alone being black.

This race has accordingly quite as good a claim to be distinguished by a

separate name as either of the other large races of S. E. Asia; and it is

interesting to know that it co-exists in Ceylon with Sc. macrourus‘

though in a different region, the two (as Mr. Layard assures me) never

infringing on each other’s territory. It also attains a much larger size

than Sc. macrourus, being that of Sc. purpureus and Se. bicolor : and

it is wholly confined in its range to the Kandian country and the more

elevated districts generally of the island.

2. Sc. macrourus, Forster (described J. 4. S. XVI, 869). The

common large Squirrel of the western districts of Ceylon, to which it

would appear to be wholly peculiar.* It does not attain above 2 the

size of the last. Mr. Layard favoured me with a living specimen,

which was extremely tame, and is chiefly perhaps remarkable for

its singularly loud and harsh voice. Indeed, the voice would seem

to be an excellent criterion of specifical distinction among the Sciw-

ride. This animal carries its tail in the same peculiar manner, curled

round on one side, as is observable in Se. purpureus and Se. bicolor,

and doubtless all others of the same group.

3. Se. tristriatus, Waterhouse (J. 4. S. XVI, 874, 1001). This

would appear to be the most common species of Palmist Squirrel in Cey-

lon (vide Elliot, in note to J. A. S. XVI, 1272) ; and I can discover no

difference between Cinghalese specimens and examples procured in the

* That is, in the island ; for it is also met with in Travancore, and other neigh-

bouring districts of continental India,

602 Note on the Sciuri inhabiting Ceylon. (June,

vicinity of Midnapore: one of the former is remarkable for having a

strong ferruginous tinge on the upper part of the head.*

4. Sc. Brodier, nobis, n. s. Very similar to the last, but distin-

guished by its considerably paler colour, and especially by having a

very long pencil-tuft (34 in.) at the extremity of the tail, quite different

from what is ever seen in ¢ristriatus : beneath the tail, to near its tip,

ferruginous as in the other. According to Mr. Layard, “this species

is confined to the Palmyra-tree district, from Puttam to Jaffna. How

much further round the coast I know not.”

5. Se. Layardi, nobis, n. s. Size of the two last, but the colour

very much darker, nearly as in Se. trilineatus (vel Delesserti), but

inclining more to ashy than to fulvous, except on the head and flanks :

lower-parts ferruginous, paler on the breast: middle of the back nigre-

scent with a strongly contrasting narrow bright light fulvous streak in

the middle, reaching from between the shoulders to near the tail, and

an obscure stripe on either side, barely reaching to the croup. Tail

ferruginous along its centre, the hairs broadly margined with black and

finally with whitish, besides which is another and narrow black band on

each hair towards its base, chiefly seen as the tail is viewed from above ;

tip black, forming a pencil-tuft 3 in. long. This handsome species is,

I believe, peculiar to the upland districts of the island.

In the Tenasserim provinces, I am now acquainted with 6 species.

1. Se. bicolor, Sparrman (J. A. S. XVI, 870). Common; but

the pale Malayan variety does not appear to have been hitherto observed

(though the pale Malayan variety of Hylobates lar is there common).

2. Sc. chrysonotus, nobis (J. A. S. XVI, 873). Common.

3. Se. pygerythrus (?), Is. Geoffroy, var.? Described J. 4. S.

XVIX, 345.

4, Se. atrodorsalis, Gray (J. A. S. XVI, 872-3, XVII, 345). I

have no doubt now that this species was rightly identified, and that

Mr. Gray's habitat of Bootan is erroneous. A third specimen lately

received from Captain Berdmore is intermediate in its colouring to the

* In a letter just received from Mr. Layard, he now mentions that—‘‘ at Ham-

banlotte I got anew Sciurus; like palmarum, only the head is much redder, the

colour of the back and belly more blended, and the animal altogether smaller. This

entirely replaces all the small Sciuri in that part of the country: they are first seen

at Tangalle, and I fancy extend round to Trincomalee.”

1849. | The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon. 603

two formerly described, having the under-parts much lighter ferrugi-

nous than in the one, and considerably darker than in the other.

5. Sc. Berdmorei, nobis, n. s. Nearly one half larger than Sc. pal-

marum : the prevalent colour grizzled black and golden fulvous, with an

obscure pale central dorsal streak, flanked by a blackish band: this

again by a conspicuous yellowish-white line from the shoulder to the

croup; then blackish again, with a second lateral whitish band ; below

again dusky ; and the under-parts yellowish-white, passing to ferrugi-

nous towards the vent and underneath the tail. Head tinged with

ferruginous: and from what remains of the base of the tail in the speci-

men, this would seem to resemble in colouring that of Sc. Layard.

Length of hind-foot from heel to tip of claws 13 m. Rodential tusks

deep orange-brown. This species, according to information received

from Mr. D. F. Lonsdale, inhabits the Thoungyeen district.

6. Sec. Barbet, nobis (XVI, 875). Common in Mergui.

There are no Sciwrt more difficult to understand than the group

exemplified by Sc. modestus, Muller, Se. lokriah and Sc. lokroides,

Hodgson, Sc. griseopectus, nobis (XVI, 873), and of which Se. chry-

sonotus is one of the species best distinguished from the rest. Three

specimens lately purchased with a collection formed at Darjiling, differ

from all other examples of Sc. lokroides which I had previously see

from that and other localities, in having the thighs externally of a

bright ferruginous colour: in other respects they are quite similar to

ordinary individuals of the species.

N. B. The specimen presented by the Batavian Society and describ-

ed as Sc. javensis, Schreber, var., in J. d. S. XVI, 871, is Se

ephippium, Muller, from Borneo.

Supplementary Notes to “The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Ku-

maoon ; Journal of Asiatic Society, Bengal, May and June, 1848.—

By Major E. Mavven, Bengal Artillery.

The following corrections of, and additions to, the Flora of the notes

referred to, are the result of subsequent visits by Lieutenant R. Strachey

and myself to the localities specified ; as well as of an examination of

412

604 The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon. [June,

the whole of the plants collected, by Mr. M. P. Edgeworth, to whose

assistance I am indebted for the original catalogue in the majority of

cases, and for his determination of those where alteration is requisite in

the present. The completion of the lists is so far interesting as, to the

best of my knowledge, they are the first, exhibiting at one view, the

grouping of the plants to be found at any given position in these moun-

tains.

At the end will be found an attempt to identify the plants described,

but frequently not named by the late Major-General Hardwick, in his

tour from Hurdwar to Sreenugur in Gurhwal, in the year 1796, as

detailed in the sixth volume of the Asiatic Researches. The General’s

route did not conduct him by any means over a tract botanically rich,

while he omits many plants which must have occurred ; but the paper

may be interesting to the Asiatic Society, as tending to elucidate the

work of one of its original members, and probably the earliest labourer

in the field of Himalayan Botany, as it is to the writer, from the cir-

cumstance that the Major-General was his first commanding officer.

Jiaree, p. 352. Kunthagaon, p. 590. The shrub here inserted as

Desmodium? is Rhynchosia pseudo-cajan, (Decaisne,) known in Gurh-

wal as “ Bun-tour,” of which the specific name is a translation.

P. 355. The shrub here called Gouania leptostachya? is, I doubt

not, Dr. Wallich’s G. nepalensis, and appears to have been first noticed

by General Hardwick near Hurdwar, where, as indeed all along the

mountains, this common G. leptostachya is abundant in the Kotah

Doon, and generally at the base of the mountains, and in the exterior

vallies, down to Burmdeo: it is known by the same name (Kala-lug,

the black climber) as Berchemia floribunda, which it resembles a good

deal in habit.

Carissa diffusa, (not Carandas,) very abundant on all the outer moun-

tains and along their base.

Nynee Tal, pp. 364—372—Add—

Ulmus virgata.

Heracleum.

Sanicula elata.

Torilis elata.

Bupleurum marginatum.

Reutera acuminata.

1849. | The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon. 605

Cortia elata.

Ptychotis anethifolia.

Acronema tenerum (Edgeworth), on oaks at 8700 feet, Cheenur,

where also is to be found abundance of a large plant of this order, not

identified.

Tlex odorata: (Don’s Prodromus) is the species inserted at p. 365,

as Dr. Royle’s T. serrata: both names are suitable. The tree occurs

on the descent to Kaleedhoongee near Sirmouria village, as well as on

the route from Cheenur to Kotah; also near Deghat in Gurhwal: and

Mr. Edgeworth has observed it near Simlah; the identification with

Dr. Royle’s T. serrata is, therefore, probably correct. It is a large

and very beautiful species, growing at from 3000 to 4000 feet above

the sea, and is known in Kumaoon as Gurshoon and Gurkoula, where

the prefix gur, denoting glen, points out its usual site.

Cardamine impatiens.

Arabis, Sp.

Potentilla Wallichiana, and another, not determined.

*Rubus lasiocarpus, biflorus, asper, hypargyrus and racemosus ?

Roxb.

Cotoneaster bacillaris, (not affinis.) ‘* Rous,”’ “‘ Rooes.”’

Limonia laureola. M. Decaisne, who has made a new genus (An-

quetilia) of this, and removed it to the order Xanthoxyleze, describes

the fruit as beg 1 seeded. Such is sometimes the case, but it is very

generally 2 seeded. The young drupes or berries are even very com-

monly 3 seeded ; and in each case distinctly 2 to 3 celled, with the

stigma 2 to3 lobed, accordingly want of mature fruit prevents examina-

tion as to whether these cells are permanent, beyond the month of

June: but certainly 2 at least of the seeds are so; and from the fruit

* Rubus lasiocarpus is the R. roseflorus of Roxburgh, an identification which

escaped Messrs. Wight and Arnott, who have only given his albescens and racemo-

sus as synonymes. ‘The latter seems doubtful, for R. lasiocarpus has a corymb, not

araceme. By R. racemosus, I mean a procumbent species, differing from lasio-

carpus by its being racemose, by the leaves not being tomentose below, and by its

trailing, nor erect habit. The flowers and fruit are similar: the former (red): the

latter black, and very woolly. The shrub is common in the woods from 6500 to

8000 feet, and is perhaps R. micranthus of Don. R. hypargyrus is found on the

crest of Cheenur, also with red flowers and woolly fruit : but yellow, not black.

606 The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon. [JUNE,

in June, it is clear that the Ist seeded berry is produced by the sup-

pression in some cases of the second seed and cell. The third cell and

its seed are probably always abortive. The shrub is abundant where I

write, (Binsur mountain,) attaining sometimes a height of eight feet.

Its habit of flowering both in spring and autumn resembles that of

Citrus, near which Dr. Lindley still keeps it; but the persistent calyx,

and leaves not articulated with the petiole, are at variance with his

character of the Aurantiaceze ; as the cells, with apparently only one

ovule, are with that of Xanthoxylee. The plant is, or recently was

growing in the Botanic Garden, Glasnevin. Its range at Nynee Tal is

from 6600 to 8600 feet.

Xanthoxylon oxyphyllum. On Luriya Kanta, and observed by Mr.

Edgeworth on the ascent from Koorpaka. It comes very near Brucea

Sumatrana, as defined and described by Roxburgh, and may be the B.

nepalensis mentioned in J. A. 8. April 1833.

Rhus velutina.

Machilus odoratissimus.

Daphnidium pulcherrimum.

Litseea consimiles. ‘ Cheerura,”’ and “ Chirchira’”’ of upper Kuma-

oon and Gurhwal, where a coarse oil is expressed from the fruit.

Albizzia wightii (and elsewhere ; not Acacia mollis.)

Indigofera polyphylla, ‘‘ Moos-Sukena,” a half procumbent shrub,

common from 5500 to 8500 feet.

Indigofera pulchella. At the elevation of 7500 feet, as well as in the

outer portion of the Bhabur forest, this is equally reduced to the height

of afew inches. But in the Sal forests at 2000 feet and upwards, it

gradually increases from a shrub of 3 to one of 12 feet; under the

former aspect it appears to be Dr. Royle’s T. Arghawan. The number of

arborescent Indigoferas has probably been exaggerated. Roxburgh’s

T. arborea and virgata, seem to be T. Dosua of Don, and heterantha of

Wallich. In the vallies of Kumaoon, about Almorah and Somesur, at

4000 to 7000 feet, there is a shrubby species with short sericeous le-

gumes, and small flowers, which appears different from T. Dosua, and

may be I. violacea, but Mr. Edgeworth pronounced it to be T. Dosua.

Roxburgh’s description of the shrubby species of this genus are in-

different.

Desmodium sulcatum (Edgeworth), and two undescribed species.

1849. | The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon. 607

Podolotus Hosackioides.

Crotolaria anthylloides, to 8000 feet.

Lespedeza elegans.

Flemingia, (bracteata, Roxb. nearly,) a procumbent shrub with sim-

ple leaves and Dicerma, like inflorescence: flowers white, streaked

with pink: everywhere at 6000—8000 feet on sunny exposures, from

the Sutlege to the Kalee.

Flemingia procumbens. Procumbent, with deep red flowers and

tuberous edible roots, very common from 5500 to 8500 feet ; also Simlah,

Kussowlee, Mussooree.

Shuteria involucrata.

Phaseolus scaber.

Vicia tenera.

Pachyrhizus angulatus? Procumbent, twining, with pink flowers,

and large tuberous root.

Trigonella gracilis. This plant, with Argyrolobium roseum and

(cytisus) flaccidum, is everywhere at Nynee Tal in the rainy season,

apparently limited to the limestone rock: at least all three disappear

the moment we reach the greenstone of the Gagur, with identical eleva-

tion and exposure, &c. Thymus serpyllum, on the contrary, does not

here make its appearance till we have left both these rocks, and entered

the micaceous slate district at Ramgur.

Androsace sarmentosa (not lanuginosa, which is not found under

10,000 or 11,000 feet.)

Androsace rotundifolia. Hardwick, pink.

Lysimachia debilis and alternifolia.

Sedum multicaule, pauciflorum and rosulatum (Edgeworth, not py-

riforme. )

Tillzea pentandra, to 8000 feet.

Saxifraga Brunonis covers the crags of Cheenur, facing the lake, from

7000 to 8000 feet.

Drosera peltata (Junata, auct,) a New Holland plant. Don.

Astilbe rivularis. Abundant in the northern glens of Cheenur, &c.,

and as low as 5500 feet at Shamkhet. This plant, which resembles

Spireea Aruncus, oscillates between the Saxifrageous and Rosaceous

orders, and both in Royle’s Illustrations (203, 226) and Don’s Prodro-

mus, does duty in each cohort, being Spireea triternata of Wallich, S.

608 The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon. [JUNE,

barbata of Decaisne, and 8. Aruncus of Don, who had previously de-

scribed it at full length under Astilbe rivularis.

Clematis grata, not common at Nynee Tal.

Clematis amplexicaulis, Edgeworth, 7000—8500 feet.

Clematis Nepalensis, south face of Sher-ka Danda, also at Murora, on

the Nyar in Gurhwal; always in or by running water, between 6000

and 6500 feet above the sea. On the young flowerless shoots, the

leaves are triternate ; such variations are not uncommon in this genus,

and have perhaps augmented the number of species in books beyond

that in nature.

Aquilegia pubiflora (not pubescens.)

Peeonia Emodi. In beds of many hundred plants before me at

Binsur, not above one in ten flowers has two carpels, a number com-

mon in the interior. The plant does not, to my knowledge, extend

further N. W. than Dhunpoor mountain, one of the sources of the

Nyar. In that and the neighbouring districts the young shoots are eat-

en as a vegetable under the name “‘ Soojoonia,’”’ though the plant is call-

ed Chundra; it is probable that the long tuberous roots may be one of

the species of Bzkh.

Epilobium montanum, cylindricum, and laxum ?

Circzea repens and intermedia.

Berberis Wallichiana? summit of Cheenur only, 8700 feet.

Berberis asiatica. Kilmora: to 7500 feet, as on Binsur and Siyahee

Devee.

Vitis tomentosa, rugosa, on Sher-ka Danda.

Aralia or Panax. Shrubby, and probably undescribed.

Millingtonia (Meliosma) Dillenifolia. Luriya kanta.

Polygala triphylla and crotolarioides.

Stephania Wightii, common at 6500—7500.

Bryonia umbellata.

Trichosanthes palmata. Outlet of the lake, 6400. Perhaps its

upper limit.

Hypericum cernuum, Uralum, barbatum, elodeoides.

Acer villosum (and on Binsur : a beautiful species.)

Rhododendron arboreum, (puniceum, Roxburgh.) Captain A. Ge-

rard, account of Koonawur, says, that the tree with ‘large red flower’

ascends to 10,000 feet: but in Kumaoon and S. KE. Gurhwal, we only

1849. | The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon. 609

find the variety? floribus roseis at this elevation, and up to 11,300; as

determined by Lieut. Strachey. It is only while young that the leaves,

and still more the leaf-buds and scales of the scarlet Rhododendron

are poisonous ; the flowers are certainly intoxicating, if eaten im any

quantity, as I have seen exemplified in my own coolies.

Linum trigynum.

Phyllanthus (Leptopus, Decaisne) cordifolius.

Phyllanthus parvifolius, Don.

Euphorbia hirsuta (not involucrata,) probably E. longifolia of Don’s

Prodromus. A pretty species, resembling the English wood spurge.

Euphorbia (peploides.) |

Schizotechium crispatum.

Leucostemma latifolium.

Stellaria media.

Cerastium triviale.

Mollugo stricta.

Hedyotis calycina.

Randia (Gardenia) tetrasperma.

Galium asperuloide, Edgeworth. Descends to 7500. It has the

appearance and fragrance of Asperula odorata, but differs in the leaves

from Mr. Edgeworth’s species.

Galium aparine, common in cultivation, hills and plains, from the

Ganges to Nynee Tal and Almorah.

Viburnum cylindricum, probably Dr. Royle’s “ punctatum.” “ Kala

Tit-muliya.” This shrub is an evergreen, and is common from Simlah

to Kumaoon, from 6000 to 8000 feet, as are V. cotinifolium and mullaha.

Of these V. cotinifolium is identified by Dr. Royle with Wallich’s poly-

carpum ; and mullaha with stellulatum. The nature of the plants would

lead to a suspicion that the synonymes have been reversed, V. cotinifolium

being remarkable for its stellate pubescence, as V. mullaha is for its

abundant fruit: (red.) It preserves the Nepalese name to Kumaoon,

(Muliya, and Tit-muliya, from the bitter fruit) and even to Mussooree,

(Maloop ;) but at Simla this is lost, and replaced by Hree. V. cotinifolium

is known as Jawa at Simlah, Gooya in Kumaoon ; it has black fruit, and

much resembles V. lantana. V. nervosum of Don’s Prodromus is identical

with his cotinifolium ; V. nervosum of Royle is the V. foetens of Deca-

isne, an epithet for which it is indebted to the odour of its leaves when

610 The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon. [Junx,

crushed ; the flowers however, have a delicious fragrance of lemon. It

abounds everywhere from 9000 to 11,000 feet, the ‘‘ Thelain’”’ of Buse-

hur, but in Kumaoon “ Gooya.”? V. grandiflorum was found common

on the upper Surjoo by Lieut. Strachey, with the habit of V. mullaha :

where also occurs another species, perhaps punctatum or adenophyllum

of Wallich ; growing to be a considerable tree.

Daphne papyracea, Wallich, D. Bholua, Don, formerly inserted as D.

cannabina on the authority of the former in the Asiatic Researches,

unless the shrub there described be D. odora, which seems to differ

little from the present except in being fragrant. Two varieties are

common everywhere in the British Himalaya ; one with white flowers

and yellow fruit, is found from 4000 to 8000 feet ; the other with pur-

ple flowers and fruit from 7000 to 8000. ‘‘The Nepal names Bhulloo-

soang and Bholua, if Hindee, and the aspirate be correct, would indi-

cate its poisonous property; without the aspirate, the strength of its

fibre: Sida rhomboidea is called Buloo for this reason. But the

> with the prefix, set, white ;

**Sutpoora’” in Gurhwal. No allusion to the plant or its uses is to be

found in Dr. Wilson’s Dictionary ; but the Almorah Pundits affirm

that it is intended in the Umurkosh by the terms Loota, Tuntoovayu,

orthography in Kumaoon is “ Buroowa,’

Oornunabhu, and Murkutka, all denoting a spider, weaver, &c., and,

as applied to this Daphne, alluding to the manufacture of paper from

the bark.

Daphne sericea; Don’s Prodromus; an examination of many living

specimens satisfies me that this includes Wickstrcemia salicifolia of

Decaisne, and W. canescens of Meisner ; the differences are merely in

degree, due to age and exposure, and may either be found on the same

plant, or on plants within a few yards of each other, and evidently of

the same stock. Paper prepared from this—the Chumlia, is considered

inferior to that of the Set Buroowa, allowing the ink to run. The bark

makes a strong rope, and is so used at Nynee Tal.

Osyris Nepalensis. Descends from 7000 to 1200 feet along the foot

of the mountains; none of the people about Almorah are aware of its

leaves being used for tea.

Geranium bicolor, Royle, Ocellatum, Decaisne ; from 1500 to 7000

feet.

Impatiens umbrosa and tricornis.

1849. ] The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon. 611

Evonymus echinata, a shrub climbing like ivy over trees and damp-

shaded rocks, tetramerous.

Urtica (Girardinia) heterophylla, to 7500 feet.

Urtica parviflora.

Urtica Goglada.

Pouzolzia (Urtica) hispida.

~ Cannabis sativa.

Beehmeria salicifolia.

Procris—several species.

Ficus laurifolia.

- Ficus saxatilis ? a creeping, rooting species, on trees, rocks and banks,

to 8000 feet.

Myrica sapida.

Salix tetrasperma, ‘‘Gur-bynsh.”” Grows well along the margin of

the lake, but scarcely indigenous, as it appears to flower with difficulty,

and is here about a thousand feet above its usual limit elsewhere in the

province.

Salix leucomelas, Cheenur. Forms dense thickets, from 8000 to

10,000 feet. Common at Fagoo, Huttoo, &c.

Callitriche verna.

Elzeagnus parvifolia? Gheewaeen.

Aristolochia (Saccata?) 6500—8000 feet; Sher and Boorans. ka

Danda, common on Binsur, the Gagur Pass, &c.

Rumex nepalensis and hastatus, the last to 8500 feet.

Pupalia sequax.

Achyranthes, a large white-flowering species ; undescribed.

Polygonum sinense, pterocarpum, herniarcoides : the last as high as

7500 feet.

Plantago asiatica.

Viola aspera and Patrinii (ceespitosa, Don.)

Craniotome versicolor.

Micromeria biflora.

Leonurus pubescens (not Sibiricus.)

* Scutellaria scandens. From 4000 to 8000 feet, a species utterly mis-

* In the original paper it is twice, (pp. 369, 435,) mentioned that Melissa flava

grows on Binsur. This is a mistake; the plant intended is a Nepeta, probably N.

elata, Royle. It also occurs on Cheenur at Nynee Tal, and is remarkable from the

4x4

612 The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon. [ June,

named, being in no degree scandent, though Don asks “an potius volu-

bilis ’’? Mr. Bentham’s name, “ angulosa,” is very appropriate and should

be substituted. SoS. repens is an erect shrub, and requires an epithet

expressive of its numerous stems and branches. Many Himalayan

plants bear evidence that they were named by persons who never saw

them. Rosa macrophylla, for example, has not large leaves ; they are

much smaller than those of the common R. Brunonis.

Begonia tenella, (not dioica.)

Clerodendron foetidum.

Phryma leptostachya, common in woods.

Mazus surculosus.

Vandellia nummularifia.

Veronica biloba and Maddenii (n. s. an )

Torenia cordifolia.

Datura alba.

Solanum rubrum.

Goldfussia pentstemonoides.

Erigeron semibarbatum.

Erigeron Roylei, ‘‘ Murchmool.”? (Not Aster bellidifolia.)

Inula nitida.

Conyza veroniceefolia.

Diplostephium Roylei.

Carpesium pubescens.

Oreoseris gossypina, from 1500 to 8000 feet, (not Onoseris lanugi-

NOSas)

Senecio rufinervis, (not canescens.)

Senecio spectabilis, (not Jacobzea.)

Senecio alata, on Cheenur, but rare.

Amphirapis cuspidata.

Amphirapis pubescens. (Solidago nepalensis, Don.)

Echenais ferox, probably the Cnicus verutus of Don. It grows

from 4500 to 7500 feet, and is found up to Paoree in Gurhwal, and

probably much further. If it 1s Don’s plant, it also inhabits Nepal

‘ad Narainhetty,”’ a spot in the vicinity of Kathmandoo, where per-

flowers opening yellow in the morning but becoming light blue by the afternoon ;

an example of natural Daguerreotype.

ee ) ee eee Oe

1849. | The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon. 613

haps from some error in the labelling of Dr. Hamilton’s Herbarium,

the Prodromus exhibits the most incongruous assemblage of plants.

Aplotaxis carthamoides, a very bitter plant, probably A. scaposa of

Mr. Edgeworth, Serratula carthamoides, Roxb. and Cnicus heteromal-

lus of Don. |

Serratula pallida. Centaurea lanata, Roxb. III. 444, seems to be

a Calcutta edition of this.

Dicrocephala gracilis.

Blainvillea latifolia.

Sonchus arvensis.

Melanoseris cyaneus, (not Mulgedium robustum.) It is occasionally

white.

Dipsacus inermis g, Wallich, mitis, Don, is abundant everywhere

from 5000 feet, (Almorah,) to above 8700 (Cheenur), while D. inermis,

a, Wallich, strictus, Don, occurs at Kathmandoo (4500), Koorpaka,

(5000) and on Cheenur at 8000, but I consider it merely a variety of

the first, as every gradation in the number of lobes to the leaf, and

every variation in the number of ridges to the stem may be observed in

these supposed species. Under this view, the plant affords a striking

instance of depression.in its habitat as we travel to the S. E., barely

occurring at 8000 feet, Simlah, but at 4500 or thereabouts, in Nepal,

according to Dr. Wallich.

Valeriana elata.

Gentiana capitata and pedicellata. G. Kurroo, so common on the

limestone crags of Mussooree, has not hitherto occurred here.

Ophelia (Agathotes) cherayita. The tetramerous, purple-flowered

variety (with a tendency, however, to greenish-yellow) mentioned by

Dr. Royle, occurs from 7000 to 9000 feet, in shady woods with north-

ern aspect, on Cheenur, Binsur, Gagur Pass, Mussooree, Simlah, and.

Nagkunda ; and though called by Dr. Lindley, ‘‘a Himalayan annual,”

is in truth, the only perennial cherayita with which I am acquainted.

The stem is sometimes five feet high, and much branched ; the root

long, forked, and pale yellow; the root-leaves, petioled, and resembling

those of Plantago; the whole exceedingly bitter ; but the plant is not

very.abundant ; and it is probable that the annual species, purpuras-

cens, cordata, alata, angustifolia, &c., supply the chief portion of what

is exported to the plains.

614 The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon. [JuNE,

Campanula cana, (not ramulosa.)

Cynanchum glaucum and Dalhousize.

Tylophora tenerrima? amongst grass, Sher-ka Dauda, Gardneria

ovata (or new species.) Hanee Banee rocks; also abundantly on Bin-

sur and the northern slope of the Gagur Pass.

Pardanthus Sinensis.

Juncus glaucus and concinnus, (not elegans.)

Smilax Villandia, maculata, and vaginata, the last on Cheenur ; on

Binsur at 7300.

Allium Wallichianum, (not lilacinum.)

Murdannia scapiflora, (v. Aneilema longifolia ?)

Dioscorea sagittata and deltoidea.

Ariseema speciosa. Luriya Ranta. Several other species undeter-

mined.

*Remusatia (capillifera, provisionally. M. P. E.) Probably Don’s

Caladium pumilum. ‘‘Banj ka pindaloo,” 1. e. oak colocasia, com-

mon on trees and mossy rocks from 5—6000 to 8—9000 feet. At

p. 438, it is confounded with R. vivapara, which however is quite dis-

tinct, and does not appear to ascend above 4500 feet, as Bheem Tal and

Noukoochia Tal, where it is known as “ Bagh ka pindaloo,” i. e.

Tiger’s Colocasia.

Cephalanthera acuminata. White wood Orchis, May.

Lycopodium tenellum and —.

Gymnogramme vestita. Top of Deoputa.

Dactylis glomerata.

Ischeemum speciosum, a strong and tall reed-like grass, in abundance

under trees, north face of Cheenur, &c., from 7000 to 8,700 feet.

Arundinaria falcata, “ Ningala,”’ not Vingala, p. 371. The people

* The opinion is general amongst the people of Kumaoon that this plant never

flowers ; and the majority donot, as is common with plants reproduced by bulbs,

&c. These appear in September on radical procumbent panicles, (not erect spikes

as in R. vivipara,) and the scales each ending in a long white spirally twisted awn

give the whole the appearance of a tangled mass of thread. The flowers appear in

June, a little before the rains set in, and before the leaves expand, and as the scapes

are only 2 or 3 inches high, and soon curve down amongst the moss, &c., are easily

overlooked, though the spathe is of rather a bright yellow; much like that of a

small Arum with pedate leaves common at Simlah, and as far up as Cheenee in

Kunawar.

1849. | The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon. 615

of Danpoor Pergunna, in the north of Kumaoon, enumerate no less than

eight kinds of Ningala, or Ringal, as it is pronounced in Gurhwal, viz.,

1. Tham ; 2. Utham; 3. Kutino; 4. Malingo ; 5. Jhoomro or Jhoongra ;

6. Deo Ningala; 7. Gor Ningala ; 8. Doom Ningala. The last is pro-

bably the common, or Kalee Ningala, found abundantly on the Gagur

range, and, like the Jhoomro, in much request for pens. My friend

Dr. Falconer refers it to a new genus, Thamnocalamus. No. 1, is said

to be the largest of the whole, and is sent down to the plains for

hookkah pipes ; but I have never noticed it, or any but the last three.

No. 6, is the Arundinaria utilissima of Mr. Edgeworth, and occurs

in great abundance near the snowy range: making excellent mats,

baskets, fishing-rods, &. No. 7, I met with all along the Undretee

river below Rol in Busehur, (there called Gol) with thin culms 18 feet

high, in dense clumps of a hundred or more to each.

The tree entered at p. 372, Gyrandra laurina is that which Dr.

Royle alludes to, p. 261, under Ilicine. It rather belongs to Flacour-

tiaceee, Mr. Edgeworth informs me, as well as that the name Gyran-

dra has been previously appropriated to one of the Gentianze.

To the lake plants enumerated at p. 358 are to be added—

Myriophyllum tuberculatum.

Potamogeton crispum, pectinatum, parfoliatum.

These and the other Himalayan species of this genus are all identical,

Mr. Edgeworth informs me, with those of Europe ; the presence, there-

fore, of Polygonum amphibium in Nynee Tal, becomes less anomalous ;

and considerimg the number of aquatic birds which frequent the lake,

Gmelin’s theory of diffusion by their agency does not seem an unlikely

solution of the problem as to how these plants came here.

The following memorandum by Lieutenant Strachey, which reached

me too late for insertion in the criginal paper, may be best introduced

here ; the elevation of localities at Nynee Tal being those chiefly affected.

“The heights of places in Kumaoon, given on my authority in

Major Madden’s paper on ‘The Turaee and Outer Mountains of

Kumaoon,’ are to be considered as mere approximations to the truth.

Those at Nynee Tal and its immediate vicinity, are, I think, generally

200 feet too little. They were calculated on the assumption that the

water of the lake was 6200 feet above Calcutta, whereas there is every

reason to suppose that the true elevation is nearly 6400 feet.”

616 The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon. [JuNE,

6409 is Lieutenant Strachey’s determination, which will give for

Cheentur sar) ake un iste vamri be 8732

Cheenur (or Deoputa) ka Khan, 7623

Uyarpata,\cfoss% Seeks 7908

Luriya Kanta, S. w. Boake. 8169

Be highestjigts... *8200

Kotah Bagheechu, ....... AOS. ok2269:99(2269)

Gaour Pass.) 26k ee. Satis ote DZ ZOD

Ramgar Bungalow,............ 5945

a. Bulge, weil. Suet. as aie

Peeoorah Bungalow, .......... 5644

Almorah station (Mr. J.Strachey’s

Houses) us Bese We ei Sb

Birond Peak, p. 394,.........- 7052 (Trigonometrical Survey.)

Kaleedhoongee, <i. 24.40.05 08 eee 1370

Huldwanee Mundee,.......... 1549

From the Bumouree or Kath-godam bungalow, at the base of the

mountains, 1809 above the sea, to the southern limit of the Huldwanee

cultivation, a distance of 6 miles, the fall was determined by Captain

Jones of the Engineers to be 360 feet ; it continues at such a rate that

Rampoor is only 547, Moradabad 674 feet, and Bareilly 470 feet above

the sea: such is the glacis in front of the vast bastions of the Hima-

laya.*

* The heights of several places in Kalee Kumaoon inserted chiefly on the autho-

rity of Dr. McClelland’s map are generally several hundred feet too much; the

following, from barometrical observations, by Mr. John Strachey, are very near the

truth.

Feet.

By CHMCCHA PASS! 2iale nmreteeieialce ccc e's cess sists see celee OM US

Boel Weh, seie\(cists < foni'sle iwe ciobainlele is lo eo si valde gives dele suleta Mtdae

CMR A WAM EC yet (alee (els faledeieiete s)=,s10\'ae a 6 c(afeletcliaivlets einin MAE

WGNACCO, Van cia cc eiclsMtelsils ss. 6.'s 0 cs ae patna o,ac%eulmee EMeaee

Jhoom (SOGEE) ys. iin seciteine sicle's co's. seus anieianmema moe

Dhyrgura (Thermometer it.79:) ...cc--seccsseccees 4000

KeunCharaon (ition) ‘satcsteeieie s sv 0s vc os cece welestcetees MOUUO

PUPAPAUCE I jeaie'oc ies sere telhadic cus cans eRe welcome” FUEO

Dol Bungalow Genwi. Hi. BS.) iss chit gacetseen ieee

1849. | The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon. az

Between Nynee Tal* and Kalaputhur, pp. 373—375, Add—

Cucumis Hardwickii, up to Koorpaka.

Leea aspera.

Hedera terebinthacea.

Ruta albiflora: descends to 3060 feet, near Kalaputhur, to 4000 at

Bheem Tal; but in the drier region of Almorah not below 5000.

Coriarea Nepalensis, from 2000 to 7600. Dr. Royle gives the lower

hmit about Mussooree as 5000.

Sageretea oppositifolia.

Impatiens balsamina : 4000 to 5500.

Ilex odorata.

Polygala oligophylla, at 2500.

Desmodium Gangeticum.

Argyrolobium roseum, from 2500 to 7500. Very common.

Rumex Wallichianus. Base of mountains.

Rungia parviflora.

Peristrophe speciosa.

Lepidagathis ¢

Porana racemosa.

Periploca (Streptocaulon) calophylla.

Loranthus scurrula, W. and A.

Plectranthus rugosus. To 6500.

Salvia plebeia.

Ajuga remota, (lobata? Don) common along the base of the moun-

tains.

Verbena officinalis.

Lantana dubia, quite common from the forests of the Bhabur to

about 3500 feet an undoubted native.

Gynura nepalensis.

Blumea alata.

Conyza polycephala. (Edgeworth.) To Hurdwar.

Sonchus arvensis. To Kalaputthur.

Youngia runcinata.

_ Aplotaxis cirsioides, common in cultivation to 3000 feet. Carduus

lanata. Roxb. ?

Sauromatum punctatum.

* To the vegetation of Nynee Tal add Urtica scripta, Don.

4 L

618 The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon. [JUNE,

Sagenia coadunata.

Below Kaleedhoongee, Calotropis Hamilton, which I had not no-

ticed, was found by Mr. Edgeworth, but C. gigantea is by far the most

common : at Hurdwar, 80 or 90 miles, N. W. the former is the only

species.

Acacia “* Kureo,” of p. 374, appears to be A. elata.

Kotah Doon, p. 379.

Ficus cordifolia? ‘‘ Gujeeoon.”’ Known in Gurhwal as the ‘‘ Kabur ;”’

it is I think, the tree called Peepul in Goojrat, where F. religiosa is

* Peepla.” The Gujeeoon may be F. Tsiela, Roxburgh’s next species

to cordifolia.

Pterospermum suberifolium. ‘‘ Moochkoonda.” At Gintee village,

but no doubt an exotic.

Eleagnus conferta.

Zeuxine sulcata. — |

Plectranthus Coetsa. To 2200 feet at Kotah, and also in the Dehra

Doon, by water courses ; it differs somewhat from the normal form,

usual at 4000—8000 feet ; but less so than the plant which we find at

11,000, which is pronounced identical. The wild goat is very fond of

this last variety.

Thalictrum foliolosum.

Trochostigma. A large semi-scandent shrub occurs in the forests

along the base of the mountains in this neighbourhood, as well as along

the whole line from Rikhikes on the Ganges to Burmdeo on the Kalee,

and up the Surjoo to Kupkot. Flowers in May.

Tetranthera monopetala. ‘ Kutmura.” “ Singrow.”

Harina oblongifolia. The Buliya Glen above Bumouree is not its

N. W. limit; Lieutenant Strachey obtained specimens between Ko-

tah and Nynee Tal; and I have myself since found it growing luxuri-

antly in Gurhwal on the Aonla Boonga Pass, between the Patlee Doon

and Kala-khan on the Ramgunga. ‘The people there (few and far be-

tween) did not know the plant, nor did it occur onwards in the Hurd-

war direction; the Patlee Doon may therefore be safely considered its

boundary. Symplocos racemosa reaches to within a few miles of Hurd-

war.

Abrus, p. 381. This species also grows on the hills east of the Pat-

lee Doon, and below Bheemtal, but sparingly in both localities.

1849. | The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon. 619

Polgurh (properly Puwulgurh) p. 376.

Medicago hystrix.

Buchanania latifolia.

in considerable numbers, scattered in the Sal forest which clothes the

high southern bank of the Dubka; a small hamlet below is named Mo-

kanee from it. Lieutenant Strachey discovered the tree in this locality ;

I had previously met one or two in the Dhikolee Pass, but, wanting

flowers and fruit, could only conjecture it to be a Bignonia, of which,

and Swietenia (Mahogany) it has entirely the habit. It has not occur-

red elsewhere, and being tomentose, may possibly be different from Rox-

burgh’s species; but Mr. Edgeworth informs me that the foliage, &c.,

is similarly clothed in Bundelkhund ; where it is called Ghant. The

Kumaoon name is used in the Peninsula, and is evidently derived from

the classical moksh, moovku, in allusion to the pendulous fruit, as the

synonymes Ghunta-patulee and Ghunta-parulee (Bell-Bignonia suaveo-

lens) refer to its form; and Kshardroo to the ashy color of the fruit

and bark. Dr. Wilson does not give any identification of these terms ;

nor does Dr. Lindley notice Roxburgh’s genus.

Seetabun, p. 383.

Crotolaria neglecta. To Rikhikes in the Dehra Doon.

Trewia nudiflora, common in the Dehra Doon.

Sabia paniculata. Sansadhara in ditto.

Scutellaria repens.

Gentiana aprica (decemfida, Don.) Damp shady banks.

Mohan, p: 386.

Hemiadelphis polysperma.

Polygonum glabrum and barbatum.

Mazus rugosus. To Hurdwar; and to 7400 feet, Binsur.

Nepeta graciliflora, ditto.

Ficus laminosa, Kosilla, Dhikolee Pass, and every similar spot on

to the Ganges at Tupoobun.

Chilkiya, p. 388.

Gwatteria Korinti, (at Gybwa.)

Trophis aspera, “‘ Roosa’’

Rubus distans.

In the market here, the fronds of Adiantum capillus veneris and

4u2

620 The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon. [JunE,

venustum are sold in considerable quantities under the name of Huns-

raj (Toolsee in the hills,) bemg used as a dye.

At pp. 392, 441, 442, some confusion has crept into the enumera-

tion of some of the species of Sinapis, which will be best cleared up by

a simple statement of their corrected names,

Sinapis dichotoma, ‘ Juria,” ‘‘ Judia,”’ also “‘ Luhota” and ‘‘ Lyhta’’

in the Bhabur ; ‘“‘ Kalee-surson’’ of Northern India.

Sinapis glauca, Roxb. ‘ Rara,” “ Rada.’ ‘ Bunga-surson’”’ of Se-

harunpoor and the Dehrah Doon. ‘“ Peela, Peoora (i. e., yellow and usl

Surson, and often ‘“‘Surson’’ simply, of Oude and Rohilkhund. The

Kumaoon plant is exceedingly like Brassica Napus, grown from Euro-

pean seed.

Sinapis glauca. Royle, and Edgeworth, account of protected Sikh

States: not noticed in the Flora Indica. ‘‘ Dyn,” ‘‘ Daeen,”’ “‘ Laee’’

of Kumaoon and Gurhwal : sometimes ‘‘ Khetiya,” ‘‘'Toree” and “ To-

ria,” (s. fuerza, pungent) of northern India, where this variety or spe-

cies is in general cultivation, including the Himalaya up to the villages

of Joohar, at 11,000 feet elevation.

The ‘‘ Teera’”’ from Benares, p. 392, is the “‘ Raee’’ and ‘ Mukura

Raee”’ of p. 442 ; its specific name is still unknown to me.

Huldwanee, pp. 395—399.

Saccharum Sara or Munja. The lower half of the culm is called

sentha and serput; the upper half, sirkee moon) ; rope is made from

the leaf-sheaths. From Sir William Jones’ expressions, it would ap-

par that munja is simply the culm of S. sara: ‘from the moonja or

culm of the Sara was made the maunji, or holy thread, ordered by

Menu to form the sacerdotal girdle, in preference even to the cusa

grass.” The plant generally called Moon) is abundant along the banks

of the Ganges at Hurdwar, and generally along the base of the moun-

tains and up the vallies to 3500 feet; the brahminical thread called

juneo, when first worn, is still formed of its fibre: and in connection

with the constant use of the culm for arrows, may originally have

represented the bowstring. It agrees best with Roxburgh’s S. Munja,

and at Hurdwar and in Gurhwal, is still commonly known by the San-

skrit term surkura,—the origin of sugar in every language: the root

being svi, to hurt. The application is not very clear, till we recollect

the resemblance of the sugar-cane to Saccharum Munja, and the arrow-

1849. | The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon. 621

shafts (swra) furnished by the latter : the weapon, therefore, preceded

the luxury. The Sat or Kilk reed-pen is the culm of Saccharum fus-

cum, not S. Semidecumbens.

Arundo? Khyla. This reed is very common in Gurhwal, where also

it is considered poisonous to cattle, and has the name of “ Bichhra.”

Imperata cylindrica. ‘‘Shiro,” ascends to 7500 feet.

Saccolabium papillosum (Cymbidium premorsum of Roxburgh) is

the orchid which covers Ulmus integrifolia.

Plectranthus ternifolia: common in the grass Bhabur, and up the

great vallies to 3500 feet.

Stipularia flaccida, (Arenaria flaccida of Roxburgh, who notes its

resemblance to Spergula arvensis,) is abundant in the rubbee cultiva-

tion of the Bhabur.

Albizzia (Acacia) stipulata; common in the forests of the outer

ranges.

Flemingia strobilifera: open forests of the Bhabur.

Sephalica, p. 398. Neither Vitex nor Nyctanthes supplying the re-

quisite conditions, a final attempt to identify the plant will be admitted.

In Ward’s View of the Hindoos, Poetry, part 3, Vol. II. 381, we

have the following passage in an address to the ‘ Koomoodu, which

expands its flowers only in the night.” ‘Thou dost not shew even

thy face to the sun, yet thou renouncest not the bee (who lodges in

thy bosom all night.’’?) Here, then, is a fact, real or poetical, involving

the etymology of the term in question. Now Roxburgh (II. 577,)

has Koomooda as the Sanskrit name of Nymphcea Lotus (pubescens)

with white flowers, but the synonyme Neelica, as well as the Umur-

kosh, quoted by Sir W. Jones, implies that blue is the usual color :

*‘ When the Sephalica has white flowers, it is named Swetasurasa and

Bhutavesi.” (ds. Res. IV. 258.) The probability therefore is that

Nymphecea cyanea with ‘‘ flowers beautifully azure,’ (Sir W. Jones,) or

the blue variety of Nelumbium speciosum reported to exist in Cash-

meer, is the plant originally intended. Sir William explains Koomooda

to signify “ Delight of the waters,” which, though applicable to any

beautiful aquatic plant, he would refer to Menyanthes (Villarsia) indica ;

and we find M. cristata with ‘* Koomoodwutee,”’ ‘‘ Koomoodinee,” as

its names, in the Flora Indica. The curled petals, and long white fila-

ments of the corolla and nectary of these white-flowering plants, are

622 The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon. [JuNE,

exactly such as the mountaineers of the Himalaya still designate by

some term compounded of Bhoot, a goblin, aspirit : Bhootkes, “ ghost’s

hair,” being applied to several plants with finely cleft leaves and flowers,

or furnished with copious long tomentum. Swetasurasa may denote

‘like a white angel;’? but Dr. Wilson says, ‘‘ White Rasan,”’ Ophi-

oriza mangos, to which it is compared; a plant I am not aquainted

with, nor is it certain that Rasna is properly so rendered. The syno-

nymes of the Umurkosh, not at present within my reach, might tend to

establish this identification ; but, right or wrong, Nyctanthes is clearly

excluded, being never blue: the Kumaoon pundits all consider it to be

the ‘ Parijat,”’ pared down to mundane attributes ; in color of flower it

comes near the Villarsias.

Several trees are to be found in the Sewalik and Bhabur of Gurhwal

which have not hitherto been met with in Kumaoon.

Such are Pongamia glabra, Boswellia glabra, Cochlospermum gossy-

pum, Feronia elephantum and Limonia crenulata; the last suddenly

makes its appearance in great abundance a few miles S. KH. of Laldhang :

some of the others would not be recognized, being leafless all the cold

weather. Batis spinosa (or aurantiaca?) the ‘‘ Kangoo” and “ Manda,”

of the Dehrah Doon, I have not seen S. E. of the Ganges. It has a

fruit the size of a small custard-apple, repening in November, and not

unlike the Maclura aurantiaca or Osage orange ; while Roxburgh de-

scribes his with fruit the size of a pea. The natives of the plains gener-

ally mistake the Doon shrub for Flacourtia cataphracta, and call it

Puniyala and Puchnala.

Bheemtal, p. 403, 404.

Urtica (not Boehmeria) frutescens, ‘ Poee,’’ ‘ Phoosur puta ;” it

comes near Urtica pulcherrima of Roxburgh, and is common to the

Ganges in Lower Gurhwal, where it is called “‘Dhoula Kagshee ;”’ the

«* Pooah”’ of Nepal and Sikhim (also at p.587.) Vide Journal Agri.

and Hort. Soc. Bengal, Vol. VI. p. 135.

Hedera elata? tree of 30 feet, Sat Tal.

Hedera terebinthacea (not parasitica: and also p. 352.)

Casearia tomentosa.

Sabia paniculata (not campanulata, which has purple, not green

flowers, as represented by Dr. Wallich ; it is very common in Kumaoon :

the drupes when ripe are of an ultra-marine blue.

1849. | The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon. 623

Biophytum sensitivum, to 3500 feet.

Commelyna Donii.

Uraria lagopus.

Pueraria tuberosa, to 4500.

Wendlandia puberula.

Sapindus acuminatus.

Clematis Gouriana, to 4500.

Adiantum lunulatum.

Dalbergia Ougeinensis. To 5000 feet, and far up the great vallies.

The Vernacular Sanun,* Sandun, Sunduni, &c., universally employed in

the Bengal Presidency, are from the Sanskrit “‘ Syundun,” “ Syunduni,”

*‘ Syundan-droom,”—“‘ tree of the war-chariot,”’ indicating the use for-

merly made of the timber, which would probably be found an excellent

material for the spokes aud felloes of wheels, &c. It is still in high

estimation in Kumaoon, and many parties may be seen returning from

their annual visit to the Bhabur with a small supply for their ploughs,

&e.

The lake at Bheem Tal is 64 feet deep. (ds. Res. XIII. 309.)

The followmg grow in or by it, in addition to those enumerated at

p. 406 :—

Vallisneria spiralis.

(Enanthe stolonifera.

* Balanites Aigyptiaca. The vernacular names indicate the Sanscrit Hingooe

putree and Hingoo-purnee, ‘‘ asafoetida leaf.’’ I do not recollect the odour of the

leaf, but ‘‘ the pulp of the fruit has an offensive greasy smell.’’ (Roxburgh.)

One or two more identifications of the vernacular with the classical may be

added.

‘* Talisputra,’’ ‘* Mountain-leaf.’’ A leaf used in medicine (Wilson) is probably

Rhododendron anthopogon, well known to the mountaineers of Busehur as ‘‘ Tal-

sir.’’ The leaves are much more aromatic than those of R. lepidotum, to which

Dr. Royle refers ‘‘ Taleesfur.’’ ‘‘ Chora,”’ (Wilson’s Dictionary.) Traill in As.

Res. XVII. 9, is the ordinary term in Busehur and Gurhwal for Mr. Edgeworth’s

Angelica glauca; ‘‘ Gundhrain’”’ in Kumaoon, and ‘‘ Cheepee’’ of the Bhotias.

‘¢Chumpa’”’ is referred by Dr. Wilson to Bauhinia variegata, but is more proba-

bly Michelia Kisopa, Doltsopa, &c. which, with several Magnolias, are called

Champ in Nepal and Sikhim.

‘“Toong,’’ Rottlera tinctoria, according to Wilson, but in the British Himalaya

universally used for Rhus velutina and parviflora.

624 The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon.- [JuNE,

Pontedera vaginalis, and at 5700 near Shamkhet.

Potamogeton natans, perfoliatum, pectinatum.

The plant which is entered Scirpus lacustris, grows 10 feet high,

flowers in May, and is not to be distinguished from the English Bull-

rush.

Shamkhet valley, p. 408. Here at 5500 feet, we have

Thalictrum rupestre.

Michelia kisopa.

Hydrocotyle tenella (Nepalensis.)

Jasminum chrysanthemum.

Desmodium polycarpum.

Euphorbia hirsuta.

Potentilla nepalensis and splendens.

Rubus rotundifolius (Goureephul), and an unknown species allied to

it, but very green and glossy ; in shade only, to 7300, Gagur Pass, Bin-

sur ; affinis provisionally, from its resemblance to R. Goureephul and

Wallichianus.

Agrimonia nepalensis.

Silene inflata.

Geranium Wallichianum.

Cedrela serrata.

Evonymus tingens and Hamiltoniana.

Tlex dipyrena.

Viburnum cylindricum.

Sedum multicaule.

Primula denticulata and speciosa.

Lysimachia debilis.

Androsace sarmentosa.

cane cena \ Scarcely under 7000 ft. at Simlah.

Echenais arachnoidea.

Barkhausia aspera, at p. 434, this is erroneously marked N. S. ; it is

the European plant, and is pretty common in cornfields and waste

lands from this level to about 7500.

Tulipa stellata, at Sireenugur in Gurhwal ; this plant descends to

1800 feet; the elevation of the Chirapanee Pass, estimated at 7000

feet, p. 578, is exaggerated ; the actual height by barometer is 6454.

1849. | The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon. 625

Gagur Pass, p. 411.

Rubus affinis (Mihi) and another, unknown.

Crassula indica (not sempervirum.) Common at Simlah.

Acar levigatum, common here; also on Binsur, and at Udwanee in

Gurhwal.

Viscum verticelliflorum, on Quercus incana, to 7500.

Loranthus vestitus.

Hypericum perforatum.

Symplocos nervosa, (probably S. sumuntia of Don’s Prodromus, and

S. lucida of J. A. 8S. April 1833.) A small evergreen tree, common on

the north side of the Pass, and in similar shady places on Binsur, Boora

Pinnath, &c., and Punjok Khal in Gurhwal, from 6000 to 8000 feet.

The leaves are beautifully glossy. S. Loha grows on Siyahee Devee.

Lysimachia debilis.

Hedyotis Lindleyana.

Gardnera ovata.

Bryum serpyllifolium.

Dolichos glutinosus, (nearly) at 6000 feet.

Ramgur valley, p. 416.

Barleria cristata.

Verbena officinalis. This may be adduced as another instance

(p. 356) of an European species limited to the warmer region of the

Himalaya, from 2000 to 7000 feet, so far as I have observed it. So

we have Geranium molle in great abundance, associated with Acacia

Catechu, at 1200—1500 feet, along the Ganges between Tupoobun and

Deopryag, flowering in February.

Deodara Pass, p. 415.

Buddlea crispa, ‘‘ Doosheria.”” The shrub so named, common every-

where from Busehur to Kumaoon, at 5000 to 7500 feet, appears to be

B. paniculata of Wallich (Flora Indica, I. 412) and Don, (Prodromus,)

B. tomentosa of Hamilton.

Salix, an arborescent species is common here between 5500 and 6500

feet, and in many similar shady localities in the province ; it is dian-

drous, polyspermous (often 5,) with lanceolate leaves, glaucous and

sericeous beneath. It is probably S. cuspidata, Don. S. tetrasperma

fringes the Ramgur stream fully up to 5000 feet.

Peoorah, p. 416.

626 The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon. [JuneE,

Viburnum cylindricum.

Disporum Pitsutum, common also on Binsur, Siyahee, Boora Pin-

nath and Fagoo.

The “‘ Neoula’”’ mentioned at p. 420, is Bucco grandis. The story goes

that its lamentable cry is the expression of its feelings on the loss of a

awsult! The loud bell-note of another species (B. caniceps) is equally

remarkable in the forests of the Bhabur. The cause of the Singor

(Athene Brodiei,) and generally of the owl family, making their appear-

ance only by night, is explained in Kumaoon by the legend, that having

originally none of their own, they dressed themselves in plumes borrow-

ed from all their neighbours ; but repudiating this loan, are invariably

chased and beaten by these latter whenever they venture abroad in the

day time !

Almorah, pp. 423—445.

Clematis gracilis, Edgeworth, at 7500 feet on Binsur.

Diclytra scandens. Found at Bala Jagesur by Lieut. Strachey, at

Mussooree by Mr. Edgeworth.

Corydalis paniculata, 3700 feet, is a misprint for 7300.

Jasminum dichotomum. Don. Bhyns Khet, near: Hawulbagh, pro-

bably J. angustifolium, Roxb.

(Enanthe stolonifera, (on the Suwal.)

Ptychotis anethifolia. ‘‘ Dhunjurree.”

Hedera parasitica. Binsur, at 7400 feet :—on Rhododendron.

Hedera terebinthacea. Kosilla.

®nothera grandiflora, (not longiflora.)

Berberis nepalensis, ‘‘ Chotura.” In great abundance on Binsur*

from 7000 to 8000 feet. The ‘“Jumne Mundroo” of Kirkpatrick’s

Nepal.

Polygala Rothiana.

Juglans regia, ‘‘ Ukhor,” a few trees wild on Binsur at 7500.

Euphorbia angustifolia (dracunculoides, Roxb.) From the Bhabur

forests to 6000 feet ; about which point it is succeeded by E. hirsuta.

* A few plants, not met with elsewhere in the vicinity of Almorah, will be found

referred to this mountain, a very fine one, close on 8000 feet elevation, about 12

miles from that station to the N. E. It separates the smaller affluents of the Kosilla

from those of the Surjoo. There are several Binsurs and Binesurs in Gurhwal, all

sacred to Mahadeva, probably as Bindh-eswur, ‘‘ Lord of the Vindhya;’’ or Bi-

naik-eswur, which is equivalent to Baal-peor.

ee —

1849.] The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon. 627

Leptopus (Phyllanthus) cordifolius. (Cluytia of p. 426.)

Silene conoidea, abundant in the cornfields.

Melianthus major. A solitary plant of what seems to be this species

has existed from time immemrial in the Government Tea Plantation,

Hawulbagh, formerly the property of Sir Robert Colquhoun, from

whom Dr. Wallich received a portion of his Kumaoon specimens, and

who has been accordingly commemorated by a genus of the Labiate:

In Dr. Royle’s Illustrations, p. 154, we are told that the Doctor’s plant

collectors obtained a species of Melianthus on “the lofty mountains of

Kumaoon,”’ and Dr. Lindley (Vegetable Kingdom) apparently alludes

to this circumstance when he says that Melianthus is remarkable for

being found both at the Cape of Good Hope and in Nepal without any

intermediate station.”’ (Dr. Royle, Illustrations, p. 25, mentions it as a

plant not found in Nepal.) Now, a considerable number of these lofty

mountains of Kumaoon have beén explored by Lieut. Strachey, Mr.

Winterbottom, and myself, and we could scarcely have missed so con-

spicuous a shrub if it existed in any of the localities visited. So far

therefore, as this negative evidence is of value, added to the probability

of the Hawulbagh plant being one of the Cape species, introduced from

Calcutta or Seharunpoor, the anomaly of geographical distribution is

explained and removed. The Hawulbagh species has never flowered

recently, and may be new, introduced from our lofty mountains ; or it

may be M. major, and quite unconnected: with the specimens alluded

to by Dr. Royle, but the presence with it of pear, apple, plum, and

other fruit trees, and flowering shrubs, manifestly from some Botanic

Garden in the plains, with the absence of all specification as to the site

of Dr. Wallich’s specimens, is suspicious ; and “ plant-collectors”’ are

glad enough to load their Herbaria with garden specimens, and

for the most part not enthusiastic at all in exploring “‘ lofty mountains.”

About 3 years since M. minor was in flower in General Tapp’s garden at

Subathoo ; and Ulex Europceus at Simlah ; where his (native) gardener

assured me the latter was from the interior. Both were undoubted

exotics, introduced by the General. Dr. Wallich’s collectors may have

supposed the Hawulbagh Melianthus—if this be M. major, and sup-

plied the specimens in question—to be indigenous; the question can

only be set at rest by a comparison of these with authentic ones of the

Cape plant. That the identical species should occur in both countries

4m 2

628 The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon. (June,

is extremely unlikely ; the Himalaya having otherwise only one repre-

sentative of the order as defined by Dr. Lindley ; viz., a species of tri-

bulus, found and figured at Leeo in upper Koonawur, by Mr. Charles

Horne, C. S.* It should be added however, that Mr. Wm. Griffith

(Journal of Travels, pp. 264, 265) mentions a Melianthus at 9500 feet

near Jaisa, in northern Bhotan.

Zizyphus jujuba.

Reseda odorata. Becomes perennial at Almorah as at Algiers.

Rubus tiliaceus. ‘‘ Kutrola,”’ ‘ Kutrota:” (R. cordifolius, Don.)

Potentilla supina, at 7400, on Binsur, and at Hurdwar. ~

Potentilla Wallichiana ; a third species is undetermined.

Indigofera polyphylla.

Flemingia nana? Roxburgh; a small shrub, 3 to 5 inches high. Al-

morah.

Flemingia procumbens, Roxburgh, is no doubt the plant formerly

entered here as Dolichos, ‘‘ Mooskela.” It is so called (mouse-plan-

tain) from the form of its tubers, which are occasionally dug up and

eaten by the poor. The plant reaches nearly to the summit of Luriya

Kanta, and to 8500 feet, or more, near Nagkunda. I have not seen

the deciduous calyx bracteoles mentioned by Roxburgh, and one of the

two ovules seems generally abortive.

Eriosema ——————. This is Crotolaria tuberosa of Don, Pyrrhotri-

chia tuberosa, W. and A. .

Urtica caudigera.

Ficus virgata, (not rotundifolia.) ‘ Beroo,”’ ‘“ Bedoo.”’ It is arbo-

rescent with ashy white bark and edible fruit, the size of a large goose-

berry ; and so far does not tally with Roxburgh’s description.

Aerua scandens (not lanata.)

Polygonum Posumbu (Don.) near P. barbatum.

Stephania Wightii. Clypea of p. 431.

Campanula canescens (not ramulosa.)

* In Mr. Horne’s numerous and interesting drawings may also be recognized

three other plants new to Himalayan Botany :—

1. A Symphytum, at Bhyroo Ghattee on the Bhagiruthee.

2. Calystegia sepium, at Reeba in upper Koonawur.

3. Tamus (like Cretica) at Rukchum on the upper Buspa.

ee ee

1849, | The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon. 629

Campanula agrestis. Wallich, Kosilla and Suwal at 4000.

Oreoseris gossypina (not lanuginosa.)

Spermacoce lasiocarpa (not stricta: but very like it.)

Cyathocline lyrata: Tanacetum purpureum. Don’s Prod.

Inula vestita, rare and dwarfed.

Blumea interrupta; N.S., extremely fragrant.

Erigeron Roylei (not Aster bellidifolia.) <‘‘ Murch-mool.”

Amphirapis pubescens (Solidago Nepalensis, Don.)

Bidens Wallichiana. The species so named here, may possibly be

new: B. gigantea, as it is from 6 to 8 feet high near Bagesur ; occurs

from the base of the mountains to 7500.

Tricholepis elongata: (not reticulata.)

Thesium Himalense, (Royle,) common at 6500 feet on Binsur,

Ixeris hastata. Binsur, 7500. Common at Lohba House, Gurhwal,

5500.

Galium ciliatum, Don. Binsur, 7300.

Dipsacus inermis.

Mesa argentea. ‘‘ Phoosera.”’ 5500. Western glens of Binsur.

Fruit edible.

Cynoglossum prostratum, Don.

Orthosiphon virgatus. Common on the Kosilla.

Leucas hyssopifolia, (not Indica.)

Zapania nodiflora, to 4500.

Premna herbacea, (not barbata.)

Linaria ramossima, (not incana. )

Wulfenia Amherstiana. Common on Binsur at 7000 to 7500.

Scrophularia obtusa, N. S. near auriculata, p. 435.

Leptorhabdos (Sopubia) parviflora. Binsur, 6500.

Sopubia scabra v. trifida, (not Gerardia delphinifolia.) Common on

warm grassy slopes at 6000—6500, from Simlah to Almorah.

Pergularia pallida. Kosilla, at 4000.

Crinum toxicarium. ‘ Chundur-Kouwul” of p. 437.

Phenix humilis? on very warm aspects this, in a very dwarfed

state, reaches 7000 feet on Binsur. The fruit ripens at Almorah

in July, and is then of a black, purple color. What little pulp

there is, is sweet and the dates are eaten by the poor. In their

color, that of the spadix, and minor points, the fructification bears a

630 The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon. [ JUNE,

very close resemblance to Phoenix Sylvestris, as described by Dr. Griffith,

(Calcutta Journal of Nat. Hist. No. 19,) who was evidently inclined

to consider this last, Ph. acaulis, and Ph. dactylifera but as gradations

of one form.—Such a view seems very probable from the apparent

impossibility of finding good characters to define these so called

species.

Uropetalum. So Mr. Edgeworth thinks the blank may be filled up,

line 7, p. 438.

Juncus dichotomus (not bufonius.)

*Commelyna salicifolia.

Remusatia capillifera (not vivipara.) See ante.

Pothos decursiva? <‘ Kelounia.”” A very handsome species, at

about 4000 feet, east face of Binsur.

Andropogon Calamus-aromaticus (or Martini.) This plant is called

Rhoonsee in central India, and it is curious that at Syree (below Simlah)

where it is abundant, the name is ‘‘ Reoonsh,” and “ Dig-reoonsh.”’

Anthisteria arundinacea to 4000 on the Suwal.

Manisurus granulatus.

Leptothrium Roylei.

Pogonantherum polystachyum.

Spodiopogon laniger.

Brachypodium Nepalense.

Fimbristylis communis.

Mariscus cyperinus.

Trichelostylis junciformis.

Kyllingia multiceps.

Cyperus Iria.

Cyperus tegetum. (Papyrus pangorei?) is the plant entered as

**Motha,” p. 440. It occurs wild, but is also cultivated on the bor-

* In the original paper, Murdannia scapiflora is inserted here, I suspect errone-

ously. The plant intended scarcely descends below 5000 feet; flowers in August

with leafy scape, and is probably Aneilema longifolia. It is common along the Gagur

range, up to 7000 feet, and is also found at Simlah and Mussoree. Murdannia

scapiflora, on the other hand, flowers in May with a leafless scape, and does not, to

my knowledge, ascend above 4000 feet, asat the Sat Tal, near Bheem Tal. The

flowers are very like, and Dr. Royle (Illustrations, p. 403,) appears to consider the

plants identical.

1849. | The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon. 631

ders of inundated fields for the sake of the very durable mats made

of its culms.

Botrychium lanuginosum.

Sinapis, pp. 441, 442. Vide corrections ante, p. 619.

Amaranthus farmaceus, (not anardana.)

Amaranthus caudatus (not speciosus.)

Cucurbita citrullus, “‘Turbooz.’’ Not common.

Dolichos sinensis, ‘‘ Lohbia.’’? Gardens. During powerful sunshine,

the leaflets of D. catjang may be observed in motion much lke that

of Desmodium gyrans.

Soja hispida, “ Bhut.” This pulse, though reckoned unwholesome.

and only consumed by the poorest classes, is extensively grown in Ku-

maoon, and is evidently of old standing, as many leguminous shrubs ;

Desmodium, &c., take their names “ Bhutola,’’ from it, as others,

* Guhutya,” from Dolichos uniflorus. The cultivation of Soja extends,

I am assured, to Nepal and the north of Tirhoot, under the name of

** Bhutnas” or “ Bhutwas ;”’ a circumstance not noted in our books on

their agriculture.

_P. 448, Acacia dumosa. This shrub, or small tree, not observed

elsewhere im Kumaoon, is common in Gurhwal up to the Ganges, and

appears to be confined to the banks of the streams and rivers where

they enter the plains and Doons. It is generally known by the same

names, Keekur and Bubool, as A. arabica. The pinnz are 3—5, the

leaflets 4—10; glands various, and in its young branches, petioles,

thorns, very villous with rufous down. It disagrees with the account in

W. and A.’s Prodromus. The flowers are white, probably in December

or January ; it is in young fruit in February. The peduncles solitary or

in pairs, equal to, or twice as long as the leaves, with umbel of 3—7

legumes ; 5—S8 seeded, flat, smooth, linear, nearly straight, pendulous,

3—5 inches long, by less than a quarter of an inch broad; the border

with a long shallow sinus between each seed. This form seems the main

differex.ce from A. latronum.

Burmdeo and Poonagiri, p. 571.

Wendlandia puberula.

Bambusa stricta, Roxb. is the common species of the Turaee and

lower mountains.

Briedelia scandens, reaches the Suniya jungles.

632 The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon. [JuNE,

Chhirrapanee, p. 578.

Eria convallarioides (Octomeria spicata, Don.) ‘‘ Guroor-punja,”’ it

abounds in Kumaoon on Quercus incana up to 7500 feet.

Androsace sarmentosa, not lanuginosa, is the plant which occurs here,

and in all equivalent localities. A. lanuginosa is found at great heights

along the snowy range from Busehur to Kumaoon. Each plant is

sarmentose and woolly, and Don has confounded them.

Ramesur, p. 586.

Saurawja nepalensis: bis, p. 589. Sauravia is a misprint.

Cantharospermum, a great climber, with yellow flowers in February,

March, occurs here and in the forests of the Bhabur to Hurdwar.

Gungolee Bridge, p. 587.

Wendlandia exserta, var.

Pittosporum floribundum.

Lysionotus serratus (or ternifolius,) a common shrub on the Surjoo

nearly up to Kupkot.

Evonymus virgatus, N. S.

Ceanothus micropetalus, N. S.

Ocotea lanceolaria.

Tetranthera Roxburghii. ‘ Gur-beejour ;” from some resemblance

of its leaves to those of the citron.

Urtica frutescens (not Boehmeria tenacissima.)

Blumea laciniata, vel N. S. procera.

Rhabdia sericea (Edgeworth.) This shrub, which is procumbent,

with stems as thick as one’s wrist, and 5 to 6 feet long, abounds in the

bed of the Surjoo from this spot to the junction of the Reethagar

stream, abreast of Binsur, and probably considerably farther in each

direction. Mr. Edgeworth, about the same time, discovered another

species in the Cane river near Banda, the genus being previously un-

known in India.

Acacia Smithiana.

Hymenodictyon flaccidum.

rs ns la, ie By Lieutenant Strachey.

Geniosporum strobiliferum.

The ‘ Roogee”’ mentioned at p. 588, is not an Actea, but belongs

to an order intermediate between Cruciferee and Papaveracee ; and to a

1849. | The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon. 633

genus which Mr. Edgeworth proposes to name “ Stracheya,’’ after

Messrs. John and Richard Strachey, who first discovered the plant near

the sources of the Pindur. It is not uncommon at similar altitudes

(12000 feet) on the Gauree to the eastward ; and Mr. Winterbottom

found it, or a very similar species, on the lofty passes between Kashmir

and little Tibet. Raised from seed or imported mature from the Hima-

laya, it speedily perishes at Almorah.

P. 590. Rhynchosia pseudo-cajan. ‘“‘Shialee,” ‘‘ Phoosur-puta.”’

P. 595. Chamerops. The actual stature of this Palm on Thakil

mountain is here considerably underrated. In December 1848, Mr.

Winterbottom, without searching out the loftiest trees, measured one,

the bole of which was 46 feet, 4 inches, with a crown of perhaps 34 feet

more ; another stem was 363 feet, and no doubt some attain 50. Mr.

W. was fortunate enough to visit the spot when these Palms were cover-

ed with snow. Dr. Hoffmeister mentions this Chamzerops on Dhun-

poor in Gurhwal. |

P. 607. The bitter Olea mentioned here is probably O. compacta ;

it is common by brooks in the warmer vallies of Kumaoon and Kyoon-

thul, (Simlah.)

Clematis montana. This species is abundant in Kumaoon and Gurh-

wal at 6500 to 7000 feet, where it apparently disappears, but only to

be replaced by what may be considered a variety, becoming however,

more and morc luxuriant till, at 8000 feet, Fagoo woods, and 10,000 feet

elevation on Doodootolee mountain in Gurhwal, and others in Kumaoon,

it attains its maximum, climbing 20 to 30 feet up Abies Webbiana,

which it covers with sheets of large blossoms, of the purest white, with

the fragrance of Meadow-sweet ; variety or species, it is the handsomest

of the genus.

Near Somesur, p. 610.

Mimulus gracilis. By water-courses.

Boora-Pinnath, p. 614.

Evonymus echinatus, is the blank species ; E. japonicus is now consi-

dered to be distinct, and is named by Dr- Wallich pendulus ; a tree of

40 feet, with yellow bark like E. tingens.

Vincetoxicum Kunawarense, 9000 feet.

Orobus aurantiacus (not luteus.)

Pyrus vestita. This is the tree which, at Diwalee, (J. A. S. March

4 N

§34 The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon. [JuNE,

1847, p. 246,) under the name of ‘‘ Moulee’ is named P. crenata :

and Loudon (Arboretum I]. 912,) is inclined to identify crenata

of Don, with vestita of Wallich. The same name is applied.to this

species N. W. to Busehur, by the population immediately next the

Himalaya, who, in all this tract, appear in many cases to have preserved

the same, or but slightly modified names for the same plants; from

which may be inferred identity of race. In the lower provinces of the

mountains, on the other hand, the case is very different; more open

to invasion, though scarcely more worthy of it, the population has been

more mixed, and the dialects so altered that very few of the vernacular

terms for plants proper to Simlah are m use at Almorah.

P. 618. Symplocos paniculata (not racemosa, which does not ap-

pear to ascend the mountains.)

P. 625. Ligustrum bracteolatum, is a common shrub in the Sutralee

valley, at 4500 feet, and follows the course of the streams up to 7500,

on Binsur.

The subjoined errata of the press require correction :—

Po 35001. 9 for 400 read 4000.

ee ee ee 23 insert comma after Gagur, period after Chilkia.

Rit ape, | caer 27.55 ° space »» Span.

2st REGO 48 6 for fullest read falsest.

351367 -%,5 35 ,, pointed ,, painted.

bn SZ GOH, as 7 5, Tiaree >, Jdlaree.

pol gy 31 4, barbatella ,, barbellata.

ease pp 14 ,,. ‘forms >, ferns.

i ADS is, ! BR. ye ete 700 » 7300.

vA 3 24 ,, #Feewaee. ,, Heewaee.

sented | Wie LO 03: 2500 pol B00.

ot eA aa 23. 55 ~Jsolepis ,, Isolepis:

a OF LY g918.21 ,,. , following ;;*° foamme.

somehow 16 ,, deserted ,, desecrated.

» O77 4, last ,, Bunlouree,, Bumouree.

59201999 ..2,3 27 fodgn Vand fy OR:

ot OOMh sh 12....2,, - tron >> fO0m.

pe, SO Dien. 1 ,, crossing ,, cropping.

gs Oia a 55 Bl os pan eaten » That (a@ village.)

BaAsG1G. d, 104. ,, stories »> stones.

5, OLS ¥e 5 21 ,, Doonagiri,, Poonagiri.

1849. | The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon. 635

Identification of the plants found by Major General Hardwick

between Hurdwar, Kotdwara and Sreenugur, in the year 1796, as de-

tailed in the sixth volume of the Asiatic Researches : —

MoNANDRIA MONOGYNIA.

Costus speciosus.

Curcuma (angustifolia.)

Diandria monogynia.

Jasminum 1, (dichotomum of Don, angustifolium, Roxb. )

Jasminum 2, (arborescens.) _

Jasminum 3, (chrysanthemum, Roxburgh, and revolutum, Don:

very probably also J. modorum of Jacquemont; J. Jacquemontii, De-

caisne, and J. chrysanthemoides of Royle.) Hemapooshpika, Sanscrit,

Sona-jahee, or Golden Jessamine of the Vernacular. It occurs from

5500 to 10,000 feet above the sea, and varies considerably in the size of

the leaves, the position of the stamens, &c. The former, as well as

the corolla, are ciliate.

It may be necessary to mention that the Udwanee mountain, where

the General found this and so many more of his plants, is the highest

range between Kotdwara and Sreenugur, being about 12 miles S. 8. W.

of the latter (direct distance) and 7151 feet above the sea, at Ranee-

gurh, the Trigonometrical station.

Justicia (Phlogacanthus) thyrsiflorus.

Salvia integrifolia (lanata.)

TRIANDRIA MONOGYNIA.

Valeriana (Hardwickii.)

TETRANDRIA MONOGYNIA.

Txora tomentosa.

PENTANDRIA MONOGYNIA.

Androsace rotundifolia. (No doubt the General intends the peren-

nial pink species flowering all the year: not Dr. Wallich’s white flower-

ing annual, A. incisa, which alone descends to the Turaee, flowering

only in the cold season and spring. Don (Prodromus) confounds the

two, and I believe that in Europe, the specific names are erroneously

reversed.)

Lonicera quinquelocularis, (diversifolia of Wallich, ) which never climbs.

no other species grows near Udwanee, and this, except in wanting the

5-celled ovary, perfectly agrees with the combined character by Rox-

4 Nn 2

636 The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon. [ JUNE,

burgh and Hardwick: the General was inclined to identify his plant

with Dr. Wallich’s L. ligustrina, but may have intended the next

species, L. diversifolia, procured from Gurhwal. The 5-celled berries

would, taken alone, indicate Leycesteria formosa, but there the resem-

blance ceases; and Dr. Wallich would at once have recognised that

shrub in the General’s drawing; nor could I discover it anywhere in

the Udwanee vallies, where L. diversifolia is abundant. The general

may easily have mistaken the number of cells in a very immature berry,

which, in that stage, much resembles a capsule, and has certainly at

least 3 cells occasionally. Dr. Wallich’s name being rather inappro-

priate, the shrub might be well called Lonicera Hardwickii.

Verbascum Thapsus.

Datura stramonium (alba. )

Ehretia tinifolia (serrata.)

Ventilago (maderaspatana. )

Celastrus scandens (nutans.)

Celastrus 2, (not identified : C. montanus or a species very like it, is

common at such elevations, 4500 ft., all along the mountains.

Cedrela (Tuna. )

Doubtful genus coming near Hirtella, (probably Embelia picta : com-

pare Celastrus rufus, Wallich )

Vitis (lanata.)

Gardenia (Randia) uliginosa.

Gardenia 2, (Randia longispina.)

Gardenia 3, (Randia tetrasperma: G. densa, Wall.) Both descriptions

are of shrubs eaten down by goats: when uninjured, R. tetrasperma as-

sumes a very different appearance, by no means dense, and 10—12 feet

high. The flowers are terminal. It is probably Gardenia rigida of

Don’s Prodromus.

Nerium (Cryptolepis,) reticulata.

Nerium 2, (Wrightia mollissima.)

Kchites antidysenterica, (Holarrhena pubescens.)

Genus not determined, (Evonymus tingens.)

PENTANDRIA DIGYNIA.

Apocynum, (Vallaris dichotoma.)

Asclepias. Doubtful. (Hoya viridiflora.)

Herniaria. Doubtful. (Deeringia celosioides.)

1849.] The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon. 637

Gentiana nana, (marginata.)

PENTANDRIA TRIGYNIA.

Gouania nepalensis, Wallich. The General’s description is imperfect,

and even erroneous, but from its abundance, there can be little doubt

this is the shrub intended.

_PENTANDRIA PENTAGYNIA.

Linum trigynum: shrubby, grows to be a spreading bush, about 4

feet high. Stem and branches erect. (This shrub is common every-

where from the base of the mountains to above 7500 feet, where it dis-

appears. Except in the pale sulphur-yellow, and delicate fragrance of

the flowers, it differs in no way from the shrub of our Indian gardens.

Wight and Arnott suppose the Bengal and Nepal plant to be L. repens

of Don, and so it is no doubt, the latter species being constituted solely

from its appearance on the banks and terrace walls, where it is annually

(with other shrubs) clipped down by the cultivators, as well as constant-

ly nibbled by the cattle ; the natural position is erect, and the height is

sometimes 6 to 7 feet. Dr. Royle is inclined to consider L. cicanoba

as a probable variety of L. trigynum, and Mr. Bentham to identify

the last with repens : we have then only left, L. tetragynum, which is

assuredly a mere accident; 5 or more styles being occasionally met

with, either free or in various stages of cohesion up to the “ semi-trigy-

num” of Hamilton.

HEXANDRIA MONOGYNIA.

Berberis ilicifolia, (identified by Roxburgh with his B. asiatica. From

the Kali to the Bhagiruthi there is certamly no species which can be

mistaken for it ; and unless an abrupt change occurs at Mussooree, it is

B. lycium of Royle. The latter however is well known there by the

name “ Kingora,’’ which is also the designation of B. asiatica S. E. to

the Nyar, where, as in Kumaoon, Kilmora becomes the term used. B.

aristata occur on Udwanee, but the General does not appear to have

discriminated it.)

HEXANDRIA TRIGYNIA.

Rumex Agyptius (Wallichianus), and acetosella (hastatus. The last

occurs from the foot of the mountains to 8500 feet, and perhaps higher.)

OcTANDRIA MONOGYNIA.

Polygonum convolvulus (pterocarpum.)

ENNEANDRIA MONOGYNIA.

638 The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon. _—[JuNE,

Laurus cassia (cinnamomum albiflorum. )

DECANDRIA MONOGYNIA.

Bauhnia scandens (Vahlii.)

Bauhinia variegata.

Guilandina moringa, (Moringa pterygosperma.)

Murraya exotica.

Melia azadirachta (probably the Bukayun, not the Neem, is intend-

ed, the last is rare in the forests ; indeed I did not observe it at Kot-

dwara, where the Bukayun is common, though perhaps not wild. Not-

withstanding all that Dr. Royle has written on the subject, it seems

quite unnecessary to make the ‘‘ Bukayun’”’ a new species of Melia ; it

agrees perfectly with the Melia azedarach of Roxburgh, Wight and

Arnott, and Loudon’s Encyclopedia, where the description of the

drupes tallies with Dr. R.’s account (p. 141, Illustrations) of the Bu-

kayun ; and certainly the tree of Provence, Egypt, &c., is no other ;—

nor do the people of northern India generally (and apparently of Nepal)

know of any other. Munshi Murdan Ali, of Seharunpoor, informs

me that the ‘‘ Dek” is a mere variety, only differing from the Bukayun

by a more spreading habit, which gives less shade; and one of the

Seharunpoor gardeners now employed at Hawulbagh, on being asked

what was the “ Dek,’’ poimted at once to the Bukayun, which I have

heard termed ‘‘ Dykna’’ in Gurhwal, and “ Jek’’ near Simla. The

size, as well as the form and number of the leaflets on each pinna of

the Bukayun differ so considerably even on the same branch, as to

remove any reliance on this kind of test ; and yet it so happens that

Messrs. Weight and Arnott found Roxburgh’s own specimens of M.

azedarach and sempervirens so much alike as to appear as if cut from

the same tree. ‘Dr. Roxburgh also states the Bukayun to be a native

of Persia, though common throughout India, and that its Arabic

name is Ban. This, in addition to the specimens in the East India

Herbarium, perfectly identifies his plant with that of northern India.”

(Royle.) But the plant so named by Roxburgh is his Melia sempervi-

rens, “a small, delicate, evergreen,’ which is certamly unknown in

northern India, and, from the silence of W. and A. apparently equally

so, in the south. Roxburgh found his plant to coincide with those raised

from West Indian seed of M. sempervirens, which however, so far from

being a small evergreen, is said in Loudon’s Encyclopedia, to be a tree

1849. ] The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon. 639

of 40 feet, considered by some only a variety of the azedarach.”’ As-

suredly no tree is less entitled to the epithet of ‘‘ sempervirens” than

the Bukayun, which for 3 or 4 months annually, is the most marked

of the deciduous trees of northern India. ‘The same species may be

evergreen in the damp and equable temperature of the West Indies ;

and, if we suppose Dr. Roxburgh to have made his descriptions from

very young plants (which in many species are more or less evergreen,)

his M. sempervirens may be accounted for. He states it to be “common

throughout India,’ and to blossom more or less throughout the year,

which is another difficulty, the Bukayun being very periodical, and

flowering at Almorah, for example, in April, May or a month later than

at Meerut.

I cannot find that Dr. Roxburgh identifies his Melia azedarach with

the “Dek,” as distinguished by Dr. Royle from the “‘ Bukayun,” nor

that he had ever heard of such a tree. However, as Dr. Royle has

done so; and as the Bukayun also answers to the description of M.

azedarach, the only conclusion is that they are one and the same, which

is the common opinion in northern India. The Bukayun is a smaller

tree than the Neem, and as muha denotes best, excellent, as well as

great, muha-neem must apply to its blossoms and their odor, rather than

to its dimensions, possibly also to the extreme bitterness of the bark,

an infusion of which is used in the mountains to expel leeches.

The expression ‘“ spreading tree” used by General Hardwick for the

Melia of Kotdwara is exceedingly opposite to the Bukayun, and is an

exact translation of the Persian “ Azad-i-durukht,’’ as well as of its

Sanscrit equivalent, ‘“ Nibundh.”’ The vernacular terms ‘“ Bakarjun’’

of Bengal, and ‘‘ Bukayun’” of Hindoostan, are to be traced in the

Sanscrit roots vwk, vukr, bent, crooked (boughs,) and afford some proof

that the tree is indigenous to India, but in Kumaoon at least it never

occurs to my knowledge but in spots near which it is likely to have been

planted. The people, however, have their own name for it—‘ Betain.”

The fruit remains on. the tree a full year, untouched by beast or bird

excepting the Bulbuls, (Ixos jocosus,) who may be observed devouring

it with avidity, and thus perhaps it has been scattered so far as to in-

duce in some a belief that it is indigenous, as indeed it may be.)

Doubtful, (Garuga pinnata.)

Doubtful, (Rhododendron puniceum, Roxb. arboreum, auct.) —

640 The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon. [ JUNE,

Arbutus, doubtful. (Andromeda ovalifolia, Arbutus herpetica, Roxb.)

DECANDRIA TRIGYNIA.

Banisteria Bengalensis. (Hiptage madablota.)

DECANDRIA PENTAGYNIA.

Spondias myrobalanus (mangifera. )

Sedum album (adenotrichum.)

Oxalis acetosella. On the heights of Chichooa, on a small spot of

pasture. (Dr. Griffith found it near Tongsa in Bhotan ; Journals of

Travels, p. 268. Lieut. R. Strachey at Diwalee and other spots in

northern Kumaoon; and I have lately seen it in abundance at Ludoolee

Ghat, at 7000 feet elevation, on the S. W. face of Doodootolee moun-

tain, 6 or 7 miles from the source of the Nyar river. It flowers in

March and April, and is undistinguishable from the English wood-

sorrel.)

Cerastium alpinum, (triviale.)

Doubtful, (Dentzia staminea, very like D. scabra.)

DoDECANDRIA MONOGYNIA.

Crateeva tapia. (Aigle marmelos or Crateeva nurvala. Both occur,

the first very common. Grislea tomentosa.

DoDECANDRIA TRIGYNIA.

Euphorbia canariensis (pentagona.)

IcOsANDRIA MONOGYNIA.

Punica granatum.

Prunus. (Cerasus Pudum, Prunus sylvatica, Roxb.)

IcOSANDRIA DIGYNIA.

Crateegus. (Cotoneaster microphylla, Roxburgh’s crateegus integri-

folia.)

IcOSANDRIA PENTAGYNIA.

Pyrus (variolosa.)

Spireea (chameedrifolia.)

IcOSANDRIA POLYGYNIA.

Rosa (Brunonis.)

Rubus (Gouree-phul, Roxb., rotundifolius, Wall., flavus, Don. The

name Gouree-phul, signifying claret-purple fruit, is only used in Gurhwal

by the pilgrims from the plains to Budreenath, &c. The mountain name

is “ Heesura’”’ or “ Heesur’’ in Gurhwal, and, more correctly “ Heesa-

loo”? in Kumaoon and Ayshala in Nepal, according to Don, Esealoo, of

1849. ] The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon. 641

Aikin, from the Sanscrit hinsaloo, hurtful, mischievous. So, in northern

India another thorny shrub, Capparis sepiaria, is called Hins, and

Heengs, from the same root, zs, to hurt. Hinsuna, Abrus precatorius,

(Wilson) is therefore, perhaps, more properly Capparis sepiaria.

Heesaloo is R. rotundifolia especially, the black, orange, and other

species are descriminated as Kulia, Jogia-heesaloo, &c.

Rubus ideeus, (identified by Roxburgh with his own roszflorus, dis-

tans, Don; R. lasiocarpus, Smith. IfI am right in identifying it with

R. distans of Don, it is the only species of Himalayan Rubus common

to the plains and mountains, being found in the open country at Chil-

kiya, and as high as 7500 feet. R. goureephul, descends to, but does

not quit the base of the mountains. )

Fragaria sterilis (indica, W. and A. very near F. Malayana, Roxb. but

the peduncles are usually leaf opposed. It grows up to 8000 feet.)

Potentilla fragarioides, (a species common in Gurhwal and Kumaoon ;

not determined, but near P. Leschenaultiana.)

Potentilla reptans (Wallichiana.)

POLYANDRIA MONOGYNIA.

Lagerstroemia montana (regine.)

Doubtful. (Symplocos crateegoides, paniculata, Wall.)

POLYANDRIA POLYGYNIA.

Uvaria (tomentosa. )

DiDYNAMIA GYMNOSPERMIA.

Ballota (Roylea elegans.)

DiDYNAMIA ANGIOSPERMIA.

Bignonia chelonoides (suaveolens. )

Gmelina arborea.

Volkameria? bicolor (Clerodendron odoratum.)

Vitex trifolia, (negundo.)

MONADELPHIA MONOGYNIA.

Careya (arborea, v. pomifera.)

MoNADELPHIA DECANDRIA.

Geranium (bicolor, Royle, and probably ocellatum, Decaisne.)

MONADELPHIA POLYANDRIA.

Bombax Ceiba (malabarica.)

. Bombax (Cochlospermum) gossypium.

« DIADELPHIA DECANDRIA.

642 The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon. [JuNE,

Robinia 1 (Pongamia glabra.)

Robinia 2 (macrophylla.) :

Robinia 3, doubtful. (Pueraria tuberosa. The Kumaoon terms for

this plant all refer to the cat, as Billee, Bilaee-kund, Biralee-poua :—

** cat-root,”” ‘‘ cat-cake,” but why, is difficult to say. Its host of San-

scrit names have no reference to this animal.)

Pterocarpus (Dalbergia sissoo.)

POLYADELPHIA POLYANDRIA.

Hypericum (cernuum.)

SYNGENESIA POLYGAMIA ZQUALIS.

Prenanthes (not recognised, but probably a species of Conyza.)

(Leucomeris spectabilis.)

Leontodon taraxacum (eriopus.)

Hypocheris glabra (Ammoseris patens ?)

Hypocheeris radiata (Tragopogon gracile ?)

SYNGENESIA MONOGAMIA.

Lobelia Kalmii. (Pyramidalis.)

Viola palustris. (Patrinii.)

Impatiens noli-tangere. (Himiltoniana ”)

GYNANDRIA DIANDRIA.

Limodorum (Apaturia Smithiana ?)

Epidendrum 1, (Saccolabium guttatum, or papillosum, or both.)

Epidendrum 2, (unknown. )

GYNANDRIA DECANDRIA.

Helicteres isora.

GYNANDRIA POLYANDRIA.

Grewia 1, (sclerophylla.)

Grewia 2, (elastica.)

Pothos (officinalis. )

MoNZCIA TRIANDRIA.

Phyllanthus grandifolia (Emblica officinalis.)

MoNn#&CIA TETRANDRIA.

Betula, (Alnus nepalensis; according to General H. the leaves are

“‘ ovate, obtuse ;’ Roxburgh says ‘some obtuse, some pomted.” Cer-

tainly the same species is found from the Sutluj to the Kalee, A.

obtusifolia of Royle: but probably A. nepalensis of previous writers.

“The bark is an article of trade into the plains of Hindoostan, said to

1849. | The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon. 643

be used by the manufacturers of Chintz to dye red, known by the name

of Ateess.” Hardwick, who so far justifies Dr. Wilson under Utivi-

sha. But the Gurhwal term is ‘ Ootees.”’

Cicca disticha. Averrhoa acida, Linnzus. Phyllanthus (longifolia)

Roxburgh. (The General writes as if it were wild, but I never met it

in the mountains wild or cultivated.)

Morus 1, (serrata, Roxb. pabularia, Decaisne. It is dizecious.)

Morus 2, (indica.)

Morus 3, (serrata : but mentioned as if monecious.)

MoNCIA POLYANDRIA.

Quercus (incana.)

Juglans regia.

Carpinus, doubtful. (Engelhardtia Colebrookiana.)

MONZCIA MONADELPBIA.

Pinus Teeda (longifolia.)

DiaciA DIANDRIA.

Salix (tetrasperma.)

Diaci1A PENTANDRIA.

Xanthoxylon (alatum. This is probably the “ Iwurantika” or Fever-

dispeller, of the Indian Materia medica, explained by Wilson as a

kind of Neem from Nepal ; which is a tolerable botanical definition as

lexicons go. It is still known as “ Jubrung” in Assam; Griffith.

*‘Tejbul,” the designation in the N. W. Himalaya, is from the S.

Tejovutee, ‘a plant bearing a fruit resembling pepper,” from zeus,

pungency. The capsules are considered very cooling.

Cannabis sativa.

D1ZcCIA DODECANDRIA.

(Tetranthera monopetala. Roxburgh.)

POLYGAMIA MONACIA.

Terminalia alata-glabra (tomentosa.)

Mimosa (Acacia) catechu.

Mimosa 2, near Lebbeck. (Acacia, now Albizzia stipulata, rather

common at the base of the Kumaoon and Gurhwal mountains, as well

as in the warm vallies.)

POLYGAMIA TRIACIA.

Ficus laminosa, (common on the rocks by the river banks, at from

402

644 The Turaee and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon,

1500 to 2500 feet above the sea, from Burmdeo to Tupoobun on the

Ganges.)

Ficus 2. (Luducca of Roxburgh ; common about Almorah as “ Ka-

bra.’’)

Ficus 3. (Chincha, Roxburgh, also common as a shrub in Ku-

maoon, in the low vallies, and in the forests at the foot of the moun-

tains, it becomes a small spreading tree, probably the F. squamosa of

Roxburgh.)

Ficus 4. (Macrophylla.)

Kaiphul. (Myrica sapida. From some external resemblance in

fruit, the strawberry has its mountain name of ‘“ Kuphulia.”’)

Place unknown, Linnean system.

Sterculia villosa. The ‘* Ooddal” of Kumaoon, (Gooddala of Gurh-

wal,) and known by the same name down to Assam ; the mner layers of

the bark making excellent rope. (Griffith,in J. A. 8. April 1839.) We

have also in the Catalogue of woods, J. A. S. for April 1833, Odla given

as the Gwalpara name of Sterculia urens, the bark of which is there said

to afford a coarse rope used in catching wild elephants. Most pro-

bably alluding to the ‘ Oodal’’ of Assam, Sterculia villosa, vide

Journal of Agri. and Hort. Soc. of Bengal, Vol. VI. 139. The word

is Sanscrit, and is explained by Wilson, Cordia myxa or latifolia; but

the etymology from Ood, large, and dul, to split, tear, divide, must

strike every one who sees the process as a strong presumption in favor

of the existing usage of the term. In Khurwa-ooddal, Kumaoon,

Khurdala, Gurhwal, we have a modification of the term to express

Dr. Royle’s yellow variety of Sterculia coccinea.

DLL PPL LDLLDLD LP LLVIWLIVILUPUIVVVPIIVU

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ASTATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL

For June, 1849.

At a meeting of the Asiatic Society held on Wednesday, the 6th

June, 1849,

The-Hon’ble Sir J. W. Conviue, President, in the chair.

The President stated what had been done in consequence of Mr.

Laidlay’s illness, and communicated the proceedings of the meeting of

the Council held 4th of June, 1849, as follows :—

At a meeting of the Council convened for the purpose of considering what

measures should be adopted for the conduct of the affairs of the Society and

the editorship of the Journal, in consequence of the illness of Mr. Laidlay,

The Hon’ble Sir J. W. Colvile, President, in the chair, it was resolved,

Ist. That Dr. McClelland be requested to undertake the editorship of the

Journal, until the return either of Dr. O’Shaughnessy or Mr. Laidlay.

2nd. That Dr. Walker be requested to perform the other functions of Secre-

tary of the Society, until the return either of Dr. O’Shaughnessy or Mr. Laidlay.

Both gentlemen having acceded to the requests addressed to them respectively,

it was ordered accordingly.

(Signed) James Wo. Cotvite,

. President, Asiatic Society.

Asiatic Society's Museum, the 4th June, 1849.

The proceedings of the May meeting were read and confirmed, and

the accounts and vouchers of the preceding month were laid upon the

table.

The following gentlemen, proposed as members at the previous meet-

ing, were balloted for and duly elected.

C. Beadon, Esq. C. 8.

Dr. Rowe, Superintending Surgeon, Dacca.

R, V. Thurburn, Esq.

646 Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. [JuNE,

Robert Cathcart Dalrymple Bruce, Esq. H. M.—Regt. was proposed

as a member by the Hon’ble Sir J. W. Colvile, seconded by Mr. Walker.

Read letters

From W. Seton Karr, Esq. Under Secretary to the Government of

Bengal, forwarding two original letters with enclosures from Capt. Ellis,

Political Agent in Bundlecund, requesting queries contained therein to

be filled up.

Ordered to be referred to the Oriental Section.

From R. Thornton, Esq. Assistant Secretary to the Government, North

Western Provinces, forwarding a note on the transport of coal from

Sonadah to Bombay by the Nurbudda.

From H. M. Elliot, Esq. Secretary to the Government of India, pre-

senting a copy of his Supplemental Glossary.

From Dr. Campbell, Superintendant of Darjiling, journal of a Trip

to Sikim.

Read extracts from a paper by B. H. Hodgson, Esq., on the Abo-

rigines of North-Eastern India.

Read the following letter from Dr. Roer, Secretary to the Oriental

Section :—

To J. W. Latviay, Esq. Vice-President and Secretary to the Asiatic Society.

Dated Asiatic Society, the 4th June, 1849.

Sir,—In reply to your letter of the 9th ult., I have the honour, by direction

of the Oriental Section, to state for the information of the Society, that the

Section have unanimously agreed to your proposal to print the Lalita Vistara iu

the Bibliotheca Indica, and to recommend that the copy of the Tarikh i Abu

Sayed, purchased by the Librarian at the sale of the Scinde property for Co.’s

Rs. 33, should be taken at that price by the Society.

2. I am also directed to submit a copy of the Kadambari, with a letter from

Pandit Madan Mohan Tarkalankar, requesting the patronage of the Society for

his edition of that work, price per copy Co.’s Rs. 3, and to propose for the ap-

proval of the Society the purchase of 20 copies.

3. I forward a list of the accompanying Sanskrit books lately published in

Calcutta, which the Section suggest to be purchased for the Library of the

Society.

4, The MS. of the Lalita Vistara and the copy of the Tarikh i Abu Sayed

are herewith returned.

I have the honor to be, Sir,

Your most obedient servant,

E, Rorr, Secy. Or, Sect. As, Soc.

1849. | Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. 647

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PamOnasha, ....\ss sess eevtlnteolesae ah alel’s tt obra WS a biele crave’ 100

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12 8 O

Ordered that 5 copies of the Kadambari be purchased by the

Society, and the other suggestions contained in the above letter be sanc-

tioned.

Read a letter from Lieut. Staples, presenting in the name of Dr.

Henderson, a Hybrid Dog.

From Monsieur P. W. B. de Wilde, Librarian of the Society of Arts

and Sciences at Batavia, enclosing a list of books, and requesting the

assistance of the Asiatic Society in procuring these at the expense of the

Batavian Society. Ordered that so much of the Asiatic Researches as

are in the possession of the Asiatic Society be presented to the Batavian

Society, and that the librarian be directed to purchase on their account

the remainder which are not published by the Society.

From Monsieur Gibelin, Procureur General at Pondicherry, present-

ing the second Vol. of his Etudes sur le Droit Civil des Hindous.

From Mr. Piddington, bringing to the notice of the Society, a para-

graph in the Bibliotheque Universelle de Geneve for December, 1848,

page 456, respecting Monsieur Csoma de Koros. Ordered that the

Meeting do not think it necessary that the Society should take any

notice of the paragraph in question.

For all the above communications and donations, the thanks of the

Society were voted and the meeting adjourned.

Confirmed, J. W. Cotvite, President.

LIBRARY,

The following books have been received since the last meeting :—

Presented,

Vrihadaranyakam, Kathakam, Ica, Kena, Mundakam oder funf Upanishads

aus dem Yajur Sama und Athurva-Veda. Nach den Handschriften der Biblio-

648 Proceedings of the Asiatic Society.

thek der Ost-Indischen Compagnie zu London, herausgeqeben von L. Poley.

Bonn, 1844, 8vo.— PRESENTED BY THE Epiror.

Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia, Vol. III. Nos, IV. and

V.—By THE Epitor. :

Ditto ditto. Vol. ITI. Nos. III.—IV. (two copies)—By tHe GovERn-

MENT OF BENGAL.

The Calcutta Christian Observer for June, 1849.—By tHe Epitors.

The Oriental Baptist, No. 30.—By THE Eprror.

Upadesaka, No. 30.—By tHe Enrror..

Meteorological Register kept at the Surveyor General’s Office, for the month

of April, 1849.—By tHe Deputy Surveyor GENERAL,

~ Tatwabodhini Patrika.—By THe TaTwaBopuInt’ Sapna’.

The Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, No 16.—By tue Socrety.

. Lois des Tempétes ou Guide du Navigateur. Traduit de l’ourage de M. H.

Piddington, The Sailor’s Horn-book for the Law of Storms, augmenté de notes

par H. Bousquet. Maurice, 1849, 8vo.— By THe TraNnsiaTor.

The Oriental Christian Spectator for April, 1849.—By rue Eprror.

Mortality in the Jails of the 24-Pergunnahs, Calcutta, by Lieut.-Col. Sykes.

—By tHe Avutuor, through H, M. Elliot, Esq., Secretary to the Government

of India.

Vital Statistics of a district in Java, by Lieut.-Col. W. H. Sykes —By THE

SAME.

Statistics of Civil Justice in Bengal, by Lieut.-Col. W. H. Sykes.—By THE

SAME,

Exchanged.

~ The Atheneum, Nos, 1114-15-16-18-19.

The London, Edinburgh and Dublin Philosophical Magazine, No, 224.

Journal Asiatique, Nos. 56-8.

The Picnic Magazine, No. 13.

Purchased.

Comptes Rendus, Nos. 3 @ 9.

The Annals and Magazine of Natural History, No, 15.

_ Journal des Savants for December, 1848,

Meteorological Register kept at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, for the Month of June, 1849.

Lat. 22° 33/28”. 33 N. Long. 88° 23' 42”. 84 East. Mag. Variation 2° 28’ 36” East. Mag. Dip. 27° 45’.

Observations made at sunrise. Maximum Pressure observed at 9h, 50m. Observations made at apparent noon. Observations made at 2h, 40m, ‘Minimum Pressure observed at 4 p. m. Observations rude at sun set. Staximum nnd’ Mai} Raia Gauges!

— -

Temperature. | Wind, 2} Elevations,

Temperature. | Wind. Temperature. | Wind.

gee

Temperature. | Wind. Temperature. | Wind. Temperature. | Wind.

——4

Hs Feet,| Feet,

3 oO} 4

Fahrenheit.

Direction at 2h, 40m.

pm.

Direction at 9h. 501

Of the Mercury.

Direction at noon.

Aspect of the Sky,

Of the Mercury.

Aspect of the Sky.

Barometer reduced to

Of the Mercury

Direction at 4 p, m.

Aspect of the Sky

Aspect of the Sky.

jays of the mouth,

Fabreoheit.

Fahrenheit.

Aspect of

Of the Air.

Minimum.

Barometer reduced to 32°

Mean.

Barometer reduced to 32°

Of the Mercury.

Of Wet Bulb,

Direction at sunrise.

Aspect of the Sky.

Of the Air.

| Maximum.

2) Of Wet Bulb.

3! Barometer reduced to 32°

| Days of the Month.

| Of the Air.

| OF Wet Bulb.

©| Of the Air.

ql Of the Air.

e | Of Wet Bulb.

Direction ai

oches

Lumulo strati. [29.540

Nimbiv 1607

Jloudy. 5a

+ |Clear. 2 18} 840 | SW, [Cir

‘Cumulo strati. »|Cumulo strati.

Cloudy,

Ditto

Rainy.

Cumalo strat.

Ditto

Cumulo strati,

Ditto

Cloudy,

230

Cirro cumuli,

Cloudy.

Clear.

.|Curnul

Hone

Sie

£8

Sexe

BEE o| Of Wet Bulb.

SESE o

£855

SSEe

SEE ,| Of the Mercury.

SSRE°

moat

Bees » | ortie air.

Roan

pane

Cloudy.

Ditto

S. W, |Scatteredclouds|

5,8. E.|Cirro strati,

E, 8. E.|Diuo

E.S.E.|Cirro cumuli.

Cloudy.

Cloudy to N.

Clear.

Cloudy N. W

Nimbi.

Cloudy.

E.| Ditto

Ditto

Cumulo strat

\Cirri. a as - 4 . . * on

Cumuli, “ 5 Cumuli. if F 83. iClear,

Clear, . .f E Cumulo strati, 5 7 | 9 .t Ditto

» |Cirro cumuli. 4 E ).2 |W. “Di . - sees

\Cumuli.

lear,

irro cumuli.

«| Cirri.

»|Cloudy.

» |Cirro cumuli.

BES:

Zee

abe cen

S28

BES

Die CNM bow

Bers o

Nimbi. . E z c E . |Cumulo strati.

‘Cumulo strati. . 5 4 Ie “ E. | Ditto

‘|Cloudy. 7595 N.E. , 25 8. E {Dito

Comulo strati. f 2. . .|Curmulo strati, | 487) 97, 5.4 + | Ditto

Driaaly,

-|Cumulo strati,

E. N, E.\Cloudy.

W.N.W /Cumult.

eae Bane

Rainy.

|Cirro cumuli,

| Ditto

.|Cirro strati.

.|Cloudy.

Ditto

Cirro cumuli.

‘Cirro strati.

Ditto

Cloudy,

Dnuzzly.

Cloudy.

ES0 wan exw

2 E

Sree

Ss.

Hoes Sore

V.|Cirro strati. 5 -1 |S. S- W) Ditto “ 9 i .0 |S. S. W.iCloudy,

Curuli, 2 5 2 E Ditto 5 3 i Gumule atrati,

Clear, 2 8. E. | Ditto 6 | B83 «(Ditto

Cumulo strati. 63) 92. : 6) S. E. | Rainy. z ‘ i 0 | S. W. |Cloudy.

Cirro cumuli.

Ditto

Clear. ;

(Cumulo strati.

eeez See

SeRe

Fett

‘Ditto A‘ .s Nimbi, A fi .0 8: B. |Nimbi. i y E. {Ditto

Drizzly. x 4 3 K t, Cloudy. FE Cloudy. Cloudy.

Ditto “ . .( i . E. | Rainy. a . » | Nimbi. 3 6. 32, Cumulo strati.

& bee

seo Sebo tetN

EEE ESSER

SESE ESES

Ditto

Cloudy.

~ |Ditto

» Cumulo strat. “ Ss. Curulo strati. A 5 x Cloudy. “ s by » Cloudy,

sees .t . |Ditto oe - as -- 4 26) a 4 art

Cumulo strati. E 4 Ditto , _ 5: W. |Rainy. 3 Very cloudy.

Nimbi. i v r r|Nimbie : i |. W.|Dnizzly. i ; i . | Rainy,

Cirro strati.

BG,8 #228

pee

‘Scattered clouds}

SW. |Drirzly.

N.N.W,|Cloudy & Thu)

W.N.W,| Rain & Thuong,

is. S. W.,

8. 8. W..Ditto S Cumulo strat. 3 | S. W. |Cumulo strati 5 | 88, Cumulo strati.

W. |Camulo strat. | « 5 S. Ditto Ditto ¥ Ditto

Ditto .! f F Ditto Nimobi. o Raioy,

WV.) Ditto Cloudy. 508) 90.1 i 8) S.W. |Cumuli. Cumuli. “A | 90,0 | 82 Cumuli.

Rainy. Rainy. 4 i . E,| Rainy. . i Y. |Cloudy. E + |Cloudy.

are <0 |) 0 <0 R 8 | 87. 0 | N. W. |Cloudy. ci i Bc ees | cro || mee che

‘Cirro cumuli.

Cloody.

Ditto

SSSF Se:

Bee

Hess

“ @ebs ab

S F2E5

ES F525 SA2q

129.569 : 2 f . : 91.8 | 89.8 12,94

‘Mean of tie Corresponding month of last year,

29529 804 81,0 79,0 29,563 68,6 87.4 81,7 29.540 90,7 89,2 82.3 29486 904 888 B19 29.469 88,7 87.3 B14 29.486 85.9 85.5 80.5 928 (86.9 B11 .. 12,68 13.52

‘These Observations haye been made for the most part, with a supply of new and firstrate Instruments received into the Observatory, by orders of the Bengal Government, a brief description if the Instruments seems necessary.

Ja—The Barometer is wstandard Tostrument by Newman, duumeter of the tube 0.504 Inches. The following 1s the comparative shewing of this Lostrument aad those 'Burometers which fere in use atthe Observatory prior to Ist of June, 1644. Barometer by Troughton used prior to the Jat of June, 1844. Observations reduced to 420 Fahrenheit ais

ito

Ditto ” ” ” ” 0.514 Ditto, " Ditto... Ditto Col, Everest used from Ist of June to dist of August, 18: Ditto «

i No, 52 Standard Barometer by Newman used from Ist of September, 18) 654

2o4.—The Thermometer is a Standard Instrument by Newman, on metal Scale and graduated to + of o degree, No. 86... Ditto... Ditto ....-- Ditto.s««sfrom 3d of April, 1847, 29,667

' Srd.—Wet Bulb Hygrometer by Newman, graduated to single degree divisions, the differynce between Standard Thermometer and dry Thermometer of this Instrument is - 0,2 the Temperature of the dry Bulb istakea from the Standard Thermometer, and in the event of the quantity, moisture, dew point, or dryness, being JUrled Loy

| be taken into calculation.

4th,—Maximum and Minimum Thermometer by Newman. The

5th.—Ihe Temperature shewa in Columa 47 of a Thermometer,

of Solar reflection,

‘The height of the Surface of the Mercury in the Cistern of the Standard Barometer in the Observatory attached to the Surveyor General's Office above the Mean Level of the Sag been deduced from a Series of Tide Observations taken from a Register kept at Kyd’s Dock Yard, the result is recorded for general information.

‘eet.

H. L. THUILLIER, Carrain,

Deputy Surveyor General,

In ace Surveyor General's Office.

rence between these instruments, and the Standard Thermometer is +-0.7 for the former and 0,23 for the latter. a y

sun's rays, is acquired by meaus of a Newman's Maximum !'hermometer having a black bulb.—Vhe above Instruments, exceptiog the Thermometer placed in the sun’s rays, are fixed atabove 4) feet from the ground, to a post, in a thickly choppered house, and are freely exposed to the air and sheltered from any influence

Lowest Monthly Average of Mean Tides in the Months of February aad March, above the Zero of Gauge at Kyil's Dock Yard, Calcutta,

Difference of Level be\ween the Zero of Tide Gauge at Kyd’s Dock Yard, ond the Standard Barometer at the Observatory, «+

Height of Standard Barometer above the Level of the Sea,.+

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