CONTENTS OF VOLUME 45

No. 1

SomME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS.

levee ORWTig. IB NIG Io JBI, Cais, Wille WESC SeaIGSIa9

LF.S., and M. B. Raizada, m.sc. (Wath 1 coloured and

3 black and white plates, and 16 text-fi Qures)....ceseorereee ses

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA. Part XVIII.

1Bh7 JD), (Co SENASWOOINIO, T5108 So'Gga6 co osbe bobaeoo ensodddosacence sae

‘THe Istet’—A BIRD SANCTUARY IN CEYLON. By

Wo WWlodé\e JPIWUEEOS, (CU GW OS) PUES) ances con oce aco ecn ea OLD nen Coe

SOME NEw SPEcIES oF SOUTH INDIAN PLANTS. By K.

ChenianWacop yal Ag. ES (M2lAid Plates reser ceslcceoeoe

NoTES ON A FLYING SQUIRREL (fetaurista sp.). By F. C.

. WTSI, IMR OSs (UYGIE CUBA) 86 ces dooce. cas oO eB EeOORCD EEO ee

~ Brrps oF THE LALMal AREA, NEAR COMILLA, TIPPERA,

- BENGAL. By S. J. K. Collins. (With a map)...

A FIsHING TRIP TO KARWAR AND MALVAN (1sth Gotaber

to 10th November coe BY I hodle Macdonald, es

2 plates)... 58Gb aoGtin0 c0c'000 dtibaes see tac icehri nance:

NOTES ON THE pra AND: rR? mens or MURREE

- Hitz. By Abdul Hameed, m.sc. (With 12° DUGIES) aeordes

A BIRD PHOTOGRAPHER’S Musincs From Kasumir’—Birds

__of a Srinagar Garden. ~- By- Lt.-Col. B. T. Phillips. 1 a.

PEI (IRGLGU YS CUCU OC ODIs) ee eC Ee short fo cnocieat ode

FisH SURVEY OF HYDERABAD STATE. Part IV. Fishes of

the: Nizamabad District. By S. Mahmood, m.sc. and

M. Rahimullah, D.sc. (W2th a map and two plates)......

ON THE BIOLOGY OF Danaus ehrysippus (LINNAEUS) AND ITS

PARASITES. ay Durgadas Mukerji and Basanta Kumar

Behura.. ©0000 006200202 0900200 2000028 270 8998 oe oon 2082092 GBA 600 BOO seoae

Se nse ON SOME BALANIDAE FROM MAHABALIPURAM,

By K. 8. Srinivasan. (With a plate)... do bop00s

THE BIRDS OF THE SIMLA AND re ee Hitis: Back L

By A, EB. Jones, M.B.O.U.. 0903889798 00920 8098 200292520800 1@R G80 e200080 so

ON THE CORRECT NAME OF THE TIBETAN SHRIKE USUALLY

CALLED Lanius tephronotus. By Ernst Mayr, Ph.p.......

PAGE

102

111

iv CONTENTS OF VOLUME 47

NOTES ON A COLLECTION OF BIRDS FROM MADRAS PRESI-

DENCY. By Walter Koelz..

Two New Locat RAcgs oF THE ASIATIC Witp aneet oe

the late RI. Pocock; “BRISé. 2. ci.ces sos hoses eee PRRs

REVIEW :—

An Insect Book for the Pocket. By Edmund Sanders...

APPEALS :—

An Appeal—Egg Enquiry. By Dr. Hugh B. Cott.........

An Appeal to Botanists. By Lt.-Col. Donald Lowndes...

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

1. A man-eating tiger of the Nelliampathy Hills.

By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, 1.4. ante Ce

a photo)... secorreneeee

A Tiger Suse Dicaat By Ws. Ish 5. eedonta

The Returning Tigress. By A. F. Hutton........

SAS 9 BS

Notes on the Brush-tailed Porcupine (Atherura

maciura Va.) “By ©. ReiStonore,.cssems> scores

6. Natural Death of Elephants. By A (Cy Tein

Nolthenius, F.z.S., A.C.L.. “Da abbesiowass batvemeeee

7. The Piscivorous Habits of ae Roraeal or Fin

Whale (Balaenoptera ae By P. K. Jacob and

‘M. Devidas Menon.. seo bacenteet decengnies ot

8. Curious nesting site of in ae Robin [ Copsy-

ss chus_-saulavis (Linn.)]. By R. E. Parsons,

Weight of Bull Bison. By R. C. Morris......,.....

PAGE

128

145

146

147

148

150

151

383

154

156

9, An early nest of the Tailor Bird [ Orthotomus

sutorius (Pennant)]. By S. N. Sen...............

10. Occurrence of the Waxwing [Bombycilla gar-

vulus (Linn.)] in Baluchistan. By Major T.J.

PUD Sis. becca Sica shied oaeenceelinee ce teeec mreworasee

11. Arrival dates of Wagtails in Upper Assam. By

F, Woolley Smith.. ekbanes es

12. Abnormal egg Auies Mee aes Abdulali

13. Nightjars on roads. By Humayun Abdulali......

14, Occurrence of the Southern Green Pigeon [C7vo-

copus phoenicopterus chlorigaster (Blyth)]| in

Ceylon... By W. W. A. Phillips... cesscossoree

163

US)

16.

18.

19:

20.

ray

QD,

24.

ile

28.

29.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 47

The Persian name for the Flamingo. By Hamid

/\, dA FoCSs CROUEN) «pace ee

Flamingoes in Kutch—A Comment. By C.

Mic alia in eeeraaetioathatee secre: cites w Seaerteed Oieweteuides

Alpheraky’s Swan (Cygnus bewickit jankowskiz

JNO) HR GEN BAY SEMA ZN oboctoeanarnec:

Periodic abundance of Bar-headed Goose [Aznser

indicus (Latham)| on Chilka Lakes. By

ea Cem thalee major slcen sci sitios wae saniane aaa ehh vv dls

Sushkin’s Goose (Anser neglectus Sushkin) in

ASSaii as yar let. COlagd neLUtnrell nt san eceace es «

The language of Birds. By Claude A. Claremont

Some further suggestions for field ornithologists

in post-war Burma. By B. E. Smythies vate

¢Shamming Death’—Snakes. By A. St. J.

Ma Cd OmalGore. dalek. Sak « calisaded cettunittes codevescaidee eee

An uncommon habit observed in the Frog

Rana erythraea Schleg. By J. D. Romer,

EiZiSs conden aduee es@e eadee0e

Mating and the parental instinct of the Marsh

Crocodile (C. palustris Lesson). By K. S.

I DJoeeyg oak) {baa TEES ONS Soro neamod concer aODOCO OOOH scOaRanE

Indian Monitors in the ,United Provinces. By

Cole FO MG WIL OWNGES A ai..cees ste hat he ee ibease's

Discovery of the hitherto unknown female of the

Butterfly Chavana cephets De Niceville. By

NEMO te OlnePernyeewameinceits «venecesasscucctee

The enemies of Danaus chrysippus (Linnaeus).

By Durgadas Mukerji and Basanta Kumar

BE MU eereteotecren eae eer on aor ee ter testeccesriine ces

Note on the occurrence of Aipalzum in Junagadh

(Kathiawar). By G. A. iapadianesnen en sec

Flowering of Bamboos. By Col. D. G.

AZ ONVENGL CS re an ee Sete an Stiale nots Hoosen asics ceases

Annual Report of the Bombay Natural History Society for

the year ending 3lst December, TQ4G is, eee ead tks aes loes

167

168

169

171

173

174

176

177

178

180

181

vi CONTENTS OF VOLUME 47

No. 2

SomE BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS.

Part SOOVille By, Ne Ww. Bor, (CB MoAt DAS Cy mebolacon,

LF.S., and M, B. Raizada, m.sc. (With 1 coloured and 1

OlACK ANA WRAL Plate): io. cise ver wwo,sesnerlons owe seine ielebiend ncteltaiA aes

Tur EARLY STAGES OF INDIA LEPIDOPTERA. Part XIX.

By WAG. SeVvastopulOs PeR.ES....sececusnsesess lceteneaes eenites

THE BIRDS OF THE SIMLA AND ADJACENT HItts. Part II.

By A. E. Jones, M.B.0.U. (deceased). (Wzth a plate)...

A NOoTE ON THE POSITION OF RHINOCEROS IN BURMA. By

W.'F. H: Ansell. (With a map and a@ plate) .....0.0.00.0000.

Tur Brrps oF DELHI AND District. By N. F. Frome,

C.LE., D.F.C., M.Sc., M.B.0.U. (Wzth a map and 4 sketches).

NoTES ON THE BIRDS. OF THE GYANTSE ROAD, SOUTHERN

Tibet, MAy 1946. By P.I.R. Maclaren. (With a map)...

As-ISTADEH, -A-. BREEDING PLACE .OF THE © FLAMINGO

| Phoenicopterus ruber roseus (PALLAS)] IN AFGHANIS-

TAN, By S.A. Akhtar. (Wzth 2 maps and a plate)......

A NOTE.ON THE COLLECTION,..CONDITIONING AND. TRANS-

PORT OF FINGERLINGS OF Catla IN THK MADRAS

PRESIDENCY. by N. Jagannadhaim scca eee eeeeeeee eee

NoTEe ON FRESHWATER FISHES OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE

Istanps. By Dr. C. V. Kulkarani, B.A. (Hons.) M.sc.,

Php. (With a photo.and 4 text-(2 2176s) \ssneceres eeeeees

Extent oF DAMAGE By THE Mots Dichocrocis punctiteralts

Fs. TO THREE STRAINS OF THE CASTOR PLANT. By

INS (OB BRIE) CATT ON CIEL L A) Vos6 660 000,006,660 000 anp 498 0090050000000

Tur LAc Insect oF THE WEST Coast or InpIA. By S.

Mahdibassan. (W2th 2 plates)...

VARIATION IN THE FLOWERS OF Quisqualis indica LINN.

(ORDER Combretaceae). By G. A. Kapadia ..

NOTES ON THE Convolvulaceae OF BOMBAY. 7 H. oatele 28

Savon 196) Bq'S6|000 006-000 680000 pee Ceo econ eee 6CGe OBO cee eee

THE SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF THE Famity Moringaceae

BASED ON THE STUDY OF Moringa plery gosperma GAERTN.

(=WM. oleitera LAMK.). By Robindra Mohon Datta al

Jatindra Nath Mitra, M.sc. (Wath 2 plates)... worn

PAGE

195

ST,

ZAG

249

LUT

30]

308

315

334

337

355

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 47

OBITUARY NOTICES :—

MheodoremRathbonew rub backs eercsas-coeetedecttvoncescsebe

_ Sir David Ezra.. Joo dhoeDohoosodacGS Laon CORSO RUE EDEL O nC aces

~ Reginald Innis. Fasaasle “(With his Bibliography on

(LOT EO ES SV) ASPB SSG Bc ica ORE GOON CARO OCE COICO ERE DT CRCOREP ERE

MAIexancemmawatcedonesee ee te re eee

MIscELLANEOUS NotTEs :—

14.

Behaviour of Hyena and Panther at a ‘ Kill’.

By Capt. K. Boswell, 1.A.M.C.. eaves

The sense of smell in Hever spe C. dc r.

Nie inh CC tereacnanctortehwt crcl «shee senlaccioes veluenieaeee's

‘Death Cry’ of Tiger. By Capt. K. Boswell,

TAMIR CM RN it Ned wate tice a, Bees

Peculiar reaction of a Dog to the hooting of a

siren. By M.:L. Roonwal, M.Sc., Ph.D.

(CANTAB), F.N.I.. 00 6

On the Leopard Cat Prionaturas bengal

By E. P.Gee. (With a photo)... Sctislee

Procession of Musk Shrews. By R. N. De, B.SC.,

FERSG <8) (ZONG)) y Iason (INGLE) ari-tassiscecsenscslecs

The habits of the Brush-tailed Porcupine (Afthe-

vurus macrourus) By C. R. Stonor... Serve

The Nilgiri Vahr (Hemitragus linens

Duel between Males. By A. F. Hutton.........

The ‘Watching’ attitude of the Cheetal or

Spotted Deer (Axis axis aus By H. L.

Hiteshi. ‘With a plate)... eae teenic

7 Stranding of Whales on the coasts a India. “By

SPA VNOSe Stee stool eens eee ca

Notes on some Burmese mammals. By W.F.

Eee Atiaselllen (1720) Gu DHOlO cee eeeeseneectsase sec

Display of a male Minivet. By C. R. Stonor.....

Occurrence of the Laggar Falcon (Falco jugger

Gray) at Mt. Abu. By Major R.K.M. Battye,

GAM Male buSatentevudnsautete eat snisns ceeeas oes aie sansa

The altitudinal limit of the Pheasant-tailed

Jacana See tu es aU

By F. A. Betterton.. I Mae i wcslewea Ss

383

384

Vail

MWD

AG.

Os).

ZO:

lle

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 47

Recovery of ringed duck in India. By Editors.

The Great Crested Grebe [Podziceps cristatus

_cristatus (Linn.)| in Bhavnagar State. By K.

S. Dharmakumarsinhji... ee

Morning song of birds ath May, 1947). ta

Samsar Chand Koul.. Backes

The late stay of migratory Wes in Hayate

Kathiawar. By K.S. Dharmakumarsinhji.....

On the Common Blind Snake (Zyph/lops bramt-

EPS JEN WIE WORST 125 SHIA) ca doqooq00c 000020000000

Aggressive demonstration by Russell’s Viper

(Vipera russelic), By AACA. EYWZeGiedesctonsnee

Hamadryad at Bhim Tal, U. P. By A. St. J.

MacdOnaldsc.....c.eccos scsecccss ve dansliciesstnemesenectens

. Notes on the ‘Fauna of British India: Reptilia and

Amphibia’, by Malcolm A. Smith. By Rev. C.

1S So THe ; See

Note on the Bull- Frog (poe 3 everting

lung. By C. McCann.. ccsattect

Culture of Murral fish (Ophicephalus Ee

Hamilton) in irrigation wells. By P.I. Chacko

and’ GlK. Kuriyan....iicc:..00<6 eee eee

A large Black Rock Scorpion. By S, G. Bur-

hoe Err nr Ree Marea AAG 500005000 00000000

An anomalous antenna in Rhipiphorothrips

cruentaius Hood. from Tambaram South

India. By T. N. Anantha Krishnan, B.Sc.

(Hlon's)n(W72tit a *1ext-1 71.2070) ene eee

Migration of the butterfly Appzas albina danada.

Dyelxe i. earsOns, EsRyE Sn 1s) ee

Observations on the habits of the conchostracan

Caenestheria sp. recorded from Tambaram

(S. India). By T. N. Anantha Krishnan......

Aerial roots in the Sponge Gourd, Luffa sp. By

Surendra Nath Singh, m.sc. (Ag.) (With a

Abnormal palms of South Travancore—A three-

erowned Coconut Palm. By Trupapur A.

Davis. (With a PULLER Se REL SRS Aoecioas oa aiee

PAGE

385

386

387

388

389

390

391

392

393

394

396

397

398

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

VOLUME 47

Nos. 1 and 2

ABDULALI, HuMAayun, Abnor-

mal egg clutches ses

— Night-

jars on roads a0 cee

AKHTaR, S. A. Ab- fecader a

breeding place of the Flamin-

go [ Phoenicopterus ruber rose-

us (Pallas)] in Afghanistan

(With two maps and a plate)

Atti, HamMip A., I.c.S., (Retd.)

Persian name for the Flamin-

go nee

ALI, SALIM, Aipherainyis s Swan

(Cygnus bewickit jankowskit

Alph.) in Kutch es

ANSELL, W. F. H., A note on

the position of Rhinoceros in

Burma (With a map and a

plate)

Notes on

mammals

some Burmese

(With a photo)

Basu, A. C., Extent of aerraaee

by the moth Dichocrocis punc-

tiferalis Fb. to three strains

of Castor Plant

BaTTvE, Major R. K. M.,, I.A.,

I.P.S., Occurrence of the Lag-

gar Faleon (Falco jugger

Gray) at Mt. Abu

BEHURA, BASANTA KUMAR, Séé

Mukerji.

BENTHALL, E.C. Periodic abun-

dance oi Bar-Headed Goose

Anser indicus (Latham) on

Chilka Lakes ... 5

_ BETTERTON, F.A., The Aeiire

dinal limit of the Pheasant-

tailed Jacana [Hydrophast-

anus chirurgus (Scopoli)] ...

Bor, N. L., C.1.E., M.A., D.SC,,

F,L.S., 1. F..S., and RAIZADA,

PAGE

161

162

308

164

167

249

379

326

383

168

384

M. B., M. Sc., Some Beautiful

PAGER

Indian Climbers and Shrubs.

Part XXVI ( With 1 coloured

and 3 black and white plates,

and 16 text-figures)

Part XX VII. (With

1 coloured and 1 black and

white plate) BAL 500

BOSWELL, Capt. K., I. A. M.C.,

Behaviour of Hyena and

Panther at a ‘ Kill’

———— ‘Death Cry’

of Tiger

BuRGESS, S. G., A ee Black

Rock Seeman (From the

Field 12-4-1947 p. 351) dee

Burton, Lt.-Col. R.W., A man-

eating Tiger of the Nelliam-

pathy Hills (Wth a photo) ...

Cuacko, P, I. and Kurrvan,

G. K., Culture of Murral Fish

(Ophicephalus marulius Hamil-

ton) in irrigation wells

CLAREMONT, CLAUDE A., The

language of Birds

CoLLINsS, S. J. K., Birds of the

Lalmai Area, near Comilla,

Tippera, Bengal ( With a map)

Cott, Dr. Hucu B., An Appeal

—Egg Inquiry

Davis, TRUPAPUR A, Anoor

mal palms of South Travan-

core II— A Three-crowned

Coconut Palm (Cocos nucifera

L.) (With a plate)

DE,R.N. B.SC., F.R.G.S.,(Lond. )

I.F.S. (Retd,}, Procession of

Musk Shrews a5 wee

DHARMAKUMARSINHJI, K, S.,

Mating and the parental ins-

- tinct of the Marsh Crocodile

(EG Bees Lesson)

‘The

Great Crested Grebe (Podiceps

366

368

393

148

392

169

146

398

373

174

bs LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

cristatus cristatus Winn.) in

Bhavnagar State ese 000

aa The

Late stay of migratory birds

in Bhavnagar, Kathiawar

Epitors, Recovery of ringed

duck in India see Seon

FROME, N.F., C. 1. E., D. F.C.,

M. S.C., M. B. O. U., The Birds

of Delhi and District. ( With a

map and 4 sketches) v5

FyzEE, A. A. A., Aggressive

demonstration by Russell’s

age (Vipera russelli) 3

~P., On the Leopard Cat

GEE, E

(Pricnuiluras bengalensis)

(With a photo) oe

HAMEED, ABDUL, M.SC., Notes

on the Ferns and Fern Allies of

Murree Hill. ( With.12 plates).

HitesuI, H. L., The ‘ Watch-

ing’ attitude of the Cheetal

or Spotted Deer (Axis axis

Erxl.) (With @ plate)

HURRELL, Lt.-Col. J., Sushkin’s

Goose (.Auser neglectus Sush-

kin) in Assam.

Hutton, A. F., The ‘Nilgiri

Tahr (Hemitra, gus hylocrius)—

A duel. between males i

The Return-

ing Tigress

JacoB, K.CHERIAN, L. We 3) EeLsSe,

Some new Species of South

‘Indian plants (Wzth 3 plates).

JacoB, P. K. ‘and MENoN, M.

Devipas. The _ piscivorous

habits of the Rorqual or Fin

Whale ( Lalaenoptera sp.)

JAGANNADHAM, N. A Note on

the Collection, Conditioning

and Transport of Fingerlings

of Catla in the Madras Presi-

dency 600 600 000

JATINDRA, NATH MITRA, M.Sc.,

seé Robindra Mohon Datta.

JonES, A. E., M.B. 0. U., The

Birds of the Simla and Adja-

cent Hills. PartI ...

Part II

(With a plate) . bee

PAGE

385

387

3385

277

388

376

168

374

151

156

315

117

219

KAPADIA, G, A., Notes on the

occurrence of &ipalium in

Junagadh (Kathiawar) -->:..

Variation in

the flowers of Quisgualis indica

Linn. (Order Combretaceae ...

KoELzZ, WALTER, Ph.p., Notes

on a Collection of Birds from

Madras Presidency 9...) 73

KOUL, SAMSAR CHAND. Mor-

ning song of birds (24th

May, 1947) eee pe B08

KRISHNAN, ‘TIT. N; \ANANTHA,

B. Sc., (Hons.), An anoma-

PAGE

178

334

17123:

- 386

lous antennain ARhipiphoroth- ~

rips cruentatus Hood.

Tambaram, South

(With a text-figure) AO

Observations

on the habits of the conchos-

tracan Caenestheria sp.record-

ed from Tambaram, ae

India

KULKARNI,

DE 6. ¥. B, AY

from | x

India ~

1 393,

396

(Hons.) M.sc., Ph.D. Note on »

Fresh Water Fishes of Bom-

bay and Salsette Islands (1 °°

photo and 4 text-figures) -s

KuRIAN, G.K., see CHACKO, P.I.

LEIGH, Rev. C., s. J. Notes

on the Fauna of

India: Reptilia and Amphibia

by MalcolmA. Smith, Volume... ,

III Serpentes 1943 ....

LOWNDES, Col. D. G., An Ap-.~

peal to Botanists 500 a

, Indian Moni

tors in the United Provinces

Flowering of

Bamboos wer 600

MACDONALD, A. St. J., A Fish-

ing Trip to Karwar ind Mal-

van (15th October to 10th

November, 1946). (With 2

plates) 50 ve

Amok’ see we 500 =

‘Shamming’

ee eee

Death ’—Snakes

———__=:

Hamadryad

at Bhim Tal, U.P wy)? 13

os ia Tiger ‘Runs

319.

British

390

147,

176

180

N69":

150

vit 173

~ 389

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

MACLAREN, P.LR.,- Notes on

the Birds of the Gyantse Road,

Southern Tibet, 1946. (With

a map) re Fr Bt

MAHDIBASSAN, S., The Lac In-

sect of the West Coast of India

(With 2 plates) ee

ManmMoop, S., M.se., and RAHI-

MULLAH, M., D.Sc., Fish Survey

of Hyderabad State, Part [V

—Fishes of the Nizamabad

’ District.

plates) ‘ ae

Mayr, ERNST, Ph.D., On the

Correct Name of the Tibetan

Shrike usually called Lanzus

tephronotus wa

McCann, C., Flamingoes in

Kutch—A Comment

——-——- Note on the Bull-

Frog (Rana tigrina) gia

lung ee ies

MENON, M. DEVIDAS see Peo

Boek.

MineETT, F.C., M.R. C.V.S.,

Notes on a Flying Squirrel

(Petaurista sp.) (With a

plate) ase

Morris, R.C., Weight 6 Bull

Bison

MosEs, S.T. Stmadine? Witales

on the coasts of India

MUKERJEE, DURGADAS and

BEHURA, BASANTA KUMAR, On

the Biology of Danaus chrysip-

pus (Linnaeus) and its Para-

sites 56 ob j

The enemies of

Danaus chrysippus (Linnaeus)

NoLTHENIUS, A. C. TUTEIN,

F.Z.S.,A.C.L., Natural death

of Elephants ... 600

Parsons, R.E., F.R.£.S.,

Migration of the butterfly AZ-

pias albina danada 08

PERRY, M.E. St. JoHN, Dis-

covery of the hitherto un-

known female of the butter-

fly Charana cepheis De Nice-

ville

(With a map and 2

PAGE ("

201

329

102

125

164

391

153

377

TUE)

177

154

394.

177

PHILLIPS, Lt.-Cor. B, T Aas

RP:

PAGE

Bird Photographer’s Musings"

from - Kashmir—Part>

EMEA: Major T. J.,

IN0b

Occur- i

rence of the Waxwing Ryo

cilla garrulus (Linn,) in Balu-

chistan ...

PHILLIPS, W. W. IN: The Tee

A Bird Sanctuary in Ceylon

(With 6 plates)

of the Southern Green” Pigeon

[ (Crocopus phoenicopterus

chlorigaster ee Je in an

lon

Pocock, The ees R. Te PGI RSSop

Two New Local Races of ie

Asiatic Wild Ass

ROBINDRA, MOHON Datta &

MITRA, JATINDRA NATH M.Sc,

The Systematic Position of the

Family A/oringaceae based on

the study of Moringa ptery-

gosperma Gaertn. (MM. oleife-

va Lamk.) (With 2 plates)...

RAHIMULLAH, M., D.sc.,

MAuHMOOD, S.,

RAIZADA, M.B., M.sc., See Bor,

INE Lee,

Romer, J. D., F.z.s. An

uncommon habit observed

in the frog Rana erythraea

Schleg ... 50 x

Roonwat, M. L., M.sc., tht D.

(Cantab.), F. Sit, Peculiar

reaction of a Dog to the

hooting of a siren 566

SANTAPAU, Hl, 4 (Side, F.L.S.,

Notes on the Convolvulaceae

of Bombay ot

SEN, S.N., An early nest of

the Wailer Bird [Orthotomus

sutorius (Pennant) ]

SEVASTOPULO, D.G., F.R.E.S.,

The Early Stages of Indian

Lepidoptera. Part XVIII ...

—— Part XIX

SIGHTS, WARREN, P., On the

Common Blind Snake (Typh-

lops braminus) oes

See

. 160.

Occurrence rarely

163

143

335

173

370

887

388

xii LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

SINGH, SURENDRA NATH,

M.Sc. (Ag.) Aerial roots in

the Sponge Gourd, Luffa sp.

(With a photo) aoe cee

SMITH, F. WooLLEy, Arrival

dates of Wagztails in Upper

Assam ... 60 ee

SMYTHIES, B.E., Sone frumner

suggestions for field ornitho-

logists in post-war Burma ...

SRINIVASAN, K. S., Observa-

tions on some Balanidae

PAGE

397

160

from Mahabalipuram t With a

plate) “S :

STONOR, C. R., NaS on the

Brush-tailed Porcupine (Athe-

vuva macrura 1.) onc

The habits of the

Brush-tailed Porcupine (A¢he-

rurus macrourus )

Display of a mae

Minivet .

Wieninee (Galle .,

of smell in eer

The sense

PAGa

115

154

373

383

367

LIST OF PLATES

VOLUME 47

Nos. 1 and 2

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs

Plate XXVIII. Princess Charlotte’s Passion-flower (Fassiflora

racemosa Brot.)

Plate I. FPassiflora incarnata Linn. New Forest, Dehra Dun

Plate II. Pussiflora edulis Sims. - ‘,

Plate III. Passiflora holosericea Linn. ‘s x

The Islet: A Bird Sanctuary in Ceylon.

Plate I. Ceylon Black-winged Stilt about to settle on eggs

Plate II. White-shafted Little Terns on eggs all facing the

prevailing wind 6

Plate III, Little Ringed Plover incubating

Plate IV. Eggs of Great Stone-Plover

Plate V. Great Stone-Plover—a pair on Sanctuary Islet

Stone-Plover incubating eggs on Sanctuary Islet

Plate VI. Downy chick of Great Stone-Plover

Young Great Stone-Plovers

Some New Species of South Indian Plants

Plate I. Dimeria kanjirapallilana K. C. Jacob, sp. nov.

Plate Il. Dimeria kurumthotticalana K.-C. Jacob, sp. nov.

Plate III. Szda Beddomei K. C. Jacob, sp. nov.

bet. 46/47

\ bet. 46/47

soe 1

eee 44

see 45

Eragrostis uniolotdes Nees var. tremula K.C, Jacob, 50

var. nov.

Notes on a Flying Squirrel (Petaurista sp.)

Plate: Fig. 1. Petaurista canciceps Gray.

Fig.2. Ventral surface of body and parachute.

A Fishing Trip to Karwar and Malvan (15th Oct. to 10th Nov. 1946)

Plate I. Bag of Mackerel (Bangra) and 20 lb. Queen Fish

/ (Dagol) ». 500 %

Plate I]. 161bs. Black King Fish (M/orousa)

Notes on the Ferns and Fern Allies of Murree Hill

Plate I. Fig. 1. Asplenium alternans \

rhs _ Fig. 2. Asplenium varians

Plate II. Fig.3. Asplenium trichomanes ;

Fig. 4. Chetlanthes albamarginata

Plate III. Fig.5. FPelleae nitidula \

Fig.6. Adiantum caudatum

Plate IV. Fig. 7. Adiantum venustum

Plate V. Fig.8. Adiantum capillus-veneris

Plate VI. Fig.9. Athyrium schempert ..

Plate VII. Fig. 10. Contogramme fraxinea

Plate VIII. Fig. 11. Ptesis cretica a6

Plate IX. Fig.12. Dryopteris odontoloma ...

Plate xX. Fig. 13. Polystichum angulare

Plate XI. Fig. 14. Cystopteris fragilis

Plate XII, Fig. 15. Onychium japonicum \

Fig. 16. Selaginella chrysorhizus

A Bird Photographer’s Musings from Kashmir

Plate I. The House Crow. ‘The Jungle Crow

Plate II, The Jackdaw. Tickell’s Thrush ...

bet. 82/83

bet, 82/83

bet. 82/83

aoe 86

xiv LIST OF PLATES

PAGE

Elate III. The Indian Oriole 3 Female at nest. Male feeding

mays chicks 560 coe 2s ae 94

Plate IV. The Himalayan Starling: » The Wriitieck. sani Go

Plate .V. TheIndian Hoopoe. The Brown-fronted Pied Woodpecker 98

"Plate VI. The Black-eared Kite. The Indian Ring Dove ee OO

Fish Survey of Hyderabad State

Plate I. Nizamsagar—General views (1) showing the dam (2) in

which some islands are visible ... an 106

Plate II. Nizamsagar—(1) West channel. Guest House is on the

extreme left of the picture. (2) River Godavari during

_ rainy.season as ee 107,

Observations on some Balanidae from Manabalipuramn

Plate I. Fig. 1. Chthamalus stellatus (Poli)—extensive growth.

on the exposed and splashed surfaces —... - 116

Fig. 2. Chihamalus stellatus—different stages of

growth he 500 ie cee me

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs

Plate XXIX. .The Coral Creeper (Anmtigonon leptopus Hook. and

Arn.) Oni 195

Plate Antigonon leptopus Hook. and Arn. New Hpreee

_ Dehra Dun aS Boe 500. Piece 2 196

The Birds of the Simla and Adjacent Hills” ‘

Plate: Views of the terrain, Simla Hills 50h ies. we 220

A Note on the Position of Rhinoceros in Burma ip

Plate: The Sumatran Two-horned Rhinoceros __ fh BTS SD Talons

The Smaller One-horned Rhinoceros a eee:

NPS Istadeh: A breeding place of the Flamingo, [Phoenicobterus oppo

voseus (Pallas)]'in Afghanistan _ f Hyd Deh es

Plate: Rosy, Flamingo shot on outskirts of Kerandaine Bre ie ate

Collection of Flamingo eggs made on Hillock IL on

The Lac Insect of the West Coast of India... .. Ls hh, SOS

Plate: Fig.1. Lakshadia communis eronminee a ‘typical? -encrista- eave

tion on Ficus bengalensis .. “wex-- 332

Plate: Fig. 2. Lakshadia communis encrustation on a Fi icus ee:

PENSIS. : AS aS

Figs. 3-5. Lakshadia communis on neDichrastachye) cinerea |

arranged triangularly

Fig. 7. Same as Fig. 6

The Systematic Position of the Family Moringaceae based on the study 0 of

wi Worahee plerygosperma (aaertn. (= MW, oleifera Lamk.)

Fig.6. Portion of Fig. 5 enlaryed to show three dots 338

Plate: Figs. 1—11 a (tee. SIRE,

_ Plate: Moringaceae by R. M. Data ase ot i Ra eY/

Obituary: : :

The late Reginald Innes Pocock, F.R.s. (1863-1947) 500 -~ 360

The. ‘ Watching’ attitude of the Cheetal or Spotted Deer (ais axis

Erxl.) § :

Plate: 00 son 5 376

Abnormal palms of South Travancore II—A Three-crowned Coconut :

-Palm.( Cocos nucifera L.) ¥

Plate I. 00 ce RED Feta’ © sepee: P| vac” 398

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

Cocos nucifera

Plate 550

Conitogramme traxinea

3 Plate VII, Fig. 10 bet. 82/83

Corvus monedula sommeringt

398

Plate II. ,.. aes 88

Crow, The House

ea Plate I, 200 ; £5 86

VOLUME 47

Nos. 1 & 2

"s PAGE . PaGE

Adiantum ca pillus-veneris Crow The Jungle

Plate V, Fig. 8... bet. 82/83 Plate Ty «2. tbs 86

— caudatum Cystopleris fragilis

Plate Ill, Fig.6 ...,, 82/83 Plate XI, Fig. 14 bet. 82/83

———_ venusium Damage by the moth Dichocrocis

Plate IV, Fig.7 ...,, 82/83 punctiferalis Fb. to

~ Antigonon leptopus three strains of the Castor

Coloured plate... 195 Plant, 1

.. Plate S00 000 196 Graph 328

Asplenium alternans: Dicerorhinus sumatrensis

Plate I, Fig.l 82 Platen ach 262

——— trichomanes Dimeria kanjirapallilana

Plate II, Fig. 3 82/83 Plate I... ake 48

— varians ———. kurumthotticalana

Platerinehiow27s cs. 82 Plates laa, ny 49

Athyrium schempert Dryobates brunnitrons -

24 Plate VI, Fig. 9 one 99 82/83 Plate V a Ae 98

‘Axis aie meres ae Dryopteris odontoloma

(Be REISS ee Plate IX, Fig. 12. bet. 82/83

-Balanidae from Mahabalipuram : E : Fees

; ragrostis untoloides Nees

| Plate: Figs. 1 & 2. 116 ES, (HID a

Barbus (Puntius) sarana Plate III hs 50

., . , Pext fig. 1 (b) 322) Hsacus yecurvirostris

Birds of Delhi and District Plates IV & V. bet. 46/47

“Map Oo 20 278 Plate VI or 47

Birds of the Gyantse Rima Etroplus suratensis —

Southern Tibet: , Text fig. 3 Age 398

see pe $02 Fish Survey of Hyderabad — = ain

‘Birds of the Lalmai Area near State

Comilla, SHEE: pene Map ke 102

Map Te) eee 58 00D 3 QUD.

Birds of the Simla’ and adjacent ies PE A SSIES a5 ag

Hills. me aoe TPE

Plate : Views of the Ter- oo gee Loe ESE

| rain, Simla Hills. ste Bis es ;

~Burmese:mammals: Notes on = i es i oi

some. Photo 382 Fresh W “ = ee f ns :

Charadrius dubius jerdoni i Gk ciate SES

: Bombay & Salsette

Plate III. Fae 46 Photo : nae 399

Cheilanthes albomarginata A oS ee ae i ite

cs Pilate ft, hee. tel SO/RR || Sees Gee: !

Text fig. -- = 286

Glossogobius giuris

Aexthhioenls (ai) ue ose 322

Himantopus h. ceylonensis ae

Plate I ... ee 44

Iynx torquilla

Text fig. ... ae 286

——_—— japonica 4 ‘te:

Plate IV es 96

RVI INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Kite, The Black eared-

Plate VI 000 100

Lakshadia communis

Plate ant 332

Plate apr rae 333

Lobipluvia malabarica

Text-Fig. 5 286

Lutta aegyptiaca

Photo st od Com

Mackerel skeletons from

the stomach of ths

stranded Whale

Photo sh 157

Moringa plerygosperma

Plate a eat 356

Plate Bs, aaes 357

Onychium japonicum

Plate XII, Fig. 15 83

Oriolus ovriolus kundoo

Plate III ... as 94

Osphronemus goranty

Text fig. 2 324

Passitlora caerulea

Text fig. 2 vee 4

Text fig. 7 A 11

———— calcarata oF

Text fig. 15 600 24

qa 6111018

Text fig. 11 500 17

———— edulis Te IRS

Plate II ... ae 16

Text fig. 10 a 15

Passitlora toetida

ALES AE Toke is) => Cae 20

——-—_ graciits

Text fig. 16 eee 25

-—_—— holosericea

Plate III ... ae 18

Text fig. 12 oS, 18

————— incarnata -

Plates ss. ar 12

Text fig. 9 508 14

———— Leschenaulti

Text fig. 6 600 10

——— — lunaia

Text fig. 5 ase 9)

———— Minima

Text fig. 3 600 6

moritolia

Text fig. 14 Sisk Mee

PAGE

Passitlova quadrangularis

Text fig. 4 500 7

———~— racemosa

Coloured plate... 1

—-—-— suberosa :

Text fig. 8 ase 13

Passion Flower, Old concep-

tion of

Text fig. I ae 2

Pelleae nitidula

Plate III, Fig.5 bet. 82/83

Petaurista canciceps

Plate cee ae 52

Phoenicopterus ruber roséus

(Palias) in Afghanistan,

Maps) «. 310

Plate ane “00 312

Polystichum angulare

| Plate X. Fig. 13 bet. 82/83

Prionailurus bengalensis

Photos ye.: 05 371

Psittacula cyanocephala

Text fig. AOC 286

Pteris cretica t

Plate VIII, Fig. 11 bet. 82/83

Rhinoceros in Burma, A Note

on the position of se sty atea

Map ieee. ‘at 250

Rhinoceros sondaicus

Plate.) & cone ice ayy weneGe

Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus,

Anomalous antenna in _

Text fig, A&B. 398

Selaginella chrysorhizus

Plate XII, Fig. 16 83

Sida Beddomei

Plate III. O00 50

Skull of the Nelliampathy

Maneater ‘

Photo 150

Sterna albitrons sinensis

Plate II ... a0 45

Streptopelia decaocto

Plate VI ... 0 100

Sturvnus vulgaris humit

Plate IV coe 96

ZTurdus unicolor |

Plate II ... aoe 88

Upupa epops =

Plate V ... A 98

PAGE

Abies pindrow 117

Abraxas sylvata eonardive 218

Acanthis flavirostris rufostrigata 307

Acanthocybium solandri O08 703

Accipiter badius dussumieri 141

— nisus aot op

——— virgalus affinis 365

— — virgatus besra 141

Acridotheres ginginianus ... 284

— - tristis . 61, 96, 284

GriStishmene: 387

Acrocephalus agricola agricola 134

——---—— dumetorum 134, 282

stentoreus 282

Acrocodia 267

acuticauda (L.) ... aoe) Emmeiows epee SO

Adelura coeruleocephala _ ... Bs SPER N)

Adiantum capillus-veneris _... 76, 79, 80, 83.

————- caudatum _... ...20, 79,-80, 83

— venustum -...- 76, 79, 83

Aegithaliscus concinnus iredalei 124

——_—_——-— niveogularis 124

Aegithina nigrolutea ... on 279

a tiphia 58.

————_ ——-— bumei 5a 130

Aethiopsar fuscus BAY 3 6]

—_— —— mahrattensis se. . 136

alata, (Passiflora) 2

Alauda arvensis inopinata 304

gulgula 286

ee australis — 137

Albara argenticeps 020 31

albicillus, (Haliactus) ... 305 |

albiventer (Petaurista) ... 52

Albizzia lebbek ... §o0 YAY)

————. stipulata 102,03

Alboides, (M.) 5 161

Albonotatus, (C. macrourus) ... 162

Alcedo atthis Ges «65, 288

Alcemerops athertoni ainartont 140

Alcippe poioicephala brucei srt 130) |

— poioicephala 130

Alhagi camelorum 309

Alseonax latirostris poonensis

INDEX OF SPECIES

aieeae dae |

PAGE

Amandava amandava 284

Amaurornis phoenicurus 293

Ambassis nama 110

————_ranga ... 110

Amblonyx 381

Amblypharyngodon ole 109

Amblypygia : 360

Ammomanes BOeAie aT 286

— phoenicura,.. 137

Ampelopsis sf. ... aes . 208

Anabas testudineus 321

Anas acuta As 606 300

—-—— crecca oss cae 299

—- falcata 299

—-—-~ penelope 299

—-— poecilorhyncha 299

—-— p. plalyrhyncha 307

—-— platyrhyncha 299)

—-— querquedula 142, 300

—-— strepera ‘ages 299

Anastomous oscitans ... 298

anfracta (Panacra metallica) 209

Anguilla bengalensis : 104, 109

Anhinga melanogaster AS)

Aniseia 337

—~—— parlevioides 346

—-—— calycina 346

——— martinicensis — 343

——— uniflora 343

Anisodes obrinaria 40

Anser anser 299

—-— indicus 299, 306, 308

—— neglecttis 5 167

Anthracoceros malabaricus 288

Anthropoides virgo 500 ans 294

Anthus campestris 550 286

——— ————— godlewskii ... 137

——— hodgsoni ... : 286

—-— inopinatus 137

——— nilghiriensis 137

——— rufulus Sua 63, 286

——._ —-—-— malayensis vv 137

ceteeted similis a 286

——— trivialis __ 286

INDEX OF SPECIES

viii

PAGE

Antigone antigone 294

Auntigonon : 195

Antigonon leptopus 195

——_ —_—— albus LOG

Aplocheilus blochii ae St 324, 326 |

—--—— lineatus Byala SAG) |

Aporiaagathon .. co (AE

Appias albina danada ... 394, 395

—--—indraindra .. 395 |

Aquila chrysaetos 290 |

———— heliaca 1.0 wee 290

—-—— vipalensis 290

——— pomarina 290

——— rapax 290

Atachnida 360

Araneae .. 360 |

Arceuthornis vietconus hone pattel 50 CA |

Archibuteo hemiptilus ... 305, 308

Arctonyx ... 363

Ardea soot lO

——— cinerea a Gels)

—+-— purpurea .., coo Osh}

Ardeola grayii 68, 298

Areca catechu ae 398

argentimaculatus, iedneaueye 000 12

Argya caudata ... a of pe 279

—— — —-—-— caudata 222

ae—— earlil 500 660 278

=—-— malcolmi... ee of BIE

Argyreia Bet 37 O00 ,rdo)l:

—-—— agereasta Sood 351

——-— elliptica 351

— nervosa eee 351

s——-——— setosa obi0 351 |

= — speciosa 351

Argyreiosus brevoorti .. 72

armatus, (Mastacembalus) 109 |

Artamus fuscus 249

Artemia sacua 166 |

Arundinaria falcata 180

Ascelepiadaceae 177

Ascotis (Boarmia) Selenaria Ny)

asiaticus, (Caprimulgus... 162

Asinus 143

Asio flammeus 289

Aspidiim angulare 81

Aspidoparia morar 109

Asplenium adiantum:- nigrum 75

—— polypodiodes ae 82

————- trichomanes 76, 77, 83

eo VATIANS 76, 77, 78, 83

PAGE

Astragalus sp. 312

Astur badius 55. PBS

Athene brama €7, 289

- brama 141

-noctua ludlowi ... 308

Atherura macrura » Lod

Atherurus macrourus ... aoe 373, 374

Athyrium filix-foemina polyspora 80

—-—— Schimperi... ©... 76, 80, 83

Awaous ob 323

——-— stamiuens 323

Aythya ferina 300

- fuligula ae — 300

- rufa . -- 800

Axis axis 376.

Bagarius bagarius 110

bahram, (Microhippus h.) wi- 144

Balaenoptera edeni sie ede

-- — musculus ing. ol Cis

Balaenoptera sp. feel 6)

Balaenopteridae 500. = Les

Balanus amphitrite 500 115, 116

—__— ——__-——- venustus ... oot lS

balanoides 116, 117

—~—— longirostrum Sielo

———~—— tintinnabulum oy, JENS, Seale)

— + —- communis .«.-° IDS.

Bangarus caeruleus ..._ 390

Barbus Puntius amphibius 109°

——— —— — chola sprloo

——— ——— chrysopoma \.. weet 09.

a -conchonius °° se 10d

——— ———- kolus ... esi 09

——_—_— ——— <parrah - we ~~ 109

——— (———) sarana ae 321

——— ——— sophore 109

——— —-——= ticto 109

—--— (— ) vittatus SOF

——— sarana ay & 83832)

— (Tor) khudree 104, 169

Batatas 500 sie OOF

--=—— paniculata we = 48

- pentaphylla 059 ESS)

Batrachostomus A wt san LZ

beema, (Motacilla f.) «.. wes 286

- Begoniaceae avs oe 355

belangeri (Garrulax 1. ia 219

Beloni annalata ... eos 900 72

bengalensis #(Molpastesic.) ss mmeeseneee 26

bengalensis, (A. a.) Bi 3. 288

Berberis ie ‘3 AKG 227, 238

INDEX OF SPECIES

141, 291

PAGE

biflora, (P.) oa 00 8

Bignoniaceae 500 : 355

Bipalium ak 3 AG 178; 179

———— smithi 178

blanfordi, (M. h.) 143

Bombax 226

Bombycilla parmiee 160

_ Bonamia " 342

——— latifolia 342

—-——— Semidigyna 342

Borassus flabellifer wee 398

botia, (N.) 323

Brachydanio rerio 000 109

Brachypternus nenenalencis 64, 287

— puncticol-

lis : art 138

ee tehminac else

braminus, (T.) 388 |

brevirostris, (P.) ce 8 248

Breweria Bee ae beat 8) ee D

—— — abscissa 500 ao ron O42

———-- cordata ave Z 342

———-- Roxburghii ... se 506 8 ce

Bubo bengalensis 8 as 141, 289

—- coromandus ol | Beh)

bubulcus ibis ia 68, 298

Bucanetes githaginea 284

Burhinus oedicnemus O00 294

Butastur teesa ‘a 6019

Buteo burmanicus ws ae 305

—- rufinus 500 oe 291

Butorides striatus Sc 3a 298

eee eee — abbotti 908 os A?

Caecomantis merulinus passerinus .. 139

Caenestheria sf. ae es tee BOG

caerulea-racemosa, (P.) ae vee 12

Calandrella acutirostris 304

=————-—- brachydactyla ... 286

——__ —___. ______° dukhunensis. 137

——-——- raytal aa ive 286

calcarata, (P.) ot es 5

Calidris minuta a0 sien 296

——--temminckii ... 600 ree ZOO

Callichrous bimaculatus 109

——-_-—- pabda oad a oe O9

Callidrepana obliquistriga 207

Callimorpha plagiata i 50 28

Calliope calliope be aes 131, 280

———— pectoraiis pectoralis 234

Calliphora vomitoria 145

Calonyction 337

b Sb: ¢

PAGE

Calonyction aculeatum 349

——- muricatum 349

———-— - Roxburghii 349

—-— speciosu.n aes : 349

Calothysanis (Timandra) correspon-

dens ave ws ace 40)

Calotropis : 111

-——--—-—— gigantea 11, 178

—- procera 11]

caniceps, (P.) 382 ise 52

Canis lupus ‘ts 363

———- ——- pallipes don ane 379

Capella ¢. gallinago 306

———-gallinago Ss le 142, 297

———— stenura... 306

Capparidaceae ... 355, 356

Capparis 231

Capricornis se 363

Caprimulgus asiaticus ... : 289

—_——_— ————_ asiaticus 14]

—_———-—— indicus a ost (66

—— -——— macrourus atripennis ... 140

monticolus Soo eet)

Caranxviaes. 600 : : 71

—-——— =caninus .. oO ae son 73

--—— - crumenophthalmus 72

~ Sp. Ras de

Carea nitida 06 sa ao ao0 |) Shs)

Caricaceae 560 355

Carpodacus erythrinus ... i300) 204

—— rubicilloides lapersonnei. 303

Casarca ferruginea 50

Casearia

Catla ae

—- catla see

Cechenena lineosa lineosa

Centropus bengalensis ...

——--—-———. sinensis

— ee

Cepheis ... O00

Ceratotherium simum ... ‘

Cerchneis tinnunculus swosp. ...

Cercomela fusca ... ous

Certhia himalayana 506

— himalayana

eee

— 2

Cervus wallichii ..

Ceryle rudis As

leucomelanura

——_-— ——-- travancoreensis ...

Chaetomorpha wos

Chaimarrhornis le: feotennales

.. 315, 316, 317, 318

19, 315, 318, 322, 925

.. 299, 307, 312

356

214

65, 288

139

177

250, 273

305

231, 280

279

227

2. 363

eS 6G

Chanos es

———-chanos ...

Chaptia aenea Palaver

Chara re a6 AY 300

Charadrius dubius

—— ——-- curonicus

——— jerdoni

Charana cepheis...

Cheilanthes albomarginata

—— ———- dalhousie

faricosa

—— en

en ees es Dan Gase

-—— ——- fragrans

Chela clupeoides...

=—- phulo

Chelidorbynx hyposentum

Chelonobi testudinaria .

Chettusia gregaria

——-——- leucura

Chironomidae

Chironomus ate wae

Chlamydotis undulata ...

Chlidonias hybrida ep aR

Chloropsis aurifrons

omer Ss SS Glaitlgonait

Chorinemus lysan

Choriotes nigriceps

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE | PAGE

323 | Circus macrourus... re ee 141, 291

323 | Cirrepedia ee 70D apa ate uly

134 | Cirrhina mrigala... Ss -% 322, 323

164, 396 | ———— reba ... o 590 oe ENS)

. - 295 | Cirripedesmus meneolel AtHIETONS) v5eo0o

142 | Cisticola exilis ... 207 oD ree pegiiel

45 | ———— juncidis... ie rT ayer 2B

177 | Citrus spp. see 4), 198, 199, 201, 204

76, 78, 83 | Cladophora 500 001 500 Pee lG

76, 78, 79 | Clamator jacobinus ne eine ...04,. 287

...76, 78 | clarkei, (I.) “a me te Me eso)

79 | Clarias batrachus 500 ae sce EO)

16) 979. | (Clupearsimbriatal s2)) a ass eee mre 2

109, 321 longiceps.... 508 569 Des 12

108 | Coccothrinax garberi ... 2 oe

245 | Cocos nucifera ... qe O55 seks}

115 | Coelodonta antiquitatis ae ae 7s0\0)

295 \ (COntuSaye (ive) maemese 500 ey tooo. eed

295 | Cogia breviceps ... Aa BG aD eie

302, 311 | Columba elphinstonii ... ... >... - 145

165, 314 | ————— livia... ele 67, 292.

294 ——-—— rupestris barkectanven iS ioe

294 Colymbus arcticus ree 118),364, 365,

279 | Comibaenasubhyalina... ..,. cay. ed

130 | communis, (L.) ... oe (ERD, 332,. 333

72 + Compositae + eae gy bead eeehenSlO

o— DOA congesta, (a5) eee 00 citys, HOE ee, 348,

chrysippus (D.) ... iia; 113, 114, 17, 178 | Coniogramme fraxinea ..,.. otsthii 76, 80, 83:

Chrysocolaptes guttacristata socialis 139 | Conservula indica ie 6 Pe Oo)

Chrysomma sinensis 279 | Convolvulaceae ... co, BER _337, 338, 351

—- - hypoieuca 129 | Convolvulus Bis, ie wee 2... BS/s BAZ

————— = ——- sinensis ..- 223 | -—-———--- aculeatus... soo Cie aoseg oto

chrysopoma, (B.) we. oe. - 921 | ——— alsinoides... ae Boe INL

Chthamalus stellatus .. 215, 116, 117 | —— = ArvensiS 2. is Oe)

Cicada platypleura -309 | —— Batatas ... nee ww» _ 348

Ciconia ciconia 297 | ——— bicoloreiees. 500 seg One)

= nigra 907, | SS = cainicns aie Pe ses, G48

Cidaria obfuscata 40 | ———---—— copticus ... be soo ead)

ciliata, (P.) 5 | ———-—— cymosus ... ie so. ele!

cingala (Eterusia a.) 27 | ——~-——- denticulatus ss .., aeons:

Cinclus pallassi tenuirostris 229 | ---——-——— qdissectus ... 5a MO eS

Cinnyris asiatica ... ae Go 63 | ————-—— edulis ae at o. altks)

- ~ brevirostris ... 138 | ——- hastatus ... B55 .. «= 44

———~ asiaticus eee 287 | ——-—- hederaceus ... sak 37290848

—— =— lotenia... 133 | = Jhispid isa een eAG

——— minima... agp dlshss -— martinicensis ds wee pods

—— —— zeylonica ee et ee rane 0 a

_4—-—- zeylonicus ». 50 20 63 | ——- muricatus ... 566 we O49

Circaetus ferox ... - 291 | ————-—— nervosus ... ‘vs eee eb

(Circus aeruginosus 291 | ———_-—._ Nil .. or Sis mete 4948

cyaneus ... ,

291 | ————-- = nummularius ts Bees oel

INDEX OF SPECIES |

PAGE

Convolyulus obscurus 347

-—— paniculatus... 347

———--—- parviflorus... 343

——— -—— pentaphyllus 345

-——- per-caprae ... 347

———-—- purpureus ... 349

——_-—— reniformis ... 344

-——_—. ——- repens nent eG)

—-- reptans Se omenoLO

——: Rottlerianus 343

——_-——- semidigynus - 342

—- simplex S44

-—-- Speciosus 50 Solleul

———-:-— sublobatus ... ots ee oe

————_--— tridentatus ... 600 ww. 344

—_—— -—— tuberosus 345

—~--——— Turpenthum 346

——-——— umbellatus.. 344

——_— -——_ uniflortis 343

—_-—+—_——- vitifolius wae wre GAS

Copsychus saularis . 99, 159, 280

——_ --___ ——___—- saularis ... 2131, 235

Coracias benghalensis ... 65, 288

—____ _____-—— indica 140

Corvidae <a S

Corvus corax se 118, 278

—-ftibetanus ... sca) ell

—— macrorhynchos ... BDU ||

———_ _ ——__——_ —- ——- jntermedius 118, 119

—_—-—— ——— culminatus 46

— monedula soemmeringii 88

—— splendens... 58, 278

——- ——-—— splendens 119

— zugimeyri 387

Coryllis vernalis rubropygius ... 140

Coryphaenidae

Cosmophila fulvida 38

Coturnix coromandelicus 293

—— coturnix 293

Crateropus caudata caudata 129

———— malcolmi 129

Creatonotus transiens ... 28

-Crematogaster 64

Cressa aa 340

Croce trionfante ... 3

Crocopus phoenicopterus 292

———— - chlorigaster 163

Cruciferae 355, 356

Cuculus canorus ... 230, 287, 38€

— micropterus Sale |

——— optatus 172 |

Cystopteris fragilis

XX1

PAGE

Cucurbitaceae ... 60 355

Culicicapa ceylonensis ... 281

—---——. ——— ceylonensis 132

SEEEEEeeiieeeeee pallidor 244.

Cuon 379

—— alpinus ssp 379

_—-— javanicus ; 363

Cursorius Eoromandelicus 294

Cuscuta ... stoke 339

——-— arabica ... ; a 339

——~- Boissieri... 54 600 339

——-—- chinensis 338, 339

- reflexa 338, 339

—- sulcata Sc 339

cyanophlyctis, (Rana) ... 173, 174

_ Cyanosylvia suecica 280

ae Svecica paiicoealen 233

| Cybium commersonii. 72

—-guttatum... ase 2

Cygnus b. bewickii 167

—-—-—- bewickii jankowskii 167

—-——-cygnus ... ote ee O7

——- minor aoe O/,

~ olor eee G7,

Cyornis pallipes oailtbose:| 132

— rubeculoides rubeculoides 132

Cypsiurus batassiensis ... 66

76, 81, 83

Daksha ssp. 204

Danais chrysippus 114

Danaus chrysippus 111, 177

Danio aequipinnatus .,. 109

malabaricus 321, 323

Dasychira complicata 219

| ——-—— feminula 7 eee 205

——--—— tenebrosa 204

——--——— virescens wah 219

| davidsoni (Chloropsis a.) ste 130

demoleus, (Papilio) 198, 204

Dendrocitta formosae occidentalis ... 120

oe sarkari ... een 2S

———--—— leucogastra... 128

——-— -——_ vagabunda... 98, 278

EIEIO pallida 120

—_—_--—__ ———__- ——_ parvula 128

ee vernayi 123

| Dendrocygna javanica ... 299 .

Dendrophassa bicincta leggei... Book. allele

deodara, (C.) 50d 117

Diapensia .. 600 147.

-Dicaeum SehceloE anmealles ASS

PAGE

Dicaeum erythrorhynchos ae bey 63

—_—~- erythrorhyn-

chosing: ae be ss ee, * 138

Dicerorhinus ae ca ‘ea Zolewens

——— sumatrensis 251, 256, 250, 262, |

265, 274, 275

—_—— —-—— blythi. 251, 253

— sumatrensis lasiotis... ... 251

Diceros bicornis ... 250

Dichocrocis eneareralic) 326, 327

Dichromia quadralis ... BOF ihe 39

Dichrostachys cinerea 233

Dicrurus ... 006 ase ae soe bs}

— coerulescens 65, A

oe -- — eeeriieeeens see els:

—longicaudatus longicauda-

tus 134

——— macrocercus... 60, 282

134

117, 121, 220

— ————-—— peninsularis...

dilatata, (Q.)

Dillenia indica ... Ao a06 211

Dimeria kanjirapallilana we. 48, 49

-— kurumthotticalana ... 49, 50

—-- Lawsoni 006 on -e» 49, 50 |

-- ornithopoda (TRS ASA On|

Diplazium eee aoe aes 82

Dipsas ee G00 eee sco eNO)

Dipterawy <.- See sco.) dS

Dissemurus paradiseus malabaricus , 134

Dissoura episcopus ; 297

Dryobates brunnifrons : a 98

— -—— hardwichkii Garawidkil 138

——-—— hyperythrus ... ae w» «126 |

oe mahrattensis 64, 287 |

——--—— ———---— mahrattensis 138 |

Dryopteris odontoloma «. 76, 81, 83

—--—— ramosum ... 460 S66 82

Dumetia hyperythra albogularis 129

—_———- ——_— ——_ hyperythra 129

Echis carinata ... a oe stor wall)

Ectocarpus : 656 008 soo) LAO

, edulis, (P.) oes ate ae ah 5)

WOTetiam alec. 176

—— — alba a ; 298

—-— —-—— modesta .. 500 142

———- intermedia sis a8 se g

——-— garzetta vee aes 68, 298

Elanus caeruleus 291

Felasimobranchs re mesce esse uenee. memre7.2

Eleotris,.. ... one 500 323

ee eas fusca eee ope ope eee 223

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Elephas maximus of eS

Elops B00 323

| —-— saurus eae ete set snp OY)

Emberiza brunniceps ... fi am Aah

—-—— cia a ies mee coo

ee melaneee paale on eld

-— stewarti 500 503 285

Emblingia 385

Emphausia superba a aye!

Enicurus maculatus maculatus 231

Equisetum debile 7, 82

Equus oe: 500 elas

= — Joey eee 43

onager indicus 143, 144

—— — onager 144

Eragrostis unioloides ..., res oes 51

-——--—— ——--— tremula .. 56 ol

Eremopterix frontalis ono, Chey/

-—— grisea a a 56g CRY /

ee grisea 137

Friola a. alpina ... as 3 ong. . cls

temminckii one 506 oo AUS)

——— testacea 00

Eriolia alpina oo sl8)

Eriopus (Callopistria) Peniece ee 37, 215

Erismatura leucocephala 300

Erycibe paniculata ee 500 OSS,

—_—-— var. wightiana ... 339

——- wightiana vt 600 a0 818)

| erythraea (Rana) ais wat 500, «dA!

Erythrina erythrina roseata ao diate)

erythronotus (L.) 000 WAC W27/

Eryx johni johni 600 500 coo Si)

Esacus recurvirostris 45, 294

Esomus danricus O06 109

estriata (Lonchura s.).. % 136

Eterusia aedea edocla 203 ae 27

Etroplus maculatus ... 323, 325

— suratensis Yao, BS)

Exudynamis scolopaceus 65, 287, 387

—— ——-— scolopaceus 139

Eumyias albicaudata 132

———— thalassina : recs

— ——- thalassin vt. 132, 244

Eurivea .:. 306 if oe SN)

Eurystomus orientalis ofientalia fo

Everes dipora... BOL 200 doa, O10

Evolvulus alsinoides 340, 341

——-—— emarginatus... 345

———~-— hederaceus ... _ 345

——-—— hirsutus ar “pb aye =~ G4]

INDEX OF SPECIES crit

PaGE 7 PAGE

Evolvulus nummularius 500 340, 341 | Garrulus bispecularis bispecularis ... 120

tridentatus ... $8 .. 344 —lanceolatus ... as Ad) ) wil20

excelsa, (P.) _... se oes 117, 121 | Geokichla citrina eee ats soo, tek)

Walcosen .e- sf a ih 67, 365 —- ——— citrina cae oo “CR

=== ORGAN agp a 2 290; 304 | ———--— ——— cyanotus | .... a tod

——— chicquera ee 18 oo . 20 | wardii ves on anc) aie)

ee chicquera Ai ... 141 | gigantea, (Calotropis) ... 11, LS 76

- jugger ke e- i 290, 383 | ginginianus, (INES 1D) aera a bo CKD)

—-—— peregrinus so. oto. = PED eter (Eo), eo a he)

—-—— tinnunculus Bie as wee200n | Glarcolalacteay... 000 ae 500 AE

_—— ~—— objurgatus ... ote 141 — maldivarum ... eo0 eee 204

Fascellina plagiata Pe: ry = 42 | Glaucidium radiatum malabaricum ... 141

Felis $3 a: th rb ... 380 | Globicephalus indicus ... 86 coca OG

—— chaus We Re. Als ... 380 | Glossogobius giuris see eel Ona lee 322

—— SSP, ave “on ae ... 380 | Glottis nebularia one wat POG

Ficus arnottiana ss ae ... 163 | Gomontia ose a ose soo DG

—-— bengalensis Aa 33 330, 333 | gracilis, (P.) eS BS ie eas 5

—-— mysorensis ad ey 330, 333 | Grammatoptila striata SRD cooper acl

= RINSIOSA, Gas end ses .. 329 | grandis, (Ph. erythrogaster) ... SeoOUS

foetida,, (Bs) " SOOT Ss a: 5 | Grateloup‘a a Se% on eS

Forficulidae aa ma oy .. 811 | Graucalus javensis 506 Be oe OD,

forsythi, (P. graculus) ae cop) - we || 2S macei ces Boo. alg

fossilis, (H.) ee Or 2 . 322 | ——-—-— javensis nipalensis... tee o4s

Flacourtiace ih re i ... 355 | gtisescentior, (T. 1.) °... ooo «o. 221

Flacourtiazeae ... earn os .. 956 | Grus grus 500 1) 0064) 00d . 293

floribunda, (P.) in ile .. 147 | —— leucogeranus ae 506 eempyizod

HOSPDASSIONISi ses) te) coat tee oe ee 13) |) sa Digricollisie.s3 S335 -.. see, 305

Frarcolinus francolinus 7. a 293 Gymnorhis xanthocollis... O00 S60 284

—=— pondicerianus ... ... 293 SS So PEAY NO SONS G05, ISS

Frankenia laevis ... ae Bi: ... 31] | Gypaetus barbatus ba a stones (304

Franklinia buchanani ... ... ... 282 | Gyps fulvus 000 | 06 891/000 V9 “00! FP4SI0

———-~-— gracilis gracilis... ... 134 | —-— himalayensis ose SOD seuayt oOt

Fringilauda brandti haematopygia ... 303 | —--—indicus jonesi_... see . 364

Fulica atra Se ae ... 293, 308,310 | Haematornis cheela_... ue maOecol

Fulvetta vinipecta kangrae ... .... 224 | Halcyonsmyrnensis ... ... — ...66, 288

gachua, (O.) es ey ieee ... 322 | Haliaetus leucoryphus ... ee 291, 305

Gailinula chloropus ude ae eae 293 | Haliastur indus ees 500 ood Oy ZL

Galeodidae one oe Be ... 360 | Harpactes fasciatus legerli... .. 140

Galerida cristata Ses 286, 309. | - -—— —-——— malabaricus -- 140

———--- malabarica maalabaiien .. 137 | hastata, (M.) ase see wee 344, 345

Galium rotundifloium. ... Pasta e225) | nederacea, (1) 9 3). sos) eto CEs

Galloperdix spadicea s geadtiew, a. 142 | Hedyotis sp. a coo Gee Beep)

Gallus gallus gallus... =... ... 142 | helenus (P ) oo Ooo = Goo han aleye)

sonneratii fs pre Ree A Oa eLClIC (ISM es. Ses nee vee Son Sei

Gambusia affinia... “a5 ms 321, 326 | ———— Personata vee ase 381

Garaeus specularis 7 43 aS 41 | Hemichelidon sibirica gulmergi remote

Garra mullya os aie ee ... . 321 | Hemicircus canente cordatus ... OO,

——-stenorhynchus ... shes ... 109 | Hemipus picatus capitalis aes card Le tO

Garralax albogularis whistleri ts gees ec 219 = - picatus soe 133

———— leucolophus leucolophus ... 219 | hemippus, (M.h.) 500 wee ses 14S

———-— ocellatus see ae .. 126 | Hemitragus hylocrius .., age Bion ee

XXIV

Heteropneusteus fossilis

Hewittia ... Sp wen tae

ai Cooter aS A

— sublobata

hexadactyla, (R.) 50d

Hibiscus solandra

Hieraetus fasciatus

-— pennatus

Hierococcyx sparveroides

-—— varius

himalayensis (Sitta)

Himantopus h. ceylonensis

~-—— — himantopus

Hippoboscidae ...

Hippolais caligata

- rama...

Hirundo daurica...

nipalensis

———— fluvicola see

———-— javanica domicola

———— rustica eee

——_——. ——— eutturalis

———— smithii

———— ——— filifera ...

hodgsoni, (A.)

—

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

110,

139, 287

295,

Hodgsonius pkoenicuroides proenionr

oides ae 506

holocericea, {P.)

Hoplopterus ventralis ... 600

Hydrophasianus chirurgus

Hyella

Hyphene

Hypnea

Hypotaenidia stata

Hypothymis azurea sykesi

Ianthia cyanura pallidiora

293)

/ eee

Ianthocincla rufogularis occidentalis...

1bidorhynenrs struthersi

Ibis leucocephalus we

Ictinaetus malayensis ...~

Ilyocoris cimicoides

Impatiens sf.

incana, (Q.)

incarnata, (P.)

indica, (B.) ise

indicus (Equus 0, zar.)...

indra (C.) <.. 500

insularis (C. a.) ...

intermedius, (M. c.)

involucrata, (L.) ...

ole icterica intensior

41, 208,

TL A ae

321

342

. PAGE

Ipomoea ... an 337, 338, 347, 350

aegyptia nA syste SH

al Davee 349

— avgulata p00 349

— —~- barlerioides sae — O46

——_——— Batatas 500 a .. 348

—-— biloba 347

— bona-nox 349

— cairica... B00 348

— calycina 346

— campanulata ... 347

— chryseides 345

—-———. Clarkei... 346

— coccinea 600 349

——— coptica... 347

— ——— cymosa eG 344

— deniculata 344

—— digitata 347

-—_———— dissecta 506 345, 347

—— diversifolia ... 348

———-— emarginata ... a0 344

— eriocarpa oS

— hederacea oe 348

———— hepaticifolia ... eos 348

— hispida .. oon 346

involucrata 346

— laciniata 348

———— Leari Soo)» ote 3

— maxima 346

--—— — muricata ae 500 349

—— Nil 348

== nuda .. 345

—- obscura eos §©=6 AA

— palmata 348

——— paniculata ie 343, 347

———pentaphylla ... G03 345

— pes-caprae on !7/

— pes-tigridis 348

———— — hepaticifolia 348

a phoenicea 349

— pileata 346

—_ pulchella 348

———— purpurea 200 she 349

——-— Quamoclit 349

— racemosa 3 347

— reniformis woe 344

— reptans aiisteh suusess 4c 346

— rhyncorhiza ... cee 345

———-- — rubro-caerulea «coh BOOO

-——-—— — scabra ... Sop ueaqnnts 348

————— sepiaria & vaswnOilees ose -347.-

INDEX OF SPECIES

XXV

PAGE PAG#

Ipomoea sessiliflora a) 346 | Lanius cristatus cristatus 133

— sinuata 345 —- phoenicuroides 133

— solanifolia ... 347 | ——— excubitor 22299) 20)

— speciosa a 351 | -—— —— lahtora 133

— staphylina ... 347 | ——— isabellinus 281

— Stocksii 346 | ——— schach 127, 281

— tridentata 600 344 | —-— -———— caniceps... 133

——-——— tuberosa Pa 345 | ——— ——— erythronotus 246, 387

—— Turpethum ... 346 | ——— tephronotus melo 265) 127,

— uniflora a ve . 343 | ——— vittatus 59, 133, 246, 281

--———— violacea 350 | Larus brunnicephalus ... 305

— vitifolia ee 345 — cachinnans 294

Irena puella puella 135 —ichthyaetus on

iscator, (N. p.) 173 | ——- ridibundts e204:

Istiophorus Se Zea LASTOUISE (Da Se)mueees is 252

——_——— ouyi .. see ati 72 | Lastrea filix-mas odontoloma... 8]

Ixobrychus cinnamomeus 69, 298 | Lates a 323

Ixulus flavicollis albicollis . .. 225 | —-— calcarifer ... SPAL

Iynx torquilla ... wee . 64, 139, 287 | latreilli (T.) 211

— ——_ — japonica... 600 as 99 Leari, (1) 348

jacobinus, (C.) ... sae Sac 221, 222 | Leea pe OM

Jacquemontia Demet 343 Legendrea 350

Jalindra indra 177. | ———-—— corymbosa moliseina 351

jankowskii (Cygnus b. y odo alGy/ —— mollissima ... 351

Jasminum malabaricum Non 336, 337 | Leguminosae ye “se 342

javanicus, (H.) .. ay 38] | Leguminoseae 355

jerdoni, (C. d.) 295 | Leioptila capistrata pallida 224

jourotus, (L.) ... | ee 127 | Leiothrix lutea calipyga 225

Ketupa zeylonensis ... 289 | Lepidocephalichthys thermalis S21 7323

khur, (Microhippus h.)... 143,144 | Lepidocephalus guntea... 109

kiang, (M.h.) ... - ... 143 | Leptomiza calcearia i 41

Kittacincla malabarica ee auiciea ... 13] | Leptoptilos dubius 298, 312

_Labeo ariza 321 | leptopus, (A.) 195, 196

ee =i pata 109 | Lerwa lerwa abe ac aAC 308

boggut .., ft .. 109 | Leschenaultii, (P.) eee eee ry)

—— calbasu ... 109, 322, 323 | Lettsomia i 35 BEY) SEO,

——— fimbriata ... 4) ae ... 109 | ~7——— aggregata ... see 351

pOraileiees eee ONT es 09: || eae elliptica 351

——— rohita oe, 322,323 | ————--— nervosa 351

lacei, (P.)... ATE | ena oa SCLOSA. oD 351

Lagerstroemia indica 393 --— speciosa 351

Mes tinaslObAata: oe. err ian. VE Soe Sse i | Leucocirca aureola_... 281

Laiscopus collaris whymperi ... AOE a ee ee compressirostris. no) | aie

—-——— himalayanus ... #43 2410 || = pectorallis vernayt 133

Lakshadia chinensis wwe «333:~«|:~“Leucoma (Caragola) ochtipes 205

————. communis ... .. 330, 332, 333 — ( ——) sericea ... 206

————— sindica 332 | Leucopolius alexandrinus 295

Lalage melaschista mreinechista 248 ——_—— —-————_ leggei wo 45.

——— sykesi sykesi 134 | Limnaetops cirrhatus cirrhatus 141

Lamprogale ... 363 | limnocharis, (R.) 174

Lanius cristatus .. 281 | Limnophyla eee 396.

XXVi INDEX OF SPECIES ¥

PAGE PAGE

Limosa limosa ... Hs ae ... 296 | macrorhynchos, (C.m.) ve caaeleLg

lineatus, (A.) ... 600 500 ... 326 | maderaspatensis, (M.) 500 oo Ol

Lithoderma “se Se coe Soa LO Pimiandaniniuss (ms) es nee by. eee! Wi

Lobipes lobatus ... a a .. 306 | Mangifera indica we nee ne FO3O

Lobipluvia malabarica iy 142, 295 | malabaricum, (B.) aa Fy son HE!

Lobivanellus indicus ... a 68, 295 | Mareca penelope oe iste pet 17/

——— indicus ... wae 45 | marulius, (O.) —... ee aor sere O20

Locastra cristalis es We ... 218 | Mastacembalus armatus neh cose Oeil

Locustella naevia ae aig ao ANS — pancalus oe wee 109

Loepa katinka ... see boc .... 207 | Mastigocoleus ... wiN nee

Lonchura malabarica ... ha .. 136 | Megalaima feemaeeanals ae 64, 237

-— punctulata nearer: oo) 30) alinea tsi es 516 aoe Ore

ers tiilavamece ae, a «. 136 | —————zeylanicus ... ay MP 2 87,

longifolia, (P.) 50¢ ‘uy, 240, 246 | Megalops 500 600 eee Boo ia)

Lophophanes dichrous dichrous .. 123 | ———— cyprinoides 500 APE Loyal

————--— melanolophus ... .. 123 | melanocephala, (U.) BA: 119, 120

———=- I FUbidiventris See .. 124 | Melanocory pha maxima 556 seat’ 804

——--—— rufonuchalis rufonu- | Melastoma normale ... ove ok eat?

chalis es .. 123 | —— Se 600 Semi temses on 37

Luffa acutangula = eee .- 397 | Meliantheae Res a as see 355

aegyptiaca 500 ses ... 397 | Melophus lathami oe or) foo | Sh)

Ge one ee sn Ke ... 397 | Mergellus albellus 06 Se0 «- . 300

lunata, (P.) sid ae vt on 5 | Mergus merganser orientalis ... Pres 07,

Luscinia brunnea brunnea ... ... 279 | Merops leschenaulti leschenaulti ... 140

-- obscura ces see .. 17/2 | ——-— orientalis ie eae 65, 288

Lusciniola melanopogon 600 so9 CASS | ON EVIS 00 2» 140

Lutianidae om ats e a 72 | ——-—superciliosus ... 5 aoe 66

Lutianus roseus 500 eee ae U4 |) > 3 —— FENG US, 140, 288

Lutra ae ae AEE Soo. = koi |p) a — ——-— persicus oes BU EZRO

Lutrogale eereprcillata an ... 9881 | Merremia aegyptia aie 344, 345

. Luxiaria obliquata os eee ~ 42 | —=-—-—chryseides .... .. i 2845

Lycaenopsis huegelli huegelli co GSS, | —— == Cynon, 500 see we 344

—-— ladonides gigas Be 9300 ||) a CISSeetal See ager er on) Oao4O

Lymantria bivittata ... wee 500 30) == emarainatagees. ee 343, 344

—___-_--—. mathura 99 | ———-— hastata se: 500 343, 344

Lymnocryptes minimus we soon CY |, = SIS, c00. | 000 343, 345

Lyngbya : = 115 | ———-—— pentaphylla a ode a otO

Macaca mulatta ... ee 52 ea VIC OnMIZA aes 344, 345

—— -— nemestrina s5; ee O28 eee ath emtatc «. 343, 344

——-— radiata ... eee 600 wee = B02. | subs.

——-— sinica ... eee OO hastata ... wes O44

Machlolophus panthowengs apionotust 128 | ——~--— tuberosa wie rr Senineso

rn | ——-—-—— umbellata . <a 343, 344

travancorensis iH) 128 | ——-—-— vitifolia ie sce 344, 345

—— Santionennst 122 | Metanastriaundans ... ay ih, 31

Macrauzata fenestraria aes a 31 | Metopidius indicus — .. beg es eel aie

Macroglossum aquila ... A se 32 | Microcichla scouleri scouleri Ao A?

—— — pyrrhosticta pyrrhos- Microhippus ... tes ane yyy LES

tictay We. 560 600 33 | ————-— hemionus blanfordi sec elt

we ee troclodyts) iece pees 34 | ————--— —— khur coe el4g

Macropadus cupauus ... ase » 32] ' Micropternus brachyurus ati oso

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE |

micropterus, (C.) ees was e222

Micropus affinis 600 20 289

Microscelis psaroides ganeesa -» 130 |

—- -- -— psaroides 226

Microtarsus poioicephalus ... Isl

Milvus migrans wee 67, 291 |

o ineatad

5 |

——— . 291, 305, 387 |

minima, (P.) os. Us os

Mirafra affinis .... .«. 5C6 cag id kSi/

——-— cantillans bangsi oc 137

-erythroptera ... a 286

Mixornis gularisrubricapilla ... 129

Molpastes cafer ... ny 3 Scobless CAN)

——-—— —~-cafer ... 500 506 al)

——_--—-—— —-— intermedius ... 5a LAG

—~-—— — -— saturatus 600 130

———-— leucogenys ... of 89, 387

ee —— leucogenys GO|

- ~—— —— leucotis 279

Monticola cinclorhyncha te 132, 239 |

-— rufiventris ... 50 239

——-—— solitaria eS 281

———— pandoo 900 240

——-—— solitarius pandoo ... 132

Montifringilla blanfordi 303

- nivalis adamsi .., 303

——--—-—- ruficollis .., 303

- — taczanowskii. 303

mooreanus (Papilio) .. 500 198

morifolia, (P.) ... eee 5

Moringa es es 356

——-— oleifera... 3 Sey

pterygosperma ...

Moringaceae 060

255,356,357

... 355, 356, 357

Motacilla alba... 5035209

-— — dukhunensis Sr aed IVE

——-—— cinerea 63, 161, 286

—=-— caspica 137

——-— citreola eee 286

———-— - calcearata 304

———_- —— flava 286

——--—- lugubris mlpeides 304

_— — maderaspatensis 285

-- maderas-

patensis 137

Mrigal 665 Giles

Mugil eee 500 ae Be 323

Mugil tade... : 323

Mullya, (G.) O00 ce cp) IBS}

Munia malacca ... ee 550 284

Muraena ... M2

eee ceo

EXVij~

PaGE

| Muscicapa latirostris 244

——— -——. parva 281

— -—-— ruficaudus 244

~—— —-~—— striata neumanni a 242

_ Muscicapula rubeculoides rabeentoides 243

—— superciliaris astigma 142

——-- ~~ -~——~ Superciliaris. 243

~-—— --——— tricolor tricolor 243

Mycteroperca ... 72

Myiophoneus caeruleus Penner 240

- horsfieldi ... 126

Myophonus coeruleus horsfieldii 132

Myriopoda O68 O90 360

Mystus aor ee 585 ose wo. =:110

bleekeri od cto, LO

-- cavasius ... 110, 321

——— gulio ee OCI

malabaricus Bee 110) 303

—-—— seenghala bo = Aue)

——— tengara 110

—vittatus ... 50d 110

Najas cod 164

Nandus nardus ... 500 Sao dk)

Nemachilus botia 109, 321

Nemorhaedus 362, 363

Neofelis 389

—-—— nebulosa So OOS

| Neophron percnopterus ott 290, 309

Nephrodium odontoloma 81

—-—— ramosum... 8; 82

Netta rufina 300, 307

Nettapus Coromennelnene ...69, 299

— —_————— coroman-

| delianus 142

Nettion crecca ... 307

—=-—— formosum 300

Neuropeltis oe 500 340

——-——— malabarica ... 340

— -— racemosa 340

Nigrimentum 300 600 Boon 2740)

Niltava sundara fastuosa 245

Ninox scutulata hirusta acl al

nipalensis (Lanius) 125, 126

—— (Jets lg) “6 285

Nitella ee 396

Notocrypta Peethaetii Bineee 27

Notonecta Sp. 311

Notopterus notopterus ... os. 109

Nucifraga caryocatactes remap 121

Numenius arquata 296

nuimmularius, (E.) 34]

XXViil

PAGE

Nycticorax nycticorax ... 500 on FAB)

Nyroca ”. rufa 307

Ochromela nigrorufa 132 |

Oenanthe capistrata 280

———— — deserti : nae 280

—-— oreophila_... oo OBS

—_———_ isabellina 280

—__——-— opistholeuca ... 280

picata ... : 280 |

—_——— pleschanka picceeanis 231 |

—— xanthoprymna chrysopygia. 23)

Oenopopelia tranquebarica «.. & 292

oleifera, (M.) 355, 356

Olfersia sp.

onager (Equus 0.) 500 144

Onthophaga sf. ... NOS

Onychium japonicum 76, 82, 83

Operculina 337 |

ee tuberosa 345 |

-—— turpethum ... 345 |

Ophicephalidae ... ton SY

Ophicephalus gachua 110, 321

- marulius... .. 110, 324, 392

punctatus 110

~ Striatus) sc. a ee Ul |

Oreocincla dauma dauma 238

—_—__—-—- dauma neilgherriensis ey

—___—---— mollissima simlaensis 239.

Oriolus chinensis diffusus 136

— oriolus 500 500 eos

Se KUNGOO!.-6 500 8B, IBIS, esto}

— xanthornus ane aes 60

ee ee maderaspatanus.) 130ml

Orthotomus sutorius . 60, 159, 282

— -londae ... 134 |

-—— — sutorius ... 134

Oryctes rhinoceros _ 399 |

Osbeckia sp aS ats es 37

Osphronemus gorainy ... BROLee O25 04

Otis himalayanus 126

—-— nigriceps as bog) WG

Otocompsa jocosa 603 09, 227, 249

—.— ——— fuscicaudata ae 130

Otocorys alpestris elwesi 304

Otus bakkamoena 600 S06 289

— sunia... Sc0 206 289

Paederia foetida ... 33

Paguma .. 600 son 362

Paganum harmala ase - , 309

Palamneus swamerdami 500 ey

pallasii, CALA) es. ses | clare 288

66 |

-ENDEX OF SPECIES

pallida (Leioptila c.)

palustris, (C.)

Panacra metallica metallica

Pandion haliaetus

Panbana bicolor...

Panthera tigris balica ... "00

Papavaraceae Fon

Papilio arcturus arcturus

~helenus helenus...

- paris paris

- polyctor ganesa..

— rhetenor rhetenor

Paradoxurus 90C ies one

Paralebeda plagifera ;

Parallelia (Ophiusa) ae

Pardofelis..

-—— RAerOnaee 6

parinda (P.) deg 50 a

Parus major casehmiriensis

-——— kaschmiriensis

—- —- stupae

=-—-— monticolus monticolus

Passer domesticus ~

_————-— bactrianus...

—__ —__—_—_——_ indicus

montanus tibetanus

Passiflora ...

alata

——_-— caerulea

—_——-— calcarata

——--— ciliata ...

—---— edulis ..

——— - foetida..

ae Scie

——-—- holosericea_...

-————_~— incarnata

———— - — Leschenaultii

—-—- -— lunata...

—-— minima .. BS

—_——— - morifolia

——--— quadrangularis

——-— racemosa

——--—— suberosa

Passifloraceae

Pastor roseus

Pavo cristatus

Pelecanus sp. Rete yin ete

Pelicanus crispus ee

——-——_ onocrotalus

Pellaea nitidula ... ae

————

~- polymnestor polymnestor

PAGE

224

174, 176

208

289

362

355

202

201

199

197

198

362

206

215

380

353

198

122

Joe OOK

Ree reel 7/45)

122

“62, 284

7387,

136

soo | NUNS

2, 354.16

bis oF

20 Bedell

... 23, 24

soo - dl,

Bae woe tH)

a 1) AY

4, 24, 25

eae 18

sol Syeclel

9, 10

8, 9

5, @

ES 22

po al, 18}:

an ORS

coe ZOOR

~ 292

297

167

310

4, 79, 83.

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Peiluineum ruficeps jonesi 223, 364

—--- - ruficeps 129

Penthoceryx sonneratii sonneratii 139

percnopterus, (N.p.) 290

Perdicula asiatica asiatica 142

———— —-— ceylonensis .. 163

Perdix h. hodgsoniae eo 8308

Pericrocotus brevirostris 126, 281

wr brevirostris. 247

———--——. cinnamomeus

cinnamomeus... 133

malabaricus... 133

sidhoutensis . 133

——-—- —— erythropygius 282

——_—--——. flammeus 133

——— --——. peregrinus 0 232

—— --———- peregrinus eee e ES 248

—— —---— roseus ~ 600 5 Aah

ee ‘EOSCUS es 247

Perissodactyla 250

Pernis cristatus ruficollis ‘141

——— ptilorhynehus ~~... ~-.0.° <3 292

personata, (H.) ... Pe eee or ee metro O

=, (Mia) ... - 162

Berspicillataed&s.)a-- == bead ek ote

Peschetius andrewsi ee ei a LOD

Petaurista ... D2, OOOO

——~—— inornatus:. ...-- .. > ae + 56

Peyssonnelia soo taay ose a CORE

Phalacrocorax-carbo.: -... 297

- niger-iiNe. 2°22 = -—-68;-287

Pharbitis hispida, ..° ... S=s-#22 =773-7349

—laciniata .....--. Boo eg

———— Leari ... SA 348

———— purpurea obo wee 349

Philomachus pugnax 296

Phoeniconaias minor 299

Phoenicopterus ruber jon) | (CSIs}

— —_—_———- —--— roseus . 164, 308, 314

Phoenicurus erythronotus 232

— —-— frontalis 232

SEE ie hodgsoni ... aS 150103303

SaEEEEEiaREEEE ochruros ; 280 |

a pheoniculondes: 232 |

wee rufiventris 131

—__.—__—. rufiventris 303

Phragmaticola aedon aedon 134

Phthonoloba decussata.... «... 1, ..41

sehylloscopus;afinis, | ~.. Takeno: Seen Sb

PAGE

Phylloscopus collybita ... 282

—-———-— griseolus ... 283

——-——— humii a 283

er inornatus race 135

nn magnirostris 135

— nitidus nitidus 135

—-—_—_—-— ——— viridanus... 135

———-— — occipitalis... boo, Chel}

a —occipitalis ... 135

ao trochiloides... 283

Physeter macrocephalus “5 377

Phytometra (Plusia) abostriata 216

—--——- — (——--) orichalcea 38

———-—--— (——-—-) tarassota ... 216

Picea morinda 0 76,117

Picus chlorolophus anloniyaeter? 138

Pinus exelsa 76

—-— longifolia 76

pin willi@eeSi)inwcce <.s0cs 222

Piprisoma agile saturatior 138

Pitta brachyura brachyura 138

Platalea leucorodia - 297

Plegadis falcinellus 297

Ploceus bengalensis ... bas 284

———--—— manyar HL See Ad ib 284

—-—— philippinus ...... .,, §2, 284

Pnoepyga albiventris.pallidior — ... 228

OCICENSICaChiS ra tllSaaee ameter owe ~ 307

—>-—— cristatus 9 ou. az -- 300

——-——- ———— cristatus oi 385

—-———— rufieollis coou eter: wwe =~ OO

BOCOCES MUMS a seg SLE ewes tee tem vosieners x SOG

Doceiliunon( MS) ieee ce «we ie ida 35

Polvaalaceae tyes nai ees .,.:. others e385

Polygonaceae. ... oes 195

Polygonum chinensis 214

a japonicum ik ose 213

————— sp. RW ELE 208, 214

polymnestor (Papilio) ... 198

Polypetalae Hos e ie ee 355

Polystichum angulare aes 76, 81, 83

polytess) (Bs) se tecs ie 506 500 198

Pomatorhinus erythrogenys

erythrogenys 9220

| horsfieldi horsfieldi 129

——_—_—_—_-—- erythrogenys travan-

coreensis _ 129

| ————-—— schisticeps pinwilli meced

| Pongamia glabra 460 we BA 329

| Porana 060 339, 340

— pralenttee in inakes Shicpoe 340

XXX

PAGE

Porana malabarica 340

porosus, (C.) 176

Porzana pusilla 293

Primula lacei 147

principalis (A. a.) 395

Prinia gracilis 283

aa INOrnata 283

——— franklinii 135

——— ———— inornata 135

socialis 400 oor 100 283

——— ——— socialis 135

—-—— sylvatica mahendrae 135

——— _ —-— -— palniensis 135

— —— sylvatica ; 135

Prionailurus bengalensis 371, 379

Prismosticta fenestrata ee 31

procera, (C.) bee O06 500 Ibi

Proeutropiichthys taakree 119

Profelis sie 380

Prunella atrogulurs 606 Ae 241

——-—— strophiata jerdoni 241

——— rubeculoides 303

przewalskii, (S. torquata) 230

Psendorca crassidens 378

Pseudibis papillosus 297

Pseudogyps bengalensis 67, 290

Psittacala cyanocephala Sh rt 288

———— columboides 140 |

———— cyanocephala cyanocephala 139 |

————- eulpatria . sae 288 |

———— krameri ne 288 |

— ——-— manillensis ~ 139

Fsychotria eee aie eee 508 2il |

Pteris cretica 400 76, 81, 83 |

Pterocles exustus onc 386 292

Sea indicus 292

————- orientalis adc S00 292

Pteromys ale see 52

Pteruthius erythropterus 225

—-— xanthochloris 500 365

occidentalis 226

pterygosperma, (M.) 357

Ptyonoprogre rupestris 304

pulchella, (1.) eee 609 348

punctiferalis, (D.) ae » 327, 328, 329

Pycnonotus gularis ... 006 eae 130

————-— Juteolus luteolus 131

Pyctorhis altirostris eae 00 172

Pyrotrogon wardi 50 eee 172

Pyrrhocorax graculus graculus. ... 122

INDEX OF SPECIES

; PAGE

Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax 121

himalayensis 302

pyrrhosticta (M.) 35

Python molurus 391

quadrangularis, (P.) on Sy le

Quamoclit 337

Quamoclit coccinea 349

————— phoenicea 349

———-—-— pinnata ... on 350.

ee ee Quamoclit on0 350

—— vulgaris... 706 349

Quercus lineata 31

——-— semecarpifolia 125

———— semiserrata 30

—— Sp, 500 39

Quisqualis indica | 334, 336, 367

racemosa, (N.) 2a eee oo of)

————,, (P.) D0 oa on Bp MZ

Raddina, (P.) 500 mm. 1

Rana cyanophlyctis 173, 174

erythraea 400 500 173, 174

—-— tigrina 50 173, S91

rangoonensis, (L.) ... O00 OMAR)

Rasbora daniconius ... 500 109, 321

Rastrelliger kanagurta _ 198,

Recurvirostra a. avocetta 306

-———- avosetta 286

reflexa, (C.) 0 +1 SBE

| Resedaceae 600 ée ot 353,. 356.

Rhagastis albomarginatus of

albomargingtus 36

—— aurifera aurifera senan ANN

———-— confusa 5 ais anaes

Rhinoceros tae 600 abate (oee odie

— — sondaicus 250203) 257,-209;5

264, 265, 273, 275, 276

—-—-—-——._ unicornis 250

Rhinocerotidae 400 are 250

| Rhipidura aes 500 245

| albicollis ad 200 vue ~ 246

————— aureola aureola 245

Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus ... 393, 394

Rhodophila ferrea 580 aes 230, 279

Rhyacornis fuliginosus fuliginosus ... 233

Rhynchobdella aculeata 109

| Rhynchops albicollis 295

Rhopocichla atriceps atriceps 130

Rhopodytes viridirostris 139

Rimator malacoptilus 172

| Riparia concolor oe 136, 285

PAGE

Riparia paludicola 285 | Seicercus burkii burkii

——-— riparia ijimae 307 | Selaginellia chrysorhizus

———— rupestris 136 | semicarpifolia, (Q.)

Risoba basalis 37 | semi- flava OEDES,

Rita hastata 110 | Seriola 0

—— pavimentata 110 | Shutereia

Rivea SD) — bicolor

nervosa wo» dol | ————— sublobata

Rohtee belangeri 109 | Siccia (Aemene) taprobanis

— cotio cunma 109 | Sida Beddomei

vigorsii 199 | —— humilis

Rohu = 315 | —— veronicaefolia

romulus (Polytes), He 500 198 | Silonopanyasius childreni

Rondeletia odorata 336, 337 | simile (T. v.)

FOSEUSS (Reyne eee eee) ase 117 | simum, (C.)

Rostratula benghalensis . 293 | Siphia parva parva .

rubeculoides, (M.) 244 | — strophiata strophiata ...

ae () .. 241 | Sitta castanea

Rubia cordifolia vee ee = QAL | —— formosa

Rubus sf. cee 00 . 32, 42,217 | —— frontalis simplex

rupchandi (Saxicolac.)... ©... +. - 131 | —— himalayensis

Ruppia 000 164, 165 | —— leucopsis leucopsis

Salpornis spilonotus ~ see 279 | Siva strigula simlaensis

Samydaceae- ... 60 356 | Skiminia 2

sarana, (B.) BARBOSA. 88 321, 324 | Solifugae ; Bas

Sarcogyps calvus 67, 230 | Somera viridifusca

Sarkidiornis melanotos 299 | sondaicus, (R.)

Saurauja nepalensis ll

— tristula 500.) -G0c BOD Claes :

Saxicola caprata yt sas j 279 | Spatula clypeata oe

——-—_—- ——+— atrata .. . 13] | Speciosus, (P.)

——_—_— ——--— bicolor . s. x» 229 | Sphyracnajello ee

——-+ caprata »- -131.| splendens, (C.) ane

saxicola, (Panthera pardus) ... sw» 362 | Stachyridopsis pyrrhops

Saxicola torquata ate ese «- 279 | stellatarum (M.)

Saxicoloides fulicata cambaiensis 235 | Sterna albifrons :

= —— — —— ——-— sinensis

cambayensis an; . 280 | ——— aurantia Ri

i inter- hirundo tibetana

media... 131 | ——— melanogaster

Salix 500 56 506 500 5 B® | Stocksii, (I.) >... 600

schach (L A066) bs » 088 ose .. 127 | Streptopelia chinensis

—=—— tricolor (L. ) slona *da7/ ——— decaocto

schisticeps, (P.) 222, 223 | —————— Berens

Sciaena sira 6 72 decaocto

Scirpus maritima a 164) | eS “orientalis

Scolopax rusticola indica By og | en ee senegalensis

Scomber microlepidotus -_... 500 72 | Strix indranee indranee

Scomberomorus scerra 73 | Strobilanthes

Seddera 342 | Sturmia x

latifolia 342 | ——— aaa

INDEX OF SPECIES

Xxxi

PAGE

E135

76, 82, 83

L117

395

342

242

ds 28

510), toy

506 50

560 UML

110

221

sor = CHE)

7 242

242

278

Vals

199

ren 25

tube! 75)

ws «= 284

Sifted e740)

360

290, 251, 253, 254, 295

297,.259, 260, 264; 265,

266, 276, 363,

a2 Bue

cp. EY

fee ent

ae Ls

agen 204

i eee ee A

235

295

305

295

Me eeeedsc Sev 346

aK 68, 292

: 102, 292

os 142, 387

Pp ey:

68, 292

141

152

ene ZS

TA 177

eed INDEX. OF SPECIES

PAGE

Sturmia sp. ie ee see uoreoea

Sturnia malabarica iE a 61, 252

Sturnopastor contra 50 As 62, 284

Sturnus vulgaris aC A eeenaZOo

—__——_ —-. humii Ar 95, 387

subbuteo, (F.) ae fF SOS

suberosa, (P.) ... aac wee ce 5 ||

sumatrensis, (Dicerorhinus) 252, 253, 256, 257,

259, 264, 265, 267,

Tringa erythropus Ae C8)

——— glareola 296

——— nebularia... 296

——— ocrophus... i 296

——-— stagnatalis Hag. cnn 296

| ——— totanus 295

= terrignotae 06

Trochalopteron cachinnans cachinnans 129

——————— erythrocephalum ery-

throcephalum ... 3 ep e20:

=——————— jerdoni fairbanki Oe 2)

———--— —— lineatum Spe PPA

———-—--———> variegatum _variega- ..

_tum 220.

Troglodytes t. negieetie) 228.

— —— troglodytes tibetanus .. 307.

enpe lenis 178

Turdoides griseus eccil Bireas 129

—-——— somervillei ... Hl pe hi SOiees

——-—--— ———-~— malabaricus .,, 129

———-—— somervillei sindianus sterti-

colonimersr v6 ale ia no aes

Turdus Alooe naire , 236

- atrogularis Bc ar 237, 280

——-— merula maximus ae 235

——-—'—- rubrocanus rubrocanus _ 236

——-— simillimus bourdilloni isiiaioL

—-—— ——-—— mahrattensis 13]

——— +~——-— simillimus ... 131

—-—-— ——-—-— spencei coo ISH

——-— unicolor ... 90, 131, 237, 280, 386

Turneraceae Ba ase 355

Turnix dussumieri 500 500 293

273, 276.

——_——_———— , (Rhinoceros) ... ole275

Susbarbatus bas ae noe PET Ps BeS2 |

sylvestre, (B.) .«- a5 uit Lee Onai7g

Sylvia curruca ... Bao ae dope he

—-—— hortensis ... see cet 282

—— ———— ierdoni 500 ans 3) dlehs)

——- jerdoni .., . -». -369

Sylviparus modestus Shatasnets sna-iae elZd

Sypna latifasciata 00 re etn rY/

Symbrenthia hypselis teens svt) 26

Syngramme fraxinea ... on sacle 280

yirhaptes tibetanus ... _ .., son Sells}

accocua leschenaulti...6.:/2:2. slic) 1288

Tachardina lobata 50 00 baju, SPAS) |

Tachornis parvus batasiensis ... soe 140

Sadorna tadorna. = --. oes) 2) 299; 307

‘Tamaricaceae css ; 50m) eau). abs).

tamilana (Papilio p io ins ae 201

Tanaorrhinus vittata_ ... Sc aes 39) |

Tarsiger brunnea brunnea ... .... 13]

— chrysaeus whistleri ... ae 235

Tchitrea paradisi ses - ole ae OL

——--— ——— leucogaster, ... 91, 245, 336

= —— > paladisi._.... : See ctal Se

Temenuchus pagodarum ... ... 283

————ee pagodarum. 136

tenuirostris, (G.) ar fe so, els)

Tephrodornis gularis sylvicola. elo

ee pondicerianus ... GOO eel

_——- pallidus. 247

em ee pondiceri-

anus 4. sate vas Ay os 133

Ba ES TD

tephronotus, (L.) .... 586 126, 127

Tesia castaneocoronata War OE a ODS

testtidineus, (A.) Sop REO toa i V7

Tetraogallus tibetanus centralis SUD

Thereiceryx viridis Aislin tGic ono IS)

Theretra alecto alecto ... Patan nat ao ANS)

Thespesia poptlnea ... 4, 347

PaGE

Thinopteryx crocoptera 43

Threskiornis melanocephalus ... 297

thunbergl, (M. f.) on 286

Thunnidae ay 72

Thyatira batis 900 5 36

Thymistada tripunctata a ay. AW/

| Tichodroma muraria ... aon 227, 279

tigrina, (R.) 173

Tockus birostris ... 200 O00 288

—_——_ —-—_-— birostris 140

——— griseus griseus ... 140

Tovariaceae ; 355

Treron bicincta icine 141

——w— phoenicopterus chlorigaster ... 141

Trichogramma evanescens minutum 114, 177

tricolor (E. a.)

tridentata, (M.) ... ee As 344, 345

Typha sf. Peiesiees 105, 106, 107

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Typhlops .. ; 388

— braminus 388

Tyto alba ... ve we aco ete)

unicornis, (R.) AM, 28, ARS, 22, 20S)

Upupa epops ‘ age 66, 100

-——— _ —=— epops 289, 387

—_——. —-— saturata he eel

—-— orientalis ... 289

Urocissa flavirostris cucullata 119

—-—-— melanocephala occipitalis .. 119

Uroloncha malabarica ... rae TOA |

———-——. punctulata 62, 234

Uropygia ... 360

Ursus isabeliinus 363

vagabunda, (D.) 120

Vanellus vanellus 295

Vallisneria spiralis 392

Varanus monitor aoe ae 176

variegatum (Trochalopteron v.) 221

varius, (H.) 222

Verruca stroemia 116

Viola oe aN Sa oie)

Violaceae ... 500 SSE)7 CHI SH)

XXXlil

PAGE

Violarieae... 355

Vipera russelli 388

vitattus, (B.) 5g OE

Vitis ae 50d was 111, 214

Vivia innomivatus innominatus 139

viverrinus, (P.) 380

Vomer declivifrons 72

| Vulpes vulpes 379

Wallagonia 105, 106

—-—- attu ..109, 323

whiteheadi, (O. m.) 238

wightiana (Erycibe) 339

| Xenorhynchus 176

— —— asiaticus 50 297

Xantholaema haemacephala indica ... 139

yarrellii, (M. a.) 161

Zizyphus jujuba ... 329

.Zoothera monticola 239

Zosterops palpebrosa ae 287

-_— —— nilgirensis 138

——-—— ——. palniensis 138

——-—_—_ ——_—_—— _palpebrosa 138

‘PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS—28-11-1950. .C1736

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Vol. 47, No. 1. AUGUST, 1947 Price Rs. 12 nett.

$24,795. G

é ) 4 } {#

JOURNAL Fes

: =< Nive le Ane

OF THE ee ie

Bombay Naturat History Sociery

EDITED BY

Ss. Hi. PRATER, ©O.B.E., M.L.A.. C.M.Z.So, Cc. McCANN, F.L..S., AND

sALIM ALI

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lt is illustrated with beautiful Nature photographs of

Birds, Mammals, etc., by Dr. B. F. Ferreira, Mr. W. W. A.

Phillips, Mr. O. C. Edwards and others.

Indian Natural History Series, Vol. Il.

THE BOOK OF

INDIAN ANIMALS

S. H. Prater, eee C.M.Z.S.

This is a companion volume to the Book of Indian Birds,

forming Volume II of the Indian Natural History Series.

To tell something of the beauty, the interest and the value

of the wild life of our forests, fields and scrubland is the

purpose of this book.

It contains simple descriptions of the commoner mammals of

India, and readable accounts of their ways and habits. It is

profusely illustrated in colour and black and white.

LIST OF CONTENTS :

What is a; Mammal.

Distribution of Mammals.

How Mammals are classified.

The various tribes of Mammals,

their ways and habits.

Descriptions of species.

Pio Nr

Bound in full cloth Price Rs. 16

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THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

114 Apollo Street, Bombay

Price Rs, 2-4-0 to members, Rs. 3 to non-members

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 47, No. 1.

PaGr

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS. Part XXVI. By

N. L. Bor, C.1.8., M.A., D.Sc., |F.L.S., I.F.S., and M. B. Raizada, M.Sc.

(With 1 coloured and 3 black and white plates and 16 text-figures) ... 1

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA. Part XVIII. By

D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S. sh oO ce sa 26.

‘THE IsLET’—A BIRD SANCTUARY IN CEYLON. By W. W.A. Phillips.

(With 6 plates) te, or ae ae Ses 43

SoME NEw SpEciEs oF SoutH INDIAN PLants, By K Cherian Jacob,

L.Ag., F.L.S. (With 3 plates) ee se aa $ 48.

NoTES ON A FLYING SQUIRREL (fetaurista sp.). By F. C. Minett,

M.R.C.V.S. (With a plate) nee ae see se 52

BIRDS OF THE LALMAI AREA, NEAR COMILLA, TIPPERA, BENGAL. By

S.J. K. Collins. (Withamap) ... Oe eee om 57

A FISHING TRIP TO KARWAR AND MALVAN (15th October to 10th Nov-

ember 1946.) By A. St. J. Macdonald. (Wu7th 2 plates) ae 69:

NOTES ON THE FERNS AND FERN ALLIES OF MURREE Hii. By Abdul

Hameed, M.Sc, (With 12 plates) ... ae on ap 75.

A BIRD PHOTOGRAPHER’S MUSINGS FROM KASHMIR—BIRDS OF A SRI-

NAGAR GARDEN. By Lt.-Col. B. T. Phillips, 1a. (Retd.). (With 6

plates) Paes e@oo eee eco eee ee0 84

Fish SURVEY OF HYDERABAD STATE. PartIV. Fishes of the Nizama-

bad District. By S. Mahmood, m.sc., and M. Rahimullah, D.sce,

(With a map and two plates) Me, ae o on OZ

ON THE BioLoGy oF Danaus chrysippus (LINNXUS) AND ITS PARA-

srtEs. By Durgadas Mukerji and Basanta Kumar Behura bce ADL

OBSERVATIONS ON SOME BALANIDAE FROM MAHABALIPURAM. By K. S.

Srinivasan. (With a plate) hed os ee Seomiig LLS

THE BIRDS OF THE SIMLA AND ADJACENT Hitrs. PartlI. By A.E.

Jones, M.B.O.U. Soe ook aes oes typ hade O7f

ON THE ‘CORRECT NAME OF THE TIBETAN SHRIKE USUALLY CALLED

Lanius tephronotus. By Ernst Mayr,’Ph.p. ae aoe Leo

NoTES ON A COLLECTION OF BIRDS FROM MADRAS PRESIDENCY. By

Walter Kee’z, Ph.D. aoe eo0 eee ooo Oee 128

Two NEw LOCAL RACES OF THE Asiatic WitD Ass. By R.I. Pocock... 143.

ti . CONTENTS OF VOLUME 47, No. 1

PAGE

‘REVIEW :—

An Insect Book for the Pocket. By Edmund Sandars, (M.A.w.-B.)... 145

An APPEAL :—

Egg Enquiry. By Dr. Hugh B. Cott see oa .. 146

AN APPEAL TO BOTANISTS. By Lt.-Col. D. G. Lowndes ae see LAT

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

1. A Man-eating tiger of the Nelliampathy Hills. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton,

IA. (Retd.) (With a block) (p. 148). 2. A Tiger ‘Runs Amok’. By

A. St. J. Macdonald (p.150). 3. The Returning Tigress. By A. F. Hutton

({p.151). 4. Weight of Bull Bison. By R.C. Morris (p. 153). 5. Notes

on the Brush-tailed Porcupine (Atherurva macrura L.). By C. R. Stonor

(p. 154). 6. Natural Death of Elephants. By A. C. Tutein Nolthenius, F.z.s.,

ACL. (p. 154). 7. The Piscivorous habits of the Rorqual or Fin Whale

(Balaenoptera sp.). By P. K. Jacob and M. Devidas Menon (p. 156). 8.

Curious nesting site of the Magpie Robin (Copsychus saularis). By R. E.

Parsons, F.R.E.S. (p. 159). 9. An early nest of the Tailor Bird (Orthotomus

sutorius) By S. N. Sen (p. 159). 10. Occurrence of the Waxwing [omby-

cilla garrulus (Linn.)] in Baluchistan. By Major T. J. Phillips (p. 160). 11.

Arrival dates of Wagtails in Upper Assam. By F. Wooley Smith (p. 160)-

12. Abnorma) egg clutches. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 161). 13. Night-

jars on roads. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 162). 14. Occurrence of the

Southern Green Pigeon (Crocopus phoenicopterus chlorigaster) in Ceylon. By

W. W.A. Phillips (p. 163). 15. The Persian name for the Flamingo. By

Hamid A. Ali, LC.S. (Retd.) (p.164). 16. Flamingoes in Kutch—A Com-

ment. By C. McCann (p. 164). 17. Alpheraky’s Swan (Cygnus béwickii

jankowskii Alph.) in Kutch. By Salim Ali (p. 167). 18. Periodic abund-

ance of Bar-headed Goose [Axser indicus (liatham)] on Chilka Lakes. By E. C.

Benthal (p. 168). 19. Sushkin’s Goose (Anser mneglectus Sushkin) in

Assam. By J. Hurrell, Lt.-Col. (p. 168). 20. The Language of Birds.

By Claude A. Claremont (p.169). 21. ‘Some further suggestions for field

ornithologists in Post-War Burma’. B.E. Smythies (p. 171). 22. ‘Sham-

ming death ’—Snakes. By A. St. J. Macdonald (p. 173). 23. An uncommon

habit observed in Rana erythraea Schleg. By J. D. Romer, F.z.s. (p. 173).

24. Mating and the parental instinct of the Marsh Crocodile (C. palustris

Lesson). By K. 8S. Dharmakumarsinhji (p. 174). 25. Indian Monitors in

the United Provinces. By Lt.-Col. D. G. Lowndes (p.176). 26. Discovery

of the hitherto unknown female of the Charana cepheis De Niceville. By M. E.

St. John Perry (p. 177). 27. The enemies of Danaus chrysippus (Linnaeus).

By D. Mukerji and B. K. Behura (p. 177). 23. Note on the occurrence of

Bipalium in Janagadh (Kathiawar). By G. A. Kapadia (p. 178). 29.

Flowering of Bamboos. By D. G. Lowndes, Col. (p. 180). Annual Report

of the Bombay Natural History Society for the year ending 3lst December 1946

{p. 181).

JOURN., BomBay Nat, Hise, Soc.

Princess Charlotte’s Passion-flowe:.

PASSIFLORA RACEMOSA Brot.

( about 4 natural size )

Plate XXVIII.

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society.

1947. VOL. 47. ING a

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS.

INARI RB OR: VOMMED Meat. “DsSG., F.l:.Sks) 1sEuShs

Forest Botanist,

AND

M. B. ‘RATZADA,, M.SC.,

Assistant Forest Botanist,

Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun.

Part XXVI. |

[Continued from Vol. 46 (1947), p. 567].

(With one coloured and 3 black and white plates and 16 text-figures).

Passiflora Linn.

This genus, one of twelve which go to form the Passifloraceae,

is commonly cultivated in Indian gardens on account of its strange

flowers and handsome foliage. Some species produce an edible

fruit of very. delicate flavour. The name of the genus is derived

from two Latin words, passio, suffering, and flos, a flower. The

reason for this derivation will be seen later. With some unimportant

exceptions the Passion-flowers are inhabitants of tropical South

America where there is to be found a very large number of species.

The characteristics of the genus are as follows :—

Mostly climbers or scramblers with alternate usually lobed leaves

and gland bearing petioles. Stipules are present, often foliaceous,

sometimes cut into filamentous gland-tipped threads. The plants

climb by means of lateral, simple spiral and elastic tendrils. The

flowers, which are often large and showy, are axillary and may be

solitary, 1n pairs or racemose, seated on a short pedicel which is

joined to a 3-bracteate peduncle. The calyx. is 4-5-lobed with a

very short tube to which is attached the same number of petals and

a double or triple showy fringe or corona. The ovary is supported

on a stalk which also bears the stamens, 3-5 in number. The anthers

2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

are elliptic or oblong in shape and dehisce downwards. The ovary

is globular or ellipsoid, one-celled with 3-5 parietal placentas, each

bearing numerous ovules. The fruit is large or small, fleshy, con-

taining many flat seeds, each surrounded by a fleshy envelope or

arillus. The seeds are sculptured or pitted on both surfaces.

L. H. Bailey’, quoting from Folkard’s Plant Lore, Legends and

Lyrics, gives an excellent account of the reasons why these plants

have been named Passiflora and we reproduce it verbatim.

‘The peculiar charm of these plants lies in the odd flowers, the

parts of which were fancied by the early Spanish and Italian

travellers to represent the implements of the crucifixion (whence both

the technical and popular names). Legend and superstition have

attached to these plants from the first.

The ten coloured parts of the floral en-

velope were thought to represent the

ten apostles present at the crucifixion,

Peter and Judas being absent. Inside

the corolla is a showy crown or corona

of coloured filaments or fringes, taken

to present the crown of thorns, or by

some thought to be emblematic of the

halo. The stamens are five, to some

suggestive of the five wounds, by others

thought to be emblematic of the ham-

mers which were used to drive the three

nails, the latter being represented by the

three styles with capitate stigmas. The

long axilfary coiling tendrils represent

the cords or the scourges. The digitate

leaves suggest the hands of the persecu-

tors. The following sketch of the

passion-flower legend is from Folkard’s

Plant Lore, Legends and Lyrics, and

the illustration (Fig. 2769) is also pro-

duced from that book: ‘The passion-

flower (Passiflora caerulea) is a_ wild

flower of the South American forests,

and it is said that the Spaniards, when

Fig. 1.—Old conception of they first saw the lovely bloom of this

EADS eee sees plant, as it hung in rich festoons from

fiat treet tm Rd ee the branches of the forest trees, regarded

the magnificent blossoms as a_ token

that the Indians should be converted to Christianity, as they saw

in its several parts the emblems of the passion of our Lord. In the

year 1610, Jacomo Bosio, the author of an exhaustive treatise on the

Cross of Calvary, was busily engaged on this work when there

arrived in Rome an Augustinian friar, named Emmanuel de Villagas,

a Mexican by birth. He brought with him, and showed to Bosio,

the drawing of a flower so ‘stupenduously marvelous’, that he

—— ——_——

* L. H. Bailey, The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture, p. 2480.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 3

hesitated making any mention of it in his book. However, some

other drawings and descriptions were sent to him by inhabitants of

New Spain, and certain Mexican Jesuits, sojourning at Rome,

confirmed all the astonishing reports of this floral marvel; moreover,

some Dominicans at Bologna engraved and published a drawing of

it, accompanied by poems and descriptive essays. Bosio therefore

conceived it to be his duty to present the Flos passionis to the world

as the most wondrous example of the Croce trionfante discovered

in forest or field. The flower represents, he tells us, not so directly

the Cross of our Lord, as the past mysteries of the Passion. It is

a native of the Indies, of Peru, and of New Spain, where the

Spaniards call it ‘the Flower of the Five Wounds’, and it had

clearly been designed by the great Creator that it might, in due

time, assist in the conversion of the heathen among whom it grows.

Alluding to the bell-like shape assumed by the flower during the

greater part of its existence (i.e. whilst it is expanding and fading),

Bosio remarks: ‘And it may well be that, in His infinitive wisdom,

it pleased Him to create it thus shut up and protected, as though

to indicate that the wonderful mysteries of the Cross and of His

Passion were to remain hidden from the heathen people of those

countries until the time preordained by His Highest Majesty.’ The

figure given to the Passion-flower in Bosio’s work shows the crown

of thorns twisted and plaited, the three nails, and the column of

the flagellation just as they appear on ecclesiastical banners, etc.

‘The upper petals,’ writes Bosio in his description, ‘are tawny in

Peru, but in New Spain they are white, tinged with rose. The

filaments above resemble a blood-coloured fringe, as though sug-

gesting the scourge with which our blessed Lord was tormented.

The column rises in the middle. The nails are above it; the crown

of thorns encircles the column; and close in the centre of the flower

from which the column rises is a portion of a yellow colour, about

the size of a reale in which are five spots or stains of the hue of

blood, evidently setting forth the five wounds received by our Lord

on the Cross. The colour of the column, the crown, and the nails

is a clear green. The crown itself is surrounded by a kind of veil,

or very fine hair, of a violet colour, the filaments of which number

seventy-two answering to the number of thorns with which, according

to tradition, our Lord’s crown was set; and the leaves of the plant

abundant and beautiful, are shaped like the head of a lance or pike,

referring, no doubt, to that which pierced the side of our Saviour,

whilst they are marked beneath with round spots, signifying the

thirty pieces of silver.’

A comparison between the figures from Folkard’s book and ou:

artist’s drawing of the same plant (Passiflora caerulea) will show

to what length men, their minds obscured by religious fanaticism

and superstition, were prepared to go in the seventeenth century in

order to further their religious belief. The generic name _per-

petuates this phantasy and remains as a monument to fanatical

self-deception but there is no need to seek a supernatural explanation

for the odd shape assumed by the flower. In Passiflora the tendency

is towards cross-fertilisation and the flowers are adapted to this

end an explanation which, no doubt, will be deemed prosaic when

4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

compared with the flights of imagination of the early explorers of

South America.

Fig. 2.—Passiflora caerulea after Baillon.

A. Styles and stigmas; B. Ovary or gynophore; C. Stamens;

D..'Corona; E: Perianth lobes; F. ‘Gynophore; Gi Bracts:

If a bud of a species of Passiflora is examined it will be found

that the anthers, erect in the bud, face inwards. As the flower

expands the filaments assume a horizontal position and the anthers

face downwards. <A portion of the pollen is discharged upon the

corona and portion is retained by the anthers. The corona is often

attractively coloured and sometimes the flowers are fragrant. As

an additional attraction a ring of nectar secreting glands is developed

within the calyx tube.

The flowers of Passiflora are protandrous which means that the

stamens are mature before the stigmas are receptive. An additional

safeguard against self-fertilisation is the position of the styles and

stigmas which stand erect, well above the level of the stamens. After

the stamens have discharged their pollen the styles curve downwards

and the stigmas take up a position which is below the original level

of the anthers. Consider, therefore, what happens when an insect-

visitor comes to a freshly opened flower to obtain nectar. The visitor

must circumambulate the corona to get at the nectar and in doing so

either picks up pollen from the corona on its ventral surface or is

well dusted over the back with pollen from the stamens. Should the

visitor fly to an older flower it will almost certainly transfer some of

its load of pollen to the stigmas and cross-fertilisation is effected.

Humble bees and humming birds are the unconscious agents of cross-

pollination in the tropics of South America.

Henslow writing in the Transactions of the Linnaean Society for

1879, p. 366, has the following passage regarding Passiflora gracilis

“This species, unlike other Passion-flowers, is an annual, a feature

characteristic of self-fertilisers and ‘‘produces spontaneously numer-

ous fruits when insects are excluded, and behaves in this respect very

differently from most of the other species in the genus, which are

extremely sterile unless fertilised with pollen from a distinct plant’’

(Darwin), or even species. It is worthwhile noting that this species

differs from other members in the young internodes having the power

of revolving. It exceeds all the other climbing plants which I have

examined in the rapidity of its movements, and all tendril-bearers

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 5

in the sensitiveness of the tendrils, Such would seem hardly com-

patible with Mr. Darwin’s idea of self-fertilisation being injurious.

Mr. Darwin also records the fact that flowers on a completely self-

impotent plant of Passiflora alata fertilised with pollen from its own

self-impotent seedlings were quite fertile.’

The edible passion-fruit is hardly larger than a hen’s egg and

contains little pulp. The fruit is, however, prized on account of

its delicate flavour, and the pulp is widely used to add zest to

puddings, drinks, ices and the like.

Key 10 THE SPECIES.

Leaves simple.

Flowers very small less than .5 in, across, green ... P. minima.

Flowers large, 4 in. of more across, mauve .. BP, quadrangularis,

Leaves lunate.

Lobes of leaf rounded at the tips, upper surface

with glands cop. 1 TORT

Lobes of leaf sharp, upper surface of leaf

without glands .. P. Leschenaultit.

Leaves 5-lobed ... P. caerulea.

Leaves 3-lobed.

Flowers small, not more than .75 in. across.

Leaves with short lobes, glabrous: flowers green,

.5 in. across, bark not corky Beeeelae HUNT.

Leaves with long lobes, hairy; flowers greenish-

yellow, .5 in. across; bark corky ... P, suberosa.

Flowers more than .75 in. in diameter, often

much more.

Lobes of leaf closely serrate,

Petals pale pink; flower 2-2.5 in. across .. PB. incarnata,

Petals white often tinted with purple; flowers

I.5 in. across CO ULTS:

Lobes of leaf not closely serrate.

Leaves hairy.

Flowers reddish vr pink ecb Clliatar

Flowers white or whitish

Lobes of the leaf projecting in a bristle ... P. holocericea.

No bristle to the lobe of the leaf.

Plant very giandular: lobes entire sotelueyoetida.

Plant not glandular: lobes toothed «0, P. morifolia.

Leaves glabrous.

Flowers red or reddish ~. P. racemosa.

Flowers whitish or greenish

Stipules foliaceous; lobes of leaf deep ee eCOGATGLas

Stipules not fofiaceous ; lobes of leaf shallow ... P. gracilis.

Passiflora minima Linn.

SMALL PASSION-FLOWER.

(minimus in Latin means ‘least’, referring to the size of the

flowers which, although small, actually are not the smallest in the

genus).

Description.—A slender cirrhose climber with many terete smooth

green stems. Shoots covered with an evanescent crisped hairy

covering. Leaves up to 4 in, long bv 2 in. broad, stipulate ovate,

elliptic-ovate or oblong entire, or 1-2-lobed, glabrous; petiolate,

dark green above paler below; petiole about .75 in. long terete

but grooved above, covered above with crisped white hairs, decorat-

6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

ed with a pair of stalked glands above the middle; tendrils axillary;

stipules linear-setaceous.

Flowers small, and very inconspicuous being hidden by the

leaves, on solitary peduncles in the axils of the leaves. Perianth-

tube brownish green, flat, very short, 4-5-lobed; lobes triangular or

oblong-obtuse, glabrous, green outside, about .3 in. long. Petals

absent. Corona 4-partite; the outer filaments shorter than the

sepals rather stout, truncate at the tips, yellow; second row very

short, club-shaped; third row a closely pleated membrane; very

short, purple outside, woolly at the apex; inner row a very short

purple continuous membrane. Ovary erect upon a gynophore,

3-celled with 3-parietal placentas; styles three spreading; stigmas

Fig. 3.—Passiflora minima Linn.

globular, stamens five. Fruit a juicy black or purple berry, s3uim:

in diameter.

Flowers.—Hot and rainy season. Fruits rainy and cold season.

Distribution.—A native of the West Indies, ‘occasionally culti-

vated in our country.

Gardening.—A slender twiner with small, insignificant flowers

and dark-blue berries. It hardly deserves a place in the garden.

Propagated usually by seed.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS

Passiflora quadrangularis Linn.

GIANT GRANADILLA.

Description.—This species is a strong robust climber with a

quadrangular glabrous stem, winged on the angles. Leaves alter-

nate, 4-8 in. long, 3-4 in. wide, petiolate, stipulate, broadly ovate

or ovate-oblong, entire on the margins, absolutely glabrous, rounded,

shallowly cordate or truncate at the base, abruptly acuminate at the

CF GE saa TOR TTT TROT

= .

foe

San

Fig. 4.—Passiflora quadrangularis Linn.

apex, peninerved with 10-12 principal lateral nerves; petiole, winged

below, channelled above, bearing 4,5 or 6 shortly stalked glands on

the margins of the channel, the glands usually paired; stipules ovate

to ovate-lanceolate up to 1.5 in. long.

Flowers solitary on stout peduncles in the axils of the leaves;

peduncles stout, terete, up to 1.5 in. long, bearing three bracts

inserted on a level at the centre; bracts ovate cordate, about 1 in.

Jong, glabrous, entire, toothed or serrulate below. Sepals leathery,

green outside, pinkish green inside, calyx-tube short, sepal-lobes

imbricate, ovate, very obtuse at the apex, glabrous; margins

incurved. Petals 5, alternate with the sepals, oblong-ovate or

oblong-lanceolate, obtuse or truncate at the apex, glabrous rather

fleshy, pink or mauve outside, white, blue, violet or pinkish inside,

equal in length to the sepals, 2-2.5 in. long. Corona 5-ranked, the

outer two ranks thread-like, with the threads up to 2.5 in. long,

terete, radiate, transversely banded with reddish purple and white

at the base, blue in the middle, densely mottled with pinkish blue

or mauve on the upper half; third rank of deep reddish-purpie

tubercles about .1 in. long, the fourth rank thread-like, with white

threads banded at equal intervals with reddish-purple; the fifth rank

membranous, lacerate. Operculum membranous, denticulate, white,

8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

reddish-purple on the margin. Ovary ovoid; stamens five; stigmas

three. Fruit oblong-ovoid, yellow, longitudinaily 3-grooved, up to

12 in. long (according to Killip). Seeds broadly obcordate, reti-

culate at the centre of each face, radially striate at the margins.

Flowers and fruits.—Rainy season.

Distribution.—A native of tropical America; widely grown in the

tropics and sub-tropics of both hemispheres.

Gardening.—A strong, woody, quick-growing climber with quad-

rangular stems which are winged at the angles. It is a superb

species with large ornamental flowers which are produced in great

abundance during the rains. It is a good climber for a screen or

a large trellis work and is frequently planted to cover pergolas and

arbors. It is said that the wild prototype of tropical America is

not good to eat and the cultivated plant should be called var.

macrocarpa. Its fruits sometimes weigh several pounds. There is

also a form in which the foliage is blotched with yellow.

Economic and medicinal uses.—The fruit is eaten green or ripe.

If eaten green, it is boiled as a vegetable. If taken ripe, it may be

iced and eaten with sugar. The fruit-wall may be candied.

The leaves are considered dangerous as they produce hydrocyanic

acid and the roots are also stated to be poisonous.

Passiflora lunata Willd. (P. biflora Lamk.).

CRESCENT-LEAVED PASSION-FLOWER.

(lunata means ‘crescent shaped’ in Latin).

Description.—A wiry climber with angled stems covered with a

minute pubescence which disappears with age. Stipules linear-

acute, persistent. Tendrils axillary. Leaves alternate, short-petioled,

shaped roughly like a quarter-moon, with blunt rounded lobes,

shallowly cordate at the base, smooth and glabrous, reticulation

prominent on both surfaces, but particularly so on the undersurface ;

midrib, and sometimes the nerves of the lobes, projecting as a small

bristle; a row of gland arranged in a V-shape are often found

between the midrib and the central nerves of the lobes; glands are

small pits on the lower surface but their position is quite obvious

as raised spots when looking at the upper surface.

Flowers solitary or in pairs from the axils. Pedicels jointed

half way up, .5-.75 in. long bearing three filiform bracts at the joint.

Hypanthium flat; sepals 5, oblong-obtuse, greenish-white, .3 in.

long. Petals oblong-obtuse, about 1 in. long or less. Corona

double; outer spreading, of narrow filaments up to 17 in. long or a

little longer, upper half mauve, the inner half banded with purple

and white; inner erect, very short, crowded at the base of the

gynophore, upper purple crimson. Gynophore pale green, spotted

with purple. Stamens 5, filaments green spotted with purple,

anthers versatile. Ovary ovoid, superior, with three club-shaped

styles. Fruit 2 in. long, oblong, yellow when ripe, edible.

Flowers.—Practically throughout the year. Does not fruit in

Dehra.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS

Distribution.—Native of Mexico and Jamaica, now cultivated in

all tropical and subtropical parts of the globe.

Gardening.—An extensive climber with 5-angled, stems, remarlx-

able for its curious crescent-shaped leaves. The whitish flowers of

Fig, 5.—Passifiora lunata Willd.

moderate size are produced in constant succession all the year round.

ft was introduced into England by William Houston in 1733.

Propagation is by layers and cuttings.

Passiflora Leschenaultii DC.

(This species was named in honour of Leschenault, a French

botanist).

Description.—A wiry climber with hirsute stems becoming glab-

rous with age. Stipules deciduous. Tendrils axillary, rather stout,

10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

glabrous. Leaves alternate 2-3 in. long, 4 in. wide from tip to tip,

petioled, semi-circular, attached to the petiole by the centre of the

rounded margin with a cuspidate point in the middle of the opposite

side, sometime slightly 3-lobed with the two side angles produced,

glabrous or rarely hirsute, 5-nerved from the base, the upper three

straight from the base to the points of the opposite margins;

Fig. 6.—Passiflora Leschenaultii DC.

petiole up to 1.5 in. long, glabrous or hairy with two scale-like

glands in the lower half.

_ Flowers in pairs in the axils or paniculate, pedicelled. Pedicel

joined 4 to 1/3 in. below the flower. Bracteoles 3, linear, hairy.

Receptacle flat; sepals 5, .75 in. long, oblong-obtuse, greenish.

Petals 5, similar in shape to the sepals, slightly shorter and narrower,

white. Outer corona of 2 rows of linear filaments, the outer row

shorter than the petals. Inner corona a much folded membranous

cup; inside this again a small shallow cup round the base of the

column. Gynophore .25 in. long. Stamens 5. Ovary globose or

ellipsoid. Fruit ovoid, 1.5 in. long.

Flowers and fruits.—Cold season.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS II

Distribution.—Native of the Western Ghats, in the Nilgiris and

Pulneys, above 5,000 ft.

Gardening.—A wiry climber with half-moon-shaped leaves and

white flowers. It can in no way be recommended for a garden and

is for all practical purposes a weed. Easily raised from seed.

Passiflora caerulea Linn.

(caerulea means ‘blue’ in Latin, and refers to the colour of the

tips of the corona filaments).

Fig. 7.—Passiflora caerulea Linn.

Description.—A_ strong climber. Stems terete, glabrous and

smooth. Stipules foliaceous, semi-circular, shallow cordate at the

base, margins lobed or toothed, often glandular. Tendrils axillary,

simple. Petioles smooth and glabrous often with several stalked,

globular glands scattered irregularly over its length. Leaves divided

12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

almost to the base into 5 lanceolate or narrowly elliptical acute lobes,

green above, somewhat giaucous below.

Flowers large, 3-4 in. across, solitary, axillary, pedicellate.

Pedicels many 1 in. long, bearing three large, ovate-cordate obtuse

bracts, about 1 in. in length. Hypanthium saucer-shaped. Sepals

5, oblong, ending in a short awn-shaped process, greenish outside.

Petals 5, oblong-obtuse, pale-pink in colour. Rays of the corona

in two series, the outer blue at the tip, white in the centre, purple

at the base. Gynophore and filaments green, spotted with purple.

Styles 3, purple, club-shaped. Fruit the size of a small olive, pale

orange golden in colour.

Flowers.—Rainy season. Does not fruit in Dehra.

Distribution.—A native of Brazil, now very commonly cultivated

in all tropical, subtropical and temperate countries of the world.

Gardening.—A hardy vigorous climber with dark green, shining

5-lobed leaves. It is one of the commonest and certainly one of the

handsomest of all species of this genus. Flowers profusely during

the rainy season. It prefers a sandy loam with admixture of leaf

mould and animal manure. It will, however, grow successfully in

a variety of soil. It is suitable for covering a great space of walls

or trellis. Readily propagated by the numerous young’ suckers

which it sends forth for a great distance all round or by seed, layers

or cuttings. According to William Curtis it was introduced into

England from Brazil about 1775. This species has considerably

hybridized and hybrids with P. alata, P. Raddina and P. racemosa

are commonly seen under cultivation.

P. caerulea-racemosa—is a hybrid between the two species whose

name it bears. The flowers are very large and handsome, though

not very brilliant, being of a pale lilac colour, prettily relieved with

a pure white crown of rays. When grown in a large pot it continues

to bloom constantly. It is preferable to re-pot the plant with fresh

soil annually in the cold weather.

Passiflora suberosa Linn.

(suberosa means ‘cork-like’ and refers to the bark on the old

stems).

Description.—An annual or perennial twiner. Older stems

usually corky, whitish. Tendrils axillary, covered with short,

appressed, white hairs. Stipules lanceolate-acuminate hairy. Leaves

alternate, petiolate, slightly cordate at the base, 3-lobed; lobes ©

lanceolate-acute, the two side lobes at an angle of 45° with the central,

ciliate on the margins, glabrous above and below, or with short,

white, appressed hairs, or densely appressedly hirsute all over;

petiole about .5 in. long, velvety, with two shortly stalked, round

glands at the middie or thereabouts.

Flowers small, about .5 in. across, axillary, solitary, pedicellate.

Pedicels jointed half way up, with a few hairs at the joint, about .5

in. long. Receptacle saucer-shaped; sepals 5, .3 in. long, oblong-

obtuse in shape, greenish-yellow in colour. Petals absent. Corona

of several filamentous series, the outermost spreading and half as

long as the sepals, followed by shorter threads, the innermost hair-

Journ. BomsBay Nav, Hist. Soc Flate I

Photo by M. N. Bakshi.

Passiflora incarnata Linn.

New Forest, Dehra Dun.

su ' ; ; o S

= hr Phe Ty ge Pe fa 4 ity ie tome Wee's

eal * fa . 5; }

Br,

“} > 4 ; K “4

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 13

like; the median series plicate, fringed at the apex. Gynophore .1

in. long, slender. Stamens 5, filaments filiform; ovary globose,

glabrous, ending in 3 slender styles. Fruit ovoid or globose, blue or

purple, up to .75 in. long.

Fig. 8.—Passiflora suberosa Linn,

Flowers.—July to September. Fruits cold season.

Distribution.—A native of tropical America now naturalized

in damp shady places in Dehra Dun.

Gardening.—A slender twiner with 3-lobed leaves and small

greenish-white flowers. It is more of a weed than an ornament

for any garden. Propagation is by seed.

Passiflora incarnata Linn.

WILp PASSION-FLOWER; MAypop.

(incarnata means ‘flesh-coloured’ in Latin and refers to the colour

of the petals).

Description.—A wide spreading climbing creeper. Stems wiry,

cylindrical, green, shining, almost glabrous. Leaves alternate with

small stipules, petiolate; petiole hairy with two glands at the top,

dividing at the apex into three nerves which pass out into the three

lobes of the leaf; margins of the lobes serrate, those of the side

lobes joining the two side nerves about .25 in. above the apex of the

petiole. Lobes of the blade elliptic-acuminate in shape, dark green

above, paler below; nerves hairy above and below. Petioles up to

1 in. long; leaves up to 4 in. long by 4 in. across. Tendrils anillary,

long, simple.

Flowers axillary, solitary, seated on peduncles up to 3 in. long,

showy, 2-2.5 in. across; peduncle hairy, striate, triangular in section

just below the flower. Just below the flower are three glandular

leaf-like bracts; bracts small, ovate acuminate in outline, serrate

above, glandular below. Calyx-tube almost none; lobes 5 in number,

14 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

oblong-obtuse, with a short awn-like projection just below the apex,

above green or pale green in colour, rather soft up to 1 in. long.

Petals 5, delicate, pale pink in colour.

Flowers.—Hot and rainy season. Fruits.—Cold season.

EG \

Fig. 9.—Passiflora incarnata Linn.

Distribution.—Native of Southern States of North America, now

widely cultivated throughout the world.

Gardening.—A tall, perennial climber with broadly cordate, ovate

3-lobed leaves, bearing 2 glands near the top of the petiole. The

pretty, axillary, solitary flowers, 2 in. across are white with a

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 15

It is a fine cover

purplish corona and are borne in great profusion.

A liberal supply of

for arbors, verandahs, arches and the like.

manure is beneficial for its growth as this plant is a gross feeder

and exhausts the soil quickly. Propagation is by seed and layers.

Passiflora edulis Sims.

THE EpDIBLE PASSION FLOWER, PURPLE GRANADILLA.

(edulis means ‘eatable’ in Latin).

A widely spreading woody climber. Tendrils

Leaves alternate,

Description.

axillary, long, simple. Stipules linear, small.

petiolate, up to 6 in. long by 6 in. broad, ovate cordate in outline,

3-lobed to half the length or more, coarsely serrate on the margins

terminal lobe broadly elliptic, acute or acuminate, side lobes obovate-

Petiole up to 1 in. long, with two glands at the

acute or elliptic.

apex.

ep eny; ange y

Lip,

Fig. 1o.—Passiflora edulis Sims.

Flowers solitary terminal or axillary, pedunculate. Peduncles

up to 1.5 in. long. Below the flower are three bracts, ovate-

acuminate in shape, the upper portion glandular serrate, the lower

portion with 1-2 large glands on the margin. Calyx-tube hardly

saucer-shaped. Lobes 5, oblong-obtuse, greenish,

any, shallow,

16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

with a short awn-like projection below the apex. Petals

5. oblong, about .75 in. long, white often tinted with purple.

Corona in several series, the outer spreading, not as long as the

sepals and petals, white in the upper half, violet or purple below.

Stamens 5; filaments inserted on the gynophore. Ovary ellipsoid,

glabrous or woolly, surmounted by the three club-shaped styles and

stigmas. Fruit globular-oblong, thickly purple-dotted, when ripe

with a hard rind.

I’lowers.—Hot and rainy season. J*ruits.—Cold season.

Distribution.—A native of Brazil, now extensively cultivated in

all parts of the world. Run wild below Kodaikanal near Ootacamund

and near Yercaud, in South India.

Gardening.—A widely spreading, rather woody ‘Vine’ with

large glossy, deeply 3-lobed and serrate leaves. The white, tinged

with purple flowers, are produced in succession all through the

summer and rains and are quite ornamental. It makes an excellent

and rapid-growing cover for fences and trellises. It is, however,

for the edible fruit that it is so extensively cultivated in many

countries. The fruit under cultivation, according to Bailey, is

considerably smaller than the Granadilla (P. quadrangularis), rarely

larger than a hen’s egg, and dull purple when ripe. Its pulp is

slightly more acid than that of Granadilla, but of very pleasant

flavour and highly esteemed in Queensland and New South Wales

where the plant is cultivated commercially. It is used for flavouring

sherbets, for confectionery, for icing cakes, for jams and for a

variety of other purposes.

Like most species of Passiflora it grows with great rapidity and

soon exhausts the soil. It is, therefore, necessary to give it a liberal

supply of manure each year.

The fruits produced in Dehra and elsewhere in this country have,

however, usually little pulp, the seeds occupying most of the interior.

Propagation is by seed, layers or cuttings.

Medicinal and Economics uses.—According to Burkill, Hydro-

eyanic acid is met with in stem and roots of this plant. ;

Passiflora ciliata Ait.

FRINGED-LEAVED PASSION-FLOWER.

(ciliata refers to the fringed margins of the leaves).

Description.—A slender climber with smooth and glabrous terete

stems. Stipules laciniate, each segment a glandular hair. Leaves

alternate, petiolate, hastate in shape, the two lower lobes widely

spreading the terminal lobe much longer, elliptic-obtuse in shape, 2

in. long, densely hirsute on both surface with appressed fulvous

hairs, or only slightly hairy above; or almost glabrous with gland

tipped hairs along the margin, densely hirsute on the margins.

Petiole little more than .5 in. long, covered with golden hairs with

here and there a longer gland-tipped hair and sometimes 1-2 sessile

globular glands. Flowers axillary, pedicellate, solitary; pedicel 13

in. long. Involucral bracts 3, bi- and tri-pectinately divided, the

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate II

M. B. RAIzaDA.

Passiflora edulis Sim

New Forest, Dehra Dun.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 17

ultimate segments capillary and gland tipped. These bracts are

foetid when bruised. Calyx-tube a hypanthium; sepals 5, .3 in.

long, greenish on side, pale on the margins. Petals 5, reddish or

pink, oblong-obtuse. Corona several seriate, the outer filamentous,

variegated white and purple, the inner erect and _ purple-tipped.

Fig. 11.—-Passiflora ciliata Ait,

Gynophore deep purple in colour bearing the 5 purple-dotted

filaments. Ovary purple, ellipsoid, ending in three clavate stigmas.

Fruit ellipsoid, .5 in. long, enclosed in the involucral bracts.

Flowers and fruits.—Rainy season.

Distribution.—A native of the West Indies, occasionally culti-

vated in gardens throughout the country.

18 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 4%

Gardening.—A slender climber at times attaining sufficient height,

The dark green, glossy, 3-lobed leaves are usually glabrous except

on the edges where they are beset with glandular hairs. The leaves

of this species vary greatly in form according to the vigour and

Juxuriance of the plant. The rather small flowers are of a purplish

colour. Multiplication is by seed or cutting. It prefers a cool

situation. According to Curtis it was introduced into England by

Mrs. Norman from the West Indies in 1783.

Passiflora holosericea Linn.

SILKY-LEAVED PASSION-FLOWER.

(olosericea means ‘covered with silk’ and refers to the pubescent

stems and leaves).

Fig. 12.—Passiflora holosericea Linn.

Description.—A woody climbing shrub with very silky, terete

stems. Stipules thread-like hairy. Tendrils axillary, somewhat

Journ. BomBay Nav: Hist

Photo by M, B: Rarzapa.

Passiflora holosericea Linn.

New Forest, Dehra Dun.

SOME REAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 19

stout, hairy. Leaves alternate, petiolate, up to 4 in. long by 3 in.

wide, densely covered on both surfaces with a short, crisped, silky

pubescence, ovate in Outline, shallowly 3-lobed; lobes rounded or

even emarginate, sometimes obtusely-acute; midribs of the lobes

projecting as a short bristle; petiole up to .5 in. long, short silky,

with two scale-like glands about the middle.

Inflorescence axillary of 2 or more flowers in hairy peduncled

umbels or racemes. Individual flowers pedicellate. An involucre

of 3 linear bracts arises from the centre of the pedicel. Receptacle

flat. Sepals 5, .75 in. long, narrowly ovate-obtuse, longitudinally

veined, densely hairy. Petals 5, elliptic obtuse, white. Corona in

several series, the outer filamentous; filaments yellow in the outer

half, reddish or purplish in the inner; median membrane lacerate

purplish-tipped. Gynophore .4 in. long, purplish. Stamens 5, fila-

ments greenish, spotted with purple. Ovary ellipsoid, densely

hirsute, ending in 3 slender styles, each with a capitate stigma.

Flowers.—Hot and rainy seasons. Does not set fruit in Dehra.

Distribution.—Native of Vera Cruz, in South America, now

cultivated in all tropical and subtropical parts of the world.

Gardening.—An extensive, woody climber with ovate, 3-lobed

leaves, pretty for the marking of their dull-red veins. The flowers

are not very large, whitish, but borne in great profusion and

strongly sweet-scented. Propagation is by layers and cuttings. It

was introduced into the Chesla gardens by Dr. William Houston

from South America before 1733. It is suitable for growing on

an arch or a trellis work.

Passiflora foetida Linn.

STINKING PASSION-FLOWER.

(foetida is a Latin word meaning ‘evil-smelling’ and refers to the

odour emitted by the plant when crushed).

Description.—A herbaceous climber, more or less viscous,

densely hirsute throughout with yellowish-brown hairs. Stipules

semi-circular about the stem, deeply cleft into filiform, gland-tipped

segments. Leaves alternate, petiolate, ovate-cordate in outline,

3-lobed, membranous, usually glandular ciliate, sparingly to densely

appressed hirsute, 3 in. long by 2 in. wide, the middle lobe lanceolate

or ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, the lateral lobes sub-orbicular, often

apiculate; petioles slender up to 2.5 in. long, glandular-ciliate but

without true petiolar glands.

Flowers solitary, seated on axillary peduncles which are up to

1.5 in. long. Bracts ovate in general outline, .75—1.5 in. long,

bi- or tri-pinnatisect, the ultimate segments filiform, gland-tipped,

closely interwoven in the bud but much less so when the flower

opens. Calyx-tube short, campanulate. Sepals and petals oblong

or ovate-oblong, .7—1 in. long, white, often tinged with lilac.

Corona filaments in several series, the outer 2-radiate, filiform,

violet and white or purple and white, the other series short, violet.

Ovary globose, densely pilose with white or brown hairs. Fruit

globose up to 1 in. in diameter, yellowish, densely to sparingly hairy.

20 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Flowers and fruits.—Rainy season but often at other times of

the year.

Distribution.—A native of tropical America, now run wild in

various parts of India, Ceylon, China and Malaya.

Fig. 13.—Passiflora foetida Linn.

Gardening.—A small herbaceous species at once recognised by

the moss-like pectinate involucre of the flowers. The leaves when

bruised emit a disagreeable smell and are not eaten by cattle. The

flowers are small and white and not showy. Bears fruits abundantly.

Propagation is by seed. It is more like a weed and is not worth

growing in a garden. It was introduced into England as far

back as 1731 and in India over a century ago.

Medicinal uses.—The plant is reported to be used in Malaya to

cure itches. The hydrocyanic acid which is present in the leaves

apparently helping in doing this. The leaves are applied on the

head for giddiness and headache and a decoction is given in bilious-

ness and asthma. It is considered as an emetic.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 21

Passiflora morifolia Mast.

(morifolia means in Latin ‘mulberry-leaved’, and the plant is so

called from the supposed resemblance of its foliage to that of the

mulberry).

Description.—A slender twiner with hairy, angled stems.

Stipules foliaceous, .25 in. long, ovate cordate, or semi-orbicular,

Fig. 14.—Passiflora morifolia Mast.

hairy. Tendrils axillary, hairy, slender. Leaves alternate, petio-

late, ovate-cordate in outline, glabrous or hairy on the upper and

lower surfaces, particularly on the nerves, 3-lobed; lobes ovate-

acute; margins of the centre lobe entire or with widely spaced

elandular teeth; side lobes dentate on the outer margin, round to

the insertion of the petiole; the teeth ending in glands; petiole up

to 2 in. long, bearing 2 stalked glands above the middle.

Flowers axillary, solitary, pedicellate ; pedicels with three filiform

bracteoles just below the calyx or scattered. Calyx-tube campanulate,

short, pubescent; calyx-lobes lanceolate, .75 in. long, green, pale

on the margins. Petals O. Corona in three series, the outer

filamentous, half as long as the sepals, the centre series short,

curved, the inner a narrow membrane. Gynophore slender; stamens

5; filaments attached to the top of the gynophore. Ovary globular,

velvety, ending above in three slender styles. Fruit globose,

purple, 1 in. long; seeds pitted on both surfaces,

22 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47

Flowers and fruits:—Rainy season.

Distribution.—Native of Brazil, occasionally cultivated in this

country.

Gardening.—A slender hairy twiner with small, insignificant

flowers. It is not worthy to be grown in a garden. Easily raised

from seed.

Passiflora racemosa Brot.

PRINCESS CHARLOTTE’S PASSION-FLOWER.

(racemosa refers to the inflorescence which consists of stalked

flowers on a central axis, that is, a raceme).

Description.—A powerful climbing shrub with a_ cylindrical,

glabrous, smooth stem, woody, sometimes corky below. Leaves

alternate, petiolate, stipulate, 3-4 in. long, up to 3 in. broad, glab-

rous, smooth, leathery in texture, deep green in colour, shallowly

cordate at the base, all three-lobed except the lowest which may be

ovate; lobes ovate-acute or oblong-ovate-acute, entire on the mar-

gins, penni-nerved, each with a principal central vein making the

whole leaf three-nerved; petiole attached to the blade just above

the base, making it sub-peltate cylindrical, glabrous, bearing about

4 sessile glands; stipules foliaceous, obliquely ovate-acute, glabrous,

smooth, with a median nerve, up to 1 in. long and as_ broad.

Tendrils long, filiform, spirally twisted, arising from the axils of

the leaves.

Inflorescence a long, terminal, pendulous raceme, 7-8 in. or more

in length, leafless, having stipules in place of leaves; sometimes,

especially when it does not support any fruit, it remains alive and

produces new branchlets from the axils of the dead peduncles.

Flowers solitary (but the peduncles usually two from an axil, with

the tendril in the middle between them, becoming racemose on the

ends of the shoots), 4 in. or more across, inodorous, the narrow

petals deep red and widespreading, the short, upright crown purple.

Calyx inferior, glabrous, forming a tube below, limb deeply

5-cleft ; sepals not conforming with the corolla petals, dirty purple

outside, very broadly keeled, the keel curved like a sword, scarlet

in colour. Before the flower opens the keels of the calyx give the

buds a five-winged appearance.

Petals 5, inserted on the throat of the calyx, and a little shorter

than the lobes of the calyx, spreading, semilanceolate, somewhat

obtuse, entire, somewhat flattened, outside slightly keeled, inside

chanelled in its native ground, purple on both sides.

Nectary corona triple, filamentous, all the hairs being whitish

on the upper side, blue on the lower side; the innermost corona

equal in height to the outer corona, the hairs closing round the

cylindric stipes, equal among themselves, simple, joined with a

membrane from below, adnate to the elevated margin of the recep-

tacle which goes round the base of the calyx ; the two other coronas

inserted on the throat of the calyx below the petals, the intermediate

one shorter, hairs being scarcely exserted outside the calyx throat,

erect, subcapitate at the apex, equal among themselves; the exterior

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 23

corona with simple hairs which are produced two or three lines

outside the calyx throat, patent, unequal, the hairs which are

opposite to the calyx-lobes being longer.

Staminal filaments 5, inserted on the apex of the stipe below

the ovary, slightly united at the base green, sublinear, erect-

spreading. Anthers sublinear, obtuse with a short acumen, leaning,

in colour from green to yellowish, unisulceate in the middle and at

the sides, bilocular.

Ovary superior, oblong, subovoid, obsoletely trisulcate, glab-

rous, pale green, with the style prolonged up to one inch beyond

the calyx throat, cylindric, green, broader at the base which is

pentagonal. Styles 3, somewhat thicker above, pale green, recurved

towards the anthers. Stigmas capitate, from yellowish to green.

Fruit a berry, pedicellate, ovoid, trisuleate, glabrous, pale green,

up to 2 in. long, unilocular, many-seeded, fleshy, finally dry.

Flowers.—Hot and rainy season. Has not fruited in Dehra up

till now.

Distribution.—A native of Brazil, now commonly grown in all

tropical and subtropical parts of the world.

Gardening.—This very choice and handsome climber which is

decidedly one of the best red-flowered Passifloras bears scarlet or

deep-red flowers in great profusion, but unfortunately all the flowers

of the raceme do not open out at the same time. A liberal supply

of manure and leaf mould is considered beneficial at the beginning

of the cold weather. It is a very suitable object for growing over

an arch or pergola. Propagation is by seed or layers. It is a fine

old species and is a parent of various garden hybrids of this genus.

According to Firminger it thrives much better by grafting it on a

strong species but in Dehra Dun plants raised from seed received

from Leipzig are doing excellently well on their own roots.

Passiflora calcarata Mast.

MADAGASCAR PASSION-FLOWER.

(calcarata is a Latin word meaning ‘spurred’, and refers to the

long spur on the sepal).

Description.—A wiry slender climber with glabrous stems. Stipule

ovate-lanceolate, foliaceous, .75—1 in. long. Tendrils axillary,

slender. Leaves alternate, sub-rotund in shape, petiolate, 2 in. long

by 2.5 in. broad, glabrous, smooth, thin in texture, 3-lobed, lobes

rounded at the apex; margins of the lobes with 2 glands just above

the obtuse sinus; petiole slender, glabrous with 2 or more glands

irregularly distributed.

Flowers solitary, axillary, pedicellate. Bracts 3, ovate-lanceolate

up to .5 in. long. Hypanthium saucer-shaped. Sepals 5, oblong,

obtuse at the tip, greenish, furnished with a short spur just below

the tip .5—.75 in. long. Petals 5, white, more delicate than the

sepals. The corona consists of an outerset of slender filaments,

white with a purple base and three tips, and an inner set of much

smaller filaments which fit closely about the central column and

cover a honey-secreting circular channel. Stamens 5; filaments

24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

attached to the gynophore. Ovary egg-shaped, with a slight bloom ;

stylar arms spreading upwards and outwards ending in large 2-lobed

stigmas.

Fig. 15.—Passiflorva calcarata Mast.

Flowers and fruits.—March to May.

Distribution.—A native of Madagascar, naturalized and run wild

in the Nilgiris and elsewhere in the hills in South India.

Gardening.—A slender climber (of the section Granadilla) easily

distinguished from the rest by its 3-lobed leaves and large stipules

75-1 in, long. Propagation is by seeds and layers. The flowers

are ornamental.

Passiflora gracilis Jacq.

(gracilis means ‘slender’ in Latin and refers to the habit of the

plant).

Description.—A_ slender climber with terete, glabrous stems.

Tendrils very slender, axillary. Stipules minute, linear-acuminate.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 25

Leaves alternate, petiolate, deltoid in outline, very shallowly and

bluntly 3-lobed, shallowly cordate at the base, thinly membranous,

green on the upper surface, glaucous beneath, glabrous; petiole

up to 1 in. long, with 2 glands at or below the middle.

Fig, 16.—Passiflora &racilis Jacq.

Flowers solitary, axillary, on the peduncles about 1 in. long;

the peduncles bear a pair of slender glandular bracts well below the

bloom. Calyx-tube a hypanthium, flat; lobes 5, oblong-obtuse,

green, tinged with pale violet on the margins; lobes .75 in. long,

persistent. Petals 5, as long as the sepals and similar in shape,

whitish or greenish in colour. Corona in 2 series, the outer fila-

mentous, the inner a lacerated membrane. Gynophore .3 in. long,

bearing the 5 stamens with versatile anthers; ovary ellipsoid,

glabrous, ending in 3-clavate styles. Fruits ellipsoid, globose,

purple, 1 in. long.

Flowers and fruits.—August to September.

Distribution.—A native of Brazil, now occasionally cultivated in

all tropical and subtropical countries of the world.

Gardening.—A slender climber with broadly deltoid-ovate leaves

which are shallowly and bluntly 3-lobed. The solitary, axillary,

pale-green or whitish flowers about 1 in. across are not very showy.

Easily multiplied by seed, layers or cuttings.

(To be continued)

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA

D. G. SEVASTOPULO, F.R.E.S.

Part XVIII

(Continued from Vol. 46, p. 586).

RHOPALOCERA

NYMPHALIDAE:

Pantoporia cama Moore.

Colour of pupal shell dull brown, the wing cases with a marginal

series of darker spots. Head with a flattened, pointed, leaf-like

process, which arises frontally and is then bent outwards at right

angles. Meso-thorax with an outward-pointing, double point at the

origin of the wing cases, and with a large median keel forming a

backward-pointing, bluntly triangular process. 1st abdominal somite

with an immense forward-curved dorsal process, almost meeting

the thoracic keel. The 2nd to 6th abdominal somites each with a

small dorsal ridge. 1st to 3rd abdominal somites each with a sub-

dorsal tooth. The abdomen much constricted after the 6th somite.

Suspended by the cremaster, but placed at an acute angle with the

support, not hanging vertically as many Nymphalid pupae

Described from a pupa skin found at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Dar-

jeeling Dist.) 24-ix-45, with a newly emerged female clinging to it.

Symbrenthia hypselis Godt., cotanda Moore.

Head black, shining and clothed with longish pale hair. Body

black, a pair of white dorsal spots between the rst and 2nd somites.

3rd to 5th somites coffee-brown, transversely streaked with black,

oth somite with a coffee-brown dorsal blotch. 1st somite unspined.

2nd and 3rd somites each with a subdorsal and lateral branched,

brown spine. 4th to 11th somites each with a dorsal, subdorsal,

lateral and sublateral branched, brown spine, the dorsal spine placed

shehtly in advance of the others. 12th somite with the subdorsal

spines only. All somites with transverse lines of short, white,

bristly hair. Venter, legs and prolegs black.

Pupa suspended by the cremaster. Pinkish grey, very minutely

speckled with darker. <A diffused green lateral stripe from the edge

of the wing case on the 4th abdominal somite to the 6th. The head

bifid, the points blunt. Thorax arched, the rst abdominal somite

constricted. A rounded prominence subdorsally on each somite,

from the 2nd to 7th abdominal somites, that on the 2nd somite very

small. The whole surface of the pupa very rough, a blackish raised

THE. EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 29

speck on the discal area of the wing case. The base of the wing

cases expanded slightly into two blunt points.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.

Darjeeling Dist.) 16-x-45, pupated 18-x-45 and a female emerged

2Q9-X1-45.

GRYPOCERA.

HETEROPTERINAE:

Notocrypta feisthamelii Bsd., alysos Moore.

Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xlvi, 262. 1946.

The young larva differs from the adult by the head being

completely black and the body without the dark green speckling.

Described from material found at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Darjeeling

Dist.) in September 1945.

HETEROCERA,

ZYGAENIDAE:

Eterusia aedea L., edocla Dbl.

Jord., Seitz Indo-Austr. Bombyces, x, 34. 1908.

Head pale brown, retractile. «st somite pale brown, retractile.

Ground colour of body olive-yellow, a smoky brown dorsal line.

6th somite with a transverse smoky brown dorsal band, which joins

the arms of a darker brown V-shaped mark extending from the 7th

to oth somites. <A lateral series of oblique brown lines. 2nd_ to

11th somites with a subdorsal series of small black warts, each

bearing one or two bristles, and a similar lateral series, except that

the warts on the 2nd and 3rd somites are double, those on the 2nd

_ yellow. A sublateral series of yellow warts from 4th to 11th somites,

the 2nd and 3rd somites with very small, double, yellow warts.

12th somite with a transverse series of four yellow warts. All these

warts exude a drop of liquid when the larva is alarmed. Venter,

legs and prolegs pale yellowish.

Cocoon spun across the trough of a leaf, of the usual Zygaenid

type of pale pinkish-buff, papery silk. Empty pupa skin brownish

yellow.

Food-plant—Camelia.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.

Darjeeling Dist.) 17-ix-45, spun 27-ix-45 and a female emerged

28-x-45.

Seitz’ description is as follows:—‘Larva very similar to that of

tricolor, on tea and other plants; brown-yellow. Cocoon white, with

a reddish tinge.’ Gardner (Indian Forest Records, vii, 160. 1942)

describes the larva of the Ceylon subspecies cingala Moore as having

the head brownish, the general body colour varying from pale brown

to bright brick-red, usually paler laterally and ventrally.

28 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

ARCTIIDAE:

Siccia (Aemene) taprobanis Wk.

Head small and black. Body grey, 1st somite with a blackish

transverse stripe on the anterior half. A pale grey dorsal blotch

on the 4th, the 6th and 7th, and the gth and roth somites, and a

pale grey transverse stripe on the 12th. Shape rather short and

stout, and clothed with short, whitish bristles arising from small

olive warts. Venter, legs and prolegs greyish.

Pupa in a slight web of white silk spun over a depression in

the wall. Olive brown, the thorax slightly suffused with smoky,

the abdominal somites each with a broad black transverse stripe

containing a few dots of the ground colour. Wing cases veined

with black. Cremaster a double, long, hooked spine, with a number

of shorter, hooked spines round it.

Food-plant—Presumably Lichens growing on walls.

Described from a number of larvae and pupae found on a wall

at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Darjeeling Dist.) 17-ix-45, from which a male

emerged 20-1x-45.

Creatonotus transiens Wk.

Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xiii, 42. 1940.

Head black, shining, with an inverted pale V outlining the

clypeus. Body dull blackish with a dull whitish dorsal line. 3rd

somite with a white lateral spot. 5th to roth somites with very

short, indistinct, pale, oblique stripes. Clothed with rosettes of

short brown hair, intermingled with a few longer hairs, arising from

greyish warts. Spiracles white. Legs and venter black. Prolegs

and anal claspers purplish. —

Pupa in a loose cocoon of brownish silk. Dark purpie brown,

almost black. 4st to 5th abdominal somites each with a ring of

orange spots. Cremaster a bunch of very short hooked spines.

Both larva and pupa are very much larger and darker than the

form found in Calcutta.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.

Darjeeling Dist.) 23-ix-45, spun 28-ix-45 and a female emerged

24-X-45.

Callimorpha plagiata WI1k.

Head black, the clypeus outlined with paler forming an inverted

V. Body very dark nigger brown, almost black, with a silvery

irridescence when looked at from certain angles. Clothed with

rosettes of short, sharp, spinous, purple-brown hair growing from

black warts. The hairs are sharp enough to prick the hand if the

larva is carelessly handled. Spiracles black. Legs black. Venter

and prolegs very dark nigger brown, almost black.

Pupa in a slight web among litter. Purplish-black, rather longer

and with the intersegmental divisions rather more deeply cut than

the usual Arctiid type of pupa. Cremaster two divergent tufts of

longish chestnut hooked spines,

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 2)

Food-plant—Ferns of various species and a variety of other low

plants. |

Described from a full fed larva found-at Tukdah (5,000 ft.

Darjeeling Dist.) 1o-x-45, pupated 23-xi-45 and a female emerged

13-X1I-45.

LYMANTRIIDAE :

Pantana bicolor Wk.

Ovum—Pale straw colour, almost spherical, the top flattened and

slightly quadrate in outline, due to pressure from the ovum on

either side, and with an olive line round the top edge. The mic-

ropyle a sunken dark spot. Laid in long single lines on grass-blades.

Head black and shiny. Body dark grey, a buff dorsal patch

on the 1st somite. 2nd and 3rd somites with subdorsal white spots

and a subdorsal buff stripe from the 4th to 11th somite. A supra-

spiracular whitish line and buff sub-spiracular stripe. 1st somite

with a black subdorsal tubercle tufted with a pencil of long spatulate

black hair. 2nd, 3rd, and 8th to 11th somites with a subdorsal series

of greyish warts tufted with pale hairs, 2nd to 11th somites with

a lateral and two sublateral series of similar warts. 4th to 7th

somites each with a dorsal brush of golden brown hair. rith somite

with a dorsal brush of short golden brown hair and a pencil of long

spatulate black hair. 12th somite with a transverse series of four

warts with longish pale hairs. Dorsal glands grey. Spiracles white.

Venter black. Legs and prolegs yellowish.

Cocoon spindle-shaped, of pale brown silk mixed with larval

hair. Pupa pale chestnut brown, the dorsum, thorax and wing

cases darker. Thorax and abdomen clothed dorsally with shortish

pale hairs, the 2nd, 3rd and 4th abdominal somites with a dorsal

patch of short, dense pale hair. Cremaster a short, blackish spike

armed with minute hooked spines.

Food-plant—Coarse Grasses.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Dar-

jeeling Dist.) 5-x-45, spun 7-x-45 and a female emerged 24-x-45.

Lymantria mathura Moore.

Pupa in a slight web. Pale buff, the wing cases and venter

dark brown. A blackish stripe on the thorax, expanding into a

dorsal blotch on the 1st abdominal somite. Pro-thorax with a

dorsal tuft of black bristles and a few pale buff bristles anteriorly

on the subdorsal area, posteriorly with a few buff bristles dorsally

and subdorsally. Meso-thorax with a large dorsal tuft of black

bristles, and a few black and buff bristles subdorsally. Meta-thorax

with a few buff bristles subdorsally. Abdominal somites with sub-

dorsal, lateral and sublateral tufts of bristles; the subdorsal tuft

on the 1st abdominal somite almost white, on the znd and gard

black, on the 4th and 5th mixed black and buff, and buff thereafter,

the lateral tufts on the 2nd to 4th somites mixed black and buff,

the rest of the lateral and all the sublateral tufts buff. 5th abdominal

somite backwards with subventral tufts of buff bristles. A few

30 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiS7T. SOCIETY, Vol. 44

buff bristles at the side of the head. The intersegmental area

laterally, anterior to the 5th and 7th somites, transversely wrinkled.

Cremaster longitudinally striated and ending in a tuft of hooked

spines.

Described from a pupa found at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Darjeeling

Dist.) 26-ix-45, from which a male emerged 6-x-45.

Lymantria bivittata Moore.

Young larva—Head dark crimson, reticulated with yellow.

Body black, the 2nd and 3rd somites transversely streaked with

cream. 4th to rith somites with traces of a white dorsal line, a

subdorsal series of white dots—two per somite, and a lateral series

of smaller white dots—also two per somite. Ist somite with a

subdorsal red tubercle with a few rufous hairs and a small black,

rufous-haired, lateral tubercle. 2nd and 3rd somites each with a

transverse series of eight small brown warts with a few pale hairs.

4th to 11th somites with a subdorsal and lateral series of crimson,

and a sublateral series of black warts, the subdorsal series with a

few short black bristles, the lateral and sublateral with pale hairs.

12th somite with a transverse series of six warts, the centre four

crimson, the outer one black, with longish pale hairs, and with fine

white streaks between the warts. Dorsal glands red. Spiracles

white. Venter black. Legs black. Prolegs red with an external

black blotch at the base. Anal claspers red.

Penultimate instar—Very similar, but the head black reticulated

with yellow. The subdorsal tubercle on the 1st somite black. The

subdorsal warts on the 4th and 5th somites blue instead of crimson.

The transverse cream streaks on the dorsum of the 2nd and 3rd

somites absent.

Final instar-Head velvety black, the median suture and a line

on each cheek pale yellow, roughly forming an inverted W. Body

black, minutely speckled with white. 4th somite backwards with

a subdorsal and lateral row of white dots. Subdorsal tubercle on

the 1st somite black. Subdorsal warts black, except for those on

the 4th and 5th somites, which are blue ringed with pale brown.

The lateral series brown. All warts emitting long pale hairs, the

subdorsal series with a few black bristles as well. Spiracles pale

buff. Otherwise similar to earlier instars.

Pupa in a slight web among leaves. Very dark chestnut.

Head, leg and antenna sheaths with a few, scattered, bright rufous

hairs. Prothorax with a subdorsal, outward-curved tuft of longish

black hair. Meso-thorax with a longish dorsal tuft of black, and

a subdorsal tuft of bright rufous hair. Abdominal somites with a

subdorsal, lateral, sublateral and ventro-lateral tuft of bright rufous

hair. A few bright rufous hairs dorsally on the anterior edge of

the abdominal somites in addition. Prothoracic spiracle set in a

large velvety black spot. Cremaster longitudinally striated and

terminating in a bunch of hooked spines.

Food-plant—Quercus semiserrata.

Described from a larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Darjeeling

Dist.) 14-x-45, pupated 18-x1-45 and a female emerged 28-xi-45.

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LELIDORTERA 3h

LASIOCAMPIDAE:

Metanastria undans Wk.

Ovum dark purple brown, minutely speckled with buff. <A large

unspeckled spot on either side ringed with buff, micropyle a buff-

ringed dark dot, with a buff dot at the opposite end. Shape ovoid,

slightly flattened on each side. The ova are laid loose, not gummed

to a leaf or other support.

Described from ova laid by a female bred in Tukdah (5,000 ft.

Darjeeling Dist.) in October 1945.

BOMBYCIDAE :

Prismosticta fenestrata Btlr.

Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb, Nat. Hist. Soc., xli, 76. 1939.

Amongst larvae collected at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Darjeeling Dist.)

in October 1945, a certain number had the ground colour dark

violet, whilst others were a bright golden ginger.

DREPANIDAE :

Macrauszata fenestraria Moore.

Head large, slightly bifid above, whitish with three faint grey

transverse stripes and a black stripe on the lower part. 1st somite

white. 2nd to 6th and oth somite backwards blackish or olive

brown. The posterior half of the 6th somite, the 7th and 8th very

pale pinkish, with a lateral pear-shaped olive blotch. The divisions

between the 6th, 7th and 8th somites very deeply cut dorsally. 6th

somite with a sublateral process, something like a seal’s flipper in

shape, and a similar, but smaller, process on the 7th somite. rath

somite expanded slightly laterally. Anal claspers replaced by a

long, thin, up-turned spine. Legs brown. Prolegs whitish. Venter

blackish, whitish on the 6th to 9th somites. Rests with the head

doubled back beside the body, resembling a large bird dropping.

Pupa, in captivity, formed loose at the bottom of the box,

possibly amongst moss or litter in nature. Pale greenish white,

the posterior half of the 3rd, the 4th and the 5th abdominal somites

pinkish dorsally. Meso-thorax with a dorsal pair of black points,

their base buff. Somites rather deeply cut. Covered with a white

Waxy powder. Cremaster very short and broad and armed with

six hooked spines.

Food-plant—Quercus lineata.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.

Darjeeling Dist.) 20-ix-45, pupated 28-ix-45 and a male emerged

10-X-45.

Albara argenticeps Warr.

Head slightly triangular, buff, the upper two-thirds spotted with

darker brown. Body olive buff or pinkish buff, the abdominal

somites with a series of two small pale subdorsal specks. The

32 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 4

thoracic somites expanded laterally slightly, and with a sublateral

dentate flap from the rst to gth somite, after which the body is

much narrower. Anal somite terminating in a long pink process

with the tip black. Legs and prolegs pinkish. Anal claspers

absent. Venter whitish, with a dark brown lateral line. Rests

with the head and forepart of the body folded back alongside the

hinder part.

Pupa in a slight web of brown silk spun across a crinkled leaf.

Colour old ivory, the pro-thorax dark brown, meso-thorax and wing

cases suffused with chestnut, the former with a dark brown sub-

dorsal and lateral streak, the latter veined with chestnut. Inter-

segmental areas, particularly between the meso-thorax, 1st, 2nd,

3rd and 4th abdominal somites, chestnut. 4th to 6th abdominal

somites suffused with chestnut ventrally. Leg and antenna sheaths

streaked with chestnut. Cremaster a stout spike, ending in a

double spine, with two short spines on either side.

Food-plant—Rubus sp.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 {t.

Darjeeling Dist.) 8-x-45, pupated 14-x-45 and a female emerged

2Q-X-45.

SPHINGIDAE:

Macroglossum aquila Bsd.

4th (penultimate) instar—Head bright green. Body bright

green, dotted with yellowish along the secondary segmental divi-

sions. Thoracic somites with a dark green subdorsal stripe edged

below with yellowish. A dark green dorsal line. Lateral ‘area

with seven oblique dark green stripes, the last reaching the base

of the horn, these are crossed by a further seven narrower green

stripes, forming a series of dark green edged diamonds. Horn

purplish with minute black warts, the apical third pure yellow.

Legs green. Prolegs green with a transverse purple-brown band.

Spiracles black.

Final instar—Head green with a pale lateral stripe edged on

each side by darker green. Body bright green speckled along the

secondary segmental divisions with yellow. Thoracic somites with

a black subdorsal line, edged below broadly with yellow. A dorsal

line, bright green from 2nd to 5th somite, black from 6th somite

to base of horn. A subdorsal zigzag bright green line from 4th

to 1oth somite, the lower angle of the zigzag marked with a black

dot and meeting the oblique lateral stripes on 5th to roth somites.

3rd somite with a short oblique black lateral streak. 5th to oth

somites with oblique, plum-coloured, lateral stripes, which terminate

on the somite behind, the stripe on the 9th somite continued to the

base of the horn, the continuation black. <A blackish dorsal stripe

from base of horn to the apex of the anal flap. Spiracles black,

very narrowly outlined with white and then edged on each side with

blackish. Horn black, minutely tuberculate, the apical quarter

bright yellow. Legs pink, the basal segment black. Prolegs green

with a maroon basal stripe, a black median and a chestnut apical

one. Venter green, a series of dark maroon, ventro-lateral blotches

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 33

on the anterior part of each somite from the 5th backwards, a

V-shaped, dark maroon, ventral mark from the 5th to 9th somite,

thereafter wholly maroon.

Pupa in a slight web amongst litter. Old ivory colour, the head,

thorax and wing cases tinged with green. Abdomen minutely

speckled with black. A black dorsal line, well defined on the thorax,

diffuse on the abdomen. A black mark at the base of the wing

case on the pro- and meso-thorax, a black streak along the inner

margin of the wing case from the rst to 3rd abdominal somite.

Spiracles set in black patches. <A black line between the wing cases

ventrally, and a lateral blackish stripe on the abdomen. The anterior

edge of the 5th abdominal somite highly punctate and blackish in

colour. Cremaster long, black and shining, the tip bifid. Proboscis

sheath projecting slightly frontally and ventrally.

Described from a larva found at Tukdah {5,o00 ft. Darjeeling

Dist.) 2-x-45, pupated 15-x-45 and a male emerged 13-xI-45.

Macroglossum pyrrhosticta Btlr., pyrrhosticta.

Bitleme Mrais. Zoo soc. Lond. 1x. 527, -pl.- xc, fhe? $.7'71877.

Mell, Biol. u. System. der Sudchin. Sphing., 258, pl. 18, fig. 24,

DinesON ee lt. y LO22.

’ Seitz, Seitz Indo-Austr. Bombyces, x, 557. 1929.

Bell & Scott, Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, v

Ane len exeviy thie A TQ 37.

Head olive brown, a dark central and lateral stripe, the latter

edged below with yellowish in continuation of the subdorsal body

line. Body with the dorsum olive brown speckled with pinkish

along the secondary segmental divisions. An olive brown dorsal

and subdorsal line from head to base of horn, the latter line edged

below with yellowish on the thoracic somites. The area below the

subdorsal line less speckled, and therefore appearing more olive

brown, and with a series of eight oblique olive brown lateral stripes.

Legs pink, the basal joint black. Prolegs purplish with a black

basal line. Horn straight, dark purplish, the tip deep yellow, and

covered with minute black points. Anal flap edged with yellow.

Spiracles bright chestnut, the ends white.

Pupa in a slight cocoon spun among litter. Thorax and wing

cases bone coloured, the wing cases streaked with smoky. Abdo-

men pinkish. A black dorsal line, clearly defined on the thorax but

indistinct on the abdomen, and a black line ventrally between the

wing cases. Spiracles set in black spots. A black line on the

inner edge of the wing case from the 1st to 3rd abdominal somite.

Abdominal somites ventrally with an indistinct black median line,

a series of indistinct black spots sub-medianly and a blackish ventro-

lateral stripe. Proboscis sheath projecting frontally and ventrally.

Cremaster dark brown, shading into black apically, very shiny, and

ending in two short, stout spines, excavate below, the sides slightly

curved.

Food-plant—Paederia foetida Linn. (Rubiaceae).

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.

Darjeeling Dist-) 20-ix-45, pupated 24-ix-45 and a male emerged

1Q-X-45.

34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Seitz’ description is ‘Larva green or brown, the green form

similar to the larva of stellatarum with a long, pointed, rather

straight horn and a light, dark-shaded subdorsal line below which

there are long, narrow oblique shadows.’ Bell & Scott describe and

figure the green form only, which I did not meet with, and only

mention seven oblique lateral stripes. My larvae, however, had a

distinct stripe on the 3rd somite, this is omitted in Bell & Scott’s

figure.

Macroglossum troglodytus Bsd.

Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, 1, 117, fig. 64. 1892 (as gilia).

Hamips., “Ill. Het., 1x, 50, pl.7175, fig. "6. 9 1893" (as glia),

Mell, Biol. wu. System der Sudchin. Sphing., 261, pl. 9, figs. 6,

FEO lon SS GOneg 7. O22.

Seitz, Seitz Indo-Austr. Bombyces, x, 558. 1929.

Bell & Scott, Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, v, 373, pl. xv, fig. 5. 1937.

Ovum—Small, pale green, almost spherical. Laid singly on the

underside of a leaf of the food-plant, usually near the edge.

ist instar—Head round, yellow green. Body yellow green,

becoming greener after feeding. Horn black, erect, fairly stout,

the tip bifid.

2nd instar—Similar.

3rd instar—Head yellow green, with a pale lateral stripe. Body

green, a white subdorsal line, the area between somewhat bluer,

and a darker blue-green dorsal line. Horn dull purplish, with

minute black tubercles, the tip black. Larvae reared in captivity

often have the subdorsal line edged above with olive green and with

a lateral series of eight oblique olive green stripes.

4th instar—Head yellow green, with a central darker green line

and a dark green line edged below with whitish in continuation of

the subdorsal body line. Body yellow green, minutely speckled with

white along the secondary segmental divisions on the area between

the subdorsal lines. A bright green dorsal line and a bright green

subdorsal line edged below with whitish from the head to the base

of the horn. The area below rather brighter green, with a few

minute white dots, and with traces of eight oblique dark stripes.

Horn with the basal third pale purplish, the rest whitish green, and

sprinkled with minute black specks. Legs pale green. Prolegs

pale green, the feet pink. Spiracles white with an orange bar across

the middle. This is the usual wild form. Another 4th instar larva

found wild was greenish yellow, with the dark markings olive, the

horn dark purple, rather paler basally, with a yellow tip.

Final instar—Very similar to the preceding, but the colour

brighter, the dark dorsal line edged indistinctly with white and the

subdorsal with yellow, most noticeably on the thoracic somites anil

from the 1oth somite to the base of the horn. Legs reddish, the

basal joint black. Prolegs deep pink with a black basal line. Horn

with the basal half bluish above and below, violet at the sides, the

apical half greenish yellow, the whole studded with minute black

points. This is the usual wild form.

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 35

Dark form—Head dark brownish olive, with a pale lateral stripe.

Body yellowish buff, striped along the secondary segmental rings

with brown and dotted with white, particularly on the dorsum. <A

dark brown dorsal line, edged with paler, and a dark brown sub-

dorsal stripe, edged below with yellowish. Lateral area greenish,

the oblique stripes brown. Venter dark olive brown. Legs orange,

the base black. Prolegs dark red, the base black. Horn very deep

blue, the tip yellow.

When reared in captivity a very dark form appears in the 4th

and final instars. This has the head dark olive brown with a paler

lateral line that joins the subdorsal body stripe. Body very dark

olive brown, minutely speckled with bluish. An orange brown sub-

dorsal stripe, broken up into short bars on the abdominal somites

and forming a series of V-shaped marks in conjunction with the

oblique lateral stripes. Sublateral and ventral area more tinged with

olive. Horn black, the tip yellow. Legs orange, the base black.

Prolegs blackish, the feet purplish with a pale band. Spiracles pale

yellow with a central, transverse, red-brown band. Another even

darker form is without the oblique lateral stripes and the subdorsal

stripe is obsolete except on the thoracic and 11th somites. The

wild, dark form (see above) also appears, sometimes with the ground

colour olive, sometimes pure green, as well as intergrades of ail

degrees.

The larvae are very heavily attacked by parasites, very few adult

larvae were found wild and all those, some twenty or more, found

in the 2nd, 3rd and 4th instars were ichneumoned, the parasites

emerging just before the moult into the last instar and spinning

their white cocoons attached to the dying host by one end.

Pupa in a slight cocoon amongst litter. Pinkish bone colour,

a black dorsal line on the thorax, which become diffused and greenish

on the abdomen. A black ventral line between the wing cases, the

latter with minute black marks along the veins, and with a black

streak along the inner margin to the tornus. Spiracles set in black

patches. Venter with a blackish lateral stripe consisting of con-

joined blackish patches. Cremaster brownish black, very shiny, the

sides straight and tapering, the apex terminating in two blunt teeth.

Food-plant—Hedyotis sp. (Rubiaceae).

Described from larvae found at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Darjeeling

Dist.) one of which pupated 28-ix-45 and a male emerged 24-x-45.

Seitz’ description is ‘Larva with a white apex of the horn, quite

similar to the preceding and following species (pyrrhosticta Btlr. and

peecilium R. & J.), sometimes green and sometimes brown.’ Hamp-

son’s description in the Illustrations is ‘Adult larva bright green;

a pale medio-dorsal stripe with brownish median line; a pale dorso-

lateral stripe, edged above with reddish brown, the space between

this and the medio-dorsal stripe speckled with minute brownish

spots; stigmata black; 8-9 brownish diagonal stripes alternating with

the spiracles; below the medio-dorsal line minutely speckled with

white;. horn black, with yellow tips (sic). Legs pink; claspers

brownish. There is a paler variety of the larva in which the red-

brown markings are replaced by olive-green.’ The description in

the Fauna appears to have been based on this. Bell & Scott again.

36 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

as in the description of the previous species, only mention seven

oblique stripes and their figure, a photograph, certainly only shews

seven. My larvae, however, all shewed a more or less noticeable

stripe on the 3rd somite, and Hampson’s figure shews a short stripe

on the 2nd in addition.

Rhagastis albomarginatus Roths., albomarginatus.

Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xlvi, 416. 1946.

Bell & Scott (Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, v, 480) state that the

larvae of this species are singularly free from the attacks of parasitic

wasps and flies. At least 30% of the larvae found at Tukdah

(5,000 ft. Darjeeling Dist.) in September and October 1945 were

infested with a fairly large Dipterous parasite, the larvae emerging

from the host pupa some two to three weeks after it had been formed.

NOTODONTIDAE:

Somera viridifusca W1k.

Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xlvi, 418. 1946.

Among a number of larvae found at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Dar-

jeeling Dist.) in November 1945, one had large cherry-red spots

contained in the subdorsal line on each somite from the 2nd to the

12th. Another had the spots reduced to streaks against the upper

edge of the subdorsal line on somites 3 to 12, the streak on the 7th

somite rather thicker.

CYMATOPHORIDAE:

Thyatira batis L.

Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xl, 684. 1939.

Young larva—Similar in shape to the adult. Colour usually

olive green, the dorsum of the 2nd and 3rd somites rather yellower.

Head brownish orange. Legs black. More rarely like the adult.

Another form of the adult larva is a rather pale purple brown,

a blackish sublateral stripe from the 4th somite backwards. A

blackish dorsal spot on the 4th somite and an oblique darker lateral

stripe starting from a blackish subdorsal spot. The apices of the

humps on the 5th to goth somites black, forming the apex of a

roughly triangular dark lateral mark. 11th somite with a blackish

dorsal blotch and a subdorsal blackish spot.

Described from larvae found at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Darjeeling

Dist.) in October 1945.

NOCTUIDAE:

Conservula indica Moore.

Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xlvi, 421. 1946.

Green form—Head pale green. Body bright yellow green

speckled with whitish. An interrupted white dorsal line and a white

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 37

subdorsal line, straight on the 1st and 2nd somites and becoming

a series of oblique streaks from the 3rd to the 12th, these streaks

edged above with darker green, the darker green areas containing

a white speck. A white sublateral line. Spiracles white rimmed

with black. Legs and prolegs pale green. Venter pale green

speckled with whitish. Anal flap with a dorsal and subdorsal white

line.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Dar-

jeeling Dist.) 13-xi-45, buried itself 18-xi-45 and a female emerged

8-x11-45.

Eviopus (Callopistria) repleta Wk.

Head yellowish green, a blackish curved line on either side of

the clypeus forming a rough, inverted U, and a blackish line on

the cheek. Body yellowish green. 1st somite with a iransverse

olive green bar and a transverse black line behind it. A broad

transverse olive green bar on the dorsum of each somite from the

2nd to 11th, straight in front and slightly curved behind. An olive

green subspiracular stripe, straight on the thoracic somites and zig-

zag thereafter, which joins the transverse bar on the 1st somite and

which is continued across the 12th somite as a transverse bar.

Spiracles black. Venter, legs and prolegs yellowish green.

Pupa in a slight, earth-covered cocoon, spun, in captivity, under

moss but on the surface of the soil. Very dark reddish chestnut,

a dorsal stripe and the intersegmental areas of the abdomen darker.

Wing cases tinged with olive. Cremaster a double spine.

Food-plant—Ferns of various species.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Dar-

jeeling Dist.) 17-ix-45, pupated 24-ix-45 and a male emerged 13-x-45.

Risoba basalis Moore.

Penultimate instar—Head yellow green. Body pale green, a

broad white subdorsal stripe, with white speckling below it and a

single white dot on the thoracic and two on the abdominal somites

above. An indistinct pale lateral line with slight white speckling

below. Legs almost colourless. Venter and prolegs paler green.

Final instar—Very similar, except that the subdorsal stripe is

tinged with pink, the whole of the area between being sometimes

suffused with this colour. There is also a pink stripe on the head

in continuation of the subdorsal body stripe. One larva was entirely

suffused with crimson.

Cocoon long and slender, in captivity spun along a stem of the

food-plant. Of brownish silk, into which hairs from the food-plant

are worked. Pupa chestnut brown, the head and pro-thorax and a

dorsal line on the abdomen suffused with purplish. Wing cases

tinged with greenish, abdomen ventrally with yellow. Shape long

and slender, 7th abdominal somite with a transverse, raised,

dentate, dorsal ridge. Proboscis sheath projecting beyond the wing

cases and reaching almost to the end of the abdomen. Cremaster

bluntly triangular.

Food-plant—Melastoma sp. Osbeckia sp.

38 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.

Darjeeling Dist.) 19-ix-45, spun 23-ix-45 and a male emerged 14-x-45.

Most of my larvae spun and then entered a diapause, eventually

dying and drying up.

Carea nitida Hamps.

Head yellowish. Body white, minutely speckled with green so

that the general colour appears to be green. An H-shaped mark

formed of white dots stretching over the dorsum of the 4th to 6th

somites. A sublateral line, whitish on the thoracic somites and

yellowish thereafter. Venter, legs and prolegs yellowish green.

The thoracic somites are swollen up into a large balloon. One

example had the ground colour very pale mauve, the speckling

darker mauve.

Cocoon spun along a twig, of dark red-brown silk. In profile,

the shape roughly triangular, the short side at the front and sur-

mounted by a tuft of silk. A frontal slit for the emergence of the

imago. Empty pupa skin pale brown. The apex of the abdomen

rounded and without any actual cremaster.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.

Darjeeling Dist.) 18-ix-45, spun 21-ix-45 and a female emerged 9-x-45.

Cosmophila fulvida Guen.

Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xli, 80. 1939.

A number of larvae collected in the penultimate instar at Tukdah

(5,000 ft. Darjeeling Dist.) in October 1945, all assumed a dark

olive brown coloration after moulting. The markings and the red

vertex of the head as in the normal form.

Phytometra (Plusia) orichalcea F.

Moore, Lep. Ceyl., iit, 70. 1884-87.

Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, ii, 573. 1894.

Hamps.; Cat. Lep. Phals xii scOualoues

Gardner, Indian Forest Records, vi, 286. 1941.

Head green, the mouthparts and a broad lateral stripe black.

Body bright yellow green, a darker green dorsal stripe, edged with

an irregular yellowish line from the 3rd somite backwards, two dorso-

lateral waved yellowish lines and a lateral yellowish line, edged

above indistinctly with darker green. The area below the lateral

line dotted sparsely with white. 1st somite with a double, 2nd and

3rd with a single, transverse series of eight minute black specks

emitting longish white bristles, 2nd and 3rd somites with an addi-

tional sublateral pair and a speck at the base of each leg. 4th to

toth somites each with an inner anterior and outer posterior sub-

dorsal black speck, three lateral and three ventro-lateral, an addi-

tional speck at the base of each proleg. t1th somite, which is

slightly humped, with two subdorsal, one lateral and three sublateral

specks. 12th somite with two subdorsal and one lateral. Anal flap

with a transverse series of four. Spiracles white ringed with black.

Legs black. Prolegs black, the first two pairs obsolete. One

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 39

example had the specks, except for the lateral series, yellow and the

prolegs green instead of black, and another had the specks on the

12th somite and the ventro-lateral series white.

| Pupa in a cocoon of white silk spun in a leaf. Dull olive black,

the intersegmental areas of the abdomen dull olive green. Antenna

and leg sheaths outlined with olive, the antenna sheath projecting

slightly beyond the wingcases. The cremaster spade-shaped, and

armed with hooked spines, which are attached to the inside of the

cocoon.

Food-plant—Garden Geranium.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Dar-

jeeling Dist.) 22-1x-45, pupated 25-1x-45 and a male emerged 8-x-45.

Moore’s description, which is copied more or less by Hampson,

is as follows :—‘ Larva bluish-green, with a few short dorsal hairs ;

a prominent white lateral line, and slender dorsal lines. Pupa olive-

green beneath, dorsally purplish-brown; stigmata black. Feeds

on Coreopsis. ’

Dichromia quadralis Wik.

Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xlvi, 423. 1946.

Some larvae found at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Darjeeling Dist.) in

November 1945 were suffused with black to such an extent that

they appeared to be blackish larvae with an interrupted yellowish

subdorsal and spiracular stripe, and with the intersegmental areas

yellowish dorsally, particularly between somites 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10,

tr and 12. The head with the lower half suffused with blackish,

the upper half dull olive. Black spots as in the pale form.

GEOMETRIDAE :

Tanaorrhinus vittata Moore.

Pupa in a slight cocoon in a curled leaf. Ground colour ivory

white, the abdomen streaked minutely with the paiest pink, thorax

and abdomen with minute black specks. Spiracles black. Cremaster

bluntly spade-shaped, armed with minute hooked spines on the mar-

gin, which are fixed in the silk of the cocoon.

Food-plant—Probably Quercus sp., as the pupa was found in

an oak leaf.

Described from a pupa found at Tukdah (5,o00 ft. Darjeeling

Dist.) 28-ix-45, from which a female emerged 7-x-45.

Comibaena subhyalina Warr.

Head dull, dark brown, with a subdorsal greyish stripe. Body

dark greyish brown, a darker dorsal and lateral stripe. 4th to 8th

and 11th somite each with a long subdorsal process, to which the

larva attaches pieces of leaf. Venter with a broad greyish central

stripe on the abdominal somites. Legs dark brown. Proleg and

anal claspers greyish brown. Rests in an arched position and

moves in a series of jerks. Not very difficult to detect as many of

the pieces of leaf are usually dead and brown, |

40 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Pupa in.a net-like cocoon covered with the pieces of leaf previously

attached to the larva. Dull, dark nigger brown, minutely speckled

with paler brown. A double, dark brown, dorsal line and a sub-

dorsal series of dark brown spots. Wing cases with the veins

marked with dark brown. A slight tubercle behind the pro-thoracic

spiracle. Cremaster a blunt spike armed with minute hooked spines

at the apex and attached to the silk of the cocoon.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.

Darjeeling Dist.) 28-x-45, pupated 10-xi-45 and a female emerged

24-X1-45.

Calothysanis (Timandra) correspondens Hamps.

Pupa long and slender, the head produced into a longish down-

curved beak with bifid tip. The thorax very slightly keeled, the

wing cases slightly angled. Colour golden brown, suffused with

darker and minutely speckled with black. A white line along the

thoracic keel, a spiracular dark brown stripe. Wing cases suffused

and streaked with darker brown and with a white disco-cellular dot.

Cremaster a blunt point armed with small hooked spines and attached

to the web containing the pupa.

Described from a pupa found at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Darjeeling

Dist.) 22-ix-45, from which a female emerged 25-ix-45,

Anisodes obrinaria Guen.

Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xlii, 756. 1941.

Head rounded, yellowish green. Body bright green. 8th

somite with a blackish-brown, pear-shaped, dorsal mark. 11th

somite with a blackish-brown, triangular, dorsal mark, which ex-

tends to the anal flap. Body sprinkled with minute black specks,

giving rise to single, short, brown bristles. Legs yellowish. Pro-

leg and anal claspers yellowish green.

Pupa suspended by a girdle and tail pad of white silk from the

underside of a leaf. Bright green. The thorax and head frontally

flattened and projecting forward on each side in a sharp point. A

broad stripe from the tip of the point across the front of the thorax

dark brown.- Abdominal somites with a dark red-brown dorsal line,

which expands into a small diamond on the 2nd abdominal somite

and into a round spot on the 5th, the line almost obsolete on the

somites between. In some pupae the dorsal markings are obsolete,

except on the last somite. A black speck on the edge of the wing

case and on the 3rd abdominal somite.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.

Darjeeling Dist.) 21-ix-45, pupated 24-ix-45 and a female emerged

I-X-45.

Cidaria obfuscata Warr.

Head yellowish brown, with short black bristles. Body bright

green, a darker green dorsal stripe and a white lateral line. 8th

somite with a short, longitudinal, black, dorsal bar. Spiracles

black. Legs yellowish brown. Venter and proleg bright green.

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDORTERA 4!

Pupa in a slight cocoon spun in a leaf. Bright green, the dorsum

somewhat bluer and speckled minutely on the abdominal somites

with dark red. Spiracles brown and raised. Cremaster a dark

brown, stout spike, armed with minute hooked spines and fixed in

the silk of the cocoon.

Food-plant—Impatiens spp.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Dar-

jeeling Dist.) 19-ix-45, pupated 23-ix-45 and a male emerged 2-x-45.

Phthonoloba decussata Moore.

Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xlvi, 426. 1946.

The larva varies considerably in colour, matching the leaves on

which it is feeding. A larva found on the young foliage of orange

had the head pale yellowish green with a black line across the vertex

joining the lateral body stripe. Body yellow green, a pinkish lateral

line on the thoracic somites. <A very faint yellowish spiracular line.

Spiracles brown. Venter, legs and proleg yellow green. On rose,

one specimen had the head pale, the body deep crimson. Venter

whitish. Legs pink. Proleg and anal clasper crimson. Another

was green tinged with bronze, with a crimson dorsal and _ lateral

stripe. A third had the head and body green, the venter somewhat

glaucous, with a crimson lateral line edged above with yellow. A

fourth had an indistinct crimson dorsal line, the points of the anal

claspers crimson, and a brown line round the head joining the

yellow-edged crimson lateral line.

Food-plants—In addition to Rose, found on Citrus sp., Apple

and a forest shrub.

Described from full fed larvae found at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Dar-

jeeling Dist.) in September and October 1945.

Garaeus specularis Moore.

Head golden brown, the clypeus blackish, a pale streak on either

side of it terminating in a white spot; the antennae very long and

projecting forwards. Body mottled, dark coffee-brown, with traces

of a blackish dorsal line. 7th somite with a subdorsal, enamel-

white dot anteriorly. 6th somite with a greyish dorsal streak. 2nd

somite with a projecting subdorsal fleshy process, r1th somite with

a double dorsal wart. Legs purplish brown. Venter, proleg and

anal claspers mottled, dark coffee-brown.

Pupa, in captivity, under a leaf spun to the bottom of the box.

Olive brown, the thorax, wing cases, leg and antenna sheaths olive.

Cremaster a blunt triangle covered with hooked spines, the somite

before with a transverse dentate dorsal ridge.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Dar-

jeeling Dist.) 26-ix-45, spun 4-x-45 and a female emerged 21-x-45.

Leptomiza calcearia Wk.

Head pale buff, the upper half blackish. Body olive brown,

under a lens speckled with darker. 5th somite with a sublateral,

downward-pointing, fleshy, thorn-like, reddish brown process. 6th,

42 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

7th and 8th somites with similar lateral but upward-pointing pro-

cesses. Legs yellowish. Venter, proleg and anal claspers olive

brown. Shape very long and slender, resting position usually

hanging, straight, the head and first somite thrown back, the 2nd

pair of legs extended. When small very much resembles a dead,

broken leaf-stalk of the food-plant.

Pupa in a spun together leaf. Deep chestnut, the head, thorax

and wing cases dark olive. Very shiny. Cremaster a pair of

hooked spines attached to the silk lining of the leaf.

Food-plant—Rubus sp.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.

Darjeeling Dist.) 6-xi-45, pupated r1-xi-45 and a female emerged

22-x1-45.

Fascellina plagiata Wk.

Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xlvi, 429. 1946.

Another larva was much duller in colour. Head blackish, out-

lined with grey. Body grey, speckled minutely with darker.

Thoracic somites with a broad, dark grey, dorsal stripe, continued

on the 4th somite as a broad, coffee-brown stripe, edged indistinctly

with lavender. The dorsum of the 5th and 6th somites slightly

suffused with lavender. 8th somite with a yellow, heart-shaped,

dorsal mark. A dorsal stripe from the 8th somite to the anal flap,

brown on either side of the yellow mark, then purple grey, with a

blackish subdorsal mark in it on the 9th somite, 11th somite slightly

humped, the stripe on the hump bright golden brown, and then

dark nigger brown to the apex of the anal flap. The lateral area

from the 8th somite backwards and a wedge-shaped mark running

forward to the 7th somite suffused with lavender. Venter grey

with a blackish median line, this is divided from the 7th somite to

the proleg, enclosing a white streak with a central yellow line. 5th

somite with the toothed dorsal process ending in a bifid fawn point,

the dorsal hump on the 6th somite also ending in a bifid buff point.

The larva rested with the body hanging almost vertically from the

proleg and anal claspers, the head thrown back and the third pair

of legs extended, the irregular outline giving it the appearance of a

twisted dead leaf.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Dar-

jeeling Dist.) 30-ix-45.

Luxiaria obliquata Moore.

Head rounded, olive green minutely speckled with darker. Body

darker olive green minutely streaked and speckled with reddish,

but with no other distinguishing markings. Venter rather greener.

Legs, proleg and anal claspers olive green. Spiracles brown ringed

with black.

Pupa subterranean. Very dark purple brown, the wing cases

slightly tinged with olive, the intersegmental areas paler. Shape

slender. Cremaster a stout point with a bunch ot hooked spines

at the tip.

Food-plant—Melastoma normale Don.

A BIRD SANCTUARY IN CEYLON 43

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.

Darjeeling Dist.) 22-x-45, buried itself 24-x-45 and a female emerged

[3-X1-45.

Thinopteryx crocoptera Koll.

Head pale buff, slightly indented above. Body rich reddish

brown, a small quadrate dorsal spot on the 4th somite, 5th to t1oth

somites each with two pairs of subdorsal black specks. 5th somite

with a slight white subdorsal frosting anteriorly. A raised whitish-

buff line from the base of the proleg to the 11th somite, where it

joins a similar transverse line. Legs pale buff. Venter pale buff

to the base of the third pair of legs, greyish on 4th and 5th somites

and greenish buff from 6th somite to the proleg. Proleg, anal

claspers and anal flap pale buff. Shape short and stout, the third

somite swollen somewhat laterally. Some larvae are suffused with.

greenish.

Pupa in a spun together leaf. Dark purple brown, the wing

cases very dark green. Shape long, the wing cases encroaching

on the dorsum so that only a comparatively narrow strip of the

abdomen is visible between them. The intersegmental area between

the 4th and 5th abdominal somites very broad. Cremaster stoutly

triangular, ending in two out-curved spines with a number of shorter

hooked spines on either side.

Food-plant—Vine, Virginia Creeper.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah {5,000 ft.

Darjeeling Dist.) 19-ix-45, pupated 3-x-45 and a male emerged

17-X-45.

(To be continued),

PHP eis Eis:

A BIRD SANCTUARY IN CEYLON

WAVE, | NAW ON PASO bier exS)

(With 6 plates)

Away down in the jungles of the North Central Province of

Ceylon, there lies a beautiful forest-girt irrigation reservoir, built

hundreds of years ago by the ancient Sinhalese to provide water

for their paddy-fields. This reservoir, or ‘tank’ as it is invariably

called in Ceylon, has now been proclaimed a Bird Sanctuary, for

the better protection of the beneficial birds of the district. Quite

rightly so, for it is an ideal home for all those species that find

congenial haunts in the vicinity of fresh-water lakes and lagoons,

surrounded by forest and swamp—the graceful egrets, the dignified

storks, the gaunt herons, the noisy plover, the busy sandpipers

and multitudes of other species.

A4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

This lovely spot—beautiful both by daylight and by moonlight

and most beautiful of all on a peaceful evening as the sun sinks

behind a jungle-covered ridge of low hills to the west, its dying

rays piercing the lingering clouds and lighting up, with a warm

glow, the still, placid waters—has always held for me a deep at-

traction. It has become a favourite camping ground of mine for,

in addition to the swamp at the far end where the marshy stream

brings in the waters of the north-east monsoon rains and its forest-

girt shores that always give shelter to much interesting Wild Life,

there is a most attractive islet rising above the surface, over

towards the western shore.

Just a small mound of shingle, sand and boulders, little more

than a hundred and fifty yards across, this islet is covered with

grass and scanty scrub, when the water is low, and has a shallow,

sloping, sandy beach, beloved of crocodiles and wading birds.

When flood waters in the tank are spilling over, however, it

sinks beneath the surface—to rise again, washed and _ fertilised,

ready for the springing up of fresh vegetation, as soon as the level

once again recedes, through evaporation and the draining off of the

life-giving water to irrigate the villagers’ paddy-fields. It then

becomes a veritable sanctuary for the swarming bird-life, the cro-

codiles and the terrapins; sometimes its shores are black with

cormorants, shags and darters, with crocodiles and _ terrapins

scattered about, like logs and stones, close—but not too close—to

them and egrets, herons, open-billed and white-necked storks and

many lesser species, wading in the shallows nearby. As the water

recedes still further and the green herbage begins to scorch and

wither in the fierce heat of the June sun, the islet welcomes back

its ‘Summer Boarders’. They arrive one after the other, as soon

as a bare acre or so of breeding space is available. Immediately

upon arrival, the various species set about their domestic duties.

Time is short, for they must hatch out their eggs and launch their

young into the avian world before the tank dries up so drastically

that the islet becomes once more wedded to the mainland and the

water ceases to form a barrier to the inroads of jackals and

jungle cats that prowl throughout the night, seeking the unwary

birds and their young.

Generally, the first to arrive are the stilts—the local race of the

Black-winged Stilt (Himantopus h. ceylonensis)—noisy, rather

quaint birds, with their over-long, bright pink legs and their shrill

aggravating alarm cries, wherewith they awake the neighbourhood

whenever they find anything that invites their curiosity or suspicion.

Domestic duties permitting, they spend their days wading in the

shallows, often up to the full length of their long, spindly leg's, seek-

ing minute insects and crustaceans. Nine, possibly ten pairs nested

on the islet in June 1939—not laying in a colony, but scattering

their meagre nests (of pebbles and water-weeds, straw and shells)

amongst the sparse, sun-scorched herbage and rocks, never more

than forty feet or so from the water’s edge. Amusing birds to watch,

they, are not over-suspicious of a hide; unless they glimpse the

unwinking eye of thé camera-lens gazing steadfastly upon them,

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White-shafted Little Terns on eggs all facing the prevailing

wind.

Phillips

A BIRD SANCTUARY IN CEYLON 48

they settle down quickly upon their eggs, to protect them from

marauders and the baking rays of the sun. As they double up

their long legs and settle down with their knee-joints projecting out

behind them, they remind one of miniature camels, doubling up to

rest! <A large colony of White-shafted Little Terns (Sterna albi-

frons sinensis) sometimes joins the summer boarders on the islet;

they are erratic however and do not always put in an appearance.

Presumably, they come here only when conditions in their regular

nesting haunts, on neighbouring tanks, are unfavourable. They

are sociable but extremely noisy birds; they do not object to other

species nesting ciose to them, nor to their own species laying close

alongside, so we find many eggs (in pairs or more rarely in threes)

in bare scrapes in the sand or gravel of our little islet-—so many

indeed that care must be exercised to avoid crushing them under-

foot. It is a pity that the Little Terns—in fact almost ail terns—

have such unpleasantly shrill, raucous voices. They are most grace-

ful and attractive birds to watch, wheeling and swooping in the air,

turning somersaults and diving into the water after wee smail fish

or sitting quietly brooding their eggs—but their shrill screams, when

approached, add nothing to their attractions.

Amongst the terns, one or two plovers often have their nests—

the Red-wattled Lapwing (Lobivanellus indicus indicus), the Ceylon

Kentish Plover (Leucopolius alexandrinus leggei) or Jerdon’s Little

Ringed-Plover (Charadrius dubius jerdon), with its large yellow-

ringed eyes. Not always do these plovers seek the safety of the

islet sanctuary, for I have frequently found them nesting on a little

gravel spit on the neighbouring shore—a little spit formed by the

jutting out of a low ridge of rocks—but there is generally a nest

or two on the islet. The Little Terns, like the majority of birds that

nest in colonies, are easy to photograph from a hide, pitched near-

by their nests. As soon as we are comfortably tucked in and our

assistant has moved off in the canoe, or has waded to the shore,

back come the terns to their nests, quickly settling themselves down,

all facing the prevailing wind, to resume the incubation of their

treasures. They take little notice of the hide or the release of the

shutter, and ignore any slight movement or noise. Having seen

a man leave in the canoe, it apparently never occurs to them that

another human being could possibly have remained behind in con-

cealment !

But of all the summer boarders of the islet, to me at least, the

most interesting are the Great Stone-Plovers (EKsacus recurvirostris),

a pair of which nest annually on the islet. There is just one pair—

never more—as these fine birds appear to have each its own territory

for breeding purposes and to be impatient of the close approach of

others of their own species on their secluded nesting haunts.

It was on this islet that first I made the close acquaintance of

this bird and, although I have met with many others since, both

along remote sea-beaches and on some of our larger, inland irriga-

tion tanks, it is always with this islet that I associate these birds.

Here it was that I obtained my best photographs and here it is

46 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

that I always look forward to renewing my acquaintance with one

of our finest-waders.

In my apprentice days, I was thrilled, one memorable week-end,

to find a lovely pair of eggs, laid in a shallow depression amongst

the sun-scorched vegetation, one day in August. From the shore

I had seen the birds and had deemed it worthwhile to wade across,

scaring the crocodiles from our path by beating the water witn

sticks as we approached. ‘The stone plovers had cried their protests

as we landed and had departed to the further shore, leaving us to

search almost the whole of the isiet before we discovered the eggs.

Being without great knowledge of the art of bird photography,

1 hastily erected my hide, some eight feet away, roughly camou-

flaged it with dead grass-staiks and scrubby brushwood, entered

and focussed up the camera, was tucked in and sent my assistant

wading back to the shore—there to wait in the jungle until sum-

moned by my whistle to return to let me out.

Within half an hour, the stone plovers returned and one

approached the nest—but it was terribly suspicious and suddenly

catching sight of the eye of the lens, peering from the face of the

sacking-hide, it fled precipitately, much to my disappointment.

Another very cautious approach and a similar headlong retreat—

then a black crow (Corvus macrorhynchus culminatus), that bane of

all bird-photographers, turned up and took part in ihe proceedings.

Ilying ciose overhead, he had spied the uncovered eggs and alighted

to make a meal of them—immediately the stone plovers sailed into

the attack, forgetting their nervousness of the hide. Now an avian-

battle raged above my head, the crow attempting to reach the

eggs and the stone plovers trying to drive him from the vicinity.

After nearly fifteen minutes of continuous skirmishing, the crow

gave up and, with many caws of disgust, flapped off across the

tank. The stone plover once again approacned and this time

reached her eggs. but it was quite obvious that she was still very

ill at ease, so, after making two exposures, I called it a day, sum-

moned my assistant and waded back to the shore.

ihe next morning the stone plovers were not nearly so nervous

and I found it easier to make a series Oi exposures—some fairly

good but mostly of not much use owing to overeagerness. Later

1 was to find that the Great Stone Plover is one of the more difficult

ground-nesting birds of which to make satisfactory pictures—it

always seems nervous and on the alert.

On subsequent visits to the islet, I found the hatchlings; perky

stone-grey little chicks, with dark interrupted markings and also

the large young, still unable to fly. Run, they could—with great

speed—but there was no space for racing on the tiny islet so they

were forced to squat, with necks outstretched along the ground,

and trust to their obliterative colouring to escape detection—which

they probably would have done except in a confined space like

our islet.

These attractive stone plovers are still plentiful in our wildest

coastal tracts and there are generally several pairs around the shores

of our larger tanks. During the nesting season, when the water

level is low, stretches of shallow beaches, gravel banks and rocky

“DUNVGNOUL JOAO[G pesuly opi Wy

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Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate TY

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Eees of Great Stone- Plover.

JouRN. BomBay Nat. Hist, Soc. Plate V

Great Stone-Plover—a pair on

Sanctuary islet.

Photos by ; W. W. A. Phillips

Stone-Plover incubating eggs on

Sanctuary islet.

Journ. BomsBay Nar. Hisr. Soc. | Plate VI

Photos by W. W. A: Phillips

Young Great Stone-Plovers.

A BIRD SANCTUARY IN CEYLON 47

islets lie exposed; these form an irresistible attraction. They lay

from January to August, but chiefly during June and July. Their

eggs, either two or one in number, are placed in a variety of situa-

tions; I have found them laid on the living rock, on islets in large

tanks, in shallow scrapes on shingle banks and sand dunes, among'st

the debris above the mgh-tide mark on raised sandy beaches and

in slight depressions in the hard sun-baked mud on the shores of

lagoons. Always the eggs are out in the open with no manner of

shade to shelter the sitting bird from the fierce rays of the mid-

summer sun—but generally there is some dry vegetation, debris,

stones, lumps of dry mud or desiccated cow-dung close by, to break

up the surroundings and save the eggs from becoming too conspicuous

on the bare, flat ground. Although the egg’s are as large as a heron’s,

they are most dithcult to find; they nave a deep stone ground-

colour with numerous blotches ‘and spots, streaks and _ scribbling

of dark umber brown and black. And very necessary it is that

their concealing colours should be so adequate, for the stone plover,

being a large and rather conspicuous bird, cannot continue to

cover them when danger threatens. On the slightest indication

of the approach of a disturbing element the incubating bird leaves

the nest and takes up an innocent and disinterested-looking attitude

some distance away, leaving the eggs to their fate and trusting to

their concealing colours to escape detection. In similar circum-

stances, the young are left to their own devices, while the parents

fly off with plaintive cries. But as they too are so concealing coloured,

the parents usually have little need to worry; it is most difficult

to find them even if their presence in the immediate vicinity is

known.

Great Stone Plovers. are, of course, chiefly nocturnal in their

habits, as may be deduced from their very large eyes. They spend

much of the day sleeping and resting on some remote sand-bank, °

islet or dune; but as evening closes in they become active and start

flighting to their feeding grounds. Then it is that their wild,

wailing cries—kree-kree-kree kre-kre-kve-kre-kre—echo through the

gloom, thrilling the listener and adding charm and fascination to

the remote sea beaches and secluded wiids—for are they not the

embodied spirits of these wild and desolate wastes?

SOME NEW SPECIES OF SOUTH INDIAN PLANTS

K. CHERIAN JACOB, L.Ag., F.L.S.

Agricultural Research Institute, Coimbatore

(With 3 plates)

Dimeria kanijirapallilana K. C. Jacob, sp. nov. Gramineae.

Speciei Dimeria ornithopoda Trin., similis est, sed differt ab hac specie spicis

divaricatis, quae sunt 2 tantum. Folia sine capillis, sed tantum aliquantulum

ciliata bulbosis capillis.

Tenera, annua graminis herba, caespitosa, 20 ad 30 cm. alta. Culmi erecti,

aliquando cum ramis e basi surgentibus; nodi fusci, cum parvis capillis. Folia

erecta, linearia, subtiliter acuminata, vagina inclusa 6 ad 10 cm. longa, 2 ad

3 mm. lata, cum pancis ciliis e bulbosa basi surgentibus ; vagina glabra; margines’

vaginae hyalini in ligulam 1 mm. longam exeuntes. Racemi (spicae) 2, divari-

cati, 4 ad 7 cm. longi, rarissime solitares, praesertim ii qui sub fine anni temporis

producuntur; rachis dorso plana et cum angustis marginibus, lateris ventralis

medio densata, nodis spicularum exceptis marginata, 1 mm. lata, glabra, margine

pubescens. Spiculae sessiles, 2 mm. longae exclusa arista quae est 1 cm. longa;

callus villosus cum parvis lutescentibus capillis. Glumae 2; ima gluma tenera,

linearis, acuta 3 mm. longa; superior gluma longior, 3 ad 5 mm. longa cum

pancis longis capillis carinae affixis. Lemmata 2; imum lemma _ tenerrimum,

1.5 mm. longum, hyalinum; superius lemma 2.5 mm. longum, hyalinum, bifidum,

sinu aristatum; arista 1 cm. longa, columna 3 mm. longa, brunnea, parte

superiori brunnea, capillaris. Stamina 2 filamentis parvissimis; antherae 1 mm.

longae. Granum lineare.

Comes near to Dimeria ornithopoda Trin. but differs from it, in

the divaricate spikes which are only 2. Leaves not hairy but are

only sparsely ciliate with bulbous based hairs. |

Slender tufted annual grass, 20-30 cm. high. Culms erect,

occasionally branched from near the base; nodes dark with few long

hairs. Leaves erect, linear, finely acuminate, 6-10 cm. long includ-

ing the sheath, 2-3 mm. broad, sparsely ciliate with bulbous based

hairs; sheath glabrous; margins of the sheath hyaline which end

in a ligule of 1 mm. long. Racemes (spikes) 2, divaricate, very

rarely solitary especially the ones produced at the end of the season,

4-7 cm. long; rhachis flat on dorsal side with narrow margins;

ventral side thickened towards the middle and margined except at

the joints of the spikelets, 1 mm. broad, glabrous, pubescent on the

margins. Spikelets sessile 2 mm. long excluding the 1 cm. long

awn; callus villous with short yellowish hairs. Glumes 2, lower,

slender, linear, acute, 3 mm. long, upper longer than the lower,

3-5 mm. long with a few long hairs on the keel. Lemmas 2, the

lower very slender, 1.5 mm. long, hyaline; the upper 2.5 mm. long,

hyaline, 2-fid, awned at the sinus; awn 1 cm. long, column 3 mm.

‘ourn., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Prate I.

Fate §

4 I { Dimeria ornithopoda Trin.

Dimeria kanjirapallilana K.C. Jacob, sp. nov.

A new species of South Indian plant. Crmlidcou.

wie.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Lan

Dimeria kurumthotticalana K.C. Jacob, sp.nov.

A new species of South Indian plant.

Prare If.

C2 acob

SOME NEW SPECIES OF SOUTH INDIAN PLANTS 49

jong, brown, the upper part brown, capillary. Stamens 2; filaments

very short; anthers 1 mm, long. Grain linear.

Chief differences are given hereunder in tabular form.

Dimeria kanjirapallilana K. C. Jacob Dimeria ornithopoda Trin

1. Rhachis { mm. broad, 1. Rhachis 3 mm. broad.

2. Rhachis zigzag. 2. Rhachis nearly straight.

3. Spikelets equidistant from one 3. Spikelets not equidistant.

another. 4. Margins of rhachis slightly pubes-

4. Margins of rhachis beset with cent.

bulbous-based short bristles. 5. Spikelets nearly 3 mm. long.

5. Spikelets nearly 4 mm. long.

Type locality:—South India, Travancore, Peermade; elevation

3,200 ft.

Type in Madras Herbarium, Coimbatore. Madras Herbarium

No. 86320.

Collected by Ik. Cherian Jacob in December 1941.

Dimeria kurumthotticalana K. C. Jacob, sp. nov. Gramineae

Speciei Dimeria Lawsoni C. E. C. Fisher, assimilatur, sed differt ab hac

specie in eo quod ala summa tertia parte carinae glumae_ superioris continetur.

Graminis herba, tenera annua caespitosa, 20 ad 35 mm. alta. Culmi erecti,

sine ramis; nodi fusci, longis capillis cooperti. Folia plerumque e basi surgentia

anguste linearia, 3 mm. lata, acuminata, vagina inclusa 7 ad 10 cm. longa,

hirsuta, cum bulbosis capillis; vagina glabra; ligula 1 mm. longa, aculeata,

Spica solitaris, 3 ad 4.5 cm. longa, primum erecta deinde basi incurvata; rachis

plana, 1 mm. lata, glabra, margine ciliata. Spiculae 5 mm. longae, sessiles ;

callus brevis, barbatus. Glumae 2, coriaceae, divaricatae in flore, inferior gluma

4 mm. longa, acuminata, superior gluma 5 mm. longa, carinata, margines

ciliati, hyalini; carina alata in summa tertia parte, cum albis longisque capillis

sub ala. Lemmata 2, glumis parvioria, hyalina, imum lemma ciliatum, superius

bifidum, cum arista 1 mm. longa, sub medio curvatum ad imam partem brunneo

colore, ad superiorem partem stramineo colore. Stamina 2; styli 2, singulares.

Granum lineare, aliquantulum compressum.

Comes near to Dimeria Lawsoni C. E. C. Fisher but differs from

it, in having the wing confined to a third of the keel of the upper

glume towards the top.

Slender tufted annual grass, 20-35 cm. high. Culms erect, not

branched; nodes dark and beset with long white hairs. Leaves

mostly basal, narrowly linear, acuminate, 7-10 cm. long inclusive

of sheath and 3 mm. broad, hirsute with bulbous based _ hairs;

sheaths giabrous; ligule 1 mm. long, pointed. Jtaceme (spike)

solitary, 3-4.5 cm. long, at first erect, then bent inwards at the

base; rhachis flat, 1 mm. broad, glabrous, ciliate on the margins.

Spikelets 5 mm. long, sessile; callus short, bearded. Glumes 2,

coriaceous, divaricate in flower, the lower 4 mm. long, acuminate,

the upper 5 mm. long, keeled; margins hyaline and ciliate, the keel

winged to a third of its length towards the apex with long white

hairs below the wing. Lemmas 2, shorter than the glumes, hyaline;

the lower ciliate; the upper bifid with an awn 1 cm. long, bent below

50 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

the middle, bottom portion brown and the top straw coloured.

Stamens 2; styles; 2, free. Grain linear, slightly compressed.

Chief differences are given hereunder in tabular form.

Dimeria kurumthotticalana— Dimeria Lawsoni C. Fisch.—

1. Leaves 7-10 cm. long. 1. Leaves (2:5—6.2 cm.) long.

2. Spike 3-4.5 cm. long. 2. Spike 1.7—3.2 cm. long.

3. Keel of upper glume winged to a 3. Keel of upper glume narrowly

third towards apex. winged throughout.

4. Keel of upper glume ciliate only 4. Keel of upper glume ciliate through-

below the wings. out.

Type locality :—South India, Travancore, Peermade; elevation

25200) tt

Type in Madras Herbarium, Coimbatore. Madras Herbarium

No. 86320 A.

Collected by K. Cherian Jacob in December 1941.

Sida Beddomei K. C. Jacob, sp. nov. Malvaceae—Malveae.

Ad speciem Sida veronicaefolia (Lam.) (Sida humilis Willd.) proxime accedit,

sed differt ab hac specie corolla calyceque amplo, calcycis lobis amplis et

acuminatis, pedicellis sub calyce articulafis et muticosis planisque processibus

carpellorum. Herba perennis; rami teneri 40 ad ‘50 cm. longi, prostrati vel

terram verrentes, nodis aliquando radicantes, aliquantulum capillosi. Folia:

lamina 4 ad 5 cm. longa, cordata, ovata, acuminata, crenato-serrata, paucos

fercus capillos cum stellatis capillis ad mixtos; petiolus 3 ad 4.5 cm. longus cum

stellatis capillis uni lateri insertis. Flores axillares, solitares vel rami axillares

ad pedunculos duos pedicellos ferentes redacti; pedunculus 1 cm. longus; pedicelli

3 ad 4.5 cm. longi, teneri, articulati; articulatio 4 ad g mm. sub calyce. Calyx

8 ad g mm. longus, pubescens stellatis capillis admixtis; calycis lobi 6 ad 7 mm.

longi, cum 3 vel 5 venis, acuminati. Corolla flava, tam longa quam calyx.

Carpella 5 cum planis, muticosis processibus, ad apices aliquantum pubescentia.

Semina nigro-fusca, glabra.

Sida Beddomei K. C. Jacob, sp.nov. Malvaceae—Malveae is

allied to Sida veronicaefolia Lam. (Sida humilis Willd.) and differs

from it in its large calyx and corolla, large and acuminate calyx

lobes, pedicels jointed near the flower and carpels with flat muticous

processes.

A perennial herb; branches slender, 40-50 cm. long, prostrate

or trailing, sometimes rooting at the nodes, sparsely hairy. Leaves

(lamina) 4-5 cm. long, cordate, ovate, acuminate, crenate-serrate,

sparsely hairy mixed with stellate hairs; petiole 3-4.5 cm. long

with stellate hairs on one side. Inflorescence axillary, solitary, or

the axillary branches reduced to peduncles bearing two pedicels,

peduncle 1 cm. long; pedicels 3-4.5 cm. long, slender, jointed,

joints 4-9 mm. near the flowers. Calyx 8-9 mm. long, pubescent

mixed with stellate hairs, calyx lobe 6-7 mm. long, 3-5 veined and

acuminate. Corolla yellow, as long as the calyx. Carpels 5 with

flat muticous processes, sparsely pubescent towards the apex.

Seeds dark brown, glabrous.

Type.—Madras Herbarium, Coimbatore, No. 3611

Type locality.—Kannoth, Malabar District

Collector of the Type.—K. Cherian Jacob

Distribution.—-Coorg and South Kanara

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SOME NEW SPECIES OF SOUTH INDIAN PLANTS 51

Chief differences are given hereunder in tabular form :—

Sida veronicaefolia Lam.— Sida Beddomeit K. C. Jacob sp. nov.—

1. The whole plant pubescent. Plant very sparsely pubescent, leaves

2. Leaves acute. acuminate.

3. The pedicels jointed near the middle. Pedicels jointed near the flower.

4. Calyx 3-4 mm. long. Calyx 8-9 mm. long.

5. Calyx lobe is 3 as long as the tube. Calyx lobe is 2-23} times longer than

6. Carpels with unequally two-lipped the tube.

beaks. Carpels with flat muticous processes.

The specific name is after Col. R. H. Beddome, F.L.s., late

Chief Conservator of Forests, Madras, who collected a specimen of

this plant in 1873 and wrongly identified it as Laguna lobata—

Hibiscus solandra L’Herit. which is in the Madras Herbarium,

Coimbatore. The basal leaves and the flowers have some resem-

blance to those of this new plant.

Eragrostis umnioloides Nees. var. tremula K. C. Jacob var.

nov.—Gvraminedae.

Nova haec varietas differt ac Eragrostis unioloides, Nees. Sequentibus signis.

Panicula effusa; ramis paniculae longis, teneris, saepeque nutantibus; spiculis

oblongis, angustis, saepeque 40-70 floratis; granis ellypticis, granis typi multo

parvioribus.

Eragrostis unioloides Nees. var. tremula K. C. Jacob—

Gramineae. This new variety differs from the species in the follow-

ing characters:—-The panicle effuse; branches of panicle long,

slender and often nodding. Spikelets oblong, narrow and often

40-70 flowered. Grain ellipsoid and much smaller than that of the

species.

Type locaitty :—South India, Travancore, Tiruvalla; elevation

about roo ft.

Collected by K. Cherian Jacob in November 1941.

Type in Madras Herbarium, Coimbatore. Madras Herbarium

No. 86288.

My thanks are due to Father A. Rapinat, -s.J., Professor of

Botany, St. Joseph’s College, Trichinopoly, for kindly rendering

the English description into Latin, and to Sri. S. N. Chandrasekara

Iyer, m.A., Lecturer in Botany and Curator of the Madras Her-

barium, Coimbatore, for affording facilities in the preparation of this

article.

NOTES ON A FLYING SQUIRREL (PETAURISTA Sp.)

F.. ©... MINETT, M.R.C.V-S.

Indian. Veterinary .Research Institute,

Mukteswar.

(With a_ plate)

This article gives an account of a flying squirrel which lived in

my bungalow as a pet for almost two years, giving exceptional

epportunities for observing its habits and external characters. The

specimen was taken at Mukteswar in the Kumaon hills (7,500 feet)

in July 1944. It was a male and evidently young, perhaps three

months, and weighed 4oo gm. Just before being received as a pet,

it had served as an experimental animal in connection with research

on foot-and-mouth disease to the virus of which it was found to be

insusceptible.

As is well known, in flying squirrels the skin along the sides of

the body is extended to form a flying membrane or ‘parachute’

when the fore and hind limbs are stretched out in the act of spring-

ing from tree to tree. The animals are strictly arboreal, living in

holes in trees, and are nocturnal in habits, sleeping during the day

and feeding at night on fruit, green shoots, etc.

Classification.—Descriptions of certain species of flying squirrel

are given in the works of Sterndale (1884) and Blanford (1888) and

in the journals of the Asiatic Society of Bengal and of the Bombay

Natural History Society. The genus Petaurista (Family: Sciuridae)

is placed by Ellerman (1940) in the ‘Pteromys Group’. In some

older classifications the genus Petaurista was called Pteromys, but

the genus Pteromys is now restricted by Ellerman to flying squirrels

found in the Palaearctic region, whereas Petaurista is also distri-

buted over the Indo-Malayan region. My specimen certainly be-

longs to Ellerman’s ‘albiventer Section’. Wroughton (1919), in

the Society’s Indian Mammal Survey, gives a key to the Indo-

Malayan species of Petaurista. From this it appears that my

specimen is P. caniceps Gray, a form closely resembling P. albiven-

tery Gray. According to Wroughton, P. caniceps has been recorded

from Darjeeling, Sikkim and Nepal, and P. albiventer from Nepal,

Sikkim and Kumaon. It is possible therefore that this is the first

record of the caniceps species from the Kumaon.

External characters.—The animal showed good growth of body

and fur and by February 1945 the greatest weight was recorded,

viz., 1193 gm. {24 lIbs.). Body length when adult was 76 cm.

from nose to tip of tail, length of tail 38 cm., full expanse of body

and parachute about 35 cm. (figs. 1 & 2). The parachute is extend-

ed anteriorly as a membrane running from the side of the neck to

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Neen eee aaa ea ccna anaacacnemnt tc GSAAANA GROANS

SERRA SORA Sars ae OSS Mata SS SSAA

Fig. 1. Petaurista canciceps Gray.

Fig. 2. Ventral surface of body and parachute.

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NOTES ON A FLYING SQUIRREL (PETAURISTA; 53

the fore limb, and posteriorly from about the ankle to the second

or third inch of the tail. The fur of the back and sides of the body

is paler than that of the upper surface of the parachute, which is

a uniform dark chestnut, the pallor of the dorsal fur being due

to grizzling with parti-coloured hairs containing white near the

tips. The ventral surface of the parachute is fulvous, tinged with

white, and its outer margin grey. The tail is cylindrical, blackish-

chestnut and the last inch of it black. In the normal sitting posture

the tail is carried squirrel fashion, i.e., upwards over the back with

the extremity turned downwards. The outer fur of the limbs ts

chestnut and the feet blackish.

The head is dorsally flattened, with the fur over the cranial

region concolourous with that of the back. The short fur over

the back of the ears is chestnut and that of the cheeks grey,—these,

according to Wroughton, are two important specific characters.

The aural pinnae are short, erect and rounded and the opening set

in a forward and outward direction. The eyes are large, prominent

and staring, and surrounded by a black ring (fig. 1). The snout

is bare, blunt and flesh-coloured, and adapted for removing obstruc-

tions, as when the animal prepares a ‘nest’ for itself in a tree. The

mouth is set ventrally, and the upper lip has a median cleft, partly

exposing the two upper incisors which are brown and have a fine

cutting edge. There is a black band over the nose and a circular

black spot beneath the chin. Whiskers are black. The sides of the

neck are fulvous, throat and fore part of breast white, passing to

fulvous over the belly ; grey over scrotum and around anus.

The posterior surface of the metatarsus consists on its inner

part of black hairless pad skin, about 4x2 cm.; there is a similar

hairless pad area below the carpus and well behind the digits. When

the animal rests on all four feet, its forward weight is borne on

the carpal pads and not on the claws. Below the carpus on the

inner side is a pad serving as a thumb, by means of which very

small objects can be securely held, when the digits are brought

into the flexed position. The fore limb carries the usual four digits

and the hind limb five. The laterally flattened claws are very

sharp and downward curved. Those on the fore limb are long

and adapted for clinging, so that there is no danger of the animal

falling when passing from branch to branch. Extending

backwards from the ulnar side of the carpus to the elbow is the

usual cartilaginous spur which by projecting outwards during

‘flight’ helps to keep the skin flaps rigid. This spur is 9 cm.

long, tapering to a fine point posteriorly. To hold this cartilage

in a fixed position during gliding, there is a mechanism which

appears to depend on combined muscular and ligamentous action.

The fore limbs are set wide apart and Se bent so as to facilitate

climbing the trunks of trees.

“Mb testes when fully developed were ovoid and about 3X1°5 cm.

and had descended into a very pendulous scrotum at ten months

of age.

Behaviour.—The squirrel was given full liberty within closed

rooms. Favourite spots for sleeping were a recess above a mantel-

piece or the top shelf in the corner of a dark cupboard. In these

54 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

places he was content to stay for hours curled up on his side with

tail bound around neck and face. If awakened, he usually indulged

in a mighty stretching of the limbs and yawning. From very early

life he showed great inclination to climb, for instance having installed

himself on a certain pole or picture rail he was often on the look-out

for a chance to reach a higher level. He was much more adept at

climbing than at descending, except by the usual gliding method.

At this young age too diving to the ground from heights of 1o feet

Or sO was a frequent performance and, although landing with

some force, he never injured himself. Once the faculty of steering

to avoid an obstacle in its path (ceiling fan) was noted. Another

‘favourite pastime was leaping from the ground on to the bodies

of people moving about the room, climbing to the shoulders or

even to the top of the head, springing after a while on to some

convenient raised object, such as a mantelpiece, and then repeating

the performance again and again.

Towards midnight he usually became very active, a favourite occu-

pation being a to-and-fro excursion along some narrow ledge with

repeated upward stretching as if seeking a higher level. This exer-

cise was carried on at frequent intervals throughout the night and

during this time any remains of the day’s food were invariably

consumed. Periodically, the animal groomed himself with his

tongue, after the manner of a cat, and washed his face by sneezing

on to the hands and then rubbing them over the face. It was curious

to observe the way in which the animal by a rapid movement of

one fore limb brought the cartilaginous spur and attached membrane

into a forward projecting position, where it was held by the other

hand, for the purpose of cleaning it. The movement consisted of

a rotation of the wrist so that the palm of the hand faced upwards,

the hand at the same time being fully flexed on the wrist.

Sometimes, during the night he would utter a series of calls,

obviously sexual in nature. These consisted of rather high-pitched

expiratory monotones, of several seconds’ duration, and quickly

repeated up to twenty times or more. A similar note, however,

was occasionally uttered through fright. At Mukteswar in July

squirrels have been heard giving these calls at night. A most

peculiar but less frequent call was a muffled whirring sound, some-

what like that of a clockwork spring when it is allowed to run down.

When fully adult, he became extremely tame, though was always

somewhat timid. When taking food, the squirrel frequently stopped

with a listening attitude, exhibiting a high sensitivity to sound. As

to sight, little can be said, except that there was an intolerance of

bright sunlight. If placed on the lawn during the daytime, he would

at once race for the house, quickly mount the stairs and take refuge

in his favourite corner.

On a number of occasions at night the squirrel escaped from the

bungalow to nearby trees where sometime was spent in leaping from

branch to branch and gliding from tree to tree. After dark, the

desire to escape was sometimes particularly intense—possibly because

the subject was a male; often after being free for three or four days,

he had to be rescued from some hole in a tree in or near the com-

pound. On four or five occasions he escaped by way of the chimney.

NOTES ON A FLYING SQUIRREL (PETAURISTA) 55

it is noteworthy that once he returned to the bungalow of his own

accord at daybreak and that during the period of two years he never

travelled far from the compound. After these escapes he was always

very thirsty and ravenous for food.

On the ground over short distances, the squirrel could move

with considerable speed, progressing by a series of jumps, with hind

legs widely abducted. Donald (1917) gives a popular account of a

female Petaurista kept as a pet from a few days old to adult life.

He refers to the mode of progression on the ground as a ‘lumbering

gallop with all four feet in the air at the same time and with tail

held straight in the air’. If suddenly alarmed, the squirrel was

capable of extremely rapid movement.

From early days the squirrel grew to be on the best terms with

my dachshunds. When it was young, it would go for short walks

with them and also developed the habit of chasing them, clinging

to their hind quarters and making repeated attempts to mate. When

first caught, the squirrel was slightly afflicted with ringworm behind

the ears and this sexual behaviour resulted in the infection being

transmitted to one of the dogs.

With regard to character, the squirrel evinced the senses of

curiosity and obstinacy common to wild animals. He was per-

sistent in his efforts to get into the favourite cupboard if the door

was closed, and he frequently succeeded in releasing the catch with

his teeth. After a meal he was sometimes playful. Mild annoyance

was shown by grunting, and anger by hissing. In early life, when

‘deeply provoked, he would stand bear-like on the hind pads, occa-

sionally attempting to bite and making inward sweeps with the

fore limbs with the intention of scratching or tearing. But such

exhibitions were extremely rare and always transitory. Normally,

there was no trouble at all in handling the animal, though at times

one had to beware of scratches.

Although the normal habitat of the species is the hilly areas,

the specimen did well when brought to the plains of the United

Provinces for the cool and early hot seasons. Air temperatures

up to 85°F. were supported without distress.

The final escape was in June 1946 through a bathroom waste

pipe which owing to neglect was uncovered.

Feeding and excretion.—The animal was fed twice daily, morn-

ing and afternoon, with bread, cake or biscuit soaked in milk

sweetened with sugar. A little fruit was given once daily, such

as apple, plum, banana, mango, guava, sweetened grape-fruit,

melon or tomato. Rose petals and to some extent rose leaves were

relished. Apart from all these, the favourite food and presumably

that most taken in nature—was the leaves and soft stems of mountain

oak. Other leaves and stems would also be taken, such as apple,

deodar and rhododendron. The usual method was to bite through

the stem and grasp the detached leaf in one hand while eating.

Vegetables were refused, as well as any kind of meat. Nuts of

various kinds were eaten but not relished. Water was refused,

unless there was great thirst, but milk was eagerly lapped. Move-

ments of the jaws during mastication were extremely rapid.

As soon as the nightly activity began, faeces and urine were

56 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

passed, though sometimes faeces were only passed once in 48 hours.

The act of defaecation was preferably carried out from a high perch,.

the faeces being green or brown, dryish and in the form of small

pellets which were expelled intermittently over some minutes..

Urine was passed in spurts; when urinating the squirrel adopted

an upright posture, raising its hind quarters off the floor by holding”

on to a door or wall and thrusting its belly forward. The animal

was very clean in its habits and most careful to prevent its fur

being wetted by urine. The urine dried leaving a white deposit.

Concluding note.—The flying squirrel has been described as

delicate and difficult to keep in captivity, but this is not so once

the ‘probationary period’ is over, if the animal is allowed proper

rood and an environment which is free and otherwise suitable. In

the Indian Forester (1932) reference is made to a specimen of Petau-

vista inornatus which lived in the Calcutta Zoo for over eleven years.

Petaurista might even have commercial value, if they could be

satisfactorily bred in captivity, as the skins should find a ready sale..

The main difficulty would be to get the first catch accustomed to-

domestic life. From my small experience it seems that within a

few days of capture fatalities are likely, these presumably originating”

from immaturity or in older specimens from hyperactivity of certain

of the endocrine glands. If this is so, it is just possible that deaths.

in ones which have passed the stage of babyhood could be avoided

by inducing a state of mild anaesthesia during the first few days.

of. captivity.

It is unfortunate that so far there has been no chance to observe

the reproductive life of the species, though a number of attempts

were made to secure a female. When adults are first caught, they

may be extremely ferocious. One large female, which must have

weighed at least 4 lbs. when caught, appeared to be quite untame-

able, refused all food and died after a few days of ‘pneumonia’. A

second specimen, a half-grown female, was also very wild when

caught in September 1945 and succumbed from pulmonary oedema

one day later. This female measured 66 cm. from snout to tip

of tail, the tail was 35 cm. long, and the width of body and extended

parachute 25 cm. The body colouring was exactly like that of my

specimen, and its skin, as well as that of another younger Petaurista,.

is in my possession,

REFERENCES,

Blanford, W. T. Fauna of British India. Mammalia (1888).

Donald, C. H. Companions feathered, furred and scaled. Times Press,

Bombay (1917).

Ellerman, J. R. The Families and Genera of living Rodents. (British Museum),

Vol. 1, Jarrold, Norwich (1940).

Sterndale, R. A. Natural History of the Mammals of India and Cevlow

(Thacker, Spink & Co., Calcutta (1884).

Wroughton, R. C. Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., xxvi, 354 (1919).

————_——___——_Ind. Forester 58, 85 (1932).

I am greatly indebted to Dr. B. N. Chopra, Director of the

Zoological Survey, for making available to me the works of Ellerman

and Wroughton. My thanks are also due to Mr. M. Abdussalam of

this Institute for showing me Donald’s booklet. Mr. Abdussalan>

tested the squirrel with foot-and-mouth disease virus.

BIRDS OF THE LALMAI AREA, NEAR COMILLA,

TIPPERA, BENGAL.

(Observed between December 1944 and end of July, 1945).

Sale COLTINS

(IVith a map)

NATURE OF SURROUNDINGS.

Mainly open cultivations (paddy) which, during the winter

months, are used for cattle-grazing. The fields are ploughed from

February onwards, paddy being planted out between March and

April, in readiness for the monsoons which break round about this

period.

The whole of the area is sprinkled with villages or collections

of habitations, usually each group having an earthen irrigation or

water storage tank within its ‘boundary’. The ‘villages’, in the

main, are completely enshrouded by trees. and bamboos, whilst a

tangled undergrowth quickly envelopes the area during the monsoons.

Behind, and to the west of Lalmai station lies a series of higher

levels stretching from south-west of Lalmai to the west of Comilla,

and known to the military as ‘The Ridge’. This area consists mainly

of scrub-clad hillocks, with minor cultivations in the lower inter-

vening levels or valleys.

There is only one river of any size, known as the ‘Gungiajuri

Chara’ to military authorities, which either rises in or flows through

the ridge, passing eastwards under the railway about 5 miles from

Comilla, then turning south to loop round under the railway again

about a mile below Lalmai on the Chandpur side.

For further details, see accompanying sketch-map of the area,

although this is not drawn to scale and cannot be vouched for as

accurate.

FAMILY : CORVIDAE.

Corvus macrorhynchos : Jungle Crow.

Common and plentiful. Five nests found up to the middle of April, but

only one considered to contain either young or eggs, judging by the reactions.

of the crows to our attentions. The nest site was, unfortunately, not possible

to investigate, being placed in the top of a ‘Palmyra’ palm some 25 feet above

the ground.

Nesting activities appeared to commence again in July, as most of the

crows from the vicinity of our camp could be seen flying up into palms or

other tall trees carrying what seemed to be pieces of coconut fibre and sticks.

The jungle crows were always present with the mixed company of birds

whenever the winged termites were on the wing during January. Their methods

of catching the termites varied from clumsy attempts to catch the insects on

the wing by using their bills like the drongos, etc., to the more certain

method of assembling on the ground close to the place where the termites were

emerging, and catching the insects before they took to the air.

58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

I was never able to find the roosting places of these crows, although they

could be seen flying eastwards every evening from 17-30 hrs. onwards.

These birds were among the first abroad in the mornings.

Corvus splendens : Common Indian House Crow.

The house crows were confined to the area around Comilla township up

to the first week in May, when they started to frequent the many military

camps in the Lalmai area. The first time the house crows were noted in our

camp was on g May, when ten were seen in the vicinity of the African

cookhouses. Five were again seen on 16 May, and then from the beginning

of June and all through July, the house crows were well established.

Dendrocitta vagabunda : Jree-pie.

Fairly common in our vicinity, but more often heard than seen. Immature

birds were seen in June and July, but no nests were found.

The tree-pies occasionally assembled with the ‘termite-hunters’ during

January, on one occasion as many as 20 being seen. They also frequented the

silk-cotton trees whilst these were in bloom,

These birds were amazing for their variety of cails. Some of the notes

were as follows :—

(i) A repeated ‘Ki-cha-cha-cha’.

(ii) A harsh chuckle, rather similar to some calls used by broody domestic

hens.

(iii) A very musical, soft ‘Toodle-li’, sounding rather like the limpid notes

of a vibraphone.

(iv) A harsh ‘Care’, similar to but not so guttural as those occasionally used

by jungle crows.

FAMILY : TIMALIIDAE.

Turdoides somervillei : Jungle-Babbler.

The jungle-babblers were confined more to the scrub-clad hills lying behind

the camp in an area known to the military as ‘The Ridge’. In the small

area of the ridge that I visited, one party was seen on two occasions. Each

time the birds were moving around in the thicker bushes and on being alarmed

flew off in single-file to other clumps.

Later, in May, when that part of the Ridge was being used for military

camp sites, I saw three babblers on a small knoll a short distance behind our

camp, and although 1 frequented this area almost every day, I did not see

them again.

Aegithiaa tiphia : Common lora.

Common and fairly plentiful from December to February. Mostly seen in

parties of a dozen or more, feeding or hunting insects in bushes and bush-

like trees in the camp area. From March onwards, the parties seemed split

up, and the Ioras were more frequently seen in pairs or singly until July,

when family parties were seen about.

No occupied nests were found—the only indication of them having bred

‘were the family parties and one old nest found on the ground under a mango

tree, this being cup-shaped, about 2 inches in diameter, composed of fine

fibres and plastered externally with cobwebs, thus giving the nest a white

appearance.

FaMILy : PyYCNONOTIDAE.

Molpastes cafer: Red-vented Bulbul.

Common and plentiful. One of the party that assembled at the silk-cotton

trees whilst they were in bloom, and also seen occasionally with the ‘termite-

hunters’ during January.

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BIRDS OF THE LALMAI AREA 59

Four nests found, three containing clutches of three eggs, situated in forks

of trees or preferably among the dense young shoots sprouting trom a sawn-ott

branch of a tree, and varying in height from 6 ft. to 16 ft. above the ground.

Nests were found in early April, and were of the normal cup-shaped fine twig

construction, lined with grass or fibre.

Otocompsa jocosa : Red-whiskered Bulbul.

Seen once only on 29 July. Might have been overlooked, but only one

specimen was seen for a few moments early in the morning, and this was

very difficult to approach.

FAMILY: TURDIDAE.

Copsychus saularis : Magpie-Robin.

Common. There were two or three pairs in our area, usually seen feeding

on the ground under the line of mango trees. One nesting site was seen, the

birds (on 15 April) were gathering nesting materials and carrying them to a

natural hollow in a mango tree about 5 ft. from the ground. The site, un-

fortunately, was wrecked by some Indian children before the nest was com-

pleted.

Young birds, capable of flight, were seen towards the end of May, June

and early July. Two immature birds were the most seen at once with the

adults.

Magpie Robins were sometimes seen during January with the ‘termite-

hunters’, taking the insects on the wing. Morning ‘song-posts’ were usually

the tops of fairly tall trees, whence a clear vision was obtainable,

FamILy : LANIIDAE.

Lanius excubitor :} Grey Shrike.

By no means common in the Lalmai area, although they move about so

much that it is difficult to follow these birds. The usual haunts are tall,

lightly foliaged trees, thorny trees and occasionally the low scrub bordering

the paddy fields.

Seldom seen in more than pairs and most frequently seen singly. There

was no sign of breeding activities up to the first week in July, when the last

record of the bird in our area was 4 July, but these may have been overlooked.

Lanius vitatus :! Bay-backed Shrike.

Fairly common from February to April, but disappeared from the area

in May—last recorded date being 7 May.

More than the other shrikes, the Bay-backed was seen mainly in the

scrub bordering the paddy fields, usually a single bird dominating a paddy

field. The most seen together was three.

Tephrodornis pondicerianus : Common Wood-Shrike.

Common in our area. One nest found on 14 April, situated on a horizontal

branch of a tree between 15 to 20 ft. above the ground, in full view of the

whole camp, but not noticed by me until one of the pair was seen entering

the nest to brood the young. The nest contained three young, two of which,

a month later, had left the nest and could be seen being fed by the parents

during the evenings in the vicinity of a clump of mango trees.

As far as I could discern, both birds fed the young, each adult under-

taking to feed one chick. The chicks were just starting to fly (13 May),

and were being ‘taught’ by the parents, who would make a short flight to

a nearby branch, calling all the while, and in the event of the young not

‘ The sight record of these two species must be accepted with reserve. They

are both birds of fairly dry—even semi-desert—biotopes. The former has only

been recorded as a straggler as far east as Calcutta, and the latter not quite

so far east.—Eps.

60 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 47

following, would return to them and repeat the performance until such

time as the youngsters followed along. This particular evening a hawk of

some sort perched in a nearby tree. One of the parents attacked the hawk

immediately, swooping on it and uttering a harsh grating noise, the snap

of its bill being audible as it passed over the hawk’s head, but it failed to

move the birds The one parent was then joined by its mate, and the con-

certed attack put the hawk to flight.

When the adults brought food to the young, the young gave noise to an

excited chatter, accompanied by much wing quivering. As the two young

were a little distance apart, they were either led in rotation by a single aauic ov

individually by one of the parents. The excitement of the young was only evident

when an adult was approaching, the remainder of the time they stayed motionless.

FamMiIty: DICRURIDAE.

Dicrurus macrocercus : Black Drongo.

Common. A total of ten nests were found between April and the beginning

of June, all of them used, and varying in height from 12 to 25 feet above the

ground, situated in a horizontal fork of a tree. Young birds, just able to fly,

were seen from 26 May onwards.

These birds were most pugnacious during the breeding season, attacking

larger hawks, vultures and even human beings with equal ferocity, if they

considered their nest was in danger.

The drongos were by far the latest birds to roost at night, and among the

earliest risers. When it was almost dark, drongos could be seen and heard

having ‘mock battles’ over the tops of the mango trees.

These birds were invariably present with the ‘termite-hunters’ during

January.

FaMu.y : SYLV1IDAE,

Orthotomus sutorius : Tailor-Bird.

Common but not plentiful. Seen in Comilla and Lalmai area but only

recognised as such in April. A pair continually frequented a clump of mango

trees near our quarters and were far more often heard than seen. One of

the pair had a curious habit of roosting in the lowest branches of the mangoes

under a leaf, at about 4 to 5 ft. from the ground, and this habit eventually

enabled me to have it caught one night about 8 p.m. It was caught by

hand, identified and released. On release it struggled so much that it lost

several of its tail feathers, and although it never left that particular clump

of trees, it could always be identified by its few remaining tail feathers. No

nest was found, although I’ watched the bird carefully for a long time.

FaMILy : ORIOLIDAE.

Orlolus xanthornus: Black-headed Oriole.

Present but not common. Two or three pairs in the area. Three nests

were found in the vicinity of the camp, two of which I suspected as belonging

to the same pair. The first nest found was situated in a bamboo clump, about

7 ft. from the ground and contained one egg on 24 March. ‘the egg hatched

out. between 27-28 March end the chick was covered with spine-like feathers

during the first week in April. On g April I found the nest torn to bits and the

chick had vanished.

The second nest was found on 8 April, situated about 10 feet from the

ground in a shrub-like tree overhanging the edge of a paddy field, but appeared

ta contain no eggs. The female was sitting on the morning of 9 April and

by that evening there were two eggs in the nest. The nest was unattended on

the morning (08.15 hours) of 15 April, and had been wrecked by the morning

of 19 April (human efforts suspected).

The third nest was built in our camp, about 8 ft. from the ground, but

must have been destroyed by our men when they were ‘cleaning up’ the camp

area, as it disappeared shortly after completion, although no eggs had been

laid.

BIRDS OF THE LALMAI AREA 61

FAMILY: STURNIDAE.

Sturnia malabarica : Grey-headed Myna.

Most common in the camp area whilst the silk-cotton trees were in

bloom (March to May). They were first seen in the camp area on 14 January,

and during February were using the mango trees for roosting at night. From

February until May large numbers of them would assemble from 18.00 hours

onwards, and appeared to have some trouble in settling down for the night,

as frequently a ‘cloud’ of them would suddenly leave the trees and fly round

for several minutes, executing all sorts of manoeuvres prior to settling in some

other tree nearby.

During these months, the mynas were only seen in the daytime whilst

there were silk-cotton trees in bloom, otherwise I first saw them at roosting

time.

No actual nests were found, although individual birds were seen investigat-

ing barbet and woodpecker holes.

The Grey-headed Mynas made up the bulk of the birds which regularly

visited the flowering silk-cotton trees.

Acridotheres tristis: Common Myna.

Common and plentiful. Always present in the camp area, particularly

near kitchens, stores and messes,

These birds were very tame and would allow quite a close approach. They

appeared to have a curious habit of standing around in little groups, fluffing

up their feathers and nodding to each other.

Eggs were found in one nest situated under the ridge of a roof on 21 April.

‘Other nesting sites were suspected in the leaves of palmyra palms, being

situated at the base of the fronds close to the trunk. Mynas were seen

carrying nesting materials to these sites and later also food, but no nests so

situated were actually seen by me.

On two occasions common mynas were seen feeding young koels, and

due to the open nature of the paddy fields, it was possible to watch one pair

feed one young koel continuously from 17.30 hours until darkness rendered

further observations impossible. This particular young koel was larger than

either of the mynas, and quite capable of fairly sustained flight. We hustled

the young koel some distance away to see if the mynas would follow it,

and they did. Not having seen the nest of this pair, with the koel in it,

I am unable to state definitely that the koels do parasitize the mynas.

Another example was seen about a fortnight later when a pair of young

koels (one fairly Jarge and the other only just able to fly) were being fed

by another pair of common mynas. Here, too, a prolonged watch revealed

the same pair of mynas feeding the two for over a hour. Here, too, a pair

of mynas had been suspected of nesting in the same date palm where the

two young koels were found, although a search of the palm only revealed

remnants of a nest situated close to the trunk of the palm, and constructed of

grass.

Another peculiarity about the common myna,_ noticed particularly from

May to July, was that some of the birds appeared to have a yellow wattle-

like streak running through the crown of the head. Whether this is some

plumage phase of the immature birds, I do not know.

AEthiopsar fuscus; Jungle Myna

Not very common, although possibly overlooked. One nest site found,

situated in a hole in the trunk of a tree about 10 ft. from the ground, but

the hollow continued for some distance down inside the tree trunk, and it

‘was not possible to see whether there were any eggs in the nest or not. This

was in the middle of April.

During May, June and July, parties of between 6 and 20 were occasionally

seen on the ripening paddy or in the trees growing on the banks of the paddy-

fields.

62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Sturnopastor contra; Pied Myna.

Common and plentiful. Numerous nests were built in the trees in our

camp during April and May, many being destroyed by the high winds and heavy

rains. There was nothing of outstanding interest about the structure of the

nests, although the sites chosen (on outer extremities of slender branches)

were in many cases courting disaster and were duly destroyed by the elements

later on in the season. One noticeable point was the number of broken eggs

found under the nests, but whether these rolled out with the swaying of the

trees or were knocked out by the mynas themselves, I never did learn. A

lot of young, unable to fly, were also found on the ground, and my attempts

to revive one chick found under a tree during a rainstorm was a failure.

The Pied Mynas were well represented on the silk-cotton trees whilst they

were in bloom, but for the main part were seldom seen so near to human

habitations as were the comimon mynas, preferring the more open cultivations

and neighbouring trees.

One amusing little part of their behaviour is that of perching close to-

gether and uttering their grating calls in each other’s ears, noticed especially

when the birds are paired off for breeding. These birds seem almost ‘colonists’

during the breeding season, although the most nests seen in one tree were

only a dozen.

FAMILY : PLOCEIDAE.

Ploceus philippinus: The Baya Weaver.

Common. ‘The Bayas were first noticed as common when they started to

don breeding ‘plumage. Nests were built in colonies mainly in palmyra palms,

but some were seen in thorny trees. The materials used varied from grass

to split streamers of date-palm leaves. ‘Cock’ nests appeared plentiful in

every colony. Great amusement was derived from watching these birds un-

ravelling and stealing materials from neighbouring nests in the colony.

Uroloncha punctulata : Spotted Munia.

The Spotted Munias were most in evidence from the end of May to July,

when they were starting nesting activities.

One bird was seen on 25 December, but it was not until the beginning of

June that the birds were seen with any regularity.

The nests were untidy grassdomed arrangements, built mainly in thickly

foliaged small trees, some being seen in the few thorn trees in the camp area,

and one in an Albizzia stipulata.

From this period, small parties of 4 or more could be seen feeding on the

seeds of grasses.

FAMILY : FRINGILLIDAE.

Passer domesticus : House-Sparrow.

Common and plentiful, though more so from February onwards, when

nesting operations were in progress. The chief sites used by the House Sparrows

when building appeared to be under the ridge of the bamboo-shingle roofs.

A certain amount of difficulty was experienced in identifying these birds in the

field, as although large flocks of sparrow-like birds were often seen on the paddy

fields, it is quite probable that these birds were mistaken as weavers, and

vice-versa.

Famity : HiIruNDINIDAE.

Hirundo daurica: Striated Swallow.

Red-rumped Swallows were seen on two occasions only. First on 12 April,

a number were seen sporting about over the camp during the afternoon, ard

disappeared towards evening.

BIRDS OF THE LALMAI AREA 6

On the second cccasion, on 14 April, two were seen circling about over

the camp, fairly high up, for a few minutes.

On both occasions the weather was sultry.

Famity : MoracILLIDAk,

Motacilla alba; White Wagtail.

One pair seen in the camp area on 16 December. Another pair seen on

the Sonamuru side of Comilla on 20 March, on the edge of an irrigation tank.

Motaciila cinerea: Grey Wagtail.

One seen on 3 April and another on 23 April, feeding on the bank of an

irrigation tank close to our camp.

Anthus rufulus; Indian Pipit.

Fairly common throughout my stay in this area, although more frequently

seen during April than any other month,

Main haunts appeared to be the paddy fields prior to final ploughing and

planting.

Was told that one nest had been found at the edge of a paddy field, but

before I could get to see it, the torrential rain had washed it away.

FamiLy : NECTARINIIDAE.

Cionyris asiatica: Purple Sunbird.

Fairly commen, although more noticeable from February onwards. No

nests found, although adults seen with young towards the end of April. These

birds moved about a lot, and were only in real evidence in our camp when

the trees (including silk-cotton, mango and Albizzia stipulata and Indian

laburnum) were flowering.

Witnessed part of what might have been a courtship display on the after-

noon of :6 March. I could not be certain whether the male was chasing the

female, or vice-versa, because I was rounding a hut when I caught sight of

their downward flight to earth. Stepping clear of the building, I saw the female

on the ground, lying or leaning back with one wing held upwards into the air,

whilst the male stood back, with extended head and neck, ‘pointing’ first one

way and then the other (left to right movement). There was a flutter, and

the pair were both in the same attitude as was the female originally, with

their tails (apparently) touching or together. While this was going on both

birds kept up a feeble chirping. The pose was held for a matter of seconds

only, then the female flew off, closely followed by the male, who was in full

song.

The whole ‘performance’ was only of a few seconds’ duration, and due to

being caught unawares and on the wrong side of a building, I was unable to

see the preliminaries or finale of the act.

Cinnyris zeylonicus: Purple-rumped Sunbird.

Fairly common, though not plentiful, from March onwards. Seldom more

than one pair seen during the course of a day. Have met with it both in

Comilla, along the Gungiajuri Chara, and in the Lalmai area.

Young -birds seen with the adults during April and May.

Family : DIcAEIDAE.

Dicaeum erythrorhynchos: Tickell’s Flowerpecker.

Seen on several occasions in the vicinity of clumps of the parasitic loranthus.

Possibly one pair of flower-peckers inhabited the area around our camp, but

the numbers were difficult to gauge due to the scattered localities of the loranthus.

One pair seen in Comilla township, and another seen in the vicinity of

habitations along the banks of the Gungiajuri Chara,

4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Family : Picipag.

Dryobates mahrattensis : Yellow-fronted Pied Woodpecker.

Fairly common, and certainly the most commen of the woodpeckers found

in the area.

Micropternus brachyurus : Rufous Woodpecker.

Seen on three occasions only—first on 17 May in a bamboo clump, where

two (adults ?) were seen close to an insect carton-nest which had a large opening

in one side, whilst two (young ?) were clinging precariously to a nearby bamboo.

The two birds near the insect nest were feeding on ants (Crematogaster ?).

On 16 June, a pair of (adult ?) Rufous Woodpeckers were seen in the mango

trees in camp, one bird having a crimson patch below the eyes, whilst this

feature was lacking in the other.

On 2 July, one bird was seen in the bamboo clump, but I could not see

whether the eye-patch was present or not.

Brachypternus benghalensis : = Golden-backed Woodpecker.

About two pairs seen in the area. No nest actually found, although one

bird was seen investigating a hollow-branch on a silk-cotton tree.

lynx torquilla: Wryneck.

Seen four times only, firstly on 4 March, when it was observed feeding at

the base of a mango tree. On 11 March, a specimen was brought to me which

had been shot in the camp area whilst on the trunk of a sapling.

On 23 and 24 April, a pair were seen in the vicinity of the irrigation tank

behind our camp, feeding on the ground under the trees.

Family : CAPITONIDAE.

Megalaima lineatus : Jineated Barbet.

Not very common. Heard continually through March and into April, when

one pair was constructing a nesting site in a ‘silk cotton’ tree some 25 ft. above

the ground. ‘This nesting site was disturbed, and although the birds had been

working on it for nearly a fortnight, they deserted the site and moved over to

a tree-enshrouded habitation about a quarter of a mile away.

There was a definite difference in the call-notes of the pair during March and

early April, one bird having a far more resonant call than the other, but as no

specimen was obtained apart from one caught in a net and released again as

soon as identification was certain, it is impossible to state which sex possessed

the loudest, most continuous notes. ‘The other bird, when calling, seemed to

utter a half-hearted version of the loud call.

Whilst the nest mentioned above was under construction, one bird roosted

at night on the site, whilst the other roosted in a small tree nearby.

Megulaima haemacephala : 9 Crimson-breasted Barbet.

Not very common. One pair was found with a nest in an old tree behind

the camp area. Whether eggs were laid and young raised, I do not know, as

the nest was never investigated. Barbets were seen entering, emerging or resting

with only the head showing through the entrance to the site.

Curiosity made me count the number of times the coppersmith ‘utters his

monosyllabic note—204 continuously uttered notes was the highest, whilst three

occasions of 121 (one minute duration) and two of 50 (half-minute duration) were

noted during the course of one afternoon.

Family : CucuLipae.

Clamator jacobinus : Pied Crested Cuckoo.

One bird each was seen on three occasions—on 24 May, when a solitary bird was

seen feeding on a black, hairy caterpillar; on 4 June, when one bird was being

BIRDS OF THE LALMAI ARLA 65

mobbed by common mynahs; and a brief glimpse of one on 16 June by the side

of the Lalmai-Ccmilla road.

The birds were silent and as these were the only occasions this species was noted

during the period I was in the district, I feel safe in saying that it was

«certainly not a resident; possibly a straggler or may have been passing through.

Eudynamis scolopaceus ; Indian Koel.

The koels were first seen on 18 February, but their calls had been heard on

16 February. On 18 February two males only were seen, whilst the first female

noted was on 10 March. These birds were calling up till the end of July, when

I left the area.

The male appeared to have a deeper call than the female, and the character-

istic call of Koel was being vioced by the male whenever I managed to locate

the owner of the voice. The ‘water-bubbling’ call was heard several times, and

although I was unable to see the bird responsible, the tone indicated a male.

The main call uttered by the female, according to my notes, was the harsh,

-querrulous key-key key.

No actual eggs of koels were ever found, but the normal foster-parents, the

‘Common House Crow, was not breeding in the area where I was stationed. Men-

tion has already been made of the young koels I saw being fed by the Common

Mynahs.

The status of these birds was rather difficult to gauge in this area, but I

‘doubt whether more than two pairs were present.

Centropus sineasis or Centropus bengalensis ? Crow-Pheasant (or Lesser Coucal?).

Heard continually from the end of April up till the end of July, when I left

the area. One bird was seen on two oceasions only, and this was in a small

clump of bamboos, after the bird was spotted calling from the tops of one of

the trees.

Other cuckoos were present in the district, but I was unable to satisfy my-

self as to their identification. One might have been the Plaintive Cuckoo, a

bird uttering a ‘one-two-three-four’ call from April to early June, and another

was possibly the Common Hawk-cuckoo.

Family : PsItTTaciDar.

Small flights of paroquets were seen on several occasions, once in the area

in question, and several times on the Sonamuru side of Comilla, but no firm

‘identifications were made.

FAMILY : CORACIIDAE.

Coracias benghalensis: Indian Roller.

Not very common. One pair at the most were seen, and then mainly in

‘the mixed company assembled whenever the termites were abroad. There

was one bird frequently seen haunting the lightly tree-clad hillocks and paddy

fields near our camp area during the latter part of June and July.

FaMILy : MEROPIDAE.

Merops orientalis: Common Bee-eater.

Common and fairly plentiful up to February. The numbers then diminished

-around the camp area and the birds were to be found further afield until May,

when family parties were in evidence. In April, six nests were found, one

being opened on 22 April which contained six hard-set eggs. Some days later I

found a fledging that had strayed from the nest, evidently prior to a shower of

rain, as it was almost buried in loose sand some yards from the nest. It was

still alive, so I returned it to the entrance, and was pleased to see it scamper

away down the hole.

66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

A lot of the bee-eaters were without the elongated central tail feathers both

before and after the breeding season.

Large numbers of green bee-eaters roosted in tall bamboos near Lalmai

station, and were often seen out hawking insects in fairly large parties towards

late evening, although the parties were considerably smaller during the day.

They were also among the birds present when the termites were abroad, and

were on several occasions seen to take butterflies on the wing, apparently

swallowing wings as well as the insects.

Merops superciliosus : Blue-tailed Bee-eater. -

Four birds seen once, on the morning of 28 March at 07.15 hours, one hawk-

ing insects and three others perched nearby. These were possibly stragglers or

on passage, although it is difficult to say, as I neither saw from what direction

they came or vanished.

FAMILY : ALCEDINIDAE.

Alcedo atthis: Common Kingfisher,

More common during the rains but not plentiful. Immature birds noted

during early June.

Halcyon smyrnensis : White-breasted Kingfisher.

More common than the above species but not plentiful. Most in evidence

during the ploughing of the paddy fields and during the rains when the fields

were flooded.

Occasionally present with the termite-hunters.

FamMILy : UPUPIDAE,

Upupa epops: Hoopoe.

Only seen from 23 February until last recorded date on 19 April. The

greatest number seen were four pairs in a radius of a mile, on 18 March. There

is every possibility that under normal conditions the hoopoe would be well

represented in this area but intense military activities must have driven quite

a ‘lot of birds further afield due to continual disturbances and the erection

of numerous buildings in their normal habitats.

Famity : MICROPIDAE.

Cypsiurus batassiensis: Palm-Swift.

Common and plentiful. Nests found on the underside of palmyra fronds

during May, usually attached to the same fronds as were the Baya weaver

nests. The birds were more noticeable during April and May, especially towards

evening, when numbers could be seen circling the palmyras, uttering their faint

calls.

FAMILY : CAPRIMULGIDAE.

Caprimulgus indicus : Jungle Nightjar.

One specimen obtained on 24 July 1945. The only nightjar seen by me in

this area, although possibly overlooked on other occasions. Two para-

sitic flies of the family Hippoboscidae (identified by Dr. Chopra of the Zoolo-

gical Survey of India as being Olfersia sp.) were found among the feathers of

the bird a few minutes after it was killed.

BIRDS OF THE LALMAI AREA 67

FamILy : ASIONIDAE.

Athene brama ; Spotted Owlet.

Two pairs (or one family?) resident in the area, and seen occasionally

every month throughout the period I was stationed there.

These owlets were quite often to be seen during the heat of the day, perched

motionless among shady branches, but always betrayed their presence by bob-

bing up and down when conscious of being observed.

Owners of a weird assortment of catcalls and chuckles.

FaMILyY : AEGYPIIDAE.

Sarcogyps calyus: Black or Pondicherry Vulture.

Fairly common throughout the period in question, but seldom seen in more

than threes or fours,

In spite of their size and pugnacious appearance, these were often success-

fully put to flight by jungle crows, and frequently attacked by black drongos

during the latter’s breeding season.

Pseudogyps bengalensis : White-backed Vulture.

Common and plentiful. Always seen in far greater numbers than the pre-

ceding species.

Seen on several occasions standing on the ground in groups with wings

outstretched, in the manner of cormorants.

FAMILY : FALCONIDAE.

There were several birds of the genus Falco seen in the area, but as I am

particularly weak as far as the identification of this family is concerned, no

mention will be made of any particular type. These birds were by no means

common, an occasional bird being seen at widely scattered intervals and only

for a few moments, as it beat over the paddy fields.

Haematornis cheela : Crested Serpent-Eagle.

One pair seen on several occasions in flight over the area. At other times,

one bird was seen perched in small trees, sometimes calling, but the call was

mostly uttered whilst on the wing.

Haliastur indus ; Brahminy Kite.

Fairly common, though not seen in more than pairs. Confined mainly to

stretches of country where there was water, and consequently more often seen

when the paddy fields were flooded.

Occasionally seen among the termite-hunters.

Milvus migrans ; Pariah Kite.

Common and plentiful up to the end of May, when most of the birds dis-

appeared. Stragglers were seen into June, but by the beginning of July there

were no kites to be seen in the area.

One nest was located in the top of a palmyra, containing an almost fully-

grown fledgling on 24 March. Towards the end of April and May, a lot of the

kites were noticed with brown and white mottled plumage.

The common pariahs were always in attendance when the termites took to

the wing, catching the insect with their feet and carrying it straight to the

bill in one continuous move.

Family : COoLUMBIDAE.

Columba livia: Blue Rock-Pigeon.

Common and plentiful around the small villages or groups of. dwellings in

the area. Whether the birds seen were all true blue rock-pigeons, I am in

68 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

doubt, as nearly all the birds led a semi-domesticated life, and the plumage

indicated cross-breeding with other types.

Streptopelia chinensis : Spotted Dove.

Common and plentiful. Two nests, with eggs, were found in early Feb-

ruary. Commonly seen on the paddy fields prior to ploughing, and during the

rains parties would frequent the grassy patches, feeding on the grass-seeds.

Streptopelia senegalensis : Little Brown Dove.

Fairly common, but not nearly so plentiful as the previous species. Seen

further afield, frequenting the paddy fields, but not often seen among the

Huildings in the camp area,

Family : CHARADRIIDAE.

Lobivanellus indicus : Red-wattled Plover.

Not very common. Seen occasionally on the dry paddy fields nearby during

December and January, and later seen more frequently from May onwards.

Two pairs were known te frequent a stretch of country along the banks of the

Gungiajuri Chara. During June and July, the birds could be frequently heard

calling at night.

Family : SCOLOPACIDAE.

Actitis hypoleucos : Common Sané¢piper.

Not very common. First seen on 10 February, feeding on the bank of an

irrigation tank nearby. On 18 March, a party of nine were seen feeding at

the same tank, Last seen on 29 April,

Family : PHALACROCORACIDAE.

Phalacrocor ax niger : Little Cormorant.

Seldom seen in the Lalmai area, but noticed several times on the larger

irrigation tanks towards Comilla and on the Sonamuru side of the town.

Family : ARDEIDAE.

Egretta garzeita: Little Egret.

Common and fairly plentiful. First seen in breeding plumage on 2g April.

Seen more frequently from April onwards, when the paddy fields were becoming

water-logged. ;

Bubulcus ibis: Cattle Egret.

Common and fairly plentiful. First noticed in breeding plumage on 10

April. Seen more frequently and in greater numbers than the previous species,

as numerous cattle were grazing behind our camp area, and the herds were

invariably attended by at least one cattle egret.

Ardeola grayii: Pond-Heron.

Fairly common throughout the period, but more noticeable from April on-

wards, that is, at the break of the rains. These birds, during the drier months,

were more common nearer Comilla, haunting the regions of borrow-pits and

brick fields. The same applies to the Sonamuru side of the Comilla, where

irrigation tanks appeared to be more numerous. After the rains started, the

paddy fields around Lalmai rapidly became water-logged, and then the pond

herons were seen more frequently, although seldom were more than two birds

seen together.

Their streaked brownish plumage proved most inconspicuous when the birds

were standing motionless.

A FISHING TRIP TO KARWAR AND MALVAN 69:

Ixobrychus cinnamomeus : Chestnut Bittern.

First seen at the beginning of June, when the paddy was established, and

the fields water-logged.

These birds were mainly seen before 07.30 -hours in the morning and after

17.30 hours in the evening. Their call notes sounded the kood-kood-kood-

kood, with low, penetrating qualities that proved most difficult to locate,

especially when the birds were hidden in the growing paddy.

I saw one bird uttering the above call, perched on an Indian Laburnum.

The head of the bird was depressed, the neck having a ‘U’ kink in it, and the

body appeared to be compressed. Between calls it kept alertly turning its head,

as if on the look-out for possible danger. During the calls, it moved its head

around slightly, lending a ventriloquistic affect to the notes. The ‘alarm-call’

is a shorter, clipped version of the ordinary call.

Birds were also seen perched on fallen bamboos, but seldom far from the

sheltering paddy.

Family : ANaTIDAE.

Nettapus coromandelianus : Cotton Teal.

None actually seen in the Lalmai area, although possibly overlooked. On

21 June a male was shot by one of our officers just outside Comilla on the

Comilla-Chittagong road, about 5 miles from the township. The officer stated

that he saw the pair swimming in a flooded paddy field, but failed to obtain

the female.

A FISHING TRIP TO KARWAR AND MALVAN (15TH OCT.

TO 10TH NOV. 1946.)

A. St. J. MacDonaLp

(With 2 plates)

A glimpse at India’s west coast line south of Bombay, shews,

some 240 miles south, the Portuguese port of Marmagoa. Ap-

proximately 50 miles north and south respectively are the small

coastal towns of Malvan and Karwar.

Karwar. Already written up by various writers for its beauty,

bathing beaches, and years ago for its sea-fishing also. It has an

eight-room hotel, and is well connected by motorable roads. In

fact it has come to be regarded as one of the beauty spots of

Western India.

That it has attracted attention was borne out while I was there;

a couple had come from Kashmir, another from Delhi, one from

Secunderabad, and our two selves from Bombay, all for fishing !

Eight weeks of continuous fishing from September roth to

November roth produced only 13 fish between us, best 13 Ibs. It

reads as almost incredible, that one could troll two baits 25 or 30

miles past all the best and reputed places, out as far as 16 miles to

sea, day after day, and not connect with fish of some size at a time

when the mackerel and sardines were in the bay by the hundred

thousand.

70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Our failure to connect with fish at a place with such a reputa-

tion caused me to explore every means at my disposal for a reason :

I visited the fish market, the curing yard, and talked to the net

and shark fishermen, the lighthouse keeper—himself a keen fisher-

man with 20 years experience of the rocks around the lighthouse,

then got down to the visitors book kept in the hotel and dating

back to 1922, where remarks on fishing trips were made by anglers,

I also patiently went through packets of chits held by boatmen

given by disappointed but cheerful anglers in the past. All of

which told the same story,—‘Come too early or too late’, ‘winds

not right’, ‘a bad year’, ‘not enough small fish in’; these remarks

were spread over the period September to December!! Nothing

larger than 5 pounds in Surmai were seen in the market or in the

curing yard, and the lighthouse keeper had not bothered to fish.

I took counsel with Dr. Suter, probably the best authority on

off-shore fishing, and certainly the most experienced on Karwar

fishing, who was on a visit to the place collecting butterflies ; he has

noted a steady falling off yearly of the visits by the larger mackerels,

and of recent years only found the fishing in August-September

for Bahmin worthwhile.

The one bright spot in this record kept by the hotel is Dr.

Rishworth’s excellent note, helpful in the extreme with a sketch

map of where he connected with fish, how to mount bait, etc. He

records 12 days of his visit, which was, J understand, made on a

telegram from the lighthouse keeper, Mr. Adam, when he saw the

fish had arrived, and must be judged as the height of sport Karwar

offers.

Date. Fish and Weight. Total Weight.

22 Oct.

23 55 43- : 43

Oy aes O. oO

hens 10. 10

AS). Se 25,8. 33

27 45 25,10,8,6. 49

285 ),; LO S125 ik, Toe 45

20- 5, Oo. fo)

SOME BAT 2sT Osea 5125S: 58

Bilas 9,8,9,12,18,14. 70.

1 Nov. Oo. oO.

Zane 8,12. 20.

12 days. 27 fish. 328 Ibs.

Average weight of fish=12 pounds.

" caught per day=23 fish.

Best day 6 fish weighing 70 pounds.

Against this very mediocre sport expenses may be judged.

Hotel charges at Rs. 10 a day, boat hire at Rs. 8 a day, with other

incidentals such as bait, journey to and from being left out.

Dr. Rishworth works out at to annas—a very satisfactory

figure—per pound. Our combined results of 13 fish of 81 pounds in

56 days, or Rs. 11-4-0 per pound.

For those, whose sentiment carries them away for the love of

the sea, there are compensations, but for the rest, like myself who

visit Karwar for fishing, I can offer no encouragement. The hotel

PratTeE f,

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Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

SAS

KKK

sh (Dagol).

Queen Fi

ra) and 20 lb.

f=)

of Mackerel (Ban

Bag

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

1 ER

A FISHING TRIP TO KARWAR AND MALVAN qi

is a very poor one with food below Dak bungalow standard, with

war time charges, cheap tin butter, and the management unable to

provide reliable information, in spite of years of experience and

continued and consistent failures, little is known about the habits

or conditions or prospects of fishing by either the fishermen them-

selves or the management or anyone connected with the place.

While I was there the bay was packed with fish, both mackerel

and sardines and three square miles of water just rippled with

shoals, we counted as many as 50 wolf herring in a minute feeding

on these shoals, the boat literally ploughing its way through masses

of fish, this state of affairs existed on three occasions while we

were there, but there were always shoals present though in smal-

ler numbers. At the lighthouse group of islands where we were

most days, we would see shoals passing but unmolested, the same

occurred at sea some 16 miles out. During all this time we never

once saw a Surmai rise, and Dagol feeding only three times, of

which we caught two.

This is the picture of Karwar as seen by us, our total bag being

as follows :—

2 Dagol. ase 13,11 pounds

x Kokar oe 4 _

2 Dog fish ae 5543 i

T Perch ae II $5

1 Bahmin vee 10 ”

4. Wolf-herring 53, 4, 4, 3 = Total weight 76 pounds.

In contrast to this, of conditions of a few years ago, read Dr.

Suter’s excellent article in the B.N.H.S. Journal, No. 45, part 2y

of April 1945.

No records were available of the total weights of fish taken by

years, months, or varieties at either Karwar or Malvan.

Malvan.—Here, although we did no good, is a place full of

possibility and undoubtably superior to Karwar, being geographi-

cally, better situated and practically, more encouraging. We

struck it in a cyclone and unsettled weather, but we saw in both

the curing yard and cold storage depot, large stocks of surmat,

dagol, and kokar or Caranx, of 20/40 pounds.

I am sure anglers would connect with these fish in numbers

under normal conditions. Statistics available also shew a predo-

minance of the larger mackerel taken in nets, surmai ranking second

in weight to the Bangra or Indian mackerel, besides which they

are all taken within three miles of shore, just outside the submerged

reefs of rock shewn in sketch. The fishermen are far better in-

formed than at Karwar and are emphatic that Sail-fish of over roo

pounds appear within five miles of the bay, a dozen or so being

taken in a season in the nets.

But the sea is a monster unto its self—winds, tides, currents,

storms, are factors no organisation has yet unravelled, even the

fishermen (Koknes) seem unable to define the cause or reason of the

day to day variations.

I found among the fishermen themselves complete agreement

and a keen knowledge of the fishes that occur in their waters and

S72

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

was able with the aid of that lovely publication ‘Marine Game

fishes of the Pacific Coast’ by Lionel A. Walford, which

quisitely arranged and illustrated in colour, to get the local

iS ex-

names

of most of the Game fishes related, or the Indian forms of the

Pacific varieties.

I give below a list of these with such other data as I was able

the local fish in

guide, and give

collect.

The scientific names may be incorrect in relation to

some cases, as I only had Walford’s book as a

the name of the fish appearing on the plate.

English Name. Local Vernaculay Name, Scientific Name.

1. Sardine (non-oily) Pedwa Clupea fimbriata.

2 - (oily) Peri a longice ps.

3. Horse Mackerel Kherba Bangra Caranx crumenophthalmus

4. Indian ” Bangra Scomber microleoidotus.

cs. Woltf-herring Karli Chirocentrus dorab.

6. Seer or Surmai Iswan (large) No differentiation between

Surmai (small)

Hadra (spotted)

Cybium guttatum or

Cybium commersonii.

7. Dagoli or Queen fish Dagol Chorinemus lysan.

8. Kokar or Kingfish Kokari Caranx. sp.

9. Black Kingfish Morousa Istiophorus guyi.

10. Dolphin Abnus Coryphaenidae.

11. Bluefin Bugerha Thunnidae.

12. Yellowfin Gader or Apunsa f

13. Albacore Gurmu >

14. Yellowtail L. Jacket Dayan Seriola,

15. Bigmouth L. ‘5 me Ms

16. Moonfish Gabah Vomey declivifrons,

17. Lookdown 5 Argyreiosus brevoorti.

18. Snappers or Bream Tombosa Lutianidae.

19. Gobra or Groupers Gobra Mycteroperca.,

20. Red Rock Perch Kharki and Tombosa Lutianus roseus.

21. Blue spotted R. Perch Kadori L. argentimaculatus.

22. Gol or Tatuava Gol Sciaena sina.

23. Barracuda Bodarvi Sphyracnajello.

24. Garfish Tora Beloni annalata.

25. Eels Wam and Ratan Muraena.

26. Sharks Musi Elasmobranchs.

27. Sail-fish Tarousa Istiophorus,

1. Shoals arrive in late September

Not so abundant as the Pedwa

NOTES.

and continue until December.

appearing in smaller quantities during the

same period.

3. Arrive in large shoals from Oct. to Dec. and are followed by

4. the larger predatory fish.

5. These are resident all the year round, and can be a menace.

6. Arrive in second half of Sep. and remain until Nov. depending on the run

-of small fish, when they may be taken half a mile from shore up to 30/40

pounds and as many as 200 in one net haul. We saw evidence of this

in the store yards. 460 maunds were cured in 1945, besides which large

quantities were shipped to Bombay, Ratnageri and inland of which. no

records were available.

7. This is a deeper fish than the Wahoo (Acanthocybium solandri) of the Pacific

or Queen fish of America as illustrated by Walford, which in shape

resembles the Surmai.

They start to arrive in Oct. but are most numerous in Nov. and run to 40

pounds. They are not so abundant as Surmai, and taken within 5 miles of

shore. The best specimen we saw was about 35 pounds.

A FISHING TRIP TO KARWAR AND MALVAN 73

8. The Kingfish of the Pacific (Scomberomorus scerra) is again built more on

the lines of the Seer or Surmai. The Koker is a deep bodied fish more

like Caranx caninus, known as Jack-Crevally in Walford’s book. There

are a number of varieties found at Malvan all known as Koker. The

best season is stated to be Oct. and early Nov. but owing to their love

for reefs they are seldom caught in nets. They run up to 80 pounds,

and 50 pounders not uncommon a couple of miles out at sea.

g. The best season is given as Nov. to Jan. but a few are caught up to the

end of March. Often taken up to 4o pounds with an occasional one of

7o pounds,

1o. Sometimes caught up to 2 feet.

Il.

12. Fairly plentiful from Sep. to Nov. up to 3o0 inches.

Tye

ee \ Recognised from Walford’s book.

I4. Occasionally caught.

15. i) A)S) .

18. This is a general name given to all or most of the smaller varieties of Sea

Perches.

19: Known also as Rock Cod, appear in several forms and grow to great size.

20. Kharki means rocks.

21. Run large and take a spinning bait, I got one of 11 lbs. They are like

Cock-up (Beigti) to eat.

22. Very similar in appearance to Totuava of Walford’s book.

23. These are claimed to run up to 4 feet in length, and fairly common.

24. Common throughout the year.

25. There are a variety of these, the largest I saw was 73 feet.

26. Caught mostly outside the 30 fathom mark.

27. A dozen or so are taken in a season in the large nets inside 5 miles, and

claimed to exceed 100 pounds. Are stated to be most numerous in March-

April.

This list covers only a very small number of the many varieties

caught at Malvan, we counted for instance in one haul of fish 33

species and of which we took a close-up photo, but were unable

to identify them in the absence of a suitable book of reference.

Let us hope that a publication on marine fishes will soon be pub-

lished on the lines of Shaw and Shebbeare’s ‘Fishes of Northern

Bengal’ by the Fisheries Department, and made available to the

public.

Accommodation and Travel.—There is a daily service run by the

Bombay Steam Navigation Co. Ltd. to Malvan with cabin accom-

modation, the charge being Rs. 24 for a single berth plus Rs. 6-8

a day feeding charges. No drinks or ice available. The boats

leave ferry wharf at 10 a.m. arriving at Malvan in the early hours

of the morning, and leave Malvan at 11 a.m. arriving at Bombay

at 6 a.m. making five calls on the way.

There are two rest houses, one a single-room block on the top

of the ridge overlooking the sea, run by the P.W.D. and controlled

by the Collector of Ratnagiri. The other is a small two-room

bungalow near the jetty run by the District Board and controlled

by the President, District Board, at Ratnagiri. Both bungalows

have furniture, plates and cooking pots and cutlery but no cook.

Nothing is available in the way of tin provisions, not even tin

butter, but fowls, eggs, and of course fish and some vegetables

and fruit. Bread may be had off the boat by special arrange-

ment. There is a bazaar held daily on the seashore. Both Post

4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

and Telegraph offices are near the jetty, but there is no Customs

bungalow or rest house, as we were given to believe.

Boats are Outriggers.—The boatmen demanded Rs. 15 a day

for a 27-foot outrigger and a crew of 4 men. At Karwar where the

price is considered high Rs. 8 will procure a boat and four men

as crew.

Information.—Mr. Sauba, Superintendent of the Fish Curing

Yard, is a helpful and well-informed person, or Mr. D. D. Malanker,

Fish Yard, Malvan, but perhaps the best plan would be to get the

Customs Officer to help if a contact could be made in Bombay,

especially for the hiring of boats at a reasonable rate.

Jerson DeSousa, the Chowkidar of the District Board Bungalow,

is a bright fellow and could be relied on for information in advance.

Tackle.—Take plenty of spoon or spinning bait in case the small

fish are difficult to obtain, or late in arriving back with the nets.

I was kept waiting until lo a.m. one morning on this account. The

shore wind blows out until about 11 a.m. when it turns from sea to

shore so that the distance one can get out to sea depends very

largely on the time of leaving in the morning.

Method of Fishing.—These are set out in expert detail by Dr.

Suter in his interesting article mentioned elsewhere. I cannot

myself claim any results from the methods I employed as I only

fished one day, owing to storms, and on this day we had no luck

as the small fish had stopped running. With the sail up I trolled

with a long line 50 yards from the boat, and 4o or less if near

rocks, with oars I reduced by 10 yards in each case.

I also mounted the dead bait to spin as little as possible as per

diagram. The ideal trolling speed is held by Dr. Suter as 6 miles

an hour, but these outriggers seldom go more than 3 to 5 miles

with a sail or 2 to 3 with oars so that very little lead is necessary

on the trace. The bait should not sink below 6 feet if fishing for

surmai, kokar and the other large mackerel.

200 yards of 36 pound breaking strain is good enough for fish

of 50 pounds.

Time and Tide.—Here again I quote Dr. Suter who gives the

best times as follows:—(1) From the end of the first quarter of

the incoming tide to the beginning of the third quarter, and again

{2) from the beginning of the second quarter of the outgoing tide

to some time past the half tide. Drift lining or fishing from the

rocks will give good fun with the many varieties of bream and

perch using bits of fish as bait, when conditions are unsuitable for

trolling. We caught an assortment of fish in this way though eels

are a nuisance. Wolf-herring and small kokar may also be caught

on fly-spoon which is good fun at times.

General.—I have included three sketch-maps of the two places

which may prove useful to future anglers to mark in good spots

as and when found.

Two main types of nets as used at Malvan; a 5-inch mesh called

“Dhangad’ for the larger fish, and a half-to-one-inch mesh called

“Rampan’ for the migratory shoals of mackerel and sardines.

Ice is available from an obliging manager of the Indian Fisheries

Cold Storage Depot at I anna a seer.

NOTES ON FERNS AND FERN ALLIES 75

Conclusion.—I have dealt with Malvan in more detail than Kar-

war, chiefly because I consider it a more promising and suitable

place and because Karwar has already been dealt with by Dr. Suter.

Sailfish.—Since returning from Malvan I have heard in reply

from Dr. Suter in connection with the sailfish information contained

in this note, which will be of interest to all anglers. This is what

he writes :—

‘Glad to learn that your impressions of Malvan as a fishing

place tallies with mine.

As for sailfish I am greatly surprised at any having been taken

so close in as 5 miles. When I was there the men mentioned 15

miles as the distance one would have to go out to meet them. This

would tally with my experience of seeing them from steamers at

16 to 17 miles out from Malvan and Jaigarh.

Perhaps the men are a little vague about distances, or it may

have been an exceptional occurrence. Really it is not a matter

of off-shore distance but of depth. In Ceylon we reckon 50 fathoms

to be the depth of the waters where all these big fish habitually

live, or rather 50 fathoms or more. This of course does not mean

that you cannot meet with some in waters of 30 fathoms. As a

matter of fact I hooked one off Barbryu island in 15 fathoms, but

was told by all the senior members that this was quite exceptional.

I have read a lot of American fishing books and they all favour

the idea that these fish hardly ever venture into shallow coastal

waters being fish of the deep and blue sea. Still something excep-

tional does happen now and then.

If I had a 25-30 foot seaworthy motor cruiser I would certainly

take it to Malvan and Jaigarh for a spell and have some fun.

You mention the Malvan men having caught sailfish in March.

This coincides with my experience inasmuch as I saw sailfish and

marlin from steamers off that part of the coast in February and

March on two occasions.’

NOTES ON THE FERNS AND FERN ALLIES OF

VUE Eve

ABDUL HAMEED, M.Sc.

Lecturer in Biology, Lawrence®College, Ghora Gali, Punjab.

(With 12 plates)

The plants have been collected from a small area only. This

area forms a small part of the uncultivated mountainous wedge of

the outer Himalayas. Murree, the most important military hill

station, and the summer resort of Northern India, is situated on

top of this wedge. The three important European schools of the

Punjab, namely, the Lawrence College, Ghora Gali, the Convent

of Jesus and Mary, and St. Denys’ School, are situated on this

76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

wedge. The area varies in height from 5,459 ft. (Murree Brewery)

to 7,413 ft. (Kashmir Point) above sea-level.

The study of previous records shows that no attempt at system-

atic collecting and studying ferns from this important area has been

made in the past. E. W. Trotter collected ferns from the’ neigh-

bouring district of Hazara during 1887-1892. He also collected a

few ferns from Murree, and the total recorded number is seven.

The area is fairly rich in ferns, and the author has collected 17

ferns and 2 fern allies from this locality.

The author is greatly indebted to Miss Watson and K-. Thyer

for their kindness in illustrating the specimens and to Mr. P. N.

Mehra, of the Botany Department, Government College, Lahore,

for his generous help in identification.

The area is two-faced as regards distribution of vegetation.

The eastern face is dry, with scanty undergrowth, but the western

face is shady, dampish, with dense undergrowth. The trees in this

area show an altitudinal zonation in their distribution. From Mur-

ree Brewery (5,459 ft.) to Pindi-Point of the Murree station, the

commonest trees are ‘Chil’ pine (Pinus longifolia) and the blue pine

(Pinus excelsa). In the Murree station area (7,237 {t. to 7,134 it.)

one meets with typically English trees such as horse chestnuts,

willows, maples, elms and hill poplars. Further on to Kashmir

Point (7,413 ft.) the tall spruces (Picea morinda) form a distinguish-

ing landmark. The ferns and fern allies also exhibit a similar

altitudinal zonation in their distribution in this area. For example,

though some of the species such as, Asplenium alternans, Adiantum

venustum, Pteris cretica, Dryopteris odontoloma are generally met

with all over this area, the other species are, as a rule, confined.

to special altitudinal zones. The following species are commonly

met with between the Murree Brewery and the Lawrence College

area (5,000 to 6,000 ft.), namely, Adiantum caudatum, Pellaea nitidula,

Cheilanthes farinosa, and Adiantum capillus-veneris- The following

are met with between the Lawrence College and the Pind: Point

(6,000 ft. to 7,000 ft.) namely, Cheilanthes albomarginala, Equisetum

debile and Selaginella chrysornizos. Stray specimens of Asplenium

varians, Asplenium irichomanes, Adiantum capillus-veneris and

Onychium japonicum are also found. The following occur in the

Murree station area, namely, Asplenium varians and Cystopteris

fragilis. The following species are found in the area beyond this,

namely, Polystichum angulare, Cheilanthes dalhousie, Athyrium

Schimperi, Coniogramme fraxinea, Asplenitum varians, Asplenium

trichomanes and Onychium japonicum.

The ferns are generally known to a layman. They are shade

loving plants and grow on shady slopes, or along the banks of

‘Nullas’. All the ferns in this area are terrestrial. No epiphytic

species are found. The stem is generally underground, and is call-

ed the rhizome (Plate 6, R.) The size of the rhizome and its

position in the ground differs in different species. The visible part

of a fern generally consists of leaves, of which a number unfold

each year. Before unfolding the young leaves are coiled at the

top like a watch spring. The stalk or the stipe (st) of a fully

developed leaf bears scale-like leaves in some species. The shape

NOTES ON FERNS AND-FERN ALLIES a}

of the leaf blade or frond differs in different cases. During certain

times of the year certain fronds bear on their under surface, certain

structures called the Sori (S).. These sori are brownish in colour

when mature, and generally possess a protective covering called the

indusium (D). The shape, size and the position of the sori differ

in different species. Each sorus consists of a number of stalked

capsular bodies known as sporangia. Many small unicellular bodies

called the spores are developed within each sporangium. When a

sporangium matures, it bursts, and the spores fall to the ground,

and germinate into a small, flat, greenish independent structure called

the prothallus. The reproductive organs, namely, the archegonia

or female organs, and the anthridia, the male organs are developed

on this new structure. The egg in the archegonium is fertilised

by the motile spermatozoid produced in an anthridium, and the egg

then develops into a new fern plant. In the life-history of a fern,

therefore, one meets with two distinct plants or generations, namely,

the main plant bearing sori, and called the sporophyte, and the

prothallus bearing the gametes or sex cells, and called the game-

tophyte- The sporophyte produces the gametophyte, which in its

turn gives rise to a new fern plant or sporophyte. This is known

as ‘alternation of generation’.

Genus: ASPLENIUM. L.

(Deriv. A, Primitive; splen, spleen—referring to the medicinal properties of

these ferns).

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

A. Fronds thick, and regularly cut into lobes. Sori

linear. ... Asplenium alternans,

B. Stipes black and needle-like. Fronds pinnate. Sori

oblong to linear. ... Asplenium trichomanes.

‘C. Stipes grooved. Fronds pinnate. Pinnules deeply

lobed. Sori oblong. ... Asplenium varians.

il, Asplenium alternans Wall.

(Plate 1, figure 1).

It is very common, and can be collected throughout the year.

The rhizome is short, and bears numerous long roots. The short

stipes are covered over with dark brown, hair-pointed scales. The

fronds are thick in texture, pale green, and deeply and regularly

lobed. Each lobe is broad at the base. Practically all the fronds

bear sori, which occur in two rows, and are linear. The veins are

clearly seen, and end freely.

Previously collected from Murree by Dr. Fleming.

2. Asplenium trichomanes Linn. The ‘Spleen Wort’.

(Plate 1, figure 2).

This is a very rare fern. It grows in sheltered spots among

tree roots, or under projecting rocks. The short rhizome bears

long and slender roots, and old stipes. The needle-like stipes are

black and polished. The fronds are pinnate, and the pinnae occur

78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

in nearly opposite pairs. Sori are oblong to linear, and are generally

placed close together. Specimens can be collected from the forest

road below St. Denys’ School.

3, Asplenium varians Hook and Grev.

(Plate 2, jeune’ 2).

This is a very common fern, and grows in rock crevices in shady

places, or between stones of retaining walls. It persists throughout

the year. The rhizome is short. The stipes are slightly grooved,

and bear in some cases, a short brownish line along one side. The

semi-erect fronds are delicate in texture, and pale green in colour,

and pinnate. The pinnules are lobed. The sori are oblong. Speci-

mens collected from exposed sunny spots are thicker in texture and

greenish in colour.

Previously recorded as under.—Hazara. From Black Mountains

eastward to Murree, 7,000 ft- to 9,ooo ft. Duthie, Oertal, Trotter,

Leaving, Hope and Duthie collector.

Note.—Asplenium adiantum-nigrum L. has been recorded as col-

lected from Murree by Leaving (7,000 ft.), but has not been seen

by the author.

Genus: CHEILANTHES Swartz.

(Deriv: Greek cheilo, lip; anthos, flower—referring to the marginal position

of the sori).

Key TO THE SPECIES.

A. Fronds bipinnatifid. Scales very narrow and

pointed. Fertile fronds green above and

white underneath. ... Cheilanthes albomarginata.

B. Fronds bipinnatifid, and all alike. Under

surface covered with yellowish powder.

Scales narrow and pointed. ... Cheilanthes farinosa.

C. Fronds bipinnatifid. Scales broad. Under-

surface always without any powder. ... Cheilanthes Dalhousie.

4. Cheilanthes albomarginata Clarke.

(Plate 2, figure 4).

It generally grows in dry and exposed sunny places between

rock crevices, and curls up when dry. The rhizome is compact,

and bears many old stipes. The stipes are dark brown and stiff,

and bear a few narrow and pointed scales. Fronds are bipinnatifid,

and the basal pair of pinnae long and hanging. Young fronds are

light green in colour, but the colour of the fertile fronds is deep

green above, and whitish below owing to a coating of white powder.

The sori are round and marginal. The indusium is formed by the

changed and reflexed margin of the pinnule, and is not continuous.

5. Cheilanthes farinosa Kaulf. "

Specimens of this fern have been collected from the exposed

sunny side of the ridge below the Lawrence College Hospital (5000 ft.

NOTES ON FERNS AND FERN ALLIES 70

to 6,000 ft.). It does not grow above this zone. The rhizome is

stout. The stipes are reddish brown, stiff, and bear narrow, pointed

scales. The fronds are light green in colour, bipinnatifid, and all

alike. The basal pair of pinnae are longer and hanging. The

undersurface in all the fronds is coated with a yellow powder. The

sori are round, and lie under the uneven indusium formed by reflexed

margins of the pinnules.

6. Cheilanthes Dalhousie Hook.

Syn. Cheilanthes farinosa Kaulf. var. Dalhousie Hook.

It grows in shady places between stones of retaining walls round

Panch Pando Park near Kashmir Point. The rhizome is short and

compact. The stipes are long, dark brown, and bear broad scales

at the base- The fronds are bipinnatifid and are never covered

with powder. The sori are marginal, and are protected by an

almost even indusium.

Note.—The following species has been recorded before, but has

not been seen by the author :—

Cheilanthes fragrans Webb and Berth. Between Murree and

Kohala, Leving, 1875.

Genus: PELLEAE.

7. Pelleae nitidula Wall.

Specimens have been collected from the dry eastern face of the

ridge below the College Hospital (5,000 ft. to 6,o00 ft.). It does

not grow above this zone. It generally grows under projecting

rocks. The rhizome is short and stout, and bears numerous old

stipes. The stipes are dark brown in colour, and bear a few nar-

row pointed scales and hair. The fronds are dark green, thick in

texture, bipinnate below, and almost pinnate above. The sori

are situated in a continuous line round the edge of the pinnules

and are protected by a membraneous, and slightly wrinkled in-

dusium.

Genus: ADIANTUM L.

(Deriv. Greek Adiontos, dry. Drops of water do not stay on the fronds),

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

A. Rhizome long and creeping. Fronds 3-4 pinnate.

Stipes thin and polished. ... Adiantum venustum.

B. Rhizome long and _ creeping. Fronds 2-3

pinnate. Stipes long and naked. ... Adiantum capillus-veneris.

C. Rhizome short. Fronds pinnate, often rooting

at the top. Stipes hairy. ~ . Adiantum caudatum.

8 Adiantum venustum Don.

(Plate 4, figure 7).

This is a common fern, and is often sold in pots by the villagers

during summer. The plants die down during winter. The rhizome

80 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

is thin and creeping. The stipes are black, thin and polished. The

fronds. are bluish green in colour, and 3-4 pinnate. Some pinnules

bear one or two marginal sori, which are small and protected by

an indusium formed by the reflexed margin of the pinnule.

9. Adiantum capillus-veneris L. The true Maiden-hair.

(Plate 5, figure 8).

This is a moisture-loving fern, and grows between stones in the

bed of a stream or near in trickling water near a natural spring. The

rhizome is long and creeping. The stipes are thick, polished and

black in colour. The fronds are 2-3 pinnate, and each ends in a

short terminal pinna. ‘The pinnules are fan shaped, and with deeply

loped margin. The sori are many and marginal. The indusium is

formed by the reflexed margin.

10. Adiantum caudatum L.

(Plate 3, figure 6).

Specimens of this fern have been collected from the dry eastern

face of the range below the College Hospital (5,000 ft. to 6,000 ft.).

It does not grow above this zone. The rhizome is small. The stipes

are short and hairy, and brown in colour. The fronds are pinnate,

and lie on the ground. The upper pinnae are reduced in size, and

absent from the tip which generally roots in the ground. The

oblong sori are developed along the upper edge.

Genus : ATHYRIUM

11. Athyrium Schimperi Moug.

Syn. Athyrium filix-foemina var. polyspora Clarke.

(Plate 6, figure 9).

This fern is not very common. Plants have been collected

from the bank of the ‘nulla’ behind the Hill Lodge near Panch

Pando Park. The rhizome is creeping and branched. The stipes

are thick and grooved. The fronds are large, drooping, pale green

in colour, and generally bipinnate. The pinnules have serrated

margin, and are deeply lobed. The sori are curved, and the in-

dusium is membraneous. The plants die down during winter.

Genus : CONIOGRAMME

12. Coniogramme fraxinea (Don) Diels.

Syn. Syngramme fraxinea (Don).

(Plate 7, figure 10).

This fern generally grows under bushes along the banks of

“nullas’. Specimens can be collected from the forest road below

St. Denys’ School. The plants grow to a fairly large size. The

rhizome is long and creeping. The stipes are thick. The fronds are

NOTES ON FERNS. AND FERN ALLIES 81

generally bipinnate. The basal pinna is bifid in many cases. The

large pinnules are entire, with hairy undersurface and_ serrated

margin. The sori are linear, branched, and look like thin dotted

lines along the veins, but not reaching the margin.

Genus: PTERIS

13. Pteris cretica

(Plate 8, figure 11).

This is a common fern and generally grows in beds. The rhizome

is creeping and bears numerous old stipes. The stipes are long,

stiff and naked. The fronds are of two kinds. ‘The sterile fronds

are pinnate, with the basal pinna generally forked. The upper

pinnae are broad and sessile. The fertile fronds, which stand erect,

have narrow pinnules, and bear sori in a continuous line near the

margin. The indusium is formed by reflexed margin of the pinnule.

Genus: DRYOPTERIS

14. Dryopteris odontoloma (Moore).

Syn. Nephrodium odontoloma (Moore) Hope.

Eastrea filix-mas v. odontoloma (Moore) Bedd.

(Plate 9, figure 12).

This fern is found all over this area, and practically through-

out the year. The rhizome is short and compact. ‘The stipes bear

a few brown scales at the base. The fronds are bipinnate, and

pale green in colour. The round sori are developed on the veins.

Collected before by Trotter 1889, Hope 1882, 5,000 ft to 7,000 ft.

Murree. .

Genus: POLYSTICHUM

15. Polystichum angulare Willd.

Syn. Aspidium angulare (Willd) Hope.

(Plate 10, figure 13).

This fern is not very common. Specimens can be collected from

the forest road below St. Denys’ School. The rhizome is thick and

compact. The stipes are short, stout and clothed with dark brown

scales. The fronds are dark green in colour, scaly and bipinnate.

The pinnules have short stalks and almost spinouS margins. The

sori are rounded.

Genus: CYSTOPTERIS

16. Cystopteris fragilis Beruh. The ‘Bladder fern’.

(Plate 11, figure 14).

This is a delicate fern, and grows between rock crevices.

Specimens can be collected from near Panch Pando Park. The

rhizome is short, and bears long, fibrous roots. The stipes are

$2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATUKAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

grooved, delicate and flaccid. The fronds are pinnate, thin in

texture and pale green in colour. Each pinna is deeply lobed,

and bears many and almost marginal, rounded sort.

Genus: ONYCHIUM

17. Onychium japonicum Kunze.

(Plate 12, figure 15).

This fern is quite rare. It grows in shady places between rock

crevices or on shady slopes. The rhizome is slender and creeping.

The stipes are wiry and naked. The fronds are thin in- texture

and profusely divided into many acutely bifid segments. The veins

are forked. The sori are linear and the indusium is membraneous.

Note.—The following species have been recorded from Murree

as locality before, but they have not been seen by the author in

this area :—

A. Asplenium polypodiodes Mett. Syn. Diplazium polypodio-

des Mett. Beddome—Burree, 7,000 ft., Trotter.

B. Nephrodium ramosum Hope. Syn. Dryopteris ramosum

Hope. Between Abbotabad and Murree, 7,000 ft. to 8,500 ft. Fre-

quent. Trotter 1888-1880.

Genus: SELAGINELLA

18. Selaginella chrysorhizus.

(Plate 12, figure 16).

This is one of the fern allies met with in this area. The plants

grow in beds and can be collected from the shady slope behind the

Convent of Jesus and Mary. They are confined to that area. The

plants are light green in colour. The roots are slender and bear

tubers. They dry up before winter sets in, and the underground

tubers grow into new plants each year. The stem is delicate and

branched. It bears four rows of leaves.’ .The leaves in the outer

row are bigger than the leaves in the inner row. Some branches

bear sporangia in the axils of the upper leaves.

Genus: EQUISETUM

19. Equisetum debile. The ‘Horse Tail’.

This is the second fern ally found in’ this locality. Specimens

can be collected from the banks of the ‘nulla’ below the Chelmsford

Training College, Ghora Gali. The plants appear to be confined to

that locality. That rhizome is thin and bears a number of shoots

each year. The surface of these shoots is grooved. The leaves

are reduced to scale-like structures and arise in the form of a more

or less united whorl from each node. ‘Secondary ‘branches also

arise in a whorl from some nodes. They grow out through the

sheath of the scale leaves. The sporangia are developed at the tip

of some branches, and are grouped together to form a cone-like

structure. ;

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Sec.

\ Lfre a

A A

Geers

Ferns and Fern Allies of Murree Hill.

Prare I.

(For explanation see end of article).

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Prate 11.

es gi

<t i 5)

——— ad

(ORD i

iS oR ES Bs

Gg fs

Ferns and Fern Allies of Murree Hill.

(or explanation see end of article).

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. . | Prate III.

Ferns and Fern Allies of Murree Hill.

(For explanation see end of article).

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Pirate IV.

Ferns and Fern Allies of Murree Hill,

(For explanation see end of article).

lourn., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. | Paral Vs

Ferns and Fern Allies of Murree Hill.

(For explanation sce end of article),

Journ.,, Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Pirate VI.

Ferns and Fern Allies of Murree Hill.

(For explanation see end of article).

Journ., Bombay Nat, Hist. Soc. Prare VII.

SEK pee” q

Ferns and Fern Allies of Murree Hill.

(For explanation see end of article),

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Pirate VIII.

Ferns and Fern Allies of Murree Hill.

(For explanation see end of article).

Pirate IX.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Ferns and Fern Allies of Murree Hill.

(For explanation see end of article).

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE X.

aN Les

\\ IW LA

| ee

WM oe

GO eae

SE,

LSI rs

. LS xs RE ds iG (3k MY we ay

| f Sy

4 Ge |

13.

Ferns and Fern Allies of dal Hill.

(For explanation see end of article).

_—.

Journ., Bombay. Nat. Hist. Soc. ‘Puate XI.

Ferns and Fern Allies of Murree Hill.

(For explanation see end of article).

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Sec. Pirate XII.

16.

Ferns and Fern Allies of Murree. Hill.

(For explanation sce end of arlicle).

NOTES ON FERNS. AND..FERN ALLIES 83

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Beddome, R. H.—'Handbook to the Ferns of British India, Ceylon

and Malay Peninsula’, With supplement. Calcutta, 1892.

2. Blatter and d’Almeida.—‘The Ferns of Bombay’. D. bB. Taraporevala

Sons & Co., Bombay, 1922.

3. Clarke, C. B.—A Review of the Ferns of Northern India’. Trans. Linn.

Soc., 2nd Series, Botany, 1880.

4. Collet, H.—‘Flora Simlensis’. Thacker, Spink & Co., Simla, 1921.

5- Home, C. W.—'The Ferns of North-Western India’. Jour., Bomb. Nat.

Hist. Soc., Vols. xii-xiv, 1899-1902.

6. Mehra, Pran Nath.—‘Ferns of Mussoorie’. Punjab University, Lahore,

1939.

Strasburger.—‘Text-Book of Botany.’ Macmillan & Co., London, 1930.

Willis, J. C.— Flowering Plants and Ferns.’ Camnib. University Press,

1925.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Piate [I

Fig. 1.—Asplenium alternans. Entire plant and portion of a frond show-.

ing sori (S),

Fig. 2.—Asplenium varians, Entire plant and a pinna showing sori (S).

PuatE IT

Fig. 3.—Asplenium trichomanes. Entire plant and a pinna showing sori (S).

Fig. 4.—Cheilanthes albomarginata. Entire plant and a pinna showing

sori (S). |

Piate III

Fig. 5.—Pelleae nitidula, Entire plant and a portion of a frond showing

sori (S).

Fig. 6.—Adiantum caudatuwm, Entire plant and a pinnule showing sori (S).

, PiatE IV

Fig. 7.—Adiantum venustum. Entire plant and a portion of the frond

showing sori (S).

PLaTE V

Fig. 8.—Adiantum capillus-veneris, Entire plant. Sori (S).

Pirate VI

Fig. 9.—Athyrium schemperi. R. Rhizome. St. Stipes. $. Sori, D.

Indusium.

PiateE VII

| Fig. 10.—Coniogramme fraxinea. Entire plant and a pinnule showing sori (S).

Pirate VIII

Fig. 11.—Pteris cretica, Entire plant. Sori (S).

Pirate IX

Fig. 12.—Dryopteris odontoloma. Entire plant and a portion of a pinna

showing sori (S).

PLaTE X

Fig. 13.—Polystichum angulare. Showing rhizome (R). Scale’ leaves on

stipe (C). A portion of a frond. A pinnule bearing sori (S).

84 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NALUKAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

PuaTE XI

Fig. 14.—Cystopteris fragilis. Entire plant and a portion of the pianna show-

ing sori (S).

Pate XII

Fig. 15.—Onychium japonicum. Entire plant.

Fig. 16.—Selaginella chrysorhizus. Entire plant bearing tubers (T), and

a branch showing sporangia (sp).

A BIRD PHOTOGRAPHER’S MUSINGS FROM KASHMIR

Lr.-Co.. B._ 1. PHILLIPS

Part Ill

(Continued from Vol. 46, p. 500).

Birds of a Srinagar Garden

(With 6 plates).

Srinagar boasts many large-sized gardens enclosed in the

compounds of the European quarter. ‘They are havens of peace and

charm; the lofty graceful poplars, the ancient mulberry with its

gnarled trunk, the stately chenar, all provide ample shade from the

rays of the summer sun; the soft green of its well-kept lawns, the

flowering shrubs, ablaze with scented blossom, the kaleidoscopic

effect of its extensive and well-ordered flower beds resplendent, at

this time of the year, with worthy specimens of most of those flowers,

the pride of a gardener in England, forms but a tithe of their beauty.

Most gardens find space for a vairety of fruit trees; these en-

closures in the early Spring are a riot of delicately-hued almond,

apple, peach and other varieties of fruit blossom: these orchards

forming later a favourite venue for a wealth of bird life.

These cool and peaceful surroundings are further brightened by

the passing to and fro of a stream of birds that impose themselves

on the view, their colour, calls and song demanding attention.

Mention must also be made of a few of the more striking species

commonly seen at all times during the summer months: the Oriole,

in its black and gold, with a bill full of fine grasses flies through

the far-stretching branches of the broad-leafed Chenar, and is traced

to its cradle nest stretched across the outermost fork of a slender

branch; the beautiful male Paradise Flycatcher, either in chestnut

or snowy white attire, with its restless fussiness, will be seen giving

a display of adroit flycatching; the confiding Tickell’s Ouzel of

sombre garb, but in a measure, enchanting voice, will surely be hop-

ping about the lawn either digging for a worm or standing erect

inanely looking into space; that striking bird the Hoopoe also will

be constantly in view busily quartering the lawn, probing for grubs

and worms with its long slender bill and occasionally will show the

glory of its fully expanded crest. ;

A BIRD PHOTOGRAPHER’S MUSINGS FROM KASHMIR 85

The particular garden forming the hunting ground described in

this chapter, not only gave shelter to a host of passing migrants

but also provided breeding sites annually for at least fifteen species

of birds. Many halcyon days were spent in these peaceful sur-

roundings with camera clicking at short intervals in an endeavour

to portray a graceful form or record some interesting antic character-

istic of the species being studied.

With succulent fruit ripening in due season, the fruit eaters are

also in their element; although at first much hustled by the paid

urchin, set in the centre of the orchard to scare them away, they

soon sum up the situation and decimate the crop. The normal

contraption used as a ‘scare’, is a product on a ‘no cost’ basis—an

old empty tin with its clapper of rock, hung from a tree in the

centre of the plantation, is spasmodically worked by the lad pulling

at an attached rope: at first the clanging disturbs the birds, but

this only for a few hours, after which the rattle seems to be summed

up as of nuisance value only, even to the extent that, while the din

is on, they will busy themselves on the far side of the trees. The

inevitable and numerous bouts of ‘forty winks’ indulged in by the

custodian are patiently awaited in order to work undisturbed havoc

on the fruit. Continued bird watching convinces me that examples

of such bird behaviour show signs of definite reasoning power and

cannot be solely attributable to instinct.

While meditating over these things, the pipe of a passing little

Kingfisher attracted my attention, its swift low flight carried it to

a perch on a twig protruding from a plum tree and overhanging a

fairly deep disused manure pit containing a certain amount of rank

water. The following up of a bird that acts contrary to habit often

provides interesting discovery. In this case with silvery minnow

in bill seemingly ‘at home’ in a garden at a distance of half a mile

from any known lake or stream, called for investigation. Soon a

second Kingfisher emerging from this pit joined its mate on the

plum tree, where, with a flirting of wings and ch’hee-ing the fish

was ceremoniously handed over and duly swallowed by the new

comer. Closer approach led to the discovery of the nesting tunnel

in the bank, an unusual site for the nest of such a fresh-water loving

bird.

The nesting of this beautiful little bird alongside the gorgeous

Golden Oriole and Hoopoe recalls to mind another occasion when

these three species had nested together in close proximity the pre-

vious year; the story and its’reactions may be worthy of note.

With houseboat moored in a nallah at Shalibug on the R. Sind

I had just packed up my apparatus, having successfully taken a

series of pictures of this Kingfisher from the dining room window

of the boat, and having seated myself down on its roof for a sun-

downer, began reading a well-known English sporting paper: in it a

letter to the Editor asked for due approval for the rare achievement

of having seen during the season in the neighbourhood of his west

country home—the Golden Oriole, Hoopoe and Common Kingfisher !

As has already been stated, the Kingfisher had been photographed—

the next on the list was a series of the Golden Oriole at home in

the willows alongside, and to be taken from the roof of the house-

86 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

boat next day; across the narrow stream, in the roots of a mulberry

on the opposite bank, and not twenty-five yards from the anchorage,

a Hoopoe was brooding its six fresh eggs. This anecdote has not

been included as a comparative achievement but in praise of Kashmir

as a bird lover’s paradise.

After this digression let us return again to the burrow pit, where

an interesting and instructive half hour was spent in watching the

area. This half hour supplied sufficient material eventually to pro-

duce a veritable harvest of bird photographs. The very branch

used by the Kingfisher was used in rapid succession by both male

and female Paradise Flycatcher, the White-cheeked Bulbul, a Warb-

ler and a Sparrow. ‘There is undoubtedly a definite route to each

nest which contains a series of perches—in the case of the Kingfisher,

the branch was the final jumping off post for the nest; the Paradise

Flycatcher used it as a springboard to swoop down and capture the

gnats and flies attracted by the rotting vegetation and stagnant

water; the others happened to be passers by and taking advantage

of a quiet drinking pool.

This introduction to the birds of a Srinagar garden cannot end

without mention of its avian choruses, though these admittedly do

not compare in quality with those heard in England on a Spring or

Summer’s day—the sound of the intermittent calls of the Cuckoo

does create a homy atmosphere and recall many glorious days spent

in pastures fair—yet the local choruses are. worthy of record.

Tickell’s Thrush is the main songster in these parts and is the first

to commence its sweet but somewhat sad singing in the grey dawn,

when, uninterrupted, these fresh and bracing notes trill. on the

morning air; it is not until this extended concert subsides that a

babel of call notes run riot and mark the general ‘Reveille’ in

Birdland. Although there is a distinct decrease of song during the

day, the avian world once again bristles with activity towards even-

ing with Tickell’s Thrush again the outstanding performer. At

sunset the Bulbul joins in with the Thrush, while both are searching

out their perch for the night and set up a scolding and mournful

twitter as if to bewail the end of a perfect day; having found a

suitable perch, and before the hoot of the Owl, the Thrush once

again pours forth its delightful evensong to herald in the night.

The following birds, though resident and most prominent during

the winter months are omitted from this chapter as they disperse

during the breeding season and are only occasionally found breeding

in gardens: Kashmir Grey Tit, Himalayan Streaked Laughing

Thrush, Rufous-backed Shrike, Scully’s Wood Owl. The strictly

aboreal Black Bulbul, a long slim bird rather larger than our cheery

friend, the White-cheeked Bulbul, is mainly iron grey, its black

head sports an unruly mop for crest and has bill and legs a bright

coral-red; they visit these gardens fora short spell in late April and

while busily gorging themselves on the variety of wild berries then

ripe, draw attention to themselves by the raucous double call notes

and gregarious habits. After a three weeks sojourn, they disperse

to their breeding grounds up some of the Vale’s side valleys.

Finally, a picture of the main species haunting gardens during

the winter months can best be described by reference to the ways

AY Nat. Hist. Soc.

JourN., BomMB

The House Crow

Author

Photos by

The Jungle Crow

A. BIRD PHOTOGRAPHER’S MUSINGS FROM KASHMIR 87

of the visitors at feeding time. When the hard winter weather sets

in, with snow and frost denying birds their very livelihood, I have

made a habit of feeding them, not through the medium of a bird

table as this supply would be cornered and gobbled up by a horde

of fearless and truculent Mynahs and quick-witted Jackdaws, but

by a method of breaking up the supply of bread, cake or other

available scrap and throwing -it in such a way as to ensure a fair

distribution for all visitors. The first piece thrown from the balcony

is usually retrieved by Rastus, the friendly Jackdaw, who has now

nested in a hole under the rafters of my bathroom for the past three

years, he regards himself as a privileged person, and the locality,

his own territory. Whether there are other birds present at the

time or not is immaterial, crowds will arrive in arithmetical prog-

ression in answer to Rastus’ summons that food is in the ‘offing’:

this is a peculiarly unselfish trait, shown by all birds during hard

times. Rastus, now with feathers fluffed, a picture of pride, takes

up his perch near at hand, bread in bill, looking the embodiment

of a ‘King of the Castle’.

-As each piece is thrown, a mélée ensues in which Jackdaw, House

Crow and even the giant Jungle Crow jostle with the Mynah for

possession. This ‘rough housing’ is too much for the patient flocks

of Sparrows and for the pair of Bulbuls in attendance—note, only

a pair of Bulbuls, a vicious trait in their character does not permit

any other bird of the species to trespass in their area: however

their needs are attended to and the Bulbul’s provender placed at

one’s feet, while that for the Sparrows, so powdered down as to

be a negligible quantity for the bigger birds, is strewn about the

boards. Should he still be pouting with pride, bread in bill, the

cute Rastus will quickly discard it and capture the first piece of

cake thrown. The ubiquitous Pariah Kite with its deft talons and

unerring swoop provides the nightmare of the party, even to its

ingrateful dive that seizes the morsel from the hand before it is

thrown, but done with such accuracy that scarcely ever are the

fingers scratched. Nevertheless, the cunning members of the Crow

family seldom depart empty-handed. These are the birds that

haunt one’s doorstep at all times.

There are still two or three species that are not so bold but can

also be served: the Grey Tit dotes over the kernel of the coconut,

a piece suspended from a branch in the kitchen garden will draw

him and his kind to it daily; though a bold minature bully, it was

surprising to find that when the small Brown-fronted Woodpecker

arrived and also relished the diet, the Tits gave it pride of place. A

successful experiment drew a family of the Streaked Laughing’

Thrush into the area prepared for them in the kitchen garden. A

thick bed of dry leaves freely sprinkled with unhusked rice was

strewn round a puddle of water; as was hoped, the sight of their

beloved hunting ground, at a time when dry leaves were at a pre-

mium, drew them, and the further discovery of a good supply of

food there, tempted them-to this area throughout the winter months ;

by the addition of blobs of suet, smeared on stones and twigs, the

88 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

site became the favourite rendezvous for most of the birds of the

area-

Attempt will now be made to present intimate sketches of the

individual species found breeding in this delightful spot.

The Eastern Jackdaw: Corvus monedula soemmeringii.

By the unintiated, this glossy black bird may be mistaken for

a crow, but its white eye should provide a distinctive feature for

identification, the Jackdaw being the only member of the crow

family provided with a white iris; when in company with crows,

the smaller size and grey to whitish neck will become prominent

by comparison. Numbers of the Jackdaws of Kashmir wear a

distinctive white collar, just as many, are collarless, but as both

types interbreed, there can be no question that there are two sub-

species of Jackdaw present.

Jackdaws are resident and plentiful throughout the Vale, where

they breed profusely from May till July. When the five or six

young are fully fledged, an increase in numbers possibly effecting

the food supply, flocks go further afield and visit the higher margs.

Their punctual arrival in Gulmarg does not vary by more than a

day or two after 7th August annually.

The amount and variety of material flown to their nesting

hole is considerable; clods, grass, rags and wool are carried in in

their turn, and as the nesting site is used annually, a problem arises

as to where the previous rubbish goes. Normally six eggs are

laid and are of a greenish-blue ground, speckled and spotted with

shades of brown. There were four nests in this garden, two under

the eaves of the building, the others in hollows in the boles of

chenars. It is evident that these birds mate for life for, even

when in flocks, couples will be noticed hunting together.

They are not quarrelsome birds as a general rule, but Rastus,

my semi-tame Jackdaw, with nesting hole under the rafters over

the bathroom window, is most pugnacious of a morning on his

return from the communal dormitory; he will sit on a balcony

perch for long spells, eyeing his property even when it is not in

use as a nesting site, and rudely hustle away any prospectors out

house hunting; the only reason that can be put forward for this

zealousness during the off season, is that the site must be used then

as a storeroom; again and again it has been noticed that all scraps

in excess of immediate needs are flown in and deposited, his quick

return to rejoin in the affray for further scraps lends proof for

the surmise.

In and around Srinagar large numbers haunt houses, gardens

and fields picking up scraps where available, or with their stout

bills vigorously unearthing grubs, ‘leather jackets’ and suchlike,

obnoxious vermin admittedly, but how invoking to the peace of

mind of an ardent gardener or perhaps a keen golf secretary is the

resultant trail of damage done by them to lawns and putting greens.

1 The Jackdaw has a single moult in the year, in autumn. Abrasion of the

silvery tips of the neck feathers by summer—more in some individuals than in

others—causes them to appear blacker and almost lacking the whitish collar.—Eps.

Journ., BomBay Nar. Hist. Soc. IPAL NAD) 1)

Photos by . Author

Tickell’s Thrush

A BIRD PHOTOGRAPHER’S MUSINGS FROM KASHMIR 8g

His quickness of eye and unerring judgment in flight outwits

other able opponents in attendance when scraps are thrown; quick

off the mark, and should by any mischance he fail to seize the

scrap in midair, he will dive into the mélée and possibly seize it

from under the very bill of a slower moving’ species.

At dusk all birds leave their day haunts and congregate into

immense flocks before flighting noisily to a communal roosting

area; great distances are covered by some flights. At early light,

as if by order, the return flighting starts, parties of varying strength

branching from the main throng to continue to their sub-areas.

The Jackdaw strikes me as a bird full of character and one

that will survive on his wits; his innocent air and disarming cal!

Jack, endears him in the eyes of a bird-lover, but even granting

the great help given by his tactics to bird photography, he must

be dubbed an arch marauder—the ‘Bogey Man’ of all breeding

birds. Examples of these exploits in my descriptions of the habits

of Jacana and Stilt show up his black side, yet in spite of all,

he will always remain a most intelligent and loveable character.

The White-cheeked Bulbul: Molpastes leucogenys.

India boasts a number of varieties of this cheerful family, all

tame, confiding and familiar birds which become great favourites

wherever met. It is considered that the White-cheeked Bulbul

of Kashmir has no equal among them; its jaunty mannerisms and

continual cheeriness endears it to all, its implicit trust in man soon

becomes evident judging by the boldness shown in accepting tit

bits offered, even to the taking of them from hand; tappings on

a closed window and much chattering draw attention to the fact

that entry to the feast has been denied them. Local boatmen assert

that the pair of bulbuls in whose territory their ‘dunga’ houseboat

is moored will, beyond paying the normal foraging visits at meal

times, remain in the vicinity to cheer up the place should a guest

be expected and further, in a psychic way, give warning of one

about to pay a surprise visit.

The bird is a typical representative of the Bulbul family with a

crest and tail patch and similarity of dress in both sexes. It is a

resident and abundant in the Vale. The body plumage is a dull

brown at a distance, but at close quarters shows the pleasing green-

ish tinge on the upper plumage; the white cheeks and bright

sulphur-yellow tail patch add points to an otherwise sober garb,

but it takes the highly developed black crest, directed forward, to

complete the trim jaunty figure presented. Further research is

necessary to determine whether Mr. Punch fashioned his headgear

on this bird’s crest. Be that as it may, the famous headgear

common to both is a guarantee that all that contact them will be

inspired with good cheer.

Whether it be during times of plenty, or during the arduous

snows, the inseparable pair will be seen following one another,

eee their lively calls and appearing to be as happy as sand

Oys.

The Bulbul has no song, but their many joyful and melodious

calls of three to four notes each in an endless variety of combina-

90 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

tions, are attractive. Only a few stock phrases recur, otherwise

a newly invented variation often repeated with gusto and pride,

lays down a challenge to others to try and emulate so learned an

utterance! Two cheery sentences commonly heard can be put

into words: Tea for two and Take me with you. In entire

contrast to this daylong cheeriness, a quaint sad chattering is set

up towards sunset, and though the devoted Joan is in close and

sympathetic attendance Darby remains inconsolable; this hysteria

continues for periods of a quarter of an hour or so, during which the

Bulbul flirts its wings and weeps copiously; an occasional emotional

full-throated call is sandwiched between these wailings in order to

attract, it is presumed, listeners from afar to these mutterings of his

utter grief at sight of the fast setting sun.

Though so tame and confiding where human beings are con-

cerned, they form fine sentinels for the avain throng and vie with

the Common Mynah in giving timely warning of approaching

danger.

On one occasion great excitement prevailed over the sighting

of a possible pair of hybrids, with red cheeks and a reddish-yellow

tail patch ; fortunately, owing to a wartime exhaustion of the supply

of dust shot in Srinagar, the dangerous time lag of a day or two

before the hoax was discovered was bridged, and the birds saved

from extinction at the hands of some keen collector. The hotel

bearers had thought fit to anoint this particularly confiding pair of

Bulbuls, always in atendance in the dining room, with the red stain

so freely used during the ‘Holi’ festival.

The nest is a well-knit structure of roots, neatly lined with fibre

and usually placed in a thick bush within reach of the ground,

but a couple of pairs, more bold and confiding than the rest, built

annually inside hotel living rooms—one, in the much frequented

wireless room on a hanging gas lamp, the other in the ballroom

on an electric lamp bracket continually in use. Although this

familiarity was viewed with much disfavour by the hotel authorities

for obvious reasons, broods as a rule were successfully reared amidst

all this noise and bustle. The eggs, two or three to a clutch, are

very handsome having a pinkish ground with spots and speckles

in various shades of red.

In accordance with the system of size comparison used by well-

known ornithologists and copied by me, the Bulbul family of 8 in.

average length, forms one of the stock sizes used to aid identifica-

tion.

Tickell’s Thrush: T'urdus unicolor.

Although of plain attire, this most delightful Thrush, the size

of a Mynah, arrives in March and by its song and confiding ways

endears itself to all. At any time of the day, especially in the early

morning and at dusk, the green lawns will have their quota, show-

ing birds gaining a yard or two at a time by a curious series of

short and speedy hops before, either inanely staring into space or

making a vicious thrust into the ground with the bill in search of

their worm diet.

A BIRD PHOTOGRAPHER’S MUSINGS FROM KASHMIR gI

The song cannot be called monotonous as it consists of a fair

compass of sweet notes well modulated, and with each burst of

song ending in trills; in volume the song falls short of that of our

Song Thrush at home but nevertheless it is a pleasing asset in any

garden. Its plaintive yet delightful solos are at their fullest and

best during the grey dawn, and it is not until these Thrush concerts

have subsided, that the morning air begins to pulsate with the

calls and songs of a horde of other birds. During the flighting of

Jackdaws and other flocks of birds making for their chosen dormi-

tory roosts, this Thrush has a curious habit of scolding while search-

ing out a perch for the night ; however when the light begins to fail,

it pours forth a glorious evensong to herald in the night.

The nest is a deep cup composed of moss, roots and dry grasses,

and is lined with fine fibres : no mud has been noticed in their make-

up. The eggs, usually three in number, are greenish spotted and

blotched with rufous. The nesting sites, though in the majority

of cases averaging in height only about 1o ft. from the ground,

are difficult to get at from a photographic standpoint as the nest

is usually placed in the fork of a tree trunk and in dense shade;

these sites, in spite of requiring much judicious clearing of the

foreground, offer, in but the most favourable cases, a chance of

getting direct sunlight to penetrate into the area and that, only

for short periods during a day’s work.

I have only been able to steel myself to portray these birds

at the nest on two occasions. The impression gained during the

first sitting was that deep shade was imperative for the welfare

of the young: their gaping and panting as soon as the light was

let in aroused disconcerting pangs of guilt, however the reaction

to this exposure shown by the self-sacrificing mother bird—her

immediate arrival at the nest, regardless of possible danger, to

give shade to her callow young even to the extent of having to be

hustled by the male bird on his arrival at the nest to feed the

young—made the second sitting possible, thus providing me with

the Dufaycolor transparencies denied me at the first sitting owing

to adverse weather conditions. All ill effects vanish however when

the work has been completed and the nest again placed in deep

shade, with the parents, apparently undisturbed, continuing to

succour their young.

The Himalayan Paradise Flycatcher: Jchitrea paradis: leucogaster.

While being paddled along the willow-bordered margin of

Anchar Lake, a newcomer to Kashmir, a copper-coloured, Bulbul-

like bird was seen, and in answer to my query, the Mussalman Kash-

miri shikari named it Husseini Bulbul. While cogitating on an

explanation for this reference in name to so revered a saint of the

Muslim faith, another bird, mostly white with a pair of immaculate

long streamers literally floated through the contrasty light and

shade of the grove; it was then, when my informant pointed out

that this was the male bird, that I made a mental note that its

local native name had been well coined, and was not surprised on

final identification to find that its name in English was Paradise

g2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Flycatcher. It is in my estimation the most striking bird to be

seen in these parts and a sight which makes even the least bird-

conscious pause in wonder.

The hen is of slim bulbul-like build, and though of similar size

to the male, lacks the pair of long, thin, ribbon-like tail feathers

and is of a rich chestnut-coloured upper plumage in contrast to

the adult male’s pure white. There is never any change of colour

in the female plumage.

Later the same morning, replicas of the cock bird were often

seen but with the white parts and streamers chestnut-coloured as

in the hen birds; it was further noted that the streamers carried

by them were of varying lengths, some just sprouting beyond the

bulbul tail, others up to the average size carried by the white

birds; proportionate to the length of these growing streamers,

white patches on the wing coverts become noticeable; a reference

to the bird books later proved that these copper-coloured birds were

immature male birds during the stages of gradual transition before

reaching the final immaculate white plumage of the adult male.

This complete change over is not effected until after the third

autumnal moult.

Once fully adult, except for the crested head and neck, which

appear normally as a dark blue-black but changing in colour to an

iridescent indigo-blue when exposed to direct sunrays, bill and

spectacles that are a cobalt blue, and wing quills traced with fine

black lines, the bird is pure white. Its pair of elongated streamers

attain an average length of from ten to twelve inches in excess of

the normal tail feathers: many patriarchs though, carry sets exceed-

ing this by quite six inches or more.

In company with the Golden Oriole, the Paradise Flycatcher

is among the latest of the summer migrants to arrive; the latter

half of April sees them in and few remain after the beginning of

September.

The seemingly unbalanced flight, due to the exaggerated tail

streamers, offers small resistance to the speed and accuracy of the

swoops, the snap of the bill seldom fails to seize its fast-flying prey,

but should it fail, the unchecked and perfectly controlled flight

leaves no doubt as to the success of the second snap. Their rest-

less fussiness and incessant sallies from the depths of the shady

foliage through light and shade emphasises the pure silvery pluim-

age of the adult male, as the bird flutters erratically through space

with long waving streamers trailing behind. These manoeuvres

keep them in view throughout the day.

The nest is an exquisite affair. A deeply-cupped itiverted cone,

built of fibres neatly woven together and ornamented on the outside

with blobs of cobweb; it is very snug and comfortably lined with

a silky down. The eggs, three to four in number, are very hanc-

some reddish eggs. Semi-submerged willow groves are most

favoured; here nests may be found not more than 5 ft. to 6 ft.

from the surface of the water, but in gardens, the safety of a shady

chenar is usually sought and nests as a rule vary in height from

20 ft. to go ft. from the ground.

4A BIRD PHOTOGRAPHER’S MUSINGS FROM KASHMIR 93

The male bird is very intolerant of intruders and will often give

away the position of a nesting site by his excited and petulent

cries of Weep poor Willie weep—poor Willie, as he dashes at

all comers in his characteristic somewhat wobbly flight. In spite

of this vigilance, the contents of many nests are destroyed by

shrike or crow.

It is not only a delight to watch a brooding pair, but a gift. to

the photographer, as both male and female share in incubation

to such an extent that a change over at the nest takes place within

the half hour, offering many chances of picturing both birds along-

side one another. A much prized Dufaycolour slide, not only

emphasises the colour contrast between cock and hen but also de-

picts the male’s delight at his visit to the nest, sitting bolt upright

tail feathers splayed out, twittering sweet nothings to his sitting

mate.

In common with all birds that prefer shady sites, there is much

to be done in order to let the sunlight into the arena. Fortunately

for pictures of this bird, their beloved willow saplings are pliable

and amenable to much bending; a rope, a heave and that willow

is controlled, and so on, if necessary, ad infimitum’; once the sun

is thus harnessed the rest is comparatively easy as the subjects

are not shy.

The Indian Oriole: Oviolus oriolus kundoo.

Ornamental associates of the fascinating Paradise Flycatcher

in gardens and willow groves are the handsome and richly coloured

Goiden Orioles—the males in their bright golden yellow plumage

except for the black wings and central tail feathers, the females,

less striking, with upper plumage a yellowish green, a_ sullied

white streaked brown beneath, and brown wings—supply an addi-

tional touch of life and brilliance to the many spacious and restful

private gardens in Srinagar. These birds are of medium size, solidly

built, and larger than a mynah.

As breeding migrants, Orioles visit Kashmir; large numbers

reach the Vale in late April, and having completed their breeding,

disappear again by the beginning of September.

Except for a harsh cawing call uttered in soliloquy, and the

continuous string of peevish imprecations hurled at unwelcome

intruders into their zone, these birds have an extensive repertoire .

of pure loud melodious notes most pleasant to hear, especialiv

those oft-repeated triple call notes, which are both varied and

attractive. Although Orioles are not the first birds to greet the

dawn, yet, once started, the volume of their liquid notes—for song

they have none—dominates a multi-voiced avian concert. The

charm of those mellow flute-like calls must be heard to be fully

appreciated.

About noon one sunny morning, while returning from a shikara

trip across the Anchar Lake, and nearing some narrow willow-

covered promontories jutting out into the water, a Golden Oriole

festival was seen to be in full swing. These graceful willow groves

backed up by Mahadev’s still snow-capped ridge and reflected in

detail on the still blue waters of the lake, formed the picturesque

04 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

setting. At the outset, superimposed on this scene were some six

excited Orioles increasing in numbers eventually to twenty birds,

who not only added further colour, but provided a large amount

of interest to the watcher.

The keen rivalry shown by the male birds, the frequent use of

a variety of call notes, the flash of brilliant plumage in the sun-

light during the chase from tree to tree with flight, now dipping,

now erratic, the flirting of the wings, the spead of the tail, cram-

med into a nutshell the ways of the Oriole and stamped the scene

as a normal deal in their Marriage Market. Attracted by the calls

and excitement from this area, every Oriole within hearing, male

and female, gathered round as interested spectators and encouraged

the contestants with well-modulated and persuasive calls. The origi-

nal party had gathered in this grove to settle the ownership of the two

hen birds in the party. Judging by the guile shown by one of the

hens in the party and her antics, she must have been a female of vast

experience; when the contestants were on the point of exhaustion,

she flew away out of the area and from her new perch uttered her

harsh caw getting no response to this, she again entered the arena

—her next flight however was successful for, in answer to her fur-

ther squawk, one of the male birds followed her and with this, the

drama must have ended, for the crowd of Orioles automatically

dispersed in all directions.

This encounter with a crowd of Golden Orioles was a great occa-

sion: normally the birds are seen in pairs following one another from

tree to tree, and are usually the only members of that species

within that given area.

Though shy and more heard than seen, these Orioles will brook

no interference in their nesting areas and will boldly attack with

great determination all comers; the swift direct flight, attended by

a string of petulant cries, carries on the furious onslaught until the

intruder is driven out of the area.

In the Plains there appears to be a pact between the Oriole

and that other firebrand, the King Crow; the fury of their assaults

on trespassing crows, falcons and kites are spectacular and worth

watching. It has been noticed that the friendly cheery Bulbul is

permitted to intrude in this zealously guarded area, even to the

extent of nesting in the same tree as either of these ‘thrusters’,

thereby enjoying immunity from the attack of their many enemies.

The nest is a grass hammock slung in a slender fork near

the extremity of an overhanging branch, usually very difficult to

reach from ground level: it looks a bulky affair with fibres and

other oddments dangling down in haphazard fashion, but a closer

view will show that the basic binding material—narrow strips of

strong coarse grass—supplying the support to carry the nest, is

firmly bound round the prongs of the chosen fork and the. deep

neatly-woven cup, forming the egg-chamber, is strongly bound to

the base. The eggs, three or four to a clutch, are a bright shining

white with black or reddish brown spots thinly distributed over

the whole surface of the egg: 7

In Kashmir these birds used to breed freely in the semi-

submerged willow groves bordering Anchar Lake; their taste there

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A BIRD PHOTOGRAPHER’S MUSINGS FROM KASHMIR 95

for suspending their nests low, often only 6 ft. over the surface

of the shallow water, presented a gift to the photographer. Times

have changed. Owing to the influx of those innately-keen and

insatiable naturalists—British schoolboys—the birds have taken to

the safety afforded by mighty chenars and now build out of reach

of both, the budding ornithologist and the harmless photographer.

There has always been great difficulty in obtaining a good set of

pictures of the Orioles at the nest owing to their breeding season

synchronizing with boisterous monsoon weather when high winds

are answerable for many failures, as, during the split second delay

between button press and shutter release, the slender twig on which

the nest is slung is often blown out of the prefocussed area.

The Himalayan Starling: Sturnus vulgaris humii.

The iridescent sheen on head, neck and mantle of green, purple

or coppery-red which sparkles in sunlight when the bird is near at

hand, disappears in the distance, giving to the Starling the appear-

ance of a glossy black bird, more particularly so as by the time of

arrival in Kashmir the buff edgings to the feathers have been worn

away. Though of similar size, the bird is of stouter build than the

Bulbul.

The Starling is among the first migrants to arrive in Kashmir,

appearing with unfailing punctuality close on the heels of the Swal-

fow; over a period of three years, the first arrivals have been noticed

on the 27th February. Soon after this date flock upon flock invade

the land, many remaining to breed, while others pass on to breeding

grounds in Central Asia and even Siberia. A stream of flocks, each

numbering from twenty to thirty birds, use this route again during

September when on their return flight to winter quarters in India.

During the intervening months, the period of the breeding season,

though birds may be seen in company on favoured lawns, it is ob-

vious that now all team work is dormant, individuals being occupied

mainly on family chores.

The effects of ruthless persecution in their winter haunts in

India, possibly well merited by the great damage done by flocks

to crops and fruit, and also, though perhaps not so well merited,

for their tastiness in starling pie, has produced a species of marked-

ly nervous disposition. ‘There’s not to reason why’—a whole flock

busily foraging on the lawn one moment will rise in unison in

answer to a squawk from a single member and manoeuvre with great

precision until reaching the topmost branches of some tree; from

this vantage point, after a spell of preening of feathers, the birds

will glide down to the ground, following the leader in ones and

twos to continue their foraging. This solidly-built glossy black

bird, made to appear top-heavy by its stout yellow bill, never hops

but its quick deliberate step gives to a flock an air of hustle.

The Starling’s pride in the delivery of its song knows no

bounds; with bill raised to the skies and wings shivering, it utters

its lengthy and varied song with such gusto and persistence, that

surely it must be an untutored human ear with limited compass that

06 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

fails to catch the subtle intonations it must contain, registering as

it does but a jarring unpleasant jumble of discordant sound.

The birds tend to colonise when breeding, their loosly-knit and

untidy nests are of grass lined with feathers and placed in holes,

those in willows being mostly favoured; other suitable sites are

found under rafters in buildings or even holes in banks. The six

eggs are of a very pale blue. It is strange and therefore noted

here that, in these breeding territories, single eggs freshly laid,

are often found lying deserted on the ground within a few feet of

known occupied nesting holes.

The Common Mynah: Acridotheres tristis.

Anywhere in India from the moment the ship anchors at a port

of disembarkation until your wanderings take you over 8,ooo ft.

above sea level, this vinous brown bird, with bright yellow bill, legs

and eye patch, and if in flight, the prominent white streak in each

wing, will be met. It is one of the commonest birds in Kashmir

where it is resident. Its length of to in. is also used as a stock

size in the system of comparative measurement.

From very first introduction it becomes obvious that the bird

is a character, inordinately conceited and a clever opportunist, he

is always in company with and ably backed up by his devoted mate;

his bullying propensities may not be evident at first, but will not

escape attention. The species is very sociable, and except during

the breeding season, will be met in flocks of varying strength, yet

always hunting in couples within the flock; further, this species,

in common with other residents that are not spurred on by the

Spring and Autumn urges to cover immense distances in migration,

collect daily at dusk in large parties and fly off to distant roosting

areas, here pandemonium reigns till dark, with even minor out-

breaks throughout the night.

Their solid frame upright bearing and jaunty purposeful walk

entitles them seemingly to an undisputed right of way; they will

sum up a passer-by as harmless and make way for him at the last

moment and return immediately to the spot to carry on the good

work, but at other times, some instinct will prompt when, with

a querulous cry, the Mynah will take to wing and fly away well

out of reach. As a family, their familiarity and boldness give them

the main pickings when ploughing or weeding is in progress, in-

dividuals will seize an unearthed grub hardly before the digging

implement has been withdrawn from the soil; other species, though

present at the time, are less trusting and ies forego many a lus-

cious morsel.

All other species place implicit trust in the Mynah’s undisputed

watchfulness, its alarm is sufficient to make all scatter to instant

safety ; occasional false alarms are given by irresponsible individuals

but these only with a view to dispersing the assembled throng in

order to pick up at leisure the deserted tit-bits.

Their chatter drawn from an immense vocabulary is endless ;

and though not attractive to the human ear, the confidence in de-

livery, the puffed out feathers, and the assertive bobbing of the

PLATE

JOURN., BoMB

re)

The Himalayan Starlin

Author

Photos by

The Wryneck

A BIRD PHOTOGRAPHER’S MUSINGS FROM KASHMIR 97

head mark them as being words of much importance if judged by

the appreciation shown to each utterance by his doting mate.

A very common sight during the breeding season is a desperate

fight between two cock birds, whether it be caused by the fervent

attentions of one of the contestants to a maid already affianced

or to careless tittle-tattle is immaterial, but the resultant tussle is

remarkable for its ferocity; soon one bird lies prone, pinioned down

by the conqueror now standing over him, who, beyond uttering

a volume of abuse, appears to have finished the fight, but this is

not the end, for, now comes the turn of the quickly assembled

spectators to join in and with scoldings and unmerciful pecking all

but kill the helpless vanquished one.

As long as a cavity is found large enough to accommodate

the bird, the site of the nest is immaterial; holes in buildings,

trees or banks are alike; without showing any fear even a conven-

iently sized space in the foundations of an occupied vulture or

kite’s nest will be used. There appears to be no question of rights

of occupation in Mynah law, the cavity of their choice will be

occupied and due to their boldness and untiring persistence they in-

variably succeed in evicting the rightful owners; even birds of

larger size have been known to give up the unequal contest and

audw the Mynahs right of way.

Nothing comes amiss for nesting materials, a miscellany of

rags, paper, grass, cotton wool form the debris that gets flown

in to make up the bulky, untidy nest. The five to six glossy sky-

blue eggs are beautiful.

The Kashmir House Sparrow: Passer domesticus bactrianus.

Although a resident, the House Sparrow is not as numerous in

the Vale as the species is throughout the length and breadth of

the plains. Further it is interesting to note that although every

village, even those over ‘hill station’ height, hold a quota of these

birds, yet the species is not represented in Gulmarg (9,000 ft.)

where the Cinnamon Sparrow holds sway.

It is not deemed necessary to describe the dress of these ubi-

guitous vagabonds, they own very nearly the whole world, however,

their size of 6 in. in length is used as a stock size for comparative

measurements. |

Wherever met, the Sparrow is the same bustling bird, fussy

and ill-mannared, knowing: no rebuff even though haunting human

habitations, usually in large numbers. His nuisance value is much

curtailed in Kashmir as the fair number that remain throughout the

winter become subdued and well-behaved citizens, arousing much

human sympathy; the hard winter robs them of their sprightly

ways and makes them appear unobtrusive and grateful to man for

the smallest crumbs scattered for their use; even the noisy chirrup-

ings are so subdued as to become negligible.

At the end of February it becomes evident that the local

sparrow world is beginning to take notice of the approach of

spring, and in consequence the well-behaved winter cock sparrow

appears again in his true colours. It is now that fighting becomes

9% JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

general and his endless monotonous chirrupings, offensive; his day-

long noisy struttings with drooping wings and cocked tail merits

even the displeasure of bored hens, as evidenced by the amount of

feathers plucked by them from these prancing, conceited beaux ;

there are, however, temporary lulls in these displays, but these are

used with relish in order to have a spirited scrap with a supposed

rival, resultant scars are no deterrent, and thus these noisy dis-

plays have to be endured until the cares of family life and the needs

of a large family quell this riotous conduct.

There is a defined breeding season in Kashmir—May to August—

hence residents here are spared the continuous noisy courtship days,

the lot of our neighbour in the Plains of India, where breeding goes

on nearly all the year.

These birds employ the same tactics as their associates the

Mynahs and will boldly evict birds in occupation of nesting sites

appealing to their fancy. The nest is a bulky affair of straw and

feathers loosely put together and placed in a hole under caves or

in thatch, but in Kashmir it is common to find bulky dome-shaped

nests built high up in poplars. Sparrows are untidy builders and

litter the environment of these sites with much debris. The clutch

numbers five to six eggs which are very variable in colour, but

have a general tone of grey or brown, covered with speckles and

blotches.

The Brown-fronted Woodpecker; Dryobates brunnifrons.

This Woodpecker about 8 in. in length is distinguished from

the other pied bird in Kashmir by its smaller size, duller plumage

and head: the umber-brown forehead and crown with a crest

which, in the cock bird is a bright golden yellow in front and

crimson behind, while in the hen a dull yellow, supplies the most

obvious aid to identification.

The birds are resident in the Vale and the smallest of the three

representatives of the family in these parts. As far as is known

they do not haunt the surrounding mountains, judging by their

total absence from Gulmarg.

Being fairly common and showing a preference for open

country, they will often be seen along the narrow tree-bolstered

embankments and scaling up trees in the villages, busily working

a way up trunks in a series of jerks, or at rest, with claws and

stiff tail balancing the backward tilted body in such a way as

to give the specialised strong chisel-shaped bill full play either,

to shear off bark while foraging for larvae or, in the breeding

season, to drill through the hard wood and provide a nesting

chamber, or yet, if disturbed, the bird may be seen in flight from

one tree to another moving in characteristic heavy undulating wood-

pecker fashion.

The woodpecker is not shy and will allow close observation.

Many a time a camera has been set up within twelve feet of a bird

busy excavating its nesting hole; though so confiding, it remains

on the alert, and at short intervals will draw its head out of the

deepening cavity to survey the surroundings with a swaying of

the body and a twisting of the head from side to side; if satisfied,

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A ALVId "90S ‘ISIFT “LVN Avanog “Nunof

A BIRD PHOTOGRAPHER’S MUSINGS FROM KASHMIR 99

digging will continue, but if uncertain, the bird will freeze and

sidle round the bole to thus escape the ‘evil eye’.

For a shorter or longer period during the breeding season—

May to July—the bird turns into an indefatigable digger and its

tappings are heard everywhere, but drummings, never. This

choice, trial and early desertion of incomplete borings becomes a

menace to the photographer who, so as not to disturb the bird at

its newly chosen site, takes no immediate action only to find at

his next visit, perhaps a day or two later, that the site has been

deserted, but by following up the sound of further tapping else-

where in the area the next chosen site will be discovered.

It is not human interference that causes these desertions, as

proved by altered tactics. When this predeliction for constantly

shifting about became obvious, the apparatus was set up forthwith

and a successful series taken without detriment to the boring: on

this occasion the nesting tunnel was completed and the brood

successfully reared.

Two possible reasons may be given for such waste of effort:

either the bird, on reaching the average depth of the horizontal

boring finds that the anticipated natural cavity or area of unsound

wood, is not forthcoming, or that it is driven away by the constant

interruptions caused by numbers of other brids trespassing at the

site in search for a possibly suitable nesting cavity for their own use.

Tits, Sparrows and a Wryneck were seen once contesting one

such boring, and it appeared as though the Wryneck had won, but

in this case, although the expulsion was not witnessed, it was

surprising to find that the Woodpecker, contrary to custom, had

returned to take possession.

During one winter, this bird, having discovered a coconut shell

hung from a willow to attract Tits, showed great relish not only

for this diet but also for the suet pressed into crevices in the bole

of a tree. Having had its fill, it peek-peeked to its mate. The

punctuality of its further daily visits was remarkable, for, although

heard in the neighbourhood earlier, it was never before 1.30 p.m.

that the hanging coconut shell was attacked.

The Wryneck: Iynx torquilla japonica.

The Wryneck is a grey-brown bird the size of a Bulbul. The

scaly appearance of the grey underparts neatly vermiculated with

a pattern of fine black lines, the rich brown wings streaked and

mottled in black and buff, the broad dark brown line from nape to

back, together with a couple more down each side of the face, are

so subtly blended as to make the whole outfit into an excellent

example of obliterative colouration. Being akin to Woodpeckers

and insectivorous, it mainly haunts the trunks of trees when forag-

ing and then becomes very difficult to trace. Though mainly

aboreal, the bird will often come to ground in search of its prey,

and even here, the camouflage will hold good.

It seems strange that this remarkable gift of nature should

be cast aside by the bird’s arresting call notes which are soft but

penetrating and unmistakable; the call consists of eight repetitions

of the sound Chetch uttered in rapid succession without variation

100 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

in scale or tone. Though these birds are not numerous in the Vale,

a tally can be kept of their numbers and location throughout the

breeding season by this freely uttered call.

The Wryneck arrives in Kashmir early in. March and for the

first fortnight appears to remain solitary, then, it is inferred, traced

by the insistent calling, a mate joins up and for the rest of the

season the pair are inseparable, kept in close touch by this inter-

mittent Chetch chetch-ing.

The bird is tame and confiding and will allow a close approach

at all times, especially when foraging on the ground or crawling

up tree trunks. No cogent reason can be offered for the feeling

of revulsion at this ‘close up’ of the bird, yet it is ever present in

my case; perhaps the mottled upper plumage, its sluggish ways,

the rapid movements of its worm-like tongue and finally, the con-

tortions of its head and neck, meriting its apt name—Wryneck—

calls to mind the reactions set up when in the presence of that

obnoxious creature—the snake.

In May its unmistakable call again guides one along the route

taken by these birds while in deligent search for a nesting hole.

The most favoured site is a disused and deserted Brown-fronted

Woodpecker’s boring with its aperture too small to accommodate

Mynah or Starling thus cutting down ‘rough housing’ to a mini-

mum, a state of affairs pleasing to the peaceful Wryneck.

An amusing half hour was spent following up one of these

house-hunting expeditions; how undaunted was the male bird in

spite of his fruitless efforts at pointing out possible nesting sites

to a most exacting hen! his good natured sallies again and again,

made him appear a model of patience and correct behaviour.

After much ado the site was finally chosen—a disused Woodpecker

boring some twenty feet from the ground—here the hen bird was

kept busy brooding her clutch of six white eggs laid on the bare

boards or perhaps on the debris left there by the previous owner.

During this period the male bird remained in close attendance,

crooning a soft version of the same old tune.

From a photographic standpoint this particular nesting site

Was most convenient, a very little clearance being necessary to

let in the light. and thus enable short exposures to be given; with

both birds entirely disregarding the camouflaged camera and paying

innumerable visits to their young, twenty-four exposures were made

within the hour.

One pair of Wryneck breed annually up in Gulmarg (9,000 ft.).

The Indian Hoopoe : U pupa epops.

The Hoopoe is of slighter build but of the size of the Common

Mynah, the long slender bill though makes it in fact longer.

The boldly banded black and white wings and tail, the long bill

balancing the crest, when depressed, and the fawn-coloured body

plumage leave no doubt as to the bird’s identity ; the expessive crest,

normally closed, gives the impression that the bird is armed with

a pickaxe head, as it continuously digs in the soil, but momentarily,

ar,

PLATE

Journ., BomBay Nav. Hisvt. Soc.

cite

-eared |

The Blac

Author

Photos by

g Dove

an R

The Ind

A BIRD PHOTOGRAPHER’S MUSINGS FROM KASHMIR 1ol

on alighting, and at other times when agitated, the glory of the

erected fawn-coloured, black-bordered crest becomes conspicuous

and ornamental.

This striking yet tame bird vies with the Shrike in being the

most numerous summer visitor to the Vale. It is amongst the

earliest of arrivals and does not waste time before searching out a

nesting site. The countryside rings with the triple-noted call

Up-poop-poop and when that spring feeling is at its height and

the display flights in full swing, a fourth note is often added. These

‘calls are uttered from a perch on tree or building where the bird

sits with neck feathers puffed out, dipping its head to each

syllable. A harsh squawk of annoyance is also prevalent at the

beginning of the season uttered by the male bird, either to show

his displeasure at the presence of other admirers on the scene, or

in his efforts to drive an obstinate spouse, still attempting to

hang on to her freedom, into the nest. Although not plastered in

as is the case with Hornbills, the hen Hoopoe having commenced

to brood, goes into ‘purdah’ and is seldom seen to leave the nest

until the young are hatched but is regularly fed there by the dili-

gent and indefatigable male bird. If disturbed at the nest, the

female’s hiss gives a very realistic imitation of that of a snake.

Being entirely a ground feeder, one of the commonest sights

on any open grassy patch is that of the Hoopoe family briskly

walking or running, while methodically quartering the ground, prob-

ing here and there with the slender bill until a worm or a harmful

‘leather jacket’ is unearthed; this capture will either be swallowed

whole with an upward tilt of the head, or the bird will take to

wing and with butterfly-like flight, hesitant and undecided, fly off

in order to deliver the morsel to his brooding hen at the nest.

So intent is the Hoopoe on his digging operations that he be-

comes oblivious to the lessons taught by past experience which

should. have shown that the boon companions, in close attendance,

were but awaiting an opportune moment to snatch away his hard-

earned booty. Knowing his even temperament, even the vagabond

sparrow will again and again relieve him of his pride; the only

reactions shown to this thieving are a look of blank surprise,

a momentary fanning out of the crest, a short pause and then fur-

ther diligent probing of the lawn.

Any dark nook or cranny will serve as a nesting site, it may

be at ground level in the roots of a tree, or in a cavity in its

bole, a hole in a wall or one under the rafters of a building, or

yet, even on the ground inside a deserted hut. A jumble of odd-

ments carelessly strewn serves as the nest in which generally six

eggs may be found. The eggs are greenish-blue or olive-brown

but soon become badly discoloured and the nest, a malodorous sty.

Later, when the family parties are out on the lawns, it is a

common and pretty sight to see parties of five or six young birds

in Close attendance on their parents awaiting their turn to be fed:

the thought that such striking birds have been reared under such

evil-smelling and verminous conditions beats conception.

102 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

The Indian Ring Dove: Streptopelia decaocto.

Late in April the How-do-do of the Ring Dove is heard, and

should the call be followed up, a pigeon-like bird, pale french grey’

with a half ring of black bordered white round the hind neck,

will fly out with a clatter of wings and make its way with strong’

swift flight to some other distant tree; single birds have a habit of

rising steeply from a perch and spiraling down to another, where

presumably the intended is sitting, here with distended throat to

prance about with bobbing head and thus serenade this, more often

than not, ..unresponsive female.

A very pugnacious trend in the dove’s character becomes evident

soon after its arrival in Srinagar and much spirited fighting seen,

seemingly to contest the right of ownership of disputed territory or

the hand of fair maid. No quarter is given. The contestants sidle

up and lashing out with the near wing belabour one another, uttering

nervous but petulent sighs of Ean Ean, any advantage gained in

the fight is followed up from tree to tree and the victor not satisfied

until the trespasser is driven out of the area. After being witness

to many such contests, how can these examples of a true fighting

spirit be reconciled with that time-honoured merit bestowed on the

dove as the heraldic ‘Emblem of peace’ !

The nest is typical, a sketchy platform of sticks with a slight

depression for the two white eggs. It is placed on just as insecure

a base in tree or more normally in bush or jumble of creeper, but

a few feet from the ground.

The bird is numerous in Srinagar and remains latest of the

migrants, some staying till the end of October; this species does

not ascend as high as Gulmarg, its place there being taken by the

Rufous Turtle Dove.

FISH SURVEY OF HYDERABAD STATE.

S. MAHMOOD, M.Sc., AND M. RAHIMULLAH, D.SC.,

Department of Fisheries, Hyderabad (Deccan).

[Continued from Vol. 45, p. 77 (1945) |

Part ]V—FISHES OF THE NIZAMABAD DISTRICT.

With a map and iwo plates

Nizamabad District is bounded on the north by Nander and

Adilabad ; on the east by Karimnagar; on the south by Medak; and

on the west by Nander. Its area including jagirs is 2,365 sq. miles.

A few minor ranges of hills are found in the east and west.

The largest river in the district is the Godavari, which forms its

northern boundary, separating it from Nander and Adilabad. The

Manjra, the chief tributary of the Godavari, flows along the western

border, separating it from Nander on the west. Smaller streams

are the Phulang, traversing the Nizamabad and Armoor talugs and

Journ,, Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

ADILaBDd

FISH SURVEY OF HYDERABAD.

FISH SURVEY OF HYDERABAD STATE 103

Pedda Vagu, a perennial stream traversing the Kamareddi and

Armoor talugs.

The rocks are related to the Archaean and Deccan trap forma-

tions, the former occupying a very large area. The soils are mostly

sandy and rice is extensively raised by canal irrigation. The total

population of Nizamabad District is 6,46,043 and that of fishermen

is about 18,000. The number of fairly large tanks is 1,444 besides

a large number of ponds under the canal. Average rainfall is 36.4

inches. ‘Temperature varies between 73°F and 102°F.

The district consists of Nizamabad, Armoor, Bodhan, Kama-

reddi and Banswada taluqs and as a whole is a very small district

of Hyderabad State, but so far as Agriculture and Fisheries are

concerned it is the most important one owing to the vast irrigation

facilities and the large number of tanks and reservoirs.

(a) Rivers

1. The Godavari is the main river, entering the district near

Kundkurti in the Bodhan taluq and after traversing nearly 80 miles

leaves it near Vabhalpur to continue its course further between Adila-

bad and Karimnagar districts, forming the north-eastern boundary

of Warangal and Khammam districts and finally entering the Madras

Presidency. It is a perennial river, the volume of water during the

rainy season is tremendous, but during summer, deep pools are

formed connected by a slow-moving stream of water. These pools

are exploited by fishermen and a large number of fish is caught,

but owing to lack of transport, the fishes are sun-dried and consumed

locally. If transport facilities and better means of catching were

available a considerable quantity of fish could be sent from various

places on the river to the markets.

2. The Manjra feeds the Nizamsagar reservoir and starts its

course below it in the form of two streams, these two streams join

a mile down the dam and flow down about 55 miles to fall into the

Godavari near Kundurti 6 miles from Basar. It forms the western

boundary of the district, separating it from Nander District.

3. The Phulang is a tributary of the Godavari, starts from Kolas-

pur tank and after a course of about 30 miles joins the Godavari river

near Kondur. It is a perennial stream, but the volume of water

during summer is very little. During its course it feeds many

irrigation tanks. |

4. The Pedda Vagu or big stream is formed by the combination

of three small streams. It passes through the Kamareddi and

Armoor talugs and joins the Godavari, after flowing in the north

direction for about 50 miles, near Tadpakal.

(b) Reservoirs and large tanks

BANSWADA TALUQ

1. Nizamsagar is about 100 miles to the north-east of Hyderabad

city and about 54 miles from Nizamabad town. It is the largest

reservoir in the State and is formed by damming the Ma4njra. Its

catchment area is 8,376 sq. miles; the length of the dam is 12,800 ft.

and waterspread area 48°66 sq. miles when full. It is provided

104 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

with 12 automatic flood gates on the east and 16 on the west side,

some scouring’ sluices have also been provided near the east flood

gates. The depth of water above average bed of the river is 102.5 ft.

An overflow has been provided towards the south-west and many

days during the floods no traffic is possible on the road over the

overflow. The reservoir extends to Yellareddi taluq of the Medak

District and provides many angling spots on that side. The east

and west streams join up about a mile below the dam. During

summer and winter when there is no flood, deep pools are left which

are connected by a slow-moving stream. Fishes of very big size

are caught in these pools and these are really the angler’s paradise.

One of these pools is situated very near to the Guest House where

‘mahseer’ is found in large numbers. The survey of the streams

yielded several species of fish, especially young ones of Barbus (Tor)

khudree Sykes, the ‘yellow mahseer’, locally known as ‘Irraham’

ranging from 4-8 inches in length, it shows that these fishes breed

below the reservoir as they can not go up the stream owing to the

dam.

During our survey large numbers of young Eels, Anguilla ben-

galensis Gey & Hardw., were caught, ranging from 6 to 8 inches.

It is not certain whether the eel breeds in freshwater or the elvers

come upstream during floods. Investigations are in progress

and the results will be reported when some more data is avail-

able. When the flood-gates are opened during the rainy season

and then closed, large numbers of large-sized carps get stranded

in shallow pools and amongst the boulders, they are clubbed to

death by the villagers, some are sold and the rest sun-dried as

salt is not available to them in large quantities. It is essential that

legislation should be introduced soon to stop the massacre of the

ripe breeders which come upstream during the floods. It is esti-

mated that no less than 200 tons of fish is caught below the flood-

gates during the rainy season. If means of quick transport were

available, large quantities could easily be brought to the markets.

There are stretches of land down the dam which can easily be

utilised for the establishment of fish-farms and at least one Biolo-

gical Station may also be established for studying the migratory,

breeding and other habits of fishes.

The canal takes its origin from a place which is about 14 miles

to the east of the dam. The reservoir is easily accessible to visitors.

N.S.Ry. Bus Service reaches there from Hyderabad city and a re-

gular bus service is available from Kamareddi railway station, which

is 33 miles from Nizamsagar. Five rest-houses are situated near the

dam and all facilities are available there. A beautiful swimming

pool has also been constructed for people who go there for sight-

seeing.

Many islands are seen within the reservoir and most of the bed

is full of boulders; submerged trees are also present which are a

great handicap in netting. In future it would be advisable that when

constructing a dam, the bed should be cleared of all trees and shrubs

so that netting may be easy.

p. Singtom veservolr has a waterspread area of about 14-sq..

miles when full, it is an irrigation tank, situated amidst forest and

FISH SURVEY OF HYDERABAD STATE 105

surrounded by small hills; it is formed by damming a small tribu-

tory of the river Manjra. Its distance from Nizamsagar is about

8 miles to the east on the Banswada road. Being in a hilly tract,

its bottom is full of boulders and when the water level is low stumps

of trees are also visible jutting out and are a great handicap in the

netting of deeper waters. The dam in part is strengthened by a

masonry bund and is provided with two overflows on the two flanks ;

it is about 4 mile long. A smaller canal takes its origin from the

tank, irrigating a large area.

Many small tanks are situated near the canal in which ‘murrel’

is the chief fish, besides carps, the young ones of which come

along with the canal water. Depth varies from 30 to 45 ft.

BODHAN TALUQ

3. Ali Sagar, named after the famous engineer, Nawab Ali

Nawaz Jung, who is responsible for the designing and construction

of Nizamsagar and other important reservoirs in the Dominions,

is situated 9 miles south-west of Nizamabad town. It is a long tank

surrounded by hills; the surrounding scenery is very picturesque.

The Nizamsagar canal enters it at its 55th mile and after filling

it makes its exit from the other end where regulators have been

provided. It is full of dead trees and shrubs and even shallow

margins are difficult to net. If cleared, it may provide a large

quantity of fish every year, but as at present, only hook and line can

be effective for catching ‘murrel’; plying a net is very difficult.

The water spread area is nearly 2 sq. miles and the greatest depth

4o ft.

The natural surroundings and a commanding view of miles around

from the Inspection Bungalow, constructed on a small hillock, at-

tracts thousands of visitors every year.

Wallagonia and ‘murrel’ of quite a big size are caught on hook

and line and it can be of good use if the submerged trees and

shrubs be cleared out. The land below the reservoir is excellent

for the establishment of fish-farms owing to the fact that water

can be let into the ponds easily from the distributaries and the

natural slope is very convenient for draining purposes.

4. Rudrur tank is about 13 ft. deep and has waterspread area

of about a mile. It is situated by the side of Nizamabad-Nizam-

sagar Road, about 6 miles from Bodhan town. The shallow mar-

gins are practically full of ‘elephant grass’ (Typha sp.) and the

bottom is free from boulders, and hence it is a very good tank for

collecting fish. ‘Murrels’ are found in abundance. It is a perennial

tank and does not dry up during summer as it receives seepage

water from the canal and also from the paddy fields lying higher up.

5. Bellal tank is situated towards the south of Bodhan town

at a distance of 3 miles. It is a fairly big tank, having waterspread

area of about 14 sq. miles and a depth of 15 ft. Vegetation is not

so profuse as in the Rudrur tank; only the margins are grown

over with sparse vegetation. Labeos and ‘murrels’ are the principal

food fishes found in it.

106 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

6. jJankampet tank.—The Nizamabad-Bodhan Road after the

5th milestone passes over the bund of this tank. It is a perennial

tank, receiving seepage water of the canal. Its waterspread is not

less than one sq. mile and has maximum depth of 20 ft. It is

remarkable that very little ‘elephant grass’ is present in this tank.

It is our surmise that its margins have an abrupt fall and very

few shallow spots. Carps and ‘murrel’ are found in good quantities

and we think that it is ideal for carp culture.

NIZAMABAD TALUQ

7. Masani tank is about 3 miles from Nizamabad town. Its

waterspread area is about 13 sq. miles. The dam is not a masonry

cne and of the usual type as is common throughout the Dominions,

built for the conservation of water for irrigation purposes. Its height

is 18 ft. and length about a mile. The Nizamsagar Canal drains

into it at its 64th mile and upto this reservoir is the perennial zone

of the canal. Regulators are provided at the other end from where

the canal has its exit. The shallow margins are overgrown with

‘elephant grass’ (Typha sp.) but the deeper parts are clear. Being

fed by the canal, the tank is perennial and contains, besides other

species ‘Labeos, Murrels and Wallagonia of fairly big size. Murvrels

of 3 ft. and over are not uncommon amongst the catches. It is

very suitable for carp culture.

8. Raghunath tank.—It is located about a mile from Nizama-

bad town, just below the old fort and is also known as ‘Fort tank’.

The waterspread area is about 14 sq. miles and the maximum depth

about 25 ft. The bund is of mud. The Nizamsagar canal, al-

though passing very near to it, has no direct connection with it.

It is a perennial tank and used to supply drinking water to the

town but is now used mainly for irrigation purposes. Vegetation

is profuse. The average depth of water is 10-15 ft. and amongst

the catches murrels of fairly big size are very common. Hooks

and line is the most common method of catching fish and people

shoot murrel when the water level goes down during summer.

9g. Kolaspur tank derives its name from the village situated

about 8 miles from Nizamabad town on Nizamabad-Manchippa Road.

The waterspread is about 14 sq. miles and depth approximately

20 ft. when full, consequently during summer very little water re-

mains in the tank. Its water is used for irrigation and a small

channel about 4 miles in length arises from its right flank. Its

catchment area consists mainly of Manchippa forest and it receives

water during rains from the overflow of Manchippa reservoir. The

bottom is mostly even, free from boulders and very suitable for

exploitation by means of drag nets as there is not much of vegeta-

tion. It is an ideal tank for carp culture.

10: Manchippa reservoir is the main source of water supply

to Nizamabad town, being situated at a distance of 14 miles

from Nizamabad. It is surrounded by hills, overgrown with beau-

tiful deciduous forest and has a very attractive scenery. It is a

sort of depression where water collects from the surrounding hills.

Its waterspread is about 2 sq. miles but its volume of water is

considerable as it is about 50 ft. deep. The bund is 1/3 mile long

‘urn., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

SERRA

Nizamsagar—General view,

zamsagar—General

PRON A its. onesies esr rR ERE

view, in which some islands

showing the dam.

are

visible.

Prateel,

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Nizamsagar—West channel.

River Godavari during rainy season.

s on the extreme left of the picture.

FISH SURVEY OF HYDERABAD STATE 107

and built up of mud. Vegetation is sparse as compared to other

tanks of the district. Murrels of fairly big size are commonly

caught and brought to the Nizamabad market. Although it is

situated within the hills, the bottom does not contain many bou'ders

and is mostly even. From the ecological viewpoint it is one of the

finest spots in the Dominions and within easy reach to students

of Zoology and Botany. A beautiful Inspection Bungalow is situated

very near to the reservoir.

11. Ganddaram tank is adjoining Jankampet Railway Station.

Its bund is a small one and of the usual mud embankment barely

a furlong long, the tank attains waterspread area of more than

14 miles. It is a shallow tank, mostly full of boulders, and what-

ever portion remains under water is full of ‘elephant grass’ (Typha

sp.) which is locally known as ‘Tunga’. It belongs to a Jagir of

the same name. Murrel is the most predominant fish.

12. Gutpa tank.—On the goth mile of its length the Nizam-

sagar canal enters this small tank which has a waterspread area

of only about 3? sq- mile; the height of the bund is 20 ft. It is

11 miles from Nizamabad town and 3 miles to the interior from

the 8th milestone of Nizamabad-Armoor Road. Regulators are

provided on the left flank of the tank from where the canal makes

its exit. ~The surplus water from another tank enters this tank

which remains more or less full owing to the canal, hence the water

is seen usually overflowing from its two flanks. This tank is

famous for its murrel which is caught and brought to the market

daily.

13. Indalvai tank is situated about 2 miles away from Indalvai

Railway Station. The bund is about 4o ft. high and with water-

spread area of 14 mile. It is an irrigation tank and very little water

is left during summer. Some boulders are visible scattered here and

there.

KAMAREDDI TALUQ

14. Kamareddi tank is a fairly large irrigation tank adjacent to

the town of the same name, having waterspread area of about

1 sq. miles. The mud bund is about 400 yards long and quite

high. A small channel leads from it to irrigate the lowlying rice

fields. The bottom is muddy and free of boulders and very little

vegetation is present. It practically dries up during summer.

15. Yellareddi tank.—It is about 3 miles from Kamareddi

town and is adjacent to the Alcohol Factory. The road passes

over its bund and it is a little larger than the Kamareddi tank.

Although a fairly large tank, so much water is drained out for

irrigation that it dries up during summer.

16. Upalvai tank is situated just behind Upalvai Railay

Station. Its waterspread area is about 14 sq. mile and depth about

15 ft.; it is a perennial tank. Margins ae overgrown with vegeta-

tion but the deeper portions are clear. If it is exploited in a pro-

per way, the transport of fishes will be very easy, but at present much

use of it is not made owing to the lack of improved fishing tackle.

17. Bibipet tank is a fairly large tank having a waterspread

area of about 2 sq. miles. It is situated about 7 miles to the

108 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

north-east of Bhiknur Railway Station, and the same distance from

the Hyderabad-Kamareddi road, but excepting a cart-track there

is no road. The embankment is of mud and quite high; total

length is about 800 yards. It is an irrigation tank and contains a

considerable volume of water in the winter season but during summer

it is reduced to practically quarter of its size.

ARMOOR TALUO does not contain large tanks and out of these

very few are perennial. There are four small tanks round about

Armoor Town and other important ones are Isapalli, Bardipur,

Jokranpalli, Argul, Chepur, Balkonda, Bhusapur, Khanapur and

Ahmedpur tanks. Those tanks which are near the canal have

become perennial owing to the water they receive from the canal.

dam, takes a northerly direction, passes through Banswada and

Bodhan taluqs and then taking a turn to the east enters Alisagar

Reservoir, finally reaching Masani tank (3 miles north-west of

Nizamabad town). During its course it gives off 55 distributaries

for irrigation purposes and upto its 65th mile is the perennial zone.

It continues its course through Nizamabad and Armoor taluqs,

passing through many small tanks and the main section continues

upto 964 miles, south of Armoor town, from here it is broken up

into large distributaries which in turn divide into sub-distributaries

and irrigate a large area in the Armoor faluq. From the 65th

mile, i.e. just after Masani tank, the canal remains closed for about

4 months in the year. During this period, when the canal dries

up, fishes take shelter in the hollows and small tanks which are

in its course and a large number is caught during the summer

months.

Besides Murrels, such other fishes as come with the canal

water from Nizamsagar and other tanks, develop and grow to a

fairly big size. There are various spots down the canal which can

easily be developed into fish-farms; the natural slope of the land

provides a good drainage and the water for filling the ponds can

easily be got from the canal. If the canal be stocked with quick-

growing carps every year and then caught when it is closed, a

large number of fishes of marketable size may be available for the

market. Besides the tanks and ponds, a large number of fairly

big burrow pits are present by the side of the canal which receive

seepage water, these can also be utilised for fish culture.

To derive full benefit from the canal, a board, named Nizam-

sagar Development Board has been sanctioned with 5 lakhs’ as

annual, non-lapsable capital. Grants from this amount are ex-

tended to the Agriculture, Veterinary, Forest, F isheries, Irrigation

and other departments so that the resources at their disposal may

be fully developed. Besides the departments, loans and plots are

given to people for colonisation and developing the lands.

TT Spin APR ee pyre

* Since raised to rz lakhs.

FISH -SURVEY OF HYDERABAD STATE

FISHES OBTAINED DURING THE SURVEY

109

Ha G2 bo

Scientific Names

Fam: NOTOPTERIDAE

Notopterus notopterus (Pallas)

Fam: MASTACEMBELIDAE

Mastacembelus pancalus {Haim.)

M. arvmatus (Lacep.).

Rhynchobdella aculeata (Bloch)

Fam: ANGUILLIDAE

Anguilla

Hardw.)

bengalensis

Fam: CoBITIDAE

Lepidocephalus guntea (Ham.)

Nemachilus botia (Ham.) ae

Fam: CYPRINIDAE

Chela clupeoides (Bloch) a

Chela phulo (Ham.)

Danio aequipinnatus (McClell.)

Brachydanio rerio (Ham.)

Rasbora daniconius (Ham.)

Esomus danricus (Ham.)

Cirrhina reba (Ham.)

Barbus Puntius sarana (Ham. )

Barbus Tor khudree (Sykes)

Barbus Puntius Chola (Ham.)

Barbus Puntius Parrah (Day)

Barbus Puntius Kolus Sykes eeetl|

Barbus Puntius amphibius (C.V.) |

Barbus Puntius conchonius (Ham.) |

Barbus Puntius sophore (Ham.)

Barbus Puntius ticto Ham.

Barbus Puntius chrysopoma C. V. Re |

Labeo fimbriata (B1.)

Labeo calbasu Ham.

Labeo potail (Sykes)

Labeo boggut (Sykes)

Labeo bata (Ham.)

Garra stenorhynchus (Jerdon)

Catla catla (Ham.)

Rohtee cotio var. cunma Day

hohtee vigorsti Sykes

Rohtee belangert (C.V.)

CLARIIDAE

Aspidoparia morar (\Ham.)

| Fan:

| Clarias batrachus (Linn.)

Fam: SILURIDAE

Wallagonia attu (Bl.)

Callichrous bimaculatus (Bl)...

_Callichrous pabda (Ham.)

(Gray & |

| Dungoo-Mailgoo:

Amblypharyngodon mola (Ham.).... |

Satwa

Bommidi

Pogra

Malgo-pagra

Uchcnal

Buddulchey

Ichkey

Biancha

Nooltu

Akkukorpil

Ginni-gar

Meesagadu

--| Moyyal

Kangoo

Arrayam |

Perka-chappa |

Perka-chéppa |

Bhigna

Perka-chappa

oO.

Kaki-chitra

Baman-chapra

Kurmukku |

Kangu

Kalgawa

Bochchi

Alan-chaéppa

Gitsu

Chinna-

damunisa |

Kayadam

Dammisa

Méarpoo

Indgu, Aalagu j.

Gogli

Telugu Names | Common Names

Chappal

Bamni

Bam

Phool Bam

Tamboo

Katmokli

Mooranga

Roopchal

Phool chilwa

Dikchi

Sundari

Korpil

Nooria

Rekri

Khaul

Peela Mahseer

Parakli

Kolas

Parakli

do.

Suféd Rohu

Kali Rohu

Chota Rohu

Boga Rohn

Chitti Rohu

Pather-chattoo

Katla

Mola

Jhirwa

Koti

Patola

Chanda

MA4roof

Pat tan

Patroo

Pabda

110 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NALUKAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

nr ee

S. No. Scientific Names | Telugu Names | Common Names

Fam ; HETEROPNEUSTIDAE

41 | Heteropneutes fossilis (Bl ) wae Inglicum | Singi

Fam: SISORIDAE | |

42 | Bagarius bagarius (Ham.) Chikmata | Goonch

Fam: BAGEIDAE |

43 | Mystus seenghala (Sykes) i Korjella | Senghal

44 | Mystus aor (Ham ) eae «| Mukkul-jella | Moochala

45 Mystus tengara (Ham.) aus Jella | Tengra

45 | Mystus bleekeri (Day) ... ...| Narjella | Katarna

47 | Mystus cavasius (Ham.) sel Jella | do,

48 | Mystus vittatus (Bl.) ... vocal do. | do.

49. | Mystus malabaricus (Jerdon) een do. do.

£0 «| Rita pavimentata (Val.) ..| Ghegra | Peelek

51 | Rita hastata (Val.) SD | Bondu | Chota reeta

Fam; SCHILBEIDAE

52 | Proeutropiichthys taakree (Sykes). | Siriva-jella Bachwa

53 | Stlonopangasius childreni (Sykes)...| Pedda-jella Chikman

Fam: OPHICEPHALIDAE

54 | Ophicephalus marulius (Ham.) ...| Phoor-chappa.) Phool-murrel

55 | Ophicephalus striatus (B1.) --- Koramata | Murrel

56 | Ophicephalus punctatus (BI.) | Gurja | Dhok

57 | Ophicephalus gachua (Ham.) e- Nalla-panker- | Dheri-dhok

| gaddu

Fam: NANDIDAE |

58 | Nandus nandus (Ham.) . Pindiperka | Bheda

Fam: AMBASSIDAE | |

59 | Ambassis nama (Ham.) Bal Sarawara i Kangi

60 | Ambassis ranga (Ham.) vee | Sarawa Kangi

Fam: GOBIDAE

61 | Glossogobius giuris (Ham.) ... | Uskedundoo Balooshekra

Only the important reservoirs and tanks have been surveyed

and described here, it will be a lifelong task to do the detailed

survey in different seasons and it has been proposed to carry on

the survey work along with the development.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.

We are indebted to the Revenue and Irrigation Departments

for all the facilities provided to us during this work. We are also

thankful to the authorities of the Osmania University for extending

to us some facilities regarding valuable literature. For identi-

fication of some doubtful specimens we got valuable help from

BIOLOGY OF DANAUS CHRYSIPPUS (LINNAEUS) Lit

Dr. K. S. Misra by courtesy of the Director, Zoological Survey

of India,

REFERENCES,

Bhimachar, B. S.—Current Science, riv, 12-16 (1945).

Das, B. K.—Proc. Ind. Sc. Cong., Session 29 (1942).

Day, F.—Fauna Brit. Ind., Vols. 1 & 2.

Hora, S. L.—Rec, Ind. Mus., xxii, 633-688 (1921).

Idem—Ibid, xliii, 97-115 (1941).

Hora, S. L. and Misra, K. S.—Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., xliii, 218-226

1942).

wee Pon fi Year Book (Hyderabad State), (1938).

Rahimullah, M.—Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xliii, 648-653 (1943).

Idem—Ibid, xliv, 88-91 (1943).

Idem—Ibid, xlv, 73-77 (1944).

Rahimullah, M. and Das, B. K.—Journ., Osm. Univ., iii, 1-23 (1935).

ON THE BIOLOGY OF DANAUS CHRYSIPPUS (LINNANUS)

AND ITS PARASITES.

DurGADAS MUKERJI AND BASANTA KUMAR BEHURA,

Entomology Section, Zoology Dept., Calcutta University.

Danaus chrysippus (L.), popularly known as the ‘plain tiger’,

is one of the commonest and most widely distributed butterflies of

India.

Food plant:—Sevastopulo (1933, 1938) records that the food

plant of this butterfly is Calotropis procera R: Br. occurring in Cal-

cutta (1938). Bingham (1905) noted that Calotropis gigantea R. Br.

and various other Asclepiads were its food plants, and Ayyar (1940)

concurred with him. Bell (1909) was of the opinion that both

C. gigantea R. Br. and C. procera R. Br. served as its food plants.

Jandu (1943) subscribed to the same view. We find that in Calcutta,

in our college garden at Ballygunge as well as in its neighbourhood,

the plant C. gigantea R. Br- commonly occurs but we have not come

across in these localities any C. procera R. Br. It may be noted

that C. gigantea R. Br. commonly occurs in Bengal, and the species

procera is said to be occasional (Prain, 1903). Since the two species

of Calotropis, viz. gigantea and procera, closely resemble each cther,

it is worth while considering whether there has been any confusion

as to the identification of the host plant of this insect in Calcutta.

Egg laying :—The eggs of the ‘plain tiger’ butterfly are usually

laid singly on the underside of the leaves of C. gigantea R. Br. It

has also been noticed that the eggs are occasionally laid on the

adaxial side of the leaves as well as on the stem of this food plant.

This, therefore, increases the surface area of infection.

Seasonal occurrence :—We reared the larvae of this butterfly that

hatched in our laboratory from the eggs obtainable from C. gigantea

112 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NAYUKAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

R. Br. during the months of February and March 1945. Sevasto-

pulo (1945) too obtained the larvae in October 1931 and in March

1943. It is said, however, to occur almost throughout the year

(Lefroy, 1909). Jandu (1943) opines that this butterfly ‘is specially

abundant during June to November’. But observations carried on

from January to September 1945 indicate that in Calcutta it is

abundant mostly in February and March.

Food material:—lIt is generally reported that the larvae of this

butterfly feed on the leaves of the host plant. Now, while this is

the normal food habit, there were occasions when we came across

larvae feeding on the flowers. This was not reported by the pre-

vious authors. It is well known that the colouration of the chry-

sippus larva is striking because of the bands of yellow and black on

the body. :But in the flower-eating forms this colour is slightly

subdued. Moreover, the faecal matter of the flower-eating larvae

looked pinkish buff, in sharp contrast to the greenish frass of the

leaf-eating ones.

The maximum length of the larva obtainable by us from larvae

reared in our laboratory was 39.4 mm.

Pupal colouration:—We obtained five kinds of dichroic pupal

form—the green pale and deep, pink pale and deep, and yellow pale.

Bingham (1905) states that the pupal colour is ‘dichroic, some green,

others pale pink or wax white’. Sevastopulo (1938) speaks of it

as blue green and pinkish buff; Jandu (1943) reports it to be green

or pinkish. Now out of the nine pupae which came from different

stocks and were randomly picked out, we observed that among

these one was pink, three pale pink, three green, one pale green,

and one pale yellow in colour. : The varied colours persisted through-

out the pupal period. It is worth while pointing out that a parasitised

pupa changed to grey. This grey colour appeared on the fourth

or fifth day of pupation. a

~The parasites:—In a lot of ten larvae reared in our laboratory

during February and March 1945, we found six of these had been

parasitized by a Tachinid fly. The larvae of the Tachinid fly came

out on the fifth day of pupation of the Lepidopterous insects. They

issued by puncturing the pupal case just a little below the golden

black border occurring round the posterior (upper) end. . The

dipterous larvae soon after emergence formed puparia at the bottom

of the glass vial in which the pupae of the butterfly were kept. The

colour of the puparia was yellow brown at first, gradually turning

to dark brown. It took nine to ten days for the emergence of the

fly from its puparium. It is curious to note that in a solitary case

a Tachinid larva issued out from the plain tiger larva which as a

result died before reaching the pupal stage. As to the number of

parasites occurring within a single host, it was seen that mostly

one fly emerged from one pupa, but in rare cases as many as Six

dipterous larvae came out of a single parasitized pupa and all these

pupated at the bottom of the glass vial. Of these six puparia,

emergence of only three flies could be noted.

The maximum length of the fly obtainable was 11 mm.

« Now it may be asked whether D. chrysippus (L.) became: para-

sitized: by the Tachinid fly while it was at the egg or at the larval

BIOLOGY OF DANAUS CHRYSIPPUS (LINNAEUS) ~ 213

stage. It is generally known that a Tachinid fly parasitizes the host

at its caterpillar stage and there is no record of it parasitizing its host

at the egg stage of the latter. Now, we reared the caterpillars from

such eggs as collected from plants in the field and kept them all

through within closed vials; we fed them there with the leaves of

C. gigantea R. Br. which were thoroughly brushed and freed from

any insect egg or foreign bodies. There was no chance of the fly to

come in contact with the larval host within the tube. Notwithstand-

ing this, the flies emerged within the vials from the caterpillar hosts

showing that infection must have occurred at the egg stage of the host.

A table showing the dates of pupation of the Lepidopterous larva,

«lates of emergence of the Tachinid flies, etc. is given below. The

| Date of | Dateof | Date of | Date of Darerot

NG collection of | emergence of | pupation of | issue of eC nate

nes \uepidopterous|Lepidopterous ‘Lepidopterous | Tachinid Aen

| egg | larva larva larva y

ae 25-2-45 | 28-2-45 10-3-45 14-3-45 23-3-45

2 25-2-45 28-2-45 | 10-3-45 14-3-45 | 23-3-45

3) 25-2-45 28-2045 12-3-45 163-45 | 26-3-45

4, , 1-3-45 10-3-45 jie 3-45 24-3-45

Bohl 2 (63-45 | 9-345 | 13-3-45 22-3-45

6 | \ §-3-45 found dead on 8-3-45, and a Tachinid larva

| had pupated near it.

| | |

butterfly harbours other parasitic insects as well. The eggs of this

butterfly are cream-white in colour, but changed in colour it they

had been infected by a Trichogrammatid (Chalcidae). Out of six

eggs collected on 17-3-45 five were found parasitized. These eggs

turned gradually mottled black with the development of blackish

specks on it. From each egg a number of Trichogrammatids

emerged on 24-3-45. The smallest number of parasitic wasps was

found to be five and the highest was nine, reared from a single egg

of the host. It was observed that the chalcid wasps came out by

puncturing the egg just a little below its base.

Sevastopulo (1933) states that he had ‘frequently bred batches

of a Hymenopteron’ insect ‘from chrysippus pupae’. But we have

not observed any Hymenopteron parasite from pupae, but from the

eggs as noted above.

Bell (1909) reports that ‘the larvae are much attacked by ich-

neumons’ which, the authors have not yet come across in this locality.

The authors take this opportunity of recording their thanks to

Mr. J. C. Banerji, M.a., of the Department of Botany, Calcutta

University for the identification of the plant.

1 Larvae collected from the field.

114 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NALUKRAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

REFERENCES.

Ayyar, T. V. R.—Handbooks of Economic Entomology for South India, p 383

i940).

cot T. R.— The common butterflies of the plains of India’, Journ., Bombay

Nati. Hist. Soc., xix, No. 1, pp. 50-52 (1909).

Bingham, C. T.—Fauna of British India, Butterflies, i, pp. 11-12 (1905).

Jandu, A. S.— Biological notes on the butterflies of Delhi, Pt. IV, {ndian

Journ. Ent., v, Pts. I and II, pp. 223-224 (1943).

Lefroy, H. M.—IJndian Insect Life, p. 407 (1909).

Prain, D.—Bengal Plants, ii, p. 689 (1903).

Sevastopulo, D. G.—‘The enemies of Danais chrysippus, L.’, Journ., Bombay

Nat.itHist. Soc:,. xxxvi,-'No: 4, p/ 1014" (1933):

‘The early stages of Indian Lepidoptera’, Ibid, xl, No. 3, pp. 396-

397 (1938).

——————‘The early stages of Indian Lepidoptera, Pt. XIII’, Ibid, xlv,

No. 2, p. 190 (1945).

ADDENDUM

[Received for publication dated 11th Oct. 1945].

Specimens of the Chalcid referred to in our paper, as parasitiz-

ing the eggs of the butterfly D. chrysippus (Linnaeus) are identified

by Mr. M. S. Mani of St. John’s College, Agra, as Trichogramma

evanescens minutum (Riley). He writes to us: ‘It is already

known from India, and in fact is being used in the control of borers

of sugarcane and was also tried against teak defoliators.’

Specimens of the Tachinid flies reported in the same paper found

parasitizing the butterfly were sent to Dr. C. H. Curran, American

Museum of Natural History, New York, through the courtesy of

T/5 Frank H. Jacobson, 975th GM Supply Det-, APO 494. Dr.

Curran writes that there are two species, viz. Sturmia wainwrighti

Baranoff and Sturmia sp. With regard to parasitization he is of

opinion: ‘It is probable that these flies lay extremely small ege’s

on the leaves of various plants which are eaten by caterpillars.

Possibly, the parasites gained access to your larvae on food fed to

them.’

On the present circumstances we accept the views of Dr. Curran

in thinking that the caterpillars were parasitized through the agency

of their food fed to them. ;

At the same time the other possibility cannot be excluded. It

might be that as the eggs of the Tachinid flies were very small, the

butterfly laid its eggs right on the eggs of the fly and since the

newly hatched caterpillar has the curious habit of eating the ege

case as its first food (Bell, 1909) the developing eggs of the Tachinid

were eaten along with that and thus infection occurred.

We take the opportunity of expressing our heartfelt thanks to

Dr. Curran, Mr. Mani, Mr. Jacobson and Major R. Senior-White,

for their kind collaboration.

OBSERVATIONS ON SOME BALANIDAE FROM

MAHABALIPURAM

K. S. SRINIVASAN,

Curator, Government Museum, Madras

(With a plate)

The following account is based on the periodical observations

made during 1944-45 on some barnacles from Mahabalipuram, sea-

shore village in the Chingleput District, about 53 miles from Madras

and south of it. Our knowledge of the Balanidae of the Madras

Presidency is mainly from the records from Pamban, Krusadai

Island and Madras. Altogether four barnacles are known from

these localities, viz. Balanus tintinnabulum (Linn.) var. communis,

Darwin, Balanus amphitrite, var. venustus, Darwin, Balanus longi-

rostrum, Hoek and Chelonobia testudinaria (Linn.) (Gravely, 1941 ;

Sundara Raj, 1927). The barnacles collected from Mahabalipuram,

however, included Chthamalus stellatus (Poli) in addition to the two

species of Balanus already known from Krusadai and Madras.

Chthamalus stellatus (Poli) has not been recorded from this Presi-

dency, so far as ] know, though it is reported from the coast of

Bengal (Hoek, 1913).

The coast at Mahabalipuram is almost sandy except for a small

area about the temple (the Shore-temple) situated on the shore-line.

In this area there are few rocks, some of which, however, are a

little inside the sea. A large number of boulders are piled up along

the shore, to some distance, on either side of the shore temple, to

protect the same from severe wave action. A sea-groyne is also

constructed in front of the temple as an additional measure of safety.

The rocks and the sea-groyne are subjected to severe wave action

as they are being continually dashed by the strong rolling waves,

while the boulders on either side of the temple are periodically dashed

by the waves during high-tide and are only splashed or sprayed

during low tide. The rocks, boulders and the sea-groyne form very

suitable substrata for the barnacles to settle down and grow.

The distribution of the barnacles in this area is interesting.

Balanus tintinnabulum is mainly confined to the rocks which are a

little inside the sea and constantly dashed by the waves. On these

rocks, a greater settlement is seen on the faces which are not

directly exposed to the waves. Peculiarly enough, this barnacle is.

absent on the boulders and the sea-groyne at the shore.

Balanus amphitrite is seen in association with Balanus tintinnabulum. It is

also seen at the shore on some of the boulders and rocks, which are, however,

dashed by the waves. In several cases, this barnacle is seen in larger numbers

on somewhat less exposed areas, and the more exposed areas being poorly

colonised or not colonised at all.

a16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NAVUKAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Chthamalus stellatus is perhaps the most dominant species on this shore. It

is plentiful on the more exposed sides of the wave-beaten and sprayed boulders

and rocks on the coast, sometimes practically to the exclusion of the other

species (Figs. 1 & 2). The settlement is luxuriant in the splash zone, and _ it

gradually decreases towards the spray zone beyond which only stray patches are

seen, It is plentiful on the sea-ward side of the groyne also, but on its land-ward

side and in crevices, the growth is very limited. No growth, however, is seen

on completely submerged boulders, even though in their vicinity, a large number

of boulders, which are not submerged had plenty of these barnacles on them. It

is thus interesting to note that Chthamalus stellatus is abundant on more or

less open situations and tends to become scarce in positions of extreme shelter

and is practically absent on submerged substrata, though according to Fischer

(1928) it can survive a continuous immersion of twelve months under natural

conditions. My observations, however, are in general agreement with those

already made on the same barnacle by Hatton (1938), Hatton & Fischer-Piette

(1932), Kitching (1934-35) and Moore (1935-86).

No attempt is made to go deeply into the question of the life-history of these

barnacles. However, the few observations made on the forms occurring at the

shore may be recorded. After the monsoon rains, by about the end of November

1944, the barnacles came up for the first time on rocks and boulders and the

sea-groyne. They occurred in a few isolated patches here and there. In_ the

succeeding months, their number gradually increased and a’ maximum growth

was reached by about May 1945, and in the case of Chthamalus stellatus, practically

all rocks and boulders splashed and sprayed showed extensive patches, sometimes

even replacing the vegetation that was once before on some of the boulders.

By about July 1945, Balanus amphitrite disappeared and only a few boulders in

favourable situations were seen with Chthamalus stellatus. Later on, however,

even they were killed and their shells destroyed, either by the grinding action

of the sands carried by the waves, or by the boulders themselves being gradually

smothered by the deposition of sand.

The shells of many of the barnacles are attacked by boring algae such as

Mastigocoleus, Hyella and Gomontia. Balanus tintinnabulum is particularly

interesting in that besides the shell-boring algae already referred to, several

others are also seen growing on the shell, Some algae occur either as encrusta-

tions or cushions, while others are macrophytic and grow attached to the shell

by their basal system. Among the encrusting and the cushion forming types

may be mentioned Peyssonnelia, Lithoderma and Lyngbya and among the larger

forms, Cladophora, Chaetomorpha, Ectocarpus, Hypnea, Gracilaria and Grateloupia.

REFERENCES.

Bassindale, R.—The developmental stages of three English Barnacles, Balanus

balanoides (Linn.), Chthamalus stellatus (Poli) and Verruca stroemia (O.F.

Muller). Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1936, 57-74.

Darwin, C.—A Monograph on the Cirripedia, Vol. II, The Balanidae, ete.

London, (Ray Society), 1854.

Fischer, E.—Sur la distribution géographique de quelques organismes. de

rocher le long des cétes de la Manche. Trav. Lab., Marit. Saint-Servan, Fasc.,

II, 1928, 16 (after Moore, H. B., & Kitching, J. A.).

Gravely, F. H.—Shells and other animal remains found on the Madras. Beach.

I. Bull..Madras Govt. Museum, New Ser., Nat. Hist.. Sn., Vol. V, No. 1, 1941,

70-73.

Hatton, H.—Essais de bionomie explicative sur quelques espéces intercotidales

d’algues et d’animaux. Ann. Instit. Oceanogr. N.S., Vol. XVII, 1938, 241-348,

{after Moore, H. B., & Kitching, J. A.).

Hatton, H., & Fischer-Piette, E.—Observation et expériences sur le peuplement

des cétes rocheuses par les Cirripédes. Bull. Instit. Oceanogr. Monaco., No. 592,

1932, 1-15, (after Moore, H. B., & Kitching, J. A.).

Hoek, P..P. C.—The Cirripedia of the Siboga-Expedition, Cirripedia Sessilia,

Monographie XXXI, b, 1913, Siboga-Expeditie.

Kitching, J. A.—An introduction to the Ecology of Intertidal Rock Surfaces

on the coast of Argyll. Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., Vol. LVIII, pt. Il, 1934-35,

(No. 15), 351-874.

Moore, H. B.—The biology of Balanus balanoides, V. Distribution in the

Plymouth area. Jour. Mar. Biol. Assn., Vol. XX, 1935-86, 701-716.

ics}

bt)

Hist. Soc,

Balanidae

Fic.

from

726

K. S. SRINIVASAN.

Mahabalipuram.

(For explanation see end of article).

[MARI A he ee

sce. Se

ath ort tne

7 .

“ce Qea IA Shee by aot aS x cnc Seiwa LE eee

“?

Pe tine 5 be

THE BIRDS OF THE SIMLA AND ADJACENT HILLS 117

Moore, H. B., & Kitching, J. A.—The biology of Chthamalus stellatus (Poli).

journ. Mar, Biol. Assn., Vol. XXII, 1938-39, 521-541.

Parke, M. W.—The biology of Balanus balanoides—II. Algal infections of

the shell. Jour. Mar. Biol. Assn., Vol. XX, 1985-36, 49-56.

Sundara Raj, B.—‘Cirrepedia’ Bull. Madras Govt. Museum, New Ser., Nat.

Hist, Sn.; Vol. I, No. 1, 1927, 111-115.

EXPLANATION OF FYGURES.

Fig. 1.—Photograph of a group of boulders showing extensive growth of

Chthamalus stellatus (Poli) on the exposed and splashed surfaces.

Fig. 2.—Photograph of Chthamalus stellatus showing different stages of

growth. ca x 2.

THE BIRDS OF THE SIMLA AND ADJACENT HILLS

A. E. JONES, M.B.O.U.

Part [

INTRODUCTION.

Before commencing to enumerate the birds of these hills it may

not be amiss to give a short account of the various types of terrain

encountered by the traveller.

Starting from Kalka a mixture of plains and hill jungle is

found; the former being represented by Mango, Pipal, Banyan,

Bombax and Kikar; the latter by Bamboo and Cactus (candelabra)

among many others. A little higher up the Long-Leaved Pine

(P. longifolia) forms most of the forest growth. Next in order we

come to ‘Banj’ Oak (Q. incana), Rhododendron (R. roseus), Deodar

(C. deodara), Moru Oak (Q. dilatata), Blue Pine (P. excelsa),

Himalayan Spruce (Picea morinda), Kharsu Oak (Q. semicarpifolia)

and lastly ‘Narkanda Pine’ (Abies pindrow). Forest growth ceases

at about 11,500 ft. being succeeded by Alpine conditions, pasture,

crag and perpetual snow.

The Simla Hills District is divided into 27 Indian States, with

an area of 4,519 square miles; Bashahr being by far the largest

and at the same time the most remote. The Sutlej river passes

through this State for a considerable distance, after which it

divides the district from Kulu and Suket State which le to the

north. The geographical limits are confined between the parallels

of latitudes 30° 20 ft. and 32° 5 ft. and longitudes 76° 30 ft.

(L@) FAG) aie

The annual rainfall averages about 68 inches, most of which

falls from June to September.

In the Journal (Vol. xxvi, No. 2, May 20, 1919) I wrote an

article ‘A List of Birds found in the Simla Hills 1908-1918’. It

was a very incomplete list, but since its publication we have been

118 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

visited by many eminent ornithologists among whom may be men-

tioned Hugh Whistler, C. B. Ticehurst, H. W. Waite and Bengt

Berg the Swedish naturalist and author, who between them have

added much fresh information to our knowledge of the avifauna

of these parts. I ought also to mention my old friend P. T. L.

Dodsworth who did some most valuable work and was the author

of numerous articles and notes on the ornithology of Simla. S.

Basil Kdwardes was another very keen enthusiast and added much

useful information on bird life in these hills besides writing his

very useful contribution to the ornithology of Delhi.’

For the “nomenclature I have followed Hugh Whistler in his

invaluable ‘Popular Handbook’ and Stuart Baker in ‘The Fauna

of British India Birds’, whose memories and unstinted help I shall

always cherish.

To all those friends who have supplied me with notes and speci-

mens IJ tender my best thanks. I may here remark that these records

are in most cases substantiated by specimens now in the Museum

of the Bombay Natural History Society ;? all told these amounted

to nearly three thousand skins collected during a residence of thirty-

eight years during which time my business took me to Lahore and

Ambala for the winter months. In the latter district, especially

about Jagadhri, I collected a number of very interesting specimens

one of which, the Black-throated Diver (Colymbus arcticus) was new

to the birds of India.

1. Corvus corax. The Raven.

SizE: That of a good sized domestic fowl. Length 24 inches.

FrELD CHARACTERS: Entirely black, including bill, legs and feet.

DISTRIBUTION: Does not occur in the Simla Hills. However, Whistler

found it uncommon in some of the lower tensils of the Kangra district, and

I saw it at Bakloh, 4,o00 ft. and Dalhousie, 7,o00 ft. in June and July, r1g1o.

GENERAL Hapits: Like all the Crow family this bird is a scavenger, in

fact like all the Corvidae, it is omnivorous. The aerial gymnastics indulged

in by this bird at times are fascinating to watch. Usually seen in pairs or

family parties though it is not an uncommon sight to see large congregations

at drinking, bathing and roosting places; these would probably be composed

entirely of immigrant birds, as I have only noticed such gatherings in the cold

weather. The usual call note is a deep pruk, pruk (Whistler) but its vocabulary

covers a very wide range which includes some quite musical bell-like notes.

NiprricaTIon: Most eggs are laid in January and February, exceptionally

December and March. Eggs usually number 4-7, the latter exceptionally. The

nest is constructed of sticks and is placed either in a tree or on a ledge of a cliff;

I once found one built in the girders of the railway bridge over the Haro

River near Campbellpore.

This year, my friend Lieut. D. W. Cotton, in a communication to me re-

cords finding a nest in a cliff which contained large young ones on 27-2-46.

“Elevation approximately 5,000 ft.’

2. Corvus macrorhynchos intermedius Adams. The Jungle Crow.

SizE: 18 inches; rather larger than the House Crow (C. splendens).

Frerp Cuaracters: A small edition of the Raven but lacks the pointed

throat hackles and has a higher pitched voice.

1 Jour, B.N.H.S., Vol. xxxi, 261, | 567.

* The subspecific attributions are confirmed or made by Mr. Saélim Ali on the

basis of this material.—Eps.

THE BIRDS OF THE SIMLA AND ADJACENT HILLS 119

DistrisuTtion: The Himalayas from the foothills to 13,000 feet (Whistler)

where our subspecies is known as Corvus mdcrorhynchos intermedius, but it may

be worth mentioning that the birds found in the lower hills (2,500 feet to 3,500

feet) have a more mellow note, while their tails are definitely shorter, giving

them, specially in flight, a more squat outline. These would, I think, be referred

to the race C. m. macrorhynchos? Occasionally it wanders up to 6,000 feet or

even more.

GENERAL Hapits: Resident throughout the year. Large numbers congregate

at their favourite roosting places, where they begin to assemble at 3 p.m. leaving

again before daybreak. Its aerial evolutions almost rival those of the Raven

but I have never seen it indulge in the ‘roll’. Dun and white specimens occur.

Omnivorous.

NIDIFICATION : The nest is a small replica of that of the Raven and like that

species warmly lined with wool, hair and dry grass. Eggs number from 4 to 6

and are mostly laid during the latter half of April.

3. Corvus splendens splendens Vieillot. The House Crow.

SIZH); 16) inches:

FIELD CHARACTERS: Crown of head and throat black, ashy gray from nape

to mantle, continued on to breast, darker on flanks and abdomen; remaining

plumage black glossed green, blue or purple.

DisTRIBUTION: Lower hills up to 5,o00 feet; occasionally up to 7,000 feet.

Colonies at Solan, Kandaghat and Subathu.

GENERAL Harits: Tame and familiar but ever alert. Gregarious. While the

Jungle Crow may be found on the edges of the larger cities, the House Crow

frequents the busiest streets, docks and railway stations. Omnivorous and a

cunning thief. This species is also subject to the same aberrations of colouring

as the foregoing species,

NipIFICATION : The main breeding season is during June and July. The usual

materials of the exterior of the nest are slender twigs, lined with hair, dry grass,

wool and rags. A number of nests examined at Kalka were made of pieces of

wire. Eggs number from three to six, four or five being the usual clutch; the

round colour of the egg is blue-green blotched with umber brown and pale

inky purple.

4. Urocissa melanocephala occipitalis Blyth. The Red-billed Blue Magpie.

SIZE: 25-27 inches, the tail being about 16 to 18 inches. .

FIELD CHARACTERS: Head, throat and upper breast black; white nape

patch and under parts; back, wings and long graduated tail blue grey, the last

with a conspicuous white tip to each feather. The coral red bill, legs and feet

distinguish it from the Yellow-billed Blue Magpie which is uncommon in the

Simla Hills.

DISTRIBUTION : From Nepal, westwards to the Simla Hills where its chief

stronghold is between 5,000 feet to 7,500 feet and down to 4,000 feet in winter.

GENERAL Hapirs: Except in the breeding season is generally seen in small

flocks or family parties threading their way through the forest. Though usually

arboreal they often come to earth if anything of interest attracts them, their

long tails then being held well above the ground. Has a variety of harsh

wxaucous notes.

NipirIcaTION: Takes place from the end of April till the middle of June.

The nest often placed in a most conspicuous position from 8 feet to 30 feet from

the ground either in forest or the trees growing around cultivated fields. The

mest is made with fine twigs and lined with dry grass and fibres. Six is the

commonest number of eggs in a clutch, but I have known of one egg highly

incubated; ground colour stone usually heavily blotched with sienna brown.

5. Urocissa flavirostris cucullata Gould. The Yellow-billed Blue Magpie.

SizE: 26 inches, length of tail same as preceding species.

FIELD CHARACTERS : Same as U. melanocephala with the following exceptions :

bill, legs and feet yellow; white nape patch much smaller.

DisTRIBUTION: A rare resident in the Simla Hills, found in a higher zone

than the previous species. I found it much commoner across the Sutlej in

Suket State. Outside our area from Murree to Assam.

120 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NALURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

GENERAL Hapits: Same as the foregoing species but more addicted to the

Deodar (C. deodara) forests above 7,500 feet.

NipiFicaTION : Similar to U. melanocephala.

6. Dendrocitta yagabunda pallida Blyth. The Indian Tree-Pie.

S1zE: Rather variable, between 18-20 inches, the tail about 12 inches.

FIELD CuHaractTers: A long tailed bird with sooty brown head and throat with

a rufous body; a large pale grey patch on the wings; slaty-blue graduated tail

each feather tipped black.

DistrisuTion : In these hills up to 5,000 feet.

GENERAL Hapirs: Resident. Frequents open forest and the secondary growth

near villages, roadside avenues and mango topes. Bold and fearless, it some-

times enters bungalows in search of food. Omnivorous.

NipiricaTion : In Northern India most eggs are laid in April and May. The

nest is loosely or compactly constructed of fine twigs, lined with grass bents

and roots; it is usually built some height from the ground in a fork of a tree,

sheeshum, mango and ‘kikur’ being the favourites. The clutch usually consists.

of four or five eggs but frequently only three incubated are found. These are

clay coloured with deep brown blotches with underlying markings of pale ashy..

7. Dendrocitta formosae occidentalis Ticehurst. The Himalayan Tree-Pie.

S1zE: Same as the Indian Tree-Pie.

Fretp CHARACTERS: An ashy-grey and black long tailed bird with a dipping

flight. Arboreal and extremely shy.

DisTRIBUTION : Fairly common in the Oak (Q. incana) forests up to 7,500 feet

and as low as 2,500 feet. Resident. It is curious that there should be so few

records of it to the N.W. of the Simla Hills. Neither Whistler nor Hingston

found it in the Dharmsala-Kangra area, though the former found it common

in Mandi State (Journ. B.N.H.S., vol. xxx, p. 223).

GENERAL Hapsits: Resident. Not uncommon. During the breeding season

frequents Oak (Q. incana) and is then very quiet and secretive. Much more

in evidence during the cold weather when it roams through cultivated areas in

small parties of three to six. Call notes much as D. vagabunda but not so

musical.

NipiricaTion : Usually takes place from the middle of May to the beginning:

of June. The nest is a very slight structure of fine twigs lined with roots and

is placed.at no great height from the ground in a small Holly tree, Oak or Box

tree with little regard to concealment. Eggs number 3 to 5, the ground

colour is cream to pale stone, heavily blotchad with darlx brown.

8. Garrulus lanceolatus Vigors. The Black-throated Jay.

SizE: As Common Mynah with a longer tail.

FreLp CuHaracTErRS: Head and ear coverts black, throat streaked black and

white; body plumage vinous grey; wings and tail black with blue barring and

white tips. Weak and undulating flight. Except in the breeding season generally

seen in small parties but sometimes as many as 20 or more. Often seen feeding

on the ground.

DisTRIBUTION : Found from the Suleiman Hills, along the N.-W. Himalayas

to Nepal. Resident up to 7,500 feet but descends to lower elevations (3,500 feet)

in winter. :

GENERAL Hapirs: Common in the immediate vicinity of Simla where it keeps.

mostly to the oak forests.

NipiFicaTIon: At the approach of the breeding season the flocks break up

into pairs and nests may be found from the middle of April till the end of May.

The nest is constructed of fine twigs lined with roots and fibres. Eggs number

3 to 5 and are finely freckled with very pale red-brown on a pale sea green ground,

sometimes with dark brown hair streaks.

9. Garrulus bispecularis bispecularis Vigors. “The Himalayan Jay.

Size: Same as the Black-throated Jay.

Firrp* Cnaracters: A vinous fawn bird with a conspicuous white

rump, black tail, wings and well defined broad moustachial streaks, A very

favourable view discloses the beautiful blue barring on the wings and _ tail.

THE BIRDS OF THE SIMLA AND ADJACENT HILLS 125

DistrRiBuTIoNn: In the Simla Hills this Jay occupies a slightly higher zone

than the last species, usually above 7,000 feet up to 8,500 feet, though in

the winter it may descend to 6,000 feet. Its usual habitat is the grand mixed forests.

of the conifers and Moru Oak (Q. dilatat«).

GENERAL Hasits: Resident; during autumn and winter wanders into the

precincts of Simla, i.e. ‘Jakko’ and the ‘Glen’, but in summer retires to the

forests of Mahasu and Kufri. Gregarious in the cold season when it oftem

consorts with the former species. Note: the usual harsh screech.

NipiFicaTion: The breeding season is from mid-May to mid-June. The

nest is a much more substantial structure than that of the Black-throated Jay,

being made of stout twigs well felted with green moss, and is lined with roots.

Not much attempt is made at concealment. Eggs number three or four. They

are, in a series, distinguishable from those of the last named species by the

more definite, but still very faint markings and a smoother surface.

10. Nucifraga caryocatactes hemispila Vigors. The Himalayan Nutcracker.

Size: Slightly larger than a Jay.

FIELD CHARACTERS: A dark brown bird copiously speckled with white; the

white outer tail feathers are very conspicuous in flight. No white on rump

or upper tail coverts.

DistripuTion: The Mahasu-Kufri range in the immediate neighbourhood

of Simla. Farther afield very common in the Narkanda-Baghi forest. Odd

birds wander into the outskirts of Simla, mostly in autumn and winter.

GENERAL Hasits: Found in the deep forests consisting of deodar, spruce,

Blue Pine (P. excelsa) and oak, where it is not uncommon between 6,000 feet

to 10,000 feet. Its diet is varied but a large proportion consists of the seeds of the

conifers, berries and insects. Its flight is buoyant and dipping and it may often

be seen flying from one patch of forest to another when the white outer

tail feathers are very conspicuous. The usual note often uttered on the wing

is a harsh, far-reaching kra-kra-kra but when its young or its nests are in

danger it gives vent to a low plaintive jiu.

NipIFIcaATION: As far as I know the only nest found is the one I

recorded in the Journal B.N.H.S., Vol. xxv, No. 2, p. 602 as follows:

‘A nest I found on March roth, 1917, containing two young about 5 days old

and an addled egg was placed 22 feet from the ground in a deodar tree; it was

supported by two horizontal branches where they sprang from the main stem.

In appearance it resembled a jay’s, but the exterior had, besides the twigs,

a certain amount of lichen and dry oak (Q. dilatata) leaves incorporated in it.

Lined with dry grass, moss, lichen and hair. Jt measured externally & inches

wide by 4 inches deep. Inside breadth 4 inches by 24 inches deep.

The young were clothed in white down. The egg is a broad oval. The

ground colour is a very pale greenish grey and the markings, which are most

numerous at the large end, consist of irregular blotches, some larger and some

smaller, of umber brown with a few underlying freckles of pale inky purple.

It measures 1.42 inches long by 1.07 inches wide.

The tree, in which the nest was, stands on a_ steep hillside facing east,

and the surrounding forest, consisting of deodar, pine, oak and_ holly is

fairly dense, though there is no undergrowth. Elevation, 7,500 feet.’

Young are out of the nest, following the old birds, by the first half of

April, so it would appear that most eggs are laid by the middle of February—

on the average the coldest month of the year!

11. Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax (L..) The Red-billed Chough.

Size: Same as House Crow.

Frecp Cuaracters: Whole plumage glossy black with coral red bill, and legs-

DisTRIBUTION : Rarely seen in these hills and that only in winter under stress

of very severe weather. T. R. Thorpe came across several at Jutogh (6,000 ft)

in January, 1935; while I saw a small party on the open hillside between Kanda-

ghat and Kereighat (5,500 ft.) in February, 1938. Waite observed it as common

between Jangi to Namgia. Wynter-Blyth reported it from Daranghati.

General, Hapits: Frequents the open Alpine pastures in summer from

10,000 feet to 15,000 feet. During winter descends to lower elevations.

£22 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

NipiricaTion: Breeds in holes, caves and clefts of precipitous cliffs,

making a nest of sticks, lined with wool. Lays four or five eggs of a pale

cream ground colour heavily blotched with pale sepia and purplish grey.

12. Pyrrhocorax geaculus graculus(L.). The Alpine Chough.

SIZE: 15 inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: Recognisable by its entire plumage being glossy black,

short yellow bill and red legs.

DistTRIBUTION: A bird of the higher hills. Major Bowring Walsh observed

it near the Kungma Pass ca. 15,000 feet and Namgia, Kunam and_ Jangi

9,000 feet August, 1943.

GENERAL Hapits: Same as foregoing.

NIDIFICATION: Much the same as the Red-billed Chough.

13. Parus major casehmiriensis Hartert. The Indian Grey Tit.

SizE: That of a House Sparrow.

FreLp CHARACTERS: Black head, throat and abdominal stripe; conspicuous

white cheek patch; slaty grey back and wings.

DISTRIBUTION: From the foothills it is common during the breeding season

from 4,000 feet to 6,500 feet occasionally to 8,000 feet (Fagu); in the cold

weather descends to lower elevations and spreads out into the plains.

GENERAL Hapitrs: A bird of the lighter forested areas, the edges of cultiva-

tion and even open hillsides where a few scattered bushes occur. Usually seen

in pairs and family parties. Occasionally this bird will attach itself to the

mixed hunting associations composed of Red-headed Tits, Tree-Creepers and

Willow-Warblers. Its food is composed of insects of all kinds which, if tco

large to swallow whole, it will hold down with its strong feet and devour piece-

meal.

NipiFicaTION : Takes place from mid-April to June. Some pairs I suspect

have two broods, though some of the later nests are due to accidents having

happened to the first attempts. The site chosen varies between a hole in a tree,

an abandoned rat hole in a sloping hillside, a hole in a building or in a re-

vetted roadside bank (the most common site). The nest is a mass of moss lined

with monkey’s fur. Eggs number 4 to 6 and are white speckled with red brown.

14. Parus monticolus monticolus Vigors. The Green-backed Tit. -

Size: Same as the Grey Tit.

FIELD CHARACTERS: Differs from the last species by its green back and

primrose yellow underparts, also the white tips to the wing feathers (secondaries).

DISTRIBUTION: Resident from 5,000 feet to 10,000 feet. Found throughout

the Himalayas. I have seen it in winter at Rawalpindi, so some birds descend

to the plains at this season though I think this is exceptional.

GENERAL Hapits: A forest bird and common in the oak belt, less so in

pure deodar. Its food consists mainly of insects and in this connection it is

worth mentioning that I have seen it moré than once feeding on the Pierid

butterfly Aporia agathon as these come to the flowers of the Horse Chestnut.

NipIFicaTIon : Differs in no way from that of the foregoing species, nesting

sites and materials being similar. The eggs differ slightly from the Grey Tit’s

in being rounder, more obtuse and more heavily blotched. They number

four to six, though Whistler mentions eight.

15. Machlolophus xanthogenys xanthogenys Vigors. The Yellow-cheeked Tit.

S1zE: Same as above.

Frerp Cnaracters: This very attractive bird is easily recognised by the

presence of the black crest, the longer feathers tipped with buff. Yellow super-

cilium and yellow cheeks, otherwise the colouring is much the same as the

‘Green-backed Tit.

DISTRIBUTION: This race occurs in the N.-W. Himalayas from Murree to

Nepal.

GENERAL Hapits: Very capricious in its choice of habitat. Only oak (Q.

icana) seems to suit it and even in large tragts of other apparently suitable forest

it is entirely absent. Never found in the deodar forests. The breeding zone

THE BIRDS OF THE SIMLA AND ADJACENT HILLS 123

is from 5,500 feet to 7,000 feet. Waite noted it at Bahli and Sungri (J.B.N.H.S.

Vol. 45, No. 4, p- 533) Which is exceptionally high.

NipIFIcATION: The site chosen for the nest is a hole in a tree from the

level of the ground to 20 feet or more. The materials are a pad of moss in

which the nest proper is formed and lined with fur. Eggs usually number four

in a full clutch and closely resemble those of the Grey Tit but the markings

are fewer and finer.

16. Lophophanes melanolephus Vigors. The Crested Black Tit.

SizE: Length 4 inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: Body, wings and tail iron grey with a black head, crest,

throat and breast; conspicuous white cheeks; grey under parts, rust coloured

flanks and two wing bars of pale rufous.

DISTRIBUTION : Common in the deodar forests around Simla from 6,000 ft.

to 11,000 ft. Descending to slightly lower elevations in the cold weather. During

the winter of 1932 I found it not uncommon in Rawalpindi.

GENERAL Harits: Shows a decided preference for the coniferous forests. A

very restless sprightly little bird. Its food consists mainly of insects, seeds and

berries. Frequently comes to ripe sunflower heads for the seed. Very

sociable and most of the foraging associations one encounters contain a few

of this species.

NipiriIcaTION: Takes place from April to June. Sometimes double brooded.

Favourite sites for the nest are a natural hole in a tree or in a revetment

wall. Moss constitutes the main foundation of the nest, the receptacle for

the eggs being warmly lined with fur and hair. The clutch consists of from

five to eight eggs which are white with rusty red blotches often forming a

zone round the larger end.

17. Lophophanes rufonuchalis rufonuchalis (Blyth). The Simla Tit.

SiZE: 43 inches.

FreLp CHARACTERS: Might be confused with the foregoing but, apart from

its slightly superior size, lacks the rufous wing-bars.

DISTRIBUTION : A bird of the higher elevations from 9,000 feet to the tree limit.

Common in Lahoul in the Juniper forests between 10,000 feet and 12,000 feet

(Whistler). In the Simla Hills it is not uncommon in the Narkanda-Baghi area.

Some birds in the N.W. descend to the plains in the cold season, for I obtained

specimens at Rawalpindi and Sang-jani during the winter of 1927. But this

must be exceptional considering the fact that both Hugh Whistler and H. W.

Waite were stationed there and never encountered it.

GENERAL Hapits: Another bird of the coniferous forests with all the same

cheery demeanour of the above.

NipiricaTIon : Whistler appears to be the only ornithologist to give us any

information on this phase of its economy. He found two nests containing

young on 2nd and 4th June respectively. These were placed under large stones

embedded in the hillside (Ibis, Jan. 1925, p. 165) ‘the nests were of the usual

soft materials’.

18. Lophophanes dichrous dichrous (Blyth). The Brown-crested Tit.

$1zE: 4 inches.

Fretp CnHaracters: A plain brown bird with red irides and a brown crest

and the vestiges of a buff colour.

DistripuTion: During the breeding season found from 9,000 feet up to

10,500 feet or more. In winter slightly lower, e.g. at Theog 7,500 feet, Kufri

and Mahasu 8,500 feet.

GENERAL Hapits: Much the same as other members of this genus but I

found it more addicted to deciduous growth as well as the stunted Quercus

semecarpifolia.

NipiricaTion: The only information regarding this point we owe to B. B.

Osmaston who found it nesting at Deoban 9,000 feet in Garhwal. He says the

hole containing the nest had evidently been excavated by the parent birds. The

nest was composed of moss copiously lined with grey hair. Five fresh eggs

were found in one nest and were of the usual white, spotted all over, but

mainly at the large end with red brown. Date 30/4. Salim Ali found a nest

with chicks in the same locality on May 1936.

124 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

19. Lophophanes rubidiyentris (Blyth). The Rufous-bellied Crested Tit.

SizE: 4% inches.

Firtp Cuaracters: No wing bars. Slightly smaller than the Crested Black

Tit which, except for the rust red of the belly, it closely resembles in general

colouring.

DistRIBUTION: In our district this species was obtained at 11,000 feet on

the Chor mountain by H. C. Smith and recorded by me, vide J.B.N.H.S., Vol.

xliv, No. 3, p. 474. Extends as far as Nepal.

GENERAL Hasits: Nothing recorded.

NIDIFICATION : Not known.

20. Sylviparus modestus simlaeasis Stuart Baker. The Yellow-browed Tit.

SIZE: 4 inches.

Frerp Cuaracters: A small olive green bird, underparts slightly paler

Tail slightly forked. The yellow brow is only visible when the bird is in the

hand.

DistRIBUTION: A bird of fairly high elevations. About Simla it is found

in the cold weather from October to March between elevations of 6,000 feet and

8,000 feet.

GENERAL Hasits: An active little bird usually found associating with the

hunting parties composed of Red-headed Tits, Tree Creepers, Goldcrests, ete.

Apparently only one bird is attached to each of these assemblies. Note like English

Blue Tit—rarely uttered.

Nipirication: Not known. Summer — distribution? See Waite’s note

JEBeNeHES., Vol. xiv, eNo, o4)) ps 533-

21. Aegithaliscus concinnus iredalei Stuart Baker. The Red-heated Tit.

SIZEG) 4 inches:

Fretp CHARACTERS: The red head, black cheeks and throat should be suffi-

cient to identify this little bird but it should be mentioned that the young ones

lack the black throat. Upper plumage pure slaty grey ; lower plumage pale russet ;.

iris cream.

DISTRIBUTION : Resident from 5,000 feet to 8,000 feet in the Simla district,

and down to 3,000 feet in winter.

GENERAL Hapits: Except while nest-building, incubating and tending the

young while they are in the nest, this small bird is seen in family parties and

small flocks. They pair off in February or early March. Unlike other tits

which roost in holes this species favours a more or less sheltered branch or twig

in a bush or shrub where the party all huddle together for warmth. This habit

was disastrous to their numbers in January, 1945, when Simla (as well as other

parts of the Hills) was visited by a snowstorm which fell to a depth of seven

to ten feet. The result was, that of this usually common species, at the com-

mencement of the breeding season, very few pairs remained to rear their breods

of young. This state of affairs was confirmed by several of my correspondents.

NibiFicaATION : Takes place in normal seasons in March and April, most nests

contain the full complement of eggs by the end of the former month. The

exterior of the nest is mainly composed of green moss with the addition cf

spiders’ webs and lichen. ‘The lining consists of feathers of various other birds,

principally of fowls and pheasants. The birds present a quaint sight carrying a

feather almost as large as themselves! The clutch consists of from four to

six eggs in these parts. The nest is placed from almost ground level, in a bush

or over-hanging grass a foot from the ground, to 4o feet up a deodar.

22. AEgithaliscus niveogularis Gould. The White-throated Tit.

S1zE: 4 inches.

Firtp CHaracters: The white throat, black eye-stripe and broad brown

pectoral band are diagnostic.

Distrisution: Mr. & Mrs. Pring found it not uncommon at Talra, Tarocly

State, Simla Hills at an elevation of 11,000 feet in May and June. Stuart Balser’s.

record of eggs sent him by Dodsworth, whom I knew very well, must be due

to some mistake. Dodsworth never worked the higher elevations.

ON THE CORRECT NAME OF THE TIBETAN SHRIKE 125

GENERAL Hapirs: Very similar to the above species. A bird of deciduous

forests, i.e. Silver Birch, Cherry, etc.

NipiricaTion : The breeding season is stated to be May and June. The nest

is very similar to that of the Red-headed Tit. B. B. Osmaston found a nest

on June 11, placed 1o feet from the ground in a Cherry tree. It contained

half fledged young. This was in the Tons Valley, Garhwal, ‘just below the

snows’.

23. Sitta himalayensis Jard. and Selby. The White-tailed Nuthatch.

S1zE: 5 inches.

Fretp CHARACTERS: Upper plumage slaty blue; underparts from throat pale

rufous shading to a deeper tone on the abdomen and under tail coverts; white

bases to the central tail feathers (not easily seen in the field); black eye stripe.

Sexes alike.

DisTRIBUTION : Not uncommon in oak forests in the neighbourhood of Simla.

Resident from 6,500 feet to 9,000 feet.

GENERAL Hapits: Arboreal. Seen usually in pairs and family parties, often

attaches itself to the mixed foraging associations of small birds. <A bird of the

tree trunks running either up or down in its tireless search for food. Note: a

sharp twit-twit. In Spring a pleasant trill is uttered.

NipIFICATION: The breeding-season is from mid-March to the end of April.

A small hole, usually one in an oak, is selected for the nursery. If the hole

is too large the entrance is contracted to suit the size of the bird’s body by

plastering it with clay. The cavity is lined with chips of dead leaves on which

the eggs lie. The clutch consists of three to six eggs which are white with

red blotches. The hole may be from 4 feet to 50 feet from the ground.

24. Sitta leucopsis leucopsis Gould. The White-cheeked Nuthatch.

SizE: 5 inches.

FreLD CuHaracters: Differs from the above in having the sides of the face

white, also in having the crown of the head black; underparts shading from

cream on throat and breast to deep russet on the abdomen and flanks.

DISTRIBUTION: Resident from 7,500 feet to 10,000 feet. Rare in Simla. A

flock seen on ‘Jakko’, 8,o00 feet.

GENERAL Hasits: Practically the same as the White-tailed Nuthatch but

whereas himalayensis prefers oak forest this species is a bird of the conifers. Its

usual call-note is well described by Whistler, i.e. a plaintive, tinny, quair-quair.

NipiricaTion : As far as I can discover Col. R. H. Rattray is the only ornith-

-ologist who has taken the eggs of this species. He found the bird fairly common

round Dunga Gali and Miranjani, above 8,oo0 feet, Murree Hills. He says

(J.B.N.H.S., Vol. xvi, p. 424), ‘A common nesting site is high up in a tall fir

tree that has been struck by lightning and cracked down the centre ; a convenient

place in this crack is selected. Eggs 5 to 8 in number.’ I found a nest in a

similar situation near Kufri; the old birds were feeding young.

(To be continued)

ONO CORRECT NAME, Ol DHE” TIBETAN SHRIKE USUALLY

GALLED LANIUS TEPHRONOTUS

Ernst Mayr, ph.p.,

American MIuseum of Natural History, New York.

In his excellent monograph of the shrikes M. Olivier tentatively adopted

the name nipalensis for the Tibetan Shrike, usually called Lanius tephronotus

(op. cit., p. 48, 208), following the nomenclature employed by the workers of

the British Museum (Ticehurst, Whistler, and Kinnear). However, Olivier

remarks correctly that the question of the name of this species is by no means

settled and that he believes ‘que cette question devra etre considérée a nouveau.”

126 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

In the following paragraphs an attempt is made to present such a renewed con-

sideration of the nomenclature of this species. The obvious conclusion, to be

drawn from the herewith presented evidence, is that there is no reason for

transferring the name lephronotus Vigors frony the Tibetan Shrike to a population

in the western Himalayas.

The Type-Locality of Lanius tephronotus Vigors.

This shrike was described by Vigors in the Proceedings of the Zoological

Society of London for 1830-31, page 43, from a collection of some sixty species

received by Gould from the ‘Himalayas’. Some of these specimens were illustrated

by Gould in his simultaneously published A Century of Birds of the Hiinalaya

Mountains. The name of the collector and the localities at which the specimens had

been collected were, apparently deliberately, suppressed by Vigors and Gould. When,

in the course of years, it was found that many of the sixty species described

by Vigors had different subspecies in the eastern and western Himalayas, various

authors restricted the type-localities of the species in the Vigors-Gould collec-

tion either to the eastern or western Himalayas. However, there is much

evidence that the greater part of the collection came from a single area and

that this area was the Simla-Almora district of the western Himalayas. Tice-

hurst and Whistler (1924, Ibis, pp. 468-73) therefore took the drastic step of

restricting the type localities of all the sixty species described by Vigors to the

Simla-Almora district in the western Himalayas. This action necessitated a

radical shift of type-locality for no less than ten species as well as a change

of names for several of them. How Ticehurst and Whistler thought they could

justify their action is not quite apparent to me since they themselves admit

that several of the species of the Gould collection are not now found in the

Simla-Almora district (Myiophoneus horsfieldi, Otis himalayanus, Otis nigriceps,

and Garrulax ocellatus). Neither does Pericrocotus brevirostris occur in the

western Himalayas as pointed out by Bangs (1930, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., 70,

p. 297) and by Mayr (1940, Ibis, pp. 714-15). Hartert (Végel pal. Fauna,

p. 925) and later Rothschild 1926, Novit. Zool., 33, p. 239) pointed out that the

specimen of Dryobates hyperythrus illustrated by Gould undoubtedly belonged to

the eastern Himalayan race, and that there was no excuse to shift the type locality

to the western Himalayas and to rename the eastern Himalayan form. It is obvious

from this evidence that the Vigors-Gould collection was a composite one, and

that it contained material from the eastern Himalayas and perhaps from other

parts of India, in addition to the Simla-Almora material.

By far the most injurious effect of the wholesale shifting of type localities

was that it resulted in the shifting of the name Lanius tephronotus Vigors from

the well-known Tibetan Shrike, to which this name had been applied for neariy

one hundred years, to a shrike of the western Himalayas. Whistler and Kinnear

(1933, Jour. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 36, pp. 336-37) apply the name tephronotus —

to a local population of shrikes found in Lahul and the Suru Valley and use

for the Tibetan Shrike the name nipalensis Hodgson.

This confusing transfer of names is unjustified and unnecessary for the

following reasons :

(1) The name tephronotus has been applied to the Tibetan Shrilxe with

such unanimity for the ninety-three years between 1831 and 1924 that only

compelling reasons would justify a transfer. However, the only reasons ad-

vanced by Ticehurst and Whistler are vague conjectures.

(2) Even if the entire Gould-Vigors collection had been collected in the

western Himalayas, it would still be unwarranted to reject the name tephronotus

for the Tibetan Shrike since it is quite possible that the species is found in the

western Himalayas as an occasional winter visitor or straggler. It has been

reported breeding as far west as Garhwal (Whymper), although these birds

may not have been typical tephronotus.

(3) The fact that Vigors described both erythronotus and tephronotus in the

same work indicates that the gray-backed shrike he had before him was _ the

very distinct Tibetan bird and not a specimen of the Lahul population which

is much more similar to erythronotus. This is strengthened by the original

description of tephronotus which states that the back is gray, the tail brown

and implies that the white wing-spot is absent. These characters are valid

for the Tibetan bird but not for the Lahul population. It is doubtful whether

Vigors would have applied the name tephronotus (=gray-backed) to the Lahul

population,

ON THE CORRECT NAME OF THE TIBETAN SHRIKE be ¢

(4) Stuart Baker had already restricted the type locality of L. tephronoius

to Gyantse, Tibet, which is in the breeding range of the Tibetan Shrike. This

action definitely tied the name tephronotus to the Tibetan Shrike. Admittedly

the type specimen of tephronotus cannot have been collected at Gyantse which

around 1830 was quite inaccessible. Stuart Baker, after many years of re-

sidence in India, was surely fully aware of this. His full restriction of the

type-locality reads: ‘Himalayas, Gyantse, Tibet,’ which may be interpreted

to read: ‘Winter visitor to the foothills of the Himalayas, typical breeding

population at Gyantse, Tibet.” The rules of nomenclature state nothing about

the selection of type localities, but it seems that it should be permitted to suggest

a breeding range type locality for a bird that was described from its winter

quarters. However, to avoid any possible criticism I shall rephrase Stuart

_ Baker’s wording and hereby fix the type-locality of L. tephronotus as follows::

‘Foothills of the Himalayas near Darjeeling, where breeding birds of the

Gyantse district may be expected to winter.’ In view of the proven composite

nature of the Vigors-Gould collection, Baker’s restriction of the type-locality

of L. tephronotus to the eastern Himalayas cannot be rejected, even though

other parts of that collection came from the western Himalayas.

The shift of the name tephronotus was not accepted by Dunajewski in his

revision of the Lanius schach group (1939, Jour. Ornith., 87, p. 38) nor by the

majority of the other non-British authors. Retention of the name tephronotus

for the Tibetan Shrike, to which it has been applied by the majority of authors

since 1831 therefore does not cause any confusion, as would the shift of this

name to the Lahul population as proposed by Whistler and Kinnear.

The application of the name tephronotus to the Tibetan Shrike leaves with-

out a name the Lahul population to which Whistler and_ Kinnear had transferred

the name tephronotus. However, Dunajewski states that this population is but

little distinct from erythronotus and that the name L. jourotus Hodgson may

be available for it (1939, J. Ornith., 87, p. 38).

Whether or not Lanius tephronotus Vigors is a distinct species still seems

to be an open question. In the east where tephronotus and schach tricolor meet,

there is no sign of intergradation. However, this may be due to a _ vertical

gap between the ranges of the two forms. In the west, it is stated by Whistler

and Kinnear (op.cit., p. 336) that there is a complete intergradation between

erythronotus and the Tibetan Shrike. This is denied by Dunajewski (op. cit.,

pp. 30-35). A renewed study of the shrikes of Garhwal, Kumaon, West Nepal

and the adjoining districts of Tibet will surely decide this point. It is quite

possible that these shrikes present another case of circular overlap of races,

and that tephronotus acts with schach like a good species in the eastern Himala-

yas, but intergrades with it in the western Himalayas. It is significant that

among all the races of schach the one which is morphologically most similar

to tephronotus, namely erythronotus, is also the only one which, like the Tibetan

Shrike, has become adapted to the high mountains.

NOTES ON A COLLECTION OF BIRDS FROM MADRAS PRESIDENEY *

WALTER ISOELZ

In 1937 I spent from January 21 to March 27 in Madras Presidency on

a botanical mission. During a part of this period I was able to. devote my

spare time to making a collection of birds. The principal localities and dates

for such collections follow: Mahendra Giri and environs (now in Orissa Province)

January 21-30; Ellore, February 2; Nilgiri Hills (crest) February 14-21; Palni

Hills (crest), March 10-15; Nilambur, February 23 and March 3-6; Malabar

Coast: Tellicherry, February 25; Kasargod, February 27; Mangalore, March

1; Kodur, March 18, 19; Cuddapah, March 19, 20; Sidhout, March 20-23 ; Hospet,

March s245925:

In the series of papers on ‘The Vernay Scientific Survey of the Eastern

‘Ghats’ (Ornithological Section) by Hugh Whistler, assisted by N. B. Kinnear,

beginning in the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, Vol. xxxv,

7p. 505, and ending in Vol. xxxix, p. 463, has been given a resumé of the existing

data on the occurrence and distribution of birds in Madras Presidency.

The present collection has yielded data on species not given in this resumé

and on many forms of which, up to now, there have been but few records in

the area under consideration.

The specimens referred to are preserved in my _ collection.

Dendrocitta formosae sarkari Kinnear and Whistler.

A male was taken January 23, 1937 on Mahendra Giri, W 139 mm.

Dendrocitta vagadunda parvuia Kinnear and Whistler.

A female taken at Nilambur, March 5’, W 134 mm.

Dendrocitta vagabunda vernayi Kinnear and Whistler.

Male taken at Sidhout, March 22, W 151 mm. Female taken at Kodur

March 18, W 144 mm.

‘Dendrocilta leucogastra Gould.

Common at Nilambur where fuur were taken February 23, March 4 and 5,

W 3 6 142-149, 2 146 mm.

Parus major stupae NKoelz.

Three ¢ and two Q were taken at Ootacamund, February 14 and 16.

‘Machiclophus xanthogenys aplonotus (Blyth).

Three specimens were taken on Mahendra Giri, January 24, 25.

Machlolophus xanthogenys travancorénsis Kinnear and Whistler.

Three specimens were taken at Kodaikanal, March 10, 11.

* The manuscript of this useful paper was received in 1939 just before the

‘War started. The undue delay in its publication is regretted. The editors take

no responsibility for the several new races introduced by the author. The

last word on the validity of many of them has yet to be said. Readers are

referred to the comments of the late Hugh Whistler on some of these new

Indian races (described by Dr. Koelz in Proc. Biol. Soc., Washington, 52,

June 5, 1939, pp. 61-82) in Vol. xliii of the Journal, B.N.H.S., pp. 33-38—EDs.

ON A COLLECTION OF BIRDS FROM MADRAS 129

Sitta frontalis simplex lKoeiz.

Specimens taken: Mahendra, January 24, 25, ¢, 2 2 9; Ootacamund, Feb-

ruary 14, 16, 2 gd, 3 9@@; Kodaikanal, March 10, 9.

Trochalopteron cachionans cachinnans (Jerdon).

Three specimens were taken at Ootacamund, February 14, 16.

Trochaloteron jerdoni fairbanki Blanford. ;

Common at Kodaikanal where 6 specimens, W 88-91 mm., were taken March

10-14.

Turdoides griseus griseus (Gmelin).

Male taken at Coimbatore, February 11, W 109.5 mm.; and at Sidhout,

March 21, W 106 mm,

Turdoides somervillei terricolor (Hodgson)

Female, W i102 mm., was taken on Mahendra Giri on January 22; and a

3S W 102.5 mm., at Kodur, March 18.

Turdoides somervillei malabaricns (Jerdon)

A female W 106 mm., was taken at Nilambur on February 2

Crateropus caudata caudata (Dumont).

Three males were collected at Cuddapah, March 19, W 73-81 mm., and

one at Hospet, March 25, W 76 mm.

Crateropus matcolmi (Sykcs).

' Two juveniles taken at Hospet,- March 24 and 25.

Pomatorhinus horsfieldi horsiieldi (Sykes).

Common on Mahendra. Giri were 4 adults: 3 gd W 88-96.5, @ 91 mm.,

and 2 juveniles were taken on January 23 and 24.

Pomatorhinus horsfieldi trayancoreensis Harington.

Common in the Palnis and Nilgiris. Specimens collected: Ootacamund,

February 14-16, 2 ¢g d W 99, 100.5, 9 94 mm.; Kunjapani, February 20, ¢ g 99

mm.; Nilambur, March 4, ¢@ 97 mm.; Kodaikanal, March 10-14, 5 ¢¢ 92-97

mm., and 2 juveniles.

Dumetia hyperythra hyperythra (franklin).

2 3d W 53, 55 mm., were taken on Mahendra Giri on January 23, 24.

Dumetia hyperythra albogularis (Blyth).

A female, W 55 mm., was taken at’ Sidhout on March 22.

Chrysomma sinensis hypoieuca (Franklin).

Specimens taken: Saba, January 27, ¢ W 65 mm.; Kodur, March 8, W

67 mm.; Sidhout, March 21 and 22, 3.d:¢ W 67.5-71, 2 W 61.5 mm.; Hospet,

March 25, 36 69 mm. :

Pellorneum ruficeps ruficeps Swainson.

Four males were taken on Mahendra Giri on January 24 and 25, W 70-74.5

mm.; and one at Kunjapani, February 20, 1937, W 74 mm.

Mixornis gularis rubricapilla (Ticlzell).

A pair was taken on Mahendra Giri on January 25, W 59, 60.5 mm., and

a dG at Bengasai next day,.W 60 mm.

130 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATUKAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Alcippe poioicephala poieicephala (Jerdon).

4 males, W 67-72 mm., were taken at Kunjapani on February 20.

Alcippe poioicephala brucei (Hume).

Specimens taken on Mahendra Giri are like specimens from Londa, Bombay

Presidency. Wings measure: 4 36 69.5-71.5; 2 922 7o mm.

Rhopocichla atriceps atriceps (Jerdon).

A pair was taken at Kunjapani on February 19 and 20; and at Nilambur

on March 3. Wings measure 53 (juv), 56 and 55°56:mm., respectively.

Aegithina tiphia humei Stuart Baker.

Specimens taken: Mahendra, January 22, gd W 64.5 mm.; Bengasai, January

26, 6 and @ W 65, 64 mm.; Rati, January 29, ¢ W 66.5, 2 64 mm.;

Kunjapani, February 20, 3 W 64 mm.; Mangalore, March 1, 2 6d W 64 mm.;

Nilambur, March 6, g¢ W 63.5 mm.; pair at Kodur, March 18, W 64, 65.5 mm.;

Cuddapah, March 20, 9 W 65 mm.; Hospet, March 25, § W 63.5 mm.

Chioropsis aurifrons davidsoni Stuart Baker.

Specimens were taken: Mahendra Giri, January 22, ¢ W 92 mm.; Bengasai,

January 26, 2:99 84.5, 85 mm.; Nilambur, March 3-5, 2 6d W 87, 91, 2 2@Q

83.5, 84 mm.; Kodur, March 18, ¢ W oo mm.

I have skins of 2 pairs’ from Nilambur, probably topotypical davidsonte,

that measure 5d 87, 91, 22 83.5, 84 mm. Whistler and Kinnear (J.B.N.H.S.,

XXXV, P. 751) separate their race insulavis of Ceylon on the grounds of having

shorter wing than davidsoni of Malabar and give measurements 6 d’5 91-943 3

‘O09 87.5-88.5 mm. They apparently should have named the race of which they

list specimens from Shevaroy Hills, Palkonda Hills, Nallamalai Hills and

Anantagiri, all in Madras Presidency, with wing measurements 6 3G 95-I01.5 ;

4 2@ 91.5-95 mm. Strangely I have 3 birds from Mahendra Giri, a little north

of Anantagiri that measure G 92, 2 84.5, 85 mm.

Microscelis psaroides ganeesa (Sykes).

Common at Ootacamund and Kodaikanal, where 2 6d, W 118, Q 112 mm.,

and 3 92 W 110-113 mm., were taken February 14 and March 10-14, respectively.

Molpastes cafer cafer (Linnacus).

A 2 W 85.5 mm., was taken at Kunjapani on February 19; and a

juvenile at Nilambur, March 3. aes

Molpastes cafer saturatus Kinnear and Whistler.

Specimens taken: Bengasai, January 26, ¢ W 99 mm. ; Kodur, March 18,

25d W 96, 98, 2 2'Q 90, 91 mm.; Cuddapah, March 20, 9 W 90 mm. ; Hospet,

March 24, 6 W 97.5 mm.

Otocompsa jocosa fuscicaudata (Gould).

Specimens taken: Ootacamund, @, February 14; Nilambur, 2 6d, March 2,

3; Kodaikanal, 4 gd anda @, March 1014.

Tole icterica intensior Ioelz.

Three specimens were taken at Kunjapani on February 19 and 20; and one

at Kodaikanal, March 15.

Pycnonotus gularis (Gould).

2 9D W 73.5, 79-5 mm., were taken at Nilambur, March 3, 5.

ON A COLLECTION OF BIRDS FROM MADRAS 131

Pycnonotus luteolas luteotus (Lesson).

Common in the vicinity of Mahendra Giri and specimens were taken : Bengasai,

January 26, 2 adult males, W go.5, 93 and a pair of juveniles; Rati, January

29, do W 87 mm.; a juvenile female was taken at Nilambur, March 5.

Microtarsus poioicephalus (Jerdon),

A @ W 75 mm., was taken at Kunjapani on February 203; and a @ W

78.5 mm., at Nilambur on March 2.

Tarsiger bruumea brunnea (Hodgson),

4 292 W 73.5-76, were taken on Mahendra Giri, January 22-24; and one

W 73 mm., February 14 at Ootacamund.

Saxicola caprata caprata (Linnaeus).

3 taken at Hospet on March 25,

Saxicola caprata atrata (Kelaart).

Specimens taken: Ootacamund, February 16, 2 dd W 76; 3 2 Q 72-74 mm.

Kodaikanal, March to-14, 2 dd W 81, 2 92 74mm. Two @ from Tellicherry.

February 25, are smaller, W 69 mm., and intermediate with rupchandi.

Phoenicurus ochrurus rufiventris (Vieillot).

A ¢o W 87 mm., was taken at Rati, January 29.

Calliope calliope (Pallas).

A @ W 76 mm., was taken on Mahendra Giri, January 25.

Saxicoloides fulicata intermedia Whistler.

Specimens were taken: Mahendra, January, 26, g¢ W 73 mm.; Rati,

January 27, 28, 2 6d W 72, 74 mm.; Kodur, March 18, 2 ¢ W 74, 76,:9 W

72 mm.; Hospet, March 25, ¢ W 78 mm.

Copsychus saularis saularis (Linnaeus).

Specimens taken: Rati, January 27, @ W 96.5 mm.; Kunjapani, February

19, 21, ¢ W 104.5, 2 96 mm.; Mangalore, March 1, 6 W 100 mm.

Kittacincla matabarica malabarica (Scopoli).

Males were taken ; Kunjapani, February 20, 21, W 98.5, 99; Kodur, March 18,

W 88 mm.

Turdus simillimus simillimus Jerdon. ich

Three 6 ¢ W 131-134, @ 127 mm, taken at Ootacamund, February 14-17.

Turdus simillimus bourdilloni (Seebohm),

3:66 W 120-125, 3 9:Q 125-129 mm., taken at Kodaikanal, March 10-14.

Turdus simillimus mahrattensis Kinnear and Whistler.

Two 92 W 120, 121 mm., taken at Nilambur, March 3, 4.

Turdus simillimus spencel Kinnear and Whistler.

¢o W 130.5 mm., taken on Mahendra Giri, January 24.

Turdus wnicolor Tickell.

A © W 118 mm., was taken on Mahendra Giri, January 23

Geokichla citrina cyanotus (Jardine and Selby).

A 6 W 112 mm., was taken on Mahendra Giri, January 25; at Nilambur,

March 3-6, 2 6o W 109-110, 3 2:9, 103-109 mm.

132 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NALURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Oreocinchla danma neilgherriensis Blyth.

A 2 W 127 mm., was taken at Ootacamund, February 16.

Monticola cinclorhyncha (Vigors).

Specimens taken: Mahendra Giri, January me

25)

mm.; Kunjapani, February 19, ¢ Ww 105, 2 100.5 m

Monticoia solitarius pandoo (Sykes).

Two @9Q W 117, 118 mm., were taken on Mahendra Giri, January 24,

Mophonus coeruleus horsfieldii Vigors.

Specimens were taken at Nilambur, March 3.

Muscicapula superciliaris astigma Hodgson.

A @ taken on Mahendra Giri, on January 22, W 62 mm. One taken

on the 23 and one on the 24, W 59, 61.5 mm., are of the typical race.

Cyornis pallipes pallipes (Jerdon).

Specimens collected: Kunjapani, February 19, 21, 2 dd W 76.5, 77.5 mm.;

Kodaikanal, March 10, 15, 3 6d W 77-78 mm.

Cyornis rubeculoides rubeculoides (Vigors).

Specimens collected: Kunjapani, February 19, ¢ W 72.5 mm.; Nilambur,

March 3, 2 do W 72.5, 77 mm.

Eumyias albicaudata (Jerdon).

Specimens taken: Ootacamund, February 14-16

2 Chie 0 V 795 Si. “55 4 Q Q

75-78 mm.; Kodaikanal, March 10-12, g W 82, 29 Q 76

, 78.5 mm.

Eumylas thalassina thalassina Swainson.

Specimens taken: Mahendra, January 23, W 79; Kunjapani, February

19, 20, 2 dd W 82, 84, Q 80 mm.

Alseonax latirostris poonensis (Sykes)

Specimens taken: Kunjapani, February 20, 3 W 7o mm.;_ Tellicherry,

February 25, 2 6d, W. 71.5, 73-5 mm.; Nilambur, March 4, ¢ W 75 mm.

Ochromela nigrorufa (Jerdon).

Common at Ootacamund and Kodaikanal. Four specimens from each

locality: W 2 do 63, 2 QQ 57, 58; 3 dd 61-63.5, 2 55.5 mm., respectively.

Culiclcapa ceylonensis ceylonessis (Swainson).

Specimens collected: Mahendra Giri, January 25» 3d W 64 mm.; Ootaca-

TOS, February 14, 2 6¢ W 64, 67.5, 2 60.5 mm.; Kodaikanal, March 10-13,

3 dd W 60-65, G 60.5 mm.

Tchitrea paradisi paradisi (linnaeus).

Specimens taken: Kunjapani, February 20, gd W 97.5 mm.; Mangalore,

March 1, 9 W 91 mm.; Nilambur, March 5, ¢ W 92.5 mm.

Hypothymis azurea sykesi Stuart Baker.

Specimens taken: Bengasai, January 23-26, 3 oo W 71, 9 68 mm.;

Kunjapani, February 19, 20, 3 dd W-64.5-69.5, Q 71 mm.; Mangalore, March

1, 9 W 7o mm.; Nilambur, March 2-4, 2 do W 68, 73, 2 7o mm.

Leucocirca aureola compressirostris Blyth.

Two oo W 8o0, 86 mm. and a 9 W 76.5 mm. were taken at Sidhout,

March 20-22.

ON A COLLECTION OF BIRDS FROM MADRAS 133

Leucocirca pectoralis vernayi Kinnear and Whistler.

Specimens taken: Mahendra Giri, January 23, 24, ¢ W 77, 2 72.5 mm.;

{Kodur, March 18, Q W 70.5 mm.; Hospet, March 25, Q W 70.5 mm.

Lanius vyittatus Valenciennes.

Specimens taken: Rati, January 27, 30, ¢ W 87, Q 84.5 mm.; Cuddapah,

March 20, 9 W 81.5 mm.; Sidhout, March 21-23, 4 6.6 .W $2.5-87, 2 29

83, 84 mm.

Lanius schach caniceps Blyth.

Specimens taken breeding: Ootacamund, February 15-17, 3 oo W = 88-97,

@ 93 mm.; Kodaikanal, March 10, 2 99 W 87, 90.5 mm.; Nilambur, March

3: 44 2 do W 91.5, 92.5 mm. Other specimens: Kodur, March 18, ¢ W

g1 mm.; Sidhout, March 22, 6 W o2 mm.; Hospet, March 24, 25, ¢ W

88.5, 2 22 88, 93.5 mm. This is a well-marked race.

Lanius cristatus cristatus Linnaeus.

Specimens taken: Nilambur, March 3, 4, ¢ and Q W 87 mm.; Kodaikanal,

March 11, 6 W 86 mm.

Lanius cristatus phoenicuroides (Schalow).

n”

A specimen was taken on Mahendra Giri, January 23, ¢ W 86.5; and at

Bengasai, January 26, 9 W 83.5 mm,

Lanius excubitor lahtora (Sykes).

Specimens taken: Cuddapah, March 19, 9 W 106.5 mm.; Sidhout, March

21, 22, 2.60 W 106.5,' 107.5 6mm:

Hemipus picatus picatus (Sylxes).

At Ootacamund on February 14, 15, were taken 3 d ¢ W 63, 2 @ @ 63, 65 mm.

(one female laying); and at Kunjapani, February 19, a male W 63 mm.

Tephrodornis gularis sylvicola Jerdon.

Specimens taken: Kunjapani, February 19, 21, 2 gd W 116, 117, 2 QQ

116 mm.; Nilambur, March 3, 2, W 121 mm.

Tephrodornis pondicerianus pondicerianus (Gmelin),

Specimens taken: Kodur, March 19, ¢ W 84 mm.; Cuddapah, March 20,

@ W 84 mm.; Sidhout, March 22, ¢ W 86, 2 99 84, 85.5 mm.; Hospet,

March 24, 3 W 87 mm.

Tephrodornis pondicerianus warei Koelz.

Two ood W 86.5, 89 mm., in rather worn plumage taken at Mangalore on

March 1, appear to be of this form.

Pericrocotus flammeus (Forster).

At Kunjapani, February 19, 20, were taken 4 gd W 92-93, 2 93 mm.

Pericrocotus cinnamomeus cinnamomeus (Linnaeus).

A pair was taken at Kunjapani, February 19, 20, W 71, 69 mm.

Pericrocotus cinnamomeus malabaricus (Gmelin).

At Nilambur, March 3, 5, were taken ¢ W 71, 2 @Q 68, 71 mm.

Pericrocotus cinnamomeus sidhoutensis Koelz.

Specimens taken: Kodur, March 18, ¢ W 65.5, @ 65 mm.; Sidhout,

March 21-23, 3 od 65.5-67, 29 65.5 mm.

134 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. ay

Lalage sykesi sykesi Strickland.

Specimens taken: Ootacamund, February 4, 3d W 103 mm. -Nilambur,

March 3, .Q W 02. 5, March 5, 6 98.5 mm.; Kodur, March rae 19, 2 ONG

W 104, 105.5 mm.; Sidhout, March 21, 22, g 2 W 102, 104 mm.; Hospet,

March 25, 6 W 103 mm.

Graucalus javensis macei Lesson.

A female W 163 mm., was taken at Mandasa on January 21; and a male

159, 2 QQ 157, 159 mm., at Kunjapani, February 19, 20.

Dicrurus macrocercus peninsularis Ticehurst.

A female* W 134 mm., was taken March 1 at Mangalore; and a pair March

21, 22, \W 186, 137 tmm:, “at Sidhout-:

Dicrurus coerulescens coerulescems (Linnaeus).

A female W 121 mm., was taken at Kunjapani, February 19.

Dicrurus longicaudatus longicaudatus (Jerdon).

Specimens taken: Mahendra Giri, January 23, 24, 4 gd W 137.5-144 mm.;

Kunjapani, February 14, 21, 6 W 136 mm.

Chaptia aenea malayensis Blyth.

Four g, W 115.5-121 mm., were taken at Kunjapani on February 20; and

one at Nilambur, March 2, W 118.5 mm.

Dissemurus paradiseus malabaricus (Latham).

A male was taken at Nilambur, February 23, W 155 mm.

Acrocephalus dumetorum Blyth.

Specimens taken: Mahendra Giri, January 23, 24, 2 ae 2; Bengasai,

January 26, 2; Rati, January 29, 'Q ; Ootacamund, February 16, 2 dd, 9;

Kunjapani, February 19, 20, 2 9 9; Nilambur, February 23% March 2 and 3, 4

Qi9 ; Kodaikanal, March 10, 11, 38.

Acrocephalus agricola agricola Jerdon.

A female W 60 mm., was taken at Ellore, February 2.

Orthotomus sutorius sutorius (J orster).

Specimens taken: Kunjapani, February 19, 21, 3 gd. Two males taken

at Nilambur, March 2, 5 are intermediate with the next.

Orthotomus sutorius londae Koelz.

3 females taken at Mangalore, March 1; a male taken at Kodur, March

a oR

18; a female at Cuddapah, March 20; and 3 dd on Mahendra Giri, January

25, 26 are near this form.

Franklinia gracilis gracilis (Franklin).

Specimens collected: Bengasai, January 22, ¢ W 48 mm.; Kunjapani,

February 20, 2 W 44 mm.; Kodur, March 18, ¢'9, W 47, 45 mm.

Phragmaticola aedon aedon (Pallas).

Specimens taken: Bengasai, January 26, ¢ W 87 mm.; Nilambur, Feb-

ruary 23, March 5, 2 9:9 W 80 mm.

Hippolais caligata rama (Sykes).

At Kodur, on March 18, were taken 2 males W 61 mm., 2=6-7; at pidhout,

March 22, 6 W 56.5 mm., 2=%-8,

ON A COLLECTION .OF BIRDS FROM MADRAS 135

Sylvia bortensis jerdoai Blyth.

A male was taken at Rati on January 28,

Phylloscopus affinis (Tickell).

At Ootacamund, February 14-16, were taken 2 dd W 60, 61, 3 QQ 55-61.5

mm.; and at Kodaikanal, March 11, a dg W 55.5 mm.

Phylloscopus inornatus humei (Brooks).

4 specimens taken on Mahendra Giri, January 24.

Phylloscopus nitidus nitidus Blyth.

A specimen was taken March 1 at Mangalore, W 64 mm.

Phylloscopus nitidus viridanus Blyth.

2 56d W 509, 60.5, 9 59 mm., were taken on Mahendra Giri, January 23,

24; and a ¢ W 63 mm., at Kodaikanal, March 1o.

Phylloscopus magnirostris Blyth.

_. Two specimens were taken at Ootacamund, February 14, 15.

Phylloscopus occipitalis occipitatis (Blyth).

Specimens taken: Mahendra Giri, January 24, ¢ ; Kunjapani, February 19,

6; Kodaikanal, March 12, ¢.

Seicercus burkii burkii (Burton).

A male was taken on Mahendra Giri, January 23.

Prinia socialis Socialis Sykes.

Specimens were taken: Ellore, February 2, Q@ "W 45.5 mm.;° Sidhout,

March 22, 6 W 47,:2 ‘9 @: 45,. 47 mm.; Hospet, March 25, @ -W 49.5 mm.

Prinia sylvatica sylvatica Jerdon.

Two males were taken at Sidhout, March 22, W 56, 60 mm.

Prifia sylvatica palniensis Koelz.

Three specimens were taken at Ootacamund, February 15, 16; and 3 at

Kodaikanal, March 11-14.

Prinia sylvatica mahendrae Koelz.

3 specimens were taken on Mahendra Giri, January 23-25.

Prinia inornata inornata Sykes.

Specimens were taken: Ellore, February 2, Q@ W 45.5 mm.; Sidhout.

March 21, 22, ¢ W 49.5, ‘2 46 mm.

Prinia inornata frankiinii (Blyth).

A female W 53 mm., was taken at Kodaikanal on March 11.

Irena puella puella (Latham).

A male W 131 mm., was taken February 21 at Kunjapani.

Oriolus oriolus kundoo Sykes.

Specimens taken: Kunjapani, February 20, 39 W 141 mm.; Nilambur,

March 5, 2 W 141 mm.; Sidhout, March 20, 21, 2 ¢6o¢ W 140, 142 mm.;

Cuddapah, March 20, S$ W 137 mm.

136 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Oriolus chinensis diffusus Sharpe.

Specimens taken: G W 151 mm., at Rati on January 29; @ W 153.5 mm.,

at Nilambur, March 5.

Oriolus xanthornus maderaspatanus [rankklin.

Specimens collected: Mahendra Giri, January 23, @ W i129 mm.; Bengasai,

January 26, ¢:9, 137, 128 mm.; Sidhout, March 22, ¢ 132 mm.

Temenuchus pagodarum pagodarum (Gmelin).

Specimens taken: at Saba, January 27, ¢ Mandasa, January 30, ¢; Nilam-

bur, March 3, 5, d breeding, Q ; at Cuddapah,°March 19, ‘9 ; Sidhout, March

21, 22,3 66, 4499; Hospet,’ March 25, GC.

Aethiopsar fuscus mahrattensis (Sykes).

A male W 129 mm., was taken at Ootacamund, February 16; and a female

W 124 mm., at Kodaikanal on March to.

Lonchura striata (Linnaeus).

Three specimens taken at Mahendra, January 25, 26 are rather intermediate

between the typical race and acuticauda. One taken at Kunjapani on February

20 is a juvenile and its status isn’t clear. A female taken at Nilambur on

March 2 appears to be estriata.

Lonchura malabarica ([.innaecus).

Three specimens were taken at Kodur on March 18.

Lonchura punctulata lineoventer (Hodgson).

A male was taken from a flock at Hospet, March 25.

Erythrina erythrina roseata (Blyth).

Specimens taken: Mahendra Giri, January 24, g¢@, W 85 mm.; Oota-

camund, February 14, 69, W 86.5, 81.5 mm.; Kodaikanal, March 10, ¢ W

87 mm.

Gymnoris xanthocollis xanthocollis (Burton).

Three breeding specimens taken at Nilambur, March 4. B

Passer domesticus indicus Jardine and Selby.

A male was taken at Ootacamund on February 18; and at Cuddapah March 20.

Riparta rupestris Scopoli.

A 3 W 132.5 mm., was taken on Mahendra Giri on January 23.

Riparia concolor (Sykes).

A male was taken on Mahendra Giri, January 24, W 108.5 mm.; and a

female at Hospet on March 24, W 105 mm.

Hirundo rustica gutturalis Scopoli.

A female was taken at Ellore, February 2, and at Sidhout, March 22, W

in both 11m mm.

Hirundy javanica domicola Jerdon.

A female was taken at Ootacamund, February 16, W 105 mm.

Hirundo smlthii filifera Stephens.

A male W 107 mm., was taken at Hospet, March 24.

ON.A COLLECTION OF BIRDS FROM MADRAS 137

Htruado daurica nipalensis Hodgson.

Two specimens were taken at Bengasai, January 26.

Motacilla alba dukhusensis Sykes.

2 Q9@ were taken at Kasargod, February 27, W 85 mm.

Motacilia maderaspatensis maderaspatensis Gmelin.

A male was taken at Nilambur, March 4.

Motacilla cimerea Caspica (Gmelin).

A 2 was taken at Ootacamund, February 15.

Aathus hodgsoni inopinatus Hartert and Steinbacher.

Specimens taken: Mahendra, January 24, 2 ¢ d ; Ootacamund, February 14,

16, pair; Kodaikanal, March 14, d, 2 QQ.

Anthus allghiriensis Sharpe.

Specimens taken: Ootacamund, February 16, 2 9 2 W 75, 76.5 mm.; Kodai-

kanal, March 10, 14, 5 66 W 77-81 mm.; 4 Q9@ W 73-77 mm.

Anthus campestris godiewskii (Taczanowski).

Specimens taken; Rati, January 27, 9 W 90.5 mm.; Tellicherry, February 25,

2 92 W 86.5, 88 mm.; Kodur, March 18, 69, W g1, 87 mm.

- 9

Anthus rufalus malayensis Leyton.

Specimens taken: Mahendra Giri, January 24, pair; Rati, January 28, 30,

pair ; Ellore, February 2, ¢ ; Ootacamund, February 14, 16, 2 dd, @ ; Kasargod,

February 27, 2 6d; Nilambur, March 4, @ ; Kodaikanal, March 14, ¢ ; Hospet,

March 24, 9

Alaado gulgula australis Brooks.

Specimens taken: Ootacamund, February 15, 16, 2 dd W 96, 102, 2 W

go mm.; Kodaikanal, March 10-14, 4 dd 95, 2 22 W 89, 90 mm.

Calandrelia brachydactyla dukhunensis (Sykes).

9 6d, 2 2, mostly molting, were taken at Ellore, February 2

Mirafra cantillans bangsi WKoelz.

4 specimens taken at Hospet, March 25.

Mirafra affinis Jerdon.

Specimens taken: Bengasai, January 27, 2 dd W 83, 84.5 mm.; Kasargod,

February 27, 2 6¢ W 84, 86 mm.; Mangalore, March 1, ¢ W 84.5 mm. ; Nilam-

bur, March 5, ¢ W 89 mm.

Galerida malabarica malabarica (Scopoli).

4 specimens were taken at Tellicherry, February 25; and one at Mangalore,

March 1.

Ammomanes phoenicura phoenicura (lranklin).

Specimens taken: Ellore, February 2, 2 dd W 107, 110, 9 100 mm.; Kodur,

March 18, 6 W 105 mm.; Sidhout, March 22, 9 W 102 mm.; Hospet, March

25, 2 W 107 mm.

Eremopterix grisea grisea (Scopoli).

Specimens taken: Mandasa, January 21, 3 66 W 75-785, 2 Q9@ 75 mm. ;

FAlore, February 2, 2 6d W 74, © 74 mm.; Coimbatore, February 11, ¢ W 76,

138 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NAY URAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

2 2 73 mm.; Kodur, March 18, 5 ¢6d W 73-77, 2 9 74 mm.; Sidhout;-’ Match

21 juvenile; Hospet, March 24, g¢ W 76.5 mm.

Zosterops palpebrosa palpebrosa Temminck and Schlegel.

Three males were taken on Mahendra Giri on January 24.

Zesterops paipebrosa nilgirensis Ticehurst.

At Ootacamund, February 14, 16, 2 gd and a @ were taken; at Kunjapani,

February 20, 3 6G.

Zosterops palpebrosa palniensis Koelz.

5 specimens were taken at Kodaikanal on March 11, 12.

Cinayris lotenia (Linnaeus).

2 dod were taken at Nilambur, March 2, 4.

Cinnyris asiatica brevirosteis (Blanford).

A male was taken at Sidhout, March 22.

Cinnyris minima (Sykes).

A pair was taken at Kunjapani, February 19; and 3 ¢ do at Nilambur, March

2ate ee

Cinnyris zeylonica (Linnaeus). ee

Specimens taken: Mahendra, January 22, 26, d:9; Tellicherry, February

28, 6; Kasargod, February 27, 9; Nilambur, March 2-4, 3 od, 2; Kodur,

March 18 'Q ; Sidhout, March 22, 3, Hospet, March 25, <.

Dicaeum concolor concolor Jerdon.

5 specimens were taken at Ootacamund, February 16; °5° at’ Kunjapani,

February. 19, 20; 7 at Kodaikanal, March 10-15.

Dicaecum erythrorhynchos erythrorhynchos (Latham).

Specimens taken: Mahendra, January 22, 23, 2 gd 6; Mangalore, March 1,

3, 2 99; Kodur, March 18, pair; Hospet, March 25, ‘9. ;

’

Piprisoma agile saturatior Koelz.

Two males, taken at Kunjapani, February 19, are near this form.

Pitta brachyura brachyura (Linnaeus).

Specimens were taken: Mangalore, March 1, 2 6 ¢ W 104, 108 mm.; Nilam-

bur, March 4, G 108 mm.

Picus chlorolophus chlerigaster (Jerdon).

Specimens taken: at Kunjapani, February 19, 20, 2 dd, 2; at Nilambur,

March 3, :9'.

Dryobates mahrattensis mahrattensis (Latham).

A male W 103.5 mm., was taken at Kunjapani on February 109.

Dryobates hard wiekii hardwickii (Jerdon).

At Kunjapani a 3 was taken February 20, a @ on the 21st; at Nilambur

a 3 on March 5. aoe

Brachypternus benghalensfs puncticollis (Malherbe).

A male was taken at Mahendra on January 22.—

ON A COLLECTION OF BIRDS FROM MADRAS 139

Brachypterous benghalensis tehminae Whistler.

A female was taken at Mangalore, March 1.

Chrysocolaptes guttacristata socialis Koelz.

At Kunjapani, February 19-21, were taken gd, 2 9Q.

Hemicircus canente cordatus Jerdon.

A pair was taken at Nilambur, March 5.

Vivia intominatus innominatus (Burton).

2 66, taken at Mahendra on January 22, 23, are near the typical form.

lynx torquilla.

A female taken on Mahendra Giri, January 25, is like most Indian birds I

have seen, intermediate between the typical race and japonica.

Thereiceryx viridis (Boddaert). |

Specimens taken: Ootacamund, February 16, 2 99, W gq, 100.53 Kunjapani,

February 19, 20; 2 dd W 104, 109, ‘9; 107 mm.; Pittambi, February 23, ¢

W 102 mm.; Tellicherry, February 25, ¢ W 99 mm.; Mangalore, March 1,

3 W 99 mm.; Nilambur, March 5, ¢ W 93.5 mm. '

Xantholaema haemacephala indica (Latham).

Specimens taken: Bengasai, January 26, 9; Kunjapani, February 19, 9 ;

Kodur, March rq, pair. oe:

Hierococcyx sparveroides (Vigors).

A od was taken at Ootacamund on February 16.

Hierococcyx varius (Vahl).

Specimens taken: Ootacamund, February 14, ¢ W-1gr.5 mm.; Kunjapani,

February 19, 20, 3 92 W 183-190 mm.; Nilambur, February. 23, 2 gd 184,

195 mm.

Cacomantis merulinus passerinus (Vahl).

‘A male was taken at Kunjapani, February 21, W 107 mm,

Penthoceryx sonneratii sonneratii (Latham).

A o was taken at Bengasai on January 26, W 126 mm.

Eudynamis scolopaceus scolopaceus (Linnaeus).

A o was taken at Rati on January 27; and.a Q at Nilambur, March 5.

Rhopodytes viridirostris (Jerdon).

Two ¢ were taken at Nilambur, March 3, 6.

Centropus sinensis parroti Stresemann.

A male was taken at Saba on January 27; and a 2 at Rati on the 2gth.

Psittacula krameri manillensis (Bechstein).

A o was taken at Cuddapah, March 20, W 165 mm, —

Psittacuia cyanocephala cyanocephala (Linnaeus).

_ Specimens taken: Mahendra, January 25, ¢ ; Kunjapani, February 20, 93

Nilambur, February 23, 3. 7 4

140 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NALURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Psittacula columboides (Vigors).

A specimen was taken at Kunjapani, February 20.

Coryllis vernalis rubropygius Stuart Baker.

A male was taken at Kunjapani on February 20.

Coracias benghaleasis indica Linnaeus.

A male was taken at Nilambur, March 5, and at Hospet, March 24.

Eucystomus orientalis orientalis (Linnaeus).

A male was taken at Nilambur, March ‘5.

Merops orientalis orientalis Latham.

Specimens taken: Mahendra, January 26, Q ; Rati, January 30, @ ; Sidhout,

March 22.00%

Merops superciliosus javanicus Horsfield.

A female was taken at Ellore, February 2; and at Kasargod on the ayth.

Merops lescheaault! leschenaulti Vieillot.

Two oc were taken at Kunjapani on February 19; and one at Nilambur,

March 3.

Aicemerops athertoni athertoni (Jardine and Selby).

A pair was taken at Kunjapani on February 2o.

Ceryle rudis leucomelanura Reichenbach.

A @Q was taken at Palasa on January 3o.

Ceryle rudis travancoreensis Whistler.

A Q was taken at Nilambur on March 4.

Tockus birostris birosiris (Scopoli).

Specimens taken: Saba, January 27, pair; Rati, January 28, pair; Hospet,

March 24, @.

Tockus griseus griseus (Latham).

Two ocd were taken at Nilambur, February 23, March 3.

Harpactes fasciatus malabaricus (Gould).

Two dd were taken at Kunjapani, February 20; and a ¢ and 2 2 ¢ at Nilam-

bur, March 2-6.

Harpactes fasciatus legerli Koelz.

A male was taken at Mahendra on January 22.

Tachornis parvus batasiensis (Gray).

A male was taken at Rati on January 29, W 110 mm.; at Kunjapani on

February 19, @ W 120. On 20th, d 115 mm.

Caprimulgus macrourus atripennis Jerdon.

A male was taken at Kunjapani, February 20, W 179 mm.; and at Nilambur

on February 23, ¢ W 175; on March 5, 2 W 166 mm.

ON A COLLECTION OF BIRDS FROM MADRAS 141

Caprimulgus asiaticus asiaticus Latham.

Specimens taken: Bengasai, January 26, 2 gd W i50, 151.5 mm.; Sidhout,

March 22, G W 141, 2 146.5 mm.

Strix indranee indranee Sykes.

A male was taken at Kunjapani, February 19, W 325 mm.; and one at

Nilambur, March 3, W 328 mm.

Bubo bengalensis (Franklia).

A male W 351 mm., was ‘taken at Sidhout on March 22.

Athene brama brama (Yemminck).

A female W 157 mm., was taken at Saba on January 27.

Giaucidium radiatum malabaricum Sharpe.

At Nilambur, February 23, March 4-6, were taken 3 ¢ jd’ W 123-129, 2 99

W 127, 131 mm.

Ninox scutulata hirsuta (Temminck).

A male was taken at Nilambur on March 5, W 207 mm.

Falco chicqnera chicquera Daudin.

A male was taken at Cuddapah, March 20.

Falco tinnunculus objurgatus (Stuart Baker).

A male was taken at Ootacamund, February 15; and a 9 at Hospet, March 25.

Limnaétops cirrhatus cirrhatus (Gmelin).

A female was taken at Bengasai, January 26, W 422 mm.

Batastur teesa (Franklin).

A female W 282 mm., Rati, on January 29.

Circus macrourus (Gimelin).

9 male W 338 mm.; was taken at Rati on January 2e.

Accipiter badius dussumieri (Temminck).

Two females W 197, 201'mm., were taken at Sidhout, March 22.

Accipiter virgatus besra Jerdon.

A male in immature plumage was taken at Ootacamund, February 16, W

156 mm.

Pernis cristatus ruficollis (lesson).

Specimens taken: Kunjapani, February 20, ¢ W 420 mm.; Mangalore,

March 1, Q W 421 mm.; Nilambur, March 5, ¢ W 375 mm.

Treron phoenicopterus chlorigaster (Blyth).

2 QQ taken at Mahendra on January 22, are near this form.

Treron bicincta bicincta (Jerdon).

A male was taken January 25 at Mahendra.

Columba elphinstonii (Sykes).

A male was taken at Ootacamund, February 16.

142 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NALURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Streptopelia decaocto decaocto (Frivalszky).

A male was taken at Kodur on March 18, W 169 mm.; and at Sidhout

on the 21st, W 165 mm.

Gallus gailus gallus (Linnaeus).

A female was taken on Mahendra Giri on January 24, W 210 mm.; common

Gallus sonneratii Temminck.

Specimens taken: Ootacamund, February 14, 16, pair; Nilambur, March 3,

2 @@; Kodaikanal, March 14, @.

Galloperdix spadicea spadicea Gmelin.

Specimens taken: Mahendra, January 25, 2 gd W 150, 157 mm.; Nilambur,

March 3-6, 2 dd W 140, 152, 2:92 141, 149 mm. and a juvenile.

Perdicula asfatica asiatica (Latham).

A pair, taken at Bengasai on January 26, are probably of this race.

Metopidius indicus Latham,

A male was taken at Mandasa on January 26.

Charadrius dubius curonicus Gmelin.

Ao W 120 mm., was taken at Rati, January 28.

Lobipluvia malabarica (Boddaert).

A male was taken at Sidhout on March 22.

Scolopax rusticola indica Hodgson.

A specimen was taken at Ootacamund on February 16.

Capella gallinage (Linnaeus).

A o was taken at Kasargod, February 27.

Egretta alba modesta (Gray).

A 3 W 364 mm., was taken at Ellore on February 2.

Butorides striatas abbotti Oberholser.

A male W 171 mm., was taken at Nilambur, March 4.

Nettapus cotomandelianus coromandelianus Gmelin.

Four specimens were taken at Ellore on February 2,

Anas querqueduia Linnaeus.

Two males were taken at Ellore on February 2.

TWO NEW LOCAL RACES OF THE ASIATIC WILD ASS

The lates Ry I POCOCK, F:R.S:,

(Zoological Dept., British Museum, Natural History),

The discovery of two local races of Asiatic Wild Asses requiring new names

owing to their having been previously wrongly identified was one of the first

and most interesting results of my examination of the skins and skulls of the

five specimens of the race from Kutch, which, as announced by Salim Ali (Journ.

Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., 46, pp. 472-477, 1946), were most generously presented

to the British Museum by H. H. Maharao Shri Vijayarajji, when he learnt from

the Society, through Mr. W. S. Millard on information I supplied, that the

national collection possessed only a single example of this animal. The latter

was kindly sent to me in 1940 by H. H. the Maharaj Kumar of Bikanir, as he

then was, who procured it from Prince Madansinhjii of Kutch, the race

being extinct, as he informed me, in Rajputana.

_ The scientific name of this race is Microhippus hemionus khur, originally

described as Equus khur by Lesson in 1827. Its synonymy and distinguishing

characters and my reasons for adopting the generic name Microhippus instead of

Equus or Asinus for the Asiatic wild asses will be discussed in a future paper.

In the present communication I propose to deal merely with the essential features

in which the two new local races differ from the race still inhabiting Kutch,

where it is strictly preserved by H.H. the Maharao. Additional details of these

two will be also included in the aforesaid paper.

MICROHIPPUS HEMIONUS BLANFORDI subsp.. nov.

(Blanford’s Gor Khar)

“Equus onager var. indicus, Blanford, Mamm. Brit. India p. 470, 1891 (in

part; not indicus Sclater, 1862, which is a synonym of khur).

Locality of the type (Brit. Mus., 91.5.13.1): The Sham Plains, lat. 29°20! N.,

long. 69°40! E., formerly in E. Baluchistan but now included in Wazaristan,

Distribution: Unknown apart from the locality of the type.

Diagnosis: Distinguished essentially from the Gor Khar of Kutch (M.h..

khuyv) by the noticeably greater inferior extension of the rather darker fawn tint

of the upper side and the corresponding reduction of the white on the lower

side of the head, neck and body; the rump-patch also is less extensive and more

obscure. The winter coat in February is also fuller, longer and more wavy,

especially on the spinal stripe where it is upstanding. ,

The skull, which is that of a mature but youngish female, with the facial

sutures unfused, differs from that of M.h. khur of nearly the same age in its

comparatively low crown, lacking the marked convexity of that area as ex-

hibited for example by the skuJl of Sdlim Ali’s specimen No. 3 which approaches

it more nearly in age. In that respect the skull of M.h. blanfordt resembles that

of the Kiang (M.h. kiang),

In its coloration this new race closely approaches the Syrian and Mesopota-

mian race (M.h. hemippus); but the latter is a much smaller animal, with a

strongly convex forehead.

The type and only known example of M.h. blanfordi was shot by W. T.

Blanford in 1882. Not improbably the race is now extinct; but any information

about the wild asses of Baluchistan would be most welcome.

MICROHIPPUS HEMIONUS BAHRAM subsp. nov,

(The Persian Gor Khar)

? Equus onager indicus, Lydekker, Novit. Zool. 11, p. 588, pl. xvii, 1904 (not

indicus, Sclater).

144 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NALURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 43

Equus onager onager. Lydekker, Cat. Ung. Mamm. 5, p. 14, 1016 (not

enager Boddaert and others).

Asinus hemionus khur. Schwarz, Zool. Garten, 2, p. 85-90, 1929 (not khur

Lesson).

Locality of the type. (Brit. Mus., 10.7.12.2): Yezd, Central Persia, lat.

CRI IN(ES Jkeyovsse in 18), .

Distribution: Only known with certainty from the locality of the type.

Diagnosis: Resembling the Gor Khar of Kutch (M.h. khur) in the average

proportions of the pigmented and white areas of the head, neck and body but

differing in the luxuriance of the winter coat which is from 40 to 45 mm. long,

thick and strongly curled, instead of 20 to 25 mm., comparatively thin and

only slightly wavy; in the colour which is drabby, greyish brown, instead of

sandy fawn; in the extension of the spinal stripe as a strong black line to the

tuft of the tail; in the shorter chestnuts on the fore legs and in its narrower

hoofs.

Of this race I have seen the flat skins of three specimens (10.7.12. 1-3) shet

by R. C. Barker and E. J. Blackman at Yezd. Although undated, unmeasured,

unsexed and without skulls, they are obviously in winter coat, are presumably

adult, since they equal the Kutch skins in size, and are presumed to be females

from the presence of a pair of well developed teats on each. Their individual

variations will be described later.

In 1916 Lydekker entered these skins in his catalogue under Equus onagey

onager, although they disagree with all the descriptions of that race, including

his own in 1904. In the typical Onager, which ranges as far south as Kaswin.

in Northern Persia, the white areas invade the upper part of the body, neck

and head to a greater extent than in any other race. The Gor Khar, which

Lydekker described and figured as Equus onager indicus was alleged to have

been captured at Meshed in north-eastern Persia. I suggest that the illustration

may represent M.h. bahram in summer coat; and I have no doubt that that con-

clusion is true of the wild ass Schwarz identified as Asinus hemionus khur,

which. was living in the Berlin Zoological Gardens and was shipped from Bushire.

Although being in summer coat it differed from the wiyter skins of the Yezd

series in its paler hue, it resembled them in the conspicuous extension of the

spinal stripe to the tail-tuft, which is not the case in the skins from Kutch, and

in the presence of a pronounced black rim above the hoofs such as is shown in

the type of M.h, bahram, although it is fainter in another of the skins and absent

in the third; being obviously a variable feature. It is undeveloped, however, in

any of the skins of typical M.h. khur from Kutch.

REVIEW

AN INSECT BOOK FOR THE POCKET. By Edmund Sandars. Oxtfo

University Press. Price 10/6d. nett.

One of the difficulties facing the amateur entomologist has been the lack

of any simple yet reasonably comprehensive handbook. ‘An Insect Book for the

Pocket’ supplies this want with conspicuous success.

As there are over 20,000 species of insects in the British Isles obviously the

author could nct deal with more than a small proportion of them and one of

the major problems of authorship was what to include and what to omit. ‘That

Major Sandars’s selection of species has been judicious will be seen by anyone

who studies the book. Except for such ‘small’ insects as are of outstanding

interest or importance he has wisely confined his choice to ‘large’ insects, that

is to insects of over 1 inch wing expanse and half an inch length for,

as he states in his preface, small insects are generally only noticed when they get

into our eyes and lose their interest as soon as they have been

successfully wiped out. In addition he has included information about other

‘creatures ‘commonly referred to as ‘insect’ . . . Spiders, Woodlice and

Centipedes.

Stress has been laid on habits and life history and only the essential

characters have been included in the descriptions. ‘There are, however, numerous

coloured plates and the text is full of illustrations, almost all of which are

life size. The descriptions of habits and life histories are very full and most

interestingly written, there is a commendable lack of technical language, and,

what is unusual in a book of this type, the author frequently displays a keen

sense of humour.

Whether there is any particular virtue in the literal translations the author

has given for specific and generic names I doubt, though it is possibly entertain-

ing to know that Calliphora vomitoria (the Large Biuebottle) means the Emetic

Beauty-bearer and that Ilyocoris cimicoides means the Buglike Mudbug !

Although this little volume is small enough to fit very easily into the pocket,

it should not be thought that its contents are of the same stature. Its 350 pages

of small print contain a vast mass of information, much of which will be useful

to students in India as many of the species are closely allied to insects found in

this country.

M. A. W-B.

The following books have been added to the Society’s library :—

i OLHCK- HIST OF “TER BIRDS) OF .THH WORLD: Vols. J-V. By

James Lee Peters (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass.—1931-1945)

2. BIRDS IN THE GARDEN AND HOW TO ATTRACT THEM. By

Margaret McKenny (University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis—1939)

)

3. POISONOUS ANIMALS OF MALAYA. By M. W. F. ‘Tweedie

(Malaya Publishing House Ltd., Singapore—1941)

4. TREES OF INDIA-e By Charles McCann (Taraporevala & Sons,

Bombay—1946)

5. FAR RIDGES. By J. K. Stanford (C. & J. Temple Ltd., London—

1946) |

AN APPEAL

Eaa Enquiry

Observations and experiments carried out in the Middle Fast

during the War have shown: (a) that there is a wide variation in the

palatability of the flesh of various birds; (b) that meat-eating

animals, belonging to unrelated groups, such as the hornet. cat

and man, show a general agreement in their preference for, or

avoidance of, particular bird-species; and (c) that among birds

otherwise liable to predatory attack, there is a general correlation

between conspicuousness of the plumage and distastefulness of the

flesh. Details of this research have been published—Cott, 1946.

Proc. Zool. Soc. London, pp. 871-524.

I am now proposing to extend this work to an investigation of

the palatable and bio-chemical properties of the eggs of birds.

Preliminary investigations on some 25 British species again reveal

wide variation in edibility, and have led to other interesting results

which justify further work in an attempt to examine correlations

which may exist between relative palatability of the eggs of various

species on the one hand, and such factors as vulnerability, nest-site,

clutch-size, shell-coloration and feeding-habits on the other.

Through the kindness of the Director, facilities are now avail-

able for the carrying out of rating-tests at the Low Temperature

Research Station, Cambridge, where there is available a panel of

experts with a trained ‘ege-palate’, who can give consistently reli-

able assessments on edibility; the results will subsequently be

checked and compared by feeding-experiments with rats, hedgehogs

and other egg-eating mammals,

For this purpose I am anxious to obtain examples of as many

species as possible for comparative treatment. Material from

overseas would be especially welcome. Eggs of any species, how-

ever common, would make a valuable contribution towards this

enquiry. Of larger birds, such as ducks, ibises, etc., one or two

eges per species would be sufficient. In the case of smaller birds,

the equivalent of a complete clutch, or say five or six eggs, would

be preferred.

Any eggs submitted should be:—

(a) taken fresh from the nest, before the onset of incubation.

(b) identified in the field: it is not always easy or possible

to be certain of identification from the ege alone.

ly in rolls of cotton-wool so as to prevent their working

through the wrappings and coming into contact with

one another, and enclosed in a box or tin sufficiently

strong to withstand crushing.

AN APPEAL 147

(d) despatched by air mail (unless it is possible to arrange

facilities for cold storage on sea passage), addressed as

below, and covered by a note ‘Natural History

Specimens of no Commercial Value’.

University Museum of Zoology, Dr. EueH. Bs Conn

Downing Street,

CAMBRIDGE.

March 24, 1947,

[Giving further directions in a subsequent letter about the

packing of eggs for transit by post, Dr. Cott writes—' Unblown eggs

are most fragile and they do not stand up at all well to the knocks

received in transit. The only safe way is to wrap each individual

ege in plenty of soft cotton wool—about one inch in thickness all

round.is about right for small eggs—and to put outside the wool

layer a. wrapping of soft paper. This prevents the eggs from

working thelr way through the wool wrapping and coming into

contact with one another or with the sides of the box’. He suggests

that, to start with, it would be as well to concentrate upon larger

species, because it is doubtful whether Warbler-size eggs would

stand up to the temperatures encountered during transit.—rEbDs. |

AN APPEAL TO BOTANISTS

I have been in correspondence with Sir William Wright Smith

of Edinburgh. He is anxious for material of Primula lacei Hemsl

St. Watt. This was found by J. H. Lace on 16 March 1888. Has

it ever been found since? Localities are variously given as

‘Quetta’, ‘Loralai’ & ‘Hamai’, and ‘Torkhan—alt, 4000’

Have you any further information? It is yellow flowered and

akin—apparently—to P, floribunda from which it differs in

(a) having farina on the leaves,

(b) lack of a flower-scape,

(d) the almost woody stem or rootstock.

It may be a form of P. floribunda or may even be a species ot

Diapensia. Anyhow more material is needed. Can you perhaps

publish an appeal for material? There must be some members

in the Zhob one would think. Material to be sent to you or

me or direct to Edinburgh. Specimens of P. floribunda from

Baluchistan (whence it is not recorded) and from Waziristan

(where I have found it several times) are also wanted for comparison.

The only actual locality for P. flombunda that I can give is on the

wet cliff of the Baddar Toi just under (literally) Ladha Camp—

1920. I should expect to find P. lace: if it grows at 4000 ft., in

some similar place, i.e. where water oozes out of a cliff and where

stunted maidenhair ferns occur commonly in those parts.

Se: SUF,

C/o Army P.O., DonaLp LowNDEs,

Saharanpur, LT.-COL.

June 8, 1945.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1.—A MAN-EATING TIGER OF THE NELLIAMPATHY HILLS.

(With a photo)

_ Man-eating tigers are not common in western parts of South

India, and are almost unknown to occur in the forests and mountains

of the Western Ghats south of the Palghat Gap.

For more than 70 years previous to 1946 there was only one

known instance—a solitary killing which was not repeated.

(B.N.H.S. Journal, vol xxxii, page 209).

In March 1946 a woman wag killed on the Seetagundy Coffee

Tistate and entirely eaten, and on 9th April another woman worker

was killed but not eaten. After a lapse of 8 months a man was

killed on 10th December on a path near the Estate Hospital.

‘The body was taken uphill among coffee bushes and not eaten.

One ear was found on the pathway at place of seizure. This

seemed quite abnormal and why it happened was realized when

the man-eater was killed.

It may be, perhaps, that these two bodies were not eaten,

although the animal had time in each case to have at least consumed

some portion of them, because they were not dragged into dense

lantana or other jungle but among more or less openly planted

coffee bushes. The man could have been easily dragged into near-

by dense evergreen forest. All these killings took place after mid-

day or in early afternoon.

It was not until mid-January I was able to go to the Seetagundy

Estate, over 300 miles south of Bangalore. On the 14th February

a woman was killed soon after midday on an open hillside six

miles away on the Chandramalai Estate which is within the Cochin

State.

Arriving at the place about 4 o’clock I was about to enter the

lantana thicket by the tunnel through which the body had been

dragged when a man close behind—the estate watcher, nervously

let off his gun a pace or so behind me. I should have had the

foresight to shoo him away. Fortunately the weapon was not

pointing at me, but unfortunately the report sent the tiger off

with a frightened whoof, and a golden opportunity was gone.

The tiger would probably, almost certainly, have faced the cannon’s

mouth (.470), for previous to my arrival several men had been

peeping and peering, and with some success. “The tiger is there,

he has eaten her head’, and so it was: he would have thought me

to be but another and bolder peeper: the field glasses would have

detected him and a bullet beneath the chin ended the business

before he decided to come or go.

In all lantana thickets there are larger or smaller spaces bare

of the growth and it was in a narrow one the body lay, feet towards

me, a short twenty feet inside. The watching tiger had been lying

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 14q

close behind the shoulders in a very slight depression. The head

had been munched off and part of left upper surface of body enawed

away. The skull photos show why such expressions used.

The lantana belt was fortunately not too broad at that place so

an office chair machan was soon fixed in a not too distant many-

branched tree at edge of the dense evergreen forest which lay

behind. Meanwhile I secured the body by two wire ropes looped

round slender waist and ankles, a heavy pole being passed through

the lantana and loops at other ends and also tied to a distant

sapling by a strong rope. Now the body could not be silently

removed.

When the tiger returned after dark a near-fatal shot in the head

anchored him close by until the morning when the arrival of a

number of men roused him from his stupor to stagger to his feet

and be put down by another bullet. Near where he had been

lying was a mass of entrails vomited during the night, so he had

evidently been scavenging near the estate slaughter house the

previous night.

He was a very old animal. Limit of age in captivity appears

to be 13 to 16 years. In a wild state tigers known to be twenty

and having sound teeth have been killed. There seems no reason

why such animals should not have lived for another five, or even

ten years.

Except for the right upper carnassial (premolar) being decayed all

the back teeth in upper and lower jaws are sound enough. The

right lower canine is a mere stump and worn level with the front

teeth, of which only four remain. The left lower canine is almost

completely decayed away and part of the jaw on that side gone.

It would seem that the lower front portion of the jaw never at any

time properly and normally met the teeth of the upper jaw. The

three canine stumps have large holes in their centres. The skull

shows more than the usual signs of age, almost ail the sutures

being completely ossified.

Of all the teeth in the front portions of the jaws only two in

the lower jaw function against the upper, and those not in proper

position as the photograph shows.

It seems probable that both age and bad dentition led to his

killing human beings, but his having been caught in a wire deer-

snaring noose may have had something to do with it. Wounds

caused by the wire were unhealed in places and contained maggots.

The scar almost completely encircles the waist. How long may he

have been in the noose without food and water? How long ago did

it happen? and how did he get out of it? ‘‘He was a very clever

animal, he used his hands’’ said one of the men.

The noosing may have been four to six months previous to the

15th February, and it is certain that somewhere in_ the

Nelliampathies some of the workers on the estates have knowledge

of it, for game-snaring nooses are visited for results and the animal

would not have been less vocal than the 9 ft. 7 in. tiger caught

in a noose in October 1927 which made ‘Plenty big noise’. At

that time two other tigers were killed in similar nooses. (Note by

Mr. H. A. Boas in B.N.H.S. Journal, vol. xxxii, page 790).

150 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

This tiger weighed but 316 lbs, a good hundred short of normal

for his 9 ft. 8 in. curves measurement. Chest 48 in., neck 27 in.,

waist 86 in. Owing to emaciation his paws looked enormous. ‘The

pad cushions were very hard with little fatty substance beneath

them.

Skull of the Nelliampathy Maneater.

One can only conjecture why more people were not killed.

Besides the four mentioned there was one other some distance to

the east.

It was not for want of opportunity for at any time, all over

the extensive tea and coffee estates which are interspersed with

much dense cover, he could have easily secured two or three victims

each week. So why an interval of 8 months between April and

December, and another two months after that date?

BANGALORE, Ra Wo BURTON ineuT-Con*

30th March 1947. Indian Army (Retired).

2.—A TIGER “RUNS AMOK’,

Christopher’s query in the Journal (Vol. 46, No. 2) embraces

many possibilities, but without details or facts, it is difficult to

assign a reason or define the cause.

A young male tiger while courting will sometimes demonstrate

to his spouse by killing 5 or 6 animals in a herd with no other

intention but “showing off’. What is done is probably done under

the spur of sexual excitement during which these animals loosen

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 151

all the accustomed restraints. I have experience of this on two

occasions: once in the C.P. when five full grown cows were killed,

but the tigers did not return to feed. This incident took place

at 2 p.m. and I was on the ground and sitting up at 4.30. The

second occasion was in Burma when seven full grown beasts were

killed, and although the tigers were present in the vicinity, made

evident by the courting noises throughout the night and part of

the next day, they also failed to return to any of the kills.

It ig a precautionary measure in many parts of India to follow

up a wounded tiger in a crowd, this is certainly practiced by Tharus,

Gonds, Baighas and Kachins using primitive weapons.

How 7 coolies came to be killed must be to large degree rank

carelessness. <A tigress with a nest of newly born cubs, or if cubs

have been killed or robbed will often throw caution to the wind

especially if fired at or cornered, but in every case gives due warning

with growls and demonstration.

It is most unlike a maneater, or even an ordinary tiger. The

myth lies in the seven foolish coolies.

H.Q., BompBay AREA, A. ST. J. MACDONALD.

BoMBAY,

lst February 1947.

3:—THE RETURNING TIGRESS.

About 3 weeks ago I was informed that a donkey had been killed

about a hundred yards from our bungalow by a tiger. The kill was

in a hollow on the side of a deep ravine. As the trees were too

high I made a small hide in some bushes about 30 feet from the

‘kill’ on the opposite side of the ravine.

The only rifle available at the time was missing its foresight

and also my torch batteries were almost flat, and, as is usually

the case in an emergency, the shops had no spare ones.

As my friend was unwell at the time I decided to sit up on my

own. I was in my ‘hide’ by 5.80 and must have dozed off because

at about 9.80 I was awakened by a sound of bones being eaten. I

am afraid I was a bit clumsy with the torch and rifle, one in each

hand, and the result was that I did not get a shot at the perfect

picture of the tigress on her kill that I saw in the dim light. She

jumped off and disappeared in the jungle.

I decided that ag she had had such a fright the odds of her

returning were very small, and so I went home. After I had had

some supper I thought I would go down and have a look just in

ease she had returned. I was still about 20 feet from my hide

when I heard a loud crack of bones again.

I aimed at the sound and put on the light and there was the

tigress. I aimed as best I could and fired. The result was a loud

cracking in the jungle and I thought I had secured a bull but I

thought it wiser to get home.

The following morning we had a good search and found that I

had missed and the tigress had returned to her kill and had dragged

152 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

it about 10 feet and had eaten about three quarters of it. 1

then decided to sit up again for her as she might well return again.

Thus the same evening I took up my position about 5 o’clock

and waited. At about 8.30 I heard some footsteps behind me and

then they went by to my right and paused in front of me in the

ravine about ten feet away. I could hear the tigress breathing

but could not see her because she was in the ravine. Presently

after about ten minutes (it seemed much longer) I heard her drag

her kill. I aimed at the noise and switched on and again I saw

the tigress, and again I had a shot at her and by the noise there

was afterwards I was certain of a hit.

Anyhow I came home. The following morning we had a search

and found that I had missed her again and this time by a few

inches as we found the bullet in a tree beside which she had been

standing.

Then we discovered that she had returned again after I had

fired at her and she had taken her kill another 30 feet and had

eaten it all except for a few bits and pieces. |

As there was nothing left to sit up over I decided to wait till she

killed again. The following day a half eaten kill about 5 days old

was found in a swamp near our factory. This was another donkey

and it had been killed before the one that I sat up over.

About two weeks later we had news of a young bull which had

been killed on a rocky bush covered hillside about 200 yards from

the jungle and about # mile from our bungalow. My friend had the

first news and he set off at once but in this haste forgot the torch.

When I got home I found out about this and so I decided to

take it out to him and to sit up with him.

We had previously decided that at the next kill it was his turn

to shoot.

I shouted to him from the road which was about 200 yards

below the kill, I did this to avoid being mistaken for the tiger in

the failing light and shot in consequence.

When I reached him we took stock of the surroundings. The

only place to sit was behind some low Strobilanthes bushes about

AO feet above the kill. The intervening space was fairly clear.

At about 6-30 we heard a sound which sounded like a sambhur

belling though we were doubtful. After a few minutes we again

heard the noise about 400 yards away and then we recognized it to

be the tigress calling. After fifteen minutes or so we heard some

monkeys making a lot of noise below the road and so we knew

the tigress was going to come the way we expected her; so he

trained the rifle on to the kill and I got ready with the torch.

You can imagine the fright we both got when the tigress.

suddenly let off a terrific cough about 20 feet away directly behind

us. I very consciously looked round and I saw the tigress’s head

above the bushes and looking steadily at me and I was returning

the stare wondering what I would do if she decided to sprmg down

on us which she could easily have done. I nudged my friend and

he had a look too but he withheld his fire as the bushes were in the

way. The tigress then noisely came down the hill coughing all the

time about ten feet away just the other side of the bushes through

which we expected her to come at any moment. Then we presumed

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 153.

that she was going straight down to her kill. Suddenly we heard

loud footsteps just in front of us. I nudged my friend and put on

the light. As my friend aptly said afterwards a wall of stripes

stood before us and uncomfortably close (we measured the distance

afterwards and found it was barely 2 yards). My friend pointed

the rifle at the tigress’s shoulder and fired. The tigress leapt high

into the air and cantered down the hill with her tail straight up

in the air like a frightened calf, and plunged blindly into the

bushes. We were both certain she had been hit as it would have

been impossible to miss at that range. Then we both decided that

tiger shooting from the ground wasn’t such an attractive sport as

it had seemed previously, and so we both slithered down the steep

hillside and keeping a careful watch in front and behind we

went home as fast as we could.

The following morning we made a search and my friend found the

tigress dead about fifty yards from where she had been shot at.

She was a fine animal in wonderful condition and measured

eight feet ten inches.

When I was skinning her I found that she had about 25:

porcupine quills in both her fore feet and in’her chest. The biggest

piece was two inches long. One of them had turned septic and must

have hurt her when she walked. This was probably the reason for

her taking to killing donkeys and cattle.

I must state here that the probable reason for the tigress not

being frightened when I fired at her twice before, is that she was

probably used to hearing rock being blasted all day long and so

didn’t bother much. Her cub which had been seen with her is.

still at large and has already attempted to kill a cow.

Hicguways Estate,

Cumsum P.O., AU PELOTON:

Mapura Dist.

24nd March 1947.

4.—WEHIGHT OF BULL BISON.

A few years ago I gave details of weights of a few Bison,

Sambhur, Tiger, Panther and Bear shot in this area. (S. India).

The heaviest Bison then recorded was one weighing 1,900 Ibs., shot

in February 1937. I have since weighed (piecemeal) the largest

bull Bison I have ever seen shot, on the 4th of March 1947. This

animal weighed 2,071 lbs; in other words 1 ton less 169 Ibs.

HonnamMerti Estate,

ATTIKAN P.O., R. ©. MORRIS:

Vira. Mysore, (S. Inp1a).

Tth March 1947,

Since writing the above I am able to add the following : —

Two bull Bison which were shot on the 15th andi 17th March:

1947, weighed as follows : —

1,297 lbs. (Young bull).

9,049 ,, (Old Be): R.C.M-

454 JUURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

5.—NOTES ON THE BRUSH-TAILED PORCUPINE

(ATHERURA MACRURA L.).

In May 1947 when in the outer ranges of the Naga Hills of

Assam I saw in the house of a member of the Lhota Naga tribe

four incomplete skulls of a rodent which I did not recognise as

belonging to any species found in that area. I accordingly made

enquiries as to their identity, and was given the following account

of the animal:—

It is known as the T'setang, and is described as beimg about

the size of a hare, but more of the build of a porcupine, with a

short tail, and ears ‘shaped like a rat’ but proportionately larger.

The T'setang is essentially a forest dweller, and is found only

in the flatter areas of the valleys and extreme foothills of the

outer ranges of the Naga Hills. Nagas from the imner hills whom

I questioned had never heard of it.

It lives in small colonies of six to eight (family parties?) in

very long burrows, described as being ‘too long to be worth the

labour of digging out’. Although one area of forest may contain

several such burrows they are said never to be close to one

another,

I was taken to see a burrow at the foot of the hills. It was

excavated in soft, sandy soil, and the entrance was about twenty-

four inches across; but narrowed down considerably a short way

in. Leading up to the entrance on each side was a_ well

worn track with many footprints on it, some obviously quite fresh.

They were those of a small-clawed animal, and although rather

blurred I judged them to be about the size of a hare’s. Not far

away was a fallen, hollow tree, which had signs of occupation by

some animal. I was told that it was used as a temporary shelter

by the Tsetangs. The burrow wag in thick rain-forest. —

They are strictly nocturnal, and I was told that they never come

out before dark, and are back in their burrows before daylight.

By night the whole small colony roams together in search of food

plants.

The note is said to be a chattering. They hibernate during the

cold weather.

Within the small area I visited, the Tsetang is regarded as

quite common, and not decreasing in numbers. |

SToNyLANDS Horet,

SHILLONG, ASSAM, Ca Reo ONO:

15th May 1947.

[A skull of the rodent referred to in the note was sent to us by

Mr. C. R. Stonor. It is that of a Brush-tailed Porcupine (Atherura

macrura Is.) EDS. |

6.—NATURAL DEATH OF ELEPHANTS.

Why ‘natural’? The article under the above heading in the

Journal, Vol. 46, No. 2, is of considerable interest.

The death of this elephant followed a severe injury received in a

fight with another elephant. It would have been of value if the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 185

bones had been examined. It looks as if either the shoulder or the

elbow had got broken. In spite of Game Laws, etc., it is hoped

that a kind bullet finished the suffering. I have been told that

in Sanetuaries, Natural Reserves, etc. such is not allowed but

I assured the authorities that if I did come across a case of real

suffering and had my rifle with me that I would use it.

In July 1943 we were filming wild life in the Yala Strict Natural

Reserve on the south-east coast of Ceylon. We were camped on

the banks of the Kumbukkan Oya, the large river which forms the

eastern boundary of the Reserve. ‘This river has got several small

islands, which in the dry season, May—September, make splendid

observation posts from where any kind of animal and bird can be

seen and watched. As a rule a ‘hide’ is not needed which is a

great advantage as it leaves one free in one’s movements when

wanting to follow up possible subjects with the heavy cameras.

The best time to start is 8 p.m. and for an hour or more G.

and I had been watching several herds of deer, buffalo and some

elephants as they came down to the river to drink from the small

pools and streamlet left in the bed. Nearest to us were a cow

elephant and two youngsters, one a fine little tusker.

At about 5 p.m. a lone bull came wandering out of the jungle

just in front of us from the direction of the small family group.

There was nothing remarkable about this animal but some feet

of colour film can always be useful, especially with the sun on

him against the lovely green foliage background. When he came

closer it was noticed that the organ was fully extended and that

this remained so all the time we watched him.

On coming towards us, several times wandering about and

moving, nothing out of the ordinary was noticed. The elephant

appeared to be in good condition, age about 20, height 8 feet 6 inch

to 9 feet. We had ample time to study him, as had our men,

both experienced trackers. It did strike us that he was somewhat

restless which—rightly or wrongly—I put down to the vicinity of

the cow. ‘Time and again he seemed to look at her although she

must have been some 100 yards away. Several times he sniffed

at the water but we did not see him drink,

The light was getting poor, anyhow it was no use wasting

precious colour film on so simple a subject. We must have watched

him for half an hour or more and took a few stills. Suddenly

he started to move and came straight towards the tripod and

cameras. We were smoking on the island’s bank. When within

a few feet of the cameras—we were just going to save—he turned

and slowly walked past us to our left. Little did we then realise

that we had been filming and watching till it got rather boring—

a dying elephant.

Some 20 yards away, just near the bank of the river, he stopped

and stood leaning against a tree and while we were watching he

suddenly ‘slid’ down against the tree trunk to he on his left side.

This very unusual behaviour made me realise that all could not

be well. It was exactly lke a drunken man clasping a lamppost

and then sitting down on the pavement!

After some ten minutes and as we got near, too dark to photo-

graph and heavy shade overhead—the elephant managed to strugele

150 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

to its feet with considerable difficulty. or a while he stood looking

very dazed and then very slowly wandered up the low riverbank

into heavy jungle.

It was time to pack up and return to camp when—a sound like

a deep and heavy moan, followed by a terrific crash just inside the

jungle where the elephant had been seen to enter. We had no

torches and it was too dark to follow.

Next morning the elephant lay dead, only eight or nine yards

within the jungle. A deep fresh gash across the left cheek caused

by a sharp broken sappling. How valuable a post mortem would

have been. The dung was normal and fresh. It was not old age;

while it is practically certain that this elephant did not die of any

injury or an old shot wound. He fell miles away from any

habitation or shooting ground. Of course this is no proof knowing

_ how wounded elephants can and do travel for miles and even days

but if he had been wounded it is difficult to believe that none of

us four, with a fair knowledge of the jungle and elephants, would

not have noticed it. Under the tree he was lying on his left side,

he fell dead on his right side. The extended and somewhat swollen

organ made us wonder if death perhaps was due to some sexual

reason or damage.

The true reason will never be known, the strip of film is a sad

souvenir. I am writing without my diaries but believe that this

was the fourth or fifth wild elephant I have found dead where

it was impossible to establish any kind of reason or proof unless

an expert post mortem had been possible. I rernember one small

elephant-—later on proved to have been shot at by field watchers

a week or so before—lying dead in the centre of three jungle road

junctions. As far as I could ascertain it had travelled a gocd ten

miles to get here and meet the end. The wound in the neck,

by a muzzle-loader from above, was a mass of inflammation and

matter some six inches in diameter.

Twice I have come across dead elephants lying in a stream or

river where it was impossible to make any investigations of any

value. In both instances the dying animals had of course come

to the water as their last hope.

The ‘burial ground’ idea, although romantic, is a myth as are

so many of such ideas about the wilds. The wilds hold little

romance where death is concerned.

Box 15, A. C. TUTEIN NOLTHENIUS,

COLOMBO, CEYLON, FAS, Aceh le

Tth January 1947.

7.—THE PISCIVOROUS HABITS OF THE RORQUAL

OR FIN WHALE (BALAENOPTERA §5P.).!

Malabar fishermen affirm that schools of whales are commonly

seen in the sea off the Malabar Coast. They come in pursuit of

1 Published with the kind permission of the Director of Industries and

Commerce, Madras.—Authors.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 157

huge mackerel or sardine shoals. No effort is made to fish for

them and these giants are seldom w ashed ashore. In fact there

are only twelve recorded instances of whales having been stranded

on this coast and these occurred within the past hundred years.

Of these five were rorquals.

Recently, on the morning of the 28th January 1947, a Rorqual

measuring 45 feet in length and 20 feet in girth was stranded at

Naduvattam three miles south of Calicut pier. It was in an

advanced state of decomposition, having been dead a few days

before it was washed ashore. Behind the middle of the body all

the flesh and viscera had been removed—probably bitten off by

A few mackerel skeletons from the stomach of the stranded whale

ravenous sharks or removed by nearby villagers. The vertebral

column was intact.

The whale was pale black dorsally and ash coloured ventrally.

Forty-two furrows could be counted on its ventral surface. The

teeth were absent. ‘The long thin bony plates characteristic of

whalebone whales, called ‘baleen plates’ or ‘whalebone’ were very

ill developed. One cannot be definite about this, as the mouth

looked tampered with. ‘The two nasal openings could be noted.

The hand had four digits and all the other bones were intact. These

characters are those of Fin Whales (Balaenopteridae).

Everything about this giant among the existing and extinct

creatures, is interesting both from its huge dimensions and its

ey on this coast. Small wonder then that its malodorous

carcass drew thousands of villagers who came to have a look at

158 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NALUKAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

what they called Kadalana in Malayalam, meaning ‘Sea elephant’.

But the most surprising and interesting fact had still to be revealed.

The opening of its large stomach exposed the remains of hundreds

of mackerels (Rastrelliger kanagurta), which the whale had devoured

(see photo). About 500 complete skeletons were picked out, not

counting the half digested mass yet to be reckoned with. It is.

almost sure that this creature had devoured more than a thousand

mackerel. The undigestable lenses of the eyes of these fishes

looking like coriander seeds could be picked up by thousands. It

must Be remembered that it was possible to examine only one of the

chambers of the stomach. So it can safely be presumed, that this

comparatively small specimen had swallowed a huge shoal of

mackerels.

About the food of whalebone whales under which the Rorqual

falls, Professor Adam Sedgwick writes: ‘the gigantic whalebone whale

which are without teeth but possess whalebone on the palate, feed

on small floating marine animals, nudibranchiates, molluscs and

jelly fish etc.” Frank Evers Beddard states that the interesting

fact that the whales feed among swarms of pelagic creatures, which

they engulf within their huge mouths, led the ancients to believe

and assert that they feed on water only.

In a recent Discovery Report (1942) Dr. Mackintosh has

reported in detail, on the food of whalebone whales in the Antarctic

and warmer waters. The examination of the stomachs of several

hundreds of these whales has proved beyond all doubt, that the

Antarctic whalebone whales, mainly feed on shoals of a shrimp-

like crustacean, Hmphausia superba, collectively known as ‘Krill’.

The only recorded instance of an Antarctic whale, taking to a

more substantial diet than Krill, was the case of a Blue Whale,

examined on the 8th January 1988 by Major Spencer, which had

consumed fifty ‘ice fish’ 9 to 12 inches long. According to

Dr. Mackintosh, these whales which feed very heavily in Antarctic

on Itvill, are found to starve during their northward migrations to

temperate coastal waters.

Perhaps in tropical waters the whalebone whales feed largely

on fish or more likely, when in pursuit of minute floating plankton

(krill), shoals of fishes, which themselves subsist on these plankton,

are engulfed unintentionally. But intentionally or not, these whales.

and ih ei cousins the dolphins and the porpoises, no doubt follow

shoals of food fishes in schools and play regular havoc among them.

Our thanks are due to ‘Dr, S. T.. Moses, Director of Fisheries,.

Baroda for his kind suggestions.

DEPARTMENT OF FISHERIES, Pl. AC ORE

M, DEVIDAS MENON.

BARODA,

2nd April 1947.

MISCELLANEOUS .NOTES 15¢

8.—CURIOUS NESTING SITE OF THE MAGPIE ROBIN

[CORSYCHUS SAULARIS (LINN.)]

With reference to Mr. Kingdon-Ward’s note on the Magpie

Robin in Vol. 46, No. 8 of the Journal it may be of interest to record

that while I was posted at Dibrugarh in Assam in 1941 a pair of

Magpie Robins nested in the back verandah of our bungalow there.

This verandah was seldom used and at the most remote end was

the electric light meter. This was enclosed in a fairly large wooden

case attached to the wall. Originally there had been two meters

in the box which was about 2 ft. 4 in. long and 14 inches wide by

about 9 inches deep. ‘The meters had been set on the wooden

back of the case, one above the other; the upper one being intended

for lights and the lower for power. Both meters had little glass

covered spy holes opposite their dials. For some reason the lower

meter had been removed and the glass in the spy-hole opposite

it had been broken. One morning while having a look at the meter

I noticed an old nest in the bottom of the box. I wondered what

bird could have nested in this queer spot but without examining

the nest very closely I removed it and threw it away. Later,

about the middle of April I was surprised to see a Magpie Robin

pop out of the box. I examined it and found a partially built nest.

Later eggs were laid and incubation commenced. ‘Then something

went wrong and the eggs disappeared. Later—it must have been

at the beginning of June—lI discovered a new clutch of eggs in the

nest. This time the brood was successfully reared.

The presence of the old nest would indicate that the same pair

had bred there in 1940 also. The monthly inspection of the meter

by the meter examiner and the slight hum from the instrument

did not seem to worry the birds in the slghtest.

Incidentally I have got a pair of Magpie Robins nesting in a

nesting box on a tree about 15 yards from our front verandab here

at the moment. Horse hair appears to be a favourite ingredient

of the nest of this species.

Haritone, NortaH CacHar Hints, te Be yPARSONS, eR EES. ,

ASSAM, Indian Police.

21st April 1947.

9—AN HARLY NEST OF THE TAILOR BIRD

[ORTHOTOMUS SUTORIUS (PENNANT) |

‘The breeding months’ of the Indian Tailor Bird ‘are principally

May, June and July, but in many parts they breed both earlier and

later’ (Stuart Baker, Fauna of British India Birds, Volume I, pp.

411). Whistler makes the same statement almost in identical

language (Popular Handbook of Indian Birds, 3rd edition, pp. 164).

According to Salim Ali, the nesting season ranges between April

and September (The Book of Indian Birds, 1st edition, pp. 84).

Earlier instances therefore may not be altogether unworthy of being

recorded. Perched on a slender branch in a lemon bush I found

yesterday (11th April) a fully fledged chick of the Tailor Bird

which had obviously left the protection of its nest two or three

¥60 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NALUKAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

days too early. The nest was not hard to find. It was built

in a purse made of two leaves in the upper part of the bush; the

bottom had given way probably owing to the scarcity of fibrous

materials in it and the chick had perforce to leave. It was not

incapable of using its wings or it would not have been able to find

the comfortable perch it was occupying. The nest must have been

built early in March outside the usual normal limits of the breeding

‘season.

IMPERIAL RECORD DEPARTMENT, S. INES INE

New ‘DELHI, Director of Archives,

12th April 1947. Government of India.

10.—OCCURRENCE OF THE WAXWING [BOMBYCILLA

GARRULUS (UINN.)| IN BALUCHISTAN

When I was coming back from the bazaar to the Staff College

on the Ist March I heard an unfamiliar bird call, a loud tsee and

got off my bicycle. I immediately saw a flock of upwards of twenty

waxwings. This sounds a tall story considering the rarity of the

bird in Tenia but they were extremely tame san: T had no difficulty

in checking the black throat, the chestnut forehead and the yellow

tips to the tail feather, and of course the crest. This was about

half way between the Staff College and the bazaar in a group of

fruit trees. I counted twenty, but judging from the calls there

were many more. I was unable to obtain a specimen as I had

no gun. One or other of the birds flew down frequently to the

ground and then after a few moments back to its tree.

(QUETTA. LD. is oP EL Ene Ss, Major

4th March 1947. 9 Gurkha Rifles.

STAFF COLLEGE,

| Besides the specimen obtained by Meinertzhagen at Quetta in

November—‘One of a pair’ (vide icehurst, ‘Birds of British

Baluchistan’, J. B.N.H.S., Vol, xxxi, p. 867 (1927)| we know no

other record of its occurrence in Baluchistan. Rare and occasional

stragglers have been recorded from Bannu and Kohat in the

N.W.F.P. It is perhaps worth noting that the 1946-7 winter was

an exceptionally severe and late one in Hurope and North and

Central Asia. The appearance within our limits of such vagrants

as this bird and the swans recorded further on doubtless had HO -

‘do with it.—rps. |

11.—ARRIVAL DATES OF WAGTAILS IN UPPER ASSAM

For some years past I have been in the habit of recording in

my Fishing Diary the dates on which the first wagtail has arrived

in my compound towards the end of the rains.

In case these are of interest to ornithologists I now give them:

1941 25th. September

1942 20th. A

1943 28th. 5

1944 17th. x

1946 25th. a

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 101

I know little or nothing about birds but assume they cross the

Himalayas into Tibet before the commencement of the rains

returning again for the cold weather in Assam.

Perhaps somebody would be good enough to confirm this?

Hooeriuan, P.O.

Upprr ASSAM, FEF, WOOLEY SMITH

30th September 1946.

[It is uncertain what particular species of wagtail is referred to

above. <All the wagtails except one—Large Pied (M. maderas-

patensis)—seen in India during the winter months are immigrants

from the Himalayas or the country beyond them, to the north:

Central Asia, Siberia, etc.

The punctuality with which wagtails arrive in autumn is remark-

able, and frequently commented on by observers all over the country.

A ringed individual of the Grey Wagtail (Motacilla cinerea) has been

recorded making its first appearance of the season on a particular

lawn on Pali Hill, Bombay Suburb, (scarcely larger than a

badminton court) as follows:—

1941 ca. Mid September.

1942 ilth September.

1943 ca. Mid September.

1944 12th September.

1945 1ith September.

1946 21st September. (exceptionally prolonged Monsoon!)

The bird was ringed only in the 1942-43 season; its individuality

in the previous season is merely presumed, but since then has been

unmistakable. The Grey Wagtail breeds in Kashmir and the

Himalayas, and beyond from the Ural Mountains to Kamschatka.

The distance from Bombay to its nearest breeding grounds in Garhwat

and Kumaon, in a straight line, is about 1000 miles. ‘Traveiling

over thousands of square miles of country, and finding its way back

to this particular few hundred square feet of lawn with such preci-

sion and punctuality seems a truly astonishing feat.—exps. |

12.—ABNORMAL EGG CLUTCHES

On 12th June last year, I found a nest of Hodgson’s Wagtail

({M. alboides) with 10 eggs. This was in the middle of a clump of

tamarisk on a shifting shingly island just below Pahalgam, Lidar

Valley, Kashmir.

This clutch is unusual and though it is matched by ‘clutches of

9 and 11 of M. a. yarrellii, possibly by two hens’ (fZandbook of

British Birds, Vol. I, page 277), it is strange that the record clutches

of 5 and 6 eggs of the Common Sandpiper were also found at

Pahalgam by Buchanan in 1907 (Nidification, Vol. 4, page 410).

Within a foot of the wagtail’s nest there was another of the

‘Common Sandpiper with four eggs. As there are few suitable places

around Pahalgam, it is quite likely that Buchanan found his nest on

an island more or less in this very section of the river. In the same

place, I saw two more normal Sandpiper clutches of four,

162 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

It is quite possible that my wagtail’s nest ag well as those of the

Sandpiper recorded in Nidification contained eggs of more than one

female. Would sudden rises in water level on such islands account

for the destruction of newly built nests and therefore concentration

on those that survived ?

Messrs. Faiz & Co., HUMAYUN ABDULALE

75, ABDUL ReHMAN SrrREET, Bompay, 3.

Bompay,

12th May, 1947.

_ [Enquiry shows that the writer is not quite certain of his -

identification and the nest with 10 eggs may have been that of

the Masked Wagtail (M. a. personata).—erps. |.

13.—NIGHTJARS ON ROADS

In the last issue of the Journal, Vol. 46, page 481, Stanford

ee to the ‘unexplained’ habit of nightjars sitting on roads at

night. .

In the Vizagapatam District (JBNHS 45, p. 848) a young male

of C. macrourus albonotatus was obtained dusting itself on the road,

while in the Birds of Bombay (JBNHS 40, p. 178) we have recorded

Dung Beetles (Onthophaga sp.) from the stomachs of C. asiaticus.

Motorists around Bombay have probably noticed that fewer

nightjars are now met on our roads at night, than a few years

ago. It is possible that the asphalting of roads, combined with

the difficulty of seeing dung on a dark surface, may explain their

apparent scarcity.

Mussrs. Faiz & Co., HUMAYUN ABDULALL

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, Bompay, 38.

Bompay, 10th May 1947.

[The asphalting of the roads has certainly reduced the number

of nightjarg previously to be met squatting on them after dark.

But it is difficult to agree that the darker road surface has anything

to do with the visibility of a bird of such completely crepuscular

and nocturnal habits. Again the fact that dung beetles were found

in the stomachs of nightjargs shot on roads does not by itself suggest

that they were collected from dung lying on the road. Neither,

we feel is it so important for a nightjar to be able to see

dung on a roadsurface for any beetles that may or may not be

there. A nightjar hawks its prey in the air, and if the flying

beetle is visible to it at dusk or in the dark it would seem to be

all that the bird needs. The suggestion that nightjars settle on

dusty roads to dust themselves seems more reasonable. And of

course at the same time the road, being free from obstructions,

may offer better facility for chasing beetles and other insects

flying across the open space.—ZDs. |

MISCELLANEUUS NOTES 163

14.—OCCURBRENCH OF THE SOUTHERN GREEN PIGEON

[CROCOPUS PHOENICOPTERUS CHLORIGASTER

(BLYTH)|] IN CHYLON.

It is, I think, worth recording that on the 5th January 1947,

I met with a flock of 30 to 40 (or possibly more) Southern Green

Pigeons (Crocopus phoenicopterus chlorigaster) in the jungles near

Bibile, in the Uva Province of Ceylon. I had gone down to these

jungles to try and trace the Ceylon Jungle Bush- Quail (Perdicula

asiatica ceylonensis) of which I was anxious to procure specimens.

_ Seeing some Green Pigeons in a species of Banyan tree (Ficus

ar nottiana) I shot one, and, much to my surprise and gratification,

on going to pick it up, found that I had obtained a specimen of

the Southern Green Pigeon. There were a number of these green

pigeons about, in a scattered flock, sitting amongst the dense

foliage of nearby trees. After some trouble, I shot another pigeon

which proved to be a beautiful male Ceylon Orange-breasted Green

Pigeon (Dendrophassa bicincta leggei). I then crossed the road

and came upon a small Banyan tree with a large flock feeding in

it. These proved to be more Southern Green Pigeons, one shot

being a female. The remainder of the flock then split up into

pairs and small parties and remained in the vicinity.

Bibile is at the foot of the south eastern aspect of the Central

mountain cluster; the jungles of the area are extensive, dense and

well suppled with Ficus trees in fruit, so it is just the type of

country where one would expect to find green pigeons c congregating.

The only other record of the occurrence of the Southern Green

Pigeon, in Ceylon, is Legge’s (page 723) who writes: “It appears to

inhabit (or visit, according to Layard) the extreme North of the

island’; and there are two specimens of his collecting in the Poole

Museum. He states that—‘it is migratory, only appearing in the

fruit season, and returning again to the coast of India’. Mr.

Holdsworth procured it near Arippu on the north west coast so

that it would not appear to be entirely confined to the extreme

North.’ Legge himself never met with it. The present record

makes a considerable extension to the known range of this pigeon,

which would appear to be a very irregular migrant to Ceylon,

during the North East Monsoon; it does not appear to have

been seen in Ceylon since Legge’s day—i.e. for over 60 years.

The whistle of the Southern Green Pigeon is very similiar to

the call of the Orange-breasted Green Pigeon, but is louder and

pitched in a rather lower key; also when it suddenly flies out from

a tree it makes a louder clatter with rather hollow note. It is an

adept at clattering out suddenly from the side opposite to that on

which the sportsman is approaching, and giving no chance of a shot.

From Stuart Baker’s description, it would appear that the two

specimens I obtained are typical Southern Green Pigeons. I am,

however, sending them to the South Kensington Museum for

confirmation.

GALAPITAKANDE EistTatE,

NAMUNUKULA, Wir VereAve Enns

CEYLON,

10th January 1947,

164 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 47

15. THE PERSIAN NAME FOR THE FLAMINGO

With reference to the note on Flamingoes from Babar’s Memoirs

in a recent issue of this journal (Vol. 46, pp. 045-7), it may

interest your readers to know that the Persian name for the Ilamingo

is “‘Pakhlan”’ (cf. Babar’s ‘‘Baghlan Kaz’’).

Therefore I cannot think that Pakhlin, as above transliterated,

has necessarily any connection with Baghlan, the town in

N. Afghanistan.

“SOUTH WOOD’ EAI eA Aulnil

MUSSOOREE, I.C.8. (xetd.)

25th May 1947.

16.—FLAMINGOES IN KUTCH-—A COMMENT

My. Salim Ali’s interesting article, ‘More about the Flamingo

| Phoenicopterus ruber roseus (Pallas)] in Kutch’ gives us quite

a number of interesting details about Flamingo life. However, I feel

some of his references to my observations call for comment. But

first of all I must confess that through oversight I omitted to

give the period of my visit to the Great Rann.’ It was between

the 26th September and the 20th October 1985. Having made

good the omission, I must now pass on in ‘self-defence’.

After recording that both Dr. Ticehurst in Sind, and myself in

the Great Rann, found seeds of aquatic and lacustrine plants in the

stomachs, Mr. Ali remarks: ‘There is so far no justification, how-

ever, for supposing that these constitute the only or indeed the

staple diet of flamingo in these parts. It seems ditiicult to conceive

that sufficient quantities of such seeds, e.g. Ruppia, could be

washed down by rivers flowing into the Rann from the north-

east to sustain a population of this magnitude for so long a period.’

In the first place I differentiated between the stomach contents of

young flightless birds, and adults capable of flight, for the simple

reason that the feeding activities of the young were restricted to

the Rann whereas the adults could go further afield. Accordingly,

I stated that the stomachs of the chicks ‘contained nothing except

a collection of small black seeds’ which I subsequently identified

as those of Ruppia. For the adults shot in the Rann, besides

Ruppia, I added the seeds of Scirpus maritima, and the portions

of Najas and Chara. ‘The inclusion of the others indicated that the

adults had been feeding outside the Rann,

From Mr. Ali’s account it ig evident that he did not examine

the stomach contents of any birds obtained in the Rann, but refers

to the stomach contents of two adult birds shot in the salt pans

at Kandla, a long way from the Rann. He records the stomach

contents of these two birds as follows: (excluding the sand) ‘a

small quantity of greenish vegetable matter like the ‘‘seum’’ from

= OUT Bel Viedd Soh) Ol elem emlia:

MISCELLANEVUS NOTES 165

the bottom of the salt pans, and a large number (over 50 in each

case) of red thread-like ‘“‘worms’’ ca 10 mm. long, later identified

as Chironomus larvae.’ Chironomus is a small gnat (Diptera)

some species of which are tolerant of salt water and live in the

mud. It is unfortunate that Mr. Ali did not examine the stomach

contents of birds shot in the Rann, both young and old, in which

case he could have either discredited my statement or supported it.

Another difficulty that presented itself to Mr. Ali is. that

Ruppia seeds could support such a population in the Great Rann.

Ruppia is a most prolific plant and it produces an incredibly large

quantity of seeds, and accordingly I see no great difficulty wher

taking into consideration such a large expanse of water during

the periods when the Rann is inundated. Ruppia is a brackish water

plant and commences life at the break of the monsoon when salinity

is low, but no sooner salinity rises it dies off leaving an abundance

of seed in the sand. Ruppia flourishes in still or gently moving

water, but cannot withstand high currents. (For further information

on Ruppia see my article published in Vol. 45, p. 396.) At the

time of my visit the water was a ‘mother liquor’ for crystals were

already forming at the bottom and under such conditions Ruppia

cannot survive. As already stated in my article I could find

no animal or plant life in the water, nor in the mud. The stomach

contents of the chicks contained besides the usual compliment of

sand ‘only the seeds of Ruppia’.

Turning from the question of food to migration and movements

during the breeding season, in my article I put forward the

suggestion that possibly when the winter rains failed in Spain

flamingoes migrated to India, the Rann, to breed. This sug-

gestion arose out of such records as were available to me and I

merely attempted to draw certain conclusion from such records which

offered a plausible explanation, which Mr. Ali referred to as ‘a

process of jig-saw-puzzle working in’! It is from such jig-saw-puzzles

of Nature that we are finally able to form a complete picture! To

this method of deduction Mr. Ali evidently takes objection for he

writes—‘His suggestion was that if unfavourable natural condi-

tions were encountered in Spain the birds turned about and made

for Kutch. The normal breeding season in the Great Rann

being September to October, they would get ample time to do the

return journey in. Then if they meet with the required conditions

here (Kutch), they undertake breeding. Thus the marismas of

Spain and the Great Rann of Kutch would, according to him

(McCann), be the erratically used alternative breeding grounds of

our Indian flamingoes. Personally I did not at the time, nor do I

now, find Mr. McCann’s ‘supposition’ a convincing one, but of

course it does not do to be too dogmatic in such matters, and more

data are needed. Mr. McCann pertinently observes that to obtain

any proof the wholesale ringing of birds in the two areas (Spain

and Kutch) would be necessary.’ The chief objection to Mr. Ali’s

remarks lies in the fact that he suggested that I used the

expression Indian Flamingoes whereas I merely referred to the

flamingoes that failed to breed in Spain, and asked the question,

do Spanish birds breed there (the Great Rann) in years when they

166 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

cannot breed in the Spanish area?’ and with due reserve added:

‘of course, this is a mere supposition and further proof is required.’

I gave them no Indian status! Accordingly the sentence ‘Indian’

birds ‘turned about and made for Kutch?’ did not flow from my

pen but is a picture from his own brush! However, it will be an

interesting point to establish whether the flamingoes are ‘Indian’

or ‘Spanish’ or a hybrid of the two! This can only be discovered

by wholesale ringing in both breeding grounds.

" VT ACK “TaN:

Bompay Natruran History Society, C. McCANN

BomBay,

17th February 1947.

[ Dr. Erwin Stresemann, the celebrated German ornithologist, in

a recent letter to Mr. Salim Ali, commenting quite independently on

more or less the very points raised by Mr. McCann, writes:

I think it would be worth while to make a thorough

quantitative and qualitative research on the plankton of the Rann.

At other places the little crustacean Artemia sacua has been found

to be the chief food of the flamingo, and I would be surprised if this

was not so in Kutch. These creatures are probably very quickly dis-

solved in the stomach by digestion, leaving unaffected seeds and

such like obstinate matter only; an examination of the stomach |

contents, therefore, is often quite misleading if this circumstance is

not taken into consideration. Some hydrobiologist should be con-

sulted. Nothing definite is known, as far as I know, about the

migratory movements of the Flamingo, and it would be most

important therefore to continue the ringing of juveniles in spite of

its being such a slippery business! JI often wondered where the

many hundreds of Flamingoes came from which in various years try

to propagate at the mouth of the Rhone river in Southern France

and almost always fail to do so owing to egg-loving humans. No

one seems to know at present whether the former colonies in

Southern Spain still exist or not; they cannot possibly be very

large. ‘There is no recent record of breeding colonies in Tunisia

in spite of so many planes having inspected the Schott region during

the war. In some years huge numbers breed at Lake Nekuru in

Kenya and possibly at other East African lakes. The migratory

movements of the Flamingo therefore seem to cover a very vast

area, and I would not be surprised at all if there should be proved

an exchange between Asiatic, European and East African colonies.

In Asia, colonies are known from the Caspian Sea and other places

in the interior. It would be a good thing to do a map of all the

breeding colonies known to exist at the present time; but in the

question of intercolonial exchange only the marking of quantities of

young birds will be really able to help. Couldn’t you find somebody

to focus his interest and efforts on this task?’—xps. ] :

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

17.— ALPHERAKY’S SWAN (CYGNUS BEWIJICKII

JANKOWSKII ALPH.) IN KUTCH

On 9 April 1947 M. K. 8, Madansinhji, Yuvraj of Kutch, brought

down by air from Bhij a live specimen with a fractured leg caught

on Hamirsar tank, within the limits of that city, on the previous day.

The bird was one of a pair reported to have frequented this tank

since 4 or 5 days before. It was said to have been attacked and

disabled by a small crocodile, and was picked up fluttering on the

shore. Its companion disappeared and was not seen thereafter.

‘The bird lived in the Bombay Zoo (Victoria Gardens) fill 14 April

but succumbed to its injury. In the post-mortem by the vet the

sexing was unfortunately overlooked, but the skin has _ been

added to the collection of the Bombay Natural History Society.

The following measurements were taken by me in the flesh: Wing

552, Bill (from forehead feathers) 99, Tarsus 112, middle toe with

claw 140, Tail 161 mm. They suggest that it belongs to‘the Hast-

Siberian race jankowskwu (better khown to Indian ornithologists as

Cygnus minor Keyserling & Blas.) of which, as far as 2 know, there

is only one other authenticated record from India: 2.1.1911 Tubi,

; Campbellpur, North-West Frontier Province, shot by a “Mr. Hornsby.

This skin is also in the Society’s collection.

In all there are 3 records of the typical race, Cygnus b. bewicku—

Bewick’s Swan—from within Indian limits: (i) 2.12.1907

Jacobabad, Sind (Jour., Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxiii, p. 456), (2)

30.12.1910 Mardan, N-W.F.P. (bid, xxi, p. 278). and © (3)

17.12.1918 Khushdil Khan near Quetta (ibid, xxiii, p. 159). The

Whooper Swan (Cygnus cygnus) has occurred thrice, while of the

Mute Swan (Cygnus olor) 14 examples were recorded in India up

till the end of 1915, from Sind, Punjab, N.-W Frontier Province

and the Baluchi Frontier. (For particulars see “A Review of the

Indian Swans’, BE. C. Stuart Baker, J.B.N.H.S., xxiii, p. 457)

In addition to these I personally know of one more example shot

in Sind (? Sakrand) by my brother Hamid A. Ali on 19 February

1913,

Curiously enough this now is the first swan to be reported from

within our limits since 1915, i.e. in 82 years. The occurrence of

a swan in India is in itself a noteworthy event; its coming as far

south as Bhaj (lat. 23° 15 ft. N) is unique. A point of particular

interest in connection with the present record is that in the year

1870 or thereabouts Stoliczka claimed (J.A.S.B., xli, 1872) to have

seen some swans while crossing the Rann from Kutch to Pachham.

On this Hume later remarked (Stray Feathers, iv, 33, 1876):

take this opportunity of noticing that the Swans which Stoliczka

(who wag very short-sighted) thought he saw on the Rann between

Cutch and Pachham were pretty certainly Pelicanus crispus

{Dalmatian Pelican) which I have seen from this very locality,

and which I saw on the Sind coast and on the western coast of

Kattiawar’.

168 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

And Hume probably was right; but here comes living proof

of a swan in Kutch!

33 Parr Hitt Banpra, SALIM ALI

BompBay 20,

a0th April 1947.

18.—PERIODIC ABUNDANCE OF BAR-HEADED GOOSE

[ANSHR INDICUS (LATHAM)] ON CHILKA LAKES

In your editorial comments on Mr. Rahimullah’s letter on the

occurrence of a Bar-headed Goose near Hyderabad City, you remark

that this bird was reported by Hume to be extremely common on

the Chilka Lakes in the eighties and that small numbers are still

said to visit the place in winter. They were extremely plentiful

last winter and in 1945-46 on the Chilka Lakes. My party shot 7

in 2 days and had opportunities of watching large numbers at close

range through field glasses. I saw also a report in the Statesman

of the occurrence of the Egyptian goose at the same place this.

winter but was not lucky enough to see the bird.

CALCUTTA, K. C. BENTHALL

18th May 1947.

19.—_SUSHKIN’S GOOSE (ANSER NEGLECTUS SUSHKIN):

IN ASSAM

As advised by C. Gimson, Hsq., Political Agent, Manipur,.

1 am sending you a goose skin for identification. This goose was

shot by me in Manipur in December 1946. It was in the company

of a large skein of Greylags.

It is of interest as so far the only geese in Manipur have been

Greylag and Bar-head. One Dwarf Goose only has been recorded

in past years, and no Whitefront.

IMPHAL, J, HURRELL

MANIPUR STATE, t.<Cole

ASSAM, .

10th January 1947.

|The skin is of Sushkin’s Goose (Anser neglectus Sushkin),

apparently a rare and occasional visitor to Assam, whose breeding

grounds still remain undiscovered. The specimen (sex ?) measures :

Wing 465, Bill 68, Tars. 80, Tail 186.—xps. |

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 166

20.—THE LANGUAGE OF BIRDS

Early on a fine February morning in 1946 my wife and I were

lucky enough to have Arundel Park to ourselves and there witnessed

an episode of bird-behaviour worthy of record. Many birds are

known to adopt a ‘territory’ which they seem to regard as theirs.

and defend from intruders of the same species, although quite

indifferent to the presence of any other forms of life within it.

The intruders likewise seem to recognise the bounds of this territory

and to suffer, as it were, from a ‘guilty conscience’ when invading

it, so much so that when challenged by the owners, they never put

up a fight but allow themselves to be shoo-ed gently off. The

ereat bird-observer, Karkman, has shown that this patch of ‘private

property’ extends for a foot or two round each nest of the Black-

headed Gull, even in closely packed colonies, its edge being apparent-

ly plain enough both to owner and non-owner, though invisible to

us. Edgar Chance has demonstrated that the cuckoo takes

possession of, or at least established dominance over, a much larger

area, extending for many acres. It was therefore with much interest

that we saw two swans, evidently a mated pair, methodically

clear the end of the lake containing their nest, which—looking

down—we could clearly see situated upon a small island therein,

from three swans whom they not only drove for some distance

down the length of the narrow lake, but who finally took to the

air and flew away altogether; but not before the following very

illuminating incident had taken place.

All we noticed at first was a sun-lit stretch of water picturesquely

set between wooded banks and enlivened by swans, moorhens,

and a variety of ducks, some of whom still slumbered on one foot

by the water’s edge, as though not only humans could be afflicted

by a hang-over. As we mounted the path to the right an unwonted

flapping broke out and we saw two swans with out-stretched neck

take to the air and alight again further down the lake. In a few

ioments they were joined by a third, whose departure was plainly

being hastened by another. At this point we began to take notice

and counted five swans altogether—two in the ‘home’ end of the

lake that we had just left and three now swimming in the water

beyond and below us. Swans in flight had made us interested,

since one seldom has the chance to see them from above. The

stretched necks and tense effortful, almost frightened sound, either

from wing or throat, that accompanied each beat of the wing, were

unfamiliar to us, and both this peculiar sound in flight and the

prodigious length of the skid, made by the thrust-out feet on

alighting, attracted our attention. Standing still, now, we saw

swan A and B, the home-birds—shall we call them ?—by no means

satished with the clearance, swimming in a dignified but purposive

fashion towards the three culprits (as we later decided they must

be). There was something inexorable about this concerted attack,

for it was delivered (as though by collusion) in such a way that

the width of the lake was strategically portioned out, leaving as.

little room as possible for either to be by-passed. T was reminded

of two tennis players rushing to the net. Each bird, of course,

adopted the ‘fighting-display’, head curved down and back, wings:

170 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NALURAL HIST SOCIEDY, Vol. 47

up-arched, and propelled itself in jerks, both feet presumably

thrusting in unison.

Birds, C, D and E, appeared to take no notice, till striking

distance was reached, when birds A and B, each selecting one

of them, began a real flapping, skimming the water with outstretched

neck in the movement that, if speeded up, would end in flight.

The attacked birds, meanwhile, made no show of resistance, but

scuttled rapidly away and finally took to the air. That is to say,

the attacked two departed, but bird H remained, now to the rear

of A and B.

The flying pair, C and D, went off down the lake but, still

within sight, wheeled and came back at a higher level, as though

their real objective lay in distant waters, far behind the ‘home’

and to our left as we turned to face it. Wheeling still more sharply

they passed from view behind the shoulder of hill on which we

stood, and our attention returned to the lake. Here, birds A and

B had turned in the water and were presently behind bird H; that

is to say on the home side of him. This manceuvre would evidently

enable him also to be ejected. But, before hostilities could begin,

back flew birds C and D, passed above the trio, wheeled and

came down nearer to bird EH than to A and B,

Was the whole performance to begin again? Birds A and B

set to work, quietly efficient as before. No fluster, no bluff; just a

dispassionate firmness; something like policemen about to check a Car

Licence. But this hime. no warnings were needed; all three birds,

7, D and HE, began a hasty flapping flight down the lake, which

merged gently into a slow rise above the surface: then, with gaining

height and a wheel round and up, passed us on eye-level, and

away into the landscape wuere they finally disappeared. ‘This

flight was just the same in direction as that of C and D before.

Evidently, all three were now going to the original objective,

perhaps returning to the water from which they had come.

Although we remained in the park for another half-hour they

did not re-appear, and we saw swans A and B back on their island,

tending the nest.

Now, all this may seem exceedingly trivial and ordinary, yet

it contains elements of deep interest. Apart from the obvious

collaboration of swans A and B, which seems to indicate some

mutual understanding and unity of aim, besideg a power of foresight

disclosed by the strategic positions taken, there is in the behaviour

of swans C and D something even more striking, namely their return

to a danger from which they had escaped. Why this return?

Having gone off again, this time accompanied by swan EH, they

do not return. It seems hard not to suppose that they came

back to fetch him. If that were so, it follows that they regarded

him as one of their party, noticed his absence, remembered where

he was and reflected that he might fail to follow!

At that distance, it was hard to be sure, but judging from

his size he might easily have been a last year’s youngster just

turned white. ‘Cygnets remain attached to their parents for some

time, and although one seldom sees two broods, one gray and the

other white, one often sees clusters of adult swans showing no

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES “io

animosity among themselves, who may easily be of common

parentage and not yet paired; for life-long batchelors and spinsters

among swans are known to all park-keepers experienced in their

ways.

The assumption of kinship presents, at any rate, the simplest

theory, and if kinship were absent it only makes more impressive

an act of obvious camaraderie, almost of ‘rescue’. But the

question I ask myself is, how these combined operations are

organised? Which mind decides, leads or directs, and how does

the other know its part? Given the ordinary human tendency

to read ourselves into the animals, it would seem for all the world

ag though the returning two had brought courage to their fellow,

or even said to him, “Now, come along old chap, this way; make

an effort!’ and that thus exhorted he dared and did. But which

of the two parents first noticed the absence of ‘our Bertram’, and

when and how did the other come to share this misgiving ?

22nd April 1947. CLAUDE A. CLAREMONT

21.—SOME FURTHER SUGGESTIONS FOR FIELD

ORNITHOLOGISTS IN POST-WAR BURMA

In the Journal for December 1946, under the above heading,

Lt.-Col. J. K. Stanford has directed attention to some of the more

glaring gaps in our knowledge of the status and habits of Burma

birds. The list of queries could be expanded almost indefinitely,

especially if one were to include the mountain birds, and also

problems connected with the geographical distribution of subspecies;

but there are just one or two that have been in our minds for

some time, which I would like to add to the list.

Sitta formosa. Beautiful Nuthatch

This is a very lovely and quite unmistakeable bird, yet records

of it from Burma are very few. In early December 1988 I climbed

a 0,000 ft. hill in the Arakan Yomas on the border of the Thayetmyo

and Minbu districts, and saw several of these birds in the ever-

green forest along the top, and collected one specimen; yet there

is no record of this bird from Mt. Victoria, which ig not so very

far away to the north and which has been intensively worked,

nor elsewhere from Arakan; Gen. Christison’s paper (Journal, April

1946) does not mention it.

In early December 1944 I saw a solitary bird at about 6,000 ft.

near the junction of the ‘Nmai Hka’ with its east bank tributary

the Mekh Rame, in far Northern Burma. The only other records

known to me are one from the Kachin hills and one from Kengtung.

Surely it must occur at some intermediate places between these

widely scattered points?

Cisticola exilis. Siamese Golden-headed Fantail Warbler

Oates found this species in the Pegu plain, near Myitkyo and

the Pegu-Sittang canal. There is no subsequent record. In July

1941 we searched the places where Oates found it, but without

172 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

success. Has it been driven away by the development of the

wide grassy plains of Oates’s day into paddy fields?

Pyctorhis altirostris. Jerdon’s Babbler.

This bird, which was widely distributed in the Irrawaddy-

Sittang Plain in Oates’s day, is now (so far as we know) confined

to a small grassy swamp north of Myitkyo at the entrance to the

Pegu canal, where we found it in July 1941. Does it occur else-

where, or is it also on the point of vanishing from Lower Burma?

Batrachostomus. Frogmouths.

Nothing whatever is known about the voice and habits of these

mysterious birds in this country. The few records are widely

dispersed—Myitkyina district (where [ picked up a dead bird in

hills west of Mohnyin), Mt. Victoria, Southern Shan States,

Karenni, and the Thaungyin valley.

If this species is strictly nocturnal we shall not make much

progress with it until somebody records its call-notes.

With regard to Part II of Lt.-Col. Stanford’s note, what we

want is a list of species not described in ‘Birds of Burma’ that

might reasonably be expected to occur in this country. If there are

any species new to science still to be discovered I do not think

they would exceed one or two in number, and the remainder of the

50 (or so) species that Messrs. Kingdon Ward and Stanford are

inclined to wager they could find in Northern Burma can only be

species that have been recorded elsewhere, e.g. India, South-Kast

Tibet, Yunnan, Thailand, Malaya. So far as Indian birds are

concerned I described, in square brackets, all those given in the

Fauna of British India volumes that I thought might be found in

Burma, but I could not do the same for Tibet etc. having no

literature on the avifauna of those countries. (One of these square-

bracket birds, the Long-billed Wren-Babbler, Rimator malacoptilus,

I saw near the Taron-Tamai junction in Feb. 1945). It is clear

from Lt.-Col. Stanford’s note that most of the species he has in

mind are those recorded by Forest in Yunnan; if he would be kind

enough to send me a list, with brief field descriptions, of the

‘probables’ I would be only too pleased to include them in a revised

edition of “Birds of Burma’ when it is possible to produce one;

since the object of the book is to describe all species that might

be met with in Burma. One cannot cover every possibility—un-

expected finds like Pyrotrogon wardi and Luscinia obscura will no

doubt continue to be made—but one can increase the odds against

finding undescribed birds.

In conclusion I can endorse the remark about the remarkable

way in which even a noisy or conspicuous species can be overlooked.

The Himalayan Cuckoo (Cuculus optatus) has a distinctive eall-note,

and is one of the noisiest birds in Sinlumkaba, Bhamo district, in

March and April; yet there seems to be only one record of this

species from Burma-—-from Maymyo—and some doubtful records

from the Chin hills.

MANDALAY, B. EB. SMYTHINS

10th May 1947.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

22.—‘SHAMMING DEATH’—SNAKES

Dunbar Brander’s letter in Vol. 46, No. 2, inviting further

observation On animals shamming death opens up an interesting

subject.

I have always kept a mongoose as a pet in the house, and had

a dozen or more over a period of 80 years. With these I staged

fights with snakes especially cobras. The cobra in fact is the only

snake that would put up a fight to the finish. The others kraits,

wolf-snakes, and water snakes will either curl up or bury their

heads in the coils and resign themselves to death.

The Chequered Watersnake (N. p. iscator) in particular will

“sham death’. JI have had them do so on several occasions.

Specimens from four feet or more to eighteen inches. I will

go further and say that for proof of this one need only get one of

these snakes and allow a mongoose to worry it and a perfect

‘shamming’ will follow.

This is done by the snake sometimes standing up and striking

at the mongoose three or four times after which it sinks to the

eround and in slow motion turns over on to its back maintaining a

slow muscular movement similar to a snake with its head

beaten in.

The mongoose as often as not will leave the snake without

biting or harming it in any way. When danger seems past the

snake makes a hasty retreat only to repeat the ‘shamming’ when

the mongoose arrives.

This is no exception but the rule with this species and need

only be tried out for proof.

H.Q., Bompay AREA, A. St. J. MACDONALD

BomBay,

29th February 1947

23.—AN UNCOMMON HABIT OBSERVED IN THE FROG

RANA ERYTHRAMA SCHLEG, .

The curious habit of leaping over the surface of the water

which is so typical of the Water Skipper, Rana cyanophlyctis.

Schneid is well-known to be very uncommon amongst Indian frogs

generally. This habit has also been attributed to the Indian Ke

Frog, Rana tigrina Daud. but has not yet been authenticated, :

far as IT am aware. Furthermore, even if the species is able lo)

it certainly does so very seldom. Boulenger (1890), Fauna of

British India, states of R. tigrina, ‘It is essentially aquatic, and is

said, when frishtened, to jump over the surface of the water much

in the same way as on land.’ W. 8. Berridge in ‘All About

Reptiles and Batrachians (1985)’ also states, ‘When endeavouring to

escape capture it has the curious habit of leaping over “the

surface of water just as if it were upon land.’ With reference to

this habit in two other species, C. McCann (1982), ‘Notes on Indian

Batrachians’, Journal of the B.N.H.S., Vol. xxxvi, No. 1, speak-

ing of the habit in R. cyanophlyctis states, ‘I know of no other

frog that is capable of performing this feat, though it has been

174 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

attributed to R. limnocharis and Rk. hexadactyla. Annandale! has

rightly pointed out that R. limnocharis is quite incapable of perform-

ing this feat and that R. hexadactyla does so quite feebly on

account of its large size.’

As regards my own observations of Indian frogs, I can assert,

without any measure of doubt, that Rana er ythraeca frequently

leaps over the surface of the water when alarmed. At Mymensingh,

Bengal, in July 1944, I observed this species and made the follow-

ing recording in my note-book:—‘These batrachians were found in

quite large numbers round the borders of some small ponds, chiefly

amongst the vegetation. On being disturbed, they either swim

away “from the edge, or, more frequently, they jump away over

the surface of the water in a manner akin to the habit of Rana

cyanophlyctis. They are, however, very much lighter on the

surface than R. cyanophlyctis, and appear to use this habit as.

much, or even more.’ In the case of cyanophlyctis, the movement

may be described as a ‘skip’ or ‘shuffle’ over the surface, but

erythraea moves by a series of distinct jumps.

I suspect that R. limnocharis also sometimes practises this

habit, though less frequently, and more after the manner of

R. cyanophlyctis. My evidence on this point is, unfortunately,

not quite conclusive.

96, MortuakE Roan,

Kew, SURREY, J DAyROMEE. REaKse

ENGLAND,

25th February 1947.

24.—MATING AND THE PARENTAL INSTINCT OF THE

MARSH CROCODILE (C, PALUSTRIS LESSON)

There is practically no scientific data on how Crocodiles mate,

and I think, few people have seen crocodiles in the act of mating.

It was not until recently this year that I could safely say that i

had seen it. It was on the 19th March ‘that my brother

K. 8. Nirmalkumarsinhji and I motored to the Shetrunji River.

Here, at one of the deep ‘Dharas’ (deep pools) we saw two

crocodiles swimming on the surface of the water, heading to meet

each other. Then as they reached one another, one of them made

a swirl as it turned round and dived. It reappeared some distance

away and then followed the other until the leading crocodile dived.

[ have witnessed such behaviour time and again and since this.

was at the height of the mating season it was no surprise to me.

Then we drove to another “Dhara’ where we had news of two

large crocodiles, and on arriving there, we waited for an hour

without seeing anything. After lunch taking up my field-glasses

[ noticed a crocodile with head and tail out. J passed the glasses

to my brother to have a look, remarking at the same time that

one had already appeared. Looking in he said there were two and

mating, and handed back the glasses. And there they were, head,

1 Ree. Ind, Mus., Vol. XV, p. 122 (Bombay Streams Fauna).

—

“I

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES I

neck and shoulders, one posed over the other, clearly visible. They

ducked and reappeared two or three times in the same est

and I saw a lateral movement after which they separated. The

erocodiles had definitely mated. The time taken must be about

two to three minutes and it was then exactly 1-80 p.m. After

soe paltioks both crocodiles submerged and surfaced at odd intervals

until at 2-45 p.m. I saw them mating again. This time one

crocodile ameaeenl and had its tail tip out. Then after 10 minutes

it moved towards a sand bar where the water was about knee deep.

I expected it to emerge but no; it remained stationery

for at least another five minutes. ‘Then the other crocodile surfaced

and seeing its mate, immediately swam towards it. As it came

‘closer to its partner, I distinctly saw it with closed mouth raise its

head and neck high out of water, pointing its snout at an angle of

about 70 degrees, for a few seconds. Then as the two met, I saw the

male trying to mount and the female circling until the male

actually mounted, gripping the female firmly. They were now

in fairly deep water and I could only see their bobbing heads in and

out of the water. At times only the female’s snout was visible at

others completely disappearing, reminiscent of duck (female) in

mating. However, the male never attempted to grip the female

with its jaws and when head and entire neck of both were visible,

the angle was approximately the same. This lasted three minutes

after which they completely submerged. The next I saw them

they were about 60 feet apart. How long the two copulated under

water I cannot say but they were submerged for at least five

minutes. Nevertheless, what little I had seen of the mating of

these reptiles was indeed a rarity. It is evident from this experience

that mating may take place in water or perhaps on land by night,

though I do not see how that would be possible. Judging from

the heads, the two crocodiles were approximately the same size and

between 7 and 8 feet in length. The males are on the average much

slimmer than the females at this time of the year and I agree with

Mr. McCann that fertilization must take place at quite an advanced

stage when the ova are well developed. He had also surmised that

mating takes place in water, as I had always believed, but lacked

sufficient proof on the matter.

PARENTAL INSTINCT

The question is: Does the Crocodile take any parental interest?

My answer is Yes—but only to a certain limit and when

conditions necessitate it. Here I may make it clear that conditions

for parental care may not arise at all: such as when the river

is in flood or when the young have easy access to water without

exposure to danger. From my experience, the parental instinct

is aroused at the time of the eggs hatching, and lasts until the

young crocodiles reach safety and are at home in the water. I

have seen a female crocodile keep guard over the young on the

day of hatching. This was revealed to me some years ago, when

a particular crocodile kept to one area of the lake close to where

276 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. A,

the eges had evidently been deposited. And on the day I discover-

ed the newly hatched young I saw this crocodile rush out of the

water, at least a dozen times to drive away, Black-necked Storks

(Xenorhynchus) Herons (Ardea) and large white Egrets (Hgretta)

when they ventured to alight near the young which were lying

helpless at the water’s edge. I watched this crocodile for the whole

day maintaining a scrupulous guard over its young. ‘This crocodile

was afterwards shot and was confirmed to be a female. The

general belief amongst the rural people here is that the parent

crocodile eats its own young, but my observation does not support

this belief, on the contrary the female seems to take great care

of the young and sees them safe to the water, as the first few

hours after hatching are the most critical in the life of the young »

crocodile,

Another observation that I have made is that, wherever a

crocodile has deposited her eggs, she is in the proximity of the

site. Although I now regret having shot so many crocodiles without

taking a deeper interest in their life history, I am still inclined

to believe that the parental instinct (restricted to the female) is

aroused by the grunting sound made by the young at the time

of hatching, immediately before and after emerging from the eggs.

Those who have the opportunity to make systematic studies on

the parental behaviour of C. palustris will, I feel, find the problem

most interesting besides throwing much light on the subject, still

unknown.

BHAVNAGAR, Kk. S. DHARMAKUMARSINHJI

10th April 1947.

[Parental instinct in the great Hstuarine Crocodile (C. pozosis)

is well known and there are records showing how assiduously the

species guards her ‘nest’ of eggs and new born young. Little has

been observed regarding the mating habits and parental care of the

Common Mugger (C. palustris).—xDs. | |

25.—INDIAN - MONITORS IN THE UNITED PROVINCES.

Reference Mr. F. W. Champion’s note on the above in volume

xxxvii No. 8 of 1934.

It may be of interest to note that Varanus monitor, is now

reasonably plentiful below Lansdowne Cantt. between 4000 ft.

and 5000 ft. It is my misfortune to have to travel frequently

between Lansdowne and Kotdwara by ear, (the road is appalling),

and it is seldom that one does not see at least one specimen.

I can confirm what Mr. Champion says about the breeding

season for early in June last year I saw an exceptionally large

specimen that was obviously gravid, and so ‘heavy’ that it had

difficulty in getting out of the way of my Jeep.

For many years a large Goh lived under the water tanks in

our Mainwaring Lines—from 1921 to 1927. The Burma Rifles

who relieved my battalion here in 1927 ate this one within a week

of their arrival.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 177

As Mr. Champion says they also wiped out a large green blue

hzard that used to be very common here, and it is still extremely

scarce indeed. ‘This regiment also rid the Cantonment of porcupines,

but unlike the lizard, these have returned in their dozens.

LANSDOWNE, U.P., D. G. LOWNDES,

7th May 1947. - Colonel

The Royal Garhwal Lifles

26.—DISCOVERY OF THE HITHERTO UNKNOWN

FEMALE OF THE BUTTERFLY, CHARANA CEPHEIS |

DE NICEVILLE |

The specimen, which on the evidence recorded below may be

accepted as the female cepheis, was taken by me at Laisong

(3000 ft.) in the Barail range of the North Cachar Hills in April

1946. It was captured on a tall bush at the moment of settling.

Swinhoe described and figured what he took to be the female

ot cepheis in Lepidoptera Indica. Brigadier HKvans_ says . that

Swinhoe’s type specimen which is in the British Museum turns

out on examination to be merely a variety of Jalindra indra: Swinhoe

was accordingly deceived and wrote in error. Subsequent descrip-

tions in other text books are based on Swinhoe’s, and so are likewise

erroneous.

The Cepheis is therefore only known from the male type in the

Calcutta Museum. It was well figured by De Niceville. Comparison

shows that my female on the underside resembles it more closely

than mandarinus or indra. On the upperside it differs from the

female of these species in a striking and remarkable manner,

On the fore wing the centre third is pure white (entirely brown

in mandarinus and indra). On the hind wing the costa and apex

are white while the remaining half is shaded white with black veins

(brown with a narrow white band in indra and mandarinus),

The similarity to the male cepheis on the anderside and the

fact that there is no other known male to match it is fairly con-

clusive. Both Brigadier Evans and Dr. Corbett who have examined

my specimen are of opinion that it is the female of cepheis. It

may accordingly bé aecepted and placed on record as such.

Haflong,

North Cachar Hills, M. E. ST. JOHN PERRY.

Assam,

1Gth October 1946.

27.—THE ENEMIES OF DANAUS CHRYSIPPUS (LINNAEUS)

Jn support of the observations of Sevastopulo (193838, Journ.,

Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. 36(4): 1014) that D. chrysippus (.) feeding

on Asclepiadaceae have natural enemies we may add that we got

the chalcid Trichogramma evanescens minutum (Riley) parasitizing

the eggs and two species of Tachinid flies, Sturmia wainwrighti

178 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Baranoff and an another species of Sturmia from the larvae and

pupae of the butterfly D. chrysippus (L.) which feeds on Calotropis

gigantea Br. (Mukerji and Behura. Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. -Soc.;

in press). ae | | I a

The following references may also be added to the list given by

Sevastopulo (1983) :—

Larvae of this butterfly feeding on C. gigantea Br., are much

attacked by ichneumons (T. R. Bell. 1909. Journ., Bomb. Nat.

Hist. Soc, 19(1):52),

The adult butterflies are attacked by drongos (Dicrurus)

(H. L. Andrews, 1910, Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist.- Soc. 20(8): 850),

by mantis (H. D. Peile, 1910, Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. 20(8):

873 and also by the lizard Calotes which devours both palatable and

distasteful butterflies (H. Jouguet, 1927, Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist.

Soc. 83 (2): 453).

ENNTOMOLOGICAL LABORATORY, ee

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, DURGADAS MUKERJI,

UNIVERSITY COLLEGE oF ScibncE, BASANTA KUMAR BEHURA.

CALCUTTA, =

4th February 1947.

28.—_NOTE ON THE OCCURRENCE OF BIPALIUM. IN

7 JUNAGADH (KATHIAWAR)

~ Bipalium belongs to the Phylum Platyhelminthes, to the class

Turbellaria. Unlike parasitic Platyhelminthes, free living forms

have not received considerable attention at the hands of zoologists

in India. ‘The first described land planarian of India in the year

1899 was Bipalium smithi (v.Graft). The land planarians from the

Abor country collected by Mr. Kemp are recorded by Whitehouse

(1 and 2) and from the Andamans by Kaburaki (8). In all 15 species

of Bipalium are recorded from the Abor country on the Indo-

Tibetan border, the Eastern and Western Himalayas, North Bengal,

Assam, Nilgiri, Coimbatore, Travancore,. Cochin and the Andamans.

They were found at altitudes varying from 3800 to 8000 feet above

sea level.

A single solitary specimen of this animal was first observed

at Motibag in the month of July 1988; and again at Datar Manzi!

in the monsoon of 1989. Thereafter in the month of July of 1944

several individuals of various sizes were seen crawling under or on

stones and even on the tree trunks of the Girnar Hills. In order.

to kill these animals in extended condition they were dipped in

water to which at intervals a drop of 5% formalin was added till

they become motionless. They are then preserved in 50%

Glycerine alcohol. .

From the external features these animals comply with the

typical Bipalium outline with semicircular head lobes. The trunk

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 8

tapers gradually towards the regions of the neck and the. tail.

‘The colour of the body in the hving animal was observed to be

shining dark chocolate colour on the dorsal surface; while it was

light chocolate colour on the ventral surface. In the preserved

animal dorsal surface presents the dull dark. chocolate colour,

while the ventral surface shows variation in colour from pale

chocolate to ash brown colour. From the neck to the extreme

posterior end there is a prominent raised ridge of slight dirty white

colour on the midventral surface known as ambulacral surface. This

is somewhat wider at the mouth and genital apertures. In two

specimens the pharynx is seen protruded through the mouth as

a cream or pale yellow frill.

Table 1 gives the measurements of four intact animals from

the Girnar hills. These measurements are those of the preserved

specimens; but these animals in living state are capable of extending

and hence there is apt to be. more or less slight variations in these

measurements than those recorded here.

TABLE 1

{mm. | mm. | mm. | mm.

1 | Length of the body rain ade Ol | POS": | 174

2 Breadth of the body Peel ow 2 5

3 Thickness of the body i jet 3 2 eee: ek 13

4 Breadth of the head lobe ey eS A pielt 5 ole aoe:

5 °: Breadth of the ambulacral surface pas Vea. | 375 2) as25

6 | Position of the mouth from the anterior

end arcalliar 22. 25 28 | 36

| Position of the genital pore from the

/ end ve'al'| 4929 33 39 48

8 Distance between the mouth and genital |

pore iT Suniel “| as12

It is seen from the above table that the smallest specimen

measured 43 mm. in length, and 4 mm. in breadth whereas the

largest was 74 mm. and 5 mm. in length and breadth respectively.

Thickness of the body varies from 2 mm. to 8 mm. These include

the raised ambulacral surface of the ventral side. The breadth of

the head lobe varies from 3 mm. to 5 mm. ‘The breadth of the

ambulacral surface varies from 75 mm. to 1.25 mm. The position

of the mouth is more or less about half-way from the ventral surface ;

while that of the genital pore is more or less two-third way along

the ventral surface from the anterior end or about one-third way

from the posterior end, ‘The genital pore is behind the mouth and

the distance between the mouth and the genital pore varies from

7 mm. to 12 mm. All four intact specimens have both the

apertures quite visible.

One of these specimens was sent to the Director, Zoological

Survey of India, for correct specific identification. Dr.

B. 8S. Chauhan identified it as Bipalium prox. sylvestre White-

house. According to him it shows closer resemblance to B. sylvestre

than any other described species or genus. As there was only

180 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

one specimen available to him he was unable to give any definite

specific name to it or to say whether it is a new species.

These specimens are from the first record of the species from

Junagadh in Kathiawar. :

The author expresses his sincere thanks to Dr. B. N. Chopra

and especially to Dr. B. 8. Chauhan for their kind help.

BAHAUDDIN COLLEGE,

JUNAGADH, Giaene KAPADIA

6th May 1947.

Literature cited

1. Whitehouse, R. H. (1914) Land Planarians. Rec. Ind. Mus. Vol. VIII,

Pt. VI, pp. 455-464.

2. Whitehouse, R. H. (1918) Indian Land Planarians. Rec. Ind. Mus.

Vol. XVI, Pt. 1, pp. 29-40.

3. Kxaburaki, T. (1925) Planarians from the Andamans. Rec. Ind. Mus.

Vol. XXVITI, Pt. II, pp.22932.

29.—FLOWERING OF BAMBOOS

Our local ‘ringal’ is Arundinaria falcata Nees, and until this

year was plentiful in the jungle and commonly transplanted into

gardens where it was of great ornamental value. Last year, how-

ever, mass flowering of this species took place and I now know

of only three or four clumps remaining, which for some reason

failed to flower and perhaps half a dozen small plants that had

been transplanted during the rains in 1945. T also noticed this

species flowering in Simla and in Dehra Dun so that it must have

been general throughout its range.

I should be most interested to know what the flowering cycle

of this species is? My Mess Mali, who has been in our employ

since 1911 tells me that he had never known this ringal to flower till

last year. Thig gives a cycle of at least 35, and probably of

40 years. 7

LANSDOWNE, U.P., D. G. LOWNDES

Tth May 1947. Colonel,

The Royal Garhwal Rifles.

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR ENDING 31st DECEMBER 1946

President

H.E. The Rt. Hon’ble Sir Joun COLVILLE, G.C.1.E., T.D.

Vice-Presidents

Rt. Revd. R. D. Acland, m.a.

Mr. W. S. Millard, F.z.s.

Sir John Greaves, C.B.E., M.L.A., J.P;

Executive Committee

Mr. Humayun Abdulali Hs: Rs pA + |

Mr. J. I. Alfrey Pe me Ae de ee}

Mr. Salim Ali ea

Mr. Farrokh E. Bharucha

Mr. A. Forrington

Mr. R. E. Hawkins ae

' Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, s.J.

Dr. S. B. Setna, pPh.p. Ae ee $25 ve

DrseM. Sharif, issc., Ph.p:, F.N-1. a en

Lt.-Col. Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, t.m.s.

Mr. J. L. Bernard (Hon. Secretary) a Soc

Mr. T. E. Savaides (Hon. Treasurer) ae yi

: | Bombay

Advisory Committee

DipwNes WesBor,.M-A., D.SC.; F.U.S., [:P.Sk .. Assam

Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, 1.a. (Retd.) ee ... Bangalore

Dib. IN. ©hopra, D.Sc. ve Rais Benares

Canit.

Mir. El. Donald, F.z.Se Ae Dharmsala

Rev. Fr. Dr. J. B. Freeman, M.A., U.T., Ph.D., D.D- Mysore

Dies. ElOra, D:SC. vas nea! ae ... Calcutta

Mr. C. M. Inglis, 8.E.M.B.0.U., F.Z.S. st ... Darjeeling

Witeeeixe (Cea VIOCKS., MoE.A., E.R.G.S., F.Z.S- ... Coimbatore

Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian Adams, 0.3.£., F.Z.S.,

1.A. (Retd.) a Ja ie side ... Nilgiris

Dr. Baini Prashad, p.sc. Ie hei a ... New Delhi

Staff

S. Hl. PRATER, O.B.E., M.L.A., J.P., C.M.Z.S- ... Curator

C. McCann, F.L.s. ie os s So) faa (OOnTB OT

A. F. Fernandes A Ae iy? ae ... Head Clerk

182 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

List of members of the Executive and Advisory Committees

elected for the year 1947.

Vice-Presidents

Lt.-Col. Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, 1.M.s.

Mr. W.'S. Millard, F.z:s. -

Executive Committee

Mr. Humayun Abdulali Sbo “as 56g

Mr..Harrokh E. Bharucha ...

Lt.-Col.” jf; Es Clutterbuckaer-r.

Mr. A. Forrington ate

Mr. R. E. Hawkins

Mii. blayes rere nb ee

Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, $j. ... 0... ae gd

DD iaSeeb-woetnasePhsDs

Dr. M. Sharif, DsSCy 5 Phep snr Nel. oe. ae

Lt.-Col. Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, r.mM.s.... |

Mr. Salim Ali (Hon. Secretary) ap bela

Mi leealtreya(ons reassure ee Ae

Advisory Committee

Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, 1.4. (Retd.) ... Bangalore.

Dig eN Chopras DSC ats. be ... Benares Cantt.

Mbe (O54 Jaks IDYoeikels E7405 “Sec Ae ws Dharmsala.

Rev. Proapr: J.°B. Mreeman, McA. ty erheps

D.D. sete tai hes aes see, VL VSOME:.

Dix Sle Ona aDeSc ate ie Pe CCICUELOS

Mr. C. M. Inglis, B.E.M.B.0.U., F.Z.S. ... Darjeeling.

Min IR. Cy MonrisnsheRiG-SabeZ.S ames ... Coimbatore.

DiS. ia. MulkernjeewisSCan gt we ~. Caloutta,

Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian Adams, 0.B.E.,

F.Z.S., 1.4. (Retd.) “he Ser =.. | Nilgiris.

Dr. Bains Prashad, p.sc. Bar ... New Delhi.

THE HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT FOR THE

YEAR 1946.

THE Society’s JOURNAL.

Volume 46, Nos. 1, 2 and 3 were published during the year.

MAMMALS

Two interesting papers on little known mammals were published

during the year. The first of these entitled ‘The Riddle of the Bearded

Pig’ by J. E. Kempe, deals with the distribution of Sus barbatus of

Sumatra and Borneo and its present occurrence in the Malay Penin-

sula where it had not been known to occur since Neolithic times.

The known facts are that the Bearded Pig has in recent years re-

appeared in the south and east of the Malay Peninsula in small

numbers. The author discusses the question as to whether this

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS, 1946 183

species by its presence today: is to be regarded as indigenous to

Malaya or whether it is:now re-establishing itself after a period

of extinction. |

Mr. R. I. Pocock has: published two volumes on mammals in

the new edition of-the Fauna and is now engaged in writing a third,

dealing with Ungulates. -He appealed to the Society for a series

of skins and skulls of the Wild Ass which inhabits the deserts of

Kutch. No material was available in museums for the study of this

species. Thanks to the.generosity of His Highness Maharao Shri

Vijayarajji of Kutch, an expedition was sent to the Rann of Kutch

io secure material and data about this litthe known animal. Mr.

Salim Ali who was in charge of the expedition, gives an interesting

account of the conditions in which these wild asses live in the

Rann of Kutch, their numbers and breeding habits. The young

wild ass is not difficult to capture and unlike the adults, is easily

tamed. They are sturdy and fleet of foot and the author believes

that mules bred .from them should prove a satisfactory proposition.

It is an experiment well worth attention.

During the year under review, we published the concluding

articles on Sport in Assam, which were of so much interest to

sportsmen. They are a record of the more spacious days of the past

and of big game hunting in one of the finest Provinces in India.

_ Birps .

During the first world war, many members of the Society

serving with the Forces. in Mesopotamia, actively interested

themselves in collecting specimens and making field notes, which

provided the basis of the’ volume on the Fauna of Mesopotamia,

which was published under the aegis of the Society. The grimmer

conditions under which the second world war was fought, apparently

left little time for such ‘exploration. Nevertheless, there were a

few members of the Society who were able to give some attention

to Natural History interests. Among these is Lt.-Genl. Sir Philip

Christison who during: his campaigns in Arakan in 1943 and 1945,

interested his staff officers in making observations and_ collecting

notes on the bird life of the area. A paper by Genl. Christison,

Major A. Buxton and Major A. M. Emmet, assisted by Dr. Dillon

Ripley of the U.S.A., gives field notes on the birds of Coastal Arakan

and the Foothills north of the Yomas. These notes provide a

foundation for a more critical study of the avifauna of Arakan and

must prove of value in the preparation of the second edition of

that classic book ‘The Birds of Burma’. Similar is the purpose:

of Col. J. K. Stanford’s ‘Suggestions for Field Ornithologists in

Post War Burma’. Like Genl. Christison, he provides additional

data for Smythies’s excellent book and indicates to future young

naturalists in Burma the many opportunities that still exist for

adding to the knowledge of the bird life of the country.

The Birds of the Anamalai Hills (Cochin), the subject of a

paper by C. R. Stonor, is based on observations made by him in the

ever green and deciduous forests of the north area of the Anamatai

range. The paper is a useful contribution to the ornithology of

the South Indian hill ranges.

184 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 43

In the August number (Vol. 46, No. 2), Mr. Salim Ali gives a.

graphic account of an ornithological pilgrimage to Lake Manasa-

rowar and Mount Kailas. This hallowed region is virtually for-

bidden ground to Europeans, which is perhaps the reason why so

little has been recorded of its natural history. Mr. Ali’s objective

was to study the natural conditions under which birds live in this

desolate region, to ascertain what species breed in the area and

to determine the ecological factors which favour their doing’ so.

Admonition by the authorities not to carry a gun, lest he offend

the religious scruples of the Tibetans, who are averse to other

people killing any animals, prevented Mr. Ali from collecting

specimens. He was able to make notes on the bird life of the region

and of the transitions which occur in the character of the avifauna

as one passes from the Indian into the Tibetan zone. His paper

makes interesting reading and concludes with a list and notes on

the birds observed by him.

An appropriate pendant to Mr. Ali’s observations, is Mr. Frome’s

article on the birds seen on the main Hindustan-Tibet Road between

Mahasu and Narkanda in the Simla Hills and along the mule track

to Baghi. It is a region of cliffs, ravines and stretches of dense

forest, alternating with open hill sides. Its bird life includes a

variety of forest haunting birds, as well as those which favour more

open and cultivated country, as instanced by the occurrence of such

common plains species as the sparrow, the mynah and the common

pariah kite.

Mr. E. H. N. Lowther’s notes and photographs of Indian birds

are always welcome in our Journal. He crowns many fine camera

studies of Indian birds which we have published with photographs

of the majestic Lammergeier at home in its Himalayan fastness.

His article gives a graphic account of the family life of these great

birds. The thanks of the Society are due to him for his many

attractive contributions to the pages of the Journal.

Birds photography is becoming increasingly popular in India.

Our Journal provides evidence of this. Kashmir with its fine

scenery and the unequalled opportunities it offers to the camera -

hunter, is possibly the most attractive venue for his efforts. Both

Col. B. T. Philip’s and Mr. Loke’s articles deal with portraits of

bird life in this delectable region and both provide interesting notes

and observations of their experiences.

REPTILES

Since the retirement of Col. F. Wall, than whom no man has

contributed more to our knowledge of Indian snakes, the study in

India of these reptiles has somewhat languished. We welcome

Mr. Acharji’s notes on snakes of Benares, based on a collection

made at ‘Kaiser Castle’—the war-time home of the Zoological

Survey of India.

Mr. Charles McCann contributed an important study on the

hemipenis in reptiles. It is already well known that there is a con-/

siderable variation in the structure of the hemipenis from genus to

genus and in some instances from species to species. Although

some herpetologists have attempted a classification of snakes, based

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS, 1946 185

mainly on the morphology of these structures, there is plenty of

room for further study. McCann’s study of fresh material and not

of spirit specimens, sheds much new light on this field of research.

Readers of the Journal will learn with regret of Mr. McCann’s

impending departure from India. We express the hope that he

will continue to contribute to the Journal and to the store of know-

ledge of Indian Zoology and Botany, to which his researches have

added so much.

FISHES

Major Macdonald concluded his serial on the Mahseer and other

Game Fishes. The whole series is being reprinted in book form

and will provide an up-to-date and comprehensive handbook and

guide to anglers in India.

The literature on the life histories of Indian fishes is scanty and

scattered in scientific periodicals—not always easily available. Mr.

S. Jones has endeavoured to bring the available information together

in his articles on the breeding and development of Indian fresh-

water and brackish-water fishes. The editors of the Journal had

invited Mr. Jones to undertake this work so as to arouse interest

in the subject among members of the Society. Breeding and

developmental studies of fishes are full of interest and offer plenty

of scope to those willing to devote attention to them. Though the

specialists will find Mr. Jones’s articles useful, his work is intended

primarily for field naturalists.

That king of Indian fishes, the Mahseer, its ways and habits are

always of interest. An informative article dealing with the migration,

breeding habits and taxonomy of this fish was written by Mr. K. De

B. Codrington. It is a useful supplement to the papers on Indian

Mahseers by Dr. S. L. Hora, which were published in the Journal

some years ago.

Many useful papers on pisciculture have been published by the

Society. Fishes provide a supplementary source of food supply,

second only to agriculture, and studies contributed to the develop-

ment of our fisheries are of real importance. During the year we

published ‘A Fishery Survey of the River Indus’ by Dr. Hamid

Khan; ‘The Freshwater Fish and Fisheries of Ahmedabad’ by Dr.

S. B. Setna, Director of Fisheries, Bombay, and Mr. Jones’s paper

on the ‘Destructive Methods of Fishing in the Rivers of the Hill

Ranges of Travancore’.

INSECTS

Mr. D. G. Sevastopulo continued his studies on ‘The Early

Stages of Indian. Lepidoptera’. Parts XIV, XV and XVI were

published during the year.

Other scientific papers include the description of a new species

of beetle Peschetius andrewsi and a new genus and species of

Mycrodytes, by J. Balfour-Browne of the Department of Entomo-

logy, British Museum.

Capt. H. J. C. Larwood describes and illustrates new species

of Indian Lithobiidae.

Mr. M. Atiqur Rahman Ansari published an article on the

130 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

‘Association between the Mallophaga and the Hippoboscidae infest-

ing Birds’.

To the long series of local lists of Buttentiiess published by. ane

Society which ‘have added so much information covering the status

and distribution of species, we add two papers, one dealing with

the Butterflies of the Kaira District by Dr. H. C. Aldrich, the

other on the Butterflies of the Arakan Coast, by Major J. C.

Gladman. His list was compiled from a collection and observations

made by him during the third and final Arakan campaign between

November 1944 and end of June 1945-

Economic Entomology finds place in an important and _ useful

paper by Messrs. K. N. Trehan and S. V. Pingle on the crop pests

of the Bombay Province. Mr. T. V. Venkatraman describes a New

Coccid Pest of Sugarcane in India. The author deals with the Fi

history of the species, the nature of damage caused by it and i

distribution in India.

BOTANY

Three further parts of the serial on ‘Some Beautiful Indian

Climbers and Shrubs’ were published during the year. Twenty-four

parts have so far appeared and six further parts will complete the

serial. The Society hopes to publish these papers in book form’ as

a companion volume to Blatter and Millard’s fine work on ‘Some

Beautiful Indian Trees’.

Mr. McCann’s ‘Observations on the Sterculias of the Bombay

Presidency’, are based on a critical study of the various species

included in the genus, as originally understood by Cooke and other

botanists. The author corrects, amends or explains erroneous and

obscure details in the existing descriptions.

A paper on South Indian Commelinas including descriptions of

two new species from South India, was contributed by the Jate

Edward Barnes, whose death removes from our scene a keen student

of Indian Botany.

A second series of New Plant Records for the Province of

Bombay was written by the Rev. H. Santapau.

~Mrs. Ella Gonsalves and Mr. Dwarka B. Joshi Contabuited a

study of the freshwater Algae occurring near Bombay.

We were able during the year to publish Mr. F. Kingdon Ward’s

additional notes on the Botany of iNorth, Burma. Mina easels

Corner, now Assistant Director of the Singapore Botanic Garden,

when a prisoner of war fortunately had been able to pursuade the

Japanese to preserve Kingdon Ward’s diaries in the Library of

the Botanic Garden. ‘The author was thus able to add considerably

to his Sketch of the Botany of North Burma, which originally was

written largely from memory and rough notes which he had made

after he had left Singapore in 1941.

In concluding this review of the Journal we wish to thank all

those who contributed articles or Miscellaneous Notes. The latter

are always an interesting feature of the Journal and add greatly

to its interest and attractiveness.

The Committee regret the delay in publishing the Jowrnal which

has been thaesnoaebite Irregular publication has been due_ to

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS, 1946 187

labour and other difficulties affecting the printing trade the world

over.

The Committee wish to express their thanks to the Council of

National Institute of Sciences of India, for a grant of Rs. 750 made

to the Society towards the expenses of publishing the Journal dur-

ing the year.

PUBLICATIONS

Book of Indian Birds. A 4th edition of this deservedly popular

work was published during the year. The new edition is revised

and brought up-to-date and contains 75 new illustrations, replacing

previous plates.

Some Beautiful Indian Trees. Last year the Committee decided

to bring out a new edition of this work. Mr. W. S. Millard who

with Rev. Fr. Blatter was the joint author, has since secured esti-

mates for printing the new edition and orders have been placed

with Messrs. Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh, Scotland, to print 2,000

copies of the book.

Book of Indian Animals. This book written by Mr. S. H.

Prater, the Society’s Curator, will form Volume II of the Indian

Natural History Series. It is being printed off and publication is

expected in October 1947.

Book of Indian Butterflies. As stated in the previous annual

report, the Committee decided to publish this work which has been

written by Mr. Wynter-Blyth. It will take the same format as the

Book of Indian Birds and will form the third volume in the Indian

Natural History Series. Preparing illustrations in colour and black

and white of some 500 or more species, which will be a feature of

the work is necessarily a long process. It is unlikely that the

book will go to the press before next year.

Circumventing the Mahseer. Publication of this work by Major

Macdonald, which originally appeared as a serial in the Journal, is

expected in the course of the year.

REVENUE ACCOUNT

Actual receipts amounted to Rs. 41,389-12-0 as compared with

Rs. 55,351-6-0 during the year 1945. The decrease in revenue of

Rs. 13,961-10-o was due mainly to decrease in sales of publications

which amounted to Rs. 26,333-3-0 in 1945 as against Rs. 9,280-1-o

in 1946.

Life Members. During the year 1946, 12 Life Members died

and 8 joined, decreasing the total number from 205 to 201.

In 1946, 89 new members (including above) joined, 69 resigned

and rr died. The total number of members on 31st December 1946,

was 1,289, an increase of 9 Over 1945.

7 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The Committee wishes to record its acknowledgements to Mr. W.

S. Millard, for his continued help in looking after the Society’s

interests in London.

STAFF

The Committee also wishes to record its appreciation of the

services of the Curator and staff, whose loyal and devoted service

is helping the Society to carry on in these critical times.

188 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

ADDITIONAL NOTE BY HONORARY SECRETARY

READ OUT AT THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING ON 21 AUGUST 1947

1. Lo encourage active field work in natural history—so lack-

ing among Indian students—the Society’s Managing Committee de-

cided to award a scholarship, or scholarships, aggregating Rs. 600

per annum to selected students who found it difficult to finance their

field trips. The scheme was widely advertised on college notice

boards throughout the city and 2 applicants were selected, one

working on a problem connected with Bats, the other on Algae.

The work so far done by the bat investigator is not altogether

satisfactory, while the algae student refunded the grant after a time

as he was unable to carry out his proposed work. While the out-

come of our efforts have not proved promising, it is proposed to

give the scheme a further trial.

2. WVhile our membership during the 8 months of this year

has been fairly stable (57 resigned, 55 joined) it is anticipated that

the political change-over may affect it adversely to begin with.

An analysis of our membership significantly reveals that of a total

of 1,000 individual members (ordy. & life) on our list no more

than 251 are Indians, the rest being Europeans, a large number of

whom officials of Government. Efforts are being kept up to induce

educational institutions, planters and others to join the Society,

but the response is only moderately satisfactory. It has been found

that the best means of obtaining more members is through personal

contact by those who are already on our rolls. Each member

must surely know a smail group of persons who share his interest

in one branch or other of natural history or sport. Some of these

could be induced to join and help to further the good work the

Society is doing, If each member will, in true missionary spirit,

try and enroll even a single other individual in the course of the

year our membership could be doubled in 1948, and the Society

would find itself in a stronger and surer position for continuing

its activities.

3. It is unfortunate that we have no suitable rooms of our

own to house our offices, library and reference collections. The

present rooms in Apollo Street are part of Messrs. Phipson & Co’s

premises, kindly rented to us by that firm at some inconvenience

to itself. They are congested and wholly inadequate in other ways.

There is no proper reading room nor any facility possible for mem-

bers who wish to do serious research. The library here is far

removed from the study collections which are piled up and littered

helter skelter in a back room of the Prince of Wales’s Museum

500 yards away. This: makes co-ordination with literature and

references extremely difficult in any kind of systematic work. The

premises in Apollo Street are old and highly inflammable. They

are made more so by the large stock of Messrs. Phipson’s wines

and spirits on the ground floor, below. Our library is a very valu-

able one and contains a number of rare books and journals. It

forms a considerable part of the Society’s material assets. In its

present location there is constant danger from fire, and if by great

(Continued on page 193)

189

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_ _

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS, 1946 193

‘misfortune this ever happens there will be little chance of saving this

fine collection of books which it will be almost impossible to replace.

It is felt that one of the urgent needs of the Society is to find

more suitable housing, in a more congenial and less cramped set-

ting. It should be inviting enough for members, particularly up-

country members, passing through the city, to spend an hour or

two pleasantly browsing amongst natural history books and periodi-

cals, and making contacts with other members with kindred inter-

ests. This is a matter which deserves our earnest consideration.

As soon as we are in a position to gauge what the Society’s future

and financial position is likely to be, the necessary efforts will have

to be launched.

4. The Committee would, at all times, welcome constructive

suggestions for increasing the usefulness of the Society to its

members and to the general public. It feels that in future we shall

have to lay more and more stress on publications of a more or less

popular nature, and particularly in the Indian languages. As a

beginning, we have under preparation at the moment a couple of

simply written booklets with coloured illustrations, one on Birds,

the other on Poisonous Creatures (including scorpions, centipedes,

certain spiders etc.). It is proposed to bring out small editions

simultaneously in Hindustani (both scripts), Mahratti, Gujarati and

Kannada. It is hoped that authoritatively written and well illus-

trated primers of this sort will find favour with the educational

departments of the various provincial governments as well as the

general public, and prove a means not only of adding to the

Society’s usefulness to the public but also incidentally to its own

revenues,

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING OF

ek BOMBAYS NATURAL “HISTORY SOCIETY, HELD IN

Stee oh CrURE | ROOMS OF THE VBuE.S.T. COMPANY

BEBECDRIC. HOUSE}: ORMISTON ROAD, BOMBAY,,. ON

(ORS DAY Mibe2rst AUGUST 19647. AT. 6 P.M:

1. Managing Committee’s report for the year ended 31st

December 1946, copies of which were placed in the hands of mem-

bers, was considered as read.

2. The Honorary Secretary read out some additional notes dealing

with the Society’s activities and membership position during the

8 months of 1947, and pointed out the urgency of an unceasing

membership drive so as to insure the Society’s future under the new

conditions created by the political change in India. See p. 187:

Copies of the Balance Sheet and Statement of Accounts had not

been printed owing to shortness of time, paper restrictions and press

labour difficulties. A copy was passed round to members present,

and after necessary remarks and explanations by the Honorary

Treasurer and Honorary Secretary, the accounts were passed.

3. The Executive and Advisory Committees for 1947, as pro-

posed and circulated to members, were duly elected, there being

no fresh nominations received. Mr. Salim Ali proposed the name

194. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

of Lt.-Col. J. E. Clutterbuck to fill the 1oth vacancy on the Exe-

cutive Committee (in accordance with Rule 31). The proposal was.

duly seconded and Col. Clutterbuck was declared elected.

4. The Chairman reiterated the seriousness of the Society’s

financial position in the future unless suitable means were devised.

to maintain the membership strength and augment our revenues

by popular publications and in other ways. Simple illustrated

booklets on Natural History subjects were suggested as well as

the bringing out of a popular nature magazine. One member sug-

gested making natural history articles a regular feature in the

weeklies such as the Illustrated Weekly of India in order to make

the public natural history minded.

Mr. T. E. Waterfield suggested conducted outings for members

and a limited number of their friends interested in different branches.

of natural history, the friends forming potential members. He

also suggested sending out a simple questionnaire to members

to ascertain their particular interests. The Honorary Secretary

pointed out that curiously enough this last suggestion was already

in the process of being acted upon. When answers are received from

members it will be possible to tabulate the different interests and to:

enable those of kindred interests to be brought closer together.

The Chairman then referred to 3 points:—

(1) He conveyed the sad news of the death in England of

Mr. R. I. Pocock a distinguished mammalogist and a frequent and

valued contributor to the Society’s Journal. The members ex-

pressed their condolence by all standing up, and the Honorary

Secretary was requested to convey the Society’s condolences to the

deceased’s family.

(2) The Chairman then announced the news just received of

the appointment of Mr. N. B. Kinnear as Director of the British

Museum (Natural History). This well deserved elevation of a

former Curator reflected glory on the Society, and the announce-.

ment was warmly applauded.

(3) The Chairman apprised the members of the impending

retirement of Mr. Prater who has been our efficient Curator for

over 25 years, and of Mr. McCann, that fine naturalist whose con-

tributions in so many fields of natural history are so well known.

He pointed to the difficulty of replacing such devoted and efficient

workers and the magnitude of the Society’s loss by their going

away.

On the conclusion of the formal meeting, a series of movie

films of Indian wild life made in the U.P. jungles by Major Jim

Corbett of ‘Kumaon Man-eaters’ fame and kindly lent by him for

the occasion of the Annual General Meeting, were shown to mem-

bers and a large gathering of their friends. The pictures were

greatly appreciated and enjoyed, but there was general disappoint-

ment at Major Corbett not being able, for reasons of health, to

be present and give his commentary in person.

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V, M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, 18 CHURCH ROAD,.

VEPERY, MADRAS (P.I.C. NO. Q.H. MS. 5)—17-11-1947—C5015.

EDITORS : S. H. PRATER, C. MCCANN AND SALIM ALI, 6 APOLLO STREET, FORT, BOMBAY”

> |

Vol. 47, No. 2. DECEMBER, 1947 Price Rs. 12 nett.

THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bompay NaturaL History Soclety

EDITED BY.

S. H. PRATER, O.B.E., M.L.A., C.M.Z.S.. AND SAL'IM ALI

PUBLISHED BY

THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

114 Apollo Street, Eombay.

LONDON AGENTS :

DAVID NUTT, (A. G. BERRY),

212 SHAFTESBURY AVENUE

LONDON, W.C, 2.

er Be

“We

Ludian Natural History Sertes, Vol. II.

THE BOOK OF

INDIAN ANIMALS

S. H. Prater, O.B.E., C.M.Z.S.

This is a companion volume to the Book of Indian Birds,

forming Volume II of the Indian Natural History Series.

To tell something of the beauty, the interest and the value

of the wild life of our forests, fields and scrubland is the

purpose of this book.

It contains simple descriptions of the commoner mammals of

India, and readable accounts of their ways and habits. It is

profusely illustrated in colour and black and white.

LIST OF CONTENTS :

What is a Mammal ?

Distribution of Mammals.

How Mammals are classified.

The various tribes of Mammals,

their ways and habits.

Descriptions of species.

a9 0 ft

Bound in full cloth Price Rs. 16

(To Members of the Society Rs. 13).

Postage and packing extra.

PUBLISHED BY

THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

114 Apollo Street, Bombay.

WANTED

1. A Monograph of the Pheasants by Wm. Beebe.

2. Birds of Asia by Gould.

3. A Century of Birds of the Himalayan Mountains by Gould.

Apply :—

THE PRIVATE SECRETARY TO

H. H. The Maharana Raj Saheb of Wankaner,

Private Secretary’s Office, Wankaner.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 47, No. 2,

PAGER

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS. Part XXVII. By

N. L. Bor, C.1.E., M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S., 1.F.S., and M. B. Raizada, Mm.sc.

(With 1 coloured and 1 black and white plates)

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA. Part XIX. By

_D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S.

THE BIRDS OF THE SIMLA AND ADJACENT HILis. PartII. By A. E.

Jones, M.B.O.U. (deceased). (With a plate)

A NOTE ON THE POSITION OF RHINOCEROS. IN BURMA, By W. F. H.

Ansell, (With a map and a plate) eat

THE BIRDS OF DELHI AND DisTRICT. By N. F. Frome, C.1.E., D.F.c.,

M.Sc., M.B.0.U. (With a map and 4 sketches)

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE GYANTSE ROAD, SOUTHERN TIBET, MAY

1946, By P.I R. Maclaren. (With a map)

AB-ISTADEH, A BREEDING PLACE OF THE FLAMINGO [Phoenicopterus

ruber roseus (PALLAS) | IN AFGHANISTAN. By S. A. Akhtar. (With 2

maps and a plate)

A NOTE ON THE COLLECTION, CONDITIONING AND TRANSPORT OF

-FINGERLINGS OF Catla IN’ THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. By N,

Jagannadham. aie ose

NOTE ON FRESH-WATER FISHES OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE ISLANDS.

By Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, B.A. (Hons.) M.sc., Ph.p. (With a photo’

and 4 text figures)

EXTENT OF DAMAGE) BY THE Motu Dichocrocis punctiferalis Fs. To

THREE STRAINS OF THE CASTOR PLANT. By A.C. Basu. (With a

graph)

THE Lac INSECT OF THE WEST COAST OF INDIA: By S, Mahdihassan

oo 4 848)

(With 2 plates) ok see

195

197

219

249

301

308

315

319

~ 326

VARIATION IN THE FLOWERS OF Quisqualis indica LINN.'-(ORDER™ ~

Combretaceae.) By G. A. Kapadia

NOTES ON THE Convolvulaceaé OF BoMBAY, By H. Santapau, S.J., F.L.S.

THE SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF THE FAMILY Jorvingaceae BASED ON THE

Stupy OF Moringa plerygosperma GAERTN. By Robindra Mohon

Datta and Jatindra Nath Mitra, M.sc, (With 2 plates) ...

334

337

399

ii CONTENTS OF VOLUME 47, No. 2

PAGE

OBITUARY NOTICES :—

‘Theodore Rathbone Hubback oe we ro sos SEDO

Sir David Ezra qe Ss as Ye Aa wae BO

Reginald Innes Pocock. (With a@ plate) 50 668 eee ORD

Alexander Edward Jones Ss cos 363

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES:-—

+ 1. Behaviour of Hyena and Panther at a ‘Kill.’ By Capt. K. Boswell

(p. 366). 2. The Sense of Smellin Tigers. By C. J.T. Wrenicke (p. 367).

3. ‘Death Cry’ of Tiger. By Capt. K. Boswell (p. 368). 4. Peculiar Re-

-action of a Dog to the Hooting of a Siren. By M. L. Roonwal (p. 370). 5.

On the Leopard Cat (Prionailurus bengalensis). By E. P. Gee (With a photo)

(p. 371), 6. Procession of Musk Shrews.. By R. N. De (p. 373). 7. The

- Habits of the Brush-tailed Porcupine (Atherurus macrourus). By C. R. Stonor

(p. 373). 8 The Nilgiri Tahr (Hemitragus hylocrius). By A. F. Hutton

(p. 374). 9, The ‘ Watching’ Attitude of the Cheetal or Spotted Deer (Axis

qxis Erxl.), By H. L. Hiteshi (With a plate) (p. 376). 10. Stranding of

Whales on the Coasts of India. By S. T. Moses (p. 377). 11. Notes on Some

Burmese Mammals, By W. F. H. Ansell (With a photo). (p. 379). 12. Display

of a Male Minivet. By C. R. Stonor (p. 383). 13. Occurrence of the Laggar

Falcon (Falco jugger Gray) at Mt. Abu. By Major R. K. M. Battye. (p. 383).

14. The Altitudinal Limit of the Pheasant-tailed Jacana [ Hydrophasianus

chirurgus (Scopoli),]. By F. A. Betterton (p. 384). 15. Recovery of

Ringed Duck in India. By Editors(p. 385). 16. The Great Crested Grebe

(Podiceps cristatus cristatus Linn.) in Bhavnagar State. By K.S. Dharma-

kumarsinhji. (p. 385). 17. Morning Song of Birds. By Samsar Chand

Koul (p. 386). 18. The Late Stay of Migratory Birds in Bhavnagar,

Kathiawar. By K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji (p. 387). 19. On the Common

Blind Snake (Zyphlops braminus). By Warren P. Sights (p. 388). - 20.

Aggressive Demonstration by Russell’s Viper (Vipera russelli). By A. A. A.

Fyzee (p. 388). 21. Hamadryad at Bhim Tal, U. P. By A. St. J. Macdonald

‘(p. 389). 22, Notes on The Fauna of British India: Reptilia and Amphibia,

by Malcolm A Smith. By Rev. C. Leigh (p. 390). 23. Note on the Bull-Frog

(Rana tigrina) Everting Lung. By C. McCann (p. 391). 24. Culture

_of Murral Fish (Ophicephalus marulius Hamilton) in Irrigation wells. By P. I.

Chacko and G. K. Kuriyan (p. 392). 25. A Large Black Rock Scorpion, By

S. G. Burgess (p. 393). 26. An Anomalous Antenna in A&hipiphorothrips

cruentatus Hood from ‘Tambaram, South India. By T.N. Anantha Krishnan

(With a text figure) (p. 393). 27. Migration of the Butterfly Appias albina

danada. By R.E. Parsons (p. 394). 28. Observations on the Habits of the

Conchostracan Caenestheria sp. recorded from Tambaram (S. India). By

T,N. Anantha Krishnan (p, 396). 29. Aerial Roots in the Sponge Gourd

Luffasp. By Surendra Nath Singh (With a photo) (p. 397). 30. Abnormal

Palms of South Travancore.. By Trupapur A, Davis (With a plate) (p. 398).

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Journ., BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE X

The Coral Creeper

ANTIGONON LEPTOPUS Hook. & Arn.

(nearly natural size)

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Naturai History Society.

1947. VOL. 47. No. 2

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS.

INGge Ea ORE Cal Hee MaAr we DASC. mE LeSagl Fh aSe,

Forest Botanist,

AND

M. B. RAIZADA, M.Sc.,

Assistant Forest Botanist,

Foresi Research Institute, Dehra Dun.

Part XXVII.

(Continued from Vol. 47, (1947), p. 25).

(With 1 coloured and 1 black and white plate).

Antigonon Endl..

A genus of the family Polygonaceue. The name is derived from

the Greek and probably refers to the kneed or angled character of

the stem.

Antigonon leptopus Hook. et Arn.

The Coral Creeper; Sandwich-Island Creeper.

(leptopus means ‘thin- or slender-stalked’).

Description.—A herbaceous plant ascending from a_ tuberous

root. Stems green, hairy, angled and grooved. Leaves alternate,

3-6 in. long, ovate or triangular in shape, cordate or sagittate at

the base, tapering to the acuminate apex which ends in a short

spine, entire or undulate on the margins. Nerves flat on the upper

surface of the leaves but very prominent beneath, arching several

times within the margins, covered with a short pubescence. Petioles

5-1-5 in. long, hairy; stipular sheaths inconspicuous.

190 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Inflorescence racemose terminal or axillary. The rachis of the |

inflorescence is slender, angled, clothed with a sparse pubescence and

bears branched tendrils by which the plant is enabled to climb. The

flowers, rosy-red in colour, are borne on pedicels either solitary or

several at a node, each pedicel being subtended by a forked bract.

The pedicels are up to 1/3 in. long, jointed about the middle, the

upper portion more hairy than the lower. The flowers are herma-

phrodite. The perianth segments are five in number, the three outer

are broadly ovate in shape, rounded or cordate at the base, while the

two inner are narrower and not cordate, about .5 in. long increasing

to .g in. when in fruit. The stamens are 8-9 in number. The fila-

ments are connate into a cup for about half their length, which is

extended into teeth which alternate with the stamens. The filaments

of the stamens are covered with shortly stipitate glands. The ovary

is 1-celled and three-cornered. The ovule is solitary and hangs from

a long funicle which is attached to the base of the ovary. Styles 3;

stigmas Capitate, kidney-shaped. The ripe nut is enclosed within the

enlarged, free, stiff, perianth segments.

Flowers.—Throughout the rainy and cold season. Fruits cold

season.

Distribution.—Indigenous to South America. Largely grown in

gardens throughout the country.

Gerdening.—It is a lovely climber of moderate growth, best

suited for arbours, verandahs, screening unsightly objects and the

like. Propagated by division of the root, layers, cuttings and seeds

during the rains. It grows 30 to 4o feet high in good soil. Too

much manure or other fertilizer effects a vigorous growth at the

cost of flowering. The plants form large tuberous roots and when

killed down by heavy frost sprout readily again during the spring.

Antigonon leptopus Hk. & Arn. var. albus Hort.—A variety with

white flowers. It is not so luxuriant in growth as the type.

An n m Meissn.

A very hairy species with broader leaves, more numerous flowers

and perianth segments twice as long as in A. leptopus Hook. et Arn.

It is a native of Guatemala.

‘ung eiyod ‘ySelOqy MON

‘WIV 2 “OOH SAdOLdAT NONODIINV

wpozwy “_{@ “IV Aq 0j04

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA.

D. G. SEVASTOPULO, F.R.E.S.

PART. XIX:

(Continued from Vol. 47, p. 43).

RHOPALOCERA

PAPILIONIDAE :

Papilio polymnestor Cr., polymnestor.

lose « Wloore, Cat. Lepe ins. Mus’ Hee Co., iy’ ror, pl.3y figs:

eta LOS 7.

Davidson & Aitken, Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., v, 366. 1890.

MOOnem lc ParIndmevA 2OQ. Dir AG2 os. Ilarave Lp. '1QO2.

Bingham, Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies, il, 51. 1907.

Talbot, Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies, 1 (2nd edit.), 126, pl. 1,

HAS LON el LO20.

4th instar—Head green. Body glaucous green, minutely streaked

and speckled with white. A white lateral stripe on the thoracic

somites. 5th to 7th somites with a diffuse white lateral patch, the

7th to gth somites with very diffuse white sublateral markings. A

white lateral band on the toth and trith somites, and a white

sublateral line from the middle of the 5th somite backwards. 1st

somite with a back-curved, whitish green, subdorsal spine. i2th

somite with a greenish subdorsal spine, rith somite with a raised,

white, subdorsal dot. 3rd and 4th somites somewhat turgid, this

area with a transverse series of six raised green points anteriorly

and four posteriorly. Legs and prolegs green. Osmeterium pale

watery Orange.

Final instar—Head green. Body velvety green. 1st somite

with a transverse white line anteriorly. rst to 3rd somites with a

whitish lateral line, the area above this suffused with yellow on

the 2nd and 3rd somites. A transverse black line between the 2nd

and 3rd somites. 3rd somite with a lateral ocellus, consisting of a

large blackish-green spot, divided by a white line about a third from

the bottom, and surrounded by brownish green anteriorly, yellowish

green elsewhere, and with a white dot just above and behind. The

ocelli joined by a series of conjoined black rings with diffused lilac

spots among them. 4th somite with a transverse band composed of a

series of conjoined, olive and whitish, rings and streaks, the whole

more or less suffused with lilac. The skin between the 4th and 5th

somites velvety black, but only shewn when the larva is extended.

A white sublateral stripe from the 5th somite backwards. An oblique

white stripe starting from the sublateral stripe on the 7th somite

and extending to the subdorsal area of the 8th somite. 1oth somite

198 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

with a triangular white lateral patch conjoined to the sublateral

stripe. A transverse white line running across the dorsum of the

12th somite and joining the sublateral stripe on the 1ith, behind

this line the body greenish white. 8th somite with two lilac dots

in the white area subdorsally, gth somite with a very small, sub-

dorsal lilac dot. Osmeterium pouch with the sides rounded.

Subdorsal tubercle on the 12th somite white and fairly large.

Osmeterium pale orange. Legs, prolegs and venter paler green.

Spiracles brown with a white central slit. 3rd and 4th somites

considerably swollen.

Apart from its very much greater size, the larva of the present

species can be distinguished from that of P. polytes L. by the rounded

versus the angled sides of the osmeterium pouch, by the pale orange

versus the bright scarlet osmeterium, and by the much larger tubercles

on the 12th somite.

Pupa suspended by a girdle and tail pad of white silk. Head

produced into two somewhat flattened processes, the inner edge

toothed, the outer with a distinct ridge. Thorax with a slight

dorsal keel in the form of a flattish, dorsal triangle. 3rd and 4th

abdominal somites expanded slightly laterally, so that the abdomen

is roughly diamond-shaped in outline. 4th and 5th abdominal’

somites with paired dorsal tubercles. Colour pinkish buff, slightly

mottled with darker. The subdorsal area of the prothorax, and the

dorsum of the metathorax and 1st abdominal somite suffused with

blackish. A black subdorsal mark on the 3rd and 4th abdominal

somites. 5th abdominal somite backwards with the dorsum whitish.

Wing cases yellower buff, a dark, triangular discal patch, flecked

with green, and a series of raised points at the ends of the veins.

There is also a green form of pupa, but I have not encountered it.

Food-plant—Citrus spp.

Described from a larva found in Calcutta 6-xii-45, pupated

24-xii-45 and a female emerged 4-ili-46.

Talbot quotes a key compiled by Fryer in rgi1t for distinguishing

the larvae of mooreanus (the Ceylon form of helenus), parinda (the

Ceylon form of polymnestor), romulus (polytes) and demoleus, which,

strangely enough, ignores the colour of the osmeterium, which is

pale orange in polymnestor and varies from crimson to vermilion in

helenus, polytes and demoleus. Moore (Lep. Ceyl., i, 1880-81)

figures and briefly describes the early stages of the Ceylon subspecies

parinda Moore.

Papilio rhetenor Westw., rhetenor.

4th instar—Head green. Body glaucous green, suffused with

white laterally on the thoracic, the 5th-6th and 1oth-11th somites,

a white sublateral stripe from the 5th somite backwards. 1st

somite with a subdorsal yellowish tubercle. A slight transverse

ridge on the 3rd somite with six polished green points on it, a

similar ridge on the 4th somite but with four points only. 12th

somite with a green subdorsal tubercle. The dorsum from the 5th

somite backwards with indistinct whitish X-shaped marks. 8th and

gth somites each with a subdorsal blue speck, 8th somite with a

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 199

lateral. blue speck in addition. s1oth and 11th somite with a

slightly raised, subdorsal, green point. Osmeterium yellow. Legs

and prolegs green.

Final instar—Head green. Body deep velvety green. st

somite with a transverse whitish line anteriorly. 1st to 4th somites

with a whitish sublateral line. 3rd somite with a lateral black spot

with a white speck in it, the spots joined by a series of black-ringed,

yellow-green dots, with a series of conjoined black rings immediately

in front of them. The posterior edge of the 4th somite with a

transverse olive-green stripe, the front edge highly crenulate and

with four lavender spots in the indentations, the stripe joined below

to the sublateral line. The skin between the 4th and 5th somites

velvety black, but invisible unless the larva is extended. 5th somite

backwards with a white sublateral stripe. An oblique stripe run-

ning from the sublateral stripe on the 7th somite to the subdorsal

area of the 8th, this stripe whitish speckled with blackish and

containing two lavender dots on the 8th somite. 12th somite with

a white transverse line, joining the sublateral stripe on the 11th

somite, behind this line the body is whitish spotted with black. 12th

somite with very small whitish subdorsal tubercles. Legs green.

Prolegs green with two horizontal black bands. Venter green, the

abdominal somites with a broad whitish median stripe. Spiracles

buff, the central slit white. Osmeterium yellow.

Pupa suspended by a girdle and tail pad of whitish silk. Head

produced into two forward pointing processes, slightly dentate

internally, the external edge with a distinct ridge. Thorax with a

low, triangular keel. Abdomen widest across the 3rd _ somite.

The 4th and 5th abdominal somites with paired dorsal tubercles.

Colour pale buff, the head, pro-thorax and thoracic keel blackish

brown. A blackish subdorsal mark on the 3rd and 4th abdominal

somites. The 5th abdominal somite backwards with the dorsum

whitish. Wing cases with a blackish, triangular, discal mark.

There is, presumably, also a green form of pupa, but I have not

encountered it.

Food-plant—Various species of Rutaceae, including Citrus spp.

Described from a larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft., Darjeeling

District) 2-xi-45, pupated 12-xi-45 and a male emerged 17-11-46,

Papilio polyctor Bsd., ganesa Dbl.

3rd instar—Head green. Body green, the 5th and 6th somites

suffused laterally with white. A white sublateral line from the 5th

somite backwards. 1st somite with a green subdorsal spine, rith

and r2th somites also with subdorsal spines, that on the 11th somite

very small. 3rd and 4th somites somewhat swollen, the swollen

part with a transverse series of six small green points anteriorly

and four posteriorly. 8th, gth and 1oth somites each with a bright

blue, subdorsal dot. Legs, prolegs and venter glaucous green.

Osmeterium yellow. When alarmed, the larva raises and inflates the

forepart of the body.

4th instar—Similar. The spines on the tst and 12th somites

smaller, that on the 11th obsolete.

200 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Final instar—Head green. Body green, heavily speckled with

paler green. First four somites scutellated and suffused with blackish

dorsally, the shield outlined in front and below by a blackish line.

2nd somite with two transverse black lines, the area above the lateral

black line outlining the shield pale green. 3rd somite with a lateral

ocellus consisting of a black spot with a white streak in the upper

half. The skin between the 4th and 5th somites black, but only

visible when the larva is extended. 5th somite backwards with a

white sublateral stripe. An oblique stripe of darker green starting

on the lateral area of the 7th somite, and joining the sublateral

stripe, and continuing onto the subdorsal area of the 8th somite.

Similar lateral stripes on the 9th, roth and rrth somites. goth and

toth somites suffused dorsally with blackish. 7th to roth somites

each with a bright blue, subdorsal dot. 12th somite with a frans-_

verse black line, behind which the ground colour is whitish green.

r2th somite with minute yellowish subdorsal tubercles. Legs, |

prolegs and venter pale green. Osmeterium yellow. Spiracles

buff rimmed with black. |

Pupa suspended by a girdle and tail pad of white silk. Head

produced in front into two triangular points, the inner edge slightly |

dentate. Outline of the thorax narrower in front, broader behind,

the sides straight, but slightly inclined, in front, and slightly curved

and almost parallel behind, slightly indented where the girdle passes.

Abdomen widest across the 3rd somite, the outline slightly curved

in front, then straight and inclined to the cremaster. A very slight

thoracic keel. Colour pinkish brown, a purplish brown dorsal stripe

and a purplish brown subdorsal and lateral stripe on the abdominal

somites. Venter and wing cases rather yellower brown. Another

example had the ground colour purplish brown, the markings

similar to the first but in a darker purple brown.

Food-plant—Citrus; spp. and other Rutaceae. .

Described from a larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft., Darjeeling

District) 23-x-45, pupated 11-xi-45 and a male emerged 11-11-46.

I can trace no description of the larva of this subspecies, but

the following are references to descriptions of the larva of the

nomino-typical one :—

Mackinnon & de N:, Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xi, 594, pl.

W, figs. 24a—24c. 1808.

Moore, Lep. Ind., vi, 51, pl. 485, figs. 1, ra, 1b. 1903.

Bingham, Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies, 11, 83. 1907.

Jordan, Seitz Indo-Austr. Rhop., 1x, 79. 1909.

Talbot, Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies, i (2nd edit.), 145. 1930.

Bingham gives the following description, quoted from Moore :—

‘Larva dull green with some yellowish markings, thorax with a

remarkable shield-like covering projecting a little over the head

and marked with slender involute black lines; 7th to the rath seg-

ments with lateral obliquely placed pale yellowish lines. Pupa pale

ereen with yellow and white markings. Head cleft, back strongly

arched; ‘‘sides flattened out with a hard sharp ridge running

longitudinally round the whole insect’’.’ Talbot quotes Jordan as

follows:—‘The young larva bears spines which disappear in the

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 20¢

later stages, and is very dark. In the half-grown and full-grown

larvae, which are green, the thorax is thickened above like a shield;

the margins of the shield and also four oblique stripes on the

abdomen are yellowish-grey, a longitudinal line above the prolegs

is white. Pupa bluish-green, usually with brown markings, the

lateral keel very distinct, brown or white, the horns on the head

almost as long as they are broad at the base, the thoracic horns

broad, low, pointed.’

Papilio paris L., paris.

3rd _instar—Head green. Body green, frosted with white,

particularly on the lateral area of the 5th and 6th somites. A white

sublateral stripe from the 6th somite backwards. 1st somite with

a subdorsal green spine. 2nd to 4th somites swollen and expanded

into a shield, 2nd somite with a transverse series of four minute

points, 3rd somite with six, and 4th with four. trith somite with

a minute yellow subdorsal spine, 12th somite with a larger yellow

subdorsal spine. Legs green. Prolegs whitish green. Venter

green on first four somites, whitish thereafter. Osmeterium deep

chrome. Usually rests with the forepart of the body raised.

4th instar—Similar, but the spine on the 11th somite still further

reduced. lates

Final instar—Head green. Body green, the ath somite back-

wards speckled with yellow. First four somites forming a shield,

outlined below by a yellow line and with four lilac spots on the

posterior margin. The thoracic somites with a series of slightly

oblique, longitudinal, wavy, fine, black lines, with occasional flecks

of lilac among them. 3rd somite with a lateral ocellus consisting

of a terra-cotta spot with a white streak in the upper half. The skin

between the 4th and 5th somites velvety black, but only visible when

the larva is extended. 5th to rrth somites with a sublateral yellow

stripe. 12th somite with a transverse yellow line, behind which the

ground colour is whitish green. Legs, prolegs and venter pale

green. Spiracles white, the rims black. Osmeterium deep chrome

yellow.

Pupa suspended by a girdle and tail pad of white silk. Head

produced in front into two triangular points, the inner edge slightly

dentate. The thorax narrower in front than behind, the sides

straight, but slightly indented by the girdle. Abdomen widest

across the 3rd somite, the outline rounded to the 3rd somite and

then straight, and tapering, to the cremaster. A very slight thoracic

keel. In profile, the wing cases are slightly rounded ventrally.

Colour pale yellow green, dotted indistinctly with darker. A dorsal

stripe, purplish on the thorax and white on the abdomen. 4th

abdominal somite with a purplish subdorsal speck. Venter and

wing cases paler, rather chalky green.

Food-plant—Citrus spp., and probably other Rutaceae.

Described from a larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft., Darjeeling

District) 1to-x-45, pupated 7-xi-45 and a female emerged 17-11-46.

Talbot (1939, Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies, i (2nd edit.) 1409, pl.

1, figs. 14, 15) figures the early stages of ssp. tamilana Moore, and

202 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

quotes the following description from Bell (1912, Journ., Bomb. Nat.

Hist Soc., xxi, 538-44):—Larva—When young it is dark olive-green

with ochreous and white markings. In the third instar there is a

white subspiracular band from segments 7 to 10 which persists to

the final instar. When full grown the larva is bright grass-green,

plentifully speckled with yellow; the white lateral band runs from

segments 5 and 6 to the anal end, and there is an indication of a

yellow diagonal line. Pupa—The curve of the ventral line very

strong. Thorax rather short and convex and without apical

protuberance; head-points stout and not long, and slightly separated

at the base. Wing cases dark glaucous-greean, dorsal area light

greenish-yellow, ventral surface of abdomen light yellowish-green ;

a broad yellow dorsal band from the cremaster to segments 4 and

5, continued by a pinky-brown line to segment 2; the dorso-ventral

edge yellow; a dark dorso-lateral spot on the centre of segments

Bie ks HalraVGl. (36,

Papilio arcturus Westw., arcturus.

Head green. Body green, the 4th somite backwards heavily

speckled with yellow. First four somites forming a shield, outlined

laterally by a yellow line and with four mauve spots on the posterior

edge. The thoracic somites with a series of fine, wavy, slightly

oblique, longitudinal, black lines, with occasional flecks of mauve

on them. 3rd somite with a lateral ocellus consisting of a brick-red

spot with a whitish streak in the upper half. The skin between

the 4th and 5th somite blue-black, but not visible until the body is

extended. 5th to 11th somites with a yellow sublateral stripe. 7th

somite with an oblique, unspeckled, yellow-edged, green lateral

stripe, which is continued onto the subdorsal area of the 8th somite.

goth, roth and 11th somites each with a similar lateral stripe, de-

creasing in size from front to rear. 12th somite with a transverse

yellow line, the area behind it whitish green. Legs, prolegs and

venter pale green. Spiracles white, rimmed with black. Osmeterium

yellow.

Pupa suspended by a girdle and tail pad of white silk. The

head square in front, very slightly expanded at either side. Meso-

thorax with the sides ‘Almost parallel, prothorax with the sides sloping

towards the head. Abdomen widest across the 3rd somite, the sides

straight, not curved. Body flattened somewhat above, thorax with

a slight keel. In profile, the ventral line of the wing cases slightly

curved. Colour purple brown, a darker dorsal stripe. The thorax

and ist to 4th abdominal somites subdorsally suffused with fiery

orange. Venter and wing cases Seven brown, slightly mottled

with darker.

Food-plant—Rutaceae of various species.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.,

Darjeeling District) 17-x-45, pupated 22-x-45 and a female emerged

T-111-46.

Papilio helenus L., helenus.

Ovum spherical, the base slightly flattened, very pale yellow.

Laid singly on either surface of a leaf of the food-plant,

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 203

Ist instar—Head black. Body yellowish olive along the dorsum,

the lateral area olive. trith and rath somites white. A subdorsal

series of minute branched spines similar in colour to the somites

on which they are placed, the spine on the rst somite much larger

than the others.

2nd instar—Head dark olive. Body olive, the lateral area

darker. «1st somite tinged with yellow, a white V-shaped mark,

the point on the dorsum of the 8th somite, the arms extending to

the lateral area of the 5th. 11th and 12th somites whitish. Spines

as in previous instar but smaller.

3rd instar—Very similar to the preceding, but the spines, except

on the rst, 11th and 12th somites, reduced to small warts. ard

and 4th somites considerably swollen.

4th instar—Similar to the preceding. The swollen portion of

the 3rd and 4th somites more evident and with four small biue dots

on the anterior and posterior margins. 8th somite with a subdorsal

and a lateral, 9th somite with a subdorsal, small blue dot. Dorsum

with a series of faintly white-outlined diamond-shaped marks. <A

white sublateral stripe from the 6th somite backwards. Osmeterium

purplish. Towards the end of the instar, the ground colour becomes

much greener.

Final instar—Head pale olive green. Body bright grass-green.

3rd somite with a lateral ocellus consisting of an olive spot containing

a black dot with a black crescent below it and two white specks

above. The ocelli joined by a double band of conjoined black rings.

Posterior edge of the 4th somite with a very wavy lavender line,

the area behind the line brown and shading into the black of the

skin between the 4th and 5th somites, the black area only visible

when the larva is extended. The sublateral area of the 1st to 6th

somites brownish grey, shading into the pale grey of the median

area of the venter. A sublateral white stripe from the 6th somite

backwards. An oblique, blackish, or dark brown, stripe, minutely

streaked with lavender, joining the sublateral stripe -on the 7th

somite and continuing almost to the dorsum of the 8th somite. oth

somite with a similarly coloured triangular lateral patch and a sub-

dorsal spot, in some examples the lateral patch and subdorsal spot

are joined. <A transverse white line on the 12th somite. joining the

sublateral stripe on the rith, behind this line the ground colour is

whitish with an anterior transverse series of blackish spots. Legs

yellowish green. st pair of prolegs blackish, the others white with

three horizontal black lines. Venter from 7th somite backwards

whitish. Subdorsal tubercles on the rst somite green, on the rath

somite white and extremely minute. Spiracles ochreous. Osme-

terlum deep crimson.

Pupa suspended by a girdle and tail pad of black silk. Mottled

brown, a white dorsal patch on the prothorax, a white subdorsal

spot on the meso-thorax, a white dorsal stripe on the abdominal

somites, much broader from the 5th somite back, and a white sub-

dorsal spot on the 3rd abdominal somite. The head produced into

a pair of slightly back-curved, dentate processes. Meso-thorax with

a slight double keel rising to a single point anteriorly. ‘The first four

204 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

abdominal somites flattened and expanded laterally. 4th to 6th ab-

dominal somites with a double dorsal and a subdorsal tubercle, de-

creasing in size from front to rear. The expanded portion of the 1st

to 4th abdominal somites, the cephalic horns and the basal half of

the wing cases, very much darker brown than the rest of the body.

The fore-part of the body bent back at such an angle that, when the

pupa is formed on a vertical object, the frontal portion is at a slight

angle below the horizontal. Another form of pupa is bright, mottled

green with a brown speck at the base of the wing case and another

subdorsally on the 1st abdominal somite. Abdominal somites with

a bright yellow-green triangular subdorsal patch. Wing cases and

venter mottled with whitish.

Food-plant—Citrus spp. and other Rutaceae.

Described from a number of larvae found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.,

Darjeeling District), one of which pupated 25-ix-45 and a male

emerged 16-x-45.

Talbot (1939, Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies, 1 (2nd edit.), 169,

pl. 1, figs. 16, 17) figures the early stages of ssp. daksha Hamps.

and quotes a description by Bell (1911, Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc.,

xx, 1117). In this description the osmeterium is stated to be deep

flesh colour, and the brown form of pupa ‘may be variegated with

brown and pink, black and grey, white and green all together

without a yellow saddle.’ J found that my brown pupae, some

twenty or more, were extremely constant, much more so than the

corresponding form of P. demoleus L. for example, and the only

variation was a very slight difference in the depth of colour.

HETEROCERA.

LYMANTRIIDAE:

Dasychira tenebrosa Wk.

Head dark brown, the mouth parts paler, and with a pale line

along the median suture. Body black, the dorsum of the oth and

toth somites speckled minutely with white. 3st somite with a black

subdorsal tubercle, emitting a fan-shaped tuft of longish black hair.

2nd and 3rd somites with subdorsal, lateral and sublateral black

warts tufted with plumose brown hair. 4th to 7th somites with a-

very wide dorsal brush of dark golden brown hair, the centre of

these brushes looking like seal-skin, a smaller subdorsal brush mixed

with long black hair, and a lateral and sublateral black wart tufted

with plumose brown hair. 8th to roth somites each with a sub-

dorsal, lateral and sublateral black wart tufted with plumose brown

hair, and with a small brush of dark golden brown hair immediately

below the subdorsal tuft. 11th somite similar with an additional

wide dorsal brush of dark golden brown hair. t12th somite with a

fringe of long black hair and a subdorsal brush of short, dark golden

brown hair. Dorsal glands blackish. Venter black. Legs and

prolegs pale pink.

Pupa in a cocoon of dense brown silk, mixed with larval hair.

Pale brown, the intersegmental rings darker, the venter paler.

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 205

Thorax and abdomen dorsally clothed sparsely with longish brown

hair.

Food-plant—Vine, Virginia Creeper.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.,

Darjeeling District) tc-xi-45, spun tro-xi-45 and a female emerged

TI-X1I-45. |

Dasychiva feminula Hamps.

Head dark, velvety grey. Body black, a pale dorsal line on the

thoracic somites and a chestnut dorsal line, white intersegmentally,

from the 8th to 11th somite. oth and roth somites sprinkled with

white dots dorsally. rst somite with a black subdorsal tubercle,

emitting a forward-directed tuft of black hair of varying lengths.

2nd and 3rd somites with a subdorsal, lateral and sublateral black

wart, tufted with blackish hair, 3rd somite, in addition, with a long,

white, plumose, subdorsal and lateral hair. 4th to 7th somites with

a very broad dorsal brush of short golden-brown hair, a subdorsal

brush of short red-brown hair and a lateral and sublateral tuft of

longish black hair arising from black warts. 5th somite with a

lateral, and 6th with a subdorsal, long plumose white hair in addi-

tion. 8th to roth somites each with a subdorsal, lateral and sub-

lateral black wart, tufted with longish black hair. The oth somite

with an additional long white plumose subdorsal hair. 11th somite

with a large dorsal brush of short reddish-brown hair, a subdorsal,

lateral and sublateral black wart tufted with longish black hair and

a long white plumose subdorsal and sublateral hair in addition.

12th somite with a backward-directed fringe of long blackish hair.

Venter black. Legs black. Prolegs black with grey feet. Dorsal

glands blackish.

Pupa in a cocoon of dense golden brown silk mixed with larval

hair. The cocoon broader in front than behind. Pupa olive brown,

the intersegmental areas paler. Except for the wing cases; clothed

with tufts of short brown hair. Cremaster a stout spike armed

with a large bunch of hooked spines at the tip.

Food-plant—Vine, Virginia Creeper.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.,

Darjeeling District) 25-ix-45, spun 4-x-45 and a female emerged

22-xX-45.

_ This species has been provisionally determined as the above by

the British Museum (Natural History), but it is impossible to be

definite as no male is available.

Leucoma (Caragola) ochripes Moore.

Sevastopulo, Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xliv, 80. 1943.

Another form of the larva has the head pale chestnut. Ground

colour of body yellowish chestnut transversely streaked with bluish

grey, the streaking more pronounced between the somites. The

paired dorsal brushes on the 4th and 5th somites composed of dark

golden brown hairs. the dorsal tufts on the 11th somite composed

200 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 47

of short yellowish hair. All the other warts brown and tufted with

sparse pale brown hair. Legs and prolegs pale yellowish chestnut.

Venter as dorsum but slightly paler.

Described from a full fed larva found in Shillong 20-1v-41,

pupated 25-iv-41 and a male emerged 12-v-41.

Leucoma (Caragola) sericea Moore.

Head yellow. Body greenish yellow. An indistinct lateral

stripe composed of black specks. 1st somite with black subdorsal

tubercles tufted with whitish hair and a pair of black dorsal dots.

2nd to 11th somites each with a blue-black subdorsal spot bearing

sparse white bristles, the spots on the 4th, 5th and roth somites

more prominent. A lateral series of pale-haired, yellowish green

warts. 4th and 5th somites with small dorsal tufts of very short

white hair. Dorsal glands white. Legs, prolegs and venter pale

greenish yellow. The larva is gregarious.

Pupa in a few netted silk threads. Greenish white, the dorsum

brownish grey tinged with olive and with a series of transverse

black lines. An irregular, chestnut, lateral patch, edged with black,

on the 6th abdominal somite. Wing cases partly black-veined.

Head and thorax with longish black hair dorsally and white laterally.

Abdomen with longish white hair.

Described from a full fed larva found in Shillong 21-iv-41, pupa-

ted 25-iv-41 and a male emerged 7-v-41.

LASIOCAMPIDAE :

Paralebeda plagifera Wik.

Sevastopulo, Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xlvi, 266. 10946.

Ovum—Egeg-shaped, bluish white, the micropyle a dark speck.

Laid in a line on a leaf, lying side by side.

Half grown larva—Head blue grey, reticulated with paler later-

ally, an inverted pale Y-shaped mark, the tail edged with black and

with a black line from the vertex to outside the jaws, labrum whitish.

Body blue grey. 1st somite with a dorsal and subdorsal, pale-edged,

blackish line, and with a black spot between the two anteriorly. 2nd

to toth somites with a double white subdorsal line, the dorsal area

on these somites blackish with a series of small whitish Y-shaped

marks and transverse orange bars. Lateral area purple grey,

suffused with blackish on the 3rd, 4th, 7th, 8th, 11th and rath

somites. A sublateral series of tubercles bearing pale hairs, the

tubercle on the 1st somite double, on the rst to 3rd larger than the

others and with the hair longer. 2nd and 3rd somites with a trans-

verse tuft of rufous hair dorsally. rith somite with a dorsal

tubercle covered with short rufous hair. The dorsal area generally

with sparse black hairs. Venter black with transverse yellow

streaks laterally. Legs brown. Prolegs dark grey.

Described from larvae bred in Tukdah (5,000 ft., Darjeeling

District) in October 1945.

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPLERA 20

~“

DREPANIDAE:

Callidrepana obliquistriga Warr.

Head black, outlined with a grey V_ frontally, bifid above.

Body black, a pair of small brown dorsal tubercles on the 1st somite.

2nd and 3rd somites with a small trifid corneous lateral process.

5th somite with a brown dorsal blotch. A double series of very

minute dorsal tubercles. 12th somite tapered, the anal claspers

replaced by a medium-length spine, the base olive, the apex black,

the two parts separated by a white ring. Legs, prolegs and venter

black. A small evertible gland outside the first pair of legs, I have

never seen this everted in nature, but it is revealed when a larva

is ‘blown’. In the earlier instars the larva is entirely black and

closely resembles a piece of snail excrement.

Pupa formed on a pad of blackish silk spun on a leaf, with a

few strands of silk spun across the end of the abdomen. Colour

blackish brown, the meso-thorax with a highly polished patch on

either side. The head truncate, the thorax very slightly keeled,

and with a projecting point at the origin of the wing case. 2nd

to 4th abdominal somites with a pronounced dorsal keel. Spiracles

raised. Venter and wing cases reddish-chestnut.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.,

Darjeeling District) 2-x-45, pupated 8-x-45 and a female emerged

20-X-45.

Thymistada tripunctata Wk.

Pupa under a slight web on a folded leaf. Colour pale brown,

the ventral area paler, the wing cases whitish. A triangular, white,

mealy, dorsal patch extending from the prothorax to the 4th abdo-

minal somite, a round spot on the meso-thorax devoid of this meal.

Spiracles slightly raised and set in fawn spots.

Described from a pupa found at Tukdah (5,000 ft., Darjeeling

District) 19-x-45, from which a female emerged 30-x-45.

The determination is not absolutely definite as no male was

available. :

SATURNIIDAE :

Loepa katinka Westw.

Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, 1, 25. 1892.

Seitz, Seitz Indo-Austr. Bombyces, x, 506. 1928.

Young larva—Head black and shining. Body black. 2nd to

4th somites much swollen and with a lateral black, a subdorsal and

two dorsal chestnut warts emitting a few long hairs. 5th to oth

somites each with a smaller lateral and subdorsal blackish wart,

toth with a lateral black and a subdorsal chestnut wart, 1t1th and

12th with both lateral and subdorsal warts chestnut, all bearing

a few long hairs. A subdorsal yellow spot on the 4th somite and

a lateral series of greenish yellow spots on the 5th to roth somites.

Legs, abdominal prolegs and venter black. Anal flap and claspers

chestnut,

208 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Adult larva—Head very dark brown, almost black, shining.

Body velvety, dark nigger brown, almost black. Ist somite with

a whitish dorsal line. 3rd and 4th somites with a white

lateral dot. 4th somite with a bright, pale green, subdorsal

spot. 5th to s1oth somites each with a bright, pale green,

lateral patch, those on the 6th to 9th somites roughly triangular in

shape, that on the 1oth a filled-in V with a small spot below. 11th

somite with two dots only. ist to 11th somites each with a trans-

verse series of six black tubercles, armed with black, urticating

bristles. 12th somite with four tubercles only. Clothed, particularly

on the first four somites, with medium length, bristly, rufous hairs.

4th somite produced laterally into a triangular lobe. Legs black.

Venter and prolegs black and clad with sparse, single, pale hairs.

Rests with the forepart of the body held erect.

Pupa in a hammock-shaped cocoon of tough, rather papery,

semi-translucent, golden to dark brown silk. Olive brown, the

abdominal somites tinged with orange and with an olive dorsal

stripe. Cuticle of the wing cases slightly wrinkled, on the abdomen

with very fine transverse lines. Prothorax with a dorsal ridge.

Cremaster with a conical lateral point, the area between filled in

with hooked spines.

Food-plant—Impatiens sp., Polygonum sp., Ampelopsis sp.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.,

Darjeeling District) 25-ix-45, spun 8-x-45 and a male emerged

1O-111-46.

Hampson’s description is as follows:—‘Brown and hairy, with

six pink tubercles on each somite; white sublateral irregular blotches

from 4th to roth somites; claspers pink.’ Seitz writes ‘the larva

with 6 rows of small red tubercles exhibiting small thorns; ground

colour brown, shaded with dark. The cones are purple red, below

them sulphur-coloured lateral spots; on Cissus and Leea, probably

also on vine; it pupates in a blue-green or brownish cocoon tapering

on (sic) both ends’.

SPHINGIDAE :

Panacra metallica Btlr., metallica.

Ovum—Milky white tinged with green, ovoid. Laid singly on

the under, rarely on the upper, surface of a leaf of the food-plant.

Hatched 24-v-44.

Ist instar—Head and body pale greenish white. A_ pinkish

dorsal stripe. Horn black, straight, rather stout, the tip bifid.

After feeding, the body becomes greener. Moulted 28-v-44.

2nd instar—Similar, with traces of a black dorsal line replacing

the pink stripe. Very long and thin. Horn proportionately longer

and stouter. Moulted 1-vi-44.

grd instar—Similar, the black dorsal line prominent. 4th somite

with an oval black subdorsal spot with a white crescent below.

Horn black above, grey below. Moulted 4-vi-44.

4th instar—Similar. The ocellus slightly raised and with a few

black streaks in front and behind. Horn disproportionately thick,

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 269

curved, the underside pale brown, The whole body very shiny.

Moulted 8-vi-44.

Final instar—Head green. Body green, speckled with paler

along the secondary segmental rings, shiny. A black-brown dorsal

stripe with a black median line from 5th somite to base of horn.

Thoracic somites with a subdorsal brown stripe, with a zig-zag,

blackish line above and below on the 2nd and 3rd somites, and a

blackish dorsal line. 4th somite with a large black-brown dorsal

blotch extending down to the lateral area. ‘The ocellus on the 4th

somite consisting of a large black spot with two white specks above

it and a dark red-brown crescent edged with golden brown below. A

lateral series of black-brown blotches from the 5th to 11th somite,

the blotches degenerating into a number of spots posteriorly on each

somite. An interrupted black-brown sublateral stripe, most marked

at the base of the legs and prolegs. Legs pink. Proleg's olive.

Horn erect and curved backwards and downwards, olive. A

triangular blotch from the base of the horn to the anterior edge of

the anal claspers, and the anal flap olive, edged anteriorly with a

. black-brown stripe. Spiracles dark brown, the ends white, a

central stripe white. Prior to pupation subdorsal patches of brown

dots appear on the 5th to 1oth somites. Pupated 17-vi-44.

Pupa in a slight web among litter. Dull green, traces of a

purplish dorsal and subdorsal stripe on the abdominal somites.

The anterior half of the abdominal somites suffused with purple

and streaked longitudinally with buff. Wing cases speckled with

black along the veins. Proboscis sheath expanded slightly frontally

and ventrally. Eye brown. Cremaster excavate below and ending

in a bunch of hooked spines.

Food-plant—Arums of various species.

Described from larvae bred from ova found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.,

Darjeeling District). All the pupae obtained in 1944 died on being

taken down to Calcutta, but further larvae were found in September

1945, one of which pupated 6-x-45 and a female emerged 24-i-46.

Bell & Scott (1937, Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, v, 310, pl. iv, fig. 8,

pl. xiv, figs. 12, 13) describe and figure the early stages of the sub-

species anfracta Gehlen., from Mussooree and Simla, which appear

to be indistinguishable from those of the present subspecies. They

remark, however, that there is only one brood in the monsoon months.

In Tukdah there seem to be at least two broods, as ova and young

larvae were found in May and June, and again in September.

Theretra alecto L., alecto.

Moore, Cat. Lep. Ins. Mus. E.I.C., i, 275, pl. x, figs. 4, 4a. 1857.

Buthyeroc. Zool, Soewwiait ploy fiz..8i }188o.

Hamps.,fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, i, 85. 1892.

Mell, Biol. u. System. der Sudchin. Sphing., 299, pl. x, figs.

Pe Pome lan xleee IS 55) On 1LG22)

Seitz, Seitz Indo-Austr. Bombyces, x, 566. 1929.

Bell & Scott, Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, v, 441, pl. v, figs. 21-23,

plexi fs.) O.5.1937%

2nd instar—Head and body yellow green. 4th to 1oth somites

each with a subdorsal ocellus consisting of a white spot containing

210 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 4%

a black dot at the top, and decreasing in size from front to rear.’ —

Legs and prolegs yellow green. Horn black with the base orange, |

long, thin, straight, the tip bifid. Moulted 25-ix-45. One example

was pink slightly tinged with green.

3rd instar—Very similar to the preceding. A black dorsal line

on the thoracic somites, continuing to the base of the horn as a

faint bluish line, most noticeable on the 4th somite. Ocelli con-

sisting of a white spot ringed with black and containing a lavender

spot at the top, the ocellus on the 4th somite with the iris bluish.

The pink form with the white of the ocellus flushed with pink. A

pale subdorsal line joining the ocelli and joining the base of the

horn. Spiracles black. Horn very long, slightly up-curved, the

tip bifid, thin, black with the base orange. Moulted 29-ix-45.

4th instar—Very similar to the preceding, the body minutely

speckled with paler. The ocellus on the 4th somite pale yellow

ringed with black, with a black pupil in the upper half, convex

above and almost straight below, those on the 5th to 1oth somites

pale cream ringed with black, round, the upper third and extreme

lower portion pale lavender. Legs pink. Spiracles bluish edged

with black. Moulted 6-x-45. The pink form now cinnamon

coloured, 11th somite with the area between the subdorsal stripes

dark brown.

Final instar—Brown form—Head pinkish brown. The first four

somites with the dorsum orange brown with a black-brown dorsal

line. Thoracic somites with a dark brown subdorsal stripe

edged below with orange brown, the lateral area of these and

the 4th somite dark brown. 5th somite backwards with the dorsal

area dark brown speckled with yellow, a dark dorsal line and an>

indistinct dark subdorsal stripe between the ocelli. The area below

the subdorsal stripe rather more pink with a series of six dark

brown oblique lateral stripes, the last one reaching the base of the

horn and with a yellow bar edging it above on the 11th somite. A

subdorsal series of ocelli from the 4th to roth somites, almost round,

the -upper edge slightly more convex. That on the 4th somite

consisting of a black ring enclosing a large black pupil, edged below

by a crescent-shaped mark, yellow above, then white and finally

very narrowly lavender; the other ocelli consisting of a black ring

with a purple-brown spot in the upper portion, a yellowish trans-

verse bar with a narrow lavender band below. Venter dark brown

on the first four somites, coloured as the lateral area thereafter.

Legs dark plum banded with paler. Prolegs, anal flap and claspers

brown slightly tinged with olive. Spiracles grey blue. Horn

short, stout, downcurved, deep plum colour. Pupated 22-x-45.

No larvae remained green in the final instar.

Pupa in a slight web among litter. Meso-thorax and abdomen

pale chestnut, the sides of the thorax streaked and suffused with

blackish, a dark dorsal stripe on the abdomen. Ventral surface of

abdomen and lateral area pinkish streaked with black, the anterior

portion of each somite chestnut. Wing cases blackish with some

pale greenish-buff streaks on the disc, and with a broad greenish-

buff stripe between them and encroaching onto the costa. Proboscis

sheath projecting forward and ventrally, the projecting portion

THE EARLY STAGES’ OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 211 -

blackish and ridged. Eye greenish-buff with a black crescent

anteriorly and a blackish spot posteriorly. Cremaster black,

triangular, the tip bifid. Spiracles black. A male cued 10-11-46.

Food-plant—Vine.

Described from larvae found at Tukdah (5,000 ft., Darjeeling

District).

_Hampson’s description is as follows:—‘Green, speckled with

yellow; a dorsal green line; a subdorsal yellow stripe and a series

of yellow ocelli with green centres on fourth to eleventh somites,

decreasing in size posteriorly.” Seitz writes: ‘Larva varying from

green to brown; on the sides of the rings 4 to 10 there are dark

eye-spots surrounded by yellow; that on the 4th ring hardly differs

in the somewhat deeper colouring, sometimes not at all, and it by

no means represents such a deceptive snake’s eye as in latreilli; on

vine, moreover on Paederia, Psychotria and Morinda; more rarely

on Euphorbiacea Glochidion. Pupa slender, 6 to 8 cm. long, with

a proboscis-case being raised like a beak, though not forming a

nose, earth-grey with bone-coloured eyes.’ Bell & Scott give

Dillenia indica, Saurauja nepalensis, Vitis, Leea, Psychotria and

Rubia cordifolia as food-plants.

Rhagastis aurifera Btlr., aurifera.

Seitz, Seitz Indo-Austr. Bombyces, x, 471. 1929.

Bell & Scott, Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, v, 471, pl. vi, figs. 15,

L639 119371

Ovum—Bright jade green, a broad ovoid. Laid singly on the

underside of a leaf of the food-plant.

Ist instar—Head yellowish green. Body yellow green, becoming

greener after feeding. Horn straight, black, of medium length,

the tip bifid.

2nd instar—Head green. Body green dotted with white along

the secondary segmental divisions. 4th somite with a subdorsal

ocellus ‘consisting of a dark blue spot in a white ring. A dark

dorsal line. Horn black, the base reddish.

3rd instar—Very similar. A white subdorsal stripe on the

thoracic somites. Ocellus' with the pupil dark blue anteriorly —

shading into green posteriorly and ringed broadly with white and

narrowly with black. A series of indistinct white, oblique, lateral

stripes from the 5th somite backwards.

4th somite—Head green. Body green, speckled with white

along the secondary segmental divisions. A dark green dorsal line,

broadly edged with whitish from the 6th somite backwards.

Thoracic somites with a white subdorsal line, edged above with

darker green. Ocellus on the 4th somite and posterior portion of —

the 3rd, consisting of a sap green ring edged internally with yellow,

enclosing the pupil, which is dark blue anteriorly, shading through

paler blue to green posteriorly, the green portion with one or two

large and a number of small white dots. The dorsum between the

ocelli yellow. A series of indistinct oblique lateral stripes from the

5th somite backwards, consisting of large bluish white dots, the

stripe from the 9th somite continuing to the base of the horn as a

212, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

solid, clear white stripe. 5th somite backwards with a subdorsal -

series of lunules composed of white dots. Sublateral and ventral

areas thickly speckled with bluish white dots. Legs pink, the

joints yellow. Prolegs green. Horn pale purple brown above, —

with a dorsal blackish line, shading into yellow below, the tip

blackish blue. Spiracles white ringed with green. Thoracic

somites tapered.

Final instar—Green form—Head green. Body green. A dorsal

line from the head to the base of the horn blackish on the thoracic

somites and very dark green thereafter. Thoracic somites with a

white subdorsal line. A subdorsal ocellus on the posterior portion

of the 3rd and anterior portion of the 4th somites, consisting of a

dark olive ring, edged internally with pale yellow and enclosing a

pupil, the anterior portion very dark blue, shading into paler out-

wardly and into blue green posteriorly, the blue green portion with

a few large and small white dots in it. The dorsum between the

ocelli bright yellow. 5th to 9th somites each with a subdorsal lunule

composed of white dots and with two further white dots between |

the lunule and the dorsal line, 1oth somite with the two dots but

without the lunule. 5th somite backwards with the dorsal line

broadly and diffusely bordered with whitish. 5th to 8th somite each

with an oblique lateral stripe composed of white dots, 9th somite

with a more solid stripe, which is continued to the base of the horn.

The whole. of the lateral area from the 5th somite backwards

minutely white-speckled, the dorsal area faintly white-speckled along

the secondary segmental rings. Legs pink. Prolegs green. Horn

brownish-purple, downcurved and minutely tuberculate, flattened

slightly from side to side. Spiracles white with a blackish speck .

at each end.

Brown form—Head olive green. Body golden brown. A very

dark olive dorsal line from head to base of horn. Thoracic somites.

with a white subdorsal line, edged above with darker golden brown.

The ocellus consisting of a white ring enclosing a pupil of which

the anterior portion is black, the posterior olive with two large and

a number of smaller white dots, the white ring edged below and

anteriorly narrowly with blackish, above widely with olive. A

yellow dorsal patch between the ocelli. Subdorsal lunules and

lateral stripes similar to the green form, but the posterior stripe

edged above with olive brown, the area behind it thickly speckled

with pinkish white. Legs deep pink. Prolegs olive speckled with

pinkish. Horn olive brown, with a black line and white speckling

along the upper edge, the tip bluish. Anal flap and claspers pale

olive brown. Spiracles white with a black speck at each end.

Pupa in a slight web among litter. Head, thorax and wing.

cases dark olive brown, almost black. Eye whitish, reticulated with

purple brown. Leg sheaths and veins of the wing cases with

raised black points. Abdomen with a broad -buff dorsal stripe with

a-median. blackish line, and minutely speckled with white and’

blackish. | Subdorsal and lateral areas blackish with a series of.

white, roughly X-shaped marks above .and below. the spiracles.

Venter with a black interrupted median line, a broad whitish, median’

stripe minutely speckled with greyish, a narrow, dark chestnut, :

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA ~~ 214

submedian stripe and a broad blackish lateral stripe. Cremasfer black,

triangular, terminating in a double bifid: spine and with three spines

on either edge, below deeply and narrowly excavate. Proboscis

sheath projecting. frontally and very ‘slightly ventrally. Very much

more slender than the pupa of R. confusa Roths. & Jord.

Food-plant—Virginia Creeper.

Described from larvae found at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Darjeeling

District), one of which pupated 20: XL. 45 and'a male emerged 20.xi1.45.

_ Seitz describes the larva as ‘green’, in the sides the oblique stripes

are so broad that their white colour predominates; the sham-eye on

the 4th ring is large; horn graphite-grey, very thick; probably on

Polygonum japonicum.’

Rhagastis confusa Roths. & Jord.

Bell & Scott, Fauna Brit. Ind. » Moths, Vv, 474; PUaVinelione1 Oe. ple

xv, figs. 9, 10. 1937.

2nd instar—Head bright green. Body bluish green, speckled

with minute white dots along the secondary segmental divisions. A

dark dorsal line. Thoracic somites with a yellowish subdorsal line.

A subdorsal ocellus on the posterior portion of the 3rd and anterior

portion of the 4th somite, consisting of a dark green ring, edged

internally with yellow, enclosing a spot, dark blue anteriorly shading

through bright blue into green posteriorly. Traces of oblique lateral

white stripes. Horn long, black, the base deep red, the tip bifid.

4th . somite very swollen, the thoracic somites tapered. Moulted

15-X.45;

3rd instar—Similar. The lateral stripes more pronounced, that

on the 9th somite most distinct and reaching the base of the horn.

Moulted 21-x-45. |

_ 4th instar—Similar. The legs pink. The horn stouter; pale

purple with minute black tubercles. The dorsal line edged broadly

and indistinctly with bluish white from the 8th somite backwards.

Moulted 28-x-45.

Final instar—Head) green. Body green, a darker green dorsal

line from head- to base “of horn, thoracic somites with a yellowish

subdorsal stripe edged above with darker green. The body, parti-

cularly from the 5th somite backwards, heavily speckled along the

secondary segmental rings with white. The dorsal line’ broadly

bordered with bluish white from the 7th somite backwards. A

subdorsal ocellus on the 4th and posterior edge of the 3rd somite,

consisting of a cream ring, broad above and narrow elsewhere, out-

lined with dark green and tinged above and below with dark blue,

enclosing a- pupil, the anterior portion very dark blue, the

posterior green containing a few white dots. .5th to 8th somites

each witha subdorsal lunule composed of. bluish white dots, 6th to

toth somites each with a bluish white’ lateral stripe, which joins

the lunule on the somite behind, the stripe from the gth somite

continued to the base of the horn and edged above with dark green.

Legs pink. Venter and prolegs green, the former dotted with white.

Horn ‘stoutish, slightly down-curved, evenly tapering, pale purple.

Spiracles white with a central blackish-brown dot:: Pupated 7-xi-45.

214. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Pupa in a slight web among litter. Head and thorax blackish

brown. Wing cases brown, the inner margin darker, the veins.

with raised black points. Legs sheaths with raised black. points.

Abdomen pale fawn, a blackish dorsal and wide subdorsal stripe

consisting of short, longitudinal streaks. A blackish spiracular

stripe and a broad ventro-lateral stripe, also composed of short

streaks, and a black median line. Spiracles set in black patches.

Cremaster black, triangular and ending in two double spines, under-

side excavate. Proboscis sheath projecting very slightly frontally

and ventrally. Eye brown with a pale crescent. A male emerged

7-i11-46.

Food-plant—Virginia Creeper.

Described from larvae found at Tukdah {5,000 ft., Darjeeling

District).

Cechenena lineosa Wlk., ilineosa.

Mell, Biol. u. System. der Sudchin. Sphing., 330, ok 19, figs. 34,

35, pl. 32, fig. 13. 1922.

Seitz, Seitz Indo-Austr. Bombyces, x, 570. 1929.

Bell & Scott, Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, v, 491, pl. vil, fig. 7. 1937.

Head dark olive brown. Body pinkish brown, minutely speckled

with paler along the secondary segmental divisions. First four

somites with a blackish dorsal line and a darker brown subdorsal

stripe, edged below with paler. 5th to 11th somites with a slightly

zig-zag dark subdorsal stripe, edged below with paler and joining

the base of the horn. 3rd to roth somites each with two whitish

subdorsal dots with a black dot adjoining above. 4th to roth somites

each with a dark oblique lateral stripe edged below with paler. <A

subdorsal ocellus on the 4th somite consisting ot a large black spot

edged behind by a yellow crescent streaked and speckled with brown,

the whole enclosed in a black ring. Legs brownish pink, the joints

paler. Prolegs pinkish brown dotted with paler. Anal flap and

claspers dark brown. Venter pinkish brown, minutely dotted with

paler. Spiracles dark brown, the ends whitish. Horn olive brown,

the base rather bulbous, then narrowing, the tip again bulbous and

slightly expanded, the whole compressed slightly from side to side,

the upper surface. minutely tuberculate, the sides with fine longi-

tudinal ridges.

Pupa in a slight web among litter. Head, thorax and wing

cases dark brown, the thorax with a paler dorsal patch. Wing

cases with lines of black points on the veins. Abdomen ochreous

brown, a dark dorsal stripe and a broad greyish lateral stripe with

minute, longitudinal, ochreous streaks. Venter pale ochreous

brown, a dark median line, a dark sub-median and a wide lateral

stripe. Cremaster triangular, black, excavate below, with two

subdorsal spines and a double terminal spine with a branch laterally

at right-angles, the whole rugose. Proboscis sheath dark brown,

projecting very far forward and, in profile, shaped something like

a duck’s bill as seen from above.

Food-plant—Polygonum sp. Bell & Scott give BPG Aa Hane

Vitis, Impatiens and Polygonum chinensis.

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 215;

Described from a full fed larva found in Tukdah (5,000 ft.,

Darjeeling District) 7-xi-45, pupated 23-xi-45 and a male emerged

17-111-46. [Be

: Seitz’ description is as follows:—‘Larva chocolate brown with

a large sham-eye squinting forward and.a reticular marking similar

to the skin of a snake, the longitudinal. and oblique stripes being

indistinct.” Bell & Scott’s figure shews a very much brighter larva

than mine.

NOCTUIDAE:

Eriopus (Callopistria) repleta Wk.

Sevastopulo, Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xlvii, 37. 1947.

Immature larva—Head green, broadly outlined with black.

Body green with traces of a darker dorsal line. A subdorsal smoky

stripe, edged below by a whitish stripe. 11th somite very slightly

swollen dorsally, and it and the 12th somite slightly suffused with

smoky dorsally. Area below the whitish stripe, legs and prolegs.

paler green.

Full grown larva—Head green, a black V outlining the clypeus.

and a blackish line outlining the head itself. Body blue green, a

black line dividing the head from the 1st somite. A transverse

black dorsal line on the Ist somite. A transverse black dorsal bar,

outlined with yellow, on the 2nd, 3rd, 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th and

t1th somites. A dark chocolate spiracular stripe, entire from the

Ist to 3rd somites, and broken into slightly. curved streaks on the

4th to rith, these streaks edged faintly above and below with yel-

lowish, and joining a transverse black line, edged above with yellow,

on the 12th somite; anteriorly the spiracular stripe joins the line

between the head and 1st somite. Legs, prolegs and venter yellower

green. Spiracles black.

-- Rupa in a compact cocoon of tough silk, covered with earth,

moss, etc. Pale yellowish chestnut, the intersegmental rings

darker. Cremaster armed with two fine spines. The larvae did

not pupate for some three months after spinning their cocoons.

Food-plant—Ferns. |

Described from larvae found at Tukdah (5.000 ft., Darjeeling

District) one of which spun 20-ix-45 and a male emerged 26-i-46.

Although there is a very marked difference between this larva

and the one previously described, not only in appearance but also

in the life history, and although the imago of the present species is

slightly smaller and darker, the Forest Research Institute have

determined both as belonging to the same species. The present

larva has a very long pre-pupational diapause, some three or four

months, versus the three or four days between the spinning of the

cocoon and pupation in the other type of larva.

Parallelia (Ophiusa) maturata Wk.

Head dark nigger brown, the clypeus filled in with cream with

a central black spot and outlined with pink, a pale yeilow dot on

-each side of the median suture just above the apex of the clypeus

_ 1216 JOURNAL, BOMBAY.:NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, “¥ol. 47

and a large, pale yellow; lateral patch... Body: pale pinkish, the

ground colour.almost completely hidden by the small: specks thaking

up the markings. These consist of three dorsal lines of: blackish

specks, followed bya broad greyish stripe edged below by-.a black

line, then an olive lateral stripe, a‘grey sublateral stripe-and an

olive latero-ventral stripe. 4th somite with a large black subdorsal

spot containing a white dot in it above. 11th somite with a pair

of dorsal tubercles, red anteriorly and black posteriorly, which are

all black in the earlier instars. Venter pinkish with a median and

Jateral blackish stripe. Legs pink ringed at the joints with yellow.

Prolegs blackish, pink internally, with a black spot between each

pair, the first pair obsolescent. Anal claspers summa

speckled with grey.

Pupa in a cocoon of rather gummy silk, spun in a curled leaf.

Purple brown, completely covered with a white bloom. Apex of |

abdomen longitudinally wrinkled and armed with a few pone

hooked spines.

Described from :a full fed larva found at Tukdah (S4O00 mites

Darjeeling District) 26-ix-45, spun 3-x-45 and a. male emerged

28-x-45. : .

Phytometra (Plusia) tarassota Hamps.

Head pale green, a few minute black specks emitting fine black

bristles and a black lateral stripe. Body pale green. 1st somite

with two, 2nd and 3rd somites with one, transverse series of six

minute black specks emitting short bristles. A dark dorsal strip

from the 4th somite backwards edged with whitish, a wavy white

subdorsal line and a lateral white line broadly edged above with

darker green. 4th somite with a black dot immediately above the

lateral line, some examples with very minute black dots placed

similarly on the other somites. A few white dots on the area below

the lateral line. A few fine white hairs arising from white specks.

Spiracles black. Legs pale green, tinged with blackish. Prolegs

pale green, the first two pairs absent. Shape tapered in front,

broad behind. :

Pupa in a slight cocoon of white silk spun in a leaf. Thorax

dull olive, abdomen. chestnut dorsally, the venter and wing cases

paler olive. Cremaster a stout spike terminating in a names of

hooked spines, and fixed in the silk of the cocoon.

Food-plant—Garden Geranium.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.,

Darjeeling District) 22-ix-45, pupated 25-ix-45 and a female emerged

7-X-45.

Phytometra (Plusia) albostriata Brem. & Grey.

Pupa in a hammock-shaped cocoon of thin white silk, spun

underneath a slightly folded leaf. Pale green, meso-thorax with an

irregular black mark, shaped somewhat like a Scarab beetle, ante-

ntonly and an irresulat subdorsal black ‘spot’ posteriorly. 1st to 6th

abdominal’ somites with ‘a black dorsab blotch, the’ intersegmental

area between the 4th and 5th somites: brown dorsally’: Cremaster

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA ‘217

a brown spike armed with minute hooked spines and fixed in the

‘silk of the cocoon.

Described from a pupa Wound at Tukdah (5,000 ft., Darjeeling

District) 19-ix-45, from which a male emerged 26-ix- “as

Sypna latifasciata.

Head yellowish green. Body green, the rst, 2nd, 6th to roth

and 12th somites marked dorsally with crimson. Skin between the

head and first somite black, but only visible when extended. The

posterior edges of the somites with slight brown and white subdorsal

‘streaks, most marked on the 1st, 2nd and 4th somites. Thoracic

somites with backward-sloped, white lateral stripes, 6th to 1oth

somites with larger, forward-sloped, white lateral stripes. 4th

somite with a small anterior and a large posterior white subdorsal

dot, and three white spiracular dots, the posterior one largest. 5th

to 10th somites each with a small anterior and posterior subdorsal

white dot and three small spiracular white dots, 11th somite with

the subdorsal dots but only the posterior spiracular one. Three

subdorsal white streaks from the posterior half of the 11th somite

backwards. Spiracles white, the rim brown. Venter green with

a broad white double median stripe and a white lateral line. Legs

pale green. Prolegs green, the first pair obsolete, with an external

white stripe in continuation of the lateral white body stripes.

Pupa in a slight cocoon in a spun up leaf. Dull olive brown,

the wing cases and intersegmental areas paler. Apex of abdomen _

longitudinally wrinkled. Cremaster a cluster of hooked = spines

attached to the silk of the cocoon.

Food-plant—Rubus sp.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.,

Darjeeling District) 1-xi-45, spun 2-xi-45 and a male emerged

26-xi-45.

The imago agrees with the figure shewn in Seitz Palaearctic

Noctuidae, iii, pl. 67, fig. c, but there is no reference in the text

to this figure and I am unable to find any mention of the species in

any of my books.

GEOMETRIDAE:

Ascotis (Boarmia) selenaria Hbn.

Head buff, minutely speckled with darker. Body olive buff,

speckled with black. 2nd and 3rd somites each with a transverse

series of six small black points. 4th somite with four black points

on the dorsum, the anterior pair larger and closer together, and

three on the lateral area. 5th somite with two large reddish tuber-

cles anteriorly and two small black points posteriorly on the dorsum

and three black points, of which the uppermost is largest, on the

lateral area. 6th to 1toth somites similar to the 4th. 11th somite

slightly humped with an anterior series of four black points, the

centre two largest, and a posterior pair of very small ones. 12th

somite with.a transverse series of four very small black points. 5th

somite with a black mark before and behind the dorsal tubercles.

218 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

A few short bristly hairs. Venter buff with a double median blackish

stripe and with transverse rows of very small black points. Legs

pinkish. Prolegs buff. i

Pupa subterranean. Dark chestnut brown, the wing cases tinged

with olive, the head and thorax darker and with a dark dorsal line ~

on the abdomen. 5th abdominal somite with a lateral, sunken,

blackish streak anteriorly on the intersegmental area. Cremaster

a stout spike ending in a double spine.

Food-plant—Apple.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.,

Darjeeling District) I1-x-45, buried 19-x-45 and a female emerged

I 3-XI- 45.

Abraxas sylvata Scop., leopardina Koll.

Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, iii, 300. 1895.

Head yellow, the mouthparts black, and with a black spot above

either end of the labrum, a large black spot either side of the vertex

and another lateral spot. Body pale yellowish, the thoracic somites

and somites g backwards slightly darker. Ist somite with a

dorsal and subdorsal black spot anteriorly and a lateral and sub-

lateral posteriorly. 2nd and 3rd somites with a dorsal, subdorsal,

lateral and sublateral black spot. 4th to 8th somites each with a

large black dorsal blotch, a transverse black bar posteriorly, a sub-

dorsal, lateral and sublateral black spot, the subdorsal and lateral

spots forming a quadrate blotch divided by a line of the ground

’ colour. oth somite similar but the spots smaller and the transverse

bar divided in the middle. 10th somite with an anterior dorsal,

subdorsal, lateral and sublateral spot, and a posterior spot between

the dorsal and subdorsal, and the subdorsal and lateral. 11th

somite with a dorsal, subdorsal, lateral and sublateral spot anteriorly

and a dorsal bar and lateral spot posteriorly. Anal flap with the

apex black. Venter whitish with a submedian and lateral series

of quadrate black spots from the 4th to 8th somites, Legs black.

Prolegs and anal claspers with a large external black spot. Cuticle

very shiny and tough-looking. |

Pupa subterranean. Very dark chestnut, the intersegmental

areas paler. The head and antenna sheaths, and the divisions be-

tween the leg sheaths bright chestnut. Cuticle coarsely punctate but

shiny. Cremaster a stout spine, the tip bifid.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft., Dar-

jeeling District) 20-x-45, buried 22-x-45 and a female emerged ss ii-46.

Hampson describes the larva as being ‘bluish white; the dorsum

yellowish, with a black line and series of black specks.’

PYRALIDAE:

Locastra cristalis Hamps.

Head black with a few colourless hairs. Body black, spotted

with white as follows. 1st somite with an anterior transverse series

ef six and two sublaterally, one behind the other. 2nd somite with

an anterior, median and posterior series of six each, another at

the base of the leg, and a further series of smaller spots between

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 6219

the median and posterior series. 3rd somite similar. 4th and 5th

somites with an anterior series of eight and a posterior of six, the

lowest spot but one of the anterior series out of line with the others.

6th to 9th with an anterior and posterior series of eight spots, and

a spot at the base of the proleg, the lowest spot but one of the

anterior series out of line with the-others. s1oth and 11th somites

similar, but the lowest spot but two out of line. 12th somite with

two dorsal and four lateral spots. Clothed with sparse, single,

colourless hairs. Lives gregariously in a common web.

Pupa in a cocoon of dark brown silk shaped rather like a butter

bean, spun between leaves in captivity. Pale yellow brown, the

intersegmental areas and a dorsal line on the abdomen darker.

Spiracles blackish. Sutures between the leg sheaths, etc. dark

brown. Rather stout, the end of the abdomen rounded.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.,

Darjeeling District) 8-x-45, spun 19-x-45 and a female emerged

11-i-46. |

CORRIGENDUM

On page 74 of volume xli (1939), for Dasychira complicata W1k.

read Dasychira virescens Moore. |

(To be continued)

THE BIRDS OF THE ‘SIMLA AND ADJACENT HILLS

A. E. JONES, M.B.O.U. (deceased),

Part II

(With a plate)

(Continued from page 125 of this volume)

25. Garrulax leucolophus leucolophus Hardwicke. The. White-crested

l.aughing-thrush.

SIZE: 12 inches.

FieLD CHARACTERS: Crest, throat and breast white; eye-stripe and .ear-coverts

black. Rest of plumage dark brown. |

DistripuTIon: In the Simla area both banks of the Sutlej; below Naldera

(rare); common just above Kalka from 2,500 feet to 3,500 feet (Koti). Outside

our area, throughout the Himalayas to Central Burma where it meets the race

belangeri. .

GENERAL Hapits: Gregarious at all seasons; a flock usually consists of six

to ten birds. Feeds for the most. part on the ground turning over the dead

leaves in its search for food and periodically indulging in its outbursts of cheerful

laughing calls. Bamboo and cactus clad hillsides are its favourite haunts in

these Hills. :

NipiricaTIon: Takes place, according to Stuart Baker, from the end. of

March to the beginning of August. The nest is generally placed at a moderate

height from the ground but sometimes as high as 20 feet, it is a roughly made

shallow cup of grass, leaves and tendrils lined with rather coarse roots and grass

bents. Eggs number from three to five and are glossy white without markings.

26. Garrulax albogularis whistleri Stuart Baker. The White-throated

Laughing-thrush.

SIZE,: 12 inches. ; ; ae tees

_. Fretp Cuaracters: Upper plumage olive brown, throat and. breast pure

white; under parts rufous; tail white-tipped.

(220 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

DisTRIBUTION : From the Murree Hills to Garhwal and Kumaon at elevations

from 1,500 feet (winter) to 8,000 feet (summer). Further east it is replaced by

the typical form. es

GENERAL Hapits: Gregarious even in the breeding season flocks of from six

_to a dozen keep together. In the winter I have seen a flock of thirty or more.

As a rule it is not a very noisy bird but when its displeasure is aroused it

gives vent to the most extraordinary series of discordant screams and hisses.

its haunts are the deep mixed forests of deodar and oak (Q. dilatata) and it feeds

‘a good deal on the ground turning over the dead leaves in its search for insects.

NipIFICATION: The breeding season commences in mid-April and continues

till June, May being the month when most nests will be found. The nests are

built of coarse grass and roots being lined with fine roots and rhizomorphs it

is placed at medium heights from the ground, 8 feet to 20 feet, and is placed in

a variety of situations, i.e. at the top of a sapling oak, in a briar or near the

extremity of a horizontal branch. The eggs usually number three and are of

‘a wonderful deep turquoise, unspotted, with a high gloss.

27. lanthecincla rufogularis occidentalis Hartert. The Rufous-chinned

Laughing-thrush.

SIZE: 10 inches.

FIELD CHaRacTERS: Crown black; upper plumage olive brown, each feather

tipped black; tail olive brown broadly tipped rufous; chin rufous; throat white;

under parts pale ashy; under tail-coverts chestnut.

DisTRIBUTION: The Fauna of British India—Birds (2nd edition), Vol. 1, gives

this from Kashmir to Kumaon but I can find no record of it west of the Simla

Hills. After several years residence in these hills I found it first at Ganna-ki-

Hatti beyond Jutogh and again about Koti on the Kalka-Simla motor-road. Both

localities are between 3,000 feet and 4,000 feet.

GENERAL Hapits: As if it were conscious of its handsome appearance it is

an arrant skulker, taking good care to keep close to good cover. Pairs and

family parties seem to be the rule. Its food consists of insects and berries.

The flight is feeble.

NipiFicaTION: The F.B.I, (Birds), 2nd edition, is definitely wrong in ascrib-

ing this species as breeding at elevations between 6,000 feet and 8,oo0 feet.

Even in the breeding season I have never encountered it above 4,000 feet and

doubt if it is ever found much above this height. Stuart Baker tells us in the

F.B.I., 2nd edition, that the nest is constructed from fine twigs and tendrils and

lined with fine roots. The eggs are pure white and the usual clutch is of three. .

28. Trochalopteron erythrocephalum erythrocephalum Vigors. The Red-headed

Laughing-thrush.

Si1zE: 11 inches.

FieLpD CHARACTERS: Top of head chestnut; upper plumage olive brown, the

edges of the tail feathers orange yellow; wings with a bright rusty bar with a

patch of bright russet; lower plumage ashy tinged olive.

DISTRIBUTION : From Chamba in the west to Nepal. From Sikkim to Assam

we have another race, nigrimentum. During the breeding season it is found

between 7,000 feet to 8,500 feet. {n the cold weather it descends to 3,000 feet

in the Simla district.

GENERAL Hapirs: Frequents fairly dense undergrowth. During the nuptial

season found in pairs but during the cold weather they form into small flocks.

It has some very pleasant call-notes. When suspicious of danger a deep churring

note is uttered. Shy and easily overlooked.

NipiFIcaTION : Takes place from the end of May to August. Probably double-

brooded. The nest is usually placed within two feet of the ground in a bush

but rarely up to six feet; it is a substantial structure made of broad grass bents,

fern leaves and lichens and lined with fine roots. The eggs number three or

two. They are a beautiful turquoise blue sparsely marked with liver coloured

spots, mostly at the broader end. In shape they are long ovals.

29. Trochalopteron variegatum variegatum Vigors. The Eastern Variegated

Laughing-thrush.

S1zE: 11 inches.

FrELD CHARACTERS: The variegated wing (golden yellow or red, black, white

and pale grey); conspicuous pale tips. to the tail feathers which are golden

Journ., BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

grr

Photos by | A. E. Jones

Views of the terrain, Simla hills

THE BIRDS) OF -THE SIMLA AND! ADJACENT HILLS. “231

yellow on the outer webs ; and ‘olivé brown’ upper plumage are diagnostic. Chin

and throat black. From Chamba and Kangra westwards to Chitral and the

Samana Range the’ race simile cccurs. It differs from the Eastern form in

having french grey replacing the golden and red of the wing and tail of varie-

atum., mis NM “t dich

. DISTRIBUTION: The Eastern form occurs from Kangra to Nepal. Western

form from the Samana Range and Chitral to Kangra. Summer range 6,000 feet

to 11,000 feet (Whistler). In winter usually below 6,000 feet down to 3,500 feet.

GENERAL Hapits: A forest bird not-nearly so. shy as the Red-headed Laughing-

thrush. Sociable for the major portion of the year, but pairs are the rule from

May to August. Flocks up to 20 or more are not uncommon. It is a noisy

bird but it lacks any pretence of being musical, though some of its notes are

quite pleasant. Feeds on insects. and wild fruit and berries and will often ascend

some height from the ground in search of food.

NIDIFICATION: Period end ‘of May to August. The rest is as a rule placed

higher from the ground than the last species, i.e. 3 or 4 feet to 12 feet or more.

It is a smaller structure than;that of Red-headed species composed mainly of

dry bents and lined with fine roots and rhizomorphs. The usual clutch is three,

but sometimes they may number two and, very rarely, four; the colour of the

eggs is pale blue with a tinge of green, blotched with liver brown more or less

evenly distributed over the surface; the shape of the egg is a regular oval.

30. Trochalopteron lineatum Vigors. The Streaked Laughing-thrush.

SizE: 8 inches.

Fre-tp CHARACTERS: General colour russet brown brighter on the ear-coverts,

wings and tail; the latter being broadly tipped with palest grey.

DISTRIBUTION : Extends from Ziarat, Baluchistan to Chitral, Gilgit, throughout

the length of the Himalayas to Bhutan. With such a wide distribution it has

developed several races.. The race occurring in'the Simla Hills is T. 1. grisescenttior

Hartert. "

GENERAL Hapits: Not one of the gregarious Laughing-thrushes. Almost

invariably seen in pairs hopping about on the ground. Occupies a zone between

4,000 feet and 10,000 feet. Very common in tke Simla district where it may

frequently be seen in our gardens and the less used thoroughfares of the town.

It is by no means shy and enters verandahs to search the flower-pots for insects

and sometimes takes the fibre of coconut matting for nesting material. The

usual food is insects and berries and it is not averse to bread crumbs.

NIDIFICATION: The breeding season extends from March to September. Three

broods are normally reared. A pair I had under close observation, when their first

effort (when there was one egg in the nest) was destroyed by hail, built the new

nest in a honeysuckle climbing up the verandah and 8 feet from the ground;

this was in April and the young were safely reared. The next nest was in a

ringall bamboo 3 feet from the ground. This was in June and the young were

again successfully reared. The third effort was in August when I saw them

building in a hibiscus 3 feet from the ground. Eggs usually number three but

rarely four may be laid; the colour is turquoise blue, unmarked. Rarely a nest

is placed on the ground under a tuft of grass or an overhanging fern. The Pied

Crested Cuckoo (C. jacobinus) frequently victimises this species and Whistler

also cites the Indian Cuckoo (C. micropterus) as foisting its eggs on it. The

nest is made of dry grass and dead leaves, lined with fine grass stems and fine

roots.

31. Grammatoptila striata striata WVigors. The Striated Laughing-thrush.

SIZE: 12 inches. :

FIELD CHARACTERS: A large umber brown bird with each feather with

a white shaft stripe. Full tufted jay-like crest; hoary outer webs to the first

few primaries and fine white tips on the outer tail feathers. Iris red brown.

DistrisuTIon: From Kulu (and probably Kangra) to Bhutan. In the winter

it is found as low as 1,500 feet (Ranibagh, Kumaon); in summer its habitat is

mostly between 6,500 feet to 9,000 feet. — 3

GENERAL Hapits: During the breeding season this bird is seen in pairs,

but in the cold weather small parties of three, to five birds may be encountered.

It is more. arboreal than’ most of the Laughing-thrushes and is very shy and

not loath to take an extended down-hillf flight through the forest. It haunts

the better wooded steep nullahs. Its presence is usually proclaimed by its loud

222 JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vot.:47

cackling notes. Insects and berries form the major portion of its diet. It is

local in its choice. of habitat.

_ NipiricaTion: .The breeding season is in May and June. The nest is a

broad shallow cup made of coarse grass mixed with small twigs and dead leaves, —

lined with fine roots. It is placed from 6 feet to 12 feet from the ground in a

sapling, or in a wild rose climbing up through other trees. The only two nests

found by me near Mahasu each contained two eggs slightly incubated; pale

unmarked blue in colour and long ovals in shape.

32. Turdoides somervillei sindianus = terricolor. The Jungle Babbler.

SIZE: 10 inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: General colour dry earth brown, somewhat paler on

underparts. Tail slightly darker tinged rufous. Iris pale cream, almost white.

DistripuTion : The whole of India from Cape Comorin in the south to the

lower slopes of the Himalayas up to 5,o00 feet. On the west it is found on the

Salt Range and Kohat down to Sind. It has. been divided into five races.

Specimens from Ambala district are intermediate as above.

GENERAL Hapits: One of the commonest Indian birds. Known to most by

the name of ‘Seven Sisters’ and nearly always the flock consists of this number.

It is a tame and noisy bird, mostly seen foraging among dead leaves on the

ground. The flight is feeble, alternating flapping and gliding, and carries it

from cover to cover.

NipiIFicaTIoN: The breeding season in Northern India is from March to

September. The nest is made of grass bents compactly interwoven but not un-

commonly with loose straggling ends; it is lined with fine roots. The height

from the ground varies from 3 feet to 15 feet rarely higher. Eggs number

either 3 or 4; in colour deep blue with a high gloss. Often victimised by the

Pied Crested Cuckoo (C. jacobinus) and the Common Hawk Cuckoo (H. varius).

whose eggs closely resemble those of the foster parent.

33. Argya caudata caudata (Dumont). The Common Babbler.

LENGTH: g inches.

FieLp CHaracTEers: ‘Whole upper plumage pale fulvous brown, each feather

streaked with dark brown; tail long, graduated, cross-rayed and the shafts very

dark; chin and throat fulvous white; lower plumage pale fulvous, albescent on

the abdomen and the sides of the breast faintly striated. Iris yellow brown.”

(Whistler). _— ary

DIstRiBUTION: In the Simla Hills it ascends to 5,000 feet, in the Ashni

Valley, Keonthal State, where P. H. Jones took a nest with:four eggs. ‘It ex-

tends from Baluchistan, along the lower slopes of the Himalayas to Western

Bengal and south to the Palni Hills and Rameswaram Island.’ (Whistler).

GENERAL. Hapits: Always seen in parties of 6 to 20 birds, it is even more

sociable than the Jungle Babbler and: is abundant in scrub-covered arid: country,

not.entering the forest. Feeds almost entirely on the ground. Insects and seeds.

form their chief diet. Loath to take to the wing. Flight feeble and direct with

the long tail outspread. , beers

NipIFIcaTION : : Nests may. be found in almost every month of.the year in

the Plains but most will be found from March till September. The nest isa

smaller edition of the Jungle Babbler’s; the eggs are usually 3 to 4 in number,

in colour much the same as the ‘latter’s but slightly. smaller: in size. The nest

is usually placed from 3 to 4 feet from the ground.

34, Pomatorhinus schisticeps pinwilli Hodgson’. The Slaty-headed Scimitar

Babbler.

LENGTH? 10 inches.

FIELD CHaracTERS:: Crown of head dark slate; conspicuous white super-

cilium; black ear-coverts; upper plumage olive brown; chin, throat and breast

white ; flanks and abdomen chestnut.

DistRIBUTION: In the Simla Hills mostly found between 3,000 feet and 4,000:

feet. Local and resident. Stuart Baker gives for our race (pinwilli) ‘N.W. Hima-

layas to Garhwal’: Whistler found it ‘somewhat scarce’ in the Kangra district.

* Perhaps more correctly pinwilli. aR Sschisticeps (W 6 3S 94-99, 1 9 95 mm.)

oy : ee eee

THE BIRDS OF THE SIMLA AND ADJACEN1 HILLS 223

GENERAL Hasirs: After the breeding season bands together in small flocks

which keep to the undergrowth and feed for the most part on the ground where

they turn over the dead leaves in their search, for insects; berries also enter their

menu. They have some hooting and bubbling notes, specially when suspicious

of danger. |

NipiFIcaTION: The domed nest is usually placed on a sloping bank among

the herbage. It is made of grass bents, dead leaves and tendrils, lined with

fine roots. The eggs are pure white and number 3 or 4. The breeding season

extends from March to June. ;

35. Pomatohinus erythrogenys erythrogenys Vigors. The Rusty-cheeked

Scimitar Babbler.

LENGTH: 11 inches.

FreLpD CHaRAcTERS: Upper parts olive brown; under parts white; forehead,

sides of head and neck and flanks chestnut. Long, curved bill and white iris.

DIsTRIBUTION: In our area it is found from 2,500 feet to 6,500 feet, ex-

ceptionally somewhat higher. Outside our boundaries Stuart Baker gives ‘N.W.

Himalayas’. Whistler says it is common about Dharmsala; west of this I can

find no record.

GENERAL Hapits: Nearly always seen in pairs haunting the sides of scrub-

covered nullahs, the fringes of forest and bush-clad grassy hillsides. Eschews

heavy forest. Has a far reaching call-note consisting of three notes, the first

two uttered by the male immediately followed by the third so that it sounds as

if the three notes were the effort of one bird. The food consists of insects,

seeds and berries.

NIDIFICATION: Takes place from mid-March to June. The nest and eggs,

situation, etc. do not differ from those of the foregoing species. The eggs usually

number two or three and are slightly larger than P. schisticeps.

36. Chrysomma sinensis sinensis (Gmelin). The Yellowed-eyed Babbler.

LENGTH: 7 inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: Upper parts russet brown; broad white supercilium ;

lower parts white; long graduated tail. Iris yellow; eyelids orange.

DISTRIBUTION: About Simla it occurs up to 3,50g-feet. Otherwise practically

the whole of India being represented by races on its western and eastern

boundaries.

GENERAL Hapits: As a rule found in small parties after the breeding season

which work through the lighter vegetation, i.e. bush-clad grassy hillsides, hedges

and secondary growth. Has a pleasant chattering call-note. A very attractive

bird when not alarmed, otherwise dives into cover until its suspicions are allayed.

its strong legs enable it to climb any tall grass or reed which are much affected.

NipIFicaTION: From June to September. The nest is placed in a variety

of situations from 1 foot to 6 feet from the ground; it is a very characteristic

structure, neat and compact composed of dry grass stems and blades copiously

covered on the outside with spiders’ web, almost indestructible and often found

after the breeding season when the herbage has died down. The usual clutch

consists of 4 or 5 eggs which partake of two very distinct types, both have the

ground colour very pale pink, one type is profusely and finely freckled all over

the surface with deep brick red; the other is sparingly and boldly blotched with

sienna brown with a few underlying markings of pale inky-purple.

37. Pellorneum ruficeps jonesi Stuart Baker. The Spotted Babbler.

LENGTH: 6 inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: Upper parts olive brown; under parts pale cream con-

spicuously spotted with black on the breast and flanks; head and nape dull rufous.

DiIstTRIBUTION: In the Simla area found from 2,500 feet to 4,000 feet. Else-

where from the Kangra district along the lower: Himalayas to Assam and Burma

down the hilly tracts of India to Travancore. Divided into several races.

GenerRAL Hasits: A very retiring quiet bird easily overlooked. Met with

in pairs or small scattered parties turning over the dead leaves on the ground

in low scrub jungle and bamboos. Has a very clear call-note wheat-ear’ the

last syllable rather prolonged.

NipiFIcaTIoN: Commences in March and continues throughout the rainy

season. The nest is placed on the ground, composed mostly of dead leaves and

is a domed structure. Eggs number from 2 to 4, they are white tinged

with pale green or cream blotched and speckled with red brown and inky purple.

2ag.. JOURNAL, BOMBAY, NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 47

38. Stachyridopsis pyrrhops Bue - The Red-billed Babbler.

LENGTH: 43 inches. : leeks oe i

~FreELD CHARACTERS: A smal] olive brown bird with dull russet head; black

lores, eyeStripe and chin; under parts fulyous; flanks~ olivaceous.

DisTRIBUTION: From Murree to Nepal. Common in the Shall Hills from

2,500 feet up to 6,500 feet, occasionally slightly higher.

GENERAL Hapits: Resident. During the cold weather associates in small

parties which feed mostly on the ground turning over the fallen leaves -in their

search for insects; rarely may ascend a tree as high as 12 feet. Not infrequently

the flocks are joined by other insectivorous birds. Keeps to the lighter scrub

and hedgerows, a favourite resort being a small nullah near a tiny stream.

NipIFIcATION: The birds separate off into pairs in March and nests may be

found from April to July. The situation for the nest is low down in scrub

though I once found one five feet from the ground in a holly tree, it is a domed

structure and the materials used are mostly dead leaves loosely put together

and difficult to remove from its site without it falling to pieces; lined fibres and

pine needles. The eggs generally number 3 or 4; they are white sparsely marked

with pale red blotches.

39. Fulvetta vinipecta kangrae Ticehurst. The Kangra Fulvetta.

LENGTH: 5 inches.

FreELD CuHaracTERS: A small brown bird with a longish tail and a broad

white supercilium; head, ear-coverts and nape reddish brown; chin, throat and

breast white gradually shading into dark fulvous on the abdomen and under

tail coverts. oe

DISTRIBUTION: Kangra to Assam; divided into 3 or 4 races. In our area

a bird of high elevation. Only two records, both at Narkanda 9,000 feet Sep-

tember 1918 and December 1926. On both occasions the birds were in a small

party of 6 to 8 and in precisely the same patch of bushes near the gate of the

Government Dak Bungalow. Whistler found it near Palampur in the Kangra

Valley as low as 5,000 feet.

GENERAL Hapits: Except for.its. colour this species is very reminiscent of

the Yellow-eyed Babbler. They work through the bushes in their search for

food and are not shy.

NIDIFICATION: Many years ago A. O. Hume had eggs sent to him from

Narkanda. Stuart Baker gives May and June as the breeding season. The

nest is a deep cup composed of grass and moss placed low down in a_ bush.

The eggs number 2 or 3 and are of a blue grey.colour, marked at the larger

end. with sepia, dark brown and a few underlying blotches of a pale neutral tint.

40. Leioptila capistrata pallida (Hartert). The Black-headed Sibia.

LENGTH: 9 inches. =f

FieLD CHARACTERS: Head, ear-coverts and cheeks black; full crest which it

raises and flattens. Back ashy grey; underparts bright salmon ATO, long

graduated tail; tail broadly edged with blue grey. 3

DISTRIBUTION : Hazara to Kumaon. Specimens obtained by me below ..Naini

Tal differ in no ‘way from our Simla birds (pallida). |

_ GENERAL Hapits: Resident with considerable altitudinal movement. In. the

cold weather it may be seen as low as 1,000 feet (Kathgodam, Kumaon); in

summer its haunts are mostly between 6,000 feet and 9,000 feet. Small parties

are the rule during the winter when they are often seen feeding from the flowers of

the Silk Cotton Tree (B. malabaricum). Its diet includes insects and berries. Has

a beautiful ringing note titeree-ree-ree-ree.. Arboreal; shows a decided preference

for mixed evergreen forest.

NiDIFICATION : Most. nests will be found in. June, July and August but I have

seen them carrying moss in April. The nest is placed, often near the extremity

of a branch, from 1o feet to 30 feet.or more from the ground. It isa deep ,cup>,

composed mostly, of green. moss’ on. the eéxterior and neatly. lined with pine

needles. The eggs number 2 or 3, one type has the ground colour pale bluish -

green, the other is white and both are blotched with dark red brown.

41. Siva strigula simlaensis Meinertzhagg:. The Stripe-throated Siva.

LENGTH: 6%. inches,

FreLD CHARACTERS: Forehead, crown and nape bright orange brown; throat’

pale :yellow barred with black; tail’ with broad orange. or flame-coloured tips.

THE BIRDS OF THE SIMLA AND ADJACENT HILLS 225.

DistRispuTION: From Kangra to Assam,

GENERAL Hapits: Arboreal. A bird of the higher elevations, in summer

up to 10,500 feet. In winter it is sociable and will be seen in flocks of 6 to <as

many as 20. A very active bird which never seems to pause for half a minute

in its tireless search for food which consists of small berries and insects. Note,

a piping peep-peep-peep. No attempt at a song. In winter descends to 5,000 feet.

NipiFicaTIoN: Takes place in June as far as is known. B. B. Osmaston

found a nest in Garhwal, (J.B.N.H.S., Vol. XXV, No. 3, p. 494). I found a

nest near the top of Kufri hill at an elevation of 8,600 feet, it was situated 4% feet

from the ground placed in a small Sallow (Salix) sapling. The exterior was

made of dry grass and moss lined with hair. Eggs, incubated 3 or 4 days, blue

green with black spots mostly at the large end, small replicas of the British

Song Thrush’s. Date 30-6-1918.

42. Ixulus flavicollis albicollis Ticehurst. The Yellow-naped Ixulus.

LENGTH: 53 inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: Upper plumage olive brown, the shafts of the feathers

pale; full tufted crest chocolate; broad pale cream collar; black moustachial

streak; underparts pale fulvous.

DISTRIBUTION: Kangra to Bhutan.

GENERAL Hapsits: Arboreal. Its habitat in the Simla Hills is mainly in the

oak forests. There is some seasonal movement; in summer it is definitely scarce

between 6,000 feet to 8,oco feet in the more remote nullahs. In winter, though

still not common, it is more frequently to be seen as it moves closer into the

outskirts of Simla. Its presence is usually proclaimed by its metallic call-note

tse-kling. Pairs are the general rule, but on one occasion a flock of 8 was seen

feeding on the berries of the Bedstraw (Galium. rotundifloium).

NipiricaTION: The breeding season is said to be May and June. The nest

is made mostly of mass lined with roots and is placed amongst the moss growing

on the branches of trees at no great height from the ground; in shape it. is

domed or cup-shaped. Eggs number 3 or 4 and are white with blotches and

spots of dark red-brown with underlying markings of inky purple.

43. Leiothrix lutea calipyga (Hodgson). The Red-billed Liothrix.

LENGTH: 6 inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: Upper plumage olive green; primaries edged with yellow

and crimson; chin and throat yellow, shading to orange on the throat; abdomen,

yellow; very narrow white edges to the tail.

DISTRIBUTION: Kangra to Assam including the Khasi Hills. Locally common

at 3,000 feet at Koti on the Kalka-Simla motor-road and rare in summer up to

6,000 feet (Kasauli).

GENERAL Hasits: Gregarious in the winter when it may be seen hopping

about on the ground and turning over the dead leaves. Tame and fearless ;

prefers to hop across the road rather than fly. The flocks break up into pairs

in April.

NIDIFICATION: Takes place from June to August. The nest is a shallow cup

slung in a creeper or bush 2 or 3 feet from the ground, and is composed of fine

bents and a dead leaf or two, lined with fine roots and hair. The clutch usually:

numbers 3 but sometimes only 2 incubated eggs are found. In colour they are

pale sea green blotched, mostly at the large end, with darl liver and red brown.

44, Pteruthius erythropterus (Vigors). The Red-winged Shrike-babbler.

LENGTH: 7 inches.

FieLp CHARACTERS: Male, head from forehead to nape black; a broad white’

supercilium; ear-coverts black; upper plumage blue-grey; visible portions of

primaries black conspicuously tipped white; inner secondaries bright chestnut ;

under parts white. Female, head ashy olive ; upper. plumage olive grey; super-

cilium indistinct.

DISTRIBUTION : From the Hazara country to Manipur.

GENERAL Hapits: Arboreal. Confined chiefly to the broad-:leaved forests. In

the summer observed in pairs only; in winter the birds form into small parties

of 6 to ro. Not uncommon on the outskirts of Simla. It keeps for the most

part to the higher canopy. Its food consists of insects. In summer found

mostly between 6,000 feet and 8,500 feet; in’ winter down to 3,500 feet..

226" JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

NipiricaTIon: The breeding season is from April-to June and this ‘species

is probably double brooded. Col. R. H. Rattray who took a nest near Murree

says it is one of the most difficult nests to take owing to its being built towards

the extremity of a branch high up ‘in the tree; I quite agree with-him. The:

nest is built of fibres, moss and lichen plastered lavishly with spiders’ web:

where it is attached to the supporting branches; the lining is of fine roots. The

means of suspension is reminiscent of that of the Golden Oriole. The eggs

number 2 to 4; in colour they are white tinged with pink and profusely marked

with fine blotches of deep claret, altogether like some eggs of the White-cheeked

Bulbul, but broader ovals than those of the latter bird.

45. Pteruthius xanthochloris occidentalis Harington. The Simla Green

Shrike-babbler. ,

LENGTH: 5 inches.

Fistp CHARACTERS: Sexes alike, female slightly duller than the male which

on the upper side is a dull olive green with a wash of giey on the head; closed

wing green, primary coverts black; undersides, throat and breast pale ashy;

abdomen buff.. A dull bird with no striking feature to fix on. Arboreal. .

DISTRIBUTION: From Kangra Valley to the hills north of the Brahmaputra.

From 4,000 feet to 9,000 feet.

NipiFicaTIonN: B. B. Osmaston first found the nest in Garhwal. Several

nests found by me in the Simla Hills. These were placed from a foot from. the

ground to 6 feet. They were suspended at the bifurcation of a small twig; deep,

purse-shaped little structures, flimsy and fragile-looking made of fine fibres

bound together with spiders’ web with flakes of lichen plastered sparingly on

the outside. The lining is of fine roots and rhizomorph. The eggs are cream

coloured with blotches of red-brown mostly in a zone, at the larger end; they

number from 2 to 4. Nests taken in Skimmua, spruce and oak.

46. Microscelis psaroides psaroides (Vigors). The Himalayan Black Bulbul..

LENGTH: 10 inches.

Fretp CHaracTers: A dark grey bird with black crest. Bill, legs and feet

coral red. Tail distinctly forked. Sexes alike.

DISTRIBUTION: From the Hazara country (and probably further westward)

to Bhutan. In the Simla Hills it is found from 8,000 feet, in summer, down

to the foothills and plains (Ambala) in winter. Common. Another sub-species 1s

found in the hills of Southern India.

GENERAL Hapits: A bird of the deeper mixed forests. Its presence is usually

proclaimed by its discordant notes. The flight is strong and direct. Big congre-

gations occur in the cold season which may be seen alighting at the tops of

the forest trees before flying off to its next objective. The food consists of

berries and insects. It is also one of the commoner species which visit the flowers

of the Silk Cotton Tree (Bombax).

NipIFICATION: April to June is the extent of the breeding season. The nest

is placed in a tree some little height from the ground; it is composed. of dry

grass, leaves and moss strengthened by cobweb, lined with pine needles and

fine roots. It is generally well concealed. The eggs number 2 or 3 (I have

known a singleton highly incubated); in colour they are pale pink protusely

speckled with claret and inky purple.

47. Molpastes cafer intermedius (Blyth). The Red-vented Bulbul.

LENGTH: 8 inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: General colour earth brown, with a slightly crested

black head; rump white; crimson under tail-coverts.

DistTRiBUTION: Practically the whole of India, where it is split into several

races. In the Simla Hills we have M. c. intermedius which occurs up to 5,000

feet and occasionally higher.?

GENERAL Hapits: Resident. Common about cultivation and open bush-clad

hillsides. Usually seen in pairs or small family parties. Berries form its

principal diet but it frequently indulges in fly-catching and may often be seen

visiting the flowers of the Bombax tree. Tame and confiding.

. . . « e — .

* Specimens from Simla are certainly intermedius J bengalensis—S.A.

THE BIRDS OF THE SIMLA AND ADJACENT HILLS 227

NipIricATION: Most nests will be found in May and June. These may he

placed in a bush or sapling 1 or 2 feet from the ground to 1o feet or so up in a

small tree. The materials used are dry grass and fibres with a few dead leaves

and lined with fine roots and horse- or human-hair. - 3 or 4 eggs form the usuai

clutch, but 5 are rarely found. In colour they are pale pink densely freckled

with claret red and inky purple. Occasionally the markings partake of fairly

jarge blotches tending to form a nimbus round the large end.

48. Molpastes leucogenys leucogenys (Gray). The White-cheeked Bulbul.

LENGTH: 8 inches.

FirLp CHARACTERS: Conspicuous forward-curving dark brown crest; white

ear coverts; chin and throat black; back olive brown, paler on abdomen; under

tail coverts sulphur yellow.

DisTRIBUTION: This is essentially a hill bird and occurs from Afghanistan

to Assam at elevations from the foothills up to 8,o00 feet or even more (Mathiana).

GENERAL Hapirs: A common resident with very little altitudinal movement.

One of the most conspicuous birds of the Simla Hills. It is as a rule seen in

pairs or small family parties. A bird of the bush-clad hillsides and cultivation,

not infrequently seen on the ground. Its food consists mostly of fruit and

insects and often may be seen indulging in fly-catching flights. The note is

cheery and tinkling.

NipIFICATION: The breeding season is from the end of March to July. Most

nests are low down in a bush within easy reach of the ground; there is very

little attempt at concealment. A favourite site is in the interior of a Berberis

bush. The nest is built of yellow grass stems, the lining is of finer grasses and

fibres of the same colour so that it is easily distinguished from that of the

former species. Eggs number from 2 to 4 and are slightly smaller and narrower

than those of the Red-vented Bulbul. In colour and character of markings they

pass through the same variations.

(The F.B.I. (2nd edition) says the Red-whiskered Bulbul, Oltocompsa jocosa

(Linneaus) occurs from Simla eastwards but this is definitely wrong. It is

doubtful if it extends as far west as Dehra Dun).

49, Certhia himalayana himalayana Vigors. The Himalayan Tree-creeper.

LENGTH: 53 inches. :

FIELD CHARACTERS: The brown mottled upper side, white underparts, jong

slender curved bill and long tail should help to fix its identification.

DIsTRIBUTION: N.W. Himalayas to Kumaon. Also Baluchistan.

GENERAL Hapirs: This is a solitary bird whose whereabouts are usually

betrayed by its squeaky call-note; it also has a pretty though short song which

may be heard throughout the year. Its mode of feeding is a safe guide to its

identity ; this takes the form of starting near the base of a tree trunk working

up to a good height and then flying off to another tree to repeat the process.

Insects are its main diet. It is a common resident found principally between

5,000 feet and 10,000 feet. Often attaches itself to the mixed foraging parties

of small insectivorous birds.

NipiricaTion: ‘Takes place from the end of March and throughout April.

The nest is placed in a natural hole of a tree, a deserted woodpecker’s hole, a

crack in an old building and frequently between a tin name-plate and the bark

of a tree. The height from the ground may be anything from one foot to 50

feet. The foundation of the nest proper is composed cf a quantity of very fine

twigs, on this the nest of fine dry grass, moss and sometimes a leaf or two and

finally lined with fur and occasionally a few feathers. The clutch numbers

from 4 to 6. The eggs are white densely or sparsely blotched with light red.

590. Tichodroma muraria (Linneaus). The Wall-creeper.

LENGTH: 7 inches.

FieLpD CHARACTERS: General colour, french-grey; wings crimson with white

spots which are conspicuous in flight. A long slender black bill.

DistRIBpuTION: Only visits us in the cold season, October to April. Found

at all elevations and some distance out into the plains.

GENERAL Hapits: Solitary. Its usual haunts are the steep cliffs and road

cuttings and similar situations, i.e. masonry, both stone and brick, so long as

there is the chance of finding food which consists of spiders and other insects.

Even earthen cliffs are diligently searched for food.

228 JOURNAL, EOMBAY NATURAL HIST..SOCIETY, Vol. 47

NipiFicaTION: Is said to take place in May and June. ‘The -nest consists. of

moss and dry grass lined with wool and hair .and is. placed in a crevice of a

precipice. The clutch consists of 4 to 6 eggs which Are white sparsely spotted ©

with red. The summer quarters are between 12,000 feet and 16,000 feet.

sys Troglodytes t. neglectus Brooks. The Kachin Wren.

LENGTH: 33 inches.

FIELD CHarRaAcTERS: A small dark brown bird, closely. barred with black ;

undersides slightly paler. Short tail, which is usually carried above the level

of the body.

DistrRiBUTION: Resident with some altitudinal movement with the seasons.

It is found in the vicinity of Simla, about 5,600 feet to 7,500. feet from the end-

of October to the middle of March. Waite found. it ‘fairly common’ at Chini_

and Nachar and saw young ones at the former place (9,265 feet) on June 3.

GENERAL Hapits: A bird of solitary habits, it mostly frequents the rocks

and boulders of the lesser nullahs where it skulks: about the herbage and mossy

banks. Its presence is revealed by its sharp rattling note and if the observer

stands still for a minute or so the little vocalist can generally be seen as it creeps

mouse-like from cover to cover.

NIDIFICATION: Waite’s is the only record I can find: for our area. The

FBI, (and edition) is silent as regards the breeding season. The nest, for the

size of the bird, is a large globular structure composed of moss, grass and dead

leaves and. lined with feathers. The entrance ,is at the side. The situation

is variable, from ground level to 30 feet above. ‘it. The eggs are white with pale

rusty red specks and blotches they number ‘from 4° to 6.

m528 pacnpyde lbiventtla pallidior Kinnear, The ‘Scaly-breaste Wren.

LENGTH: 4 inches. :

- Fiecp. Cuaracters: .A curious tail-less little bird: nlite habits” donot differ

in any way from those of the previous species.. Two forms are found: in these

hills, viz. one with the breast ‘squamated with “fulvous, ‘the other with white.

Roth types are russet brown above. ienatic! ae

DIsTRIBUTION: In races from the Kangra’ alee io Assam, It is a winter

visitor to the Simla Hills between 6,000 feet and _8,500 feet and may be Hound

from mid-October to the: end of March. ~ ©

GENERAL Hapits: Usually found ‘singly, in ‘winter. Any small nullah seems

to suit its requirements as long’as there are ‘plenty of exposed rocks and ‘stones

for it to explore. It has a monosyllabie loud suction-like call-note:

“NipiFicaTION: I have no information regarding the breeding of this wren

in the Simla Hills. W. H. Matthews found iit nesting in the Bhillung Valley,

Tehri Garhwal; he found the nest on’ 6-6-1914 at an elevation of. 10,500. feet.

The nest was built almost entirely of moss, domed and. with a side entrance,

placed under a moss-clad rock, There were 3 fresh eggs in the nest, large for

the size of the bird, pure white with a few reddish-brown specks.

53. Tesia castaneocoronata (Burton). The Chestnut-headed Wren.

LENGTH: 4 inches. Si ati

FIELD CHARACTERS: Forehead, crown and ‘ nape ones chestnut; upper

plumage dark olive green; underparts bright yellow.

DISTRIBUTION: Sparsely distributed about ihe’ ovules Hills. Whistler found

it not uncommon in Kulu in winter.

GENERAL Hapits: A winter visitor frou the eid of ‘Oeiober till the end of

March; once in May (3,500 feet). In these hills its usual habitat is in the dense

evergreen scrub near a tiny hill stream, where it creeps about the herbage close

to the ground, its yellow underparts being conspicuous. Like the other wrens,

it is solitary during the winter months. Found from 6,000 feet down to 3,500 feet.

NipiricaTIOoN: Stuart Baker in the F.B.I. (2nd edition), tells us that the

Chestnut-headed Wren breeds between 6,000 feet and 8,000 feet in June and

July and that the nest is much like that of the last named species. It is placed

either in a bush:or a low branch of a tree and is lined with feathers. The eggs

numbering 3 or 4 are much like those of the Scaly-bellied Wren but richer in

colouring. He does not specify any locality where they were taken.

THE BIRDS OF THE SIMLA AND ADJACEN1 HILLS a29

54. Cinclus pallasii tenuirostris Bonaparte. The Brown Dipper. —

LENGTH: 8 inches.

Fretp CHARACTERS: A sombre brown bird with a short tail; rather reminiscent

of a large wren.

DISTRIBUTION: Throughout the Himalayas. From the base of the hills to

7,000 feet. Has rarely been recorded as high as 12,000 feet.

GENERAL Hapits: Resident. A bird of the streams from which it obtains

practically all its food which consists of aquatic insects and larvae. From shallow

water it wades till out of its depth when it submerges, swims and even walks

on the bed of the stream. The flight is direct and usually within a foot of the

surface of the water. It has a full, rich though short song in the breeding

season; the call-note is a shrill, harsh dzit-dzit.

NIDIFICATION : The breeding season is from the second half of December to

mid-February. The nest is a massive globular structure made of green moss,

lined with dry leaves, and has the entrance at the side. The situation is a cleft in

the rocks from a foot to 4 feet above the surface of the water. Another situation

is in a deep hole in the masonry of a bridge, in which case, as usual, it plasters

the top of the cavity with moss. The clutch consists of 4 or 5 somewhat pyriform

white eggs, the yolks of which show through the shell when fresh.

55. Luscinia brunnea brunnea (ees) The Indian Blue Chat.

LENGTH: 5 inches. nose . ey

Fretp CHaracters: Upper parts dull slaty blue; a conspicuous white super-

cilium ; underparts from chin bright chestnut shading to white on the abdomen.

Female, olive brown paler below.

“DISTRIBUTION : Throughout the Himalayas from Kashmir to Bhutan. In the

Simla Hills occupies a zone between 6,500 feet and 9,000 feet.

GENERAL Hapits: Summer visitor, arriving in May and leaving in September.

Its presencé is proclaimed by its loud trilling song uttered from the low brush wood

clothing the low ravines, its favourite resort during the. breeding Season, Seite

song is again heard on its downward’ migration in September. _

NipIFICATION: This species” breeds from the end of May to the beginning

of July. The nest is placed on the ground among the luxurious herbage clothing

the steep hillsides: and is very carefully concealed. It is composed of moss and

dry grass and lined with fur, hair and fine rhizomorphs. The clutch consists

of 3 or 4 eggs of a Hedge- -Sparrow blue, spotless and with a fine gloss.

56. Hodgsonius phoenicuroides phoenicuroides (Gray). Hodgson’s Shortwing.

LENGTH: 7% inches. :

FIELD CHARACTERS: Above, dark slaty: blue, chin, throat and breast the

same ; abdomen. white; base of outer tail feathers chestnut. Female olive brown

with base of. tail feathers as in the male.

DISTRIBUTION: Its summer haunts are from 9,000 feet to 10 ,500 feet, i.e.

Narkanda and Baghi and doubtless beyond. Otherwise, outside our limits, ‘from

Kashmir to Yunnan.

GENERAL Hapits: The ‘status of this bird is somewhat obscure. It probably

undergoes a certain amount of vertical movement with the seasons. Its habitat

during the breeding season is the under-scrub in and on the edge of forest. In

habits it is very retiring unless the vicinity of its nest is invaded. The alarm

note is similar to that of the Bluethroat.

NipiFICATION: The breeding season is during June and July eher nests tts)

placed on or near the ground and is cup-shaped, composed of grass and dead

leaves and lined with fur and fine grass. The eggs usually number 3, and are a

deep blue-green with a fine gloss.

57. Saxicola caprata bicolor Sykes. The Pied Stone-Chat.

_ LENGTH: 53 inches.

FrELD CHaracTERS: The male is lino ecomatelaly black with a conspicuous

shoulder patch of white. The under tail coverts and abdomen are also white.

The female is dark brown with rusty upper tail coverts.

_ DistrisuTion: A’ common summer visitor from the foothills up to 6,o00 feet.

Arrives at the end of March and departs in August.

GENERAL Hapits: Wherever it is found it cannot easily be overlooked owing

to its habit of perching on either the crown of a bush, a telegraph wire or a

230° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

commanding rock from which the male pours out his pleasant little song.

Bush-clad grassy hillsides and the neighbourhood of cultivation are its favourite

haunts. ,

NipIFICATION: This bird begins nesting operations in April but most nests

will be found in May and June. The nest is placed on the ground and is always

well concealed either under a rock or herbage. It is a shallow cup of grass-bents

lined with hair. The clutch usually consists of 4 or 5 eggs. The ground colour

is palest blue marked mostly at the broad end with deep red brown blotches

and freckles. Quite a lot of the nests are cuckolded by the European Cuckoo

(Cuculus canorus).

58. Saxicola torquata indica (Blyth). The Indian Stone-Chat.

LENGTH: 5% inches.

Fietp CHaRAcCTERS: In summer plumage the head, ear-coverts and throat

are black as are also the back, tail and most of the wing; there is a conspicuous

patch of white on the shoulder which is also the colour of the rump and upper

tail-coverts; the lower plumage is white except for the bright orange-rufous

breast. In winter plumage all the black feathers are broadly fringed with

fulvous which greatly alters the general appearance of the bird. The female

is rufous brown above, paler below.

DISTRIBUTION: In summer found mostly between 5,500 feet to 8,000 feet

throughout the Himalayas. In winter descends to the plains.

GENERAL Hapits: A bird of the open bush-studded grassy hillsides and culti-

vated terraced fields. Often utters its song on the wing and indulges in the

‘windmill’ love flight. It may often be seen launching itself into the air after

winged insects but the normal mode of securing its prey is to pounce on it from

an elevated perch. Besides its own song and call-notes it will also mimic other

birds’ notes.

NipiFIcaTION: Differs in no way from that of the Pied Stone-Chat. The

markings on the eggs are as a rule paler. Like that species the European

Cuckoo frequently foists its egg on the Indian Stone-Chat.

It may be added here that the Turkestan race S. torquata przewalskii is not

uncommon at the lower elevations, 1,500 feet to 2,500 feet, from November to

March.

59. Rhodophila ferrea ferrea (Gray). The Dark Grey Bush-Chat.

LENGTH: 6 inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: The male in summer plumage is from bill to tail

almost pure black; edges of tail white; a broad white eye-stripe; ear-coverts

black; underparts from chin to under-tail coverts white, tinged with isabelline

on the breast; a white bar on the shoulder. The female is russet brown above;

paler below with rufous tail.

DIstTRIBUTION: During summer occupies a zone between 5,000 feet to 10,000

feet. In winter from 4,000 feet down to the foothills and often well out into

the plains.

GENERAL Hagsits: Summer visitor, returning to its breeding haunts early in

March, leaving in October; the males arrive a week or ten days before the

females. Its favourite haunts about Simla are the bush-clad glades contiguous

with forest, such places being afforded by our gardens. It is one of our commonest

summer visitors and the male makes considerable use of telegraph wires

whenever these happen to be near its chosen haunts. It is by far the most

accomplished mimic we have, imitating perfectly most of the small birds in its

vicinity, its own song being a simple little trill while the alarm note is geeze.

It frequently indulges in fly-catching. .

NipiIFICATION: The. breeding season is from early April to July, 2 broods

being reared sometimes, it is said, in the same nest. This is always placed on

the ground on a sloping bank and is well concealed by grass or herbage. The

female alone incubates and is very wary when approaching the nest. This is

a more substantial structure than that of the Stone-Chat but otherwise similar.

The eggs numbering 4 or 5, are slightly larger and deeper in ground colour

though the markings are paler and tend to form a zone at the large end.

THE BIRDS OF THE SIMLA AND ADJACKNT HILLS 231

60. nanthe pleschanka pleschanka (Lepschin). The Upland Wheatear.

LENGTH: 6% inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: Above black (summer) with a pale cream or white fore-

head and supercilium; throat and upper breast black; tail black with broad white

bases; below from breast pure white.

DISTRIBUTION: In our area Waite found it not uncommon on the bare hill-

sides about Kanam and Poo.

GENERAL Hapits: A bird of the more barren wastes.

NipIFICATION: Breeds in Ladakh where Whistler and Osmaston took the

nest. No doubt the birds Waite saw were on their breeding ground.

The F.B.I, (2nd edition) has applied the trivial name ‘Pied Chat’ to two

birds of this genus, i.e. Gt. picata and this species, so I have differentiated the

present bird by the above name.

61. Cnanthe xanihoprymna chrysopygia(De Filippi). The Red-tailed Wheatear.

LENGTH: 6% inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: ‘Forehead to back and scapulars pale fawn, brighter

rufous fawn or chestnut on the rump; tail bright chestnut with the two middle

feathers black the remaining feathers with a broad terminal band of the same

colour; lower parts isabelline tinged pink. It is the only chat (or wheatear)

with red bases to the tail feathers. :

DIsTRIBUTION: In our area an accidental passage migrant. I obtained a

specimen at Sairee (5,000 feet) on 29-g-1912, which Dodsworth recorded in

the Journal, Vol. XXII, No. 1, p. 196. Hingston obtained it at 4,500 feet at

Dharmsala, and Whistler saw one at Ranital 1,800 feet (in the same district)

25-9-1921.

GENERAL Hapits: A winter visitor to the N.W. of India as far south as

Rajputana, Cutch and Sind. A bird of the arid, bush-clad (Capparis) wilderness.

NipiricaTION: Breeds in Persia from 6,000 feet upwards as recorded by

A. J. Currie in the F.B.I., Vol. ii, p. 54. The clutch consists of five pale sea-

green or bluish-white eggs, either spotless or with a few faint brown specks

about the larged end.

62. Cercomela fusca (Blyth). The Brown Rock-Chat.

LENGTH: 63% inches.

FreELD CHARACTERS: A plain brown robin-like bird. The tail and wings are

darker than the remaining plumage; below from chin to abdomen paler. Sexes

alike.

DISTRIBUTION: A few pairs at Kalka, otherwise not observed in our area.

GENERAL Hasits: A tame fearless bird, frequenting both human habitations

and rocky gorges. Has a characteristic habit of slowly raising its tail above

the level of its back. It has a very sweet, though short song in the breeding

season.

NiIpDIFICATION: The breeding season is from March to August. The nest is

placed on a ledge of a ravine, or window-sill; it is composed of grass-bents

and lined with scraps of rope, raffia, hair and wool and is often surrounded by

a rampart of small pebbles, kankar and lumps of earth. The usual clutch is

3 or 4 but 5 may rarely be found. The colour is a beautiful blue generally sparsely

marked at the large end with a few rusty blotches and specks.

63. Enicurus maculatus maculatus Vigors. The Western Spotted Forktail.

LENGTH: 11 inches.

FreLp CuaracTers: A black and white wagtail-like bird with a long forked

tail. Forehead, crown, rump, breast and underparts white; remaining plumage

black with white spots on the back and a broad white bar on the wings; tail

black with broad white tips. Sexes alike.

DisTRIBUTION: From 3,000 feet to 8,000 feet. Said to ascend considerably

higher in some localities.

GENERAL Hapits: A bird of the quieter wooded mountain streams where it

wades in the shallows and runs about sedately over the stones and boulders in

its search for aquatic insects, all the while slowly swaying the tail. The usual

eee is a loud tseer exactly like the Whistling Thrush which frequents similar

ocalities.

NipiricaTIon: Eggs may be found from mid-April to the end of June or

beginning of July. The nests are always placed in close proximity to a stream.

232: JOURNAL; ‘BOMBAY NATURAL! HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

The situation is generally.on a-ledge of a moss-growH rock overhung and sheltered

from the elements. The nest is a deep cup of fresh green moss :lined with

skeleton leaves. The clutch consists of three eggs which: are. very pale green

or pale cream, marked with reddish-brown blotches and spots. This Bird is. a‘

favourite fosterer of the European Cuckoo. .

64. Microcichla scouleri scouleri (Vigors). The . Little Forktail.

LENGTH: 5 inches. aw SOE OT BG ek

‘FIELD CHARACTERS: -A small stub-tailed ‘replica of the foregoing species; tail

measures usually less than 2 inches: Sexes. alike. - 8

DIsTRIBUTION: Found ‘in winter as low. as 2,500 feet up to-5,000 feet in

summer. The factor which governs its choice’ of habitat.in the breeding. season

is the presence of a waterfall. ; o

GENERAL Hasits: Unlike the Western Spotted Forktail this species prefers

turbulent streams and waterfalls flowing through open country. It -is an

exhilarating sight to watch one of these birds feeding on the face of a water-

washed, almost perpendicular slab of rock. Its food consists of aquatic insects.

NIpIFICATION: Takes place about two weeks before the foregoing species.

The nest is placed on a small ledge of rock, sometimes behind the apron of a

waterfall. The nest is a compact little cup composed of fresh green moss lined

with skeleton leaves. The eggs are apparently always 3 in number, white

sparsely speckled with pale red.

65. Phoenicurus frontalis Vigors. The Blue-fronted Redstart.

LENGTH: 63 inches.

Fre-tp CHaraAcTerRs: Forehead and supercilium bright blue; head, back, wings

and throat dark blue; rest of lower plumage and rump orange chestnut; central

tail feathers black remainder chestnut with broad black tips. Female brown with

tail and rump as in the male.

DISTRIBUTION: In the vicinity of Simla this is a winter visitor from October

to. March between elevations of 6,000 feet to 8,o00 feet. In summer Waite

found it at Chini, Pangi and above Nachar, and my son Paul found it on the

higher slopes of the Chor mountain in June.

GENERAL Hapits: Usually found in forest but sometimes in open rocky country.

The tail is flicked vertically rather than shivered. The note’ is tit-tit-tit very

reminiscent of the European Redbreast.. Insectivorous. ;

NIDIFICATION: There can be little doubt that it breeds in the higher hills of

our district. Whistler found a nest containing 3 hard-set eggs above the Kareri

Lake on the Daula Dhar range which is in Kangra District. The date was

7-6-23 it was placed in a cleft between some stones in a bank clothed with rough

herbage. The eggs are dull pinkish-grey stippled all over with pale reddish.

66. Phoenicurus erythronotus (Eversm.) Eversmann’s Redstart.

LENGTH: 63 inches.

FigELD CHARACTERS: Male: crown, nape and hind neck pale ashy blue;

forehead, lores, cheeks and chin black; rump and tail chestnut, the latter with

the two central feathers dark brown; a broad white wing patch; throat, breast

and flanks chestnut. Female: ashy brown with the rump and tail as the male.

DISTRIBUTION: A winter visitor to N. W. India and not uncommon from

Peshawar to Dehra Ismail Khan. It has been recorded, years ago, from Kotkhai

and I had a female sent to me from Tara Devi, 6,700 feet. These were probably

storm-driven birds. Whistler has given us two records from Kangra, both

occurrences in February.

GENERAL Hapits: A bird of lightly wooded country while in its winter

quarters. It usually perches on one of the lower branches of a medium sized

Kikar or Babul tree. The note is a creaking greer.

NipiFicaTIOn : Said to breed in Turkestan. The eggs are like those of the

Indian Stone-Chat, though the markings are scattered over the surface—not

forming a zone at the larger end. The recorded nest was in an old wall. |

67. Phoenicurus ochrurus phoenicuroides (Horsfield & Moore). The Black

Redstart.

LENGTH: 6 inches.

FieLD’ Cyaracters: Male: forehead, sides of head, neck, chin, throat and

breast black; crown and uppet ‘parts to rump ashy grey; rump and _ upper ‘tail-

\\ THE BIRDS OF THE SIMLA AND ADJACENT ‘HILLS 233

coverts bright chestnut; central tail feathers brown, lateral tail feathers chestnut ;

underparts deep orange brown. ‘Female: fulvous brown; rump and tail as in

the male ; lower plumage paler.

_ DistrisuTIoN: Breeds commonly in Ladakh, Lahul and Spiti and is very

common in the plains of the Punjab in the winter, but only a rare passage

‘migrant in the autumn in the Simla Hills. |

‘GENERAL Hasits: <A bird of lightly wooded country, gardens and’ buildings

in the cold season; in its breéding habitat it frequents the most desolate country.

The tail is shivered as the bird moves about.

NiwIFIcaTION: The breeding season is June. The nest is placed among the

loose stones of walls or under stones on the hillsides. The materials consist of

grass stems, moss and roots, lined with fine grass, hair and feathers. Two types

of eggs are found: pale greenish: -blue or almost white ; the clutch consists of 4

to 6 eggs..

68... Chaimarrhornis leucocephatus (Vigors). The White-capped Redstart.

LENGTH: 74% inches..

Fre_> CuaracTers: Crown glistening white; rest of head, back and wings

black; rump, upper tail coverts and lower parts from breast rich chestnut ; tail

chestnut with broad black tips. Sexes alike.

DISTRIBUTION: A winter visitor to the immediate vicinity of Simla from

7,000 feet down to the foothills and some little distance into the plains. Otherwise

from Baluchistan throughout the Himalayas to China up to 16,000 feet.

GENERAL Hapits: A water redstart. In Simla it is found on almost every

stony nullah even in the town itself, i.e. Combermere Bridge; it may also perch

on the roofs of houses in the immediate vicinity of water. The tail is raised

above the line of the back in a series of measured jerks, much as the Bluethroat

does. The call note is a high-pitched tseeee.

NipiFicaTIoN: Whistler tells us that the breeding season is from May till

August and that most nests will be found in August. The nest is a deep, mas-

sive cup of moss, leaves, roots and grass, with a thick lining of wool and hair.

The eggs number from 3 to 5. The ground colour is pale blue or blue-green

marked with specks and spots of reddish brown.

69. Rhyacornis fuliginosus a etugeds (Vigors). The Plumbeous Redstart.

LENGTH: 5 inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: Male: whole plumage slaty-plumbeous except the

tail which is rich chestnut. .The female has the upper plumage dull brown, the

tail broadly white at the base tipped broadly with brown; lower plumage ashy-

white squamated with brown.

DISTRIBUTION :. A common _ resident — species about Simla with some slight

seasonal movement. It breeds from 4,500 feet up to 9,000 feet or more. Strictly

confined to the mountain streams.

GENERAL Hapits: This sprightly little bird is as much given to flycatching

as feeding from the ground or snatching an insect from the surface of the

stream. The tail is spread and gently wagged.. The male: has a vibrating: trill

for his song.

NIDIFICATION: -Nest of : this: species are found from. April to July and

the species is double. brooded. ..The: nests are placed on a ledge of rock, in the

bank of a stream or retaining wall. close to a stream; they are built of grass-

bents,-moss and an occasional dead leaf. or two and fied with fine roots, fibres,

hair and wool. The eggs, usually. number -4 and are white tinged with pale

greenish-blue vA edi aa ROWE markings which usually form a zone at .the

large end.

70. Cyanosylvia svecica pallidogularis Sarudny. The Bluethroat.

LENGTH : ' 6 inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS ! A brown Eee soltfialn keeps inside cover. near dampish

localities. The male is distinguished by. a bright blue throat and breast in. the

centre of which is a chestnut spot... Both sexes have a’ pale. buff eye-stripe and

underparts; the base of the tail is ‘chestnut, very conspicuous in flight.

DISTRIBUTION : . A. rare passage migrant in these hills.in October; CB.

Ticehurst took one -on, October 16th. 1919, | while I obtained one at -Basantpur,

3,500 feet 6th October 1918. During winter itis a very common bird. in suitable

localities in the plains,

234 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

_ GENERAL Hasits: Usually seen solitary in moist localities, i.e. edges of

jheels, even on a grass or rush-grown island and growing crops; its one requisite

is cover but not in forest. . ;

_NipiricaTION: Breeds in Ladakh. in June and July. Both F. Ludlow and

BE. B. Osmaston took nests and eggs in that country. The nest is placed on

the ground at the base of a bush or other shelter; grass, roots and leaves form

the outer structure and it is lined with grass and fibres. The clutch numbers

4 eggs of a sage green colour sometimes freckled with pale red.

71. Calliope pectoralis pectoralis Gould. The Himalayan Rubythroat.

LENGTH: 6 inches.

FietpD CnHarAcTErRS: Forehead and supercilium white; upper plumage ashy

washed with olive brown in winter plumage; the tips and base of tail feathers

white; chin and throat bright crimson; breast black, lower parts white. The

female lacks the crimson throat and chin and has these parts sullied white.

DISTRIBUTION: Winter visitor from October to April. Ticehurst obtained one

at Fagoo, 8,o00 feet on 18-10-1919, while I got one in the same locality in 1920.

Its winter quarters are mostly between 6,000 feet and 3,500 feet.

GENERAL Hapits: A very retiring bird and rarely shows itself out in the

open. It prefers fairly dense cover and for the most part feeds on the ground

but. will occasionally mount to the top of a bush for a few moments.

NipIFICATION: Breeds in Kashmir, Gilgit and Ladakh during June and July.

The nest is domed, placed on the ground and carefully secreted in bush-clad

country; dry grass is the material commonly used. Eggs number 4 or 5 and

are of a blue-green colour sometimes with a faint ring of reddish freckles at the

larger end.

72. Tarsiger chrysaeus whistleri Ticehurst. The Simla Golden Bush-Robin.

LENGTH: 6. inches.

Fietp CwHaracTers: Male, upper parts olive green; ear-coverts black; super-

cilium, rump and whole lower plumage bright orange. Female, duller than the

male; ear-coverts olive brown.

DISTRIBUTION: Winter visitor in small numbers to the lower elevations from

5,000 feet down to 2,500 feet, mostly in the Sutlej Valley. Otherwise from Hazara

to Garhwal. Further East the typical race occurs.

GENERAL Hapirs: A bird of unobtrusive habits keeping to fairly dense under-

growth and hopping quietly about on the ground in search of food. Call-note

a subdued croak.

NIDIFICATION: Breeds at higher elevations from May to July. The nest

is placed on a sloping hillside in a niche in a bank among the herbage and

rocks. It is composed mostly of moss and lined with hair and wool. The

clutch usually consists of 4 eggs of a skim-milk blue.

73. lanthia cyanura pallidiora Baker. The Kashmir Red-flanked Bush-Robin.

LENGTH: 6. inches.

Fretp CuHaracters: Male: upper plumage deep blue; chin, throat and upper

breast sullied white; flanks orange chestnut; underparts ashy white. Female:

above olive brown, otherwise much the same as the male.

DistRIBUTION: Common winter visitor. Arrives in October and may often

be seen perching on the wire fencing aligning the quieter roads round Simla.

It is a very hardy little bird and may be seen at 7,000 feet or more throughout

the winter. It leaves for the higher altitudes in March. Waite took a juvenile

at Baghi on June 22nd.

GENERAL Hapits: A tame fearless little bird; its behaviour is very reminiscent

of the British Redbreast. It feeds entirely on winged insects, taking the live

ones in the air and the dead ones from the surface of the snow! While with

us it haunts open spaces in and near forest. Its note is syllabilized by White-

head as prot, which is a good representation.

NipiricATIon: Breeds from May to July between g,oo0 feet and 12,000 feet.

The nest is made of dry grass, moss and leaves; lined with fine fibres and hair

or fur. The eggs number from 3 to 5 and are spotless white, very rarely with

a few small blotches of pale red-brown at the large end.

THE BIRDS OF THE SIMLA AND ADJACKNY HILLS 235

74, Adelura coeruleocephala (Vigors). The Blue-headed Robin.

LENGTH: 6 inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: Male, crown and nape smalt blue; back, rump, tail,

throat and breast black; a broad wing-bar, abdomen and under tail-coyerts

white. The female is brown with ferruginous rump; underparts paler brown.

DISTRIBUTION: Arrives in Simla (7,000 feet) during the latter half of October

returning to higher elevations early in March. Waite frequently encountered

it on the further reaches of the Hindustan-Tibet road from Urni to Pangi.

GENERAL Hapits: A.common and fearless bird while in its winter quarters.

It likes more open country than the last species and will frequently be seen on

the bushes along the less crowded thoroughfares. One sees at least ten males

to one female. Its food consists of winged insects. Its general demeanour is

partly Redstart, partly Robin. The note is tit-tit-tit very much like the British

Robin’s.

NipiFicaTIon: This species breeds in May and June between elevations of

8,000 feet and 12,000 feet. The nest is placed on the ground. It is made of

moss, leaves and grass, lined with hair and fur. The clutch consists of 3 or

4 eggs. These are grey-blue with a ring of fine pale reddish specks at the larger

end.

75. Saxicoloides fulicata cambaiensis (Latham). The Brown-backed Indian

Robin.

LENGTH: 63 inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: Male: upper plumage earth brown, lesser wing-coverts

white; throat to abdomen glossy black; under tail coverts chestnut. Female,

brown above and below; lacks the black underparts and the white wing patch.

DistRIBUTION: At the base of the hills up to 3,500 feet. Penetrates some

distance up the Sutlej Valley. Resident. Elsewhere throughout the plains of

Upper India. In S. India it is represented by other races.

GENERAL Hapits: A common familiar bird. Frequents open bushclad, rather

arid and stony country. Keeps mostly to the ground delighting in rocky localities

and human habitations. The tail is held high above the back and flicked from

side to side. The song is mediocre. Food: insects and their larvae.

NipiricatIon: The nest may be found from March to August. Any suitable

hole or cranny in a wall, tree or a bank may be chosen for the nest. The

materials are grass-bents lined with hair, fibres and wool. Eggs number 3 or

4 and are a pale green mottled with red-brown evenly distributed over the

surface. An interesting characteristic is that most nests contain a fragment of

snakes’ skins. ;

76. Copsychus saularis saularis (Linnaeus). The Magpie Robin.

LENGTH: 8 inches.

FrELD CuHaRacTERS: Male: head, neck, upper plumage, breast wings and

tail black; lower plumage white; a white patch on the wings and the outer

tail feathers mostly white. Female: slaty grey where the male is black, remainder

of plumage sullied white.

DISTRIBUTION: In the Simla Hills its usual habitat is from the foothills to

5,500 feet but it occasionally wanders up to 6,500 feet or slightly more. Else-

where found practically throughout India.

GENERAL Hapits: Found mostly near cultivation and on the outskirts of

lightly wooded country. Where it occurs it is tame and fearless. Perches freely

on trees though most of its food is obtained on the ground. It has a beautiful

song heard at its best early and late in the day. The tail is often cocked well

above the level of the back.

NIDIFICATION: The breeding season in the hills is from May to July. Here

the nest is often placed in a wide mouthed but shallow hole in an old walnut

tree standing in cultivation. Any site from 6 feet to 15 feet from the ground

may be utilised. The nest is a mere lining of the cavity, grass-bents and hair

being the usual materials employed. The clutch usually consists of 4 eggs

which are very pale green, fairly densely blotched with dark red-brown.

77. Turdus merula maximus Seebohm. The Central Asian Blackbird.

LENGTH: 11 inches.

FreLD CHARACTERS: Male; entire plumage black. Bill orange. Female ;

dark brown, slightly paler below. Bill dusky yellow.

236 JOURNAL; BOMBAY NALURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. ‘47

DistTRIBUTION: In the Simla Hills this bird has ‘only “been recorded by

H. W. Waite, (J.B.N.H.S., Vol. 45, No. 4, p. 534), who collected’'a’ pair at

Chini on June 1st. Outside our area thinly distributed from the N. W. Frontier

to Bhutan. = = St ou, 4 ; oo

_ GENERAL Hapits: A bird of the higher altitudes frequenting the upper limits

of tree growth and the Alpine pastures wheré these are scarred with rocky

gorges. Said to be a wild, shy bird. oe

NipiFicaTIon : In the Himalayas it breeds in June and July making a sub-

stantial nest of moss and grass; it is placed sometimes on a ledge of rock or

in a stunted Juniper tree. Eggs number 3 or 4, pale blue blotched with pale

red-brown. — ;

78. Turdus albocinctus Royle. The White-collared Blackbird.

LENGTH: 11 inches.

FreELp CuHaracters: Male: a broad white collar, chin and. throat . white;

remainder of plumage dark brown. Female: collar pale sullied. earth brown;

remainder of plumage rufous brown, slightly paler below.

DISTRIBUTION: In our area a few pairs used to breed near the top of Kufn

Hill. Common in the Narkanda-Baghi area in summer. In a good Holly-berry

season comes commonly into the outskirts of Simla, 6,500 feet to 7,500 feet.

GENERAL Hasits: A woodland species frequenting both light and heavy forest.

Shy and wary in the breeding season; more confiding in the cold season when,

if Holly berries are available, it may be seen feeding on:these near the quieter

thoroughfares. The only occasion I saw it on the ground was when an old one

was feeding the newly-fledged brood on the top of Kufri Hill.

NipiFIcaATION: The breeding season in the Simla Hills is in May and June.

The only nest I have found was 8,400 feet on May 15th when it contained a

single fresh egg. ‘The nest was placed 10 feet from the ground in a fork of a

Kharsu Oak. Materials and eggs are similar to those of the Central Asian

Blackbird.

79. Turdus boulboul (Latham). The Grey-winged Blackbird.

LENGTH: 11 inches.

Firtp CHARACTERS: Sex for sex resembles the Central Asian Blackbird with

the addition of a silvery grey patch on the wnig of the male and pale rufous in

the female.

DistTRIBUTION: About the Simla area it is found up to 8,o00 feet in summer,

and down to the foothills in winter. I have even seen it some distance out in

the plains, i.e. Ambala and Jagadhri City.

GENERAL Hapits: Not uncommon in the forests immediately surrounding our

area. During the breeding season it is more often heard than seen.’ Morning

and evening are the best times to hear the melodious song of the male for

without any doubt he is considered our finest songster. It is of a shy retiring

nature moving off quietly through the forest at the least hint of danger. Its

food consists of insects, berries, fruit and earthworms.

NipiFIcaTION: ‘The breeding season is from the latter half of April to August.

It is double brooded. The nest is made of moss, leaves, grass and tendrils with

an interlining of mud and finally a lining of dry grass. It is placed in the fork

or on an horizontal branch of a tree from 6 feet to 15 feet from the ground.

The eggs are usually 3 or 4 in the clutch. The ground-colour is pale. green

blotched. evenly, over the surface with pale red-brown.

80. Turdus rubrocanus rubrocanus Gray. The Grey-headed Thrush.

LENGTH :.,.11,:inches. ; a

FrevD. Cuaracters: Head, neck and throat grey; back deep chestnut; rump

and upper. tail coverts bright, chestnut ; tail black ; below chestnut, paler on

abdomen: , The female is a duller edition of this description. ae

DISTRIBUTION : . Winter visitor, tq the Simla Hills when .it may be seen in

small flocks which arrive here late in October, leaving for higher elevations

further ‘West in Match. mh hens at . Rees

GENERAL Hapits: Very similar to those of the White-collared Blackbird with

which it often consorts when both,species are, gorging. themselves on Holly-berries.

NipiricaTion: Not found breeding, in our area; but Colonel R. H.. Rattray

found numbers of its nests at Murree. He says the nests are placed in banks,

THE BIRDS OF’ THE SIMLA AND ADJACENT HILLS + 237

holes in rocks, among roots of fallen trees and in a hole in’a ttée ‘trunk up to

10 or 12 feet from the ground. Whistler quotes Hingston (Ibis 1926) as finding

it a ‘common and widespread resident breeding between 7,000 and 9,500 feet’.

The breeding season is from April to June. The nest is made of the-same mate-

rials as of the Grey-winged Blackbird; the eggs are also. similary

81. Turdus atrogularis Jarocki. _The Black-throated Thrush.

LENGTH: 10. inches. me eaGiG * ; Naot” 3

Firetp CHARACTERS: Male: upper parts, olive brown; cheeks, chin, throat

and breast black; lower plumage white, under wing coverts dull orange brown.

Female: above, similar to the male; chin, throat and fore-neck heavily spotted

with black; remainder of lower: plumage white.

: DisTRIBUTION: A winter visitor in some numbers, flocks arriving at the

end of October and leaving again in April and uncommonly even’ as: late as the

beginning of May, their movements being governed by weather. conditions.

GENERAL Hasits: This species is highly gregarious, flocks of up to fifty

birds being often seen at the time of their departure. Its usual call-note is

similar to that of the British Song Thrush. The food consists of earthworms,

insects and_ berries.

NipiricaTION: Very doubtful if it has ever bred within Indian limits. Its

chief breeding grounds being the ‘Taiga’ forests of Siberia.- Nests and eggs

resemble those of the several species of blackbirds.

82. Turdus unicolor Tickell. Tickell’s Thrush.

LENGTH: 9 inches.

FretD CHARACTERS: ‘Male: upper plumage including wings and tail ashy-

grey; lower plumage slaty-grey, paler on the chin and becoming white towards

the tail; under wing-coverts chestnut-brown. Female: upper plumage olive

brown; chin and throat white, streaked with black on the sides; breast olivaceous

with a gorget of black spots across the upper part; flanks ochraceous; abdomen

white ; under wing-coverts chestnut-brown (Whistler).

DISTRIBUTION: In the Simla Hills area it is a passage-migrant appearing in

October in the lower hills to 7,000. feet before it passes on to its winter

quarters in Central India. Not observed on the Spring migration. Very com-

mon in Kashmir during summer. Rare in the Kangra Valley during summer.

GENERAL Hagpits: A quiet sombre coloured bird. Frequents the ground under

groves of trees. When disturbed flies silently up into a nearby tree. In Kashmir

it is commonly seen hopping about the lawns at Srinagar. It has a fine song

during the breeding season. Food consists of insects, earthworms and. berries.

_NipiricaTion : Does not breed in the Simla Hills area. The breeding season

is said to be in May and June. The nest is composed of moss, roots and dry

grass, lined with fine roots. It is placed in a tree from 6 feet to 20 feet from

the ground. Rarely, a nest may be placed on the ground in a bank. The

clutch numbers from 3 to 5 eggs, the ground-colour is pale .green or reddish-

white thickly speckled with dull reddish-brown. ;

83 Arceuthornis viscivorus bonapartei (Cabanis), The Himalayan Missel-Thrush.

LENGTH: 12 inches. - ' :

FreLD CHaRAcTERS: A large grey-brown bird; lower plumage pale buff spotted

with black. Sexes alike. :

DistRIBUTION: In the Simla Hills this fine Thrush is resident between 6,000

feet and 9,000 feet. The higher elevation is its summer: habitat; the lower its

normal winter quarters unless snow drives it. still-lower.° Whistler found it in

Rawalpindi and I obtained one in Dehra Dun in winter.

GENERAL Hasits: A bird of the open downlands where it hops about the ground

in its search for insects and berries.’ At the approach of danger it flies off with

a churring note, settling again further afield. In the breeding season it with-

draws to the edges of forest.

NIDIFICATION :| The breeding season is from the beginning’ of May to June.

‘The nest is placed in a fork of a tree at no great height from the ground: 8 feet

t0°15 feet up. A Kharsu oak or a deodar are the trees most favoured. The

materials are grass-bents, dried stems of plants, lichen and ‘moss,’ lined “with

}

238 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

fine grass and roots. The eggs number 3 or 4 and are pale stone in ground-colour

boldly blotched with reddish-brown with some underlying markings of inky purple.

84. Geokichla wardii (Blyth). The Pied Ground-Thrush.

LENGTH: 9g inches. ;

FIELD CuHarRAcTERS: Male: upper plumage and throat black; a broad white

supercilium; underparts, tips of tail feathers and a wing bar white; flanks

barred with black. Female: above olive brown; narrow fulvous supercilium ;

chin white; throat and upper breast fulvous-white barred black; remainder of

lower plumage white, heavily barred black on flanks.

DISTRIBUTION: The Sutlej Valley is its westerly limit of distribution and the

bird is definitely very rare in our area. 1 have seen it between 6,o00 feet and

8,000 feet in these hills. Eastward it extends to Assam and the Naga Hills.

GENERAL Hasits: This handsome bird’s habitat is the edge of forest. It is

a summer visitor arriving in early April and leaving for its winter quarters in

September. The song is poor, being composed of two notes, otherwise it is a

very silent bird.

NIDIFICATION: Takes place in May and June. A nest I found was placed in the

fork of an horizontal branch of an Oak (Q. incana) at the edge of forest. The

materials are moss, grass or leaves, lined with fibres and pine needles. The

eggs number 3 or 4. The ground-colour is white tinged with green sparsely

blotched with pale red-brown.

85. Geokichla citrina citrina (Latham). The Orange-headed Ground-Thrush,

LENGTH: 9 inches.

Firtp Cuaracters: Male: head, neck and underparts bright orange-chestnut ;

back, wings and tail bluish grey; a white wing-bar. Female: like the male

with the exception of the bluish-grey parts being replaced by olive-brown.

DIsTRIBUTION: A summer visitor; its habitat being groves of trees near

human habitations and cultivated country between 3,o00 feet and 5,500 feet.

It is uncommon in our area. Beyond the Simla Hills boundaries this race is

recorded from Murree to Assam. Other races occur in the C.P. and Western

India. down to Travancore, while both the Andaman and Nicobar Islands have

their respective races.

GENERAL Hapits: Inhabits the lesser forests and groves which possess a

plentiful undergrowth in which it finds its food. I have also seen it away from

forest where it feeds on the ripe fruit of Berberis. Insects of all kinds,

berries and fruit comprise its food. The song consists of a few pleasant notes.

NIDIFICATION: May and June are the principal months in which it breeds,

though nests are occasionally found in July and August. The nest is cup-shaped,

made of moss, leaves, grass and dead leaves and lined with dry grass and roots.

It is placed at no great height from the ground. The clutch consists of 3 or 4

eggs pale green or stone colour, blotched and speckled with reddish-brown.

86. Oreocincla dauma dauma (Latham). The Small-billed Mountain-Thrush.

LENGTH: 10 inches.

FreLp CHARACTERS: Sexes alike. Above ochraceous brown each feather with

with a black bar; tail brown, tipped and edged with sullied white; Jower

plumage white profusely spotted with black.

DIsTRIBUTION : Comes into the neighbourhood of Simla in October, leaving

again in March for higher altitudes. Waite obtained a young bird on Mount

Hattu on June 24th.

GENERAL Hapits: A quiet, retiring bird generally seen hopping about the

ground in forest, flying silently up into a tree when disturbed. A male I observed

one summer at Kufri had a fine loud song, reminiscent of that of the British

Song Thrush.

NipiFicATION : We have no definite data regarding its breeding in our area

though Waite’s record of obtaining the juvenile (above) makes it practically

certain that it does so Outside our area Rattray obtained nests at Murree.

The F.B.I. (2nd edition) gives the breeding season as May and June and the nest

as made of green moss mixed with roots, leaves and grass and lined with fine

roots. It is placed from 5 feet to 10 feet from the ground. Eggs are either 3

or 4 in a clutch. In colour they are pale clay or yellowish-green closely freckled

ever with pale reddish.

THE BIRDS OF THE SIMLA AND ADJACENT HILLS 239

87. Oreocincla mollissima simlaensis Stuart Baker. The Plain-backed Mountain-

Thrush.

LENGTH: 10 inches. !

Fre_p CHARACTERS: Upper parts olive-brown, unmarked; underparts the same

as in the Small-billed Mountain-Thrush. Sexes alike.

DIsTRIBUTION: A winter visitor. Rare. Outside our area from Kangra to

Garhwal. Further east the typical race occurs. The race O. m. whiteheadi occurs

at high altitudes on the N. W Frontier.

GENERAL Hapits: The same as the foregoing species,

NipiFIcATION: W. H. Matthews records a nest found by him in the Bhiilung

Valley, Tehri Garhwal (J.B.N.H.S., Vol. 25, No. 3). He tells us that the nest

was made of moss, lined with roots and fine grass. There were 4 fresh eggs

on June 14th; they were whitish in ground colour, profusely spotted with

chestnut and reddish-brown, in some cases almost blood red. The bird was a

close sitter.

88. Zoothera monticola Vigors. The Large Brown Thrush.

LENGTH: 11 inches.

FreLD CHARACTERS: Sexes alike. Upper plumage, wings and tail dark ashy-

brown; chin and throat white narrowly barred with dark brown; remaining lower

parts fulvous to white heavily spotted with black. The scimitar-like bill is

diagnostic.

‘ DistRIBUTION: The Sutlej Valley is the westerly limit. Neither Whistler

nor Hingston seem te have encountered it in the Kangra Valley. Eastwards

it is found through the Himalayas to Assam and Manipur.

GENERAL Hapitrs: Winter visitor to our area. Here it is found from 5,000 feet

to 7,500 feet from November to March. Its habitat are the small mountain

streams running through forest. It is a quiet bird, feeding on the damp margins

of the water and which, on being disturbed, flies into a nearby tree. It is crepus-

cular.

NipiFicATION: Takes place between the end of May and the beginning of

july. The nest is placed from to feet to 20 feet from the ground. The exterior

is made of fresh damp moss, the lining being of roots, lichen and rhizomorphs.

The eggs number 3 or 4 and are of the blackbird type.

89. Monticola ruiiventris (Jardine & Selby). The Chestnut-bellied Rock-Thrush

LENGTH: 9 inches. :

FIELD CuHaraActeRs: Male: above brilliant cobalt-blue; chin and throat black ;

remainder of lower plumage dark chestnut. Female: the whole upper plumage

including wings and tail faintly barred black; a ring round the eye and a

crescentic fulvous area. behind the eye and ear-coverts; chin and throat buff;

the whole lower plumage buff, squamated with black. The young male in first

plumage has the wings’and tail blue; otherwise is like the female.

DISTRIBUTION: In summer found from 7,000 feet to 9,000 feet. During the

winter months wanders down to the foothills and occasionally out into the

plains (Ambala).

GENERAL Hasits: A forest bird. During the breeding season it is of a very

shy, retiring nature, its presence being revealed either by the pleasant warbling

song of the male or by the alarm note uttered by both birds when they are

anxious for the safety of the nest or young ones. Insectivorous.

NipiricaTIon :. The breeding season is from the end of April to the middle

of May. Single brooded. The materials used for the nest are mainly dry grass

on a foundation of fine twigs and is lined with roots and fine grass. The female

only incubates and is a close sitter. The eggs number 3 or 4; in ground colour

pale cream suffused with pink and finely but profusely freckled all over the

surface with light red brown which usually forms a zone at the larger end.

90. Monticola cinclorhyncha (Vigors). The Blue-headed Rock-Thrush.

LencTH: 8 inches.

FreLtD CHarAcTERS: Male; head, nape, chin and throat bright cobalt blue ;

a marrow eye-stripe, ear coverts, back and scapulars black; a broad white bar

on the wing; rump, upper tail coverts and lower plumage chestnut. Female ;

upper plumage, wings and tail olive-brown; below white to fulvous, each feather

squamated dark brown.

240. JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vow. 47

DISTRIBUTION :. Summer visitor. Common from 4,000 feet to 7,000 feet. One

of the few birds addicted to the pine (P. longifolia) forests in the hot dry weather.

GENERAL Hasits: A forest bird, arriving in the middle of April. Very sec-

retive in its habits but the male may frequently be seen pouring out his pleasant

little song from the topmost branch of a tree. It occasionally indulges in a

volplaning flight, pouring out its song during this performance. Food: winged

and other insects.

NipiricaTIoN: Takes place from the end of April (exceptional), May and

June. Otherwise both nest and eggs are similar, except that both are slightly

smaller, to those of the foregoing species.

91. Monticola sotitaria pandoo (Sykes). The Indian Blue Rock-Thrush, —

LENGTH: - 8 inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: Male: the whole plumage dark blue. Female: above

grey brown; back and rump barred blackish; below fulvous barred blackish. '

DISTRIBUTION: In our area found mostly between 5,o00 feet and 7,500 feet.

GENERAL Hapits: Summer visitor. Frequents the open, grassy, rocky, pre-

cipitous hillsides. Its melodious song is uttered from a. commanding rock or

telegraph pole. The food consists of grasshoppers and other winged insects

captured on the ground. In September it begins to leave its summer quarters:

and descends to the’ foothills and plains. During summer it is extremely cau-

tious in the vicinity of the nest but in winter is a tame confiding bird even

haunting and roosting in human habitations.

NIDIFICATION : May is the month in which most nests will ha found! Tinese

are well concealed in the crevice of a small crag. or in a built-up wall made of.

slabs of rock. The nest is composed of grass and roots, lined with hair and

fine roots. The eggs number. 3 or 4. and are. pale ‘blue usually with a few. rust

coloured’ blotches scattered over the surface.

92. Myiophoneus caeruleus temminckii Vigors. The Himalayan Whistling-Thrush.

LENGTH; 12° inches. :

FIELD CHARACTERS: A large black thrush tinged with deep ultramarine,

each feather is tipped with light shining blue. . Sexes alike. Common resident.

DisTRIBUTION: Found in our area from 2,500 feet to 9,000 feet, even higher

at times. A typical hill bird found throughout the Himalayas. Represented by

other races in South India and Burma.

GENERAL Hapits: One of our most conspicuous birds frequenting alike. the

wild turbulent streams, the small cliffs and crags in the jungles and the bungalows

of the township where its joyous song is uttered almost throughout the year.

Irrepressible and virile, I have heard it singing during a sharp hailstorm! Often

sings on the wing and has a habit of fanning its tail as it alights on its perch.

Its usual call-note is exactly like that of the Spotted Forktail, besides which it

has some very harsh ones. Earthworms, caterpillars and water insects consti-

tute its usual diet but it will eat almost anything it finds,

NIDIFICATION: The breeding season is from the end of April to July. It-is

double-brooded.. A pair which built.in our verandah in 1946 laid the second clutch»

11 days after the young of the first brood left the nest. The situation of the

nest is usually in a cliff near a mountain stream, rarely in a tree and not un-

commonly about our bungalows. The materials used are green moss and lined

with roots. The clutch numbers 3 or 4. eggs which are very pale blue suffused

in light rust, some may even be distinctly marked though this is exceptional.

93. Laiscopus collaris whymperi Stuart. Baker. The Central-Himalayan

Alpine Accentor.

LENGTH: 6 inches.

Fretp Cuaracters: ‘Forehead to hind-neck greyish brown; back more rufous

with broad black centres to each feather; rump and upper tail-coverts rufous ;

tail dark brown tipped white, as are also the lesser wing coverts; chin and

throat white barred with black; breast greyish brown; flanks and underparts

deep chestnut. Sexes alike.

DisTRIBUTION: It is a> winter visitor to the immediate neighbourhood of

Simla from November to March, but breeds above Chini whence J received an

immature specimen sent to me in August 1926.

THE BIRDS OF THE, SIMLA AND ADJACENT HILLS 24t

GENERAL Hapits: A very quiet bird with us. Nearly always found in <pairs

frequenting rocky country in forest or open country. Absolutely tame and fear-

less. Feeds on insects and grass-seed.

NipiricaTion: We are indebted to ‘the late S, L. Whymper for a description

of this bird’s nesting habits. He found the nests at an elevation of 15,000 feet

in Garhwal; these were composed entirely of moss and placed ‘under the shelter

of a rock. The eggs number 2 or 3 of the usual, Hedge-Sparrow blue, unmarked.

94, Laiscopus himalayanus (Blyth). The Altai Accentor.

- LencTH: 6 inches. aie PU TOD GbUiGe Ah) 8G

FIELD CHaAracTERS: ‘Differs from the foregoing: species in being more rufous

on the back; a gorget of white on chin: and throat; flanks rufous, each feather

edged whitish. Sexes’ alike.

DistRiBuTION: This is another winter visitor’ to the Simla Hills, where it

may be observed from 6,000 feet to 8,500 feet’ om the end of October to the

end of March.

~ GENERAL Hapits: Highly gregarious in its winter habitat ; adeks’ of ‘50 to 60

or more are not uncommon. They feed on the barer hillsides, always’ preferring

the shady side of the hill. Towards the end of their sojourn with us an incessant

warbling is indulged in either while searching the ground for food or. when

perched in a leafless tree.

NiwIricATION: Said to breed ‘in Gilgit, Ladakh and, Tibet in May, Tints and

July between 12,000 feet and 15,000 feet.. The nest and eggs are similar to

those of the Alpine Accentor. aide

95. Prunella atrogalurs (Brandt). The Black-throated Accentor,::

LENGTH: 6 inches.

FietD CHARACTERS; Above dark brown, feathers on the back centered black ;

tail brown; a broad buff supercilium ; ear-coverts, chin and throat black; breast

and flanks ochraceous buff. . Sexes alike.

DISTRIBUTION: Winter visitor, from October to April. Ly is, poural in our

area from:;.the foothills to. 9,000. feet. ;

GENERAL Hapits: Found for .the most: part, on : -scrub- eavered hillsides where.

it forages about in. the herbage. around the base of bushes. Has a habit of.

flicking its wings as it. moves:about., ; The call-note is .a.soft trrt.

NipiricaTION: We have: no authentic - instance of its having bred in’ India

but the F.B.I, (2nd edition), tells us it is ‘not an uncommon breeding bird in

Tibet from 12,000 feet to above 14,000 feet. The nest is placed low: down in a

thorn bush and the clutch numbers either 3 or 4 eggs which are hadisoia sere

from. other species vf the sub-family’.

96. Prunella strophiata jerdoni (Brooks). ,Jerdon’s Accentor..

LENGTH: 6 inches. EAT ,

FreLp Cuaracters: The whole upper plumage brown ‘tinged’ with rufous,

each feather broadly centered blackish brown; a broad -supercilium, cream in

front shading to rufous towards the nape; chin and throat white spotted with

black at the sides and base; breast rufous; abdomen white boldly streaked

with black,

DIstRIBUTION: This bird is a winter visitor to the Simla area but breeds

in the interior from 9,000 feet upwards. H. W. Waite records, J.B.N.H.S.,

Vol. 45, No. 4, obtaining an adult male and a juvenile at the beginning of June.

A number wander down towards the foothills.

GENERAL Hasits: Very similar to those of the Black-throated Accentor ; if

there is a difference it is that Jerdon’s shows a partiality for a moister habitat.

NipiFicaTIon: The nest is placed in a bush or a tree at a moderate height

from the ground, preferably a conifer. The materials used are moss and dry

grass and lined with fur and hair. The eggs usually number from 4 to 5 and

are of the usual unspotted Hedge-Sparrow blue.

(In my former list I recorded the Robin Accentor (P. rubeculoides) but as no

confirmatory evidence has since occurred. it should be omitted from the present

notes.)

242 JOURNAL, ‘BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

97. Muscicapa striata neumanni Poche. The Eastern Spotted Flycatcher.

LENGTH: 6 inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: Sexes alike. Upper parts including head, nape, back

and wings greyish brown; a pale ring round the eye; lower ‘plumage sullied

white, streaked with brown .on breast and flanks. — :

DISTRIBUTION : A very rare passage migrant to our area in early September.

A. O. Hume obtained one in Jakko many years ago and I saw one on Elysium

Hill in September 1933. Outside our area it is not uncommon on migration

in the Western Punjab.

GENERAL Hapsits: A stolid, quiet bird as a rule feeding from a fixed perch,

returning again and again to the same branch after every flight after insects.

It is quite indifferent to being watched.

NipiricaTION: The breeding season is in May and June; the nest is made

of grass, moss and roots, lined with hair, fine roots and hair and is placed in

a variety of situations, i.e. on a branch of a tree, in a hole, against the side of

a house etc. The eggs number 4 or 5, the ground colour is a pale sea-green

which is heavily blotched with pale red often forming a broad zone round

the large end.

98. Hemichelidon sibirica gulmergi Stuart Baker. The Sooty Flycatcher.

LENGTH: 5% inches.

FIELD. CHARACTERS: Above, sooty brown; sides of head mottled brown and

white ; breast and flanks sooty brown; abdomen white. The pale buff ring round

the eye is noticeable.

DISTRIBUTION: Summer visitor arriving at the end of April, leaving these

parts in October. In its summer quarters it is found from 6,000 feet to 9,500 feet.

Much more in evidence on its downward migration when its numbers are much

augmented by immigrants from higher altitudes.

GENERAL Hasirs: Very similar to those of the Spotted Flycatcher. It is,

however, more of a forest bird, particularly affecting the deodar tracts.

NIDIFICATION: Breeds from May to June, usually placing its nest on a

horizontal branch of a moss-grown deodar. The height from the ground is from

8 feet to 60 feet. For the size of the bird the nest is rather large on the exterior

but the interior is ‘small and deep. Outside it is almost entirely composed of

moss with a flake or two of lichen, the lining being of fur or hair with an occa-

sional feather. ‘The eggs number 2 or 3; in colour they are pale green, densely

clouded over with pale rust colour so that the ground colour is practically obscured.

99. Siphia strophiata strophiata Hodgson. The Orange-gorgeted Flycatcher-

LENGTH: 5% inches.

FireLp CHARACTERS: Upper plumage olive brown; tail black with white bases ;

forehead black, next te which follows a white band which is prolonged to the

eve; breast and throat deep slaty centred with orange; abdomen white.

DISTRIBUTION: Found from the foothills in winter to 9,500 feet in summer.

Outside our area from Kashmir to Assam.

GENERAL Hasits: A forest bird frequenting the lower canopy flitting from

bush to bush at no great height from the ground. During the breeding season

it is shy and retiring but in its winter quarters is bold and inquisitive; the note

at this season is a low tuck-tuck-tuck.

NipiricaTION: Takes place from the end of April to June. The nest is

made of-moss, maiden-hair fern rachides lined with the latter, a feather or two

and fragments of birch bark. ‘The situation chosen may be on the ground on

a sloping bank or in a convenient hole of a tree up to a height of 10 feet. The

eggs number 3 or 4 and are pure glossy white.

100. Siphia parva parya (Bechstein), The European Red-breasted Flycatcher.

LENGTH: 5 inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: Forehead, crown and nape ashy-grey.; back, scapulars

and wing coverts fulvous brown; upper tail coverts and tail black, the outer

ones with the basal two-thirds white; a.ring of fulvous feathers round the eye;

chin, throat and breast bright chestnut ; remainder of lower plumage white.

Fem: ales and young males lack the chestnut, otherwise resembling the adult

male :

. THE BIRDS OF THE SIMLA- AND ADJACENI*HILLS\\ 243

‘DisTRiBUTION: ‘In. our, area avery rare passage migrant during the down-

ayarg meyvement -to the plains. ° It is noteworthy | that. there was a female or a

juvenile male in our garden the morning after a severe thunder storm;. this

was on 27-10-46. It stayed with us for 3 days. Very common in. the plains.

auring winter. In summer to Central Europe and Western Siberia.

GENERAL Hapirs: A tame familiar little bird during the winter months, when

its visits almost every garden in the plains of Upper India.» Its creaky note: is

often accompanied by raising and spreading the tail.

NipiricatioN: May and June are reported to be the period during which

breeding takes place. The nest is made of moss, grass and lichen lined with

hair and grass. It is placéd against a tree trunk or a wall and sometimes in

a natural hole in ‘a tree: The eggs number from 3 to 5. They are pale sea

green, profusely marked with pinkish brown.

101. Muscicapula tricolor tricolor Uetoatssgn The Slaiy-blue Flycatcher.

LENGTH: 5 inches. psi Melanie

FIELD. CuaractERs: Adult male—deep: slaty-blue above; forehead and_ super-

cilium paler and brighter; lower plumage sullied white; often tinged with fulvous

on flanks and breast. Female above, olive-brown tinged rufous; upper tail-

coverts and tail ferruginous ; lower plumage fulvous white,

DIsTRIBUTION: Found in summer between 7,500 feet and 9,500 feet. In

winter descends to the foothills at elevations between 1,000 feet and 3,000 feet.

Outside our area from Kashmir to Assam.

GENERAL Hasits: During the breeding season frequents the understorey in

forest where cover is plentiful. Both its démeanour and notes are reminiscent

of the British Redbreast.

NipiFIcaTIon : May and June are the months during which breeding takes

place in our area. The nest is situated on the ground in a bank in forest; also

said to be placed in a hole ina tree or in a wall. The material used is green

moss with a sparse lining of the finest rhizomorphs. The eggs number 3 or 4

and are pale pinkish cream. —

102. Muscicapula superciliaris superciliaris Jerdon. The White-browed Blue

Flycatcher.

LENGTH’: 5 inches. :

FIELD CHARACTERS: Adult male: upper plumage deep ultramarine; a cons-

picuous white supercilium; sides of head, neck and breast indigo; remainder of

cunderparts white. Female: above olive grey; rump and. upper tail-coverts tinged

blue; lower plumage pale buff.

Dis?rRIBUTION . A very common summer visitor to our area between 5,000 feet

and 8,500 feet. It is found from the Afghan Frontier to Western Nepal. In

winter it is found as far. south as the C. P., Bombay Presidency and once in

Mysore territory (Salim Ali).

GENERAL Hasits: While in these parts it frequents open forest, being one

of our birds. which cften makes use of the telegraph wires along the road-sides.

It feeds mostly among the foliage of trees, not venturing much inte the opet.

Entirely insectivorous as are all flycatchers.

Nipirication: From the middle of April to the end of May the nest may

be found from’ 3 to 24 feet. from the ground placed either in a steep bank or a

niche in a tree, often an ivy-covered one. The foundation of the nest is of

green moss mixed with a few strands of fine grass lined sparsely with rhizo-

morphs, a few fragments of black roots (?moss) and a little horse-hair. Eggs

3 Or 4 pale blue overlaid all over the surface with olive brown.

103. Muscicapula rubeculoides rubeculoides (Vigors). The Blue-throated

Flycatcher.

LENGTH: 6 inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: Adult male: upper parts, chin and throat deep indigo

‘blue; breast and abdomen bright rufous. Female: olive brown, paler below,

tail and rump: tinged rufous.

DIsTRIBUTION: Said to be from the Kashmir country rneotenhode the Hima-

layas to Burma and on to Yunnan down to. Siam and Cochin China.

GENERAL Hapits: A summer visitor to our lower hills and valleys from the

foothills up to 5,000 feet. In habits it is somewhat skulking and must have

ample cover wherever it takes up its abode. Its song is loud and full, but short.

244 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

NipIFICATION: ‘The breeding season of. this species is rather protracted, i.e.

from May-to July. The nests: are made of grass-bents and moss and lined with

fine roots and hair. The situation is in a bank or a niche in a tree or an old

stump. The eggs usually number 4 and in colour much aesSynlells GHOSE of the

last species. :

-104- Eumyias thalassina thalassina (Swainson). The Verditer Flycatcher.

LENGTH: 6 inches.

FrELD CHARACTERS: Colour verditer blue throughout, except the black eye

streak; the female is slightly duller than her mate.

DIsTRIBUTION: Very similar to the foregoing species (M. rubeculoides).

GENERAL Hasits: Summer visitor arriving early in March and leaving again.

in September and October. It inhabits a higher zone than the Blue-throated

Flycatcher, between 5,500 feet to 9,000 feet. It is common and familiar though

far from conspicuous when seated quietly amidst the foliage bi, a itreesenne:

song is a sweet little warble.

NIDIFICATION: Takes place from April to July and it is -probably double-

brooded. The nest is built entirely of green moss and is placed in a well sheltered

situation such as an overhanging bank along some quiet thoroughfare, in forest

or in a verandah. Eggs usually number 4 and are of a pale salmon-pink in colour.

105. Muscicapa latirostris Raffles. The Indian Brown Flycatcher.

LENGTH: 5% inches.

FiELD CHARACTERS: Sexes alilkke. Ashy-brown above; below sullied white,

breast and flanks streaked ashy-brown.

DistrIBUTION: The whole of India and Ceylon to the outer Himalayas.

GENERAL Hasits:. A spring and summer visitor to the lower slopes of the-

Himalayas up at least 5,000 feet. A very quiet, stolid bird frequenting small

groves of trees near cultivation.

NIDIFICATION: May and June are the breeding months. The nest is a com-

pact cup made principally of moss decorated with lichen and lined with fine

roots and fibres. The situation may be from 5 to 30 feet from the ground. Eggs.

number 3 or 4 and are pale green or pale blue in ground colour, which is heavily

overlaid sienna brown so that they appear to be a uniform olive- brown..,

106. Muscicapa ruficaudus Swainson. The Rufous-tailed Flycatcher.

LENGTH: 5% inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: Sexes alike. Above rufescent olive brown, rump and

tail chestnut; below ashy-brown paler on abdomen.

DIsTRIBUTION: From. Baluchistan, Gilgit, Kashmir along the Himalayas as

far east as Garhwal. In- winter recorded from the C. P. and Travancore.

GENERAL Hapits: Spring and autumn passage migrant passing through Simfa.

on the upward migration in April and on the downward passage in September.

Hereabouts it is fairly common about 7,000 feet, its presence being proclaimed

by its cheery warbling call note. Arboreal.

NIDIFICATION: Breeds commonly in Kashmir between 7,000 feet and 10,000:

feet in May and June. The nest is similar to that of the last species. The

eggs, 3 Or 4 in number, are pale sea-green densely freckled all over with reddish.

107. Culicicapa ceylonensis pallidior Ticehurst. The Grey-héaded Flycatcher.

LENGTH: 5 inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: Sexes alike. Head, neck, throat and breast ashy-grey ;

above yellowish green, brighter on rump; under plumage bright yellow.

DIsTRIBUTION: From Ceylon to the Himalayas. Rare in Sind where I saw

one at Sukkur in the winter of 1937; in the plains of the Punjab it is not

uncommon in the Ambala-Jagadhri area during the cold weather when it may be

found frequenting mango groves.

GENERAL Hapits:: The: Grey-headed Flycatcher is one of our earliest summer

visitors to arrive at these elevations, i.e. 6,000 feet to8,o00 feet, above which I

have not observed it. Tame and confiding it: may often be seen making use of

the telegraph wires around the town.. Has a cheery call of 4 (sometimes 5) notes

scarcely amounting to a song.

NipiricaTIon::’ April, May and June are the breeding months. The nest is:

made of: green. moss, lichen and cobwebs and is usually unlined. The structure’

THE BIRDS OF THE SIMLA AND ADJACENS HILLS 245

is bib-shaped and: placed against the trunk of a moss-grown tree or rock. The

eggs, usually 4 in number, are Bae buff with a distinct zone of olive-brown and

inky-purple.

108. Nilava sundara fastuosa (Lesson). The Rufous-bellied Niltava.

LENGTH: 6 inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: Male: upper parts bright cobalt blue, the characteristic

Niltava patch on each side of the neck a brighter metallic blue; chin and throat

black, tinged with blue in certain lights; remainder of under parts bright orange-

chestnut. FFemale: upper plumage fulvous-brown; tail chestnut: The same

metallic patch on the sides of the neck as in the male; base of. throat white;

remainder of lower parts olive-brown.’

DIsTRIBUTION: Himalayas, from Kangra to Kumaon,

GENERAL Hasits: A woodland species where it frequents the under storey ;

a shy retiring bird whose harsh scolding note is the first indication of its presence.

Breeding from 6,000 feet to 8,000 feet, it descends to the foothills in winter.

NipiricaTIon: May and June are the months in which nests may be found.

These are placed on the ground on a sloping bank, well concealed by grass.

The nest as well as the shape and colour of the eggs, are very reminiscent of

the European Redbreast. The clutch consists of 4: cream coloured and profusely

speckled with chestnut.

109. Tchitrea paradisi leucogaster (Swainson). The Paradise Flycatcher.

LENGTH: Male 18 inches; female 9g inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: Older males: head and throat glossy black, remainder

of plumage, including the elongated tail feathers, white. Younger males and

females have chestnut upper plumage, the latter without tail ribbons,

DISTRIBUTION: In our area found from ‘the foothills up to 6,000 feet.

(Annandale). Whistler found it fairly common in this zone about Dharamsala.

GENERAL Hapits: This is a summer visitor to these parts where it is not

uncommon about the less heavily forested country, a favourite haunt being near

a small stream. It has quite a loud call-note, ? to counteract the noise of

running water; the attempt at song is just a jumble of notes.

- NipIFicATION: The breeding season is in May and June. “The nest is a

wonderful structure composed of grass-bents profusely smeared on the exterior

with spiders’ web. In shape it is an jnverted cone. The clutch consists of

3 or 4 eggs which are cream ae marked with blotches of chestnut and

inky-purple.

110. Chelidorhynx Re pomancan (Blyth). The Yellow-bellied Flycatcher.

LENGTH: 5 inches.

FIELD: CHARACTERS: Upper plumage olive brown; forehead, a broad super-

cilium and whole lower plumage bright yellow; ear-coverts black. The shafts

of the tail feathers white.

DISTRIBUTION: This is a Himalayan species which, in winter, occasionally

wanders some distance into the plains but normally is found at that season at

the foot of the hills. In summer it ascends to 14,000 feet. Found from Kangra

along the Himalayas as far as Lower Burma.

GENERAL Hapits: This lively little sprite has all the habits and antics of

the Fantail Flycatcher (Rhipidura) i.e. fanning the tail, drooping the wings and

short sallies after winged insects. A forest bird, with a sweet little song.

NIpIFICATION: June would appear to be the only month in which eggs have

~ been found; the number in a clutch does not seem to have been stated but

probably would be 3 or 4. The nest is placed on a horizontal branch at»moderate

height from the ground; it is a straight-sided little cup made of green. moss

lined with moss fruits with their stems attached. The colour of the eggs is

cream speckled with reddish which tends to form a zone round the larger end.

111. Rhipidura aureola aureola Lesson. The White-browed. Fantail Flycatcher.

LENGTH: /7 inches. :

Fretp CHARACTERS: Sexes practically alike except that the female is slightly

paler above. The forehead and a broad supercilium white; ear-coverts and crown

black, shading to blackish brown on the back. Tail feathers broadly tipped

white; wing-coverts tipped white ; chin and: throat black, remainder of lower

plumage white.

246 JOURNAL,.BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol.. 47

“DisrriputIon ; In. the Simla, Hills.not seen above 3,500 feet.. (On the Sabathu

Poa and. quite uncommon though plentiful out in the contiguous, plains country.

GENERAL Hapitrs: Except that it is found in more open country than the

foregoing species, its habits need no separate description.

NipiFication: Takes place from March to August. The nest is made of

grass-bents smeared profusely on the outside with spiders’ webs and eggs-sacks

and lined with.grass fibres. The eggs normally number 3. The ground colour

is buff. to cream. with a zone of greyish-brown markings at the larger end.

112. Rhipidura albicollis Vieillot.. The White-throated Fantail Flycatcher.

LENGTH: 743 inches.

Fierp Cuaracrers: <A short supercilium, chin and tips of the tail-feathers

white; remainder of plumage sooty-black. Sexes alike.

DisTrRIBUTION: From the foot of the Hills (winter) to 6,500. feet (summer).

ythisis.a Himalayan species and occurs from Murree to Burma au still

further East.

GENERAL Habits: These differ in no way from those of the last’ species.

Found -in the Pine (P. longifolia) forests. up to 6,500 feet in the outer ranges,

also. in. secondary scrub jungle especially where a small stream is at hand.

Tame and_ fearless.

NipiricaTtion: May, June and July constitute the breeding season. The nest

is exactly like the foregoing species, the eggs too are similar but as a Bowel!

rule the ground colour is somewhat deeper in tint.

113. _Lanius.vittatus Valenciennes. The Bay-backed Shrike.

LENGTH: 7 inches,

IrELD CHARACTERS: Forehead, anterior crown, a broad band produced behind

the ear-coverts black; posterior crown white or pale grey on the nape and hind

neck; back deep chestnut-maroon; wings black with a white patch; tail black

with. white outer edges; lower parts white suffused buff on breast and flanks.

Sexes. alilxe. .

Distripution : Almost the whole of India; ascends the Himalayas up to

5,500 feet.

GENERAL Hasitrs: This handsome little shrike is a bird of the more open

hillsides in the neighbourhood of cultivation. Its food consists mostly of insects,

small lizards, and occasional mice and young birds. It is a good mimic, at

times utters a sweet short’ song but is capable of giving vent to some very

harsh notes.

NipiFIcaTIon : In the Himalayas the breeding season is May and June. The

nest is placed in a bush or small tree at no great height from the ground. It

is a neat compact cup of grass stems thickly smeared with cobwebs on the

outside, lined with fibres. Eggs usually number 4; the ground colour is buff or

stone’ colour with a well-marked zone of brown and purplish blotches.

114. Lanius schach erythronotus (Vigors). The Rufous-backed Shrike.

LENGTIL: 10 inches.

Firtp Cnaracters:. Upper parts pale ashy-grey with rufous rump; forehead

and eye-stripe black; tail black with rufous edges; wing black with a white

patch at the base of the primaries; underparts white, washed rufous on the flanks.

Sexes aililxe.

DistrRIBUTION: Resident in the Simla Hills up to 6,000 feet, descending in

winter to somewhat lower levels. ;

GENERAL Hapits: A bird of the cultivated areas. Its food and general habits

practically the same as the Bay-backed Shrike. Also a good mimic.

NipiricaTIon : May and June are the principal breeding months. The nest

is composed of grass-bents and dry plant stems and is lined with fine grass fibre.

It is massive and untidy, but well concealed by the foliage of some small tree,

usually at no great height from the ground. The clutch often consists of 6

eggs which are pale cream with a zone of brown and purple blotches near the

large end.

115. Hemipus picatus capitalis (Ilorsfield). The Brown-backed Pied Shrike.

LENGTH: 5% inches.

Fietp Cuaracters: Upper parts either glossy black or dark brown, the

feathers on the lower back and rump edged white. Tail black, the feathers

THE BIRDS OF THE SIMLA AND ADJACENT HILLS». 247-

tipped and : edged white; wing black with a broad white band; underparts ‘mostly’

white which, from ‘ihe. breast to under the tail-coverts,: tinged fulvous.

‘DistRIBUTION: The Fauna of British India Birds, (2nd edition pp. 367) gives

this as from Kumaon eastwards to China. Since the publication’ of that worl

I have found it rarely about the Koti area, 3,000 feet above Kalka (4-4-26 and

10-2-31). Moreover, I would consider it common at Dehra Dun, Garhwal, 2,500

-teet.

GENERAL Hapits: Gregarious in winter going about in flocks hunting through.

the forest and keeping near the tops of trees. Those I obtained in the Simla:

District were in pairs, it being near the breeding season. Has a pleasant high-

pitched ‘trilling call, in character much like the Common Wood-Shrike.

NipiicaTion: The breeding season is said to be from April to:June. The’

nest is a small, shallow saucer placed on the upper side of a branch and is

difficult to.see. It is-composed mainly of fine grass with an admixture of moss

and lichen strongly bound together with cobwebs. The clutch is either of 2 or 3.

The eggs are pale greenish white boldly blotched with inky-black.

116. Tepkrodornis pondicerianus pallidus Ticehurst. The Sind Wood-Shrike.

LENGTH; 6 inches.

Tretp Cuaracters: Upper parts ashy-brown. A _ broad supercilium buff ;

ear-coverts and cheeks dark brown; tail dark brown edged white on the outer

feathers; underparts pale ashy grey; white on abdomen and lower tail-coverts.

Sexes alike.

DistRIBUTION : Resident in the lower hills up to 3,000 feet. Outside our area

this race is found in the Punjab and Sind.

GENERAL Hapits: Groves and avenues are its usual habitat where: the pairs

and parties move from tree to tree in their search for insects. It is a common,

unobtrusive bird. Some of its notes are sweet and flute-like.

Nipirication : The breeding season of this Wood-Shrike is from the end of

February to June. The nest is a neat cup made of grass, smeared exteriorly

with cobweb. The eggs number from 2 to 4, but the usual clutch is 3. In

colour they are cream profusely blotched with pale nut-brown or reddish-brown.

117. Pericrocotus brevirostris brevirostris (Vigors). The Short-billed Minivet.

Lene: 7 inches. ;

Itmpp CuHaracters: Male; upper plumage to middle back, chin and throat

glossy black; remainder of body plumage scarlet. Wings black with a broad

band of scarlet ; central tail feathers black, the others mainly scarlet with black

bases. Female: forehead greenish-yellow, shading into the olive-grey of the

upper plumage; rump and upper tail feathers sulphur yellow; lower plumage

bright yellow; wing and tail as in*the male but the scarlet replaced by yellow.

Occasionally females may be seen in orange instead of. yellow.

DistripuTion : Arboreal. In summer found mostly between 6,000 feet and

6,000 feet. In winter I have seen it at Jubbulpore in the C.P.

GENERAL Hasirs: The autumnal movements of this bird, mostly in a S.E.

direction, are a feature in the ornithological sights of these hills, when huge

flocks composed of both sexes may be seen moving leisurely from tree to tree

or crossing an open space to another patch of forest. It is entirely insectivorous.

NipiFIcATION: From early April to the end of June would appear to be the

breeding season. The nest is a beautiful Jittle cup made of grass-bents bound

together with spiders’ web and plastered thickly on the outside with lichen.

There is no real lining to the nest. The eggs usually number 3 or 4; the ground

colour is pale green usually heavily blotched with chocolate brown. The nest

is placed towards the extremity of a horizontal branch.

N.B. The Scarlet Minivet (P. speciosus) is said by many authors to occur as

far west as the Sutlej Valley. I can only say that forty years’ search in these

hills has been unsuccessful where the writer is concerned, and it is a bird not

easily overlooked.

118. Pericrocetus roseus roseus (Vieillot). The Rosy Minivet.

‘LENGTH: 7 inches.

Frenp Cuaracters: Male: upper parts ashy-brown; rump and upper tail-.

coverts rosy-piak ; wings and tail much the same as the preceding bird except.

that the scarlet in that bird is replaced by deep pink ; undersides from chin to

248 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

vent rosy-pink. Female: above neutral olive-green and the rosy-red of the male

replaced by pale yellow. PA!

DistripuTion: During the summer months found up to 5,000 feet in the

Simla Hills. Outside our area found from the Hazara country to Assam. and

Burma. . |

. GENERAL Hapits: A summer. visitor, when it occurs uncommonly in more

open country (Solan, Sabathu), than the Short-billed. In autumn the bird is

gregarious and the flocks move in a S. E, direction during September and October.

Arboreal and insectivorous. uy ee

Nipirication: Much the same as P. brevirostris. Nest not so profusely

decorated with lichen. ,May 26th nest 30 feet from the ground in a toon tree;.

eggs 4; markings pale red-brown.

119. Pericrocotus peregrinus peregrinus (Linnaeus). The Small Minivet.

LENGTH: 6 inches. are

I1rLp Cuaracters: Male: upper plumage grey; rump flame-coloured ; wings

dark brown with a central patch flame-colour; tail dark brown broadly tipped

flame-colour ; lores, chin, throat and sides of head dark grey; breast flame-

coloured paling to fulvescent at the vent. Female: ashy-brown above; chin,

throat and underparts ‘white tinged with buff.

DisTRIBUTION: Resident in the lower Hills up to 3,000 feet. Found practi-.

cally throughout India with geographical races.

GENERAL Hasits: Uncommon in these Hills going about in small parties.

that hunt through the upper branches of the trees uttering from time to time

a high-pitched little squeak. The young males of the previous year breed in

the female plumage, as do both the Short-billed and Rosy Minivets.

NipiricaTion: The breeding season is mostly from March to June. The

nest is placed on the top of a horizontal branch of a tree and is a beautiful little

shallow cup made of fine grass bound together with spiders’ web and decorated

with scraps of bark and dead leaves. Eggs number 3 or 4, pale blue with

Dlotches of red-brown which in some tend to form a zone at the broad end.

120. Lalage melaschista melaschista (Hodgs.) The Dark Grey Cuckoo Shrike.

LENGTH: 9 inches.

FIELD CuHaracters: A dark, bluish-grey bird with a dark eye-stripe; wings

black; tail black, each feather tipped white. Sexes alike.

DistRIBUTION: Summer visitor to the Simla Hills ascending to a height of

6,000 feet.

GrenEraL Hapits: A forest bird, also frequenting groves of trees about the

cultivated hillsides. Has a sweet call of five notes pity to be be, uttered from a

branch or while on the wing. Purposeful flight. Insectivorous.

NipIFicaTION: May and June constitute the breeding season. The nest is

4 most extraordinary structure made almost entirely of caterpillars’ web with

the droppings of these creatures still adhering to and decorating the exterior, a

few flakes of lichen are sometimes used. The eggs, 2 or 3 in number, are

pale, olive-grey blotched all over the surface with pale inky-brown.

121. Graucalus javensis nipaiensis Hodgs. The Large Cuckoo-Shrike.

LENGTH: 11 inches.

Firtp CHaracters: Whole upper plumage pale grey; lores and ear-coverts

dark grey; wings and tail ashy-brown, the latter tipped creamy-white; under-

parts paler grey shading to white on the abdomen and under-tail-coverts. Female:

slightly paler than the male with obsolescent barring on the flanks.

DistTRIBUTION : Found sparingly along the foot of the Hills during the spring

migration (February and March) where they may be seen singly working their

way in a N. W. direction. Not observed after March.

GENERAL Hapits: Arboreal. Its food consists mainly of insects and_ their

larvae and fruit, i.e. Pipal and Banyan. Its movements are somewhat heavy

either in a tree or in flight. The usual call note is a loud parrot-like screech.

NIDIFICATION: Information as to season lacking, but probably April would

be the principal month. The nest is said to be much the same as that of the

Dark Grey Cuckoo-Shrike, as are the eggs, though in both respects much larger.

The situation of the nest is well towards the extremity of a branch.

THE BIRDS OF THE SIMLA AND, ADJACENIL HILLS 2249

4122. Artamus fuscus. Viceillot. ' The Ashy Swallow-Shrike.

WENGTH as incheShogoi Sif ' :

FiELD CHARACTERS: Sexes alike. thoes parts aahes grey shading to. vinous

brown on the back; tail-coverts white; tail slaty-black tipped with white ; under

parts vinous-brown, paler on the abdomen ; under tail-coverts white. Iris blood red.

blood red.

DIstTRIBUTION: Of. very rare occurrence in these Hills. The honour of its

discovery in these Hills belongs to my friend S. Basil Edwardes who found a

small party of this bird near Solan. The one. specimen he collected came into

‘my own collection and is now in the B.N.H. Society’s collection.

GENERAL Hapirs: Gregarious and insectivorous, catching all their food on

the wing. The flight is buoyant and graceful.

NIpIFICATION: April, May and June are said to be the principal months in

which their nests may be found. .This is rather a flimsy structure mainly

composed of roots and fibre. It is placed in any suitable recess of a tree stump,

or at the base of a palm leaf. from which the leaves have fallen. Eggs number 2

to 4, the ground colour of wbnels is cream, They are blotched with reddish-brown

to gore purple brown.

(To be continued)

A NOTE ON THE POSITION OF RHINOCEROS,

IN BURMA ©

NV. F. H. ANSELL

(With a map and a plate)

INTRODUCTION

Before the War in Burma several articles were written on

rhinoceros in Burma, and the measures for safeguarding its con-

tinuation of existence in that country.

The present writer can claim no special knowledge of rhino-

ceros, but immediately after the cessation of hostilities in Burma

was in the position of having to make fairly extensive tours on

army duties in many parts of the country. During this time I

was able to pick up certain information regarding the present

position of the species and thought it might be worth while

to record this. Having commenced to make some notes I felt

that they would be of little interest to anybody without some

background and decided to try and make a summary of records

of rhinoceros in recent years so that the present position could be

‘compared with that of pre-war.

My notes are recent (1947) and though I have not been able

to visit certain areas I intended to, it is this claim to being post-

‘war and up-to-date that is my excuse for writing them. j

Once again raising the question of the protection of rhinoceros

in Burma surely needs no justification.

I would like to express gratitude to those members of the

Forest. Department who have helped my compilation of records by

lending me the Game Reports of Burma and in other ways, and

250 JOURNAEL,> BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

to the Bombay Natural History Society | who have helped me in

every way, and especially by giving me access to. yethely extensive

library during my stay in _ Bombay. |

ROUGH OUTLINE OF THE FAMILY RHINOCEROTIDAE WITH ESPECIAL

REFERENCE TO BURMESE_ FORMS.

The family Rhinocerotidae of the order Bee eae (odd-toed

ungulate mammals) formerly possessed a wide range, with several

genera in North America; Europe, Asia and Africa, including the

U.K. One of the better known of the extinct forms was the so-called

‘Woolly Rhinoceros (Coelodonta antiquitatis) which existed in North

-Europe and Siberia. Present day forms are confined to South: East

Asia (including Assam, Bengal and Nepal) and Ethiopian ‘Africa.

The African Prinoceroccs! which do not concern the present

subject are Diceros bicornis (Linnaeus) and Ceratotherium simum

(Burchell), both being two-horned.

The Asiatic forms are as follows:—

Genus Rhinoceros, Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. ed. 10, vol. i, p. 56,

1758. |

One horned; skin divided into heavy folds; few hairs except

on ears and tail.

t. Rhinoceros unicornis Linnaeus op. cit.

The Great Indian One-horned Rhinoceros. Vernacular: Gainda

(tiind.).

Skin tuberculated, or ‘studded’. Folds of skin heavier; folds

running over shoulders not meeting on neck; size larger. Con-

fined to Assam, Bengal and Nepal and does not concern the pre-

sent area.

2. | Rhinoceros. sondaicus. Desmarest, Mammalogie, vol. ii,.

P- 399, 1822.

The Javan, or Lesser One-horned Rhinoceros. Vernacular:

Gainda (Hind.), Kyan or Kyanesin (Burmese), Badak (Malay),

Ta-do or Ta-do-khaw (Karen).

Skin not tubercular. Throat folds less heavy; shoulder folds

joining on neck to form anterior nape fold; size smaller. Horn

in Houme es) small or. absent. |

-’ RaNcE: (i.e.. former range) Assam (2) the Sunderbans and

certain ae parts. of Bengal; the Sikkim Terai, Burma, Malaya,

Sumatra (?) Java, Borneo, Siam. Indo-China? ‘Western Provinces.

of China’ Sterndale, p. 410 {from MS by Cockburn).

‘Kinloch shot an undoubted specimen in. the Sikkim Terai’—

Blanford. Mr. G. Busk ascribed.a tooth from Sarawak (Borneo)

to’ R. sondaicus:and :considered that two teeth obtained by Mr.

Wallace in Sumatra were; of the same species (P.Z.S. 1869, p. 400).

‘The Sunderbans }and formerly the Rajmahal hills in’ Bengal;

Assam, south of the Brahmaputra . 2.’ (Gare Mamm.: Ind. Mus.

Galicia Pt. II, p. 208, .«8en%) _ ci

‘The, Cat..-of -Ind. Museum’ ‘meludes: alist: of Specimens from

Sunderbunds, - Jéssore “Dist (Bengial);-~Tenriasserim,; »Tavoy Point

and Java. ite itl Do 2

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

f Spachmens

Recent fyb 9 Record.

My =Peesenf Aveas of

Distribution fa aunreninate)

HKAHILU] = Rhinogercs Sanctvarias,

‘= = &® International Boundaries.

Ln 2 balm Revers.

ores’ = Main Towns.

MAP OF BURMA SHOWS

DISTRIBUTION OF yy

RHINOCEROS. fhe

Scale : fneh & Approx. 100 miles.

Mr. Ansell’s article on Rhinoceros.

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NOTE ON THE POSITION OF RHINOCEROS IN BURMA 251.

Jerdon (Mammals of India 1874, p. 234) recorded a few R.

sondaicus in the forest along the Mahanaddy River and the Raj-

mahal Hills near the Ganges and ‘more abundantly in Burma

and... Borneo.’ He records that several had been shot ee

within! a few miles of Calcutta.

C. H. Stockley in Big Game Shooting in the Indian ae

1928, records the Sikkim “Terai among other places.

Hapirat: Rk. sondaicus frequents forests, and Blanford re-

cords that it has been observed at considerable elevations. But

in the Sunderbans it frequents swampy ground and E. H. Peacock

records a fondness for low lying swampy ground.

Sterndale (1884) records one at an altitude of 4,000 feet and

describes it as ‘more of a forester’ than R. unicornis.

It would seem from the above that the species can make itself

at home either in low lying swamp or hill forest (though not as.

dense or as hilly forests as D. sumatrensis). 3

DIMENSIONS: Cockburn recorded of a female as HOMO.

Length of body (head and body?) 12 ft. 3 ins.; tail 2 ft. 44 ins.

height 5 ft. 6 ins. ‘The height of a mature specimen is eahatly

about 5 ft. 6 ins.’ (Peacock).

Horn: ‘Said to be about 1o ins. in length’ (Peacock).

Length on front curve of horn ro? ins. has been recorded from

Java.

SENSES, Hapits AND Foop: Similar to D. suwmatrensis accord-

ing to E. H. Peacock, and ‘presumably of a less active and alert

disposition’.

BREEDING: Presumably similar to others of the family, but

little or nothing has been recorded about its breeding habits.

Genus Dicerorhinus Gloger, Bandbaek Naturgesch, p. 125, 1841.

Two horned; skin folded; more or less hairy all over. Ears.

well fringed with hair. The ‘body hairs take the form of bristles.

1. Dicerorhinus sumatrensis - (Cuvier) Regne Animal., vol. i,

p. 240, 1817 (as R. sumatrensis). |

The Sumatran or Hairy Rhinoceros. . Vernacular: Kyan or

Wet Kyan, (Burmese) Ta-do or Ta-do-khaw (Karen) Lawon

(Shan) Badak (Malay).

Characters as under the genus. The smallest living representa-

tive of the family.

Type locality: Sumatra.

Local races of the species in Burma have been named as

follows :—

Dicerorhinus sumatrensis blythi (Gray). Type locality: Ten-

nasserim. so

Dicerorhinus sumatrensis lasiotis ((Sclater). Type’ locality ;

Chittagong. | | ' |

Rance: » Assam, Tipperah, Arakan, Burma, Siam, Fr.; Indo-

China, Malaya, Suma Borneo ces Java)” Fextuyet’ or “very ‘rare

in most. parts. ; Oe oo ee

‘Rare in Assam’ (Blanford).

252 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOE Vol. 47

‘A specimen shot in Brahmaputra valley is recorded in P.Z.S.

1875, p. 566.

I can find no mention of the species in the Sunderbans BF Bengal.

HasitaT: Mainly if not exclusively dense hill forests.

The species wherever it is found needs mud wallows, and these

are often in the pockets of hills near the sources of ‘streams, accord-

ing to Peacock.

‘Seems to stick to hills’ (Stockley).

Dimensions: The smallest form of. living dvnoess. ‘The

type of lasiotis was 4 ft. 4 ins. high and 8 ft. long from snout to

root of tail; its weight about 2,o00 lbs. (Anderson).’

‘An old female from Malacca was only 3 ft. 8 ins. high’ (Blan-

ford) .. . ‘Average height is about 4 ft. 3 ins. and average length

about to ft. including the tail. This was the average of three’...

{Peacock). Peacock’s largest specimen was 4 ft. 8 ins. in height.

Horn MEASUREMENTS: There is a specimen with front horn

32 1/8 ins. in the British Museum.

Peacock gives 7-8 ins. average for front horn of 3 ¢ and 3 ins.

for posterior horn; and 3 ins. for anterior horn of Q and ‘mere

knobs’ for the posterior horns, in Burmese rhinoceroses.

SENSES: Smell and hearing are said to be very good, but as

throughout the family the sight is poor.

Hazits and Foop: D. sumatrensis is a prehensile-lipped brow-

ser, feeding off leaves, twigs and other suitable plants including

‘small bamboo.

It is a shy and retiring animal and addicted to wandering, often

for great distances, from its normal beat. As remarked above it

has a particular liking for mud wallows (which seem essential for

its well-being) and which will invariably be found where the species

exists. The day is spent lying up or in a wallow, feeding usually

taking place in the early morning and evening.

Like others of the family it uses the same place when possible

for excretion, the pile of dung often becoming considerably large,

according to some authorities.

BREEDING: One calf at a time is usual, but little is on record

about its breeding habits.

‘The period of gestation is said to be eight months’ (Peacock).

Bartlett considered the period of gestation to be probably a

little over 7 months (P.Z.S. 1873, p. 104).

2. POSITION OF RHINOCEROS IN BURMA IN THE PAST, AND A FEW

LEGENDS REGARDING RHINOCEROS.

The rhinoceros, being so large and striking a creature, it would

be surprising if several legends concerning it did not arise, and

unfortunately some of the legends about it have proved the undoing

of the Asiatic species to an alarming extent.

A widespread belief throughout the East in the aphrodisiac pro-

-perties of rhinoceros horn, especially among the Chinese has been

the primary cause of the great diminution in numbers of all the

‘species in Asia, and the rarity of rhinoceros resulting from this

NOTE ON THE POSITION OF RHINOCEROS IN BURMA 253

makes the horn all the more valuable. Thus, the demand being ever

unsatisfied, the value would, and in fact, does, rise in something

like direct proportion to the decrease in the numbers of rhinoceros.

It is said that in the old days caravans used to come from China,

right across Tibet to India in search of the horn, resulting in the

extermination of R. wnicornis throughout a large part of its range,

till today it survives only in parts of Nepal, Bengal and Assam.

_ The Hindus are said among others to cherish a belief in the

potency of rhinoceros horn as an aphrodisiac.

The Burmese rhinoceroses too suffered from this quest for horn,

and within recent years it has resulted in, for all practical purposes,

the extinction in Burma of Rhinoceros sondaicus, and reduction to

a danger point of Dicerorhinus sumatrensis.

It: was, of course, the advent of the firearm which produced

this alarming decrease in numbers, as before the days of guns and

rifles the rhinoceros had apparently weathered the storm of centuries

of pursuit reasonably well.

Relying on pitfalls and other primitive means, the securing of

a rhinoceros, even where plentiful would doubtless be a feat re-

quiring unlimited patience and skill, and some courage, for the

rhinoceros of all species are well known as no mean adversaries

when aroused.

However, with firearms in the hands of an experienced hunter

the killing of a rhinoceros would present no great difficulty granting

that sufficient time were available to locate it.

E. H. Peacock states that before the advent of firearms the

Sumatran rhinoceros must have been fairly common in Burma,

and that also there must have been a fair number of sondaicus in

the parts of lower Burma frequented by the species. Certainly

there is no lack of suitable country for both forms in Burma, with

its vast forests and hills (though encroachment of cultivation in

some of the lower lying haunts of R. sondaicus would probably

tend to localize the species to some extent).

It may be said that, generally speaking, one of the more usual

(and often decisive) factors in the extermination, or extreme re-

duction and localization of any species was absent or nearly so

in the case of the rhinoceros in Burma. I refer, of course, to the

advancement of civilisation, usually in the form of cultivation into

the habitat of species. It is difficult to conceive of any serious

‘conflict of interests in the claims of the rhinoceros and cultivators

in Burma; and the rhinoceros on the whole is considered a fairly

harmless beast. More especially is this apparent in the fact that

such a large proportion of Burma’s wealth lies in timber, and

consequently the upkeep and maintenance of the forests is an im-

‘portant factor in the country’s economy.

The Karens of Burma, and probably other races too, believe in

the efficacy of rhinoceros blood and other parts in curing many

ailments which gives added incentive to the poacher. In fact there

is no part of the rhinoceros (including the urine) which would

not be saleable at a high price,

gg JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

To illustrate the extremely active demand for rhinoceros parts.

I can quote the fact that during the British retreat from Burma

in 1942, the rhinoceros in the Rangoon Zoological Gardens was.

killed and stolen; I believe almost before the City was evacuated.

completely. A mounted head which came into my possession in

1946 had been on the wall of a large stores in Rangoon for many

years, but during the Japanese occupation the anterior horn was.

completely removed. — | |

There is a legend in Burma which I have heard quoted in wide-

ily separated parts of the country that one of the reasons for the

slow rate of increase in rhinoceros is due to the female tossing

logs off the track over her back, killing the young. . Alternatively

this story is rendered as the calf itself being thus thrown into the

air. What foundation, if any, exists for this legend I am unable

to say.

Several authors in their writings about rhinoceros have quoted

the belief in a ‘fire-eating’ or ‘fire attacking’ rhinoceros. I have

met no reference to this in Burma from locals whom I have come

across.

This year I came across a Karen belief that I had never pre-

viously heard. It is that it is considered a bad onien to kill a

rhinoceros, as doing so will result either in the death of some

member of one’s family or in crop failure, or similar retribution.

However, I am sure that no such consideration would put the

Karens off killing a rhinoceros if the opportunity offered, and _ in-

deed if the truth be known I should imagine that Karen hunters.

had taken a large part in the sad reduction of rhinoceros in Burma.

especially R. sondaicus.

Summing up, it may be said that on the whole rhinoceros. in-

Burma before the coming of the firearm were in a reasonably good

position in so far as a very extensive habitat for them existed all

over the country, and that indiscriminate poaching with firearms.

has been in the main responsible for their great reduction.

3. LEGISLATION REGARDING RHINOCEROS IN BURMA.

At the outset of this paragraph I will say that legislation for

the Protection of Wild Life in Burma today may be considered as.

almost a complete farce, and existing for all practical purposes

only on paper with no machinery for enforcing the laws.

Regarding rhinoceros there are appalling loopholes in the law

itself.

First the penalties for destruction of rhinoceros have too low a

maximum, and ‘the probability is that even in the unlikely event of

a conviction for an offence regarding rhinoceros ihe full penalty,

such as it is, would not be imposed.

Mica penalties should include at least a term of imprison-

ment without option of a fine, ays such a fine as would be appro-

priate. i ;

Iam: convinced that-to. kill a S28 Les in Burne anes Haniel)

repay one’s efforts handsomely even should the maximum penalty

be incurred,

NOTE ON THE POSITION OF RHINOCEROS IN BURMA 255

The next. defect in the law is even worse, as it makes it legal

ae persons other than museums or similar’ accredited institutions

to possess parts of rhinoceros for ‘medicinal’ purposes. How this

came about is shown below, being the gist of Chapter V of the

Burma Game Warden’s Report for 1934.

In 1933 the then Prince of Wales instituted an enquiry into

the adequacy of protection for rhinoceros in the Indian Empire

(which at that time included Burma). The result of this was that

a Select Committee was appointed to look into the matter, and the

penalty for killing a rhinoceros illicitly was increased. This was

all to the good, but a farther amendment was made

Lhe Wild Bice and Animals Protection Act previously restr icted

the legal killing of rhinoceros to persons in possession of a Special

Governor’s Licence which would be issued only in the interests of

scientific research, and as it stood was quite reasonable and ade-

quate.

- But the Select Committee, in spite of earnest pleas by the then

Game Warden, decided to pander to fictitious beliefs and super-

stitions and considered it desirable to provide for cases where the

killing of rhinoceros for ‘medicinal’ purposes might be justifed.

The Committee considered the words ‘in the interests of scienti-

fic research’ were ‘too binding’ (as if they were not meant to be

‘binding’) and accordingly this clause was deleted from the pr6-

visions governing the issue of licences under Rule 18 of the Act.

And. this in spite of the Game Warden pointing out that I.

sondaicus was the rarest large mammal in the world! |

It is difficult to conceive how any responsible body could have

taken such a retrogressive and unenlightened step. One assumes

that the Committee was composed of educated persons and as

such one would have expected belief in superstition to have been

supplanted by some faith in modern medicine.

Even assuming that the Committee as a whole. held belief in

the medicinal properties of rhinoceros parts, one would expect them

to have realised that in any case the supply of such parts available

would be totally inadequate and soon become exhausted, Burma

losing for ever in the process one of its grandest and most interest-

ing species.

This was another blot on the copy book of wild life protec-

tion in Burma, which seems, (if I may continue the metaphor) more

blots than clean sheet.

In fairness, however, I must say that up to and including the

last published Game Report there was no record of.a Special

Licence for rhinoceros having been issued for ‘medicinal’ purposes

and there is no reason to suppose that any such licence has been

issued since up to date (July °47).

This, however, gives little cause for complacency as (except

during the Japanese occupation) the Governor under whose hand

such licence would have to be given, and the senior forest officers

through whom any request for such would have to go, have up

to now been Europeans, while now the administration is becom-

ing more and more Burmese, and in the very near future likely

256 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL -HIST. SOCIETY,- Vol. 47

to be completely so. In this connection it should be remembered

that it was undoubtedly the Oriental section of the Select Com-

mittee who were responsible for the amendment referred to above.

Regarding rhinoceros sanctuaries, or sanctuaries constituted

mainly for the protection of rhinoceros, there are three “nominal

ones in Burma at present. These are dealt with in the following

paragraph. RU og fee a'y ! : |

In J.B.N.H.S. Vol. xxxix, No. 3, p. 606 (1938) is a note on

the Burma Wild Life Protection Act. It gives a good account of

the revision of the Act of 1936 under which it became legal for

any physician, druggist or private person to possess rhinoceros.

blood or any preparation thereof for ‘medicinal’ use. This seems

to be a further amendment to the deletion of the clause ‘in the

interests of scientific research’, and is of course another retrogade

step.

To sum up, it would seem that the following conditions apply

to rhinoceros in Burma today (Gtotreia my information may possibly

not be complete).

Rhinoceros of both sexes are completely protected throughout the

year and may not be hunted except under a Special Licence. But

it is not illegal for any person to nesses rhinoceros blood for

‘medicinal’ purposes. -

4. RECENT AND PRESENT RaNee AND DISTRIBUTION OF RHINO-

CEROS IN BURMA.

[From 1929 to the present (1947) |

As referred to above the rhinoceros must have had a consider-

able range all over Burma until its great reduction in numbers, and

even today the range of D. sumatrensis is very extensive, though

everywhere the animal is rare and has become extremely localised.

In this paragraph will be given at the start a brief outline of

the sanctuaries constituted mainly for the protection of rhinoceros,

as these are so often referred to in the information derived from

the Game Reports. Subsequently other known and_ probable

locations of rhinoceros will be mentioned with any relative evidence

I have been able to collect.

(a) The Shwe-U-Daung Sanctuary lies in East Katha and Mong-

mit State and is 81 square miles in extent. It is in high mountain-

ous country with plenty of dense cover favoured by Dicerorhinus

sumatrensis, the form inhabiting the Sanctuary. Rhinoceros are

found mostly on the Mongmit side of the border.

The species has probably always existed in the area, but it is

exceedingly difficult to give any accurate estimate of numbers.

What is certain is that there are at least five regularly used wallows.

Young have occasionally been reported in the Sanctuary. 7

It is quite possible to visit the Sanctuary and see three or even

more specimens, and equally possible to see none at all, though

invariably signs of them wil! be found. A legend that the mountain

NOTE ON: THE POSITION OF RHINOCEROS IN BURMA 257

spirits of. Shwe-U-Daung do not. like poaching is probably - one

of the most effective factors in the success of this Sanctuary to

date.

The rhinoceros occasionally wander outside the Sanctuary

limits.

(b) The Reabilur Sandtuary in the Salween and Thaton dis-

tricts was Originally constituted for the protection of Rhinoceros

sondaicus but investigations in 1938/39 cast doubt upon their exis-

tence (vide para 5 below). A specimen in 1939/40 was identified

as D. sumatrensis. The Sanctuary is 62 square miles in extent.

Previously two Rangers were employed to look after this sanctuary.

thought to contain rhinoceros but, as far as I can trace, their

presence there was never either proved or disproved. The pro-

bability is that specimens may wander there from time to time.

(d) The Pidaung Sanctuary, near Myitkyina, 260 square miles

in extent is not specially a rhinoceros preserve, but Mr. Mustill

formerly Game Warden, Burma, noted on one of my maps that

rhinoceros migrate there at times from the Uyu river drainage.

Following is some information derived from the Game Warden’s.

Reports of Burma when they were published annually from 1929.

to 1940, and the extracts refer to the year previous to publication.

1929-30. The Game Warden saw a rhinoceros in the Shwe-

U-Daung Sanctuary at 5,000 ft., but it was reported they are not

plentiful there. The Kahilu was reported to contain at least three

rhinoceros. Tracks of an adult were seen. The keepers saw two,

and tracks of two other, of which one set was believed to have

been of the calf born in 1928.

Tracks of a rhinoceros believed to be R. sondaicus were seen

on the Dawna Range at 6,822 feet. It was reported that there

were at least two gangs of rhinoceros and elephant poachers in

the Arakan Yomas.

193t- In the Shwe-U-Daung a ¢ D.. sumatrensis was _ shot

under orders by the Game Warden, on the Mongmit side. The

skin and skull were sent to the British Museum.

Three rhinocercs were seen and it is estimated that there are

eight to ten altogether there. The legend of the Nats (spirits) on

Shwe-U-Daung is mentioned as a probable cause of the immunity

of rhinoceros from poachers in the Sanctuary.

In the Kahilu Sanctuary a skeleton, believed to be that of

R. sondaicus, was found. It is estimated that there are four speci-

mens in the area.

During the year a rhinoceros crossed the Uyu drainage and

came within 5 miles of the railway. line in Katha division. Un-

fortunately a Kachin shot it.

1932. Four specimens were estimated in the Kahilu Sanctuary.

The young one born in 1928 was reported to be 24. ft. in height.

Another rhinoceros came over the Uyu area into the Nami and.

Ledan.valleys during the cold weather and was seen as far south

as the Indaw-Banmauk road. Later it was reported making for

the Meza Chaung.

a5. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY; Volx 47

1933- In the Shwe-U-Daung tracks were seen, hut no evidence

of any increase reported. The number is estimated at not more

than twelve, the majority being in the dense jungle on the Mongmit

side, and in the Ye-nya-u drainage.

Mr. Allsop reported that at least six specimens were in che Kahilu.

The coast in Mergui district is mentioned as a former haunt of

rhinoceros. :

Illicit hunting of rhinoceros was . reported on the Arakan Mera

and two accused fined Rs. 50 each for being in possession of

rhino blood and four hooves.

(Note the ridiculous inadequacy of the punishment !)

1934. Fresh tracks were seen in the Shwe-U-Daung.

The Kahilu estimate was: still six specimens.

They were reported to be fond of eating chillie crops and doing

a little damage in the taungyas (fields, usually among’ the hills,

cut out of the jungle, and usually abandoned after one season).

In July (1933) a forester reported he had seen two rhinoceros

mating. erie

1935. One specimen was seen in the Shwe-U-Daung but no

tracks were seen on the Burma side. The rhinoceros in Kahilu

were estimated by the head keeper at the figure of eight, but this

was not verified.

Two rhinoceros were rumoured in the Nam Pawn drainage in

Karenni.

1936. It was reported again that the Shwe-U-Daung rhino-

ceros prefer the dense jungle on the Shan States (Mongmit) side

of the Sanctuary, and that there were several wallows there. The

estimate of numbers was eight.

The keeper’s report of eight rhinoceros in Kahilu was not

confirmed and the official estimate remained at six. They were

reported to leave the Sanctuary at times and feed outside during

the dry season.

A rhinoceros was seen on the left bank of the Uyu river in

West Katha division, and two were reported from the East bank

of the Chindwin river, above Homalin. It was suggested by re-

ports that there were several rhinoceros in West Katha, in the

Namaw R. F. and the Uyu drainage.

In Henzada division a rhinoceros was seen in the Chaukni

stream, west of Kyangin.

In Myitkyina area a rhinoceros was shot in the Nanyin Icha

reserve. Two accused were given two months R.I. plus Rs. 100

fine, or a further month’s R.I. in default of payment.

(Note.—It is gratifying to see that prompt action was taken

in this case, and that a prison sentence was awarded.)

TORT. Doubt was expressed as to the presence in Shwe-U-

Daung of more than ten specimens. .

There were five wallows on the Mongmit side, but no young ones

were reported. In Kahilu the six specimens were accounted for.

Rhinoceros were reported in the Mulayit Sanctuary in. the

Mergui area.

ON THE POSITION OF RHINOCEROS IN BURMA 259

A note on the Shwe-U-Daung puts the estimate as given by

the locals at between 10 and 200! Obviously the first figure

would be much nearer the mark, and even optimistic.

1938. In Shwe-U-Daung the five wallows were seen and the

estimate of numbers was given as about five and probably more,

but no calves. ‘Tracks found on hard ground measured 7 inches

in diameter.

In Kahilu a calf was said to have been born in the year ending

March 1938. The total number in the Sanctuary was given as

seven, consisting of two bulls, four cows and one bull calf.

The Kahilu rhinoceros were reported to occasionally leave the

Sanctuary and visit salt licks outside.

Suggestions for the improvement of the Shwe-U-Daung Sanc-

tuary were given.

A rhinoceros was reported in the lower Uyu valley in 1937.

There were reported rumours of a so-called ‘Pygmy rhinoceros’

in the Salween area. (See para 7 below.)

(Note on the breeding of rhinoceros in Kahilu. If the report

of two rhinoceros mating in 1933 were correct it is possible that

another calf may have been born between then and 1938. The

last previous record of a birth in the area was in 1928.)

1939. The Shwe-U-Daung estimate is given as_ between

twelve and fifteen. Tracks were seen believed to have been of a

cow and a calf, and many other tracks found. On the Mongmit

side tracks of at least three were seen. Tracks of one were ob-

served on the Burma side, outside the Sanctuary. Three rhino-

ceros were reported as living in the areas of the wallows. From

the tracks and dung seen it was stated that there was no indica-

tion of any decrease in the rhinoceros in the Sanctuary. _

Doubt was expressed as to whether the rhinoceros in Kahilu

were D. swmatrensis or R. sondaicus (see para 5 below.)

Tracks of a rhinoceros were found in Thanichaung Reserve in

Thayetmyo division.

1940. In the Shwe-U-Daung no casualties were reported, and

a young one was seen. It was considered that the herd in this

area was well established.. An estimate of fifteen specimens was

given, including seven young (but it was mentioned that this must

be taken with reserve). 3

In Kahilu one specimen was definitely identified as D. suma-

trensis and it was stated that it was considered that Rhinoceros

sondaicus did not exist in that area any longer. However, it is

mentioned that a rhinoceros with a calf was seen by Karens in the

year 1939-40 at the foot of the Kyaikto hill, on the border of

Thaton and Pegu districts. The Karens’ description is said to

have closely corresponded with that of R. sondaicus, and steps

were taken to follow this up, with what result is not mentioned.

' There is a note in the 1940 report that tracks of R. sondaicus

may measure up to 11 inches in diameter while those of DD: suma-

trensis rarely exceed 8 inches.

In the Amherst district tracks of rhinoceros were reported in

the Man-aung and Yechaung Reserves, and tracks of another in

260 JOURNAL, BOMBAY-~ NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Vol. 47

the Tavoy Division. Tracks were also reported in the Henzada-

Bassain Division (exact place not stated)... Another track was

seen on Sanwingan Hill in Tharrawaddy..

The range of Dicerorhinus sumatrensis is stated to. dinette

Tenasserim, Pegu Yomas, Arakan Yomas, Lower Salween and the

Uyu drainage.

Such are the various records of rhinoceros in Buren from the

official Game Warden’s Reports up to their cessation in 1940.

Mr. C. McCann of the B.N.H.S. informs meé that he observed the

tracks of a rhinoceros in 1935 in the ‘area between Tawmaw and

Kora, north of the Uyu river, and Peacock mentions parts of

Myitkyina area as locations (or former locations) of Dicerorhinus

sumatrensis. 7

Little is on record during the War years except the following :—

In the Journal B.N.H.S. for December 1945 there is a letter

from Lieut.-Gen.. Sir Philip Christison' on the present distribution

of Dicerorhinus sumatreasis in the Arakan, with a map. This note

recorded the distribution in five different areas, based on actual

specimens seen, and’ tracks, SOE and wallows -pointed out

by the locals. . eindise: * ?

The areas marked by Gen. Gniistleais on his map are:

(2) About 15 miles N.E. of Paletwa; |

(b) About 25 miles east of Paletwa and ©. 40 miles N.N.E.° of

| Myobaung; ~ :

(A specimen was seen in each of the above areas.)

(d) About 50 miles S.S.E. of Myobaung and c. 40 miles N.E.

of Myebon;

(e) In a line with Sandoway | and Prome and about half way

between. |

The three specimens actually observed were recorded by three

different officers and all said the rhinoceros they saw had one horn,

but Gen. Christison did not accept this as indicating R. sondatcus

because of the ease of mistaking a specimen with only a small

posterior horn as one horned, and because the places where ‘the

rhinoceros were seen was so typical of the: haunts of the Sumatran

form.

General Christison states that on two occasions tracks of a cow

with calf. were observed, and his. note is exceedingly interesting,

especially as it is so recent and so carefully recorded. Fortunately

I am able to supplement Christison’s information to a small extent

regarding rhinoceros in the Arakan Yomas.

In August 1946 when at Prome I: met a Forest Ranger of

Thayetmo who stated that there are mud wallows used by rhino-

ceros in the Thaledan R. F. which is between Sandoway and

Prome in one of the areas indicated on Gen. Christison’s map. This

ranger also said that the forests of Mindon are reputed to contain

a few rhinoceros, and in his own opinion there were not more

than four or five on the whole eastern side of the Range, and they

are not resident but migratory. In 1940 this ranger got a report

ON THE POSITION OF RHINOCEROS IN BURMA. 261

of blood and bones of a rhinoceros in the possession of. someone

in the Arakan Yomas.

Southwards rhinoceros used to be found right along the Yomas

for some distance almost to the southern coast but whether there

are any now I am unable to say.

Mr. Castens states that when he was in Arakan some years

ago there were a fair number of 2-horned rhinoceros about. In

other parts of Burma I have been able to collect the following

recent indications of rhinoceros, —

‘A semi-official statement obtained by me at Myitleyine indicates

that a rhinoceros was killed in early 1946 in the Bhamo district

in so-called ‘defence of crops’. Unfortunately, with the state of

the country at that time little was done to follow up the matter,

though apparently the excuse for gee COE the rhinoceros was

accepted.

Regarding the Shwe-U-Daung rhinoceros, there is no evidence

that they suffered during the Japanese occupation. One of the

Mongmit State officials informed me that there were about eight

rhinoceros there, ‘and the fact that there are undoubtedly rhinoceros

in the sanctuary seems to be well known in the State. Mr. Lindsay-

Smith, D.F.O., East Katha, says that the number is reported to

be fifteen, so it seems that the general estimate is about the same

as before the war.

The Kachins near Hopin told me of the supposed existence of

rhinoceros west of Indawgyi Lake; and this would seem to indicate

the Namaw Reserve area.

An official of Bawlake State (arena)! informed me that there

were about six rhinoceros in the Salween area. He said ‘south

of Mawchi’ and might have meant the Yunzalin watershed, but

more probably he meant the Kahilu area itself.

A D.O. letter from the D.F.O. Thaton (Aug. 1946), in answer to

an enquiry, informs me that there is at least ‘one family’ of rhino-

ceros in the Kahilu Sanctuary and that tracks of two were recently

seen.

Mr. F. Allsop, P.F.O. Shan States informs me (in litt.) that

no rhinoceros are known to exist in the Southern Shan States. or

Karenni, and that he has never heard of them in these areas, in

which he has travelled extensively. However, in addition to the

rhinoceros reported in the Nam Pawn drainage in. 1935 (see above)

I have received information, (that I consider fairly reliable), of a

Q rhinoceros killed somewhere about 1935 near M.S. 70 Mawchi

Road, South of Kwachi village.

I had hoped that I might have obtained some records of rhino-

ceros in and north of Kantharawaddy State towards the Salween,

and the Indo-China and Siam border but failed to do so. This

area would seem to me to be eminently suitable for rhinoceros

and I was disappointed not to come across any records. In the

face of this information I think it can be assumed without much

fear of contradiction that no rhinoceros now exists in Karenni. ,

Regarding Pegu Yomas, there are still a few rhinoceros in the

dense jungles round about the central portions of the range. Last

262 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

year (1946), about March I received information that the tracks of ©

a cow and calf had been seen in the Yomas, exact locality not stated

but probably North-West of Pegu. If this is correct, the existence

of a calf implies a third specimen—the bull; and I consider this

information reliable, it being supplied by a European representative

of one of the timber firms from his personal observation.

Further evidence of rhinoceros was obtained by me this year.

Having an interest in the elephant catching operations in the South

Pegu area in the 1946-47 season I instructed the Karens working

on the stockade to report any signs of rhinoceros, and in March a

track of a rhinoceros was seen in the Shwelaung reserve between

Shwelaung and the Pegu river, about four miles from Kadokchaung.

The observer called one of the workmen to look at them and he

confirmed that the track was of a rhinoceros. I consider this evi-

dence reliable. The track was said to be fairly large, about the

size of that of a 5-foot elephant, which would be about 2’ 6°

circumference.

Before giving a summary of the present known, and possible

locations of rhinoceros in Burma, I must draw attention to certain

articles that appeared in the /.B.N.H.S. regarding the position

of both species in Burma prior to the War.

These articles are a memorandum on the Kahilu Sanctuary by

Mr. D’Arcy Weatherbe, written after a visit to the Sanctuary,

(J.B.N.H.S., Vol. XLI, No. 1, p. 146). This note, by an acknow-

ledged authority, goes very thoroughly into the status of the

Sanctuary, and into the question of the species of rhinoceros in

the area, and casts doubt on the many references regarding the

number and species of rhinoceros that were acquired from the

Game Rangers.

A good review by the late Theodore Hubback of the Annual

Report on Game Preservation in Burma for the year ended March

1938 is contained in the same issue of the Journal. Another article

entitled ‘Burma’s decreasing Wild Life’ is found in J.B.N.H.S.,

Vol. XLII, p. 150, also by Mr. D’Arcy Weatherbe (Dec. 1940).

These articles I strongly recommend to anyone who has the

future of Burma’s wild life at heart. There is much hard hitting

in the way of criticism of the measures taken pre-war to safeguard

the Burmese fauna—all of it supported by facts, and all of it seems

abundantly justified.

Much of the information I have quoted above from the Game

Warden’s Reports is subjected to fair criticism and analysed. (I

have merely set this information down as the gist of the official

record only, and advise anyone interested to read the extracts in

conjunction with Mr. Weatherbe’s notes.)

_ Following is a summary, mainly based on the information re-

corded above of the present known locations of rhinoceros in Burma

and of the other areas where they possibly or probably exist.

(a) The Shwe-U-Daung Sanctuary.—There: are certainly a few

specimens of Dicerorhinus sumatrensis in the sanctuary at present

and no positive evidence of any undue decrease in numbers since

pre-war. The estimates I have been able to gather are from eight’

Jim., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

| The Sumatran T'wo-horned Rhinoceros [Dicerorhinus sumatrensis (Cuv.) ]

j| (Height at shoulder about 52 in.)

The Smaller One-horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus Cuv.)

(Height at shoulder 70 in.)

ON THE POSITION OF RHINOCEROS IN BURMA 263

to fifteen though both these figures are probably arbitrary and

should not be taken as in any way accurate.

(b) Avakan Yomas.—A few rhinoceros exist in the Arakan

ranges, from the Paletwa Area in the north to at least as far south

as below the Sandoway-Prome road. The rhinoceros of this area

undoubtedly spread at times to the eastern side of the range in the

forests of Mindon and Thayetmyo, and probably into Henzada

Division as well, in addition to the Arakan side proper. From

General Christison’s report I am inclined to think there are more

specimens here than commonly supposed, and certainly there is

more positive (recent) evidence than for any other area.

present in the Pegu Yomas and these would probably range in the

Pegu, Tharrawaddy, and Insein Divisions, possibly Prome, and

may at odd times go as far north as the southern part of Toungoo

district.

(da) The Uyu River Drainage area.—Though I have no actual

positive records of rhinoceros being seen here since the end of the

war the area is very remote and (comparatively) sparsely populated

and was not disturbed in any major way by the progress of the

war. It is an area in which a few rhinoceros have always been

supposed to exist and there is no reason to suppose. they were

entirely wiped out during War years. Rather to the east of the

Uyu itself and west of Indawgyi Lake is the Namaw Reserved

Forest and the Kachins in the ‘Railway corridor’ at Hopin reported

that a few rhinoceros could be found occasionally in the area.

Farther to the east this vast tract of wild country joins the

Pidaung Reserve (unfortunately I believe severely ‘shot out’ during

the war) and Mr. Mustill, formerly Game Warden, informed me

by a diagram on one of my maps of a migration of rhinoceros at

times from the Uyu area to Pidaung. From the Game Reports

there have been many positive records of rhinoceros from the Uyu

in recent years and it can be considered as almost certain that a

few specimens exist there today.

(e) Kahitlu Sanctuary and the Yunzalin River area.—Tracks were

seen of two rhinoceros in the Kahilu last year and from the other

reports I have obtained it seems that there are a few in the area

today. I imagine these would be isolated from the southern part

of Tenasserim, and from Siam by the Salween river. These rhino-

ceros would range in the Salween and Thaton areas, possibly

touching on Pegu Division.

(f) Tennasserim Peninsula—I have no post-war record of

rhinoceros in this area but from past accounts it seems likely that

there may be an odd, (and probably isolated), specimen or two

anywhere in the dense jungle covered mountains of the Dawna

Range and all down the peninsula in the Mergui and Tavoy Divi-

sions, these rhinoceros undoubtedly at times crossing the Siamese

border.

-(g) Bhamo area.—The rhinoceros reported shot in the Bhamo

area was possibly a wanderer from the Shwe-U-Daung in which

case it would have crossed the Shweli river. It is just possible

264. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY; Vol. \ 47

that one or two may exist in the hill tracts in the. Bhamo area, but

probably their numbers would be negligible. .

These I consider are the only areas where ehinoassde might be

found in Burma today.

Anyone acquainted with the country can see what vast areas

there are which are ideal habitat. for the animal, in which they

have long since disappeared, such as for instance the Chin Hills

and Karenni States.

I give below, for what it is worth, an estimate of donikers of

rhinoceros at present in Burma. ;

LOWEST REASONABLE ESTIMATE.

Shwe-U-Daung 5—Known established haunt of D. suma-

tvensis. Estimates over many years

have been between five and fifteen.

lvakan 7—Three seen (1944-45), tracks of cows

with calf noted twice.

Pegu Yomas 3—Tracks of three seen 1946-47.

Kahilu area 2—Tracks seen in 1946.

Uyu drainage avea 4—An arbitrary estimate based on fre-

quent records of specimens from this

area for some years and the fact that

there seems to have been no undue

disturbance during the war.

Total. 21

POSSIBLE REASONABLE ESTIMATE.

Shwe-U-Daung IO

Arakan | 12

Pegu Yomas 5

Kahilu and Yuzalin 6

Uyu drainage 8

Tennasserim peninsula 4

Total AN

I conclude that there are not less than 21 rhinoceros in Burma

today and possibly as many as 45 though the latter figure may be

considered too optimistic by some.

5. THE QUESTION OF THE ExISTENCE OF Rhinoceros sondai-

Cus AT PRESENT IN BURMA.

The Kahilu Sanctuary was constituted in 1928 mainly for the

preservation of R. sondaicus which were believed to still exist there.

However, the Sanctuary was visited im 11938 in: March and April

by Mr. D’Arcy Weatherbe during which time he observed and

measured many tracks, ‘though not actually seeing a specimen, and

as a result doubt was expressed that R. sondaicus existed in the

area at that time. A report was made of this visit by Mr. Weatherbe

and’ a memorandum on the Sanctuary published in J.B.N.H.S.,

Vol. XLI, No. 1,. p.. 146, August 1939 (already referred to in

Paraic). |

\. ON THE: POSITION OF RHINOCEROS IN. BURMA 265

In this memorandum a very detailed: and searching analysis of

the factors regarding the form of rhinoceros in Kahilu is made,

and on reading this one is compelled to believe that. the odds are

on the species being Dicerorhinus sumatrensis.

Evidence in favour of the species being R. sondaicus is to a

large extent based on observations of local Karens and does not

carry much weight. A skull found in Kahilu in 1928 and another

in 1931 were identified by Bombay Natural History Society as R.

sondaicus, but as Mr. Weatherbe ‘points out these do not necessarily

have any bearing on the species that existed so many years later.

“He also points out the flaws in the visual evidence and from all

this the verdict it seems must remain, if not entirely disproved, at

least not definitely proved.

The small size of the posterior horn in D. sumatrensis and the

ease with which this form can be taken for a one-horned beast must

also be taken into account. I may mention that in every case of

rhinoceros in Burma described to me they have been said to be

‘one-horned’, when in most cases there would seem no doubt that

the Sumatran two-horned form was being referred to.

Farther, the Yunzalin-Salween watershed area which is only

a few miles from the Kahilu Sanctuary is known as a haunt of

D. sumatrensis ; and finally, in the Game Report of 1940 the Warden

got a clear view (and photographic record too) of a specimen of

Dicerorhinus sumatrensis in a wallow, and it is added that the

track of this animal was the largest measured in the Sanctuary.

Regarding other areas of Burma, Peacock states that the only

definite evidence of the existence of R. sondaicus in Burma comes

from the Thaton, Salween and Mergui Forest Divisions, and gives

the forests of Victoria Point sub-division as one of the best known

of its former haunts (A Game Book for Burma, Chap. IX). The

hope that was entertained some years ago that R. sondaicus might

have been found in the Shwe-U-Daung area seems to have remained

just a hope and nothing more. _

By inference, considering the former wide range of R. sondaicus

(Bengal to Borneo and south to Java) the species probably ranged

all over Burma, though apparently not in living memory. If this

be true, from the absence of any very recent evidence of the form

north of Thaton, it may have been that it succumbed to persecution

even before the advent of firearms, to a much greater extent than

Dicerorhinus sumatrensis.

Shortridge (J.B.N.H.S., Vol. XXIII, 772, 1914) states that

both forms were about equal in numbers in hana and Jerdon (1874)

says ‘More abundantly’ in Burma than. Bengal.

Is one to. believe that in spite of so much persecution, and the

apparent helplessness of sondaicus in the face of it, that this form

has managed to keep on existing in a small and comparatively

accessible area; much of it not even. reserved forest: (Kahilu Sanc-

tuary is made. up of only 14 sq. miles of Reserved Forest and_ the

rest villages, cultivation, and public forest land), where its more

alert and wary relative, (D. sumatrensis) hardly holds its own?....]

think most people would say not. Certainly for practical purposes

266 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

there seems no hope of any increase, even in the unlikely event

of R. sondaicus being in the area, and this form in Burma, can

be considered virtually extinct.

To sum up, it would seem that the Kahilu aréa was one of, (if

not entirely) the last refuges of Rhinoceros sondaicus in Burma, on

the evidence of the skulls.

Regarding the existence of the species in other countries, I feel

that the Sundarbans of S. Bengal may offer a little hope, though

little is known about the number of rhinoceros, if any, that exist

there today. Rhinoceros in this area, if any exist, would almost

certainly be sondaicus as in all the available records no specimen

of either R. unicornis or D. sumatrensis has been recorded from the

area.

In Siam, Malaya, and Borneo, the form has probably been

wiped out though known to have existed in all these countries.

In Java and Sumatra, with the present troubles in Indonesia

nothing much can be ascertained, but, on the evidence of recorded

ranges of Asiatic species, any rhinoceros in Java itself would certain-

ly be the one-horned variety, though probably in lamentably small

numbers. [There is a reference to R. sondaicus in Java on p. 35

of the Report for the years 1940-46 International Office for the

Protection of Nature (Jan. 1947). ]|

6. THe RUMOURED EXISTENCE OF A ‘PYGMY’ RHINOCEROS IN THE

SALWEEN ‘AREA.

In the Game Warden’s report of 1938 there is a reference to the

supposed existence of a pygmy species of rhinoceros in the north of

the Salween district. A tooth found some years ago was said to

resemble a wild boar tush, but was triangular in shape at the base.

The B.N.H.S. was not able to identify this tooth, but Sir Frank

Colyer of the Royal College of Surgeons expressed the opinion that

it was the lower incisor of a rhinoceros.

The animal was described as ‘about the size of a large wild

boar, resembling an elephant in colour with scanty bristles on the

hide which is thick and similar to that of an elephant. Head re-

sembles that of a pig and carries no horn. Large tushes protrude

upwards on either side of the jaw. Lives in dense jungle preferring

hill tops, is very fierce and apt to attack on sight. Buries itself

frequently in a muddy burrow during the hot weather.’

The note in the Report goes on to say that there are certain

grounds (exactly what is not stated) for believing that such an

animal has existed in recent years in the area of the Salween and

that further enquiries were being made. Nothing more about this

is recorded in subsequent Game Reports. The Karen name is given

as ‘Ta Kheik’.

The above description is of course interesting, and if anywhere

near true would suggest an animal which properly described would

certainly constitute a new species and probably a new genus.

However, it seems amazing that if it exists that no specimen has

come into the hands of any naturalist able to figure and describe

it.

ON THE POSITION OF RHINOCEROS IN BURMA ~ . 267

One or two possibilities are suggested from the above. There

is of course a likelihood of a juvenile rhinoceros of either of the

known Burmese species being indicated. This would account for

the absence of any horn, but hardly for the ‘large tushes’ or fierce

disposition, and its tendency to attack on sight. It might be refer-

able to an abnormal specimen with deformed teeth.

The description also suggests a wild pig in many respects,

including the alleged fierceness, though as in all so-called ‘fierce

wild beasts’ an attack is seldom or never genuinely unprovoked.

But the Karens are well acquainted with the pig yet say this is a

form of rhinoceros. Nothing is mentioned of any folds in the skin.

The animal suggested to me by the account is the Malayan

tapir (Acrocodia), which is the only member of the perissodactyla

found in Burma apart from rhinoceros. The hind feet of the tapir

are three-toed and the fore feet have four toes, but as more than

one authority records that the tracks of the hind feet cover those

of the fore to some extent it is possible that the tracks might be

taken for three-toed spoor of rhinoceros.

Also it is not difficult to imagine a tapir seen in close jungle

being mistaken for a small hornless rhinoceros, especially if the

white back were covered with mud or otherwise obscured, though

whether the tapir ever existed as far north as the Salween in

recent years is not known. What does not seem to accord with

the tapir in the description is the alleged fierce disposition, the

tushes and preference for hill tops.

I have questioned several Karens of the Salween and Karenni

area regarding this description but could get no information, and

the name ‘Ta Kheik’ seems unknown to those I have asked.

I imagine this animal to be on a par with the so-called ‘Nandi

Bear’ of East Africa (a myth based on the Spotted Hyaena) that

is to say a kind of legendary and composite beast, probably based

on the rhinoceros, in which have become mixed up other species

such as the pig, tapir and possibly others.

7- DESTRUCTION OF RHINOCEROS IN BURMA IN RECENT YEARS.

In the period covered by the Game Warden’s Reports in Burma

(1928-40) there are the following records of rhinoceros destroyed.

In 1930 a male D. sumatrensis was shot in the Shwe-U-Daung

by Mr. Peacock (then Game Warden) and the skin and skeleton

presented to the British Museum. This is the only record I have

of any legal killing of rhinoceros in the period under review.

The number reported killed illicitly during these years are:—

1929/30 Two

1930/31 Four

1931/32 Two

1932/33 Two

1935/36 One :

These together, with the one killed in Bhamo area in 1946, and

three unofficial reports I have obtained, (one in Arakan 1940, one

€. 1935 in Karenni and one in the Salween area ‘recently’, the last

268 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL: HIST. SOCIETY, Viol: 47

two .rather vague)-makes a total of. fifteen killed since, 1928. It

‘should be remembered that these are, the«known cases, no account

being taken of those which have been poached and pues of

that thaue not been recorded. -

This account omits the war years, for which no information

is obtainable, though there is no reason to suppose any more poach-

ing than before. took place then—one, imagines that unchecked

carrying of arms would not have been tolerated by the Japanese.

Previous to: these years it is impossible to guess the number

killed before the rhinoceros became legally (at least on paper) a

protected animal. In the last 20 years, then, at least fifteen rhino-

ceros have been killed, probably many more, and it is very much

Open to question whether anything like twenty rhinoceros have

been born and survived in this period.

In the Game Reports there is mention of one in 1928 and another

in 1938, neither supported by very strong evidence though the

latter might have been the one reported seen at the foot of Kyaikto

hill in 1939. One or two young have been reported in the Shwe-U-

Daung at times. General Christison records that on two occasions

tracks of cows with calves at heel were observed, and then there

is the report of a young one in Pegu Yomas in 1946 told to myself.

Most of these records are of course very incomplete and incon-

clusive. But in the areas where rhinoceros exist there is no reason

why thev should not, if undisturbed, go on breeding, and every

reason why they should.

However allowing too for a proportion of deaths through natural

causes, it is open to doubt whether the balance has been main-

tained.

8. PRESENT SITUATION OF RHINOCEROS IN BURMA AND PROS-

PECTS OF SURVIVAL. .

Regarding the pre-war preservation in Burma of rhinoceros and

wild life generally much has been written by far more competent

pens than mine; I have already made reference to certain articles

on the subject, and a list of relevant. material will be found in the

appendix. I have above, in para 3, given an outline of the legisla- —

tive measures with which the rhinoceros are allegediy protected.

With the appointment of a whole-time Game. Warden in about

1925 and the framing of the Burma Game Rules of 1927 it seemed

that some progress was about to be made. But in 1931 the post

of Game Warden was .retrenched due to alleged financial difficulty.

In the opinion of two of the writers before the war on the subject,

ihe Game staff provided had always been totally inadequate and

in his review of the Game Report for 1938 Mr. Theodore Hubback

expresses sympathy with the then Game Warden (honorary after

1931) being in the position of having to build bricks without straw.

The money spent on game conservation was but a pitiful frac-

tion of the amount derived from wild life. In the article ‘Burma’s

decreasing Wild Life’ (J.B.N.H.S., Vol. XLII, pp. 155-156) Mr.

D’Arcy Weatherbe gives the figure of such income from wild ‘life

ON THE. POSITION OF RHINOCEROS IN BURMA 269

as: 1935——-Rs. 38,189 and 1936—Rs. 38,758. Expenditure for

these years was Rs. 3,445 and Rs. 10,350 respectively, but Mr.

Weatherbe points out that revenue from licences, etc., for sporting

ammunition and arms is not included under ‘income’. (Why it is

difficult to imagine!) Further reference to these points can be seen

in Pt. III of the ‘Wild Animals of the Indian Empire & the Problem

of their Preservation’ published in /.B.N.H.S., Vol. XXXVII,

No. 4 as a supplement. — }

After pointing out these salient features and drawing attention

to the references, I will not have the audacity to make any further

remarks on the pre-war position, except to remark that any real

interest in those days in wild life conservation seems to have

been almost entirely taken by certain of the Forest Officers, and in

the face of tremendous and almost insuperable difficulties. The

position, if unsatisfactory then, is a thousand times worse today.

There is no Game staff permanently employed, and the number of

arms is absolutely out of all rhyme or reason. Licenced arms are

far more numerous than they have any right to be, and the number

of illicit arms is legion. True, all these illegal arms are not used

primarily for game destruction, but there can be no doubt that

undue toll is taken of wild life by them. Furthermore quantities

of sporting ammuniticn are being imported and can be purchased

by anyone holding a licence in far too large a quantity and irres-

pective of when and where it is intended to be used.

The Army has probably done its share of poaching and I believe

the Pidaung Sanctuary was badly shot over during the latter part

of the war... An excessive amount of shooting goes on both in

and out of Reserved Forests without any doubt at all, and equally

certainly in and out of season. There is today virtually no one

keeping an eye on the wild life at all.

In some cases interested Forest Officers (though unfortunately

not as many as one would like to see) do take an interest and do

all they can to protect wild life. Usually however such officers

can only devote a fraction of their time to such work, and it is

then almost certainly done in their own spare time, as their duties

in forest work proper must be very heavy indeed after the war,

with its attendant necessary rehabilitation, catching up with work,

and general sorting out to be done. Generally, it may be said

that the forest officials who take any really active part in Game

Conservation today are those who have a real interest and who

do it more or less solely because of personal interest, and to be

perfectly frank, many of these are pre-war European officials who

will in the near future be terminating their stay in Burma due

to the political changes taking place in the country.

Of those forest. officials who take little or no active interest

in conserving wild life, who can really blame them? Their duties

are heavy and apart from devoting their own free time to it, they

have just not got the time and- facilities. In any case it is not

really their job. It is the job of a Game Department. i

Unfortunately so many: of those who work in the forests,

though often possessing excellent local and. field knowledge, - have

270 +JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

little or no broad knowledge of the country’s fauna as a whole,

and hence no interest in the upkeep of it.

To most of them any animal (even in the case of the more primitive

ones, and some of the small carnivora) is simply a lump of meat—

and nothing is being done to educate them to a better appreciation

of their country’s wonderful wild life. Perhaps they live too

close to it ever to see it in this way—I don’t know. The people

of Burma by their lack of interest certainly don’t deserve to have

such a wonderful variety of wild life as they possess at present.

One sometimes hears the case for Wild Life Conservation and

strict control of shooting dismissed with the argument that the

jungle peoples have always pursued game, and have not wiped

it out up to now, the arguers forgetting that the jungle peoples

have but recently come into the possession of modern weapons,

and forgetting too the increase in population.

The jungle dweller upon getting a modern rifle or shoe gun tor

the first time would no doubt think that his own particular brand

of heaven had indeed smiled upon him to provide the means of

getting unlimited quantities of meat, not realising in his ignorance

that by abusing his newly acquired power he will, if allowed to

surely eventually cut off the total supply.

A pair of junglefowl is regarded in the light of two meals—not

in the light of the suppliers next season of possibly more than two

meals, if spared, and consequently no regard is given to the obser-

vance of the close season, and almost never as things of beauty

from the nature lover’s point of view. Undoubtedly to the majority

of people in Burma the reason for a close season is simply not

known, or at least not fully appreciated, and, in too many cases,

those who do realise the implications of allowing species to re-

produce in comparative safety, do not give the correct example

as they should.

I have diverted somewhat from the position of rhinoceros to

that of Game in general, but let us see how the rhinoceros seems

to fare in the light of the above conditions

To take first the negative prospects for the future survival of

the rhinoceros in Burma:—

There is an appalling ignorance of fauna generally, and no

realisation of the fact that the rhinoceros will surely be lost for

ever unless means of a positive nature are taken to prevent this,

and no realisation either of what the loss of a species means to

science and to interested people all over the world. Because of

ignorance there is apathy instead of any public feeling in the matter,

and the widespread -belief in the alleged ‘medicinal’ value of the

parts of a rhinoceros does not tend to sympathy with protective

measures.

The glaring loopholes in the law have already been alluded

to. It has been pointed out by a very competent authority on

rhinoceros, that, given that shooting of a rhinoceros anywhere

in Burma without a Special Licence is illegal, and all export or

import of any parts of a rhinoceros is also unlawful, it is impossible

ON THE POSITION OF RHINOCEROS IN BURMA on

to conceive how anyone, physician or otherwise, can be in bona

fide legal possession of any of the said parts of the animal.

Until enlightened legislation amends the present laws there

is little hope for the species surviving, let alone increasing. Ex-

cessive arms and ammunition have already been referred to, with

its attendant unlimited poaching,

- There are no facilities at present for the education of the public

especially the younger generation, in appreciation of wild life.

Incredible as it may seem, in the city of Rangoon which rightly or

wrongly boasted to be one of the finest cities of the East pre-war,

there was no museum open to the public (the Veterinary Research

Institute and University I believe did run small museums of their

own). Compare this with the fine institutions in Calcutta and

Bombay and other Indian cities, and the number of visitors to

these places, and it speaks for itself.

Is any country so poor that it cannot afford to preserve its

treasures of Art, Culture and Natural History, for the benefit and

enjoyment of the present generation and posterity? Is it because

a museum is non-political and non-profitmaking that no interest

is taken in it in Burma?

The unsettled state of the country and its bearing on Wild Life

Conservation generally, and rhinoceros in particular, needs no

comment,

A negative factor as far as rhinoceros prospects are concerned

is the possibility of separation of certain hill tracts from Burma

proper—many of the present haunts of rhinoceros being in the

very areas concerned. What will eventually happen I am in no

position to judge, but separation of these parts would undoubtedly

mitigate against rhinoceros as practically all the hill tribes of Burma

are notorious poachers and have no regard for future conservation

whatsoever, their ignorance and apathy in this respect, even among

the educated ones being almost unbounded—not their fault of

course, for they have never been educated to think other than

they do.

There is a tendency in Burma not to be amenable to discipline,

and to regard any restrictions imposed, however much in the public

interest, as unjustified, and of which the abolition should be pressed

without delay. I read in a letter to the editor published in a

Rangoon paper recently, a proposal that the Government should

allow everyone to carry arms with no licences or restrictions !

To consider the positive factors for the prospects of rhinoceros

in Burma, one finds they are lamentably few.

Chiefly, these are the elusive and retiring habits of the rhino-

ceros, and in Burma, (as Mr. Hubback has written of the rhinoceros

in Malaya), their survival to date has probably been due to this,

plus their inaccessibility generally of location, more than to any

other factor. In the case of the Shwe-U-Daung there are, too, the

Spirits reputed to frown on poaching, and it is to be hoped that.

eventual disbelief in these spirits does not preclude some sort of

desire to retain the species in Shwe-U-Daung, or they may possibly

be poached out of existence. |

292. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

‘Coupled with the remote haunts of. the rhinoceros is the re-

sultant lack of any serious conflict of interest between. the claim

of the species and cultivators. The fact that so much of Burma’s

resources and wealth lies in the forests tends to be a_ positive

factor in so far as it ensures the upkeep and preservation of huge

tracts of natural habitat, though timber cutting in any of the

rhinoceros areas would no doubt disturb the animals for a time.

The rhinoceros at present do little or no harm to anyone, and

any claims that rhinoceros are doing damage to cultivation should

be most carefully investigated, as, there are many in Burma who

would welcome any opportunity to molest this inoffensive beast.

The factor that one would expect to. have a good influence on

Wild Life Protection generally in Burma, but which actually seems

to leave much to be desired, in this respect, is the Buddhist religion.

Buddhists, according to the ‘dictates of their religion, should

kill no living thing. In a Buddhist country, therefore, one would

expect some measure of protection for the fauna automatically,

irrespective of legislation. The insincerity in this respect of the

Buddhist religion as practised in Burma today is obvious.

From the point of view of rhinoceros in particular, the peoples

occupying their habitation in the hill country. are in many cases the

hill tribes, for the most part either animist or Christian so the

remarks about Buddhism hardly apply. Nevertheless, had the

Buddhists of Burma (the vast majority of the population) not been

content to sit back and watch the fauna. of their country decimated

by ruthless poaching and by all manner of unsporting methods, the

position as a, whole would have been much better.

Any future proposals for Game Preservation in Burma _ should

endeavour to enlist the support of the Buddhist priests, who doubt-

less, could wield a strong influence over large sections of the

populace in this direction. Before the war, I believe a few Buddhist

priests. did do a little in this way and tried to establish smal] local

sanctuaries. Such efforts deserve all possible support (including

official recognition).

That rhinoceros will respond to strict protection is shown by

the facts about the following efforts at conservation in India and

elsewhere. (Admittedly I quote reserves for other species.)

The Kaziranga Reserve for R. unicornis in Assam is full of the

species today, and by all reports they are steadily on the increase.

Last year two separate parties were quoted in the Journal of the

Society for the Preservation of the Fauna of the Empire as having,

(from an elephant) each seen a number of rhinoceros (including

some calves) in a very short time, one party seeing eleven in the

course of a brief visit of a few hours only.

Poaching of rhinoceros in Nepal has, I believe, been eliminated,

due to the Government having the power to enforce its own laws.

The Jaldapara Sanctuary in North Bengal is also for R. unicornis

and was constituted in 1932 to save the rhinoceros in the area

from being poached out. In 1930-31 about fifty were killed, this

number of skulls being found in 1932 and 33. Before this it had

ON THE POSITION OF RHINOCEROS IN BURMA) 273

been estimated there were 80 specimens in the area, so the extent

of the reduction can be realised.

After the 14 years or so of lle aberren it is estimated that

today there are about fifty in the’ Sanctuary.

It would seem that the rhinoceros (at least R. unicornis) is a

steady, if slow, breeder and this doubtless augmented by the pro-

bability of few dangers to the calves, in the way of natural enemies.

I have not much information about the: present state of pro-

tection of the two African species but it would appear that both

the Northern and Southern races of the rare Ceratotherium simum,

(the ‘white’ rhinoceros) are fairly well provided for and in no

immediate danger. It is of interest to note that the Southern race

of C. stmum has often been written of as ‘totally extinct’ or “dying

out’; while in actual fact there are probably more of them in

existence than there are D. sumatrensis in the whole of Burma,

and there is every prospect that these African square lipped mon-

sters will not be allowed to perish at the hands of man. j

Through the wastefulness and greed of man, Rhinoceros sondai-

cus has been exterminated in. Burma. A fener Game Warden

(Mr. E. H. Peacock) records his opinion that had the necessary

steps been taken they could have been saved. It is not’ quite

too late to save Dicerorhinus from extinction in Burma but certain

steps are essential if this is to be effectively carried out.

‘Most of the following has been pointed out before, but it does

no harm to repeat it once again.

.It is absolutely imperative that a Game Warden and Game

Staff be appointed without delay, and that sufficient funds be set’

aside for Wild Life Protection, from revenues derived from wild

life. (sporting “arms licences, game Neattces, cltsolieie kheddah

heences, etc.)

As has been so often pore out, all this revenue is a direci

result of the existence of wild life, and unless ample provision is

made to safeguard it, it will be so nearly exterminated: in a few

years that this source of revenue will have ceased to exist. If the

Government of Burma must be mercenary about it, why cannot

wild life be regarded as a natural resource of the country, much

on a par with the forests One does not expect to go on deriving

revenue from the forests without maintaining a Forest Department.

It is illogical to expect revenue from wild life to continue if nothing

is done abort its upkeep.

Could not the Government be content with a small annual

revenue for transfer to other departments and regard the wild

life in the light of a long term investment? No one has _ ever

advocated a Game Department that does: not pay for itself, and it

should be possible also to make a little over which could then be

transferred to any other department at the discretion of those res-

ponsible for such matters.

As far as wild life in Burma is concerned the policy today is

of killing the goose that lays the golden eggs. A revision of the

futile and inadequate legislation concerning rhinoceros in Burma

coupled with a realisation that the best laws are of little use unless

274 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47

the machinery exists to enforce such legislation, is an essential

measure to save the species. ;

The issue of sporting arms and licences should be. strictly

controlled, and their issue coordinated with the relative stock of

game in the areas over which it is proposed to allow shooting.

There should be an effort made to educate the people of Burma

in appreciation of wild life, and an attempt to eliminate the pre-

valent idea of fauna (and flora too) being the property of anyone

who can and cares to take it for himself. (‘At present there is no

idea at all that the fauna and flora belong to, and are an integral

part of the country as a whole.

The formation of a Wild Life Protection Society and/or a

Natural History Society would be a great step forward, but like

so much else in Burma, such may be (and, I believe, in the past

has been) talked of for years and nothing done. It should be

remembered that such movements are almost invariably the result

of the labours of a very few interested people in the first instance.

Finally, no effort should be spared to keep the present sanc-

tuaries intact, improve them and where necessary form new ones.

They should all belong to some sort of National Trust and remain

permanently inviolate. The ultimate aim should be to make

National Parks of those suitable for such.

I have heard of proposals to exploit timber or other forest

resources in both the Shwe-U-Daung and Kahilu Sanctuaries.

There is nothing whatsoever to justify this step, and it would be

folly to allow it to be done. A _ wild life sanctuary implies

that the flora as well as the fauna should remain as Nature made

it. Is anyone in his right mind to believe that any timber concern

is really going to stand or fall by the amount of teak, etc., that

can be got out of so few square miles, considering the total huge

forested areas in Burma? One can only hope that commercial

interests will not be allowed to get their greedy hands on these

sanctuaries.

It is probable that in ten or fifteen years’ time Burmans visit-

ing, say, the National Parks of Canada or U.S.A. will ask ‘Why

can’t we have some National Parks like these in Burma?’ and the

answer will be: ‘You could have had, if farsighted and wise mea-

sures were taken a few years ago, but it is too late now, the

opportunity is gone forever.’

It would, indeed, be a sad reflection on past policy if, when

the time comes that people in Burma have the leisure and desire

for National Parks nothing worthwhile were left to show them.

If the above necessary measures are carried out it would seem

that there is a good chance of keeping the Burmese rhinoceros in

the Shwe-U-Daung, Uyu area and the Arakan in perpetuity and

there might be some chance of an increase in the stock in these

areas. In all these places there seems every opportunity for them to

breed if undisturbed. : Rite

If, as I am compelled to believe will be the case, nothing’ is

done it will mean that the ultimate fate of Dicerorhinus stimatrénsis

NOTE ON. THE POSITION OF RHINOCEROS IN BURMA 345

will be the same as of its larger relative Rhinoceros sondaicus,

though a few isolated specimens may remain in the more remote

tracts for several years before finally succumbing to the inevitable.

APPENDIX A.

REFERENCES TO RHINOCEROS IN BURMA AND RELEVANT LITERATURE.

Jerdon.—Mammals of India, p. 234 (1870).

Sterndale-—Mammialia of India, p. 405 et. seq. (1884).

Blanford.—F.B.I. Mammalia, p. 471 et. seg. (1888).

Catalogue of Mammalia in the Indian Museum Calcutta; Pt. II

p. 201 et. seg. (1891).

Lydekker.—Catalogue of the Ungulate Mammalia in the British Museum

Vol. v, p. 46 et. seq. (1916).

Stockley.—Big Game Shooting in the Indian Empire (1928).

Peacock, E. H.—A Game Book for Burma, Chapters viii and ix (1933).

Annual Reports of the Game Warden, Burma, 1928-1940.

P'Z.5.—1869 p. 409; 1873, p. 104; 1875, .p. 566.

J.B.N.H.S.—Vol. xvi, p. 555, ‘Notes on Rhinoceros in Burma’ (Major G. H.

Evans, F.L.S.) (1905).

j.B.N.H.S.—Vol. xxiii, p. 772, ‘The Asiatic Two-horned Rhinoceros’ (R.

sumatrensis, Cuv.) by G. C. Shortridge (1914).

J.B.N.H.S.—Vol. xxxviii, No. 1, p. 137, “Rhinoceros Shooting in Burma’,

by W. S. Thom (1935).

J.B.N.H.S.—Vol. xxxix, No. 3, p. 606, ‘Note on the Burma Wild Life Pro-

tection Act’ (1938).

J.B.N.H.S.—Vol. xl, No. 4, p. 594, ‘The Two-horned Asiatic Rhinoceros

(Dicerorhinus sumatrensis)’ by Theodore Hubback (1939).

J.B.N.H.S.—Vol. xl, No. 4, p. 618, ‘Additional notes on the Asiatic Two-

horned Rhinoceros’, by S. H. Prater, C.M:Z.S. (1939).

~ 7.B.N,.H.S.—Vol. xli, No. 1, p. 146, ‘Memorandum on the Kahilu Sanctuary’,

by D’Arcy Weatherbe (1940).

J].B.N.H.S.—VYol. xli, No. 1, p. 161, ‘Review of the Annual Report on Game

Preservation in Burma for the year ended 31st March 1938’ by Theodore Hubback,

(1940).

J.B.N.H.S.—Vol. xlii, p. 150, ‘Burma’s Decreasing Wild Life’ by D’Arcy

Weatherbe (1940).

_ J.B.N.H.S.—Vol. xliv, p. 257, ‘A Few. Notes about the Five Rhinoceros of

the World’ by W. S. Thom (1943).

* - $Wild Animals of the Indian Empife and the problem of their Preservation’,

Pt. III, Supplement to J.B.N.H.S., Vol. xxxvii, pp. 112-188.

Journal of the Society for the Preservation of the Fauna of the Empire

June 1946, Pt. III, p. 46..

Journal of the Society for the Preservation of the Fauna of the Empire

Dec. 1946.

APPENDIx B.

ADDITIONAL DATA ON Rhinoceros sondaicus.

Published in the Journal of the Malayan branch of the Royal

Asiatic Society (Vol. XV, p. 130, et seq.) in 1937 was an article en-

titled ‘Rhinoceros sondaicus, The Javan or Lesser. One-horned

Rhinoceros and its Geographical Distribution’ by Charles W. Loch.

This article came to my notice after the MS of my notes relating

to the rhinoceros in Burma had been completed and, though it is

not primarily concerned with Burma, I feel that it is of such

considerable interest (and probably not obtainable by many at the

present time) that a short note on the gist of the article may

appropriately form an appendix to my notes.

276 JOURNAL;: BOMBAY NATURAL Hea Vol. 47

The article gives a full a interesting survey fof ‘the recent

range of R. sondaicus.

Records of specimens that. were actually killed and identified

are quoted from Bengal (latest 1874), Assam (latest 1874, Manipur)

Burma (latest 1920, shot by Mr. Hubback at Victoria Point),

Siam, Malaya (several good records, latest 1932), Sumatra (latest

1933), Java, Indo-China and Borneo (doubtful, with a remark that

Mr. E. Banks, of the Sarawak Museum, did not believe R. sondai- -

cus to exist in Borneo really).

Mr. Loch estimated that at that time (1937) there were about

66 (‘probably less than 70 and more than 40’) in existence’ made up

of 4 in Burma, 6 in Malaya, about 6 in Sumatra, about 24 in Java,

8 in Siam, and about 18 in Indo-China.

He considered the species extinct in Bengal and probably so

in Assam, probably non-existent in Borneo and had no records

from Yunnan and Kwang-si.

This estimate would seem to be very optimistic, especially if

the evidence in the other countries was no more reliable than that

from Burma was shown to be when analysed by Mr. Weatherbe.

In any case it appears almost certain that today (ten years

later) nowhere near sixty of this rare mammal exist.

It is particularly regrettable that the areas where the article

quoted Rhinoceros sondaicus as being most plentiful (Fr. Indo-

China and Java) are today the very areas where there is most

trouble and unrest, and just the places where the species would

seem to have the least chance of survival. Especially is it unfor-

tunate in the case of the Cedjoenkoelon Peninsula of Java, where

there was reported to have been a, dozen or more R. sondaicus in a

reserve, formerly closely guarded and protected. (All the rhinoceros

of Java would belong to the sondaicus variety on the evidence of

D. sumatrensis never having been recorded from the island.) _

The article under reference gives a map, and two plates. of

mounted specimens, (m.. & f.) of iy sondaicus, and a table showing ‘

the known specimens in the museums of the world, There is also

a list of references to literature on the subject.

THE BIRDS OF DELHI AND DISTRICT ~

N. F. FROME, C.1.E., D.F.C., M.SC., M.B.O.U.

(With a map and 4 sketches)

In volume ‘xxxi of the Journal an article written by the late

S. Basil-Edwardes was published under the title ‘A Contribution

to the Ornithology of Delhi’ giving a list of the birds of Delhi

and district. Basil-Edwardes’s record was, however, confined only

to the winter season of 1924-25 and omits a number of species

which occur in the Delhi area, apart from its lack of information

as regards status. There seems to have been no collected data

published since on the birds to be seen in and around Delhi.

. The following account, which has been compiled from the notes

of H. A. C. Gill, 1.c.s., J. D. Michael, 0.8.£., R. S. Symons, C.1.E.,

1.C.S., Sir Andrew, Clow, K.C.S.1., C.I.E.; 1.C.S., C. R. Cooke, 0.B.E.,

and the author, expands Basil-Edwardes’s paper and brings it up

to date.* |

The area to which the present record applies is that contained

in a circle roughly 30 miles around Delhi (vide map). This area

consists mostly of the flat country of the Gangetic plain with the

rocky outcrop of the Delhi Ridge and its extensions. Within the

area lie parts of the river Jumna, the smaller Hindan river, sec-

tions of the Eastern Jumna, Western Jumna and Agra canals, a

number of jheels, extensive cultivation, light woodland, gardens

and residential areas, arid rocky and scrub country and the grass-

lands of the riverain tracts. There is no forest in the area.

__ The observations regarding the different species combine the

results of independently maintained. notes of . sight records ex-

tending from about 1931 to the present time (December 1945).

The list records 300 species divided into the following classes :—

Residents. © io bas Mokeini Toa! on

slitz on

Spring visitors | a EE eC 2,

Summer visitors’) © §) 4s. | ganas ee score

Rains visitors’ ' stan eects Pow abe SS Hh . Saas a aed

Winter visitors. -- O3e yee pndany LOO

_. Non-seasonal visitors Sf es eee

_ Passage migrants 560 pee Sac! Soe 24

Status not known _ SOC } SOU. serecies 21

* In order to make this list more comprehensive, some additional species

observed by Major-Gen. H. P. W. Hutson, ©.8,; D.S.0., 0.B.E., M.C,, during

the two seasons June 1943 to May r945 together with his remarks have been

inserted in square brackets in their proper places.—Eps.

r )

278 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

The normal habitat of each species has been indicated and,

subject to observation in suitable habitat, the following scale has

been used to indicate the frequency of occurrence :—

Very common ... seen in abundance.

Common ... seen frequently.

Fairly common ... seen fairly frequently.

Not at all common ... seen only occasionally.

Uncommon ... seen very rarely.

Very uncommon ... seen only on one or two

isolated occasions.

The term ‘small parties’ describes groups up to a dozen in-

dividuals; ‘small flocks’ from 12 to 50, and ‘large flocks’ more

than 50.

Species have been listed in the order given in the Fauna of

British India (Birds), second edition, and those additional to Basil-

Edwardes’s list, of which there are 98, are indicated by an asterisk.

The text is illustrated by sketches giving field impressions of

a few species by C. R. Cooke.

Although the present record is fairly comprehensive additional

information is required in many instances, particularly as regards

the occurrence of warblers, pipits, larks, owls, eagles and duck,

and as regards nests and nesting seasons. In addition, the periods

in which visitors have been noted can no doubt be extended in

many cases. It would be of value, therefore, if others interested

in the birds of Delhi and district would add their data to this

list in these and other respects.

Corvus corax Linnaeus. The Raven.

Occasional winter visitor. Very uncommon. One doubtful observation in

open country near Gurgaon, solitary, in December (23rd); pair near Haus khas

in January (26th).

Corvus macrorhynchos Wagler. The Jungle Crow.

Resident. Uncommon. Occurs very occasionally in open country and culti-

vation. Solitary, and small parties.

Corvus splendeus Vieillot. The Common House Crow.

Resident, Very common in all inhabited and cultivated areas. Gregarious.

Dendrocitta vagabunda (Latham). The Indian Tree Pie.

Resident. Fairly common in gardens and woodland. Solitary and pairs.

Sitta castanea Lesson. The Chestnut-bellied Nuthatch.

Resident. Not at all common, but occurs particularly in tree avenues along

canals. Solitary.

Turdoides somerviliei (Sykes). The Jungle Babbler.

Resident. Very common in gardens in Old Delhi and common around garden

and bush cover elsewhere. Small parties.

*Argya earlii (Blyth). The Striated Babbler.

Resident. Not at all common. Occurs in reed. and rush beds along river

banks in small parties.

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DELHI AND DISTRICT

THE BIRDS. OF DELHI AND DISTRICT 279:

Argya caudaia (Dumont). The Common Babbler.

Resident. Common in small parties in dry open country in scrub, bushes-

and sirkanda grass.

Argya malcolmi(Sykes). The Large Grey Babbler.

Resident. Very common in small parties in lightly wooded jungle tracts and

in gardens in New Delhi.

*Chrysomma sinensis(Gmelin). The Yellow-eyed Babbler.

Resident. Fairly common in gardens, thick bush and jungle cover. Pairs

and small parties.

Agithina nigrolutea (Marshall). Marshall’s Iora.

Resident. Not at all common. Occurs in woodland in country districts.

Solitary and pairs.

(Chloropsis aurifrons The Gold-fronted Chloropsis.

Vagrant. A single bird seen in August. Possibly an escape. ]

Molpastes cafer (Linnaeus). The Red-vented Bulbul.

Resident. Very common in gardens and cultivated areas. Solitary, pairs

and occasional small parties.

Molpastes leucogenys leucotis (Gould). The White-eared Bulbul.

Resident. Fairly common in gardens, cultivation and dry open scrub country.

Solitary and pairs.

*Otocompsa jocosa (Linnaeus). The Red-whiskered Buibul.

Resident. Occasionally seen in gardens in New Delhi but not recorded else-

where. This species seems to be a new arrival in the Delhi area being noted

only since 1941. Nests: May.

[Certhia himalayana Vigors. The Himalayan Tree-Creeper.

Vagrant. A single bird in light woodland, 4 June. ]

Saipornis spilonotus Franklin. The Spotted Grey Creeper.

Presumably scarce resident—recorded in December, January, April and July

chiefly in woodland in country districts. Solitary and pairs.

*Tichodroma muraria (Linnaeus). The Wall Creeper.

Winter visitor. Uncommon. Recorded on various dates from December (6th)

to March (8th) on New Delhi Secretariat Buildings. Solitary.

Saxicola caprata (Linnaeus). The Pied Bush-Chat.

Resident. Common in open scrub country particularly in riverain areas.

Solitary and pairs. Nests (4 eggs): March (young); May.

Saxicola torquata (L.innaeus). The Stone-Chat.

Winter visitor. Fairly common in open scrub country particularly in riverain

areas from November (18th) to April (16th). More common as passage migrant

during the first fortnight of April. Solitary.

_[Rhodophila ferrea (Gray). The Dark Grey Bush-Chat.

Passage Migrant. Seen in April and September. Scarce (identifications not

sure). ]

280. JOURNAL,. BOMBAY ‘NATURAL (HIST.. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

(Enanthe picata (Blyth). The Pied Wheatear. ©. .;.

“Winter visitor. Uncommon, Noted in October (13th) , to,,

rocky country. Solitary. |

} 5 pe

January in open

(Enanthe capistrata (Gould). The White-capped Wheatear.

Occasional winter visitor. Very uncommon. Noted on one occasion enly in

open country near Najafgarh (January). Solitary. |

*(Enanthe opistholeuca (Strickland). Strickland’s Wheatear.

Winter visitor. Not at all common. Noted in open rocky country, October

(6th) to February. Solitary. ~~

(Enanthe isabellina (Cretzschm.) The Isabelline Wheatear.

Occasional winter visitor. Doubtfully observed by Basil-Edwardes in December.

No subsequent records. y OMS

(Enanthe deserti (Temm. & Laug.). The Desert Wheatear.

Winter visitor. Not at all common but occasionally observed from November

(15th) to February (26th) in arid and sandy open country. Solitary.

Cercomela fusca (Blyth): The Brown Rack-Chat.

Resident. Common around gardens, houses and old buildings. Usually in

pairs. Nest (4 eggs): March. ee: |

Phoenicurus ochruros (Gmelin). The Black Redstart.

Winter visitor. Common in gardens and woodland—September (16th) to April

(22nd). Solitary. ue a: » ¥I

Cyanosylvia suecica (Linnaeus). The Bluethroat.

Winter visitor. Common in undergrowth of gardens and in reed and bush ~

cover in-riverain areas from September (15th) to April (24th). Particularly

common on passage from mid-March to end of April. Solitary. iim

*Calliope calliope (Pallas). The Common Rubythroat.

Presumably passage migrant or winter visitor. Uncommon. Noted only on

two occasions in November (4th and 17th) in scrub jungle in lightly wooded

‘country. Solitary.

Saxicoloides fulicata cambayensis (Latham). The Brown-backed Indian Robin.

Resident. Common. Occurs in gardens and also in arid scrub country.

Solitary and pairs. 1

Copsychu saularis (Linnaeus). The Magpie Robin.

Chiefly winter visitor (October to April) with some residents. Fairly common

in gardens and cultivation. Solitary and pairs.

Turdus atrogularis Jarocki. The Black-throated Thrush.

Occasional winter visitor. Uncommon. Observed in gardens and parks in

New Delhi on a few occasions from February (15th) to March (21st). Solitary.

*Turdus unicolor Tickell. Tickell’s Thrush.

Occasional winter visitor. Uncommon. Noted only on two occasions in

gardens in New Delhi in February (2nd) and in March. Solitary. -

*Geokichla citrina (Latham). The Orange-headed Ground-Thrush.

“ Otcasional winter. visitor. Uncommon. Noted only in’ New Delhi gardens

during winter of 1940-41.

THE BIRDS OF DELHI AND DISTRICT | >): a8i

Monticola solitaria (Linnaeus).. The Blue Rock-Thrush.

Winter visitor. Not at all common. Occurs on _ rocky ground: and yada

old buildings in open country. Noted from January (21st) to May (ist). Solitary.

Muscicapa parva Bechstein. The Red-breasted F lycatcher.

‘Winter visitor. Not at all common. Seen occasionally from October (30th)

to April (2nd), in trees and bushes in lightly wooded country. Solitary.

Eumyias thalassina (Swainson). The Verditer Flycatcher.

Passage migrant. Not at all common. Noted on a few occasions in gardens

and parks in New Delhi and in woodland in country districts during October

(6th) and March (18th to 26th). Solitary.

Culicicapa ceylonensis (Swainson). The Grey-headed Flycatcher. |

Occasional winter visitor. Not at all common. Seen on a few occasions in

fruit gardens and light woodland from October (19th) to March. Solitary.

Tchitrea paradisi (Linnaeus). The Paradise Flycatcher.

Chiefly passage migrant with some summer visitors. Not at all common.

Occasionally seen in gardens in New Delhi and fruit gardens in country districts

in April (5th to 21st) and September (15th to 28th). More infrequently from

April to September. Usually solitary.

Leucocirca aureola (Lesson), The White-browed Fantail Flycatcher.

Resident. Fairly common in gardens, plantations and woodland. Solitary.

Lanius excubitor Linnaeus. The Great Grey Shrike.

Resident. Fairly common in kikar trees and bushes in arid country and

riverain tracts. Solitary. Nest; in occupation, May (roth).

Lanius vittatus Valenciennes. The Bay-backed Shrike,

Resident. Common—in gardens and trees in cultivation. Solitary.

Lanius schach Linnaeus. The Rufous-backed Shrike.

Chiefly winter visitor with some residents. Not at all common during sum-

mer months but fairly common from November to March in gardens and light

woodland. Solitary. Nest (young): June (26th).

[Lanius cristatus Linn. The Brown Shrike.

Winter visitor. Mid-August to mid-March. Sl numbers about edges of

jheels and reed beds. |

Lanius isabellinus Hemprich & Ehrenberg. The Pale Brown Shrike.

‘Winter visitor. Not at all common. Noted occasionally perched on bushes in

open country from November (roth) to March (14th). Solitary.

Tephrodornis pondicerianus (Gmelin). The Common Wood-Shrike.

Resident. Fairly common in gardens, copses, and cultivation. Solitary.

Pericrocotus brevirostris (Vigors). The Short-billed Minivet.

, Winter visitor. Not at all common. Small parties of mixed sexes seen

occasionally in gardens, parks and woodland from November to March (14th).

*Pericrocotus roseus (Vicillot). The Rosy Minivet.

Presumably occasional winter visitor. Very uncommon. Seen on one occasion

only in December in open country near Badli jheel. Solitary. |

2825 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Pericrocotus peregrinus (Linnaeus). The Little Minivet. :

“Resident. Fairly common in small parties in garden trees and woodland

but more evident.-in cold weather than remainder of year. 5

Pericrocotus ery thropygius (Jerdon). The White-bellied Minivet.

Winter visitor. Not at all common. Occasionally seen in small parties and

pairs in parks and woodland in country districts from November (11th) to Feb-

ruary (19th).

[Graucalus javensis The Large Cuckoo-Shrike.

Not seen but reliably reported by other observers. |

Dicrurus macrocercus Vieillot. The Black Drongo.

Resident. Very common in all types of country. Usually solitary. Birds in

juvenile plumage, September (8th). ;

*Dicrurus coerulescens (Linnaeus). The White-bellied Drongo.

Occasional visitor. Not at all common. Seen only on two occasions in light

woodland in country districts in August (8th), and in November (3rd). Solitary.

*Acrocephalus stentoreus (Hempr. & Ehr.). The Indian Great Reed Warbler.

Probably passage migrant. Uncommon. Noted in reed beds of Hindan river -

and at Okhla in April (28th and 29th). Solitary.

Acrocephalus dumetorum Biyth. Blyth’s Reed Warbler.

Presumabity passage migrant. Doubtfully observed -by Basil-Edwardes in

March (25th). No subsequent records.

[Locustella naevia (Boddaert). The Grasshopper-Warbler.

Passage migrant. Two records: A bird on 14 April and another on 16 April.]}

Orthotomus sutorius (Pennant). The Tailor Bird.

Resident. Common, particularly in gardens. Solitary and pairs.

[Lusciniola melanopogon (Temm. & Laug.). The Moustached Sedge-Warbler. |

Resident. Noted in January, April and first half of May and suspected during

other months of the year. Small numbers in a few reed-beds by water.]

Cisticola juncidis (Rafinesque). The Streaked Fantail-Warbler.

Resident. Fairly common in open grassland. Solitary and pairs,

Franklinia buchanani (Blyth). The Rufous-fronted Wren-Warbler.

Resident. Common in scrub covered arid country in small parties.

Hippolais caligata (Lichtenstein). The Booted Warbler.

Status uncertain. Uncommon. Noted only in October (18th) in light wood-

land. Solitary.

*Sylvia hortensis (Gmelin). The Orphean Warbler.

Presumably winter visitor. Uncommon. Noted only on one occasion in

riverain tract in February (10th). Solitary.

Sylvia curruca (Linnaeus). The Lesser Whitethroat.

‘Winter visitor. Common in woodland in country districts and in garden trees

from September (30th) to April (7th). Usually solitary.

Phylloscopus collybita (Vieillot). The Chiffchaff.

Winter visitor. Common in bushes, garden trees and copses from September

(5th) to April (13th). Usually solitary. ag

THE BIRDS OF DELHI AND _DISTRICT 283.

Phylloscopus griseolus Blyth. The Olivaceous Willow-Warbler.

~ Presumably passage migrant. Observed by Basil-Edwardes towards the end

of March. No subsequent records.

Phylloscopus humii (Brooks). Hume’s Willow Warbler.

Winter visitor. Heard throughout the cold weather by Basil-Edwardes.

Noted in garden trees in New Delhi and in woodland in country districts in

December and February (roth).

Phylloscopus trochiloides (Sundevall). The Green Willow Warbler.

Passage migrant. Noted by Basil-Edwardes during March and April on mig-

ration. No subsequent records.

. *Phylloscopus occipitalis (Blyth). The Large Crowned Willow-Warbler.

Winter visitor. Not at all common. Noted in tree groves in riverain and

canal areas from January (3rd) to March. Solitary.

Prinia gracilis (Lichtenstein). The Streaked Wren-Warbler.

Presumably resident. Not at all common. Noted only in overgrown grass-.

land and in sirkanda grass thickets at Hindan river in February (7th and 22nd).

Solitary.

Prinia socialis Sykes. The Ashy Wren-Warbler.

Resident. Common in gardens and in hedges in cultivation. Solitary.

Prinia inornata Sykes. The Indian Wren-Warbler.

Resident. Common. Occurs particularly in grass and reed clumps in river-

ain areas and in crops. Nest (4 young): August (6th).

Oriolus oriolus (Linnaeus). The Golden Oriole.

Summer and rains visitor. Common in garden trees, copses and woodland,

from April (2nd) to October (11th). Solitary and pairs.

Pastor roseus (Linnaeus). The Rosy Pastor.

Chiefly passage migrant. Common on northern migration in small and large

flocks from mid-March to end of April—in some years to first week. of May.

Common during southern migration (particularly south of New Delhi) from the

last week in July to mid-October. Very occasionally seen during cold’ weather :

small flock in November, solitary immature bird in December (27th) small flock

in January. Usually seen in flight, resting on trees or feeding on ground during

southern migration; in flight or resting and feeding on flowering trees during

northern migration.

Sturnus vulgaris Linnaeus. The Starling.

Winter visitor. Common in grassland and open country, from October (16th)

to March (3rd). A number of very large flocks seen north of Old Delhi flying

west to east October (16th). Occurs in small flocks November to January.

Gathers in large flocks before migration in February. Latest date flocks seen

March (3rd).

*Sturnia malabarica(Gmelin). The Grey-readed Mynah.

Occasional visitor. Very uncommon. Noted only on one occasion on the

Ridge at New Delhi in September.

Temenuchus pagodarum (Gmelin). The Brahminy Mynah.

- 5 setyAs .& ;

Resident. Common in gardens, cultivation and grassland. Singly, pairs and

small parties.

284. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL | HIST...SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Acridotheres tristis (Linnaeus). ._The Common Mynah. 8B suqoseell wd

Resident. Very common in all types of country, towns and _ habitations.

Pairs. Flights to roosting sites in flocks. us Re }

Acridotheres ginginianus (Latham). The Bank Mynah.

Resident. Common—usually in the neighbourhood of water. Also conspi-

cuous at Delhi railway station. Small parties; often roosts in reed beds in

large flocks. Nests (with young): June (28th).

Sturmepaster contra (Linnaeus). The Pied Mynah.

Resident. Common around jheels and in riverain areas. Pairs, and small

parties. Nests: April to July. : ;

Ploceus phillippinus (Linnaeus). The Baya Weaver Bird.

Resident. Common in small parties and flocks. Usually to be seen at nesting

sites and feeding on flowering sirkanda grass. Nesting season; July to September.

Ploceus bengalensis (Linnaeus). The Black-throated Weaver Bird.

Status not known. Basil-Edwardes refers to specimen in Hume collection.

No ‘subsequent records.

Ploceus manyar (Horsfield), The Striated Weaver Bird.

Presumably resident. Not at all common. Nesting colony observed _ in reed

bed. near Okhla, July, August and September. Small parties,

[Munia malacca (Linn.). The Chestnut-bellied Munia.

Vagrant. Single bird (probably) on 25 June and 2 July.]

Uroloncha malabarica (Linnaeus). The White-throated Munia.

Resident. Common. Occurs in small parties in dry, open scrub COUDL Yaa

often to be seen feeding on flowering sirkanda grass. Nests: March.

*Uroloncha punctulata (Linnaeus). The Spotted Munia,

Probably resident. Uncommon. Has been observed in December; April (3rd)

and May (29th), in country districts usually feeding on sirkanda grass seeds.

Solitary.

Amandava amandava (Linnaeus). The Red Munia.

Resident. Not at all common. Occasionally seen in small parties—usually

around patches of sirkanda grass in the neighbourhood of water.

Carpodacus erythrinus (Pallas). The Common Rosefinch.

Passage migrant. Not at all common. Noted by Basil-Edwardes in January

(24th and 31st). Occurs in present records on a number of occasions from March

(26th) to April (18th). Small parties, in light woodland.

Bucanetes githaginea (Lichsten). The Eastern Desert-Finch.

Status not known. Basil-Edwardes refers to Hume’s record from Gurgaon

district in 1877. No subsequent records.

Gymnorhis xanthocollis (Burton). The Yellow-throated Sparrow.

Resident. Fairly common. Occurs in open country and around cultivation.

Solitary and pairs.

Passer domesticus. (Linnaeus). The House Sparrow.

Resident. Very common. in towns, around habitations, and in the; country

feeding on crops. Small parties and small flocks. rae

THE BIRDS OF DELHI AND. DISTRICT | 28

*Emberiza stewarti Blyth.. The White-capped Bunting. :

-. Chiefly passage migrant. Uncommon. Very. occasionally seen in open scrub

country; once in January but more frequently in March (5th to 26th). Usually.

solitary. da

Emberiza cia. Linnaeus. The Meadow Bunting.

_ Occasional winter visitor. Very uncommon. Doubtfully ‘observed on the

Ridge in December on one occasion only. Basil-Edwardes refers to specimen

obtained by Cole in February (24th). Solitary.

*Emberiza bruaniceps (Eversmann). The Red-headed Bunting.

Passage migrant. Fairly common in April (3rd_to goth), usually in small

flocks in crops and feeding on sirkanda grass seeds. Also observed (solitary)

in November (21). — ;

[Emberiza melanocephala Scopoli. The Black-headed Bunting.

Vagrant. A single bird on 2 April with flock of E. brunniceps. |

*Melophus lathami (Gray). The Crested Bunting.

Passage migrant. Uncommon. Seen very occasionally in April (4th to 16th)

in open country. Solitary.

Riparia paludicola (Vieillot). The Indian Sand Martin.

Resident. Common around: the Jumna and Hindan rivers, Agra canal, etc.,

in colonies. Nesting season: November. to March. - :

Riparia concolor (Sykes). The Dusky Crag Martin.

Resident. Not at all commen. Occurs around old buildings.- Usually in

pairs.

Hirundo rustica Linnaeus. The Common Swallow.

Winter visitor. with increased numbers during spring migration. Not at all

common. Noted occasionally near River Jumna in January; large flocks seen

in April (14th). Recorded by Basil-Edwardes in November.

Hirundo smithii Leach. The Wire-tailed Swallow.

Resident. Fairly common—usually found in open country in the vicinity of

water, solitary, pairs and small flocks.

*Hirundo fluyicola Jerdon. The Cliff Swallow.

Noted chiefly during rains and cold weather but presumably resident. Usually

observed in colonies around large clusters of nests under the arches of bridges

aver water. Nest colony noted in August; also building in November and in

occupation to February.

Hirundo daurica Linnaeus. The Red-rumped Swallow.

Resident. Common particularly around old buildings and jheels. Collects in

small and large flocks which frequently perch in rows on telegraph wires. Nest:

March. H. d. nipalensis occurs as winter visitor (specimen obtained by Basil-

Edwardes in March).

Motaclila alba Linnaeus. The White Wagtail.

Winter visitor. Common in gardens, pastures and around jheels etc. ; solitary

and small parties. Noted. from September (5th) to April (28th).

Motacilla maderaspatensis Gmelin. The Large Pied Wagtail. :

~. Resident. Fairly common. around. rivers, jheels and ponds. Solitary and

pairs. Nest (Basil-Edwardes): February (27th). a 5 the

ak6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

*Motacilla cinerea Tunstall. The Grey Wagtail.

Presumably passage migrant. Uncommon. Noted only in April (21st) on

flooded ground in gardens in New Delhi. Solitary. :

Motacilla flava Linnaeus. The Yellow Wagtail.

Winter visitor. Common around jheels, marshy ground and in gardens.

Observed from September (8th) to May (7th). Solitary, small parties, and occa-

sionally large flocks. Both M.f. thunbergi and M.f. beema have been dis-

tinguished in March.

Motacilla citreola Pallas. The Yellow-headed Wagtail.

Chiefly passage migrant. Fairly common around jheels. and marshes from

March (7th) to May (7th). Solitary or 2 or 3 individuals.

Anthus trivialis (Linnaeus). The Tree Pipit.

Winter visitor. (Noted by Basil-Edwardes as common.) Not distinguished

with certainty from A. hodgsoni.

Anthus hodgsoni Richmond. The Indian Tree Pipit.

Winter visitor. Not at all common. Seen occasionally in lightly wooded

country from December (2nd) to April (18th). Solitary and small parties.

Anthus similis Jerdon. The Brown Rock Pipit.

Presumably winter visitor. Not at all common. Specimens obtained by Basil-

Edwardes in November and February. Observed in open rocky country in

October (6th).

Anthus rufulus Vieillot. The Indian Pipit.

Resident. Fairly common in grassland and cultivated tracts. Solitary,

Anthus campestris Linnaeus. The Tawny Pipit.

Winter visitor. Uncommon. Noted only in open ground of riverain areas.

in October. Specimens obtained by Basil-Edwardes in November and doubtfully

seen in February.

*Alauda gulgula) Franklin. The Little Skylark.

Resident. Fairly common in grassland and open cultivated tracts. Solitary.

Calandrella brachydactyla (Leisler). The Short-toed Lark.

_ Winter visitor. Not at all common. Noted only in February. Large flocks

in stubble of fallow fields. :

Calandrelia raytal (Blyth). The Sand Lark.

Resident. Fairly common on sandbanks of river Jumna and in tamarisk

scrub. Solitary, pairs and scattered small parties.

Mirafra erythroptera Blyth. The Red-winged Bush Lark.

Status not known. Not at all common. Observed only in open country and

in riverain areas in February (17th), August and September. Solitary.

Galerida cristata (Linnaeus). The Crested Lark.

_ Apparently winter visitor. Fairly common in open grassland, cultivation and

riverain tracts from September (3oth) to April (23rd). Not evident during sum-

mer and rains. Solitary and scattered small parties.

*Ammomanes phoenicura (Iranklin). The Rufous-tailed Finch-Lark.

Status not known. Uncommon. Seen only on one occasion in open country

near Suraj Kund in August (29th). Pairs.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Crested Lark Wryneck

Blossom-Headed Parakeet Yellow Wattled Lapwing

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THE BIRDS OF DELHI AND DISTRICT : 287

Eremopterix grisea (Scopoli). The Ashy-crowned Finch-Lark.

Resident. Fairly common in dry open country and fallow fields. Small

parties and small flocks.

*Eremopterix frontalis (Blyth). The Black-crowned Finch-Lark.

Status not known. Uncommon. Noted only on one occasion in open grass-

land near Najafgarh, in February. Solitary.

Zosterops palpebrosa (Temm. & Schl.). The White-eye,

Resident. Fairly common in gardens and tree groves in cultivated areas.

Small parties. Nest (with eggs): May (12th); seen feeding fledged young in

August (rst).

Cinnyris asiaticus (Latham). The Purple Sunbird,

Resident. Common in gardens, trees in cultivation, etc. Solitary and pairs.

Nest: in occupation in June.

Dryobates mahrattensis (Latham). The Yellow-fronted Pied Woodpecker.

Resident. Fairly common in woods, garden trees, and canal avenues. Solitary.

Brachypternus benghalensis (Linnaeus). The Golden-backed Woodpecker.

. Resident. Common—trees in parks and gardens, woodland, canal avenues,

etc. Solitary.

lynx torquilla Linnaeus. The Wryneck.

Winter visitor. Fairly common. Occurs in gardens in New Delhi and around

grass thickets in open country from August (8th) to April (23rd). Solitary and

occasionally in pairs.

*Megalaima zeylanicus (Gmelin). The Green Barbet.

Resident. Common in gardens with thick tree growth in New and Old Delhi;

woodland, etc. This very obvious bird is not in Basil-Edwardes’s list and has

not been noted in Delhi before 1939. It appears, therefore, to be a new arrival

in this area. Solitary.

Megalaima haemacephala (P. L. S. Muller). The Crimson-breasted Barbet.

Resident. Common in trees in parks and gardens and woodland in cultivated

areas. Solitary and scattered small parties,

*Cuculus canorus Linnaeus. The Cuckoo.

Passage migrant. Very uncommon. One observation in light woodland in

April (27th). Solitary.

*Cuculus micropterus Gould. The Indian Cuckoo.

‘Status not known. Uncommon. Noted in July (7th) in garden in New Delhi.

Hierococcyx varius (Vahl). The Common Hawk-Cuckoo.

Resident, but chiefly seen and heard from March to October in garden trees,

and woodland. Common. Solitary and pairs.

Clamator jacobinus (Boddaert). The Pied Crested Cuckoo.

Rains visitor. Common from June (6th) to October (7th) in trees in gardens,

parks and open country. Solitary.

Eudynamis scolopaceus (Linnaeus). The Koel.

Resident but chiefly evident during summer and rains. Commonly heard and

_seen from March to October in gardens, parks and woodland. Solitary and pairs.

288 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Taccocua leschenaulti Lesson... The Sirkeer Cuckoo.

Presumably resident. . Uncommon. Seen occasionally in thick cover in

gardens in _New Delhi and near Suraj Kund on a few occasions in the cold

weather. Solitary.

Centropus sinensis (Stephen). The Common Crow-Pheasant.

Resident. Common. Occurs in garden thickets, scrub jungle and in rush

and reed beds around jheels, rivers and canals. Solitary and small parties.

*Psittacula eupatria (Linnaeus). The Large Indian Parakeet.

Chiefly spring visitor. Common in small parties and small flocks from March

(12th) to-May (3rd) in gardens and parks in Old Delhi less commonly in New

Delhi. Very occasionally seen in open country in twos and threes during the

rains and cold weather. :

Psittacula krameri (Scopoli). The Rose-ringed Parakeet.

Resident. Very common in all types of wooded and cultivated country in

small parties and small flocks.

Psittacala cyanocephala (Linnaeus). The Blossom-headed Parakeet.

Occasional rains and winter visitor. Uncommon. Seen in woodland in

September and October and occasionally during the cold weather. Small parties.

Coracias benghalensis (Linnaeus). The Indian Roller.

Resident. Common in gardens and all types of open and cultivated country.

Solitary.

Merops orientalis Latham. The Green Bee-eater.

Resident with marked local movements and increase of numbers during spring

and autumn migrations. Common in gardens, cultivation and around jheels.

Solitary and small parties.

Merops supercillosus javanicus Horsfield. The Blue-tailed Bee-eater.

Rains visitor. Fairly common in small parties and flocks around jheels.

Noted from July (21st) to October (2gth).

Merops. Supercilliosus persicus Pallas. The Blue-cheeked Bee-eater.

No certain observations but appears to be a summer visitor to the Sorkin and

south-west of New Delhi.

Ceryle rudis (Linnaeus). The Pied Kingfisher.

Resident. Common at jheels and rivers. Solitary and pairs. “Nests : in

uccupation in November. STiQOr

Alcedo atthis (Linnaeus). The Common Kingfisher.

Resident. Fairly common—rivers, canals and jheels. Solitary.” According

to Basil-Edwardes both A, a. bengalensis: and A. a. pallasti occur in the Delhi

area.

Halcyon smyroensis. (Linnaeus). The White-breasted Kingfisher.

. Resident. Common. Occurs in gardens and cultivation as well as around

rivers and jheels. Solitary. of

*Anthracoceros malabaricus (Gmelin). The Indian Pied Hornbill.

Occasional winter visitor. Noted on a few occasions in gardens in New

Delhi from November (13th) to February (19th). > Solitary, and pairs.’

Tockus birostris (Scopoli). The Common Grey Hornbill.

Resident. Common in gardens, RAtits and woodland in small parties.

eivgD

EES.

THE BIRDS OF DELHI AND DISTRICT °\. 285

Upupa epops epops Linnaeus. .The European Hoopoe.

Winter visitor. Fairly common during the winter in cultivation and open

country from September (goth). Solitary and scattered small parties.

Upupa epops orientalis Stuart Baker. The Indian Hoopoe.

Resident. Common in gardens, parks, grassland and cultivation. Solitary,

pairs and small parties.

Micropus affinis (Gray). The Common Indian House Swift.

Resident. Common around towns, villages and old buildings in small flocks.

*Caprimulgus monticolus Franklin. Franklin’s Nightjar.

Presumably passage migrant. Uncommon. Noted in August and September

(5th and 7th). Small parties,

Caprimulgus asiaticus Latham. The Common Indian Nightjar.

Resident. Fairly common around gardens in New Delhi, grassland and

scrub country. Solitary and small parties.

Tyto alba (Scopoli). The Indian Barn Owl.

Status uncertain but presumably resident. Uncommon. Noted only in

March and April in thick tree growth and around old buildings. Specimen

captured alive in March (1940) by workmen repairing one of the Lodi tombs.

*Asio flammeus (Pontoppidan). The Short-eared Owl.

Winter visitor. Not at all common. Occasionally observed when flushed out

of long grass during the cold weather. Specimen shot in November (28th).

Small parties.

*Ketupa zeylonensis (Gmelin). The Brown Fish-Owl.

Status not definitely, known but presumably resident. Uncommon. Noted in

thorny tree of canal avenue in Jamey, Gorn).

Bubo bengalensis (Franklin). The Rock Eagle-Owl.

Resident. Not at all common. _ Noted in ravines of eroded and broken ground.

Solitary.

Bubo coromandus (Latham). The Dusky Eagle-Owl.

. Resident. Fairly common: in old established parks and gardens, in thick

tree growth along’ canals and in riverain tracts. ‘Solitary and. pairs.

*Otus bakkamoena Pennant. The Collared Scops Owl.

Status not known. Uncommon. Seen and heard from January (7th) to

March (9th) in old established gardens with thick tree growth. ag ae

Otus sunia (Hodgson). The Indian Scops Owl.

Status not known. Basil-Edwardes mentions specimen collected By him in

March and by Cole in February. No subsequent records,

Athene brama (Temminck). The Spotted Owlet.

Resident. . Common in gardens and tree -groves in cultivation. Solitary and

small parties at roosting and nesting sites.

*Pandion haliaetus Linnaeus.: The Osprey.

Winter’ visitor. Not at all common. Noted from August (8th) to F BEBE Das

usually seen ‘hawking’ over large jheels and rivers. Solitary. ry. ;

290 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47_

Sarcogyps calvus (Scopoli). The King Vulture. . fo. agua

Resident. Fairly common in open country and soaring over towns. Usually

solitary. Nests: In occupation January and February. —

Gyps fulvus (Hablizl). The Indian Griffon Vulture.

Resident. Not at all common. Seen occasionally in open country. Solitary.

Pseudogyps bengalensis (Gmelin). The White-backed Vulture.

Resident. Common in towns and all types of country. Solitary, pairs and

parties ; soaring, at carcases, and at refuse dumps. Nests: Being built in October

and in occupation to January. 4

Neophron percnopterus (Linnaeus). The Neophron.

Resident. Common in towns and villages. Solitary and pairs; large numbers

at refuse dumps. N. p. percnopterus, N. p. ginginianus and intermediate birds

probably occur.

*Falco peregrinus Tunstall. The Peregrine Falcon.

Winter visitor. Uncommon. Noted only in riverain tracts in February (15th)

and in April (7th). Solitary.

“Falco jugger Gray. The Lugger Falcon.

Apparently winter visitor. Not at all common. Noted in wooded country

and. around New Delhi from September (22nd) to March (28th), solitary and pairs.

*Falco cherrug Gray. The Saker Falcon.

Status not known. Uncommon. Specimen shot in November (21st).

Falco chicquera Daudin. The Red-headed Merlin.

Resident. Not at all common. Noted around rivers and large jheels from

December to April and in June. Solitary and pairs.

Falco tinnunculus Linnaeus. The Kestrel.

Winter visitor. Fairly common in all types of open country from October

(17th) to February. Solitary.

[Aquila chrysaetos (Linn.). The Golden Eagle.

Vagrant. A single bird on 31 December.] (? Eps.).

Aquila nipalensis Hodgson. The Steppe Eagle. :

Winter visitor. Not at all common. Seen occasionally throughout the cold

weather from October (roth), particularly at refuse dumps. Solitary.

*Aquila heliaca Savigny. The Imperial Eagle.

Winter visitor. Not at all common. Seen occasionally at refuse dumps.

Solitary.

Aquila rapax (Temminck). The Tawny Eagle.

Resident. Fairly common {fn open country and riverain tracts. Solitary and

pairs.

Aquila pomarina Brehm. The Small Spotted Eagle.

Status not known. Basil-Edwardes refers to eggs taken by Bingham in May.

No subsequent records.

Hieraétus fasciatus (Vieillot). Bonelli’s Eagle.

Presumably scarce resident. Basil-Edwardes refers to sight record by Cole

in December and nest found by Hume at Tughluqabad. No subsequent records.

TEE BERS On DEE AND) DI SRRI CE . 291

Ictinaétus malayensis (Temm. & Laug. ). The Black Eagle,

Presumably occasional winter visitor. Believed seen by Baciomewandes in

winter of 1920-21 at Kingsway. Somewhat doubtfully observed’ at Okhla in

March (3rd).

*Circaétus ferox (Gmelin). The Short-toed Eagle.

Presumably resident. Uncommon. Noted hovering with slow beating wings

in the Hindan river area in October and January. Solitary.

*Haematornis cheela (Latham). |The Crested Serpent Eagle.

Presumably resident. Not at all common. Occasionally seen in country

districts and around New Delhi. Solitary.

Butastur teesa (Franklin). The White-eyed Buzzard.

Resident. Fairly common in lightly wooded country and in cultivated areas.

Sclitary and pairs.

Haliaétus leucoryphus (Pallas). Pallas’s Fishing Eagle.

Resident. Fairly common on River Jumna,—usually seen resting on sand-

tanks; also occurs at large jheels. Solitary.

cythyophaga ichthya€tus (Horsfield). The Large Grey-headed Fishing Eagle.

Presumably resident. Not at all common. Noted in flight and on sandbanks

of River Jumna at Okhla; and at large jheels, chiefly from October ‘to ‘April.

Solitary.

*Haliastur indus (Boddaert). The Brahminy Kite.

Principally rains visitor. Fairly common from July to October. Occasionally

seen from December to March. Occurs around jheels and flooded country.

Solitary.

Milvus migrans (Boddaert). The Common Pariah Kite.

Resident. Very common in towns, villages and all types of inhabited country.

Gregarious. Nests: February and March.

*Milvus migrans lineatus (Gray). The Black-eared Kite.

Winter visitor. Uncommon. Somewhat doubtfully observed in flight at

Okhla on a few occasions in November, December and February (3rd). Solitary.

Elanus caeruleus (Desf.). The Black-winged Kite.

Resident. Not at all common. Occasionally seen in lightly wooded riverain

tracts. Solitary and pairs.

Circus macrourus (S.G.Gmelin).. The Pale Harrier.

Winter visitor. Not at all common: Observed in open rocky country in

November. (11th) and in-January (8th) and February (17th). (Specimen collected,

and seen on second occasion in November by Basil-Edwardes.)

*Circus cyaneus (Linnaeus). The Hen Harrier.

Presumably winter visitor. Uncommon, Pair observed in open rocky country

in September (22nd).

*Circus aeruginosus (Linnaeus). The Marsh Harrier.

Winter visitor. Fairly common—noted from September (27th) to April (15th)

around jheels and flooded country. Solitary.

Buteo rufinis (Cretzschmar). The Long-legged Buzzard.

Winter visitor. Fairly common from October to January in open country.

“Specimen obtained ‘by Basil-Edwardes in February. Solitary.

292 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Astur badius(Gmelin). The Shikra.

Resident. Fairly common—usually in lightly wooded country. Solitary.

[Accipiter nisus (Linn.). The Sparrow-Hawk.

Vagrant. Noted in December and January. Scarce. Identification not sure. }

*Pernis ptilorhynchus (Temminck). The Crested Honey Buzzard.

Resident. Not at all common. Noted chiefly in light woodland in country

districts and around New Delhi. Solitary and pairs.

Crocopus phoenicopterus (Latham). The Commen Green Pigeon.

Resident, but more evident in hot weather than remainder of year. Not at

all common. Pairs and small parties in leafy trees—particularly peepul.

Columba livia Gmelin. The Blue Rock Pigeon.

Resident. Very common in towns, villages, cultivated Jand and at water’s

edge of rivers in evening flights for drinking purposes. Solitary, pairs, small

parties and small and large flocks.

*Streptopelia orientalis (Latham). The Rufous Turtle Dove.

Passage migrant. Not at all common—noted north of Old Delhi in small

parties in cultivation from March (4th) to April (16th). One doubtful obser-

vation in October (22nd).

Streptopelia chinensis (Scopoli). The Spotted Dove.

Resident. Not at all common and very patchily distributed. Noted occa-

sionally,—particularly around irrigated fruit gardens. Pairs.

Streptopelia senegalensis (Linnaeus). The Little Brown Dove.

Resident. Very common in gardens and cultivation. Solitary and _ pairs..

Nest (2 eggs): March.

Streptopelia decaocto (Frivalszky). The Indian Ring Dove.

Resident. Very common in gardens, cultivation and dry open country.

Solitary, pairs and collects in small parties in late evenings. Nests (2 eggs.

each): March and October.

Oencpopeiia tranquebarica (Hermann). The Red Turtle Dove.

Resident with increased numbers in the spring and hot weather. Fairly

common. Occurs in cultivation and open country. Solitary, pairs and small

flocks—the latter particularly evident during April.

Pterocles orientalis (Linnaeus). The Imperial Sandgrouse.

Winter visitor. Occasionally seen in January and February in small flocks

in open sandy country usually when flighting for drinking purposes; occurs in

recent shikar records for Delhi and district.

*Pterocles indicus (Gmelin). The Painted Sandgrouse.

Presumably scarce resident. Noted near Suraj Kund (party of 6), June (30th).

Pterocles exustus Temminck. The Common Sandgrouse.

Presumably resident. Basil-Edwardes states ‘common in suitable localities’.

Noted in May (5th) and June (7th) in dry rocky country and occurs in recent

cold weather shikar records for Delhi and district.

Pavo cristatus Linnaeus. The Common Peafowl.

Resident. Common in cultivation especially in the Kutb Minar and Eastern

Jumna Canal areas. Usually in small parties.

THE BIRDS OF DELHI AND DISTRICT 293

Coturnix coturnix (Linnaeus). The Common Quail.

Winter visitor. Not often observed but probably fairly common. Occurs in

small parties in crops, especially sugar cane.

*Coturnix coromandelicus (Gmelin). The Rain Quail.

Rains visitor. Not at all common. Seen and heard from July (15th) to

August (17th) in overgrown grassland. Pairs and scattered small parties,

Francolinus francolinus (Linnaeus). The Black Partridge.

Resident. Not at all common generally but fairly common east of the river

Jumna. Occurs in cultivation and riverain areas. Solitary.

Francolinus pondicerianus (Gmelin). The Grey Partridge.

Resident. Common in cultivation and dry scrub jungle. Small parties.

*Turnix suscitator Gmelin. The Common Bustard Quail.

Status not known. Uncommon. Specimen (female) captured alive on New

Delhi golf course, September (2nd). Small party.

[Turnix dussumieri(Temm. & Laug.). The Little Button Quail,

Vagrant. Seen in May. Scarce. Identification doubtful. ]

[Hypotaenidia striata (Linn.). The Blue-breasted Banded Rail.

Resident. Seen in March, April and May and suspected in other months.

Small numbers about reed-fringed pools. |

*Porzana pusilla (Pallas). Baillon’s Crake.

Probably passage migrant. Uncommon. Noted only in October (roth) in

thick grass on edge of jheel; and in March at Okhla. Solitary.

*Amaurornis phoenicurus (Pennant). The White-breasted Waterhen,

Resident. Not at all common but occasionally seen in thick cover around

jheels and tanks. Solitary and pairs.

Gailinula chloropus (Linnaeus). The Moorhen.

Resident. Fairly common around thick reed and rush cover on rivers and

jheels. Solitary, pairs and small parties.

Fulica atra Linnaeus. The Common Coot.

Winter visitor. Noted only from October (15th) to January (7th) when it is

fairly common.on jheels in small parties and small flocks.

*Hydrophasianus chirurgus (Scopoli). The Pheasant-tailed Jacana.

Resident. Fairly common on weedy jheels, particularly those planted with

water-chestnut. Solitary, pairs, and small parties. Nests (each 4 eggs): July

(18th), September (26th); young, August (6th), September (15th).

Rostratula benghalensis (Linnaeus). The Painted Snipe.

Chiefly passage migrant, with some residents. Not at all common. Seen in

November (27th) and more commonly in April (7th to 18th) and also in June

(19th) in herbage around jheels. Usually in pairs.

*Grus grus (Linnaeus). The Common Crane.

Winter visitor. Not at all common but occasionally seen in small parties

and flocks from October (16th) to April in flight over the Jumna-and Hindan

rivers, or in wheat fields of riverain areas. A score of Vs, skeins and stragg-

ling flocks (each 30-50 birds) seen flying south along river Jumna at sunset on

October 16th.

294 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

*Grus leucogeranus Pallas. The Great White Crane.

‘Has been recorded as far east as Delhi’—Fauna, Vol. vi, p. 54.

Antigone antigone (Linnaeus). The Sarus Crane.

Resident. Common (especially east of the River Jumna) in crops and around

jheels. Usually in pairs—occasionally in small parties.

*Anthropoides virgo (Linnaeus). The Demoiselle Crane.

Winter visitor. Not at all common. Occurs in parties around the river

Jumna from November to April (15th).

Choriotes nigriceps. (Vigors). The Great Indian Bustard.

Basil-Edwardes says ‘used to be found at Delhi some years ago’. No subse-

«juent records.

Chiamydotis undulata (Gray). The Houbara.

Basil-Edwardes mentions sight record by friend. No subsequent records,

Burhinus oedicnemus (Linnaeus). The Stone Curlew.

Resident. Not at' all common. Noted in riverain tracts and in gardens in

New Delhi. Solitary, pairs and small parties.

*Esacus recurvirosirls (Cuvier). The Great Stone Plover.

Presumably resident. Not at all common. Observed in small flocks on sand-

banks of river Jumna from November (26th) to April (1gth) and in June (6th).

Cursorius coromandelicus (Gmelin)... The Indian Courser. ~

Presumably scarce resident. Basil-Idwardes states seen in bare open country,

specimen obtained in February: Nests: end of March. No subsequent records.

*Glareola maldivaram TForster. The Large Indian Pratincole.

Summer and rains visitor, Not at all common. Noted at Okhla on River

Jumna and in open grassland from April (13th) to September (15th). Small

flocks.

*Glareola lactea Temminck. The Little Indian Pratincole.

Apparently spring and summer visitor. Fairly common. Noted on_ sand-

banks of River Jumna, in February, March and in June (7th). Small and

large flocks.

*Larus ichthyaétus Pallas. The Great Black-headed Gull.

Passage migrant. Uncommon. Occasionally observed on the river Jumna

from October (14th) to November (8th). Solitary.

*Larus ridibundus Linnaeus. The Black-headed Gull.

Chiefly passage migrant. Not at all common. Seen at Okhla on River

Jumna in October (2oth), February (3rd), March (3rd) and April (1st)—small —

parties,

*Larus cachinnans Pallas. The Yellow-legged Herring Gull.

Passage migrant. Uncommon. Noted only on River Jumna in October (26th).

Small flocks.

Chlidonias hybrida (Pallas). The Whiskered Tern.

Status not known. Basil-Edwardes obtained specimen in December (28th).

No subsequent records.

THE BIRDS OF DELHI AND DISTRICT 295

Sterna aurantia Gray. The Common River Tern.

Resident. Common on rivers and around jheels. Solitary, small parties and

small and large flocks.

Sterna melanogaster Temminck. The Black-bellied Tern.

Resident. Fairly common. Usually seen in flight or resting on sandbanks

of rivers and mudspits of jheels in small and large flocks.

*Sterna albifrons Vroeg. The Little Tern.

Presumably resident. Uncommon. Noted on river Jumna at Okhla in June

(28th) and October (2nd); in August (1st) at large jheel north of Old Delhi.

Solitary.

Rhynchops albicollis Swainson. The Indian Skimmer.

Resident. Not at all common. Usually seen in flight, ‘skimming’, or resting

on sandbanks of River Jumna—solitary, pairs and small parties. Nests (with

eggs): May (11th).

*Leucopelius alexandrinus (Linnaeus). The Kentish Plover.

Chiefly passage migrant. Not at all common. Noted on one occasion in

December (18th) and more frequently at the end of April and in first fortnigh

of May on sandbanks of River Jumna. Small parties.

*Charadrius dubius Scopoli. The Little Ringed Plover.

Winter visitor. Fairly common. Observed from July (21st) to April (15th)

usually in small parties around jheels, rivers and in irrigated and flooded couniry.

Some observations may refer to C. d. jerdoni,

*Vaniellus vamellus (Linnaeus). The Green Plover.

Winter visitor. Not at all common. Noted on banks of river Jumna and

in irrigated fields in December and more commonly in January (to 25th). Small

parties and small flocks.

“Chettusia gregaria (Pallas). The Sociable Plover.

Winter visitor. Uncommon—seen on two occasions in ploughed fields near

water in January (16th and 21st). Small flocks.

*Chettusia leucura (Licht). The White-tailed Lapwing.

Winter visitor. Common around jheels and rivers in small parties from

September (29th) to March (26th).

*Hoplopterus ventralis Wagler. The Spur-winged Plover.

Resident. Fairly common on sandbanks of River Jumna. Solitary pairs,

and small parties.

Lobivanellus indicus (Boddaert). The Red-wattled Lapwing.

Resident. Common in riverain tracts, around jheels and cultivation. Usually

in pairs. —

Lobipluvia malabarica (Boddaert). The Yellow-wattled Lapwing.

_ Resident. Not at all common. Noted from December to February in irri-

gated fields in open country. Three pairs nested on Central Vista, New Delhi

In 1942,—3 eggs each, May (27th).

Himantopus himantopus (Linnaeus). The Black-winged Stilt.

Chiefly winter visitor with some residents. Fairly common from October

(2nd) to April (12th) in small parties at jheels and tanks. Noted on several

occasions in June on river Jumna.

296 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

*Recuvirostra ayosetta Linnaeus. The Avocet.

Occasional winter visitor. Very uncommon. Seen only on one occasion on

River Jumna in December (13th). Small party.

Numenius arquata (Linnaeus). The Curlew.

Winter visitor. Not at all common. Noted occasionally from October (4th)

to May (9th) on River Jumna and at large jheels. Sclitary, pairs and small

parties,

*Limosa limosa (Linnaeus). The Black-tailed Godwit.

; Occasional winter visitor, Uncommon. Somewhat doubtfully observed at

jheels north of Old Delhi in January (14th) and February (18th). Small parties.

Tringa ocrophus Linnaeus. The Green Sandpiper.

Winter visitor. Common around jheels and tanks from September (2nd) to

April (28th). Solitary and occasionally in twos and threes.

*Tringa stagnatalis (Bechstein). The Marsh Sandpiper.

Winter visitor. Not at all common—occurs at jheels usually in small parties

and small flocks, from August (14th) to April (13th).

Actitis hypoleucus (Linnaeus). The Common Sandpiper.

Winter visitor. Common. Seen from July (21st) to April (25th) around rivers,

ponds, jheels and tanks. Solitary and occasionally in twos and threes.

Tringa glareola Linnaeus. The Wood Sandpiper.

Winter visitor. Fairly common. Seen from October (4th) to May (7th) around

jheels, canal banks and river banks. Usually in small flocks.

*Tringa totanus (iinnaeus). The Redshank.

Winter visitor. Common on river banks and at jheels from October (qth)

to April (13th) in small parties and small flocks.

Tringa erythropus (Pallas). The Dusky Redshank.

Winter visitor. Not at all common. Noted occasionally from December (8th)

to April (goth) on river banks and at jheels. Solitary and small parties. Solitary

bird seen in June (18th).

*Tringa nebularia (Gunner). The Greenshank.

Winter visitor. Fairly common from September (7th) to April (28th) at

jheels. Usually solitary.

*Philomachus pugnax (Linnaeus). The Ruff and Reeve.

Winter visitor and passage migrant. Uncommon. Specimens obtained at

jheel south of Delhi in November (7th). Seen also at Okhla in March (28th),

and April (3rd). Small parties.

*Calidris minuta (Leisler). The Little Stint.

Winter visitor. ‘Fairly common from October (24th) to May (7th) in small

parties around jheels, and on river banks.

Calidris temminckii (Leisler). Temminck’s Stint.

Winter visitor. Wairly common. Noted from January (7th) to March (30th)

at jheels. Solitary and small parties.

*Erolia alpina (Linnaeus). The Dunlin.

Winter visitor and passage migrant. Not at all common. Seen on_ sand-

banks of River Jumna in November (19th), January (28th) and in May (2oth).

Small parties.

THE BIRDS OF DELHI AND DISTRICT 297

Capella gallinago (Linnaeus). The Common Snipe.

Winter visitor. Common from September (22nd) to April (7th) in thick

herbage around jheels. Solitary and small parties.

Lymnocryptes minimus Brunnich. The Jack Snipe.

Winter visitor. Not at all common. Seen only around jheels in October

(24th) and January. Solitary.

Pelecanus sp. The Pelican.

Species not known. Apparently summer and rains visitor, Uncommon.

Noted on River Jumna as follows ;—solitary in May (17th); pair in June (6th) ;

small party (4) in July (11th), small party (10) in October (21st).

* Phalacrocorax carbo (Linnaeus). The Common Cormorant.

Presumably winter visitor. Fairly common on Rivers Jumna and Hindan

from October to March; solitary and small parties. Large flock of 100-150

seen resting on sandbank of River Jumna in March (5th).

Phalacrocorax niger (Vieillot). The Little Cormorant.

Resident.. Common on rivers, canals and jheels. Solitary.

Anhinga melanogaster Pennant. The Indian Darter.

Resident. Common on rivers, canals and large jheels. Solitary and small

parties.

Platalea leucorodia Linnaeus. The Spoonbill.

Chiefly winter visitor, with some residents. Fairly common. Noted from

October (2nd) to March (5th) and in June (6th) in small and large flocks around

heels.

* Threskiornis melanocephalus (Latham). The White Ibis.

Chiefly winter visitor, with some residents. Fairly common from October

{4th) to January (21st) at large jheels and near canals and rivers. Noted also

in June (14th). Small parties and small and large flocks.

Pseudibis papillosas (Temminck). The Black Ibis.

_ Resident. Not at all common. Noted at jheels and in irrigated fields in

December (19th), April (7th) and (14th) and in June (7th). Pairs and small parties.

* Plegadis falcinellus (Linnaeus). The Glossy Ibis.

Status unknown. Very uncommon. Reported observed on one occasion near

Ghaziabad in December (5th).

* Ciconia ciconia (Linnaeus). The White Stork.

Winter visitor. Not at all common. Seen on river Jumna at Okhla, at large

jheels and in flooded grassland from January (14th) to February (6th). Small

parties.

* Ciconia nigra (Linnaeus). The Black Stork,

Presumably occasional passage migrant. Very uncommon. Noted on

one

occasion at Suraj Kund in March (6th). Solitary.

Dissoura episcopus (Boddaert). The White-necked Stork.

Resident. Common around jheels, in riverain areas and irrigated fields.

Solitary, small parties and small flocks.

Xenorhynchus asiaticus (Latham). The Black-necked Stork.

Resident. Common on river banks, around jheels and in flooded country.

Solitary, pairs and small parties—latter usually consisting of adult and young

birds. Seen carrying sticks to nest in August (26th).

298 JOURNAL, BOMBAY INSALIN OSC AUIEY JEL IRS SOCIETY, Viol ear

* Leptoptilos dubius (Gmelin). The Adjutant.

Presumably winter visitor. Uncommon. Noted only at refuse tips in April.

Solitary.

* Ibis leucocephalus (Pennant). The Painted Storlk.

Resident. Common on river and canal banks, around jheels and in irrigated

fields. Solitary, small parties, small and large flocks. )

* Anastomous oscitans (Boddaert). The Open-Bill.

Resident. Fairly common at small jheels and in irrigated and flooded culti-

vated areas particularly north and east of Delhi. Solitary and pairs,—occasionally

small parties.

*Ardea purpurea Linnaeus. The Purple Heron.

Resident. Not at all common but occasionally seen in rush and reed beds.

around rivers and jheels. Solitary.

Ardea cinetea Linnaeus. The Common Grey Heron.

Resident. Common on river banks and at jheels and village tanks. Solitary

and small parties.

* Egretta alba (Linnaeus). The Large Egret.

Resident. Common—river banks, jheels and tanks, Usually solitary.

Egretta intermedia (Wagler). The Smaller Egret.

Resident, but noted at jheels chiefly from November to January. Recorded:

in June (14th and 25th). Solitary. Basil-Edwardes refers to eggs taken by

Bingham July—August.

* Eoretta garzetta (Linnaeus). The Little Egret.

Resident. Very common—river banks, tanks, ponds and irrigated fields.

. Solitary, small parties and small flocks.

Bulbulcus ibis (Linnaeus). The Cattle Egret.

Resident. Common in pastures and grassland in small parties and small.

flocks.

Aredeola grayii (Sykes). The Pond Heron.

Resident. Very common around rivers, streams, jheels, tanks, ponds and

irrigated fields. Solitary and small parties.

Butorides striatus (Linnaeus). The Little Green Heron.

Resident. Not at all common. Noted occasionally on banks of river Jumna

and at jheels in May (16th), September (27th) and during the cold weather.

Solitary.

Nycticorax nycticorax (Linnaeus). The Night Heron.

Presumably resident, but chiefly seen from July to January at Okhla on the

River Jumna. Solitary, small parties and small flocks at roosting sites.

* Ixobrychus cinnamomeus (Gmelin). The Chestnut Bittern.

Status not known. Uncommon. Observed on one occasion at tank near

Ghaziabad in January (10th). Solitary.

* Phoenicopterus tuber Pallas. The Flamingo.

Winter visitor. Uncommon. Observed in flight on a few occasions at ofan

following the course of the River Jumna; in October (29th)—three ; Marcel

(22nd)—two; April (2nd)—five. Flock of about roo noted on jheel at Hasanpu

22 wo; f . :

near Ghaziabad in December 1939.

TLE BERD SOF DEE TT AN DE DT SIRT OD 2

* Phoeniconaias minor (Geotirey). The Lesser Flamingo.

‘-/ ‘Flas’ been’ ‘recorded .'..°. near Delhi’,—Fauna, Vol. vi, p. 376.

Sarkidiornis melanotos (Pennant). The Nukta.

Resident. Not at all common. Recorded in March (21st), June (15th and

zoth) and occasionally during the cold weather. Solitary, pairs and small flocks,

* Nettapus coromandelianus (Gmeiin). Phe Cotton Teal.

Presumably resident. Uncommon. Occurs in recent shikar records for Delhi

and district.

Anser anser (Linnaeus). The Grey Lag Goose.

Winter visitor. Uncommon. Occurs in recent cold weather shikar records

for Delhi and district.

* Anser albifrons (Scopoli). The White-fronted Goose.

Winter visitor. Uncommon. Specimen shot in November (11th) believed to

be of this species. Three seen on sandbank of River Jumna in February (4th).

* Anser indicus (Latham). The Bar-headed Goose.

Winter visitor. Fairly common on River Jumna from November (3rd) to

March (17th). Small parties and small flocks.

Dendrocygna javanica (Horsfield). The Lesser Whistling: Teal.

Status not known. Basil-Edwardes refers to nest found by Bingham in

August. No subsequent records.

* Tadorna tadorna (Linnaeus). The Sheldrake.

Occasional winter visitor. Uncommon. Specimen shot at jheel in November

(13th). Party of six seen on one occasion at Dankaur jheel in January (24th).

Casarca ferruginea (Pallas). The Ruddy Sheldrake.

Winter visitor. Fairly common on rivers and at large jheels.

Noted from

October (20th) to April (grd). Small parties and small flocks.

Anas platyrhyncha Linnaeus. The Mallard.

Winter visitor. Not at all common. Noted only on Hindan river in February.

Small flocks.

* Anas poecilorhyncha Forster. The Spotbill.

Presumably resident. Noted by Basil-Edwardes as ‘common’.

Occurs in

recent shikar records for Delhi and district.

* Anas falcata (Georgi). The Crested Teal.

Occasional winter visitor. Uncommon. Specimen shot north of Delhi in

Pebruary (19th).

Anas strepera Linnaeus. The Gadwall.

Winter visitor. Noted by Basil-Edwardes as ‘very common’. Occurs in

recent cold weather shikar records for Delhi and district,

Anas penelope Linnaeus. The Wigeon.

Winter visitor. Noted by Basil-Edwardes as ‘not uncommon’,

cold weather shikar records for Delhi and district.

Jumna at Okhla in February (3rd).

Occurs in recent

Small flocks seen on River

Anas crecca Linnaeus. The Common Teal.

Winter visitor. Common on jheels and canals in large and small flocks.

Noted from September (2nd) to April (13th).

300 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 47

* Nettion formosum (Georgi). The Baikal Teal.

‘In 1879 Chill obtained a inale near Delhi’,—Fauna, Vol. vi, p. 435. (A

solitary male observed by R. S. Symons on Jumna sandbank, below Humayun’s

tomb, 12-5-1947—Eps.)

Anas acuta Linnaeus. The Pintail.

Winter visitor. Fairly common on rivers and large jheels in small flocks.

Noted from October (20th) to March (31st).

* Anas querquedula Linnaeus. The Blue-winged Teal.

Winter visitor. Not at all common. Seen on large jheels in January (3rd)

and in April (gth). Small parties.

Spatula clypeata (Linnaeus). The Shoveller.

Winter visitor. Fairly common. Occurs in recent cold weather shikar records

for Delhi and district.. Solitary maie noted on River Jumna in May (2nd).

Netta rufina Pallas. The NRed-crested Pochard.

Winter visitor. Noted by Basil-Edwardes as ‘not uncommon’. Seen only on

one occasion on Hindan river in February (22nd).

Aythya ferina (Linnaeus). The Common. Pochard.

Winter visitor. Noted by Basil-Edwardes as ‘common’. Occurs in recent

cold weather’ shikar records for Delhi and district.

Aythya rufa (Linnaeus). The White-eyed Pochard.

Winter visitor. Noted by Basil-Edwardes as ‘common’. Seen at Suraj Ikund

in March (21st).

Aythya fuligula (Linnaeus). The Tufted Pochard.

Winter visitor. Noted by Basil-Edwardes as ‘believed not uncommon’, One

record in early April (solitary).

* Erismatura leucocephala (Scopoli). The Stiff-tailed Duck.

‘In 1882 Chill obtained three... near Delhi’,—Fauna, Vol. vi, p. 463.

Mergellus albellus (Linnaeus). The Smew.

Status not known. Basil-Edwardes refers to specimen shot at Delhi. No

subsequent records.

* Podiceps cristatus (Linnaeus). The Great Crested Grebe.

Status not known. Very uncommon. Seen only on one occasion on Rivér

Jumna in January (15th). Solitary.

* Podiceps rufieollis (Pallas). The Little Grebe.

Resident. Common on large jheels and tanks. Solitary, pairs and small

parties. Nests: August (12th), 4 eggs.

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE GYANTSE ROAD,

SOUTHERN TIBET, MAY 1946

P. I. R. MACLAREN

(With a map)

The Hram Tso and Kala Tso lakes of Tibet lie at an altitude

of over 14,500 ft. on the main treaty road to Lhasa. Their orni-

thology was well described by Frank Ludlow (1927), who was

able to study the breeding species while on his way to and from

Gyantse, fifty miles north of the lakes. In 1946 leave could only

be taken during May, so that it was not possible for the trip des-

cribed to coincide with the main nesting season; Ludlow’s breeding

and nidification data are therefore little amiplined.

It was however interesting to find that the Kala Tso (14,600 ft),

into which the Hram Tso empties, was approximately one-fifth of

its size in 1903-1904 when the quarter-inch survey was made, and

apparently also of its size when Ludlow knew it. The lake has no

outlet and its watershed is small compared to that of the Hram

‘Tso, which receives the drainage of the northern and western slopes

of the Chomolarhi range. According to local information the Kala

Tso had dried out completely three times since about 1934, always

just before the spring thaw in April, and its present (mid-May)

depth was estimated as nowhere more than three feet. The big

fish for which the lake had been famous were dead, and the

salinity of the water increased.

Little aquatic life was found in the lake except at the south-

eastern corner in the vicinity of the inflow from the Hram Tso, and

at the western end, where a smaller stream enters. It was there

that all the duck and most of the Ruddy Sheldrake seen on the

lake had congregated. Even fewer of the breeding birds which

Ludiow noted as common on the Hram Tso and occurring on the

Kala Tso were present on the latter lake, their absence probably

being correlated with the lack of food and the shallower water.

For example, the colonies of Great Crested Grebes which he des-

-cribes were no longer in evidence.

On the other hand, numbers of waders (a large proportion re-

corded only as sparse by Ludlow, Bailey, Kinnear and others)

were seen on the brackish pools and mud-flats of the eastern part

of the Kala Tso, and less so around the Hram Tso. Though

doubtless the majority were stragglers from the spring migration,

snipe and avocet certainly gave the impression of being about,

to breed.

Marshes lie on the eastern and southern borders of the Hram

Tso, stretching in the latter direction some miles from the water.

The grassy islands upon which Bailey (1909 a) found large numbers

302 JOURNAE, BOMBAY “NATURAE SITS. "SOCIEL YS “ViolyeAy,

of Bar-headed Geese nesting occur only along the eastern shore.

Mud-flats such as those of the Kala Tso are negligible in size, due

to the unchanging water-level, but the narrow muddy strand along

the northern, western, and south-western lake-edge provides a

considerable feeding area for wading. biras. Very conspicuous

indeed were the vast hordes of black mosquito-like insects

Chironomidae which were hatching in countless myriads in the

Hram marshes (and to a lesser extent in the south-eastern corier

of the Kala Tso) and were blown across the water to form bauks

inches deep. For a distance of two hundred yards from the Jake

these insects swarmed in every depression and behind every stone.

They stained the smaller pools with their decomposing bodies,

while those still alive were stirred up in clouds by passing men

and animals. Redshank, stint and avocet were gorging on this

feast, though they were only seen to pick up such insects as. -

were floating in the water. Gulls, terns and geese were apparenily

iot attracted.

In his first paper (1927) Ludlow includes also observations of

the birds of the Chumbi valley, that area of Southern Tibet which

ties between Sikkim and Bhutan. This area has however been

considered separately, for it differs in many respects from similar

wooded parts of Sikkim, and also a very natural border-line be-

tween it and the so-called Tibetan plateau exists at the last trees

at about 14,0oco ft. above Dotag, just before the bare Phari plain

is reached. Accordingly these notes commence there and concern

the route up to and including the lakes.

Ludlow’s recent paper (1937) is a fuller account of birds seen

and collected in the Chumbi valley and more extensively in parts.

of Tibet and Bhutan further east. As the references he quotes

in his first paper are not complete, and some of those of N. B.

Kinnear (1922) are misprinted, as full a list as can be traced is

given below.

The Political Officer in Sikkim could not permit any shooting,

so that the collection of birds about which doubt still exists was

unfortunately impossible.

Corvus corax tibetanus. Tibetan Raven.

Abundant from Phari to Kala, especially near the villages. An empty nest

at Kala from which young may have flown contained several of the reeds:

wrapped with wool with which the Tibetans adorn their ‘mendongs’.

Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorex himalayensis. Eastern Red-billed Chough.

Very abundant from the Jelepla up to Kala, mixing with the Jungle Crows

in the Chumbi valley, and replacing them thereafter as scavengers. They formed

large flocks for feeding purposes, as on the grassier parts around the lakes, but

at the same time were nesting. No Yellow-billed Choughs (P. graculus forsythi)

were seen definitely, although Ludlow thought it might breed in the Chumbi

valley. Kinnear recorded the species from higher altitudes than were visited

on this occasion.

Podoces humilis. Hume’s Ground Chough.

Always in pairs, preferring the sandier hillsides, upon which they were wide-

spread; but also seen on the Phari plain and near the marshes around the lakes.

On several occasions they were observed to pick up yalk’s wool for nesting

material.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

DOCHEN >

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6CALE—I °—2°/ Mi 1

STANDING WATER MARSH WATER-LEVEL OF HIGH GROUND KALIMPONG-LHASA

KALA. TSO IN TRADE ROUTE

1903-04

Diagrammatic sketch of the vicinity of the Hram Tso and Kala, T'so,

Southern Tibet.

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THE BIRDS OF THE GYANTSE ROAD

The traveller expecting to find a chough-like bird will be disappointed, for

this species is much the size of a snowfinch, and bears superficial resemblance

to a wheatear.

Oenanthe deserti oreophils. Tibetan Desert Chat.

Sparse, only being seen twice, between Tuna and Dochen, and at Wala,

after mid-May, though according to Ludlow they arrive in April. Hingston

however considers the species a late breeder.

Phoenicurus hodgsoni. Chestnut-breasted Redstart.

Phoenicurus rufiventris. Ic:astern Indian Redstart.

Common birds in all the rocky places up to 16,000 feet. These species are

so similar that I am doubtful of their relative status.

Ph. erythrogaster grandis. Afghan Redstart.

Only seen in one place, from 15,000 feet to 17,000 feet in the valley west of

Dochen. Ludlow considered that it bred above 16,000 feet, as it was absent

from Gyantse in summer.

Prunolia rubeculoides. Robin Hedge-Sparrow.

Common from Tunar to Kala, showing a preference for the close-cut marshy

tussocks near villages. Frequently flew on to walls and houses, but not seen to

carry nesting material. Territorial and courtship display was frequently noticed. A

few birds were met with on the northward journey after first leaving the Tromo

‘Chu on 7 May, and were also present on 18 May. Ludlow, in describing the

species as very common north of the Tang La, may have inferred that it was

sparse elsewhere.

Carpodacue rubicilloides fapersonnei Tibetan Rosefinch.

An isolated male near Dochen on 16 May,

Passer montanus tibetanus. Tibetan Tree-sparrow.

Abundant at every little village and that up to Nala.

Montifriagilla nivalis adamsi, ‘Tibetan Snowfinch.

This Snowfinch was only seen at 2 places, both near cliffs; at Guru, and in

the valley between the Hram Tso and Kala Tso. The male’s threat display

includes a bob and fanning of the tail. The large white bar in the wings is

even more noticeable than the white outer tail-feathers mentioned in the Fauna.

Ludlow found it abundant at all elevations between Phari and Gyantse.

Montifringilla taczanowskii. Ashy-neclked Snowfinch.

Seen only near the Tang La on 17 May, where males were fighting, and south

of Phari on 18 May, where pairs seemed to have established territory. I do not

think this species had arrived in this area on 7 and 8 May.

Montifringilla ruficellis. Red-neclked Snowfinch.

This species was carrying nesting material near the Tang La on 17 May,

and widespread in pairs south of Phari on 18 May. I might have confused this

snowfinch with the next on the northward journey, but nevertheless I do not

think it had arrived on 7 and 8 May.

Montifringilla blandfordi., Black-throated Snowfinch.

This species was abundant in flocks on the Phari plain on 7 and 8 May, but

on the return journey, 17 May, only a few were seen near Shubra below the

Tang La. Ludlow thought it a resident at high elevations.

Fringilauda brandti laematopygia. Tibetan Mountain-Finch.

Frequented fields near villages, still in flocks. A few near Phari, and flocks

-of several hundred west of Dochen.

304 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Ptyonoprogne rupestris, Crag Martin.

Hurried glimpses were obtained near the Hram Tso of what was probably

this species, which Ludlow notes as breeding in June and July, and Walton as

common in Southern Tibet.

Motacilla lugubris alboides. Hodgson’s Pied Wagtail.

Only seen once, near Dochen on g May. It may arrive later, as Ludlow

describes it as breeding commonly in May and June.

Motacills citreola calcarata. Hodgson’s Yellow-headed Wagtail.

Widespread in wet places, though never abundant as recorded by IJ.udlow.

First met with immediately after leaving the Tromo Chu.

Otocorys alpestris elwesi. Elwes’s Horned Lark.

Ludlow says of this species that it breeds near the Hram Tso. I found it

one of the most abundant and widespread birds after leaving the Tromo Chu;

on the open Tuna plain, near the marshes, and on the hills up to 16,500 feet.

They were mostly in pairs and small parties, though on 11 May a big flock of

about 300 was noted in the rocky valley west of Dochen. It was however not

seen south of Phari on 18 May, and so the birds previously present there may

have moved on.

_ Melanocorypha maxima. Long-billed Calandra Lark.

Sparse in the marshes south of the Hram Tso and those south-east of the

Kala Tso though Ludlow only records it for the first locality. Song flight was

noticed on 12 May. JI think this species must be a strong mimic, as I heard

calls of Redshank, Greenshank and Curlew, when no other bird was in sight.

Nor did I even see Curlew.

Alauda arvensis inopinata. Tibetan Slxylark.

A few pairs were seen near Kala bungalow, and on 18 May it was abundant

between Kamparab and the Tromo Chu among the hillside ling, singing lustily.

A nest with 1 egg was found on that date. If they were present on 7 May

they certainly were not singing, for I observed none on the northward journey.

Ludlow found it abundant near Gyantse.

Calandrella acutirostris. Hume’s. Short-toed Lark.

This lark was first met with on the Phari plain after leaving the Tromo Chu,

and thereafter was extremely widespread on the barest plain, in cultivation, and

on rocky hillsides. They frequented especially the mule route across the Tuna

plain and only bothered to run a few paces out of the way of animals. There

was no evidence of their having commenced nesting, although they were definitely

paired,

A specimen was picked up and a skin made and identified.

Upopa epops salurata. Tibetan Hoopoe.

A few were seen at Phari and Tuna, and probably had commenced nesting.

Gyps himalayensis. Himalayan Griffon Vulture.

Frequently seen soaring between the Tromo Chu and Kala, but no evidence

of breeding was obtained.

Gypaétus barbatus. Flimalayan Lammergeier.

Sparse throughout, but no trace of its breeding. According to Ludlow this.

occurs in February,

Falco eherrug. Saker Falcon.

Quick views were obtained of falcons near the lakes on two occasions, pro-

bably this species. Ludlow records the Saker as occurring in autumn and winter.

THE BIRDS OF THE GYANTSE ROAD 305

Cerchneis tinnunculus subsp. Kestrel.

Occasionally seen near Hram Tso. Considerable doubt exists as to the species

and sub-species of Kestrel which occur in this area.

Haliaétus leucoryphus. Pallas’s Fishing Eagle.

Common around both lakes, but not seen fishing. Its call reminded me of

a hoarse pekinese barking, and is very similar to the call of the White-tailed

Sea Eagle (H. albicillus).

Miivus migrans lineatus. Large Indian Kite.

Sparse throughout. No kites were seen that might have been the sub-species

govinda.

Buteo burmanicus. Japanese Desert Buzzard.

A buzzard was seen several times around Phari and the lakes which I thinlx

I identified correctly as this species. Ludlow was unsure which of the buzzards

bred near Gyantse, while Bailey (tg09 b) recorded a nest of the Himalayan

Rough-legged Buzzard (Archibuteo hemiptilus). In a later paper (1911) he can-

celled the record as insufficiently proven.

Columba rupestris turkestanica. Turkestan Blue Hill-Pigeon.

From the Tang La to Kala this confiding pigeon was often seen near houses

and in fields. Though semi-domesticated, I think many of the birds nest away

from houses, as pairs were met with in most rocky and sandy cliffs.

Syrrhaptes tibetanus. Tibetan Sandgrouse.

A single bird flying eastwards over the Tuna plain on 17 May was probably

of this species. None were seen near the lakes, although Ludlow mentions their

occurring there. He may have meant only in winter, as he says the bird is

found above 14,000 feet in summer.

Tetraogallus tibetanus centralis. Snowcock.

Two pairs seen, one by Guru, and one west of Dochen.

Grus nigricollis. Black-necked Crane.

Pairs were scattered all over the marsh south and west of the Hram Tso,

but only pair east of the Kala Tso. Near the former lake it seemed that

each pair had its territory, but had not started to breed.

Larus brunnicephalus Brown-headed Gull.

This gull was common all around the Hram Tso and its marshes, especially

on the grassy islands with the terns. A few were seen flying up the river leading

to the Kala Tso but none were observed on the lake itself. Ludlow found it

common on both lakes.

Sterna hirundo tibetana. Tibetan Tern.

Common around both lakes and seen foraging over all the marshes and side

streams. A considerable number were sitting on the northernmost grassy island

on the eastern side of the Hram Tso, but shewed no sign of having begun to breed.

Citripedesmus mongolus atrifrons. Pamirs Lesser Sand-Plover.

Only seen on the shore near Dochen on the Hram Tso, but very abundant

on the salty islands and mud-flats of the Kala Tso, where territorial behaviour

was noticed. In addition a pair was seen on a 17,000 feet ridge west of Dochen

and pairs were quite numerous 3 to 7 miles south-west of Tuna on the bare

plain, where one pair was observed chasing Short-toed Larks as though from

its territory. Ludlow also found this species on stony plains miles from the lakes.

306 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Recurvirostra a. avocetta. Avocet.

There -was a surprising number of these birds on both Jakes, though Ludlow

only quotes Bailey’s record of occurrences in autumn. At the western end of

the Hram Tso were 2, and at the north-eastern end a flock of 55, while on the

mud-flats of Kala Tso a flock of over 25 was present. There was no obvious

pairing off, but occasionally a bird would fly round calling loudly, a note I have

never heard from the birds in their winter-quarters.

Glottis nebularia. Greenshank.

On 13 May 1 was on the Kala Tso, and 2 days later 2. Ludlow was un-

certain whether it bred and Bailey (1911) records it only in autumn.

Tringa totanus terrignotae. [astern Redshank.

Very abundant around the Hram Tso, feeding in flocks. Pairs had taken up

territory in the marsh south of the lake, and the breeding call was frequently

heard. They did not exhibit sufficient alarm to indicate their having nests. It

was sparse at the eastern end of the Kala Tso, where only feeding birds were seen.

Eriola temminckii. Temminclk’s Stint.

This was very abundant around the shores of both lakes in flocks of 10 to

400 birds. At least a thousand were feeding on the mud-flats at the eastern end of

the Kala Tso. On only one occasion were 2 seen alone in circumstances pointing

to the likelihood of their being about to breed, in the marsh south of Hram Tso

on 10 May.

The skin of a bird picked up was identified.

Ludlow says they. pass on spring migration in April, but does not mention

in what numbers. Wollaston collected birds near Everest in September.

Erolia testacea. Curlew Sandpiper.

One at Kala Tso on 13 May among a flock. of Temminck’s Stints. A clear

view was obtained through a telescope.

Erolia a. alpina. Dunlin.

Three with the Curlew Sandpiper, one being in full summer plumage.

Lobipes lobatus. Red-necked Phalerope.

Two closely observed by telescope among the Temminck’s Stints on the Kala

mud-flats on 13 May, 1 male and 1 female.

Capella g. gallinago. Fantail Snipe.

Capella stenura. Paintail Snipe.

Snipe were common in the marsh south of the Hram Tso. No drumming

was heard, but only the chip-chip breeding note occasionally. They were suffi-

ciently distributed to suggest their having taken up territory, I am uncertain

which species was present; possibly the former, as F. Finn in ‘How to ixnow

the Indian Waders’ describes the breeding note of the Fantail as tchik-tchack

and that of the Pintail as tiric-tiric. Ludlow records the former as occurring at

Gyantse on both migrations and the latter in autumn only. He does not mention

the summer status of either.

Anser indicus. Bar-headed Goose.

Abundant on the Hram Tso and its surrounding marshes, but none seen on

the Kala Tso, the absence perhaps being explained by the desiccation and salinity

of the lake.

A nest with 5 fresh eggs was found deep in the marsh south of the Hram Tso

on 10 May, but the majority had not yet begun breeding, as the birds resting

around the lake and on the water were still paired. Bailey (1900 a) had found

nesting in full swing on 2 June 1902, on the eastern side of the lake: I inspected

the northernmost island through a telescope and saw only a few pairs standing

around,

THE BIRDS ‘OF THE GYANTSE ROAD 307

On 16 May a pair was noticed flying to and fro and later perching in the

200 feet cliffs south of Dochen, and © pairs were sitting on a rocky cliff about

a roo feet high and difficult of access near Guru. When disturbed they flew

around several times calling loudly. Neither Ludlow nor Bailey mentioned the

use of cliffs as nesting sites by this species, and: the local men I questioned would

not admit to knowiedge of any such habit. They stated that no eggs had been

collected for food for years, but I found this hard to believe.

Casarca ferrnginea. Ruddy Sheldrake.

Extremely abundant around the lakes. They appeared to have just begun

nesting, as nearly all the birds seen on the marshes and lakes were still in pairs,

and there was a constant procession of pairs to the neighbouring cliffs, near

which they were flying to and-fro, occasionally settling. They were obviously

still prospecting for nesting sites. Though the hills. around. the lake basins are

very eroded there are sufficient cliffs, and upon only one occasion, at Chalu,

were birds seen to perch on the roofs of houses, in which according to Ludlow

they probably nest frequently.

Tadorna taderna. Common Sheldrake.

A flock, of 15 at the western end of the Kala Tso on 14 May. ‘Ludlow saw

this species only 2 or 3 times in March. |

Anas p. plalyrhyncha. Matilard.

One on Hram marshes | on 10 May. Ludlow thought it might breed,

Mareca penelope. Wigeon.

Two on Hram marsh on 10 May and one on five Kala Tso 14 Mave Ludlow

considered this duck an uncommon passage migrant.

Nettion crecca. Common » ‘Teal.

Three on Hram marsh on 10 May. Ludlow recorded it as a passage migrant

and winterer.

Netta rufina. Red-crested- Pochard.

Two females on the Kala Tso with the Sheldrakes on 14 May. Ludlow saw

this species only 2 or 3 times in March.

Nyroca r. rufa White-eyed Pochard.

Small flocks on the Hram marsh on 10 May. Ludlow was-certain it stayed

to breed.

Mergus merganser orientalis. Eastern Goosander.

Three were flying down the river near Shobra on 8 May,

Podiceps c. cristatus. Great Crested Grebe.

Not more than 5 were seen near floating masses of weed within half a mile

of the northern shore of the Hram Tso. These may have been nesting birds.

Ludlow describes several colonies on the Kala Tso including one of several pairs

near the inflow by Kala village. The lake-ridge was then about half a mile from

the dak-bungalow; it is now quite 3 times that distance. There were definitely

no grebes on the lake in 1946.

The following species’ noted by Ludiow as common or fairly common were

not seen. With the possible: SSID IO. fos the ‘first, he considered that they bred

in the mhatis Gyantse AF e8:

| Troglodytes troglodytes tibetanus.. Tibetan Wren,

Acanthis ilavirostris rufostrigata.. _ Tibetan’ Twite.

Riparia riparia ijimae. EaStern Sand-Martin.

308 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST...SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Athene noctua ludlowi. Tibetan Owlet.

Perdix h. hodgsoniae. Tibetan Partridge.

. Lerwa ierwa, | Snow - Partridge.

Fulica atra. Coot.

REFERENCES.

Bailey, F. M.—‘Nesting of the Bar-headed Goose (Anser indicus) in Tibet’,

J.B.N.H.S., Vol. xix, p. 367 (1909 a).

Bailey, F../M. —A nest of Archibuteo hemiptilus (Himalayan Rough-legged

Buzzard)’, ibid., Vol. xix, p. 523 (1909 b). —

NOTE. STs record is cancelled by an observation in his: paper of 1911.

Bailey, F. M.—‘Nesting of the Ibis-bill (Ibidorhynchus struthersi)’, | ibid.,

Vol. xix, p. 998 (1910).

Bailey, F. M.—'Birds from Gyantse and Chumbi, 1906-1909’, ibid., Vol. xxi,

p. 178 (1911).

Bailey, F. M.—‘Some Notes on Birds from Gyantse’, ibid., Vol. xxii, p. 72

(1915).

Dresser, H. E.—‘On Some Palaearctic Birds’ eggs from Tibet’, (NDESEA {De B27

(1906).

Hingston, R. W. G.—‘Bird Notes from the Mount Everest Expedition of 1924’,

J.B.N.H.S., Vol. xxxii, p. 320 (1927).

Kinnear, N. B.—On the birds collected by A. F. R. Wollaston during the

first Mount Everest Expedition. Notes by A. F. R. Wollaston, Ibis, pp. 495-526

(1922).

Landon, P.—‘Lhasa’, Vol. i, App. A. London (1905).

Ludlow, F.—‘Birds of the Gyantse neighbourhood, Southern Tibet’, Ibis, Pt. |,

(1927), pp. 644-659: Pts. ii and iii (1928), pp. 51-73, 211-232 (1927, 1928).

Ludlow, F.—‘Dongtse, or stray bird notes from Tibet’, J.B.N.H.S., Vol.

XXxili, pp. 78-83 (1928).

Ludlow, F.—‘Birds of Bhutan and adjacent territories of Sikkim ‘and Tibet,

with notes by N. B. Kinnear’, Ibis, pp. 1-46, 249-293, 467-509 (1937).

Walton, H. J.—‘On the birds of Southern Tibet’, Ibis, pp. 57-84, 225-256 (1906).

AB-ISTADEH, A BREEDING PLACE OF THE FLAMINGO

[PHOENICOPTERUS RUBER ROSEUS (PALLAS)]| IN’

AFGHANISTAN ©

S. A.. AKHTAR

Professor of Biology, Faculty of Science, Kabul.

(With two maps and a plate)

Some of my studies last year revealed that Ab-istadeh, if not

at present, has once been a breeding place of flamingoes. Since

then I have been keen on visiting” the place in order to study the

present conditions of Ab-istadeh in regard to these birds. The

idea was further animated by Mr. Salim Ali urging me to visit

the place myself. At last’ I proposed a tour to Ab-istadeh with

some students of the faculty; and I am very thankful to Dr. Abdul

A BREEDING PLACE OF THE FLAMINGO © 309

Majeed Khan, Vice-Chancellor of kabul University, for granting

the necessary funds. The time for the tour was, unfortunately,

not proper as it was late in spring and the month of Ramzan was

also to begin in a few days. According to programme we were

to stay there for twenty-four hours only and I am sorry, in such

a short visit, I could not collect enough material or other data

regarding the habits or breeding of the birds, but the following

notes, though brief and incomplete throw sufficient light on the

main features of Ab-istadeh and breeding of flamingoes over there.

Early morning on 16th July, I with Mr. A. S. Shalizi, a colleague

of mine, and twenty students left for Ab-istadeh. I have already

mentioned (1) its distance from Ghazni as about forty-four miles,

but as there is no direct road from Ghazni to that place we had

to take a longer route, going first to Mukar, sixty-three miles

south-west of Ghazni (or a hundred and forty-eight miles from

Kabul) and then coming south-east to Ab-istadeh. A small road,

a furlong or two beyond Mukar, separates from this main road

to Kanadhar and goes south-east to Karrauddin, a village near

Ab-istadeh and about twenty-five miles from Mukar. It passes

through an open plain generally waste and barren on account of

the scarcity of water. Wherever there is a canal or a karez

some cultivation is carried on and the wheat crops were now

standing ripe and ready for reaping. Some very common trees

of the country like willow, poplar and mulberry are grown here

and there, mostly in rows along the canals, but no plane tree

is found on this side of the Ab-istadeh basin as has been mentioned

by Elphinstone (2). In the surrounding wastes, the dominant

plants are the low shrubs of camel-thorn (Alhagi camelorum) called

locally Shuttar-khar. Among them are dispersed low shrubs

of Paganum harmala, called locally Spund. Both are common shrubs

of dry wastes; the seeds of the latter are sprinkled over fire and

supposed to purify the air. Here and there some patches of

Artemisia sp. called locally Tirkh are also met with. A few flocks

of sparrows were seen flying over the cornfields, some Crested

Larks (Galerida cristata) hopping along roadsides and among low

shrubs, and a few Scavenger Vultures (Neophron percnopterus)

sitting here and there solitary on the telephone poles. A great

noise was heard at certain places. being made by red cicadas

(Cicada platypleura) known locally as Juljul-dagh which had

gathered on camel thorns. They are found plentifully on the

poplars growing alongside the road from Kabul to Paghman. At

Karrauddin also adjacent to the place where we were putting up

the first night, a few mulberry trees were noticed almost covered

with the insects and the noise they were making was to be heard

from a distance. They are said to be gathered and eaten by the

villagers in times of scarcity.

Karrauddin and iis inhabitants. —Karrauddin is a small Shee

about twenty-five miles from Mukar and two and a half from the

south-west shore of Ab-istadeh. It consists of about fifty or sixty

mud-houses, and the inhabitants are all cultivators. Most of them

do not know swimming and only a few are interested in shooting

310 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

as cartridges are very dear and not easily obtainable in this locality.

They usually catch birds in winter when Ab-istadeh is turned into

a sheet of ice. At some places there remain small pools of water

where coots (Fulica atra) locally called Qashqal collect in large

numbers. These people believe it due to the body heat of the birds

that the pools remain unfrozen. Two men hold a long rope stretched

across a pool and draw it from one side to the other, thus forcing the

birds to climb out on to the ice-sheet, where they catch them by

hand or strike them with sticks. According to the locals it is

on account of the large amount of fat accumulated on their bodies

in winter that the birds are unable to fly easily. The flesh is

much relished by them, though at Kabul where the birds are

plentiful in poulterers’ shops in early spring, autumn and winter,

it is not generally liked by Kabulis.

The bird which the inhabitants of Karrauddin esteem most

is the pelican, Pelicanus onocrotalus, called locally Qutan. Whistler

(3) records its occurrence at Kanadhar, Natali, Khusan and

Hamun-i-Sabari, and Sultan Baber (4) in Kohistan.. The _ latter

says, ‘. . . on the banks of river Baran, great numbers of cranes

are caught . . . as well as ... . the Khawasil. The. last-

mentioned fowl is rare.’ River Baran is the present Ghor-

band river and Khawasil is the Arabic name of pelican. There

is no doubt the bird is never seen in Kabul markets, but it is

certain it flies over the city and sometimes descends on Wazirabad

marshes about two miles north of Kabul. Recently there was a

bird kept by Dilbar, the owner of a café at Kabul which was

caught in the said marshes and its head is still fixed on the wail

of the café-room as a decoration. Some twenty years ago Sardar

Inayat-ullah Khan had a pair of pelicans which lived in his house

for many years. At Ab-istadeh too the birds descend for a short

time on their way to north but people knowing the proper time

manage beforehand to have a gun: The bird has, in fact, a good

quantity of flesh but it is not the bird’s flesh that is so much sought

after as its fat. This is believed to be a great remedy for certain

ailments and much valued throughout the country. It is collected

at Karrauddin and stored and sold at the rate of twenty BLEEDS for

a quantity filling a hen’s egg.

Ab-istadeh.—Karly next. morning, 17th July, we went to Ab-

istadeh, a large sheet of bluish water with a wavy surface re-

minding one of a sea. It is situated at an elevation of about 7000!

in an open plain (as I have already mentioned (5) among other features

of the lake), with Dila on its north, Nava-i-kalan on the south, Dila

and Nava-i-kalan on the east and Navali-lehurd on the west. No trees

except those already named are to be seen up to a distance of two or

three miles from the water. Cultivation ceases at a distance of

about a mile where low wild shrubs follow. Among the latter

the usual camel-thorn is predominant. At some places, however,

another low shrub of yellow flower-heads (Compositae) is met with,

called locally Arghozak. It has woody branches and rather fleshy

' Equal to about five’ Indian rupees—EDs.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

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leaves and is widely distributed in the country being generally

confined to wastes and other dry places. I did not find at this

end of the lake any growth of Tamarisk, locally called Gaz, as

mentioned by Elphinstone (6). Within fifty to a hundred yards from

the water the ground is mostly devoid of vegetation and at some

places whitish encrustations of salts are found. At some points

the low, spreading and salt-loving shrub bearing small rosy flowers,

Frankenia laevis, is met with. It appeared from water marks on

the shore that water of the lake had receded to a distance of

forty to fifty yards during the last two or three months. Foot-

prints of various birds were visible but no eggs were seen on

the banks as has been recorded by Sultan Babar (7). No animals

were observed on the shore except some black ants and a kind

af earwig (Forficulidae) boring the earth.

It was 6 a.m. when we reached our first station on the bank

of Ab-istadeh. The sky was clear and the temperature of the

air was 20°C. The air was clear but stank, and it remained so

throughout the day and night. It smells like sulphur dioxide or

sulphuretted hydrogen which may probably be liberated by the

disintegration of some organic compounds or microscopic algae

under water. Humidity was 52 per cent and as the sun rose

higher and higher the atmosphere became hazy. At about 9 a.m.

and later cyclones appeared on the plain which made the sky as

if cloudy. The water of the lake was concentrated brine but

clear and transparent; its temperature was 17.5°C. and density

1.035. The Karrauddin people do not bathe in this water as they

say it produces a burning sensation which neither myself nor any

of my companions experienced. The soil of the bottom was dark

green or blackish and stank. There were no _ submerged

plants, except a kind of grass which grew very thinly near the

shore. I searched for animals; there were no fish, and other

kinds were not numerous. A species of water-skater (Notonecta sp.)

called locally and aptly Ab-bazak or swimmer, a species of small

brown water-beetle with longitudinal striations on its elytra called

locally Qanghozak-i-abi or water beetle and the larvae of a kind

of midge (Chironomidae) were present.

It was twenty minutes past six when [| first noticed a flock

of some twenty flamingoes from a distance, flying past in a straight

line. They were seen through a telescope and easily recognised

by the colour of their legs and wings and the shape of bill. At

Kabul they are said to fly over the city and sometimes descend

over Wazirabad marshes on their way north in early spring. There

they are called Qdzi-i-husaini or goose of Hazarat Husain. Their

red colour is attributed to the idea prevailing among Qazilbash

people that the bird had rolled in grief in the blood of Husain who

was slain at Karballa. Hence they neither fire at the bird nor eat of

its flesh as a mark of reverence. The inhabitants of Karrauddin do

not understand the name Qdéaz-i-husaini, they call it Ding, shoot

it and eat its flesh eagerly. The Ding described by Sultan Baber

(8) is probably some other bird as he defines it thus, ‘Ding . . . is

a large bird. Each of its wings is the length of a man; on its

head and neck there is no hair; something like a bag hangs from

312 JOURNAL;) BOMBAY NATURAL | HIST.7SOCIETY;. Vol. 47

its neck, its back is black, its breast white; it frequently visits —

Kabul. One year they ‘caught. and brought me a ding” which

became very tame. ~The flesh which they threw it, it never failed

to catch in its beak, and swallowed without ceremony. On one

occasion, it swallowed! a) Shoe well-shed with iron; on another

occasion it swallowed a good-sized fowl] right down, with its wings

and feathers.’ i made much inquiry about the word ding and

came to know that the inhabitants. of Karrauddin mean nothing

else than a flamingo.”

As we were told that there are. two hillocks in the lake about

the middle of its southern shore and different kinds of ducks and

other aquatic birds breed there, we proceeded towards east. We

might have travelled two or three miles from our first station when

I saw a big goose with nine young proceeding towards water. On

seeing us approaching it flew away and I failed to see it properly.

The young were white in their downy stage, their flat bill and

feet being black and toes webbed. There was a median longitudinal

black band on the back which widened on forehead, shoulders,

wings, kips and on the tail. The band begins a little above the

nostrils and passes over the eyes on each side of the head.’

First hillock: the breeding place of aquatic bivds.—About a

mile ahead the banks of the lake were covered by more numerous

shrubs and here I saw another flock of flamingoes at a distance

containing ten birds only: We had now travelled about seven

miles from our first station when we saw a group of small hillocks

along the shore on our left, and having crossed them we saw the.

first hillock in front of us about a glee of a mile inside the

lake. The water being only ankle-deep we waded to it and found it

to be about four and a half hundred feet long and a hundred feet

wide and sixteen feet above water. It is ‘a flat- Spread mound or

islet nearly parallel to the shore. Here and there were seen

branches of a herb, Astragalus sp., creeping over its surface, other-

wise its surface was thinly covered with low bushes of camel-thorn.

Some broken egg-shells. were seen scattered among the bushes.

Some red feathers and quills lying here and there on the lower

slopes of its sides, showed it to have been a breeding place a few

months ago when it was doubtless well-surrounded by water.

Feathers and quills of various aquatic birds are found plentifully

at certain spots on the shores, and the people of the neighbourhood

collect them for sale or for their own pillows, etc. As soon as we

réached the islet hundreds of big ‘birds became visible in the Cis-

tance to the east standing in water, and the telescope revealed all

of them to be flamingoes. ‘Taking hold of his gun Mr. Shalizi

hastened towards them but while he was still about a mile away

all the birds flew off and my friend had to return. At 8 a.m. the

| The Ding. of Babar’s description is BAiboutt doubt hel Active Storls (enone

tilos dubius) as identified by Saliny Ali, See “The Moghul Emperors of India as

Naturalists and Sportsmen’, J.B-N.H:S.) Vol: XxXNii, p. 62 (1 Aug. 1927\—-EDs.

* From a sketch sent by the author, presumably the Hascleyy Sheldrake [Casar-

ca ferruginea (Pall.)]—-Eps.

wtih

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‘A BREEDING PLACE OF THE FLAMINGO 313

temperature of the air was: 29.6°C. and humidity 35 per cent.

During our stay on this islet which lasted up to 1.30 p.m:, many

flocks of flamingoes were’ noticed flying past in straight lines,

and containing from: two or three to thirty birds each. Most of

them as already stated were flying eastward where they were

gathered in large numbers. Unfortunately we had no telephoto-

lens otherwise we might have got some beautiful photos of. the

Nirds. MN

The problem was how to reach the other island hillock. Against

our expectations, we could not procure in the village a. falla (a

few inflated sheep-skins bound together) to float over the water.

While we were discussing the matter three of my students, Mr.

Qadir, Mr. Sulaiman and Mr. Ali Ahmad, who are good swim-

mers, entered the Jake’ and began to walk through water in the

direction of the hillock. It was 10 a.m., and a quarter of an

hour later another batch of five followed them in the same manner.

They were also good swimmers but they took along with them

a rope and a well-inflated motor-tube as a precautionary measure.

The first batch went on till in an hour it was out of sight, and

soon the second batch also disappeared. It was in about another

hour that we could make out by telescope (as the atmosphere

was somewhat hazy) all of them together and returning hurriedly.

Altogether they took full two hours and twenty minutes to return

to the shore and brought along with them fifty eggs in the netted

motor-tube floating over water. It is estimated that the second

hillock cannot be less than three miles distant from the first. The

students waded most of the way as the water, in these days, was

nowhere deeper than four feet. In some places the soft bottom

mud was a foot deep.

Second hillock: the breeding place of flamingoes.—This is also

a flat-topped hillock but smaller and lower than the first one.

The ‘students paced it to be about two hundred and fifty feet

long, seventy feet wide and estimated it as twelve feet above the

water at the highest point. There was no vegetation on it. As

soon as they reached there, a large number of birds, who were

apparently sitting on the ground took to flight leaving their eggs

lying about on the ground. At the margin of the central flat por-

tion small depressions were noticed at many points in which eggs

were lying in pairs, otherwise hundreds of them were scattered

singly ail over the bare ground. There was neither any sign of

nests nor were there any young ones about. Feathers and quills were

seen littering the ground in far greater quantity than on the first

hillock. Moreover a few skeletons and various parts of birds were

found of. which one complete and a few parts like wings, etc. were

brought back by the students. These proved to belong to

flamingoes.

At the hour when we left the hillock and returned to our first

station, the air temperature was 29.6°C. and its humidity 35 per

cent. We appointed a few shikaris to shoot for us a few of the

red birds we had seen, and the skeletons of which we had examined.

They remarked that these birds usually came early morning and

314 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47

evening to the shores in search of food. The men returned at

5:30 p.m. when the air temperature was 24°C. and humidity

50 per cent; one of them with two Common Sandpipers (Actitis

hypleucos) and the other with a flamingo which definitely proved

to be Phoenicopterus ruber roseus (Pallas). I skinned it and

dissected its gizzard which contained clay, some sand, three water

beetles, ten water-skaters and twenty-three larvae of midges (Chiro-

nomous). But most numerous were the remains (head and abdomen)

of black ants, and there was not a single earwig.

Summary.—Ab-istadeh is a salt-water lake with bare shores.

There are two hillocks (islets) in the lake, one about the middle

of and near its southern shore, and the other about three miles

further in a north-easterly direction. The water of the lake, at

the time of our visit (middle of July), was nowhere deeper than

four feet between the two hillocks. Flamingoes as I conjectured

(9) do come here from India |? Eps.]| in early spring in large num-

bers to pass the summer; they decidedly belong to the species

Phoenicopterus ruber voseus (Pallas). At Karrauddin, a village

near the south-west corner of the lake, people call this bird Ding,

Its food here consists of water-beetles, water-skaters, larvae of

midges in water and black ants. They breed on both the above

mentioned islets, in early spring but a later brood is carried on in

July only on the second hillock. Fifty hard set eggs were collected

from. the second brood. Eight of these measured: 87.5—99.0 mm

‘x 55.0—60.0. mm. Eggs are not found on the shores these days

as was apparently the case in Sultan Baber’s time. One Rosy

Flamingo was shot, skinned and stuffed; it is now preserved in the

Faculty of Science, Kabul, and measures: Wing 430; Bill 145.5;

Tarsus 340 mm.

REFERENCES

kr. Akhtar, S. A.—Baber the Great on Flamingoes, J.B.N.H.S., Vol. 46, No. 3

P. 546, 1946. ae

2. Elphinstone, M.—A» Account of the kingdom of Caubul, London, Vol. 2

p- 140,, 1839.

3. Whistler, H.—Materials for the Ornithology of Afghanistan, J.B.N.H.S.,

Vol. 45} Noi. 4): pii'478,) 1945)

4. Leyden, J. and Erskine, W.—Memoirs of Zehirudin Mohammad. Baber,

London p, 153, 1826.

. Akhtar, S. A.—Baber the Great on Flamingoes, ].B.N.H.S., Vol. 46, No.

3, P- 546, 1946.

6. Elphinstone, M.—An Account of the kingdom of Caubul, London Vol 2,

Pp: 140, 1839.

7. Leyden, J. and Erskine, W.—Memoirs of Zehirudin Mohammad Raber,

London pp. 165-166, 1826.

8. Ibid.—p. 267 and p. 321.

g. Akhtar, S. A.—Baber the Great on Flamingoes, J.B.N.H.S., Vol. 46,

P. 547, 1946.

A NOTE ON THE COLLECTION, CONDITIONING AND

TRANSPORT OF FINGERLINGS OF CATLA IN THE

MADRAS PRESIDENCY.?

N. JAGANNADHAM,

Fisheries Branch, Department of Industries and Commerce, Madras.

Catla catla ( Ham.), which is the best of the fast-growing carps,

is very well suited for pond-culture. It is therefore extensively

stocked in the provincial waters by the Department of Fisheries,

Madras, for providing an increased supply of food fish to the public. ?

With the growing popularity of fish farming, there is an increased

demand for a large stock of fingerlings. The present note which

describes the chief methods to be adopted for successful stocking,

may prove helpful, it is hoped, for a fuller exploitation of the sources

of Catla fingerlings.

In the tea-coloured, rapid moving, flood waters of the Krishna and

Godavari rivers, Catla spawns during the South-West Monsoon (July

to October). The weather, as well as the waters, during this season

afford the optimum conditions for the spawning of the fish. The

flow and rolling nature of the waters, the flavour, the alluvial content

and the superoxygenation of the waters, which are surcharged during

the season with electricity discharged by lightning, are the important

factors that make the environment favourable for the spawning of

Caila. My observations? on the Bundh-types of tanks in Bengal

confirm my statements regarding the optimum conditions in rivers

for the breeding of Cadla.

The eggs (unfertilised ova) of Cat/a are definitely pelagic, as per re-

ports of the local as wellas Bengal fishermen. Iam able to confirm these

reports by my observations? in river-survey work for the location of

spawning grounds of Ca¢/a in the Krishna river, and also by my

study of the breeding of the carps in the Bundh-type of tanks in the

Midnapore District (Bengal). The eggs of Cat/a appear in whitish

masses in the upper reaches of the rivers, where the beds are

gravelly or stony, and drift down with the current along the sides of

the river, where the current is less turbulent. The eggs hatch out

within a pericd of 12 to 24 hours according to my observations.

Whether the water is stagnant or flowing, shallow or deep, matters

little for the hatching out of the eggs. Whether the eggs hatch out

1 Published with the permission of the Director of Industries and

Commerce, Madras.

2 The first stocking operation was conducted in 1922.

* This is my personel experience during my study of the conditions

made during July 1944 when I was deputed by the Madras Fisheries Depart-

ment for that purpose and also to trarsport a consignment of larvae and fry

of Bengal Carps (Catla, Rohu and Mrigal), which I was fortunate enough to

accomplish successfully. |

316 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47

in the turbulent river, or in the irrigation channels depends on the

distance between the spawning locality and these watet courses. In

Bengal the spawning of carps is inthe Bundh-type of tanks and the

eggs hatch out under the same conditions. In the case of Catla the

hatching of the eggs takes place eithér in the rivers themselves or in

the irrigation channels that branch off from the rivers. Fingerlings

of Catla which happen to enter tanks through inundation or irriga-

tion channels, grow into the adult and marketable size by the

following summer, which may be said to extend from February to

Junein Madras. Fingerlings that come into the tanks are but a

microscopic minority of the year’s progeny. The majority enter the

paddyfields, where they meet premature death, either by being

trapped in ingeniously woven basket cruives, locally known as

Mavulu (Telugu) +, or through destruction by the natural enemies

of the fish like birds, crabs and snakes. A very large number of the

fingerlings also die on account of the drying up of the paddy flats.

The J/avu (pleural—.Wavulu) is placed across the bed of the stream,

any side-flow of the water in the stream being prevented by the

construction of temporary bunds with sand, clay or twigs. These

basket traps are also set up across the sub-channels and at the

drops from the higher to the lower flats. Fry and fingerlings moving:

up and. down the current are entrapped in these fixed ‘engines’

which forma permanent feature of fishing throughout the irrigation

season. To find out trapped fingerlings is the common and exist-

ing practice. But there are several batches of Fishery Surveyors,

working inthe three major rivers in the Presidency, the Godavari,

the Krishna (including the Tungabhadra) and the Cauvery, for locating

the spawning grounds of Cala.

These immature fish are either sold in the market, or consumed

by the men that trap them, ‘These men are mainly either tenants of

the holdings or'their menial servants. 60 to 75 per cent of catches

thus made are Cad/a, but cat-fishes, crabs and prawns are also trapped

in smali quantities. ‘The collectors, though they are none but the

innocent agents oi the destruction of the fish, have singularly mis-

placed sympathies. While destroying the potential fishery in its in-

fancy, they set free the enemies of the fish, like the crabs which

burrow into and damage the bunds of the fields. When trapped in

the baskets along with the carps, the crabs almost always feed upzn,

or injure the carp fingerlings irrecoverably.

For purposes of stocking, collectors proceed to the spot where

these basket-traps are fixed, and select the fingerlings of Catla. They

then transfer the fingerlings in earthen vessels directly to the stock-

ing pond. If intended for transport over a long distance, the finger-

lings are taken in “tins or brass vessels, or earthen pots to the

conditioning pond. In the case of distant transport, it is well known,

that the fish have to be conditioned in specially designed boxes. ‘The

period of this acclimatisation to limited space, and of starvation

varies with the size and health of fish, the bigger and healthier fish

requiring a longer treatment extending to three days, the average

1 Variations i. size and mesh are indicated by ‘the local prefixes to

the word ‘Mavu’. ae

i a

FINGERLINGS: OF: CATLA IN THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 317

. being two days. .Fingerlings of about three inches.in size are best

suited. for transport. Experiments in transporting fry below one

inch and a half in length practically without conditioning, have been,

however, successtul,

.. The following precautions have to ine taken in the conditioning

and transport of Caé/a and other freshwater fish:

»-;, 1. Wire; meshed conditioning boxes, especially those freshly

painted, are best avoided, since the fingerlings often browse on the

sides and suffer. badly. If wire-meshed boxes have to be used it is

best that the boxes with the smallest meshes are used for the sake

of smoothness to the surface, as the bigger the mesh, the greater the

risk of injury to the fingerlings. Close-meshed box-traps of cane,

bamboo, etc. are not only the best, but cheap and more portable.

2. Ponds with a muddy bottom should be avoided, since wading

through by the attendants disturbs the bottom, and imparts suspended

impurities to the whole volume of water, thereby renderiig it un-

wholesome to the fish, as the impurities clog the gill filaments and

produce asphyxiation of the fish. If ponds with muddy bottoms

cannot be avoided, a submerged wooden platform may be provided.

3. Shade is essential on the boxes. A ‘ pandal’ is necessary in

the absence of natural shade.

4. Precautions against sudden changes of physical and chemi-

cal conditions should betaken. The cptimum temperature is 26.5°C.

Temperatures below 26°C. and above 29°C. are fatal to the finger-

lings.

5. On no account should the fingerlings be handled with one’s

bare hands, or friction caused on their bodies. Rough handling re-

moves the slime and scales on the body and makes the fish more

vulnerable to the attacks of fungus and bacteria. Soft hand-nets

alone are to be used.

6. For transport, the use of clear, cool, natural and decanted or

filtered water is strongly recommended. Even siightly brackish

water is harmful to the fingerlings. +

7. Transport operations should be avoided between 10 a.m. and

3 p.m. They should be done before 10 a.m. or after 3 p.m.

8. During transport over long distance, change of water at

least after every hundred miles, or every four hours, is necessary.

Chlorinated drinking water is not recommended.

9. Water taken from other sources, including railway hose-

pipes, taps, etc. Should be allowed to cool and settle down,at least an

hour halon use.

10. Removal of water and replenishing of containers can be done

easily and quickly by gently cilting the tin-carrier to allow the water

to run out. Fresh water should be poured from a. moderate

height through the perforated lid in place. Strong currents led

directly into the tin-carriers disturb and cause shock and even death,

to the fish.

van alee Woollen covers themselves are non-conductors ; yet wetting

them will help the whole process.

12. In railway trains, the tin-carriers are best transported ‘in

the brake- van nearest to the engine, to avoid the risk of violent

jolting. |

318 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 47

13. For the absolute safety of the fish, during transport over

long distances, 50-60 fingerlings may be conveyed in each tin-carrier.

However, an experiment in transporting 130 fry of less than two

inches in length has been successful, even without conditioning. The

tin-carrier has a capacity of 12 gallons, but it should not be filled to

its full capacity. Some air space should be left above the surface of

the water. Ten gallons will be a very convenient volume of water

for the transport of fish without the risk of asphyxiation.

14. The physical conditions existing in the water body which is

intended for stocking the fish have to be identical with those in the

tin. For achieving this end, the water in the carrier should be

gradually replaced by tank water. After allowing some time for the

fingerlings to reconcile themselves to the altered conditions, slowly

dip the carrier in the tank, and remove the lid to allow the fingerlings

to work their way out into the open water. Stocking should be

preferably done in the early hours of the day, when the temperature

of the open body of water is near the optimum temperature of

Xspsyi Ce

15. After a long period of starvation and travel, the fingerlings

are naturally too weak to find their proper sheltered spots in the

new waters. They will be lurking just along the margins until they

get accustomed to the new environment. This is an opportunity

for poachers and birds of prey. The stocking operator will do well

to guard the fingerlings against these enemies for a few hours till

the fry gather sufficient strength to fend themselves.

‘The following is a Note by B. Sundara Raj, Director of

Fisheries, Madras, published in the Service Bulletin No. 5 of the

Madras Fisheries Department.

1 Administration Reports of the Madras Fisheries Department from 1922-23

to 1941-42.

Catla catla

Tamil —7hoppu meen (Salem, Tanjore and Coimbatore Districts),

Telugu—Botcha or Kistna Botcha.

With the exception of the Mahseer found only in hill streams, this is the

largest carpin India. It attains a maximum length of 6 feet and a weight of

140 lb. In the Madras Presidency it was found originally in rivers and tanks

north of the Kistra river. Since the construction of the Cuddapah-Kurnool

canal, it has found its way into the Pennar river and the tanks of the Pennar

system in the Cuddapah and Nellore districts. The Fisheries Department has

been endeavouring to permanently establish this fishin the tanks and rivers of

South India by annually stocking suitable reservoirs and rivers with finger-

lings from the Godavari. After nine years of stocking, the fish have established

themselves in the Mopad reservoir in the Neilore district and there are signs

that they are now breeding inthe Mettur reservoir and the Cauvery system.

Catla is a hardy fish, which, when young, stands transport well over long

distances by railor road. With a little care young Catla of 2to5 inches can

be transported to any distance without unduecasualty. ‘Though somewhat bony

it is an esteemed food fish when not exceeding 2 feet in length; larger fish are

coarse. ‘hough believed to live both in fresh and slightly brackish water, the

growth in brackish water is stunted and very poor. It breeds during the south-

west monsoon in rivers and will not breed in small poads or tanks. Fry for

stocking are, therefore, collected from rivers. It is easily the most rapidly

FRESH WATER FISHES OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE ISLANDS 319

growing fresh water fish in India. For record growth they must be reared in

weedy ponds with abundant fresh water snails; the water, as stated above,

must remain absolutely fresh throughout the year for best results. Being a

rapid grower it is specially recommended for ponds or wells which do not hold

a perennial supply of water. From experinents it is found that young fish

measuring 3 inch to 1 inch attains on an average a length of 1 foot in 6 months

and 18 inches to 2 feet in the first year in ponds and wells. In large reservoirs

with perennial water, it attains 3 feet to 3} feet in length and 30 to 40 lb. in

weight in 23 to 3 years.

NOTE ON FRESH WATER FISHES OF BOMBAY AND

SALSETTE ISLANDS!

Dr. C. V. KULKARNI, B.A. (HONS.), M.Sc., Ph.D.,

Suberintendent of Fisheries (Lnland), Bombay.

(Communicated by Dr. S. .B. SETNA, M.S¢., Ph.D., F.R.M.5., F.N.I.)

(1 photo and 4 text-figures)

Scarcely any account exists at present of the fresh water fish

fauna either of Bombay or of its adjoining island on the north-west,

known as Salsette. Even the official gazetteer for this area (Thana

District) contains no record of the fresh water fish life of the islands

of either Bombay or Salsette. Day, in his Frshes of Jndia, refers to

Bombay as the habitat of only a small number of fresh water species

but no record is available of the presence in or round about Bombay

of some of the fishes which are stated by him to occur there.

Fowler’s ‘ Notes on Fishes from Bombay’? describe only the marine

forms, whereas Spence and Prater in ‘Game Fishes of Bombay

Presidency, etc. ’,3 deal only with such fresh water forms as are suita-

ble for angling. Scientific investigators desirous of knowing the entire

fish fauna of this area for either commercial or study purposes, are

thus often disappointed.

Further, it is necessary to record some of the important, varieties

which have been introduced from outside in this area and which,

although exotic, now form a part of the local fish fauna. Such a

record is undoubtedly essential to understand the natural distribution

1] am grateful to Dr. S. B. Setna, Director of Fisheries, ‘Bombay, for

his constant encouragement and guidance in the compilation of this paper.

2 JIB N.HA.S., 31, (1926), pp.770-79 and Vol. 32 (1927), pp. 254-63.

9 J.B.N.A.S., Vol. 36 (1932), pp. 29-66.

320 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

of fish in this locality.. The purpose of the present paper is

therefore, to furnish an up-to-date list of the fresh water fish occurring

around Bembay and to provide a short account of the varieties

introduced from outside.

The geographical position of Bombay and Salsette is sufficiently

well known to need further description. Satsette Island, which was

formerly apart from Bombay, is now connected with the island of

Bombay by causeways and the two are now separated from the

mainland of India only by the Bassein creek in the north and the

Thana creek in the east, both creeks being formed by the bifurcation

of Ulhas river to join the Arabian Sea. In the north eastern part of

Salsette lies a range of small hills where are situated the sources of

such smaJ] streams as Borivli (Dahisar nala) and Vehar (Gopar river)

nalas flowing towards the west and south respectively.

Till the middle of the last century Salsette Island had very few

perennial] reservoirs except scattered. ponds.in villages and pools in

the beds of the two atoresaid streams. The completion of the

Bombay Municipality’s water schemes resulted in the formation of

the Vehar lake in 1858 and the Tulsi lake in 1879 the nucleus of the

water in the catchment areas being furnished by the impounding of

the aforesaid streams.

The Powai lake was Completed in 1891 and a smaller lake named

Pokharan, near Thana, was completed in 1880. ‘These lakes form,

therefore, the main habitat of whatever fresh water fish is available

around Bombay. ‘The overflow from Vehar and Powai pours into

the bed of the Vehar nala and thus distributes the aquatic life of the

lakes to places outside the catchment regions, finally discharging

into the sea through the Mahim creek. Tne water below the Tulsi

lake, winding its way at the foot of the hills containing the Kanheri

caves and gathering additional volume from streams in other hills,

forms the Borivli stream, which running via Borivli and Dahisar

empties itself into the Arabian Sea.

The Vehar and Tulsi lakes are reserved for the supply of drinking

water to the city of Bombay and the Pokharan lake to the town of

Thana. Water from the Powai lake having been pronounced

undrinkable is stagnant throughout the year and the lake is partially

open for fishing. The volume of water inthe Borivli and Vehar nalas,

including a few scattered tanks, is not perennial. Thus, only the

Powai lake is the sole habitat of fresh water fish life in this area.

The Powai lake, which is about 17 miles to the north-east of

Bombay, was constructed out of a small valley by the erection of a

masonry dam across two hillocks. It is approximately 370 acres in

area. The banks of the lake are covered with jungle vegetation, and

its bed is made up of loamy soil and interspersed with a few rocks and

old submerged stems of trees. During the monsoon, the volume of

water increases considerably, the lake being fed by small streams

rushing down the adjoining hill region extending over about

17,000 acres. The maximum depth of the Jake is about 40 ft. The

annual rainfall in the region of the lake is about 100 inches, and the

lake overflows for about 69 to 70 days during the monsoon.

Fish of Powat Lake.—A vital factor to be borne in mind in the

compilation of a list of the fishes-in the Powai area and the adjacent

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Three year growth of Catla (extreme left in hand) and Rohu (remaining three)

fattened in the Bandra pond.

‘

Siti an

ie or

<4 We Bee keae

AU Bs

FRESH WATER FISHES OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE ISLANDS 321

region is that all of them are not indigenous. The Fisheries

Department of the Province has introduced into the lake, at the

request of the Bombay Presidency Angling Association, several

varieties, including estuarine fish as well as exotic fresh water forms.

The indigenous fish recorded from the lake are as follows :—

Scientific name. Local name.

Khaul Masa.

11. Barbus (Puntius) sarana (Ham.)

Sava maca.

Barbus (Puntius chrysopoma (C. V.) eae

be <, amphibius (Cuv. V.) pen Kehna te

3. 43 vittatus Day

4, Labeo ariza (Buch) ... Kavdasha.

5. kasbora damconius (Ham.) Kadavali or Dandavan.

6. Danio malabaricns (Jerdon) Pidatoli.

7. Chela clupeoides (Bloch.) Salpe.

8: Garra mullya (Sykes) Mulya.

9. Heteropneusteus fossilis (Bloch-) Narshingali.

10. Mystus gulio (Ham.) Shingali or Shingati.

Wik a cavasius (Ham.) Shingali.

12. Nemachilus botia (Nom.) Murra or Muri.

13. Lepidocephalichthys thermalis (C. V.) Ba 3

1 Aplocheilus lineatus (C. V.) Piku or Taragya.

15. Macropadus cupauus (C. V°) Choti Khajuri.

16. Anabas testudineus (Bloch.) ... Khajuri.

17. Glossogobius giuris (Ham.) ... Kharba.

18. Ophioc phalus gachua (Hain.) a5) Dhol

19. Mastacembalus arm rius (Lacip.) Sau OANA.

Washi or Wadas.

Khajari, Jitada,

Khajuri.

20. Megalops cyprinotides (Brouss.)

91. Lates calcarifer (Bloch.)

Fingerlings of egalops cyprinoides and Lates calcartfer, both of

which are local estuarine fish, have been introduced mainly to meet

anglers’ needs but they are not expected to breed in the lake. The

bulk of the other recorded specimens are of small size, and are thus

of minor commercial importance.

The largest indigenous fishes inthe lake, viz. Barbus sarana or the

Common Olive Carp and the fresh water Gobi, Glossogobius giuris

rarely exceed 10 in. to 12 in.*in length and are the only forms worth-

while commercially.

Glossogobius giurts breeds freely in the weeds along the borders

of the lake, whereas B. sarvana migrates into the adjoining small

streams to spawn during floods in the early stages of the monsoon.

Precisely at this time when the fish must be spared, great numbers

ot them are trapped by fishermen and villagers of the neighbouring

areas. The only redeeming feature of this indiscriminate method of

capture is that the fish are generally caught not when they are

moving up stream but when they are returning from their spawning

grounds after discharge of their reproductory products.

_——

1 Dr. Hora VJ. BN. H. S., Vol. 43, p.-225) considersoB. sarang:‘and

B. chrysopoina as synonymous.

® Spence and Prater (J.B.N.71.S., Vol. 136, p. 48) record. 2B. chrysopoma

as attaining 2 ft. 9in. This is probably a mistake if B. sarana and B. chryso-

poma are synonymous. Besides, the colour of the fins on the body of the fish

should be olive grey and not orange red as depicted by the authors.

322 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, ‘47

The extent of such protection, apart from being fortuitous, is

rather precarious as occasions may arise when floods are of brief

duration and the fish which go upstream have to come downstream

SUR -

Ke) HY Po 9

as Bee Lu

Nalesseiie

Fig. 1 (a) Glossogobius giuris (Ham.); (6) Barbus (Puntius)

i sarana (Ham.)

immediately, and are thus captured before they are able to deposit

their eggs.

The exotic fishes introduced into the lake are as follows:—

1. Catla [Catla catla (Ham.) |

2. Rohu [Ladbeo rohita (Ham.)]

3. Mirgal [Cirrhina mrigala (Ham.) |

4. Calbasu [ Labeo calbasu (Hai. )]

5* Gourami [Osphronemus goramy (Lacep.) ]

Fry of the first four carps were specially imported from Patna

and released in the lake after they had been fattened in a small

pond. The object of their introduction was to determine whether

these important food fishes, which generally breed in large rivers,

would breed in the temporary streams which flow into the lake

during the monsoon.’ .

Fish of Vehar and Borivli Streams.—The fishes in these streams

are, evidently, the same as the indigenous fish in the Powai lake

mentioned above. A. fossilis, O. gachua, A. testudineus and &,

vitaitus, which favour the still waters of ponds, are not common in

FRESH-WATER FISHES OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE ISLANDS 323

streams. On the other hand, /V. botza, Lepidocephalichthys ther-

malis, Danto malabaricus and G. mullya, which are rare in the lakes,

are common in the streams, the difference being due apparently to

the different ecological conditions required by these fish. —

Wallagonia attu, which does not occur in the Vehar stream,

figures but occasionally in the lower reaches of the Borivli stream

below the dam near the Borivli railway lines, having migrated there

from the Ulhas river through the Bassein creek and other small

interconnecting channels during excessive floods.

Through the lower reaches of the two streams innumerable

fingerlings of Weyalops migrate into fresh water puddles during the

monsoon and are thus often stranded there after the rainy season.

Fingerlings of Chanos and Elops migrate similarly, but they are

comparatively fewer in numbers. Fingerlings of Lates, Mug,

fleotvis and Awaous migrate upstream as long as there is a tolerable

admixture of salt and fresh water. The streams thus contain the

following fish in addition to those mentioned as occurring in the

Powai lake :—

Chanos chanos (Forsk.).

Etlops saurus Linn.

Mystus malabaricus (Jerdon),

Eleotris fusca (B. Schn.).

Awaous stamtiuens (Val.).

Wallagonia attu (B. Schn.).

Mugil tade (Forsk.).

NOOO Mr

There are several natural ponds in the suburban area, but, as

stated at the outset, very few of them are perennial to enable the

life they contain to thrive. Improvement of living conditions in the

suburban district and the provision of a regular supply of tap water

by the municipalities have led to the disuse of such natural ponds as

existed. ‘They are becoming increasingly silted every year. During

the monsoon, fingerlings of most of the fish mentioned above, instinc-

tively migrate into these tanks from streams below the lakes and

inhabit them temporarily. All this fish life is fished out by village

urchins during the hot weather before the ponds are completely dry.

Deeper tanks afford protection to the fish for a slightly longer time

but the fate of these fish is not more assured owing to the uncertainty

of water supply, which fails whenever the rainfall is scanty.

Exotic fish fauna.—Reference has already been made to the

north Indian carps introduced into the Powai Lake. In addition to

these, other useful varieties from outside have also been liberated in

different sheets of water in the suburban district where they did not

exist previously. They are now thoroughly acclimatised to their

new habitat, and may appear to a lay observer as indigenous forms

unless told otherwise. A complete jist of the exotic fishes occur-

ting in the waters of the Bombay suburban district is as under :—

(1) Catla catla (Ham.).

(2) Labeo rohita (Ham.).

(3) Civrhina mrigala {Ham.).

(4) Labeo calbasu (Ham.).

(5) Osphronemus goramy (Lacep.).

(6) Etroplus suratensis (Bloch).

(7) Atroplus maculatus (Bloch).

434 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47

(8) Ophicephalus marvulius (Hain.).

(9) Gambusia affinis (Baird.).

(10) Aplocheilus blochit (Arnold).

The introduction into the Powai Lake of catla, rohu and mrigal

got from Patna has been successful inasniuch as the fish have not

only established themselves ia the lake but also bred there. Experi-

ments on fattening the fish in the Bandra and Kurla tanks have

proved that on an average catla, rohu and mrigal grow to about 5 lb.,

2 lb. and 3 1b. in weight in the first ten months, although maximum

weights in the same period of 8 lb., 3 lb. and 1% lb. respectively have

also been recorded. Growth in the second year is more pronounced,

catla growing to 8-10 lb., rohu to 6-9 Ib. and mrigal to 25-3 1b. In

contrast, the local carp B. savana hardiy grows to 14 Ib. in two years.

These figures clearly establish that catla and rohu are among the

most rapidly growing fresh water fishes in India. This fact has, there-

fore, induced the Fisheries Department, Bombay, to undertake their

stocking in our waters on as large.a scale as possible, so that once

they have bred in profusion, their fingerlings may be used to stock

sheets of water elsewhere in the Province.

The aforesaid carps have thrived successfully in the Powai Lake.

Specimens of rohu and catla weighing up to 42 and 60 lb. respect-

ively have been recorded from the lake, and confirmatory evidence of

rohu breeding in the lake has also been obtained in recent years. The

breeding, however, has been on a small scale.

Gouramt.—Gourami is now sufficiently well known as a valuable

exotic food fish. Its natural habitat is Java whence it was imported

bs . S

p Pies

i SS ose

Fig 2. Osphronemius goramy (Lacep.).

into India. The fish was first brought to Bombay from Madras in

1937 as fingerlings, and since 1940 the fish has been breeding freely

in the Bandra tank. Fingerlings of this fish have been introduced

in Tulsi, Vehar and Powai lakes, where also they have bred in

FRESH-WATER FISHES OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE ISLANDS 325

sufficient numbers. It is herbivorous, feeding mainly on aquatic

weeds, and is capable of breeding in confined waters. Its special

feature is its habit of building a nest under water very much after

the pattern of a bird’s nest, where it deposits its eggs. Both parents

constantly guard the nest to keep away intruders. Its breeding

habits in our waters which have been studied, encourage hopes of its

wider diffusion.

Etroplus suratensis, known as ‘ Pearl spot’ on account of the

beautiful pearl-like spots on its body, is by its nature an estuarine

Fig. 3. EBtroplus suratensis (Bloch).

form capable of rapid acclimatisation in fresh water. The fish is

common along the Madras coast and occurs in our Province in small

numbers at Karwar and Malvan. Fingerlings of this fish have been

imported from Karwar in thousands and introduced into the Mahim-

Kurla creeks. The fish has begun breeding in the creeks where it

has established itself. It is a herbivorous form like the Goarami and

though it does not exceed a foot in length it is a good table fish. The

fingerlings are suitable for stocking wells and ponds. ‘The fish has

also bred in some temple tanks and wells in the suburbs.

Etroplus maculatus.—This is another species of the genus

Etroplus, which has. been imported from the Sukesula farm in Madras

Presidency. It isa small fish growing to about 3 in. in length, but

is, nonetheless, a prolific breeder. It has already established itself

in the Bandra creek and it figures regularly in the catches of the

fishermen. This fish, like its congener, thrives admirably in fresh

water ponds and wells. It is an attractive aquarium fish and is known

among fish fanciers as ‘ Brown Chromide’. It breeds in even the

natrow confines of a household aquarium and is exceedingly attractive

in its conjugal colouration.

Murrel (O. marulius), a popular fresh water fish, was not known

in Bombay waters until five years ago. Fingerlings of this fish were

brought from the Moola-Mutha rivers in Poona and introduced into

some tanks. It migrates from pond to pond. Being very tenacious

326 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47

of life and having a tendency to burrow in mud, it is extremely

difficult to eradicate once it is introduced in a sheet of water. Its

introduction in conserved waters is not, however, advisable on BQO Ia

of its carnivorous habits.

Gambusia.—The mosquito fish Gambusta affinis of Amecion

waters was originally imported into Bombay by the Health Depart-

ment of the Bombay Municipality for anti-malarial purpose.. The

Fisheries Department has introduced the fish in some of the tanks

in the suburbs for larvicidal purposes. ‘The fish breeds abundantly

in these tanks and no surprise will be felt if in time to come it

spreads to fresh sheets of water and becomes more extensively

distributed.

Ablochetlus blochit.—This species is smaller than the local

A bplocheilus lineatus. Jt is, however, a more prolific breeder than

A. lineatus and is an effective larvicide in small stagnant sheets of

water. The males have attractive colouration and are suitable for

aquaria. ‘The fish was imported from Prantij in Ahmedabad district,

and was bred in atank in the Bombay suburban district. Large

numbers of this fish have been transplanted into Powai Lake, where it

is bound to work havoc among mosquito larvae in the lake. |

It will thus be seen from the foregoing account that the introduc-

tion of the several varieties of fish which are of considerable economic

importance, has made a substantial addition to the fish fauna of our

area. Besides, a large number of the imported carps and Gourami

have been introduced in the Ulhas river and other perennial reservoirs

in the Province, where they are expected to breed and establish

themselves. Although the value of these stocking operations is

unassessable in monetary terms, their significance from the point of

view of addition of fresh fauna to our waters, and potential tood

supply to our people is nevertheless great.

EXTENT OF DAMAGE BY THE MOTH

DICHOCROCIS PUNCTIFERALIS Fb.

TO THREE STRAINS OF THE CASTOR PLANT.

A. C. Basu

Govt. Agricultural Research Laboratory, Tejgaon, Dacca.

The castor plant now plays an important role in the supply of

oil. The oils derived from the castor seeds are used in medicines,

lubricant purposes and also for the preservation of leather; but

great loss is caused due to destruction of the plant by attack of

insects. In view of the economic importance of the castor plant it is

essential to focus our attention on the improved cultivation and pre-

servation of the plants..

DAMAGE TO CASTOR PLANT BY DICHOCROCIS PUNCTIFERALIS 327

The insect pest which causes havoc to the castor plant in Bengal

is Dichocrocis punctiferalis Fb. (Pyralidae, Lepidoptera). The larva

of this moth bores into the main stem and also attacks the side

shoots at the nodes. In addition, it attacks the ripening fruit or the

seed capsule by boring into them. The site of attack is easily spot-

ted owing to the presence of the dark brown excreta oozing out from

the pierced holes and also it is prominently indicated by the feltlike

web covering the infested shoot and seed capsule.

So far, agriculturists are of opinion that the control of

D, punctiferalis by cultural methods is not worthwhile as the expense

of labour is not compensated for by plants saved. ‘The task of con-

trolling this pest is not easy. This pest being a borer the application

of any insecticides is not very effective. Cultural methods, though

expensive and troublesome, offer a chance of eradicating the pest.

So it is felt that the most economical and best remedy against insects

attacking crops is the production, where possible, of resistant types.

Although itis definite that the insects are plastic in their food selections,

still there are quite authoritative indications that resistance to attacks

of insects is also an inherited plant character.

In the present paper attempts have therefore been made to ex-

plore what food preference D. punctiferalis has got on the three

Strains, viz. RC. 215, EB. 31 and BB.16 of castor plants and

whether it is possible to find out the susceptible type.

EXPERIMENTAL METHODS AND OBSERVATIONS

The experiment was conducted with three strains of castor, viz., RC. 215,

EB. 31 and EB. 16 which were replicated eight times in randomised blocks.

Bach strain was represented in a block by one line measuriny 96 ft. Seeds were

sown with a spacing of 3 ft. in lines which were 4 ft. apart. In order to study

the differences between the strains with regard to the extent of damage by

D. puncitferalis, counts were taken prior to the harvest of the total number of

plants in a line as well as of the number of those attacked. The percentages of

the plants attacked were calculated for all the three treatments in different

blocks (wzde Table I.) and the data were analysed statistically,

TABLE I.

Table showing the percentage of attack noted in each block of the three

different strains.

| |

Replications | EB, 31 | EB, 16 RC. 215.

I 39 39 Ge Ae AAS

8 55.48 16S to ZBI I B29

TIL 38.46 DD Neo BIG |hv ove ial akg

IV emer ciara: ate 679) tem ee GOL 52seten eer O74

V [ 26.92 22.35 tale.) 57.6914) 9 0116.96

Wil ay nt em 30.76 57.14. |. 116.46

VII el DEPT DBS LOI SO ol aa

VIII | - 26°66 24.13 34.48 85.27

Sea A | |

|. . 262,61 |. 203.24 .| . 402.24. | g6si09

| : 3

¢ ;

328 JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

The table of analysis of variance is given below :—

Due to DLE. 5.8. M.S. F.

Replication oe 7 443.61 aie

om 1304.63 enc

Variety ni 2 2609.27 cise 13.694

, any 95.27 os

Error hat 14 1333.91 Bae

Total Soa Shs 248) 4386.79 Significance—1%

S.E= 9.5%

Total S.D=113.15%

CONCLUSION

RC215 nia 44402224

ID Bbc Lees A DAD.All

DEY. ons oe AOE DE

It is clear from the above that RC. 215 suffers most from the attack of

D. punctiferalis, of the other two strains, EB. 16 seems less susceptible, although

the difference between the two is not statistically significant.

The percentages of attack noted in each block of the three different strains

has been represented graphically to give a clear idea as to the susceptibility of

the strains to the attack of D. punctiferalis,

R.C.215 ————— | E.B, 32 ——-O—-0—0— : B.B 16 cccoes eave

GRAPH

Graph, Showing the extent of Attack noted in each block of the three diff-

erent strains.

THE LAC INSECT. OF THE WEST: COAST OF INDIA 329

In the graph it is quite evident that the strain RC. 215 is most susceptible

to theattack and the strains EB. 31 and EB. 16 are much less so. ‘The percentage

of attack in the last named strain is less than EB. 31 in six blocks out of eight

blocks and therefore be regarded as the most resistant strain.

CONCLUSION.

Amongst the three strains RC. 215, EB. 31 and EB. 16, the last one is most

resistant to the attack of 0. punctiferalis.

THE LAC INSECT OF THE WEST COAST OF INDIA

S. MAHDIHASSAN

(With 2 plates)

Probabiy the earliest observation on the Lac Insect in India has

been made on its West Coast. It is recorded in a Portuguese work,

Dr. Garcia de Orto’s Cvlloguios dos Simples e Drogas e Cousas Medi-

cinaes da India, printed at Goa in 1563. Garcia was physician to

the Governor of Portuguese India and his book is the second that has

been printed in India. In 1567 a Latin translation appeared at

Antwerp in which the translator, C, Clusius, offered three illustrations

of stick lac. Probably Garcia had these illustrations made for his

own book but finding them unable to be reproduced in India then

kept them unused for four years when Clusius undertook to bring

out a Latin edition. These pictures were then copied as wood

engravings and finally printed at Antwerp.

Regarding lac, Garcia observes, “ Here in Goa a boy brought me

a branch of a tree which the Deccanis call the Ber tree (Zizyphus

jujuba).... Because it (the tree) bears little lac they do not value

it (the lac), the soil not being suited to preduce it (lac).’”’ It must

be clearly understood that Garcia was informed of the existence of

lac in Goa on atree which did not give good yields but which, perhaps,

were obtained elsewhere.

The next record seems to be by Carter (1) in 1860. The third

is by Ryan (2) who found it in Konkan, which he describes as,

‘‘a tract of country below the Western Ghats including mainly the

districts of Thana, Kolaba and Ratnagiri’’. Properly speaking, Goa.

also belongs to Konkan. Ryan continues to say, ‘‘ With the exception

of Carter, inside the grounds of the old Bombay Mint, in 1860, no

record exists apparently of its having been discovered elsewhere in

the Konkan. In 1899 I noticed Pipul trees, /zcus religiosa, on the

maidan in Thana and Khair trees in some forests in the Bassein

taluka of the same district bearing lac; but the encrustation on the

trees was sparse. Close to Bassein, which is on the sea-coast, roadside

trees of Pongamia glabra have also teen found bearing lac.”

As far as I know Poxgamia glabra does not bear an infection of

a genuine lac insect. I have been previously told that lac does grow

on this host but on closer examination found the insects to belong to

pseudo-lac insects. The insect most common on P. glabra is Tachardina

Jobata, This distinction between true and pseudo-lac insects was not

330 + JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47

made before 1923-when I published an article on the classification of

lac insects (3).

Ryan’s finding that lac is sparse in Konkan confirms the infor-

mation conveyed by Garcia. When we try and analyse the cause it

would indicate a particular lac insect, which is, however, found wild

all over South India. It would appear that being very commonly

found observations were not recorded as they might appear common-

place and only foreigners like Garcia, Carter and Roxburgh have

done so, for to them lac was an object of intense curiosity. At

least in December 1916 while working in the laboratory of the late

Fr. Blatter, Mr. Charles MacCann kindly showed mea tree, Albiz-

gta lebbek, infected with lac near the Byculla Bridge in the heart

of the city of Bombay. It was likewise found on an avenue tree in

the city of Madras. It occurs in Travancore and Roxburgh,

in 1789, found it at Samulcotta, near Cocanada, on the Coromandel

Coast. The insect recorded by Garcia, Carter and Roxburgh is now

named Lakshadia communis.

As mentioned above, it is usually found sparse, its typical encrus-

tations appearing as chunks particularly in localities where the rain-

fall is early. The explanation given at the end specifies L. com-

munis. Fig. Lhere shows atypical encrustation of LZ. communis, at

the end of the monsoon season. It was found on Ficut bengalensis,

at Bangalore, early in November, when in Bombay the same develop-

ment would beseen early in December. Ficus bengalensis is a

rare tree in Bangalore where the avenue trees are mostly /zcus myso-

vensis. Fig. 2 was derived from this host plant, again at the end of

the monsoon season; the scale shows the magnification, the

smallest units representing millimetres.

When a twig grows vertically the young insects instinctively

settle all around it and the final encrustation grows like a collar ora

cylinder around the stem. When the twig is horizontal, the larvae

settle only on the lower surface. In cases where the twig is inclined,

for example 30 degrees from the vertical line, the inSects on the lower

surface would be far better developed than those on the upper

surface of the twig. This is found in many other scale insects and

even in some aphids. Figs. land 2 were found ontwigs almost

vertically grown, or very little inclined towards the earth.

The illustrations of Garcia show the encrustations were derived

from a horizontal twig and will be dealt with elsewhere. It is —

proposed here to examine the illustrations offered by Roxburgh.

His communication has appeared with four different illustrations,

with very slight modifications, of one and the same original

specimen. His article has appeared inthe following journals :—

1. Asiatic Researches or Transactions of the Society of Bengal, vol. 2, pp.

361-64 (1780). Fig. 3 here is derived from this publication, where it is

Fig. 6.

2. The above was reprinted in London, iu 1807, from which Fig. 4 here has

been derived.

3. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, vol. LXXXI, Part 2, pp.

228-35 (1791) ; from which Fig..5 here has been copied. In the original it

is lig. 1,

4. ‘The above reprinted, also in London, vol. 17, pp, 62-67, unfortunately I do

not know the date from which Fig. 6 has been derived. |

THE LAC INSECT. OF THE WEST COAST OF INDIA 331

5. Philosophical Magazine, vol. 3, pp. 367-69 (1799), also contains an article,

but without any illustration.

The earliest picture, which appeared in 1790, Fig. 3, is an

engraving on copper taken from an original drawing that shows

the encrustation full of wax filaments. In Fig. 3 they arise only

from two holes showing that the third aperture, occupied by the

anal tubercle, is empty, allowing the exit to be used by the swarm-

ing larvae. For details of these apertures the excellent work

of the late Rai Bahadur Misra (4) may be consulted. Fig. 3 is

better executed than Fig.4. Fig.3 shows minimum light and shade

and relatively more details on the incrustation; it gives the impres-

sion of being a careful reproduction of an original drawing which

was probably done by an Indian artist, under Roxburgh’s directions.

When the journal, Aszatic Researches, was reprinted in 1807, a copy

was made, not from the original drawing again, but from the

previous engraving of 1790. The engraver was certainly an artist

trained in European technique with a strong love for light and shade.

The surface of Fig. 4 shows boldly the details which are finely indi-

cated in Fig. 3: In Fig. 4 the stem is shown with avery dark

shadow which is self evident on contrasting Figs. 3 and 4. Even

if we had not known, which -of these two pictures had appeared

earlier, the fine details absent in Fig. 4 would indicate it to be copy

of Fig. 3 which preceded it. When the original illustration, seen as

Fig, 3 here, was being made the young ones were about to swarm

and the exit holes, the black dots, later on so conspicuous in Figs, 5

and 6, were more or less indistinct. It represents a transition period,

whenthe anal tubercle is withdrawn within the lac celland the exterior

of lac encrustation shows the presence of black dots indistinctly.

The stage shown in Fig. 3 does not clearly indicate that swarming

had taken place. Roxburgh sent Fig.3 as here given for publication

in Astatic Researches in 1790.

Very soon after the original picture, seen as Fig. 3 here, was

completed the larval swarming had started and the exit holes

became very prominent and Roxburgh must have asked his Indian

draughtsman to make another picture of the same specimen. This

is shown as an engraving, reproduced here as Fig. 5. In the text

Roxburgh says he received his fresh specimen of stick lac on 20th

November 1789, while minute red insects, the larvae, began, to

Swarm on 4th December. Fig. 3 would show the stage when the

anal tubercle had been withdrawn in ;some cases but the actual

swarming had not begun, while Fig. 5 would show stick lac devoid

of young larvae. Roxburgh sent Fig. 5 here for publication in Phzloso-

phical Transactions, the text remaining the same. The picture -of

Stick lac in Aszatic Researches 1790, has been indicated by him as Fig.

6; the illustration of stick lac published in Philosophical Transactions

printed in 1791 is marked Fig. 1.

Fig. 5 shows the black dots in parallel rows alongthe stem

bearing the encrustation. With each black dot there are two white

spots and these three form a triangular unit. The two white spots

lie in front or above the black dot like the mathematical sign of

‘since’, (."), and unlike that of ‘‘ therefore” (...) where the single

clot lies on the top. It means that in the living insect the two white

332 JOURNAL, “BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vel,_ 47

spots in front show the anterior end of the individual. In Fig. 5 aii the

insects are parallel to each other and the settlement has occurred

across the twig, a most unnatural condition which cannot be confirm-

ed by any of my observations. The picture must have been drawn

rather mechanically and seems of a poor quality. From the white

spots a row of white filaments arise which would be found well ex-

plained in Misra’s Bulletin already referred to. These filaments

again are all pointing in the same direction. I have in Fig. 6 a por-

tion of Fig. 5 enlarged to show the black dots (one marked with an

arrow) the exits of the young larvae, and above them two white

spots (also marked) from where the white wax threads arise. The

entire picture, Fig. 5, is a mechanical repetition of the same pattern.

Fig. 7 is derived from a reissue of Philosophical Transactions.

It is a copy of Fig. 5 here and we can see that it is a copy not

from the original drawing but from the engraving, Fig. 5. The

artist has again tried to introduce more shade by virtue of his train-

ing particularly on the cut surface of the twig. However, details

are not so well seen in Fig. 7 as in Fig. 5, the usual fate with all

copies.

All that now remains to be ans is the reason why lac

is found in chunks and why trees fully infected with lac are rare and

why, on the basis of such observations, soil and climate have been

held responsible for the poor production of lac. Lakshadia commu nts,

of all lac insects, shows a great variation in sex ratio. Mother

insects feeding on trees well watered, as during the monsoons, give

rise to Many young ones: but the generation may consist of 100 per

cent males. The colony naturally dies atonce and the species

itself is able to continue when a few male insects happen to change

their sex. The next generation naturally consists of a very few

surviving individuals. Such a species cannot be used for artificial

propagation. From the individuals that have reversed their sex the

young ones that swarm show the natural preponderance of females.

Hence encrustations of lac can be collected only during the

monsoon, and asa colony of insects born of a single mother cell.

The male larvae that have developed bisexuality become morpholo-

gically curious objects. I have called them crown-shaped cells on

account of their peculiar shape ; the normal lac cell is a round, spheri-

cal object. A crown-shaped cell has been described as a new species

of lac insects by Chamberlin (5) as has often happened in cases

where systematists have not taken into consideration the biology of

the insects they were studying. ‘I‘his phenomenon of sex reversal

has been previously (6) illustrated incorporating some of Roxburgh’s

drawings and the interested reader is referred to it. It only needs

emphasising that the species ZL. commeunts shows this phenomenon to

the utmost degree; itis the only wild insect in India. The next

worst species is the lac insect of Sindh, /.akshadia sindica, which

yields only one crop a year, at the end of the monsoon season.

SUMMARY

All over South India a wild lac insect ‘is found, Lakshadia

communis. At the end of the monsoon season mother insects feed on

well watered trees. The next generation in such cases gives rise to

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

WEAVE

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

av.

WERE

ore

sine

THE LAC INSECT OF THE WEST COAST OF INDIA 333

males. A fewchange their sex and these rare individuals become mothers

of a normal genezation which forms encrustations seen as chunks at the

end of the monsoon season. While the complicated biology was not

known observations correctly made were attributed to’an inclement

soil and climate for the poverty of lac wherever it was concerned

with Z. communis, Garcia in 1563, Carter in 1860 and Ryan in 1899

found this species on the West Coast of Bombay; Roxburgh alsa

found it on the Coromandel Coast in 1789. Their observations support

one another since they refer to the same insect species. Roxburgh’s

illustrations have been critically studied for the first time since their

publication.

REFERENCES

1. H.J. Carter: ‘On the Natural History of the Lac Insect,’ dun. and Mag.

of Nat, Hist. (1861), Vol. VII, pp. 1-11.

2. G.M.Ryan: ‘ Lac in Guzerat and the Konkan,’ he Ind. Forester (1903),

Vol. XXIX, pp. 153-55.

3. §. Mahdihassan: ‘Classification of Lac Insects from a Physiological Stand-

point,’ J. Sez. Assoc. Maharaja’s Col., Vizianagram, (1923), Vol.1, pp.

47-99; specially on p. 95 the difference between the two kinds of lae insects

is given.

4, C.S. Misra: ‘ The Cultivation of Lac in the Plains of India,’ Agr. Res. Znst.,

Pusa; Bull. No. 142; (1923). Plate VIII, Fig. 14. Three spots, two white

with wax filaments, and one dark spot are illustrated, comparable with what

is seen in Fig. 6 here.

5. J.C. Chamberlin ; ‘Supplement to a Monograph of Lac Insects,’ Bull. Ent.

Res. (1925), Vol. XVI, p. 35, Fig. 1. His L.rangoonensis is a crown-shaped

cell of my Lakshadia chinensis, from Burma, which has been considered

as identical with other lac insects by him.

6. S. Mahdihassan: ‘Sexual dimorphism among Lac Insects’, V// Intern,

Kongress f. Ento. Berlin (1938), Vol. II, pp. 1232-39.

EXPLANATION OF FIGURES.

Fig. 1. Lakshadia communis forming a typical small encrustation on Ficus

bengalensis, monsoon season, Bangalore ; somewhat reduced.

Fig. 2. Lakshadia communis encrustation on Ficus mysorensis, monsoon

season, Bangalore ; scale gives millimetres.

Fig. 3. Lakshadia communis, on Dichrostachys cinerea, found on the Coro-

mandel coast, by Roxburgh, on 20th Nov. 1789 ; the young larvae are about

toswarm. ‘The original engraving appears in Astatic Researches, 1790, as

Fig. 6. Object seen less than its natural size.

Fig. 4. Same as Fig. 3, original in Aszatic Researches as reprinted in 1807.

Fig.5. Lakshadia communis, on Dichrostachys cinera, from adrawing probably

made on 4th Dec. 1789, for exit holes, through which the larval swarming had

occurred, are clearly seen. Original in Roxburgh’s article in Phil. Trans.,

1791, as Fig. 1. Magnification 11: 10.

Fig. 6. Portion of Fig. 5 enlarged to show three dots arranged triangularly, two

white dots above the third dark spot show the direction 1n which the insects

settled.

Fig.7. Same as Fig.6froma reprint of Phil. Trans. in 1791. Magnification

natural size.

VARIATION IN THE FLOWERS OF QUISQUALIS INDICA

LINN. (ORDER COMBRETACEAE)

G. A. KAPADIA,

Bakauddin College, Junagadh.

The normal flower of Ouzsgualis indica Linn. has five teethed

tubular calyx, five ovate oblong corolla, ten episepalous

stamens and an ovate oblong unilocular ovary. But amongst the

material supplied to students for the practical work it was observed

on several occasions that in some flowers there was variation in the

floral parts. In all 1,550 lowers were examined to study variation

in the floral parts. Out of the 1550 flowers examined, 29 flowers 2.c.

1:87 per cent showed variation in the number of calyx teeth, corolla

and stamens. Ovary was normal in ail cases except in the case of

fasciated flowers which had bilocular ovary. Details of these are

given below in Table I.

TABLE I.

boa priarcwress No. of |

Serial | No. of Ie No.of No. of

' No. | flowers aoe corolla | stamens Nme Ns

1 1 3 6 10 one sepal petaloid

2 2 4 5 10 in one flower 4 sepal petaloid

3 1 5 4 19

4 1 PS) 6 2 one petal is divided into two

5 1 5 7a O10

6 1 6 See ee one sepal petaloid

7 if 6 So I Flo. -al@ do.

8 ] 6 6 10

9 1 6 6 11

1¢ a waline (6 6 12.5 | :

11 oe Keel 6 6 13. __— in one flower two sepals petaloid

12 1 7 5 14 __—_ two sepals petaloid

13 jeer 8 16 | |

14 2 0m 9 9 18 | only one flower fasciated> _

15 1 11 11 20 | flower fasciated

Out of these 29 flowers, 7 showed distinct relation in the number

of the calyx teeth, corolla and stamens; 13 showed relation in. the

number of calyx teeth and corolla; 3 showed relation in the number

of calyx teeth and stamens; 4 showed relation in the number of

corolla and stamens; 1 showed no relation in the number of the

calyx teeth, corolla and stamen, and in one flower the number of

corolla was double the number of calyx teeth.

The number of calyx teeth, petals, and stamens in the flowers ex-

amined are given in Tables II, [II and IV.

VARIATION IN FLOWERS OF QUISQUALIS INDICA ‘LINN. 335

. TABLE JI

No. of pity Percentage

flower rast .

leek ¢ 5 cH The number of calyx teeth vary

i 3 "0645 from 3 to 9. The most frequent num-

2 4 SAAS) ber of calyx teeth is 5. The frequency

1524 5 98:398 of flowers with 6 calyx teeth is very

18 6 1161 rare while those with 3,4,7,8,9 and 1]

rae 7 0645 is very, very rare. Not a single flower

i 8 0645 had 10 calyx teeth.

2 9 °129

1 11 0645

LeU

The number of petals vary from 4 to

9, The most frequent number of petals

is 5. The frequency of flowers with 6

petals is very rare, while that of those

with 4,7,8,9 and llis very, very rare.

Like the number of calyx teeth not one

flower had 10 petals.

No. of | No. of Percentage

flowers | petals

1 4 °0645

1526 ©) 98°527

18 6 1161

1 7 0645

i 8 "0645

2 9 129

1 11 0645

No. of |No. of | Percentage

flowers stamezs

1536 10 99: 072

2 1I . °129

5 12 "322

2 13 "129

1 14 "0645

1 16 0645

2 18 °129

1 20 "0645

The number of stamens vary frem

10 to. 14. The most frequent number

of stamens is 10. The frequency of flow-

ers with 11,12, 13, 14, 16, 18 and 20

stamens is very rare. Not a single

flower had 15, 17 or 19 stamens.

Correlation of the number of corolla and the calyx teeth in the

same flower is shown in Table

TABLE V

. OF COROLLA

No. of st aeeale be a ie abcess 2 Sn a

Calyx TiVfnes | ees Vine nV | VIE, VILL, TXen| \ XL Ore

teeth

I ies Tee CEES EEE) | ee 1

1V 95:2) Wo =Shelgiaya| See mee 2

an de Ma TF pl bse ibaa 1,524

VI £0 | 2 16 — | — — — | 18

VII a isi fs 3p deal pe—n ene i el 1

VIII Spe ee Oe ei ye Wey 2O~* rods 1

Ix aoa ey oa = = = 2 ents 2

XI SES a SER a EL ea ie 1 1

ae = _ Ss ——_—— | aes ieneennenmmieenntinet

Toe jd HAS AG | 9 et 1 | 2 | 1 | syst

336 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47

Correlation of the number of stamens andcalyx teeth in the same

flower is shown in Table VI.

TABLE VI

No. of | No. OF STAMENS

ealyxinpai| oan pee a oe —neneneennne | TOTAL

teeth X | XI | XU | XI XIV | XVI XVI XX

Ill rh ge sarce ea ie cries Sea ie Et) be le 1

IV ee aprearel RR a ees hss col ae ete eV e 2

V 1523 a ee ee, eee nl an een eco

VI 10| 2 Pegs pea ena, ee ees ey 18

VU SSS ee ee 1

VIII wn Bile lees: | ye Pale oe ee 1

IX —}|/—-}—-}—}-|,= ig oe 2

XI a a a i ae 1 1

Total {1,536 | 2 | 5 | 2 a 1 | 2 | 1 | 1,550

Correlation of the number of stamens and corolla in the same

flower is shown in Table VII.

TABLE VII

No. oF STAMENS

oe | ; Cee ee en eer | OPAL

kp se |) St pot | ca | XVI ‘XVI XX

IV nea PN PY» esc oS 1

Vv 1,524 |) 1) | Ses gahaeal) Be enemies,

VI pe ages Wee eee oe ee SIR SE eS 18

VII i | — — ~ = | = am wa 1

VIN 2eco}te 1) ecait—tt| Pa ee 1

IX | — — — aoe - ) — 2 ef 2

TEXT = || = = a | oa = = | 1 1

Total |1,536| 2 ! 5 | RUST | 1 | D edna nrsso

Variation in the floral parts are recorded in Primula by Hill

(1902); in Jasminum malabaricum Wight, by Mann (1920); in Phlox

Drummondit Hook, by Singh and Sinha (1928) ; 22 Mangitera indica

Linn. by Singh (1935); and in Rondeletia odorata Jacq. by Cooper

1937): 3

From the Tables II to IV it is very clear that the 29 flowers

shown in Table I are to be considered as abnormal flowers. Various

types of abnormalities in the flowers of Oudsgualis indica Linn, are

recorded by Rao (1935) and Singh (1926, 1935). Of the 15 different

types of abnormalities given in Table I, some have been already

recorded by Singh (1926, 1935). They are petaloidy. of sepals, fas-

ciation of flowers, hexamerous symmetry of chloresis of petal.

Abnormalities mentioned in this note ditfer from those already

recorded in: (1) the unequal number of sepals, petals and stamens ;

(2) larger number of petaloid sepals than one; (3) octamerous

flowers ; (4) absence of decamerous fasciated flowers; and (5) 20 sta-

mens instead of 22 stamens, in a fasciated flower with 11 calyx-teeth

and petals

NOTES ON THE CONVOLVULACEAE OF BOMBAY 337

SUMMARY.

In all, 1,550 flowers of Quisqgualis indica Linn. were examined to study

variation in the floral .parts. 29 flowers, z. e., 1.87% showed variation in the

number of calyx-teeth, petals and stamens. Ovary was normal in all cases

except in the case of a fasciated flower, in which it was bilocular. ‘These 29

flowers showed 15 different types of abnormalities. Only those not recorded

heretofore are recorded in this note.

LITERATURE CITED.

Cooper, R. E., ‘‘On the Variability of the floral parts of Rondeletiza odorata

Jacq.’’? Jour., Ind. Bot. Soc., Vol. XVI, p. 171 (1937).

Hill, T.G. ‘‘On variation in the flowerof Primula’’, Ann. Bot., Vol.

XVI, p. 317 (1902).

Mann, H. H. ‘‘ Variation in the flower of Jasminum wmalabaricum

Wight.’’ Jour., Linn. Soc.., Vol. XLV, p. 155 (1920).

Rao, V.S. ‘* An Instance of Reversion of Floral parts in Quzsqualis indica

(byban? (Qna7s S¥as5 Olle UL, joe SAIL (OES)

Singh, T.C.N. ‘‘ A Note on Fasciation of Flowers in Quisqualis indica

Winns.” JOU7 Ld BOL. SOC., NiOle Vi, pi. 16y (1926).

Singh. T.C.N. ‘ Noteson the Teratology of certain Indian Plants VIII,”’

Jour., Ind, Bot. Soc., Vol. XIV, p. 313. (1935).

Singh, T. C. N., And Sinha, B. N. ‘*Noteson the Teratology of, certain

Angiosperms.”’ Jour., Ind. Bot. Soc. Vol. VII. (1928).

NOTES ON THE CONVOLVULACEAE OF BOMBAY

H. SANTAPAU, S.J., F.L.S.

Whilst checking the Convolvulaceae of my Khandala collections

with the types at Kew Herbarium, and going through the pertinent

literature on the family, I gathered a fair number of notes that may

very well serve towards the revision of the family at least as far as

Bombay Province is concerned; this I consider the more necessary as

Blatter on account of his untimely death in 1934 could not carry out his

plans of a complete revision of the plants of Bombay. In the hope that

these notes may prove of interest to other botanists in India, I hasten

their publication.

One of the most striking features of the family Convolvulaceae is the

very “fluid” state of the boundaries or limits separating adjoining

genera. ‘This is particularly the case with the genera Merremuia Dennst.,

Convolvulus Linn., Ipomoea Linn., Argyreia Lour., Letisomia Roxb.,

Calonyction Choisy, etc. In point of fact, the arrangement of many of

these genera in Kew Herbarium obviates the difficulty by grouping

together such genera as Ipomoea, Operculina, Calonyction, Antseia, etc.

under the genus [pomoea. ‘(he difficulties in separating the genera are

such that some of the Kew botanists, seriously or otherwise, have sug-

gested as a practical working idea the grouping together of most of the

Convolvulaceae under Ipomoea and Convolvulus, as Linn. did in his

Species Plantarum. It is interesting to note that Bentham and Hooker

in Gen. Plant. have fused Calonyction, Quamocht, Operculina, Aniseia,

Batatas and Ipomoea proper under the genus [pomoea.

From the point of view of the practical systematist, the result of this

confusion is that there is scarcely a genus of the Indian Convolvulaceae

338 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47

that has not been placed at one time or another under a number of different

genera. Such a procedure naturally complicates the problems of

nomenclature almost to the limit of endurance for the poor systematist

who attempts to work at the Convolvulaceae. In the following pages,

I have followed the treatment of van Ooststroom, who in recent years

has produced an up-to-date monograph of the family, at least as far as

India and South-East Asia are concerned. For a comprehensive list

of the most important references, the reader is referred to the biblio-

graphy at the end of this paper. For purposes of ready reference and

comparison, I have attempted to follow the same order of genera and

species as Cooke in his Flora ; it is not my intention nor my claim to have

produced a complete revision of the family, as I have left out almost

entirely such plants as are found to occur exclusively in Sind, since both

politically and ecologically Sind can scarcely be called a part of the

Province of Bombay.

To give a complete list of synonyms is beyond the scope of this

paper, and would take too much unnecessary space ; all those synonyms,

however, are given which in any way affect the present name of the plant.

References are also given to the most important books or papers on each

subject, and among such important books, I include those especially

written on the plants of Bombay. As far as possible I kave also tried to

give a reference to Gamble’s Flora of the Presidency of Madras, for al-

though this is not the latest, in my opinion it is the most critical of Indian

Floras ; as a proof of the careful study with which Gamble prepared his

Flora one has but to examine the Madras sheets in Kew Herbarium,

many of which show detailed dissections or diagrams or both made by

Gamble whilst preparing his book. Merrill’s Enumeration of Philippine

Flowering Plants and other works by the same author are also quoted on

numerous occasions, on account of the importance of Merrill’s critical

studies on the subject of plant nomenclature. In every case I have

checked the references given and have satisfied myself of their accuracy.

Finally I have tried to give a reference to a good illustration of the plant

in question, those books being preferably quoted which are more easily

available to Indian students.

It will not be out of place in conclusion to insert here a few sentences

with which Choisy concludes the introduction to the Convolvulaceae

in DC. Prodr. 9: 324, 1845: ““A most unhappily intricate order as

regards the distinction of genera and the synonymy of the species...

In consequence we exhort and pray the diligent reader not to give up the

work of revising his Convolvulaceae, and in particular not to cut the

Gordian knot easily by creating new species and proposing new names

which may render the already obscure synonymy even more obscure ;

moreover, if he does not find his plant among the I[pomoeas, to look

for it among the Argyreias or Jacquemontias; perhaps he will be luckier

than ourselves, and may even correct our mistakes.”

2, CUSCUTA Linn.

Corolla twice as long as the calyx or longer.......... C. reflexa.

Corolla less than twice as long as the calyx :

Scales at the base of corolla tube O10. 0. C. hyalina.

Scales at base of corolla tube present and fimbri-

ate niin ooer . Seen. wees BIG ee tt STS C. chinensis.

- NOTES ON THE CONVOLVULACEAE OF BOMBAY 339

Cuscuta reflexa Roxb., Pl. Cor. 2 : 3, t. 104, 1798; Fl. Ind. 1: 446,

1832; Clarke, 225 ; Graham, 134; Choisy, in Mem. Soc. Phys.

Hist. Nat. Geneve, 9: 273, 1841; Englemann, 518; Bot. Mag.

37:1 t. 6566, 1881 ; Cooke, 224; Hall. f. in Engler, Bot. Jahrb.

49 : 375, 1813; Yuncker, 259, f. 130, A-F; van Ooststroom, in

Blumea 3 : 70-72, 1938 (non Decaisne).

The main difference between this Cuscuia and the following species,

according to Yuncker, is in the length of the corolla tube, which in C, re-

jflexa is about three times as long as the calyx, whilst in the other two

species it is scarcely longer than the calyx.

Cuscuta hyalina Roth, Nov. Pl. Sp. 100, 1821 ; Clarke, 226 ; Choisy,

286; Englemann, 490; Cooke, 225; Yuncker, 235, f. 107 A-D.

(non Wight, nec Boiss.).

Cuscuta arabica Wight, Icon. t. 1371, 1850 (non Fresen.).

Cuscuta Boissieri Stocks, in Hook. Journ. Bot. 4: 173, 1852.

Cuscuta chinensis Lamk. in Encycl. Meth. 2: 229, 1786; Clarke,

226; Choisy, 279; Wight, Icon. t. 1373; Englemann, 479;

Cooke, 225; Yuncker, 209, f. 80 A-G.

Cuscuta sulcata Roxb., Hort. Beng. 12, 1814; Fl. Ind. 1: 477,

1820 (non Wall.).

Cuscuta hyalina Wight, Icon. t. 1372; Hlustr. 2: t. 168, f. 12,

1850 (non Roth).

2. ERYCIBE Roxb.

Following Gamble, I have separated the variety wightiana Clarke

and restored it to specific rank. The differences between the two species

are given in the following key adapted from Gamble, Flor. Pres., Madr.

P- 930;

Corolla yellowish, leaves elliptic-oblong or obovate,

abruptly and sharply acuminate ; base attenuate,

up to 12.5 cms. long, 5 cms. broad, the petiole

8-13 mm. long; cymes axillary or in terminal

panicles; berry 13 mm. long, ellipsoid........ 1. E. paniculata.

Corolla white ; leaves elliptic or obovate, sometimes

almost orbicular, sometimes even lanceolate, ab-

ruptly and usually obtusely acuminate, base cune-

ate or rounded, up to 10.2 cms. long, 5 cms. broad,

the petioles 6.5 mm. long, cymes axillary and

elongate or in terminal panicles ; berry 13 mm. eet

longe OVOIdS yee SEEN. PAR as sgh eee 2. E. wightiana.

Erycibe paniculata Rosh, Pl. Cor. 2: 31, t..159, 1798; Clarke,

180; Graham, 137; Dalz. and Gibs. 169 ;. Wight, Illust. t. 180;

Peter, 21, f. 10 E-F ; Cooke, 225.

Erycibe wightiana Graham, 137 ;

BS FRgg MIO er Germans, ORer | ;

Erycibe paniculata var. wightiana Clarke, in Hook. f. F j, Brit. Ind.

AP Lol L883); COOKE, 220

fall. f. in Bull. Herb. Boiss.

3.. PORANA Burm.

Merrill in his Enum. Phil. Fl. Pl. 3 : 358, 1923 and elsewhere, spells

the generic name as Porania; van Ooststroom in his mongraph and all

340 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47

other authors consulted spell it as Porana ; Burmann in his Flora Indica

51, t. 21, f. 1, spells it also as Porana. I have failed to find the reason

for Merrill’s departure f from the accepted spelling.

Calyx much enlarged in fruit....... na facrene toltene tse P. malabarica.

Calyx not or scarcely enlarged in fruit. ...7..02.%.4:. P. paniculata.

Porana malabarica Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 223, 1883 ;

Peter, (24, tri Ges Cooke e227

Porana racemosa Graham, 133 ; Dalz. and Gibs. 162 (non Roxb.).

Porana paniculata Roxb., Pl. Cor. 3: 31, t. 235, 1819 ; Clarke, 222 ;

Choisy, 6: 189, 1833 ; Cooke, 227; van Ooststroom in Blumea

3: 93, 1935.

4. NEUROPELTIS Wall.

Van Ooststroom in Blumea, 5: 268-73, 1942, has placed the plants.

of Western India under a new specific name, the plants being quite

distinct from N. racemosa Wall. ‘The following key is based on that

of van Ooststroom and is given here as a help to distinguish the two

species of Neuropeltis ; N. racemosa Wall. does not occur in the western.

parts of India.

Corolla tube inside hairy at the base of the filaments.

Styles as long as or shorter than the breadth of the

stigma. ‘Tenasserim, N. W. part of the Malay

Peninsulaint t-P ex hte Ok APs, MEIER. Seis N. racemosa Wall.

Corolla tube inside glabrous at the base of the fila-

ments. Styles much longer than the breadth of

the stigma. British India (Deccan Peninsula). .N.malabarica Oostst.

Neuropelitis malabarica van Ooststroom in Blumea loc. cit.

Neuropeltis racemosa auct. plur. (non Wall.)

For a description of the plant, see van Ooststroom, loc. cit. ‘This

new species is quite clearly different from N. racemosa Wall. ; the styles

are only about as long as or even shorter than the width of the stigma, the

whole of style and stigma being very short and included in the lower part

of the corolla, the filaments are hairy at the base with a conspicuous

tuft of hairs; whilst in N. racemosa Wall. the long style makes the

stigma almost exserted, or at least forces it up to nearly the top of the

corolla, the filaments being quite glabrous at the base.

5. CRESSA Linn.

A common and widely distributed plant ; specimens found on either

side of the Mediterranean shores are remarkably similar to the Indian

specimens. Prostrate, erect or suberect Sey plant. For the nomen-

clature of this species, see Cooke, 228.

6. EVOLVULUS Linn.

Erect or suberect, but not rooting at the nodes...... EF. alsinoides.

Prostrate and rooting ati themmodestanen. «ace. «+ oe E. nummularius.

Evolvulus alsinoides Linn., Sp. Pl. 392, 1762 ; Clarke, 220; Wight,

Illustr. t. 168 bis; Hall. “a in Engler, Bot. Jahrb. 18: 85, 1894.3

ETT 9

NOTES ON THE CONVOLVULACEAE OF BOMBAY 341

Cooke, 229; Gamble, 923; van Ooststroom in Mon. Gen. Evolv.

26, 1934.

Convolvulus alsinoides Linn., Sp. Pl. 157, 1753.

Evolvulus hirsutus Graham, 133 ; Dalz. and Gibs. 162.

‘The forms on which Linnaeus based this species is the common

British India form spread throughout 5S.E. Asia.” van Ooststroom,

loc. cit.

Evolvulus nummularius Linn., Sp. Pi. 391, 17623 Jacq., Sel. Stirp.

Aumety ty 200.1. 22500790. Choisy, 8 ev72).hosors, ballet. im

Engler, Bot. Jahrb. 18: 85, 1894; van Ooststroom in Mon.

Gen. Evolv. 114, 1934.

Convolvulus nummularius Linn., Sp. Pl. 157, 1753.

Evolvulus alsinoides Jackson, in Ind. Kew. 1 : 940, 1893 (non Linn.).

This is a new record for the Province of Bombay, and is not

mentioned by Cooke. In the city of Bombay it is common in lawns

(Santapau 8042—8046 !); ‘Thirumalachar sent me some specimens

collected by him in Bangalore; Mayuranathan reports its presence in

Madras city ; van Ooststroom gives the following localities from which

the plant has been collected : Calcutta, Howrah, Sibpur Botanic Gardens,

Hughly District, Bardwan, Motahariin Behar, Benares Hindu University,

uC.

E. nummularius is an American plant, native of from Mexico to

N. Argentine, and the West Indies ; it is also found in tropical Africa and

Madagascar, and seems to be gradually spreading in India. ‘The following

description is taken from van Ooststroom loc. cit. pp. 115-116:

‘“A perennial herb. Stems several prostrate, rooting at the nodes,

simple or slightly branched, slender, terete, pilose with short, patent,

curved hairs, glabrescent, often lignescent at the base, variable in length,

10-40 cms. long; internodes 5-12 mm. sometimes to 20 mm. long.

Leaves distichous, shortly petioled; petiole grooved above, pilose or

glabrous, 1-5 mm. long, occasionally to 12 mm.; limb broad-ovate,

elliptic or orbicular, sometimes obovate or oblong, rounded or emarginate

at the apex, rounded, truncate or subcordate, sometimes slightly oblique

at the base, variable in size, middle-sized leaves 4-15 mm. long, 3-15 mm.

broad, larger ones up to 25 mm. long and 18 mm. broad, glabrous on both

sides or sparsely appressed-pilose beneath especially on the nerves,

sometimes also above, the margins sometimes ciliate, especially near the

base, midrib and 2-5 pairs of lateral nerves more or less distinct beneath.

Flowers 1 or 2 in the leaf-axils, on the main stems or on short lateral

branches peduncles none or very short, rarely longer, up to ro mm. long

(f. pedunculatus); pedicels 2-6 mm. long, occasionally longer, recurved in

fruit; bracteoles linear or lanceolate, acute, 0.5 -1.5 mm. long. Sepals equal,

2.5-4 mm. long, ovate-oblong, obtuse or acutish, minutely mucronate

with microscopic pellucid dots, sparsely pilose or glabrous, but with

ciliate margin; with distinct midrib and reticulate nervation; often

reflexed in fruit. Corolla white, rarely pale blue, rotate to broadly funnel-

shaped, 5-7 mm. long, the tube short, the limb about 8 mm. in diam.,

5-lobed, the lobes distinct, sparsely pilose bands. Filaments inserted

about 2 mm. above the corolla base, 2-3 times as long as the oblong

anthers. Ovary globular, glabrous. Capsule globular, as long as or a

little longer than the sepals, 2-celled, 4-valved, 4- or less-seeded.”

342 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47

7. BONAMIA Thouars.

Asa Gray in the Proc. Amer. Acad. 5 : 337, 1862, suggested the fusion

of the genus Brewerta with Bonamia, the older name Bonamia being

retained for the combined genus. Benth. and Hook. in Gen. Plant.

2: 877, did not accept the fusion; Peter in Engl. and Prantl, Pflanzen-

familien, Jackson in Index Kew., Cooke in his Flora follow Benth. and

Hooker in keeping the two genera separate. Hallier f., Merrill and van

Ooststroom follow Asa Gray in fusing the two genera. On the other hand

Benth. and Hooker make Seddera Hochst. a section of Breweria, whilst

O. Kuntze in Rev. Gen. Pl. places all the species of Seddera under

Convolvulus. 1 have followed van Ooststroom in uniting Breweria and

Seddera under Bonamia ‘Thouars.

Bonamia semidigyna (Roxb.) Hail. f. in Engler, Bot. Jahrb. 16:

528, 1893, et 18: 9, 1894 excl. syn. Breweria abscissa Choisy ;

id. in Bull. Herb. Boiss. 5: 382, 814, t. 15, 18973; Merrill,

357; van Ooststrcom in Blumea 3: 76, 1938.

Convolvulus semidigynus Roxb. Hort. Beng. 13, 1814; FI. Ind.

2/27, LO2ZA Ctwl | 408, LO22.

Breweria cordata Blum., Biydr. 722, 1825 ; Choisy, 6: 493, 1844 ;

Clarke, 223 ; Cooke, 230.

Breweria semidigyna O. Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 440, 1891 (Brewera)

Breweria Roxburghu Choisy, 493 ; Wight, Icon. 1370.

Bonamia latifolia (Hochst. et Steud.) Santapau, comb. nov.

Seddera latifolia Hochst. et Steud. in Flora 27, Bes. Beibi. 8

t. 5 B-C, 1844.

Breweria latifolia Benth. ex C. B. Clarke, in Hook. f. Fl. Brit.

Ind. 4: 224, 1883 ; Cooke, 230.

8. SHUTEREIA Choisy.

Van Ooststroom in Blumea 3: 287, 1939, writes that in recent liter-

ature one finds generally the name Hewittza Wight et Arn. (1837) for this

genus ; there is however an older name, Shuterera Choisy (1833) and in

consequence the older name has been adopted by van Ooststroom ;

this has necessitated the altering of Shuterza Wight et Arn. a name of a

genus in the Leguminosae. 'Vhis procedure is in accordance with the

latest edition of the International Rules of Botanical Nomenclature,

Art. 16, but the fact that the name Hewztiza has been generally used up to

the present and the necessary change in the Leguminosae, 1f Choisy’s

name be adopted, are reasons for the inclusion of Hewittia among the

Nomina Conservanda ; until this is done, however, the name for the

genus must be: Shutereta Choisy.

Shutereia sublobata (Linn. f.) House in Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, 33:

318, 1906 ; van Ooststroom in Blumea 3 : 287, 1939.

Convolvulus sublobatus Linn. f., Suppl. 135, 1781.

Convolvulus bicolor Vahl, Symb. 3 : 25, 1794; Bot. Mag. t. 2205.

Shutereia bicolor Choisy, 6: 486, t. 2, f. 11, 1833.

Hewittia bicolor Wight et Arn. in Madr. Journ. Lit. and Sci. 5: 22,

1837; «Clatke, 216); Wight, .Tcontosd3ih3 Peter, 25;;8 tobe

Hall. f. in Bull. Herb. Boiss. 5: 379-380, 1897; Cooke, 231;

Merill, in Phil. Journ. Sci., 1 (Suppl.) : 120, 1906 ; Gamble, g24.

: ae

NOTES ON THE CONVOLVULACEAE OF BOMBAY 343,

Hewittia sublobata O. Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 441, 1891 ; Merrill,

359:

g. ANISEIA Choisy.

Aniseia martinicensis (Jacq.) Choisy, 8: 66, 1838; Hall. f. in

Engler, Bot. Jahrb. 18 : 96, 1894, et in Bull. Herb. Boiss. (ser. 2,

1: 674, 1901 ; Merrill, 359; van Ooststroom in Blumea 3: 280,

LOO:

Convolvulus mariinicensis Jacq., Select. Stirp. Amer. 26, t. 17, 1763.

Convolvulus untflorus Burm., Fl. Ind., 47, t. 21, f. 2, 1768.

Aniseia uniflora Caoisy, 6: 483, t. 2, f. 9, 1833 ; Wight, Icon. t. 850 ;

Grahame 133) Dalz2and! Gibs "162 -"Peter, 25) f12 AY 1807 ;

Cooke, 231. |

Ipomoea ‘uniflora Reet Sechiult:, PDs Veo hast 247 1519; \Clarke,

201 (non Blume).

to. CONVOLVULUS Linn.

Erect, shrubby plant; corolla small, blue.......... C. Rottlerianus.

Prostrate or twining herb ; corolla about 2.5 cms. long,

and about as much in diam., pink or white with

DINKESCRI PES argues enters oo s,s hens nice ticeae m6: cane Ses C. arvensis.

Convolvulus arvensis Linn., Sp. Pl. 153, 1753; Clarke, 219;

Choisy, 479; Graham, 132; Dalz. and Gibs., 163; Hall. f. in

Engler, Bot. Jahrb. 18: 108, 1894; Cooke, 234; Gamble, 925 ;

van Ooststroom in Blumea 3: 283, 1939.

Convolvulus Rottlerianus Choisy, 6: 477, 1833; Clarke, 219;

Dalz. and Gibs. 164 ; Cooke, 233.

JACQUEMONTIA Choisy.

Jacquemontia paniculata (Burm. f.) Hall. f. in Engler Bot. Jahrb.

16: 541, 1893; Cooke, 235; Merrill, 359; Gamble, 926; van

Ooststroom in Blumea 3: 269, 1939.

Ipomoea paniculata Burm. f., Fi. Ind. 50, t. 21, f. 3, 1768.

Convolvulus parviflorus Vahl, Symb. 3: 29, 1794; Clarke, 220

(non Dalz., nec Desr.).

12. MERREMIA Dennst.

Leaves entire :

Leaves reniform, usually broader than long,

PAG. sochady, MOPOL YL. tact cin io GIANG BOIS RESIS M. emarginata.

Leaves not reniform, longer than broad:

Seeds pubescent or hairy:

Seeds hairy with long hairs.......... M., umbellata.

Seeds with fulvous velvety pubescence. . M. hederacea.

Seeds glabrous :

Many or all the leaves 3-lobed or 3-

toothedratsthe apex asi: ofie.2 0,2 +. M. tridentata.

Leaves not 3-toothed at the apex ; base

auriculate; dentate i. 00009. 00s: M. hastata.

344 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, -47

Leaves 5-7-partite or lobed :

Corolla yellow ; leaves palmately divided :

Stems glabrous ; leaves palmately cut nearly

to -the ybase vayoiae: op eae cen ae M. rhyncorhiza.

Stems with long spreading deciduous hairs ;

leaves divided to less than half of the

way (down .cjeron. Fs fad: Blase oee M. vitifolia.

Corolla white; leaves digitately divided ; stems

with long deciduous hairs from bulbous

bases es, Pe ee Fave ca Wee a Wee 2, eee M. aegyptia.

Merremia emarginata (Burm. f.) Hall. f. in Engler, Bot. Jahrb.

16: 552, 1893; Cooke, 236; Gamble, 928; Merrill, 360; van

Ooststroom in Blumea, 3 : 312, 1939.

Evolvulus emarginatus Burm. f., Fl. Ind. 77, t. 30, f. 1, 1768.

Convolvulus reniformis Roxb., Fl. Ind. 2 : 67, 1824; et 1: 481, 1832.

Ipomoea reniformis Choisy, 6: 446, 1833; Clarke, 206; Graham,

131; Dalz. and Gibs., 164.

Ipomoea emarginata O. Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Pl., 444, 1891.

Merremia umbelilata (Linn.) Hall. f. in Engler, Bot. Jahrb. 16:

552, 1893 ; Cooke, 237; Gamble, 928; Merrill, 362 ; van Oostst-

room in Blumea 3: 333, 1939.

Convolvulus umbellatus Linn., Sp. Pl. 155, 1753 ; Wall., Cat. 2329.

Convolvulus cymosus Desr. in Lamk. Encycl. Meth. 3 : 556, 1791.

Ipomoea cymosa R. et Schult., Syst. 4: 241, 1819 ; Choisy, 6: 461,

1833 ; Clarke, 211.

Merremia cymosa Baker et Rendle, in This.-Dyer, Fl. Trop.

Afr. 4(2) : 106, 1905.

Examination of large numbers of specimens both in the field and in

Herb. Kew. has convinced me of the correctness of Cooke’s remark that

the corolla is lineate, against the statement of Hallier f. in Engler, Bot.

Jahrb. 18 : 133, that the corolla is never or very rarely lineate.

Merremia tridentata (Linn.) Hall. f. in Engler, Bot. Jahrb. 16:

552, 1893; Cooke. 237; Gamble, 928; van Ooststroom in Blumea

39 Boo OS ;

Convolvulus tridentatus Linn., Sp. Pl. 157, 1753.

Evolvulus tridentatus Linn., Sp. Pl. 392, 1762.

Ipomoea tridentata Roth in R. et Schult., Arch. Bot. 1(3): 38,

1798; Clarke, 205; Choisy, 447; Graham, 131; Dalz. and

Gibs. 165.

Merremia hastata (Desr.) Hall. f. in Engler, Bot. Jahrb. 16: 552,

1893 ; Cooke, 238; Gamble, 929; Merrill, 361.

Convolvulus hastatus Desr. in Lamk. Encycl. Meth. 3: 542, 1789

(non Sieb., nec ‘Thunb., nec Forsk.).

Convolvulus simplex Pers., Syn. 1: 178, 1805 (non Spreng.).

Ipomoea denticulata R. Br., Prodr., 485, 1810; Bot. Reg. t. 317,

1818 ; (non Choisy).

Convolvulus denticulatus Spreng., Syst. 1: 603, 1825.

Merremia tridentata subs. hastata van Oostst. in Blumea 3: 317,

1039:

Merremia hastata Hall. f. has leaves which. differ from those of

M. tridentata in size and shape ; the peduncles in MM. hastata are much

longer, the sepals and corolla much larger, the capsules much bigger.

NOTES ON THE CONVOLVULACEAE OF BOMBAY 345

For these reasons I am inclined to retain M. hastata as a separate species,

against van Ooststroom, who makes of M. hastata but a subspecies of

M. tridentata.

Merremia hederacea (Burm. f.) Hall. f. in Engler, Bot. Jahrb. 18:

118, 1894; Merrill, 361; van Ooststroom in Blumea 3 : 302, 1939.

Evolvulus hederaceus Burm. f., Fl. Ind. 77, t. 30, f. 2, 1768

Ipomoea chryseides Ker-Gawl. in Bot. t. 270, 1818; Choisy, 469 ;

Clarke, 206 ; Wight, Icon. t. 157; Dalz. and Gibs., 166.

Merremia chryseides Hall. f. in Engler, Bot. Jahrb, 16: 552, 1893;

Cooke, 238; Gamble, 929.

Merremia rhyncorhiza Dalz. in Kew Journ. Bot. 3: 179, 1851:

Ipomoea rhyncorhiza Dalz. in Kew Journ. Bot. 3: 179, 1851;

Clarke, 214; Dalz. and Gibs., 167.

Merremia vitifolia (Burm. f.) Hall. f. in Engler, Bot. Jahrb. 16 ;

552, 1893:; Cooke, 239; Gamble, 928; Merrill, 362 ; van Oostst-

room in Blumea 3 : 329, 1939.

Convolvulus vitifolius Burm. f., Fl. Ind., 45,t. 18, f. 1, 1766.

Ipomoea vitifolia Blume, Bijdr. 709, 1825 ; Choisy, 454; Clarke,

213; Graham, 132; Dalz. and Gibs. 165.

Merremia aegyptia (Linn.) Urb., Symb. Antill. 4: 505, 1910

Gamble, 928 ; van Ooststroom in Blumea 3 : 327, 1939.

Ipomoea aegyptia Linn., Sp. Pl. 162.

Convolvulus pentaphyllus Linn., Sp. Pl. 223, 1762.

Ipomoea pentaphylla Jacq., Collect. 2: 287, 1788 ; Clarke, 202.

Merremia pentaphylla Hall. f. in Engler, Bot. Jahrb. 16: 552,

1893 ; Cooke, 239.

Batatas pentaphylla Choisy, 6: 436, 1833; Graham, 129; Dalz.

and Gibs., 167.

Merremia ‘leek (Jacq.) Hall. f. in Engler, Bot. Jahrb. 16: 552,

1893 ; Cooke, 240; Gamble, 928.

Convoloulus dissectus Jacq., Obs. 2: 4, 1761.

Ipomoea dissecta Pers. in Linn. Syst. (ed. 15), in nota, 1795 (non

Linn.).

Ipomoea sinuata Ortega, Hort. Matr. Decad. 7: 74, 1798; Clarke

214; Graham, 132; Dalz. and Gibs., Suppl. 59.

Merremia tuberosa (Linn.) Rendle, in This.-Dyer, Fl. ‘Trop.

Afr. 4(2) : 104, 1905 ; van Ooststroom, in Blumea 3 : 325, 1939.

Ipomoea tuberosa Linn., Sp. Pl. 160; Choisy, 452; Cooke, 251

(non Lour.).

Convolvulus tuberosus Spreng., Syst. 1: 591, 1825 (non Willd.)

pee tuberosa Meissn. in Mart. Fl. Bras. 7: 212, 1869; Hall.

.in Engler, Bot. Jahrb. 16: 419; 549, 1893 ; Merrill, 363.

Toaenee nuda Peter, 31.

13. OPERCULINA Silva Manso.

Operculina Turpethum (Linn.) Silva Manso, Enum. Subs. Braz.

16 et 49, 1836; Hall. f. in Engler, Bot. Jahrb. 18: 120, 1894;

Cooke, 240; Gamble, 929; Merrill, 363; van Ooststroom in

Blumea BS ROP, OVRXOV,

346 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47

Convolvulus Turpethim Linn., Sp. Pl. 155; Bot. Mag. t. 2093.

Ipomoea Turpethum R. Br., Prodr. 485, 1810; Choisy, 450; Bot.

Reg. 279 ; Clarke, 212 ; Graham, 131 ; Dalz. and Gibs. 165.

14. IPOMOEA Linn.

Ipomoea calycina (Choisy) Clarke, in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 4:

201, 1883; Cooke. 242; Gamble,

Aniseia calycina Choisy, 6: 482, 1833; Graham, 250; Wight,

Icon. t. 833 ; Daiz. and Gibs. 163.

Ipomoea barlerioides (Choisy) Benth. et Hook. f., Gen. Pl. 2:

872, 1876; Clarke, 201 ; Cooke, 243. '

Aniseia barlerioides Choisy, 6: 484, 1833.

Ipomoea hispida (Vahl) R. et Schult., Syst. 4: 238, 1819; Hall. f.

in Engler, Bot. Jahrb. 18: 123, 1893 ; Gamble, 915; Merrill, 366 ;.

van Ooststroom in Blumea 3: 490, 1940.

Convolvulus hispidus Vahi, Symb. 3 : 29, 1794.

Ipomoea eriocarpa R. Br., Prodr. 484, 1810; Clarke, 204 ; Cooke,

2.43.

Ipanien sessiliflora Roth, Nov. Pl. Sp. 116, 1821; Wight, Icon.

t. 169; Galz. and Gibs., 166.

Ipomoea pileata Roxb., Fl. Ind. 2: 94, 1824; et 1: 504, 18323.

Clarke, 203; Choisy, 456; Gamble, 916; van Ooststroom in

Blumea 3: 507, 1940.

Ipomoea involucrata Cooke, 245 (non Beauv.).

** Several authors have considered this species as being identical

with the African Ipomoea involucrata Beauv., and have mentioned it

under that name. Baker and Rendie, in Thiselton-Dyer, Flora of

Tropical Africa iv, 2: 150-151, 1905, have rightly distinguished both as

being two different species.” (van Ooststioom, in Blumea 3: 509, 1940)..

I. involucrata Beauv. does not occur in Bombay Presidency.

Ipomoea Clarkei Hook. f. in Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 734, 1885 (in Add.

et Corr.) ; Cooke, 245.

Ipomoea Stocksit Clarke, 207 (per error. pro I. Clarke: ; non I. Stock-.

sit Clarke, ibid. p. 204, 1883).

Apparently a very rare plant in the Province of Bombay; I have

collected it but on one occasion in Khandala (Santapau 5148 ! in Blatter

Herb.) ; the flowers are of a fine light yellow, and the plant is a slender

twiner growing among grasses on grassy slopes.

Ipomoea aquatica Forsk., Fl. Aeg.-arab., 44, 1775; Clarke, 210;

Cooke, 246 ; van Ooststroom in Blumea 3 : 528, 1940.

Convolvulus repens Vahl, Symb. 1: 17, 1790 (non Linn.).

Ipomoea reptans Poir. in Lamk., Encycl. Meth., Suppl. 3: 460,.

1814; Graham, 130; Dalz. and Gibs. 164; Hall. f. in Engler,

Bot. Jahrb. 18: 143, 1893; Gamble, 916; Merrill, 368 (non

Convolvulus reptans Linn.; cfr. Merrill, in Phil. Journ. Sci.,

59: 451-452, 1936).

Ipomoea maxima (Linn. f.) Don in Sweet, Hort. Brit. (ed. 2) 372,

1830; Hochreut. in Candollea, 5: 186, 1934; van Ooststroom

in Blumea 3: 525, 1940.

NOTES ON THE CONVOLVULACEAE OF BOMBAY 347

Convolvulus maximus Linn. f., Suppl. 137, 178t.

Ipomoea sepiaria Koenig ex Roxb. Fl. Ind. 2: go, 1824, et 1: 499,

1832; Clarke, 209; Choisy, 464; Graham, 131; Wight, Icon.

t. 838 ; Dalz. and Gibs., 166.

Ipomoea staphylina R. et Schult., Syst., 4: 249, 1819; Clarke,

210; Choisy, 460; Cooke, 247.

Ipomoea racemosa Roth, Noy. Pl. Sp. 115, 1821; Wight, Ilustr..

t. 168 (non Poir.).

Ipomoea soluta Kerr, in Kew Bull., 1941, 18. .

Ipomoea campanulata Choisy, 6: 451, 1833; Graham, 131; Dalz.

and Gibs., 165; Clarke, 211 excl. var. z/lustris Clarke ; Cooke,

247; et alior. auct. (non Linn.)

Kerr loc. cit. has shown that [pomoea campanulata Linn. Sp. Pl. 160,

is actually not an Jpomoea at all, but Thespesia populnea (Linn.) Soland.

This is a common plant in Khandala on the slopes near Forbay and on

Battery Hill Plateau. In the young stages, branches often trail for long

distances on the floor of the forest, and can be easily identified by the

typical structure of the leaves : the lateral nerves are numerous and very

conspicuous on the underside of the leaf, and come out nearly at right

angles to the midrib and are almost parallel among themselves.

Ipomoea obscura (Linn.) Ker-Gawl., in Bot. Reg. t. 239, 1817;

Clarke, 207; Choisy, 464; Graham, 131; Dalz. and Gibs. 166;

Hall. f.in Engler, Bot. Jahrb. 18: 140, 1893; Cooke, 248 ; Gamble,

916; Merrill, 366 ; van Ooststroom in Blumea 3 : 519, 1940.

Convolvulus obscurus Linn., Sp., Pl. 220, 1762.

Ipomoea solanifolia Burm. f., Fl. Ind., 49, 1768, et alior. auct.

(non Linn.).

Ipomoea pes-caprae (Linn.) Sweet, Hort. Sub. Lond. 35, 1818;

Choisy, 445; Graham, 130; Dalz. and Gibs., 164; Hall. f. in

Engler, Bot. Jahrb. 18: 145, 1893 ; Gamble, 917; Merrill, 366 ;.

van Ooststroom in Blumea 3: 532, 1940;

Convolvulus pes-caprae Linn., Sp. Pl. 159; Roxb., Fl. Ind. 1:

486, 1832.

Ipomoea biloba Forsk., Fl. Aeg.-arab., 44, 1775; Clarke, 212;

Cooke, 248.

Ipomoea coptica (Linn.) Roth, apud R. et Schult., Syst. 4: 208

1819; etin Nov. Pl. Sp. 110, 1821; Choisy, 471; Graham, 132 ;

Dalz. and Gibs., 166; Hall. f. in Engler, Bot. Jahrb. 18: 147,

1893 ; van Ooststroom in Blumea 3: 544, 1940.

Convolvulus copticus Linn., Mant. Il, Append. 559, 1771.

Ipomoea dissecta Willd., Phytogr. 5, t. 2, 1794; Clarke, 200 ; Cooke,

2.49.

Ipomoea digitata Linn., Syst. (ed. 10) 924, 1759; Clarke, 202 ;

Cooke, 249; Merrill, 364; van Ooststroom in Blumea 3: 558,

1940.

Convolvulus. paniculatus Linn., Sp. Pl. 156.

Ipomoea paniculata R. Br., Prodr. 487, 1810; Hall. f. in Engler

Bot. Jahrb. 18: 149, 1893; Gamble, 918; (non Burm.).

348 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol,:.47

Batatas paniculata Choisy, 6: 436, 1833; Graham, 129; Dalz.

and Gibs., 167.

Ipomoea diversifolia R. Br., Prodr. 487, 1810; Merrill, 365; van

Ooststroom in Blumea 3: 545, 1940.

Pharbitis lacinata Dalz. in Hook. Kew Journ. Bot., 3: 178, 1851 ;

Dalz. and Gibs., 167.

Ipomoea laciniata Clarke, 200 ; Cooke, 250..

Ipomoea cairica (Linn.) Sweet, Hort. Brit. 287, 1827; Hall. f. in

Engler, Bot. Jahrb. 18: 148, 1893; Gamble, 918 (excl. var. J.

pulchella Roth) ; Merrill, 364 ; van Ooststroom in Blumica,3): 542,

1940.

eae cairicus Linn., Syst. (ed. 10), 922, 1759.

Ipomoea palmata Forsk., Fl. Aeg.-arab. 43, 1775; Clarke, 214;

Cooke, 250.

Ipomoea puichella Wight, Icon. t. 156, (non Roth).

Ipomoea pes-tigridis Linn., Sp. Pl. 162; Clarke, 204; Graham,

132; Wight, Icon., t. 836; Dalz. and Gibs., 165; Hall. f. in

Engler, Bot. Jahrb. 18: 134, 1893; Cooke, 250; Gamble, 918;

Merrill, 367; van Ooststroom in Blumea, 3 : 504, 1940.

Ipomoea hepatici} foha Linn., Sp. Pl. 161.

Ipomoea pes-tigridis Linn. var. hepaticijolia Clarke, 204.

Ipomoea Batatas (Linn.) Lamk., Tabl. Encycl. 1: 465, 1791;

Clarke, 202; Hall. f.in Engler, Bot. Jahrb. 18: 138, 1893; Cooke,

251; Merrill, 364 ; van Ooststroom in Blumea 3 : 512, 1940.

Convolvulus Batatas Linn., Sp. Pl. 154.

Convolvulus edulis Choisy, 6: 435, 1833.

Ipomoea Leari Paxt., Mag. Bot. 6: 267, 1839; Cooke, 251; van

Ooststroom in Blumea 3: 502, 1940.

Pharbitis Leart Dalz. and Gibs., Suppl. 58.

“I. Leart Paxt...which is sometimes found in culture for orna-

mental purposes seems to be not or scarcely different from I. congesta

R. Br.” (van Ooststroom, loc. cit.). Examination of the specimens

in Herb. Kew. shows that J. Leari Paxt. is also very similar to I. hederacea

Jacq. and 7. Nil Roth, from both of which it differs mainly on account

of a more or less glabrous and slightly smaller calyx.

Ipomoea Nil (Linn.) Roth, Cat. Bot. 1: 36, 1797 ; Hall. f. in Engler,

Bot. Jahrb. 18: 136, 1893; van Ooststroom in Blumea 3: 497,

Es fO-

Convolvulus Nil Linn. Sp. Pl. (ed. 2) 219, 1762.

Ipomoea scabra Forsk., Fl. Aeg.-arab. 44, 1775.

Ipomoea hederacea auct. plur. (non Jacq.)

“Several authors have interpreted this species as being identical with

the North American Ipomoea hederacea (Linn.) Jacq. (Convolvulus

hederaceus Linn. Sp. Pl. ed. 1 (1753), p. 154, p. p.; id. ed. 2 (1762),

Pp. 219, p. p.) and have mentioned it under that name... The true

I. hederacea is probably now and then cultivated in gardens. I did not

see any specimens from Mal. aysia.”’ (van Ooststroom, loc. cit.)

This is a common plant in Khandala, and from the range of its

distribution in the district, I find it very difficult to accept the plant as an

NOTES ON THE CONVOLVULACEAE OF BOMBAY 349

introduction and not a native in the western parts of India. I have

always found, as regards Khandala, that introduced plants grew almost

exclusively along the main road, or along the railway line, or if in the

ravines, along the streams passing through the bottom of the ravines ;

no introduced plant has been found on top of the highest hills in the

district ; and yet this plant is abundant on the very highest parts of Bhoma

hill, the highest spot about Khandala.

Ipomoea alba Linn., Sp. Pl. 161; Hall. f. in Meded. Rijks. Herb.

Leiden, 1: 25, 1911; et 46:19, 1922; van Ooststroom, in

Blumea, 3: 547, 1940.

Convolvulus aculeatus Linn., Sp. Pl. 155.

Ipomoea bona-nox Jinn., Sp. Pl. 228, 1762; Bot. Mag. t. 752;

Clarke, 197.

Calonyction speciosum Choisy, 6: 441, t. 1, f. 4, 1833 (excl. var. 6) ;

Cooke, 252;

Calonyction aculeaium House, in Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, 31: 590,

_ 1904; Merrill, 360; :

Calonyction Roxburgh G. Don, Gen. Syst. 4: 263, 1837 ; Graham,

130.

Ipomoea muricata (Linn.) Jacq., Hort. Schoenbr. 3: 40, t. 323,

1794 (non Cay.); Clarke, 197; van Ooststroom in Blumea,

Solon, LCs

Convolvulus muricatus Linn., Mant. 44, 1767.

Calonyction muricatum Don, Gen. Syst. 4: 264, 1838; Graham,

130; Hall. fin* Engler, Bot. Jahrb: 18-154, 1893, et.in-Bull.

Herb. Boiss. 5 : 1044, 1897 ; Cooke, 253 ; Gamble, 920 ; Merrill,

Ipomoea purpurea (Linn.) Roth, Bot. Abh. 27, 1787; Clarke, 200;

Hall. f. in Engler, Bot. Jahrb. 18: 137, 1893; Cooke, 252;

Merrill, 367 ; van Ooststroom in Blumea 3 : 496, 1940.

Convolvulus purpureus Linn., Sp. Pl. 1: 219, 1762; Bot. Mag.

(eos ahaye

Pharbitis hispida Cnoisy, 6: 438, 1833.

Pharbitis purpurea Voigt, Hort. Sub. Calcut. 354, 1845.

Ipomoea angulata Lamk. in Tabl. Encycl. 1: 464, 1791; van

Ooststroom in Blumea 3: 553, 1940.

Ipomoea phoenicea Roxb., Fl. Ind. 2 : 92, 1824, et 1: 502, 1832.

Quamoclit phoenicea Choisy, 6: 433, 1833 ; Gamble; g19 ; Merrill,

379:

Quamoclit coccinea Clarke, 199, et alior. plur. auct. (non Linn.).

Van Ooststroom, loc. cit., p. 555, following Hallier f. holds the view

that the Indian plant is quite different from the North American Ipomoea

coccinea Linn. Sp. Pl. 160 (Quamocht coccinea Moench.). The differences

between the two species can be seen in a note by Hall. f. in Bull. Herb.

Boiss. 7: 415, 1899.

Ipomoea Quamoclit Linn. Sp. Pl. 159; Clarke, 199; Bot. Mag. t.

244; van Ooststroom in Blumea 3: 555, 1940.

Quamocht vulgaris Choisy, 6: 434, 1833 ; Dalz. and Gibs., Suppl.

59; Cooke, 261.

350 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47

Quamoclit pinnata Bojer, Hort. Maurit. 224, 1837; Hall. f. in

Engler, Bot. Jahrb. 18 : 154, 1893 ; Gamble, 919; Merrill, 370.

Quamocht Quamocht Britton et Brown, Fl. North Unit. Stat. 3

22, 1898. :

Ipomoea violacea Linn., Sp. Pl. 161; van Ooststroom in Blumea

3: 541, 1940.

Ipomoea tricolor Cav., Icon. 3: 5, t. 208, 1794.

Convolvulus violaceus Spreng., Syst. 1: 599, 1825.

Ipomoea rubro-caerulea Hook., Bot. Mag. t. 3297, 1834.3 Cooke, 252.

15. RIVEA Choisy.

‘It was Choisy, 1833, who established the genus Rivea, based on

the species of Lettsomia with linear-oblong stigmas and with indehiscent.

dry fruit. In 1845 the very natural limits of Rivea became blurred,

when he added several American species of [pomoea to it, all with big

lobular stigmas. Other authors, however, have maintained the original

> >)

limits of the genus . . . In my opinion Aivea has to be brought back to

its previous limits, as indicated by Choisy in 1833 and corresponding

with Hallier’s section Eurivea ... The representatives of Argyreia

are confined to tropical Asia, the Malay Archipelago and the Philippine

Islands. Rzvea only occurs in tropical Asia. Legendrea is of American

origin with one representative also in the Canary Islands.” (van Oostst-

room in Blumea § : 354-355, 1943.) For the species of Rivea in Bombay

and their nomenclature, see Cooke, 254; note, however, a correction

for the date of Choisy’s paper, which is 1833, and not 1834 as stated

by Cooke.

16. ARGYREIA Lour.

The two genera Argyreia and Letisomia have undergone considerable

modifications almost from the time Loureiro erected the first genus in

1790. In his first edition of the Flora Indica in 1824, Roxburgh des-

cribed the genus Lettsomia and listed under it a number of plants which

subsequent authors have placed under Argyreia, Letisomia, Aniseia or

Rivea. Roxburgh based his new genus on the Argyrezas with a two-

celled ovary. In 1833 Choisy gave Lettsomia as a synonym of Argyreia,

at least for the species with a campanulate corolla and bi-globular stigma ;

the other plants he placed under the new genus Rivea; “the genus

Rivea is mainly distinct from Argyreza by its linear to oblong stigmas

and from Ipomoea by the same character and the indehiscent instead of

valvate fruit’’. (van Ooststroom, in Blumea 5: 353, 1943.)

After the time of Choisy, authors seem somewhat undecided about the

position of the two genera Argyreza and Lettsomia ; all recognize that

these genera are very closely related; Prain acknowledges that some of

the species of Lettsomia, whose generic character is mainly a two-ceiled

ovary, have a partial dissepiment at the base of the ovary, on account of

whicli Argyreia and Lettsomia deserve to be reunited under one genus ;

but apparently Prain did not dare to effect such a fusion. Van Oostst-

room, following Hallier f, has once more reunited the two genera into one,

retaining the older name, Argyreia, for the combined genus. The

reasons advanced by van Ooststroom for this fusion are the following :

‘In my opinion, Argyreza and Lettsomia can be combined without any

difficulties under the name of the former genus. In keeping them

NOTES ON THE CONVOLVULACEAE OF BOMBAY 351

apart, several species which are doubtless very nearly related should have

to be inserted in different genera. The differences in the number of cells

of the ovary appear of little value in several genera of the family Con-

volvulaceae. It was Hallier, 1893, who pointed this out already and the

present author quite agrees with this opinion. Moreover, the species

formerly inserted in Leftsomia lave so many characters in common with

those of Argyreta . . . that a separation of the genera would be a very

unnatural one.” (van Ooststroom loc. cit. p. 354.)

Argyreia nervosa (Burm. f.) Boj., Hort. Maurit. 224, 1837 ; Merrill,

371; van Ooststroom in Blumea 5 : 364, 1943.

Convolvulus nervosus Burm. f., Fl. Ind. 48, t. 20, f. 1, 1768.

—Convolvulus speciosus Linn. f., Suppl. 137, 1781, excl. patria.

Ipomoea speciosa Pers., Syn. 1: 183, 1805; Bot. Mag. t. 2446.

Lettsomia speciosa Roxb., Hort. Beng. 13, 1814.

Lettsonna nervosa Roxb., Fl. Ind., 2: 289, 1824, et 1: 488, 1832.

Argyreia speciosa Sweet, Hort. Brit. 289, 1827; Graham, 128;

Dalz. and Gibs., 168 ; Wight, Icon. t. 851; Clarke, 185 ; Cooke,

255; Gamble, 907.

Rivea nervosa Hall. f. in Bull. Herb. Boiss. 5 : 381, 1897.

Argyreia aggregata (Roxb.) Choisy, 6: 427, 1833; Graham, 128;

Dalz. and Gibs., 169 ; van Ooststroom in Blumea 5: 380, 1943.

Lettsomia aggregata Roxb., Hort. Beng. 13, 1814; Fl. Ind., 2:

78, 1824, et 1: 488, 1832; Clarke, 191; Wight, Icon. t. 1359;

Cooke, 259; Gamble, gto.

Argyreia elliptica Choisy, 6: 417, 1833; Graham, 128; Dalz. and

Gibs., 169.

Lettsomia elliptica Wight, Icon. 4(2): 12, 1850; Clarke, 192;

Cooke, 259.

Argyreia setosa (Roxb.) Choisy, 6: 425, 1833; Dalz. and Gibs.,

168.

Letisomia setosa Roxb., Hort: Benger geod: iE lelinds 262 1824)

et 1: 490, 1832; Clarke, 194 ; Wight, Icon. t. 1360; Cooke, 260.

For the other species of Argyreia of Bombay, see Cooke 255-258.

17, LEGENDREA Webb.

Legendrea corymbosa var. mollissima (Webb et Berth.) van

Ooststroom in Blumea 5: 355, 1943, in nota.

Legendrea mollissima Webb et Berth., Hist. Nat. Can., 3 (pt. 2,

sect. 3): 27, t. 137, 1844; Cooke, 261. |

REFERENCES!

Baker and Rendle: Convolvulaceae, in ‘This.-Dyer, Flora of Tropical

Africa, 4(2): 62-206, 1905-1906.

Bentham, G., and Hooker, 7. D.: Genera Plantarum ad exemplaria

imprimis in Herbariis Kewensibus servata definita. 1862-1883.

1 When the name of an author appears in the body of this paper followed by

-a number, the reference is to the work given 1n this list of references ; if in this

list there is more than one paper or work by an individual author, the reference

is to the first work mentioned, unless the countrary is specifically stated.

352

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47

Blume, C. L.: Bijdragen tot de Flora van Nederlandsch Indié.

1825-1826. |

Bojer, W.: Hortus Mauritianus, ou Enumeration des plantes .. .

qui croissent a Pile Maurice . . . 1837.

Britton, N., and Brown, A.: An Illustrated Flora of the Northern

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Brown, R.: Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae van

Diemen. 18ro.

Burmann, N. L.(f.): Flora Indica: cui accedit series zoophytorum

Indicorum necnon Prodromus Florae Capensis. 1768.

Cavamiles, A. f.: Icones et descriptiones plantarum quae aut sponte

in Hispania crescunt aut in hortis hospitantur. 1791-1801.

Choisy, f. D.: (2) Convolvulaceae Orientales nempe Indicae, Nepa-

launses, Birmanicae, Chinenses, Japonicae ...In Mem. Soc.

Phys. Hist. Nat. Geneve, 6 : 283-502, pl. 1-6, 1833.

(2) De Convolvulaceis dissertatiosecunda . . . Loc. cit. 8: 43-86,

pl. 1-4, 1838.

(3) De Convolvulaceis dissertatio tertia . . . Loc. cit. 9: 261-288,

Dl ets el Oaa.

Clarke, C. B.: Convolvulaceae, in Hook. f. Flora of British India

A: 179-228,1883.

Cooke, Th.: ‘The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay. 1901-1908.

Dalzell, N. A.: Contributions to the Botany of Western India .. .

Kew Journ. Bot. 3: 178-180, 1851.

Dalzell, N. A. and Gibson, A.: ‘The Bombay Flora, or short des-

criptions of all the indigenous Plants hitherto discovered in or near

the Bombay Presidency ; together with a Supplement of Introduced

and Naturalized Species. 1861.

Don, G.: A General System of Gardening and Botany . . . Founded

upon Miller’s Gardener’s Dictionary. 1831-1838.

Englemann, G.: Systematic arrangement of the Species of the

Genus Cuscuta with critical remarks on old species and description

of new ones. ‘Trans. Acad. Sci., St. Louis, 1: 453-523, 1859.

Forskal, P.: Flora Aegyptiaco-arabica . . . Edidit Carsten Nie-

DDE ego eg es FT/S

Gamble, 7. S.: Flora of the Presidency of Madras . . . 1916-1936.

Graham, 7.: A Catalogue of the Plants growing in Bombay and its.

VAICIMIDY, sl eLOQO:

FHallier, H.: (1) Versuch einer naturlichen Gliederung der Convol-

vulaceen auf morphologischer und anatomischer Grundlage. In

Engler Bot. Jahrb. 16: 453-591, 1893.

(2) Convolvulaceae Africanae. do. 18: 81-160, 1894.

(3) Bausteine zu einer Monographie der Convolvulaceen . .

In Bull. Herb. Boiss., 5: 366-387; 736-754; 804-820;

996-1013 ; 1021-1052, pl. 12-18, 1887 ; 6: 714-724, 1898.

(4) Beitrage zur Kenntis der Flora und Pflanzengeographie von

Borneo. III. (By H.’ Winkler) Convolvulaceae (H. Hallier)

in Engler, Bot. Jahrb. 49 : 375-380, 1913.. |

(5) Ueber Phanerogamen von unsicherer oder unrichtiger stellung.

Convolvulaceae. In Meded. Rijksh. Leiden, 1: 15-26,

I9QIO (1911).

(6) Die von Dr. Th. Herzog auf seiner zweiten Reise durch

Bolivien in den Jahren 1910 und r911 gesammelten Pflanzen.

NOTES ON THE CONVOLVULACEAE OF BOMBAY 353

Convolvulaceae (H. Hallier) in Meded. Rijksh. Leiden,

46: 12-21, 1922.

Hochreutiner, B. P.-G.: Plantae Hochreutineranae. In Candollea,

5, SS aelin Ne) 3yn0

Hochstetter, C. F.: Nova Genera Plantarum Africae, proponit et

describit Ch. F. Hochstetter. In Flora, Bes. Beil. 27: 1-8,

pl. iv-v, 1844.

Hooker, f. 'D. and others: The Flora of British India . . . 1872-1897

House, H. D.: (1) The nomenclature of Calonyction bona-nox.

In Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, 31: 589-592, 1904.

(2) Studies in the North American Convolvulaceae. I. In Bull.

Torr. Bot. Club, 33 : 313-318, 1906.

Jacquin, N. f.: (2) Seléctarum Stirpium Americanarum Historia.

176

(2) OnReraHOhOR Botanicarum iconibus ab auctore delineatis

illustratarum. 1764-1771.

(3) Collectanea ad Bowmen Chemiam, et Historiam Naturalem

spectantia cum figuris. 1786-1790.

(4) Icones et descriptiones plantarum rariorum horti Caesarei

Schenbrunensis. 1797-1804.

Kuntze, O.: Revisio Generum Plantarum . . . 1891-1898.

Lamarck, #7. B. P. A. de M.: Encyclopedie Methodique . .

(Vols. 1-4 edited by Lamarck; continued by J. L. M. Poiret,

vols. 5-8; Suppl. vols. 1-5). 1783-1817.

Linnaeus, C.: (1) Species Plantarum vipeed (SC Qo yentaisey

(2) Species Plantarum sor (6k A) -17low,

(3) Systema Naturae .. (ed. 10) 1758-1759.

(4) Mantissa Plantarum .. (ed. 1) 1767.

(5) Mantissa Plantarum .. (ed. 2)°1771.

Linnaeus; C. (f.): Supplementum Plantarum .. 1781.

Merrill, E. D.: (1) An Enumeration of Philippine Flowering

Plants. 1923-1926.

(2) The identity of Convolvulus reptans Linnaeus. In Philip.

Journ. Sci. 59: 451-452, 1936.

Ortega, C. G. de: Novarum aut Rariorum Plantarum Horti Matri-

tensis desctiptionum Decades I-10. 1787-1800.

Persoon, C. H.: Synopsis Plantarum, seu Enchiridtum Botanicum.

1805-1807.

Peter, A. Convolvulaceae in Engler und Prantl, Pflanzenfamilien . .

iv, 3A: 1-40, f. 1-17, 1897.

Poiret, Ff. L. M.: See under Lamarck.

Roemer, Ff. f.: Novae Plantarum Species descriptae ab Alberto

Guilielmo Roth, M.D., in Archiv fur die Botanik. Herausgegeben

von D. Johann Jacob Rémer. 1(3): 37-52, 1798.

Roemer, 7. f. and Schultes, 7. A.: Caroli a Linné equitis Systema

Vegetabilium . .. Editio nova, speciebus inde ab editione xy.

detectis aucta . . . 1817-1830.

Roth, A. W.: Catalecta botanica quibus plantae novae et minus

cognitae describuntur atque illustrantur ... 1797.

(2) Novae Plantarum Species praesertim Indiae orientalis ex

collectione Doct. Benj. Heynii, cum esscuonibus et observa-

tionibus .. . 1821.

384 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47

Roxburgh, W.: (1) Plants of the Coast of Coromandel . . . by

William Roxburgh, m.p. Published . .. under the direction of

Sir Joseph Banks .. . 1795-1819.

(2) Hortus Bengalensis or a Catalogue of the Plants growing in

the Honourable East India Company’s Botanic Garden at

Calcutta. 1814.

(3) Flora Indica... by the Jate William Roxburgh . . .

Edited by William Carey, D.p. ‘To which are added descrip-

tions of plants more recently discovered by Nathaniel Wallich

. 1820-1824.

(4) Flora Indica, or, Description of Indian Plants by the late

William Roxburgh, mM.p. .. . 1832. ,

Silva Manso, A. L. P. de: Enmueracgao das Substancias Brazil-

leirasy. + 1630:

Sprengel, C.: Caroli Linnaei ... Systema Vegetabilium, editio

decima sexta .. . 1825-1828.

Stocks, #. H.: Notes on Beloochistan Plants . . . Hook. Journ.

Bot. 4: 172-181, 1852. :

Sweet, R.: (1) Hortus suburbanus Londinensis or a Catalogue of

plants cultivated in the neighbourhood of London... 1818.

(2) Sweet’s Hortus Britannicus ; or, a catalogue of plants cultivated

in the gardens of Great Britain... 1827.

(3) Sweet’s Hortus Britannicus ; or a catalogue of plants indigenous,

or cultivated in the gardens of Great Britain... . the whole

brought up tothe present time, and contains above 34,000

plants . . . Second edition. 1830.

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TUM pl 704.

Urban, I.: Symbolae Antillanae seu Fundamenta Florae Indiae

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quas collegit P. Forskal quam aliarum ... descriptiones .. .

E7 99-1 794.

Van Ooststroom, S. #.: (1) A Monograph of the Genus Evolvulus.

Meded. Bot. Mus. Herb. Rijks. Utrecht. 1934.

(2) The Convolvulaceae of Malaysia. In Blumea, 3: 62-94,

1938 ; 267-371, 1939; 481-552, 1940; 5: 339-411, 1943;

689-691, 1945.

(3) On the Asiatic Species of Neuropeltis Wall. In Blumea,

5: 268-273, 1942.

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plants which have been cultivated in the Hon. East India Company’s

Botanical Garden, Calcutta. By the late J. O. Voigt. Printed

under the superintendence of W. Griffith .. . 1845.

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EO. (2) SUL Q- 22d LOR 2.

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of each of the natural orders of Indian Plants, described in the

THE SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF THE FAMILY MORINGACEAE 365

author’s Prodromus Florae’ Peninsulae Indiae orientalis...

1840-1850.

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cognitarum plantarum .. . 1794.

THE SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF THE FAMILY MORINGACEAE

BASED ON THE STUDY OF MORINGA PTERYGOSPERMA

GaERtN. (=. OLEIFERA LAMK.).

ROBINDRA Monon DAtra,

Jute Agricultural Research Laboratories, Indian Central Jute

Commutiee, Tejgaon, Dacca,

AND

JATINDRA NAtH Mirra, M.Sc.

Lecturer tn Botany, Rajshat College, Rajshat, Bengal

(With 2 plates)

The family Woringaceae has long been known to be of uncertain affinity,

Following Genera Plantarum (1), Hooker (5) places it at the end of Polypetalae

and remarks, ‘Anatural order of very doubtful affinity which has been re-

ferred to near Resedaceae, Cupparidaceae, Meliantheae, Violarieae, Polygala-

ceae, Leguminoseae, Bignoniaceae (sic.) and others.’

Wettstein (10) as well as Engler and Diels (2) have placed it in the series

Rhoeadales after the family Resedaceae. ‘the former, however, admits that the

family is of uncertain and doubtful affinity and says, ‘ Die stellung der familie,

die jetzt zumeist hier angeschlossen wird, ist eine germassen unsicher. Morpho-

logisch steht sie den Vorhergehenden nicht nahe. Das vorkommen kurzer

Gynophor, von myrosin sowie das sero-diagnostiche verhalten (positive Reak -

tion mit Resedaceae und Capparidaceae, negative mit Cruciferae u. z. T. mit

Papavaraceae) spricht etwas ftir eine verwandtschaft.’

Haines (4) places the family by itself in suborder 5. Moringineae of the

Order Parietales of the Series Choripetalae between the suborder. 3. Flacourti-

neae (including the families Flacourtiace, Violaceae, Turneraceae and

Pittosporaceae) and suborder. 4. Tamariscineae (including the family

Tamaricaceae) on the one hand and suborder 6. Passiflorineae (including the

families Casicaceae, Passifloraceae, Cucurbitaceae and Begoniaceae) on the

other. This position, however, has been regarded as doubtful and he further

states that these suborders in question have little in common with one another.

Hutchinson (6) places this family under Order No. 10 Capparidales after the

family Capparidaceae and before the family Zovariaceae. The next Order

No. 11 Cruciales contains the family Cruciferae followed by the Order No. 12

Violales containing the families Vzolaceae and Hesedaceae.

Schnarf (9) after examination of the families in the Series No. 19 Rhoeadales

states that the families Papavaraceae, Tovariaceae, Cruciferae and esedaceaz

have commoncharacters. No periplasmodium is formed in the anther-tapetum.

The mature pollen grain is 2- or 3-nucleated and the ovuie has thick nucellus

and 2 integuments. ‘The development of the embryo-sac is of the normal type.

There may be differences in the formation of the female archesporium. Fapa-

varaceae and Lovariaceag have primary archesporial cell, which cuts off wall

cells while in Resedaceae and Cruciferae the tendency of the formation of wall

cells is Suppressed in course of the formation of the embryo-sac. With regard

to the family M/oringaceae he based his conclusions on the work of Rutgers (8)

386 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 43

which he considers as doubtful. He has remarked at the end that the question

whether JVoringaceae can be put inthe series Rhoeadales ornotis not clear

through the present statements and accounts. Rutgers’ (8) work has been refu-

ted by Puri (7), the important points of which are given as follows:—The arch-

esporia] cells, usually J] but sometimes 2-3, divide in the usual manner to pro-

duce the primary wall cell and the megaspore mother cell. The former by

repeated periclinal and anticlinal divisions forms 2-3, or even 4 layers of

parietal tissue. Rutgers’ (8) statement that the archesporial cell does not

divide and functions directly as the embryo-sac mother cell seems to be incor-

rect. Both linear and T-shaped tetrad are observed but the latter type was

only observed by Rutgers, ‘The embryo-sac is monosporic 8-nucleated and not

5- nucleated as recorded by Rutgers (8).

Both Wettstein (10) and Hutchinson (6) have inferred the near relationship

of Moringaceae with Capparidaceae from the presence of a short gynophore and

parietal placentation. In the genus Emblingia of § Emblingioideae of the

family Capparidaceae the calyx-tube is present according to Pax (referred to

by Willis, 11) as is found in the Moringaceae but the carpels of Cappartdaceae

are typically ¢wo, syncarpous and transverse asin Cruciferae.

According to Engler and Diels (2) Aloringaceae resembles Resedaceae in

having parietal placentation and ex-albuminous seeds and capsular fruits. In-

stead of a short gynophore as in Moringaceae it is observed that the axis

develops posteriorly into a large disc in Kesedaceae. It differs markedly from

Resedaceae in having 5-merous medianly zygomorphic flowers, the number of

stamens and the straight embryo.

Hutchinson (6), however, has placed the family Moringaceae not far from

the family Vzolaceae. His phylogenetic chart shows the probable course of

evolution to have been as follows :—

Cruciales

Capparidales

Violales ‘i

N — —— > Loasales

yond

Polygalales

Rhoeadales

ba:

Ranales

Berberidales (part)

Both the orders Violales and Capparidales are shown to eee evolved from

his Order No. 8 Rhoeadales ana evidently they are nearly related.

A careful perusal of the relevant literature and the examination of the floral

and other characters of Woringa pterygosperma Gaertn. = (MV. oleifera (Lamk.)]

(Figs. 1-11) reveals the fact that it is more closely allied to thefamily Violaceae

and that it should be placed in the Order No. 12 Violales of Hutchinson (6). The

reasons for holding the opinion are that the Morzugaceae resembles the Violaceae

in having medianly zygomorphic pentamerous flowers, the number of sepals and

petals being five and the odd fifth petal being anterior and the largest in both

of them. ‘lhe aestivation of the sepals and the petals is also somewhat alike.

The two lateral petals in species of Viola and Moringa have the same

disposition (Fig. 10). Further, the two posterior petals are outermost in

both the species. As regards the number of stamens, in Moringa the 5 perfect

stamens alternate with the staminodes of the same number (3, 4 or 7) whereas

in Viola staminodes are absent, although the number of stamens is 5. ‘The

embryo is straight in both the famliies. The ovary is tricarpellary and unilocu-

lar with parietal placentation in both the cases. In Vzolaceae the odd carpel is

anterior whereas in Moringaceae it is posterior as in Casearia (Fam. Flacour-

tiaceae = Samydaeeae of Bentham and Hooker). In Moringaceae the seeds are

invariably winged but Hutchinson (6) has also mentioned that in some species of

Violaceae winged seeds have been found to occur. Endosperm-formation ‘is

nuclear (cf. Schnarf, 9) in Violaceae but in Moringaceae it is at first nuclear

1, Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

(For explanation see end of article)

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THE SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF THE FAMILY MORINGACEAE 357

but cell-formation begins at a very late stage in the micropyle and is confined to

that region. The cell-walls are indistinct and each ‘cell’ contains several

nuclei according to Puri (7). With the maturity of the embryo the whole endo-

sperm is used up and consequently the seed is noneendospermic in Moringa-

ceaeé whereas in Violaceae a fleshy endosperm is present. In both

Viotaceae and Moringaceae the. normal type of 8-nucleated embryo-

sac occurs. The pollen grain in Moringa pterygosperma is spheroidal

tricolpate with three equatorial germinal pores placed equidistantly. Exine is

smooth, provided with a granular texture. Fig. (11) ? Exactly this type of

pollen grain also occursin Violaceae (cf. Woodhouse, 1935 and Erdtmann.

1943). As Woodhouse (12) puts it, ‘in no other part of the plant are to be found

packed in so small a space so many readily available phylogenetic characters ’.

Considering all the characters and view points the present writers are in-

clined to consider that the family Morvingaceae should be placed near the family

Violaceae in the Order No. 12 Violales of Hutchinson (6) as both the families

seem to be phylogenetically related.

SUMMARY

The examination of the floraland other characters shows that the family

Moringaceae seems to be phylogenetically related with the family Violaceéae.

REFERENCES

. Bentham, G. and J. D. Hooker (1862-83), Genera Plantarum.

. Engler, A. and L. Diels (1936), Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien, 214-21.

. Erdtmann, G. (1943), An Introduction to Pollen Analysis, Waltham,

Mass., U.S.A.

4. Haines, H. H. (1922), Zhe Botany of Bihar and Orissa, Part ILI,

London.

5. Hooker, Sir J. D, (1879), Zhe Flora of British India, Vol IU, 45.

6. Hutchinson, J. (1926), The families of flowering plants: I. Dicotyledons,

MacMillan & Co.

7. Puri, V. (1941), ‘ The life history of Moringa oleifera Lamk’, Journ,

Ind. Bot. Soc., XX, October, 263-84.

8. Rutgers, F. L. (1923), ‘Embryo-sac and embryo of Moringa oleifera

Lamk: The female gametophyte of Angiosperms’, Aun. jard, Bot. Buitenzorg,

33, 1-66.

9. Schnarf, K. (1931), Vergleichende Embryologie dey Angiospermen,

Berlin.

10. Wettstein, R. (1935), Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik, Leipzig

und Wien, p. 727,

11. Willis, J.C. (1925), 4 Dictionary of Flowering Plants and Ferns.

Camb. Univ. Press, fifth ed.

12. Woodhouse, R. P. (1935), Pollen Grains, McGraw-Hill Publ. Co. Ltd.

first ed., p. 443.

GN +

EXPLANATION OF FIGURES,

1, Flower. x 14.

2. Sectional (vertical) view of flower showing the positions of sepals, petals,

stamens and carpels. x 3. -

3. 5-sepals on the calyx-tube. x1}.

4, Petals- (a) A and a” Posteriortwo. x Nat. size.

(b) b’ and b”— Lateral two. x Nat, size.

| (c) c— anterior. x Nat. size.

. Staminode. x 4.

6. 5stamens with 4 staminodes. x 4,

7. Onesingle stamen. x 5.

8. Carpel. x 5

9. Sectional view of the ovary—diagramatic.

10. Floral diagram of Moringa plerygosperma.

1l. Pollen grainof M7. pierygosperma. x 1400.

1 The diameter of the pollen grain in Moringa plerygosperma is 38-40! in

width but Puri (7) observed it ito be 20-25//.

“OBITUARY NOTICES

THEODORE RATHBONE HUBBACK

(1872-1944)

(With a plate)

Theodore Rathbone Hubback was born in Liverpool on i7th

December, 1872, and was the second son of the late Joseph Hubback,

J.P. of Liverpool. He was educated at Cranbrook School in Kent

and was articled as a Civil Engineer to the late George Fosbery

Lister, Chief Engineer of the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board.

On the completion of his articles he was appointed an Assistant

Engineer on the staff of some of the large docks on Mersyside.

At the end of 1895 he was appointed by the Colonial Office as

a District Engineer in the P.W.D., Selangor, one of the Native

States in the Malay Peninsula before the days of Federation. His

first appointment was that of District Engineer, Klang. He sub-

sequently went to British North Borneo as Director of Public Works.

On relinquishing this appointment he returned to Malaya and was

engaged on large schemes of road construction in Negri Sembilan.

He then turned his attention to rubber planting and. opened up

an estate in the Kuala Pilah district of Negri Sembilan where he

remained until 1919, when he disposed of his property and moved

to Pahang making his home at Bukit Betong near Kuala Lipis.

Soon after his arrival in Selangor he became intensely interested

in big game, in those days Klang and the coast districts contained

a large number of wild elephant and the hunting of these animals

was the beginning of many years of study of wild life in Malaya.

After he settled in Pahang he was appointed Honorary Chief Game

Warden of that State where wild life, especially elephant and Sela-

dang, abounded in the large areas of virgin jungle. He drew up a

scheme for forming a National Park for the preservation of wild

life but the project met with considerable opposition from officials

and a section of the non-official community. After much corres-

pondence he was appointed by the Colonial Office as Commissioner

to hold an enquiry on the general principles of the preservation of

wild life and the formation of a National Park. Unfortunately the

whole of his recommendations were not accepted and the establish-

ment of the National Park was never properly carried out.

He latterly gave up hunting big game and devoted the whole

of his energies in photographing wild life. Many of his articles

and photographs were published in Journal of this Society in ‘The

Field’ and ‘Country Life’, he also took a number of cinema films

which he used to show at various times.

He lived in Pahang until his death. When Malaya was invaded

by the Japanese in 1941, he was ordered to evacuate to: Singapore,

this he refused to do and went with two Malay servants up imto

the Ulu Tembeling District of Pahang with full stores and equip-

ment intending to form a camp in the jungle until the Japanese were

driven out. In February 1944, he was murdered while in camp but

his murderers have not yet been ‘discovered. In his young days he

- OBITUARY NOTICES - 359

was a fine athlete. He played cricket for Lancashire in 1892 when he

was 1g years old and he represented the Straits Settlements on more

than one occasion. He also played Rugby football for Liverpool in

the days when Liverpool had one of the best sides in the north of

England.

With his death, the Society has lost a generous patron and bene-

factor who repeatedly contributed to the cost of plates in our Journal.

His zealous work for the protection of wild life in Malaya is out-

standing, and equally so was his knowledge of its wild animals as

evidenced in his writings and his fine camera portraits of Malayan

wild life. 7

R.1.P.

SIR DAVID EZRA

(1871-1947)

By the death of David Ezra, Kt., at the age of 76 at his Calcutta

residence on August 23, 1947, the Bombay Natural History Society

has lost a very old Life Member and Vice-Patron. Born in 1871

of a wealthy family of one of the earliest Jewish settlers in India

from Bagdad he never stinted his services for enhancing the dignity

of his community’s contribution to India’s progress, specially in

the field of humanitarian work. Loved universally for his affable

manners and never-failing courtesy and humility, he seems to have

earned the confidence of all, high and low, and for almost a period

of 4o years his was a strikingly popular figure in Calcutta’s social

functions. The exalted office of the Sheriff of Calcutta, which he

held in 1925-26, was yet another opportunity to him for giving the

best of his civic services.

He was a lover of Arts and patron of learning. The Royal

Asiatic Society of Bengal elected him its President for two terms

in succession (1940-42). He was a member of the Honorary Com-

‘mittee for the management of the Zoological Gardens, Calcutta.

From an early age he appears to have focussed his interest on

animals and birds, of which he was an indefatigable collector. His

Calcutta house, which contained his menagerie, might be termed a

veritable Zoo. Along two sides of the boundary walls of his

compound the ranges of bird houses are located, and the swannery

‘is on the south side. Besides, there are stables, paddocks and en-

closures for rare animals and the larger birds. These represented

mostly exotic species and foreign specimens. He had almost a passion

for pets, tame animals and talking birds, and the pursuit of his hobby

in this direction enabled him to acquire unique experience in the

taming. and management of his diverse collection. In this collection

one could see prize zebras, baby bears, hunting cheetas, Assam

elephant, Manchurian. Crane, turkeys, swans from the King’s

Swannery, rare ornamental waterfowl, pheasants, and game birds,

charming members of the parrot tribe from abroad, Birds of Para-

dise, Bataleur Eagle from South Africa, etc. He was a race-horse

owner and seems to have taken pride in the mere possession of some

360 - JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47

prize animals. But he was never known to bet on his or others’

horses, preferring always to race for the sheer love of the sport.

5. C. LAW.

REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.R.S.

(1863-1947)

(With a plate)

By the death of R. I. Pocock, Zoology has lost a versatile

naturalist and the Society a valuable contributor. Reginald Innes

Pocock was the son of the Rev. Nicholas Pocock, and was born at

Clifton on March 4th, 1863. He was first at school in Clifton and

afterwards in Oxford from where he went to University College,

Bristol. Shortly after completing his studies there he was appointed

in 1885 to the staff of the British Museum (Natural History) and

given charge of the Arachnida and Mynopoda. He took up the

study of these invertebrates with great zeal and soon made a name

for himself. Between 1887 and 1910, he wrote some thirty papers

on the fauna of India and adjacent countries, as well as over a

hundred on that of other countries. One of his first contributions

dealing with the Indian Region, was on the Myriopoda of

the Mergui' Archipelago collected by Dr. John Anderson,

published in 1887. Eight years later he contributed to the

Journal an account of the Galeodidae inhabiting India and Ceylon,

and this was the beginning of Pocock’s long connection with the

Society. He was specially interested in scorpions and published in

the Annals and Magazine of Natural History for 1890 a paper on

a collection made in Travancore by Edgar Thurston. About this

time he began to correspond with our founder, the late H. M.

Phipson, who at his request, appealed to members to collect scor-

pions: Large numbers of scorpions, alive-and dead, were received

at the Society’s rooms as the result of this appeal and among them

were several new species which Pocock described in the Journal for

1897. The first volume of the Fauna of British India had been

published in 1888 and Pocock was asked to write on the Arachnida,

etc. He completed his first volume on the Scorpions, Uropygia,

Amblypygia and Solifugae and part of the Araneae in 1901. Un-

fortunately before he had finished his second volume, dealing with

the remainder of the Araneae, Pocock retired. from. the British

Museum and. was appointed Superintendent of the Gardens of the

Zoological Society in 1904. He had. always been. interested in

Mammals, and while at the Museum had made collecting trips to

the Balearic Islands and Spain, in search of small mammals, with

the late Oldfield Thomas.

At the Zoological Gardens he had ample opportunity to study

live animals, especially his favourite groups, the monkeys, carnivora

and ungulates. He took every advantage of examining in the

prosectorium any animals which died, making drawings of the soft

parts and dissecting the facial and other glands. Henceforth he

Journ., BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

The late R. I. Pocock, F.R.sS.

OBITUARY NOTICES 361

contributed a large number of papers on these investigations to the

Proceedings of the Society and one of the most important was on

‘The specialised cutaneous glands of Ruminants’ which appeared in

1911. Before he had been very long at the Gardens he made the

acquaintance of the late Major Rodon, a keen naturalist and a

generous contributor of specimens to our Society and donor of Tive

animals to the Zoological Society. Among the latter was a goral

from Chumba, which roused Pocock’s interest, and he commenced

to study these animals and their allies, the serows. The result

appeared in the Journal for 1910 under the title of ‘The Serows,

Gorals and Takins of British India and the Straits Settlements’. This

was the beginning of the long series of papers on mammals which

he contributed to the Society’s Journal.

When it was decided to bring out a second edition of the earlier

volumes of the Fauna Pocock was invited to write on the larger

mammalia. He used the Society’s Journal as a medium to publish

his preliminary revisions of the different species. This resulted in

arousing a keen interest in members of the Society, and both the

Society and the British Museum benefited considerably by the

donation of specimens, while Pocock received many valuable notes

on the habits and distribution of the different animals. In 1939 the

first volume was published and dealt with the monkeys and part of

the carnivora, while in 1941 the remainder of the carnivora were

treated in a second volume. At the time of his death, Pocock was

engaged in the third and final volume which would have contained

the rest of the large mammals—the ungulates to the elephants. Un-

fortunately the MSS. for this volume is so far incomplete that it will

not be possible to publish it.

The new volumes were a great advance on the first edition. The

systematic treatment was thoroughly up to date and no pains were

spared to make the paragraphs on habits interesting which makes

these volumes indispensable to the systematic worker, the sports-

man and the naturalist. In the last number of the Journal, was

published a paper by Pocock which was one of a series on the

Wild Asses of Asia. When he began to write this paper Pocock

realised that it was necessary to see additional specimens of the

Kutch Wild Ass. He appealed to Mr. W. S. Millard and, as was

always the case, his appeal was not in vain. Through the good offices

of Mr. Millard, the Maharao of Kutch was approached; Mr. Salim Ali

went to the Runn and collected the necessary specimens and after-

wards wrote the first accurate account of this animal’s habits.

Pocock was a very careful worker and took immense pains to

trace the origin of scientific names of animals he wrote about; he was

also widely read in all books dealing with the animals in which he

was specially interested. His knowledge of natural history was not

confined to spiders and mammals but he had a wide general acquain-

tance with many groups. He wrote many articles both on vertebrates

and invertebrates for some of the well-known Natural Histories.

For many years he was natural history editor of ‘The Field’ a post

calling for a wide acquaintance with all branches of natural history.

Apart from natural history, Pocock was a keen sportsman, and

in his younger days played Rugby football, obtained his cap for

Gloucestershire and at the Civil Service sports was a winner of

362 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47

short-distance races and the long jump. To the end he kept up his

interest in football and cricket and was a regular spectator at all

important matches. i

Shortly before his death Pocock had been absent from the Mu-

seum for some days but appeared to have completely recovered and

was back at work again. He had made arrangements to watch a

cricket match on Saturday, August 8, but passed quietly away in

his sleep early that morning.

N. B. K.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF R. I. Pocock’s PAPERS

In Journal Bombay Natural Hist. Society:

1910 Serows, Gorals, Takins of Brit. India and Straits Settlements, vol. xix,

Dty Mee phaso7,

1913 (Pt! Vtivoly ixxiiicp. 8206.

1910 Note on the skin and skull of a Serow obtained by Capt. F. M. Bailey,

at Chumbi, vol. xix, p. 823.

Hybrid between a Lion and Panther, vol. xxii, p.. 187.

1914 Description of a new species of Goral (Nemorhaedus) shot by Capt. F.

M. Bailey, vol. xxiii, p. 32.

1928 The Languers or Leaf-Monkeys of Brit. India (with plates), pt. I, vol. xxxii,

P. 472.

Pt, II, vol. .xxxii, ps 660,

1929 Tigers (with plates), vol. xxxiii, p. 565.

Black Panthers, an Enquiry, vol. xxxiii, p. 693.

An Appeal to Sportsmen, vol. xxxili, p. 754.

1930 The Panthers and Ounces of Asia, pt. I°(6 plates), vol. xxxiv, p. 64.

Pt. II (7 plates), vol. xxxiv, p. 307.

1930 Tiger or Panther? Limouzin’s specimen (2 plates), vol. xxxiv, p. 544.

The Lions of Asia (5 plates), 1 map. vol. xxxiv, p. 638.

Wanted Bears! Vol. xxxiv, p. 1052.

1935 The Mammal Survey of the Eastern Ghats. Report on the Monkeys,

Vol. .XXXV,i4P‘) 51.

The Long-tailed Macacque Monkey (Macaca radiate and M, sinica) of

Southern India and Ceylon, vol. xxxv, p. 276. .

The Pig-tailed Macacques (Macaca nemestrina), vol, xxxv, p. 297.

1932. The Rhesus Macacques (Macaca mulatta), (1 plate, 2 text-figs.), vol. xxxv,-

Pp. 530.

The Black and Brown Bears .of Europe and Asia, pt. I (11 text-figs.),

VOI XEKVA ED. 771s

Pt. If (2 plates 12 text-figs.), vol. xxxvi, p. ror.

The Persian Panther (P. pardus saxicola) in Baluchistan, vol. xxxv, p. 886.

The Balinese Tiger (Panthera tigris balica), vol. xxxvi, p. 233.

The skin of a Persian Panther, vol.. xxxvi, p. 236.

193% The Ciyet Cats of Asia, pt. I (4 text-figs.), vol. xxxvi, p, 423.

Pt. TI (1 text-fig.), vol. xxxvi, p.’ 629.

Panthers of the N.-W. Frontier, vol. xxxvi, p. 480.

The Palm Civets or, ‘Toddy Cats’ of the genera Paradoxurus and Paguma

inhabiting Brit, India. (2 text-figs,), vol. xxxvi, p. 855.

1934 The Palm Civets or ‘Toddy Cats’ of the genera Paradoxurus and Paguma

inhabiting Brit. India, pt. TJ, vol. xxxvii, p. 172.

Pt. III, vol. xxxvii; p. 314.

1935 Note on a Bear and Panther obtained by Col. F. M. Bailev from Tibet.

and a Panther from Asia Minor obtained by Mr, J}. E. Whittall, vol.

ZEXVILS EDN AQT aE

The Lion in Baluchistan, vol. xxxviii, p. 381.

A pair of Tndian Lions presented to the British Museum by H. H. the

Nawab of Junagadh, vol, xxxvili, p. 382.

OBITUARY NOTICES 363

1936 The Foxes of Brit. India (with 3 text-figs.) vol, xxxix, p. 36.

1937 The Mongooses of Brit. India, Ceylon and Burma (with 2 text-figs.),

vol. XxXXix, p. 211.

The alleged Wild Dog of Mt. Popa, Burma, vol. xxxix, p. 851.

1940 The Hog-Badgers (Arctonyx) of Brit, India (with text-fig.), vol. xli, p. 46r.

Notes on some Brit. Indian Otters with description of two new sub-

species, vol. xli, p. 514.

1942 The Larger Deer of Brit. India, pt. I (with 8 text-figs.), vol. xlili, p. 208.

1943. Pt. II (with 7 text-figs.), vol. xliii, p. 553.

Pt. III. The Sambar (with 3 text-figs.), vol. xliv, p. 27.

Misc. Note: The record skull of an Indian Clouded Leopard (Neofelis

nebulosa), vol. xliv, p. 113.

The Larger Deer of Brit. India, pt. IV, The Chital and Hog-Deer (with

text-figs.), vol. xliv, p. 169.

1944 A black female Cat from Karachi, and the Panther of Sind, vol. xliv, p. 585.

The Eastern Range of the Himalayan Brown Bear (Ursus isabellinus), vol.

xliv, p. 585.

The Larger Deer of Brit. India, A correction, vol. xliv, p. 587.

In other scientific journals ;

1947 Two new local races of the Asiatic Wild Ass, vol. 47, p. 143.

The identity of the genotype of Rhinoceros Linn.Ann. Mag. Nat, H1st.

II), 11, p. 616-617.

Some cranial and dental characters of the existing species of Asiatic

Rhinoceros.’ P:Z.S. 114, p. 437:

The premaxillae in the Asiatic Rhinoceros, Ann, Mag. Nat. Hist. (II), 11,

p. 834.

1946 Some structural variations in the second upper premolar of the Lesser

One-horned Rhinoceros (R. sondaicus). P.Z.S. p. 306.

External and cranial characters of some rare Asiatic mammals recently

exhibited by the Society. P.Z.S. p. 311.

A sexual difference in the skulls of Asiatic Rhinoceros. P.Z.S. p. 319.

1943 Notes on the Asiatic Ejephant (Elephas maximus), Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.

(AUD). By fos Pe

1908 Notes upon some Species and Geographical Races of Serows (Capricornis)

and Gorals (Nemorhaedus) based upon specimens exhibited in the Society’s

Gardens. P.Z.S. p. 173.

1912 On a rare Stag (Cervus wallichii) from Nepal recently presented to the

Zoological Society by H. M. King George, P.Z.S. p. 558.

1927. Abnormal Indian Leopard. P.Z.S. pt. 3, Exhibition and Notices, p. 791.

1932 The Marbled Cat (Pardofelis marmorata) and some other Oriental species

with the definition of a new Genus of the Felidae. P.Z.S. p. 741.

1933 The rarer Genera of Oriental Viverridae. P.Z.S. p., 969.

1934 Races of the Striped and Brown Hyenas. P.Z.S. p. 799.

1935 Races of Canis lupus. P.Z.S. p. 647.

Story of the Indian Lion, Asiatic Review, July, 1935, p. 1-9.

1936 The Asiatic Wild Dog or Dhole (Cuon javanicus). P.Z.S. 3

The Oriental Yellow-throated Marten (Lamprogale). P.Z.S. p. 531.

ALEXANDER EDWARD JONES

(1878-1947)

Died in Shi of heart failure on 17th October tOAT after a short

illness at the age of 69.

A. E. Jones joined the Society in 1910 and was an active and

useful member during his long connection with it. His various

contributions to the pages of the Journal have added substantially

to our knowledge of Indian birds. In +1944 he made a gift to the

Society of his entire collection of some 3,000 bird skins, the fruits

of careful and discriminating collecting in many parts of India for

over 30 years. Most of these specimens were shot and skinned by

Jones personally. Their freshness and the high standard: of their

364 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. ’SOCIETY, Vol. 47

preparation testify to the care he devoted to them. ‘The precision

of the labelling makes this collection a particularly valuable acqui-

sition to our Museum and provides excellent comparative material

for taxonomic work. |

Jones was a keen and reliable observer. His knowledge of the

avifauna not only of the Simla Hills and neighbouring areas but

also of many other parts of India was extensive. Nor was his

interest confined to birds. He was deeply interested in flora and

in insects and has made some valuable contributions to our know-

ledge of the butterflies of what may almost be called his native hills.

Being a contemporary of such well-known ornithologists as Stuart

Baker and Hugh Whistler, Jones imbibed from them by corres-

pondence and by personal contact a keen appreciation of the problems

connected with Indian ornithology. The frequency with which he

is quoted both in the Fauna volumes on Birds (2nd edition) by

Stuart Baker and in the same author’s Nidification of Bivds in the

Indian Empire is a tribute to the high esteem his knowledge and

integrity enjoyed. For though the proprietor of a flourishing tailor-

ing business by profession, Jones missed no opportunity of indulging

in his hobby (ornithology) in the intelligent and effective manner

which made him the unquestioned authority on the birds of his area.

Though in regular correspondence about their common interests,

the writer of this note was never fortunate enough to make Jones’s

personal acquaintance. Those near him describe him as a genial

and loveable man whose sincerity and sympathetic help at all times

endeared him to every young naturalist with whom he came in

contact. His letters amply reflect these qualities. Jones’s enthu-

siasm for birds was contagious as many have testified who got to

know him at close quarters.

The name of Jones has been permanently enshrined in the annals

of Indian ornithology by the two races of birds that have been called

in his honour. One of these is a Spotted Babbler

Pellorneum ruficeps jonesi Stuart Baker, Bull. B.O.C. Vol. xli,

p. 9, 1920: Kalka,

and the other a Long-billed Vulture

Gyps indicus jonesi Whistler, Bull. B.O.C., Vol. xlvii, p. 74,

1920 Rawal Pindi.

In response to constant pressure from friends anxious that his

unmatched knowledge of Simla birds should find permanent record,

Jones was at long last persuaded to work up his notes and diaries

into a comprehensive paper on the ‘Birds of the Simla and adjacent

Hills’. The second part of this paper appears elsewhere in this issue of

the Journal. Only one more part is available in manuscript form and

it is indeed a pity the author did not live to complete the work.

With the help of his bird collection and such of his notes as may be

available, the Editors will endeavour to the best of their ability to

complete the account of the birds Jones met with in that area. It

is feared, however, that this may be no more than a bare list since

we understand that his diaries were mostly written in a private

shorthand which will probably be undecipherable.

Jones was the first ornithologist to discover the occurrence of the

Black-throated Diver (Colymbus arcticus) in India in 1922, a record

OBITUARY NOTICES 368

which has not been repeated since and which forms a notable addi-

tion to the list of Indian birds.

The following is a list of the more important contributions of

A. E. Jones published in the Society’s Journal :—

Notes on Birds from Lahore, xxi, 1073.

Himalayan Long-billed Vulture (G. tenuirostris) breeding near Ambala, xxiv,

358 lea adi ion

oy | oie

A List of Birds from the Simla Hills, 1908-1918, xxvi, 601.

Further notes on Birds of the Ambala District, Punjab, xxvi, 675.

Bird Notes from the Campbellpur-Attock District, W. Punjab, xxvii, 794.

Occurrence of the Black-throated Diver (Colymbus arcticus) in India, xxviii,

1134.

Nightjars on the Simla Hills xxix, 286.

The Breeding of the E. Orphean Warbler (Sylvia jerdoni Blyth) in the North-

West Frontier Province, xxvii, 630.

Further Notes on the Birds of the Ambala District, xxxi, 1000.

The Nesting of the Basra Sparrow-Hawk (Accipiter virgalus affinis) at Simla,

XXXV, 208.

Nesting of the Hobby (fF. subbuteo) near Simla with some general remarks

on the genus Falco and allied species, xxiii, 579.

Further Note on the breeding of the Hobby (F. subbuteo) near Simla, xxiv, 350.

Note on the Nidification of the Green Shrike-Tit (Pteruthius xanthochloris),

Xxiv, 369.

Nesting of the Booted Eagle (Hieragtus pennatus Gm.) in the Simla Hills,

xl, 568.

A Note on the Lycaenid Butterfly (Hveres dipora), xl, 133.

On the differences between Lycaenopsis huegelli huegelli and Lycaenopsis

ladonides gigas, xl, 134.

S. A.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

-1—BEHAVIOUR OF HYENA AND PANTHER

AT A OKIE:

As it is asserted by many shikaris from experience—as well as

by others without the experience—that a panther will not return to,

or will not feed again on a kill visited by a hyena, also that the

hyena will sometimes drive away the feeding panther, the following

account of an incident may be of interest to the shikar fraternity, as

well as to others. Actually the occasion was comprised of a series

of varying incidents covering a period of about 24 hours, with

intervals briefand long. But the phase of greatest interest to myself

was that during which I had, perforce, kept the scene illuminated by

my electric torch for perhaps four minutes, with all the actors on the

stage during that time.

The kill (a calf) was in the large bare compound of an unoccupied

house. A public road and dwellings lay along the front of the com-

pound, other houses and compounds with intervening walls lay

adjacently to the first in one direction; the fourth side was open

ground and ended at the brink of a cliff far away—the only direction

in which to safely fire a heavy rifle, while the opposite side of a

common intervening wali offered an ideal place for the ‘ gun’.

The kill was brought about 5 yards nearer (within 20 yards) and

was not pegged down, as I hoped that the sound of the panther

dragging away the carcase would warn me of its presence. Asa

pariah dog arrived just after dark, half a dozen stones were collected

for such visitors.

About 11 p.m. a large hyena was discovered, backing away on

its haunches with the carcase in its jaws and almost clear of the

ground. It was driven away by a flung stone and the carcase brought

back to its proper place. It returned after a few minutes (detected

quite by chance), was subsequently joined by another and it was only

by good luck that these two were detected from time to time

approaching the carcase, for they were not readily driven away.

During this phase, the behaviour of the large hyena indicated that

the panther had, to his knowledge, arrived—somewhere in the dark

background—and soon I saw its eyes, about 40 yards beyond the

kill. They appeared there just after I had replaced the carcase for

the second time.

I was now obliged to switch on my torch at frequent intervals,

and thus discovered another panther’s eyes somewhat farther off

than the first and about 30 yards to one side. As the monsoon

wind was blowing from behind me and towards the scene, with the

panthers to leeward of the hyenas, I was curious to know whether

the larger hyena could see those eyes in the artificial light as I could,

or had he previously located their owner there, for he made frequent

excursions in the general direction of the first panther. As their

forms were invisible to mein the light of my 3-cell torch at that

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 367

range, I was never able to see this hyena again, nor saw his eyes,

until he began to re-appear returning to the kill; so I] could not tell

exactly where he had been, for the eyes of both panthers remained

stationary during each of these scoutings except the last one, when

the eyes of the first panther moved lower to the ground and then

disappeared.

Finally, both hyenas were closely about the kill, moving to and

fro with nervous uncertainty under the brilliant shaft of light but

obviously preparing to get busy with it, and in the background were

the steady gleams from the eyes of both panthers. Standing up I

expended all my stones and scared off the smaller hyena (? female).

In desperation I hissed and ‘shoo-ed’ at the other; but only

when I resorted to slapping my hand upon the wall loudly did he go

away. . Almost immediately after, and while the light was still on,

the first panther began toapproach. It came into the glare of the

torch at a fast walk, to one side of the kill till abreast of it; then it

turned towards it—giving a couple of glances directly into the light,

with screwed up and blinking eyelids—and, when about 4 yards

from the kill, was confronted by the lager hyena. The latter seemed

to have materialised there suddenly, about the same short distance

away—the two animals face to face. The panther hesitated, stopped,

and turning away (towards the light) began retracing its steps at a

slower pace. I retain no visual impression of any change in its

demeanour or carriage at that moment, except perhaps that the high-

held, alert head was slightly lowered—until it paused to look into

the light again. It did not look back at the hyena.

About 1-30 a.m. the eyes of the other panther appeared, but now

nearer. Unfortunately the heavy recoil of the rifle had disarranged

the seating of the torch as well as the delicate contact mechanism,

so that I had to reach forward with my right hand and hold the

contact ‘off’. When switched on again this panther had gone—for

good. I feel that the behaviour of the hyenas and panthers in this

affair was unusual—as extraordinary as that of the ‘ gun’ was too.

Iona Vitra, K. BOSWELL,

KHANDALA. Captain, LLAM.C.

12th August 1947.

2.—THE SENSE OF SMELL IN TIGERS

Mr. R. C. Morris’s comments on the note by Mr. T. E. H. Smith,

in the April 1947 number of the Journal are of interest and his

theory that the tiger has a hound sense of smell is borne out by the

following incident.

In January 1936, I was camping in the foot-hills near here, and

had three young buffaloes tied up as bait for tiger, One morning

news was brought to camp that one of the buffaloes had been killed

en was lying where it had been tied up at a junction of two. forest

rides.

I went out: to the place, only to find that the tiger had in the

meantime returned, broken the rope and dragged the carcase into

368 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47

the jungle. I had not brought a gun, as my intention had been merely

to build a machan then, and to go back to camp for my gun at

lunch-time. I started to follow up the drag, but the jungle soon

became very dense, and as it seemed rather a risky procedure, I

decided to return to camp for my rifle. By the time I had got it,

and eventually located the remains of the kill, it was getting

quite late.

The carcase of the buffalo, minus one hind leg, was lying ina

rocky nullah ina most unsatisfactory situation. ‘The only possible

place for sitting up was in a little clump of bamboos some ten yards

away. I hastily built a small machan in this, about six feet from the

ground, and sent my men away, talking loudly as they went.

I started sitting up at 2 p.m., as it gets dark fairly early there

during the winter, and the spot was a long way from any habitation.

The shikaris had only been gone about 15 minutes, when a barking-

deer gave a bleat of alarm from further up the ravine.

At 3-15 I happened to take a look out of the peep-hole in the

front.of the machan, and saw the tiger already there. He was about

ten yards beyond the kill and was slowly approaching it down the

nullah, and appeared to be sniffing the ground or examining it with

his head down in a very short-sighted manner.

Unfortunately, this being the first tiger I had ever seen ina mill

state, I was keener on bagging him than on observing his habits, and

I did not watch him for long. But one would hardly expect a tiger

to be myopic, and J am convinced he was in fact smelling the ground

after the fashion of a dog. He was a young male of 8’ 9”, in

excellent condition, and there was nothing apparently wrong with

his eye-sight.

It would seem that he had probably heard my men leaving the

neighbourhood of his kill an hour before, and that he was trying to

verify by sense of smell what he had previously heard.

Whether my shikaris had put any clothes or blankets on the

ground while building the machan, I cannot naw remember, but

it is unlikely, as this was during the cold weather and they would

probably not have discarded any of their clothing. The ‘spot

where the tiger appeared to be smelling the ground was on the far

side of the kill from the machan and I do not think any of my men

had been there.

The tiger did not seem to have winded me in the machan at all,

though I was only twenty yards or so away and not very high up.

SINGEL Dy Wey, C. J. T. WRENICKE

KURSEONG, N. BENGAL.

L4th September 1947.

3.— DEATH CRY’ OF TIGER

The ‘death cry’ of a tiger, mentioned by Lieut.-Col. Burton, in

the Journal of April 1947, must be of great interest to all who have

hunted this animal and will doubtless surprise many; for I wonder

how many have heard it, or even read about it in the better known

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 369

books on shikar of the past or present. His description of the cry,

likening it to a ‘loud cat-yowl’ reminds me of a somewhat

similar cry uttered by a tigress-—-but long after she was wounded—

and of the kind which I had believed was only associated with court-

ship or mating.

Having lost her tracks on hard ground and then the blood trail

ceasing, I was ascending a short, bare, rocky spur and was a little

higher than a clump of trees about 50 yards away on one side, when

I caught the pungent odour one associates with the presence of tiger

or panther—though I have never detected it on a dead one. The

jungle man with me noticed it almost immediately after and, while

we stood staring down into the clump, we were startled to hear

amazingly loud ‘caterwaulings’ issuing from it—precisely like those

uttered by cats when mating, but magnified many times more in

volume ; they continued for 10 or 15 seconds without our being able

to detect the slightest movement in that cover.

To the best of my knowledge then there was only one other tiger”

in the block during that month (May), a male, and I never found

evidence of their consorting together. My first impression was that

the maie was forcing his attentions upon the wounded tigress (I

killed her later and, from certain peculiarities I drew his attention

to, my jungle man declared she was a ‘ byla ’—barren female); my

impression that the male was molesting her was created by a note of

agony in the sounds. Then I assumed that she had got into painful

difficulties with her broken shoulder in some dense undergrowth of

bushes and strong creepers I knew to be in that clump, and was not

aware of our presence. But, whatever the case, it was never solved;

for dusk was approaching and, as I already had a buffalo tied near

the lower edge of the clump, I postponed investigations to next

morning and then could not find any signs at all of a tiger having

been there—instead, I found a dead ‘chausingha’, gun-shot by a

poacher. Two other sounds strange to me and uttered by this tigress

were a soft, high-pitched ‘whimper’ shortly after she had received

the wound and, later a brief, low moan.

About 4 seconds after being knocked down by the shot she reared

upright to an astonishing height before falling again—uttering the

tearing grunts of her kind as she went lungeing and falling towards

my right rear. ‘Then she limped hurriedly and mutely a few more

yards to the cover of some high bushes, where she seemed to pause,

and then fell heavily, uttering a faint whimper remarkably similar to

that of a dog when one handles its injured paw—no louder. After a

while, she slowly hobbled further and I heard her making a careful

effort to lie down again; heard her body settling on dry leaves and

this was followed by the low moan—quite human in its quality.

I mention these two sounds because, coming from a tiger, they

were strange and unexpected to me. The ‘caterwauling ’, though

heard by many others with more opportunities, was new to me and,

in the circumstances, puzzling to account for.

I have heard a boar utter a long drawn and piercing scream as it

fell and died. A scream so high-pitched and prolonged that I thought

the very thing I had feared might occur had now happened—that

my bullet had glanced off the hard ground and was travelling a great

distance beyond. For, sleeping outside my tent with my terrier, he

370 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47

had almost nightly warned me of the proximity of a prowling

panther, whose eyes were almost invariably revealed by my electric

torch, but then always between me and the village about a + mile

beyond. The pig, however, was in a direclion at right angles to the

other; nevertheless, so prolonged was the scream that my apprehen-

sions persisted for some time after, for I had fired in hasty

annoyance at being disturbed.

IONA VILLA, K. BOSWELL,

KHANDALA. Captain, 1.A.M.C.

Sth September 1947.

4,—PECULIAR REACTION OF A DOG TO THE

HOOTING OF A SIREN

In the compound of my house on the outskirts of Benares there

lives a domestic dog (a black mongrel about 12 years old). Ihave

seen him ever since I first occupied this house in May 1942.

About a quarter of a mile from the house is situated the city’s

Electric Power House which sends forth every morning at 7 o’clock

the loud hoot of a whistle or siren lasting for about one minute. In

1942, the morning ‘ whistle’ was a shrill, high-pitched one, some-

what similar to those of the pre-war engines on the Indian Railways.

Sometime in 1943, the Power House changed over from the shrill

whistle to a comparatively low-pitched siren with a hoot very similar

to that of the British-pattern air-raid sirens familiar to us during the

War, and to the modern American-pattern railway engines ; the pitch

is higher than those of the customary steamer Sirens.

Every morning, with religious regularity, the dog, as soon as he

hears the siren, starts sending forth a series of loud, characteristic

wails which last for the duration of the siren’s hooting, i.e., about one

minute. He wails in whatever position he happens to be at the

moment—whether standing, sitting or lying—and with the face raised

upwards. I have noticed this reaction almost every morning since

1943 to date (September 1947). To the older whistle which the Power

House used to blow in 1942, the dog never reacted in this manner.

As I was not on the lookout, I cannot say whether the new reaction

started immediately after the change-over from the whistle tothe siren,

or after an interval of days or weeks, but I have a distinct re-collection

that it started not very long after the change-over ; it has continued

ever since. The explanation of the difference in the dog’s reaction

to the whistle and the siren-hoot obviously lies in the difference of

the pitch of the sound waves.

In addition to the morning hoot, the siren also blows at 12 noon

and at 1.30 and 5.30 in the ANSTO, ‘The. dog’s reaction to these

is similar but rather less regular. The explanation is that at these

periods of the day there is a considerable amount of noise in the air,

and the siren-hoots are not heard with the same clarity as in the early

morning.

In the same compound there also lives an oldish black bitch and her

buff-coloured son (born middle 1944) from the old black dog. In the

_MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 371

vicinity of the house live several other mongrels. None of them has

ever exhibited the peculiar reaction to the siren-hoot mentioned

above.

BENARES CANTT.

M. L. ROONWAL, M.sc., PH.D.

24th September 1947.

(CANTAB), F.N.L,

Zoological Survey of India.

5.—ON THE LEOPARD CAT. (PRIONAILURUS

BENGALENSIS)

(With a photo)

A few years ago, some friends of mine went home and left a

young leopard cat aged 7 months for me to look after. I was pleased

Leopard Cat

to have this opportunity of making the acquaintance of so beautiful,

slender and graceful a cat, and was keen to find out for myself whether

342 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47

it was possible to tame these animals in captivity. It had been

found with another (which had died of pneumonia when very young)

near Dimapur in Assam, and had been brought up by the daughter

of the family in the bungalow. It used to roam about the bungalow,

and used to come when called for its food. But it could not be called

tame, as it would not allow itself to be handled or even stroked.

After taking this cat over, I kept it for four months in my bunga-

low, and tried my utmost to make friends with it. But it was not

having any. It grew more and more savage, and at feeding time it

was extremely difficult to get food to it without getting attacked. So,

most unfortunately, it had to be destroyed.

I wonder if anyone has ever succeeded in taming this crea-

ture ?

About its breeding habits, I notice that Sterndale says that it is

said to breed in May, and to have three or four kittens at a time.

Whereas in the ‘Wild Animals of the Indian Empire, Part III’

published by you, it says ‘It has 3 or 4 cubs in a litter. A kitten a

month old was taken in August in the Nilgiris.’ As far as Assam is

concerned, the leopard cat aged 7 months which was given to me was

born in August. But I once also got a kitten near Golaghatin Assam ~

on March 26th, 1937 (two were found, but one died before reaching

me). Is itnot therefore probable that the leopard cat has two litters

a year, as the Indian Jungle Cat and others are supposed to do ? =:

Concerning the number of kittens, in each case two were brought,

and as faras I know no more were found. But it is possible that

there were more.

Doyvane T. E., De lhe (Clapp.

OaTING P. O., :

ASSAM.

12th August 1947.

[There is no fixed rule as to how any species of animal reacts to

conditions of captivity. It is largely a question of individual behavi-

our. An individual of a given specizs may remain fierce and resentful,

another become tame and docile. All observers agree that the

Leopard Cat is excessively savage and untameable. When caged, it

usually remains by day, crouched in a corner and snarls at all who come

near. But Blanford refers to one he saw in the London Zoo, which

unconcerned, paced up and down its cage by day, came when called

by its keeper and appeared thoroughly tame.

Little specific is known of the breeding seasons of most Indian

animals even of the commonest species. Some apparently have fixed

breeding seasons, while with others the young are produced in any

month of the year. But there is usually a period when breeding

activity is more marked. ‘These periods again vary with latitude.

Speaking generally, animals living in the higher altitudes of the Hima-

layas, produce their young early in spring or summer when food

supplies are more plentifully available. In tropical lands where

climatic conditions and food supplies remain more or less uniform—

there is more elasticity in breeding seasons and in the periods when

young are produced.—zDS. |

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 373

6.—PROCESSION OF MUSK SHREWS

I noticed a phenomenon a few days ago which I describe herein.

While sitting in the drawing room of my bungalow and listening

to the radio, my wife drew my attention to what appeared to her a

snake passing from under one sofa to another. As I sat up to look

towards this, I found that the so-called snake looked very peculiar

in that it had no shiny look on it, nor its head and tail prominent.

As I was looking on it, the tail part divided and presently two small

musk shrews started running about the room. The rest of the so-call-

ed snake moved on. I then noticed that it was nothing but a mother

shrew pulling behind a train of her young ones on their first outing.

It appears that there were altogether five of the young ones, each

keeping itself fixed by clinching with his teeth the point on the

upper side of the junction of the tail with the body of another. A

few minutes later, the mother shrew returned and went back with one

young one to where she left the other three. She came back again

and looked for the last lost one and after collecting him she went

back to join the rest.

I wonder if this is the normal habit of the musk shrew. This is the

first time that any of us has observed such a phenomenon.

P.O., BARIPADA, R. N. DB, B.SC, F.R.G.S.

MAYURBHANJ STATE, (LOND.), 1.F.S. (Retd.)

OrISSA. . Chiet Forest Ofticer.

21st August 1947.

[<‘ Musk Rat’ and ‘ Mole’ are names commonly given to the Musk

Shrew, a2 common animal in India seen about dusk in gardens or

entering houses after lamp light. The sharp piercing squeaks it gives

out when frightened are the more usual indications of its presence.

Though rat-like in general appearance, mole-like in its groping move-

ments, it is neither rat nor mole—nor any form of rodent but a

shrew, included with other forms of shrew in the order /zsectivora.

The habit of the young following the mother in a ‘train’ as describ-

ed in the above note, was noted by ‘Eha’ in his ‘ Tribes on my

Frontier’. Shrews because of their insectivorous habits are useful

creatures about the house. ‘The Plague Commission also records

their utility in the destruction of rats.— EDS. |

7.—THE HABITS OF THE BRUSH-TAILED PORCUPINE

(ATHERURUS MACROURUS)

While in the outer ranges of the Naga Hills of Assam during May

1947, I obtained from the Lhota Nagas some information on the

habits of the Brush-tailed Porcupine.

It is known to them as the ‘ Tsetang’, and is mainly confined to

the extreme outer ranges; most Nagas from the inner hills do not

know of it. Its invariable habitat is said to be heavy primary forest,

and in this it differs from the Common Indian Porcupine which is

distributed over the Naga Hills regardless of the biotope.

374. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47

It lives in small colonies (family parties?) of six to eight, and in

long burrows, regarded as too long to be worth excavating, although

the animal is regarded as a delicacy. I was shown a burrow ; it was

dug out of sandy soil in the depths of the forest, and had a diameter

of about twenty-four inches at the entrance, but narrowed down con-

siderably a short way in. There were two well-defined, narrow

tracks leading up to the entrance, each a maze of foot-prints.

Not far away was a fallen, hollow tree with signs of occupation

by some animal: I was told that it was a ‘resting place’ of the

porcupines.

The Nagas say that although they may be common in an area of

forest, the burrows are never closer than about a quarter of a mile.

It is believed that one burrow is occupied for several years, after

which a new one is dug. I was shown several deserted burrows.

They are strictly nocturnal, and are never seen by day: the whole

band is said to come out after dusk and roam through the forest

together.

SHILLONG, ASSAM Cc. R. STONOR

[Skulls of the animals referred to in the above note were sub-

mitted to us by the author and identified as those of the Brush-tailed

Porcupine (Atherurus macrourous) a primitive Indo-Malayan species

found in India only in Assam. It is distinctive in its long scaly tail

ending ina tuft of bristles. Nothing is known of its habits in the

wild state.—EDS. |

8.—THE NILGIRI TAHR (4EMITRAGUS HYLOCRIUS)

A Duel between Males

I thought that the following observations on the social life of the

Nilgiri Tahr (Hemitragus hylocrius) would be of interest to you.

The place where the events took place is a peak named Metla-

mallai (5333 ft.) in the High Wavy Mts. and the date was 3rd August

1947.

I was out on the ridge near the peak hoping to be able to shoot a

fine ‘Saddleback’, which I had seen last year; and I was trying to

see signs of where the herd of ‘ Ibex’ were; when my attention was

drawn toa Solitary buck grazing some 400 yards away. He was

not a Saddleback but had the white bars on the head and the white

patches above the knees.

Thinking that he might be a sentry for the rest of the herd,

which I presumed was round the other side of the ridge, 1 proceed-

ed to stalk him in the hopes that I would find my Saddleback with

the herd.

Having got to within 150 yards, I discovered that the buck was

accompanied by a doe and #? grown young one, who were lying

down beside a rock. The buck appeared to be watching something

the other side of him as he kept looking in that direction and stamp--

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 378

ing his forefeet. After a few minutes a Saddleback appeared

beyond the buck and unconcernedly approached him, and his charge.

As the Saddleback was not the one I was after, I resolved to just

watch the ibex through my binoculars, to see what was going to

happen, as it was obvious that the young buck objected strongly to

the Saddleback’s approach, and I thought that there might bea

fight ; at least I hoped so.

The first thing that happened was when the Saddleback was

about 10 yards from the buck, the latter jumped down from his rock

and approached the Saddleback, who seemed to take notice for

the first time. He stood and looked at the buck with his head on

one side and stamped his forefeet.

Then, both animals stopped and seemed to look each other over,

They did nothing for about five minutes other than stamp their

forefeet and nod their heads at each other. The doe in the interval

had climbed up on to the rock, that the buck had left and lay down

sideways on it facing the two bucks. The young one just grazed

about close by.

The summing-up of each other finished, the two animals. almost

simultaneously reared up on their hind legs and seemed to ‘ dance’

in front of each other, while keeping their distance and circling.

Suddenly they would close in and bring their heads together with a

resounding crack. I am sure they must have hurt each other, as I

could actually hear the sound of the impact of their heads from my

position. These antics went on for about half-an-hour during which

time the doe never stirred, and seemed to take a great interest in the

proceedings. The bucks began to get a little tired towards the end

as they used to stop to nibble a bit of grass or something; but they

were always on their guard since usually one or the other of them

would suddenly charge at his opponent and try to take him unawares.

The blows usually fell upon each others heads, where it didn’t seem

to matter. :

The buck was caught off his guard once, and took the blow from

the Saddleback on his shoulder which made him lose his balance,

and before he could regain it the Saddleback closed in, and with

repeated buffetings forced the buck to retreat, which it did, presuma-

bly having had enough.

The Saddleback stood for a few, minutes and watched his re-

treating foe, and then he turned round and came up to where the doe

was. She never moved till the Saddleback climbed up beside her

and butted her side once or twice when she promptly got up and

got into position for mating, this took place on the rock itself and

lasted about fifteen minutes during which time the buck left the doe

twice for a short interval. The doe then jumped down from the rock

and lay down at its foot.

In the meantime the young ibex had wandered a bit and got to

about the same level as me and about 100 yards distant where it

- must have seen me as it suddenly dashed down the hill, to its parent.

The Saddleback then looked in my direction and whistled loudly and

then all three of them dashed off down the hill, out of sight.

This put an end to the most interesting hour’s entertainment that

a wild animal has yet given me.

376 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47

I should add that all this took place between the hours of 1 p.m..

and 2 p.m. in bright sunshine.

CLOUDLAND ESTATE, A. F. HUTTON

Cumsum P.O.,

MADURA.

7th August 1947.

{To my note on the Nilgiri Tahr (above), I would like to add, that

I visited Metlamallai again on the 14th instant, and the Saddleback

and doe and young one were still in each other’s company in the

same locality, so it looks as if the doe is accompanied by the buck

for some time at least, after mating.—A.F.H. |

9.—THE ‘WATCHING’ ATTITUDE OF THE CHEETAL

OR SPOTTED DEER (AXTS AXTS ERXL).

(With a plate)

The following observations were made while out on a shoot in the

Motichur Forest, about 8 miles north of Hardwar in the Dehra

Dun Division of the United Provinces, in the second fortnight

of May 1947.

Beyond a rivulet in the forest was a large, half-open grassy

space, covered here and there with tall sal and simal trees. It was

the feeding ground of game. In this area we saw one morning a

herd of about seven hind of chital, coming out cautiously to drink.

Behind them, walking slowly, there soon appeared a magnificent stag

which kept close to the herd. A hind which lagged behind the rest

was promptly spurred forward by the stag by means of savage digs

of his antlers in her flanks. The stag then threw his head backward

and gave forth a loud, challenging bellow. The hind at this time

appeared to be considerably excited and soon another stag, smaller

than the first and with short antlers, appeared. The latter at once

ran towards the new comer and, with lowered head, charged him, so

that he ranaway. ‘The hind seemed to watch this performance with

some alarm and gave forth shrill calls.

By this time we had crossed the rivulet and the smaller stag again

came into view not very far off, but he had suspected our presence

and was moving cautiously. At this moment, when he was behind

a high bush, he suddenly stood up on his hind legs, like a performing

bear, and scanned the horizon (sketch). He remained in that position

for a few moments, trying to locate the danger and ran away when

we fired at the other stag. As this ‘ watching’ or standing attitude

has not been:commonly observed, I think that it is worth recording.

It may be added that the ‘standing ’ attitude is occasionally found

in other mammals and even in some insects, and serves a variety of

purposes. The rearing up of the bear and the horse are familiar

examples and are probably a preliminary to attack. Less familiar

examples come of insects where mantids occasionally adopt this

attitude to frighten away the chasing enemy (vide Roonwal, Prec. X,

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Hiresu1, H. L.—The watching attitude of the Cheetal or Spotted Deer

(Axis axis Erxl.)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 377

Ent. Soc. Lond. (A), 13, p. 71, 1938; and Cott, mdapiwve Coloration

in Animals, London, 1940, pp. 221, etc.).

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, H. L. HITESHI

BENARES CANTT.

[The stag rearing on its hind legs was simply trying to increases

the range of its vision. It is something which many species o:

mammals do: particularly the short limbed forms such as

Mongooses, Civets, Weasels, Martens and Bears. When suspicious

a bear will stand up on its hind legs and look gropingly around.

Such rearing up is not necessarily the prelude to attack—that would

depend upon the point of attack and its height from ground level.

Horses and their kin the wild asses rear up on the hind legs in

conibat and strike with their fore limbs. It is a habit seen also in

deer, particularly when their horns are in ‘velvet’, Stags compelled

to fight in this condition, rear up and strike with their fore-feet after

the manner of hinds. Where vision is concerned, rearing up on the

hind legs cannot be described as a usual ‘ Watching attitude’ of deer.

It is one which may be resorted to under special circumstances in

forest or bush land when the radius of vision is limited.—Ebs. ]

10.—STRANDING OF WHALES ON THE COASTS OF

INDIA

I am collecting data on whales in Indian waters. May I request

your help, as also that of your readers, in supplementing the records

I have been abie to collect in the attached list ?

Date | Locality Length Other details

al : Referred to in Ananda

1748 ... |Pondichery ... 00 rt SiO) fee a Gs x

1757 ... Pondichery ... ... [160 ft. (2) | Bee Pillay’s famous

1842 Sep. ... ear Chittagong ma we | Rorqual.

1848 ? «-» Quilon 100 ft. | Rorqual.

1851 ... Amherst island (Arakan). 84 ft. | Rorqual (Jaws, etc., in

| Indian Museum.

1852 July ... |Salt Lakes near Calcutta. | se | A shoal of many dozens of

| the Indian Pilot Whale

| Gtobicephatus indicus).

1858 ... Quilon aS Coo cOft. | Rorqual.

1864 ... |Masulipatam... ce 500 | 508

1866 ? ...|Vizagapatam aes 7 ft. | Cogia breviceps.

1871 June ... |Sittoung estuary ase wae | Balaenoptera edeni.

1873 July ...|\Off Baluchistan coast ... Bas | Megaptera.

1874 ...|Mangalore ... 500 48 ff. | Baleen whale (bones in

Madras Museum),

1879 ... | Dwarka 50 ft. iy

1883 Feb. ... |Varvala (Okhamandal)... PZ) ase

1884 ? ... Bombay - wee 600 | Killed by ‘ Euphrates’,

1884 ? ... |Karachi nee oes wes | Killed by ‘ Dalhousie’,

1890 Jan. ... Madras 550 Be 24 ft. | Physeter macrocephalus.

1890 Dec. ...|Pamban .- ... eee | aes | Killed by ‘ Abdur Rahman’.

qe |

378 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL UIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47

Date

1891

1901

1906

1907

1911

1912

1919

1923 Jan. ..

1924 P

1924 Oct.

1924 Dec.

1926

1927

1935 0

1935 March.

1937

1939

1939 Oct. .:.

1939 March.

1941 ?

1943 March.

1944 Nov. ..

1945 Nov. ..

1947 Jan.

1947 March.

1947 May ...

Locality

.| Mangalore

...,near Cape Comorin see

1902 Feb. ... 5

.--| Bassein :

. Rajakamangalam

Trivandrum ...

..|near Ratnagiri

.| Ratnagiri

Tithor (Mahisagar, Baro-

da)

Madai (Malabar)

.... Pudiangadi (Calicut)

., Gullalamedu lighthouse,

Divi., Kistna Dt.

a Karwar

1925 Jitly Ure

ar Baliapatam, Cannanore.,.

Westhill, Calicut

.... Chala, Tellicherry

1927 Nove <3]

.... Gogha (Kathiawar)

..| Shika (Jamnagar) AOC

..| Nirodumunai (Ceylon) ...

...| [rincomali (Ceylon)

...| Parur, ‘Travancore }

: Polhena, Matara, Ceylon. |

1934 May ...

near Cherai, Cochin

Colaba, Bombay

: Anjuna, Goa

Vadanapalli (Malabar) ..

.., near Danushkodi

1937 Feb. ...

Pullam, Travancore

.| Between Suratkal and

Moolki

near Cape Comorin

Mulvel (Okhamandal)

Anjuna, Goa...

...| Broach

1942 Feb. ...

1942 Jan. .«.

Anjengo cK,

Vadgamnear Sabarmathi,

Aramda (Okhamandal)...

Gajanaara, Baroda

.. Moboro, Carmona, Goa...

... Naduvattam, Calicut

Chinnaganjam, Guntur...

| Ernakulam

| Length | Other details

60 ft. | Skeleton in Madras Muse:

um.

73 ft. | Bones with B.N.H.S.

ae Psendorca crassidens.

63 ft. : aD

me Skeleton in Trivandram

Museum.

“Al ft.

61 ft.

TASER.

£3! Rorqual.

48 ft.

38 ft. Rorqual.

48 ft. Skeleton at St. Aloysius

College, Mangalore.

HN | Le,

94 ft. |

30 ft.

Uitte oe

Gout. Balaenoptera musculus.

40 ft. | Bore gunshot wounds.

o2 ft. | Rorqual.

ae Rorqual.

50 ft.

45 ft. | Rorqual skeleton in Tri-

vandrum Museum.

80 ft. | SkeletoninK. High School,

Mangalore.

50 ft. ae

79 ft. | (J.B.N.H.S. Vol. XLI, No.

4, pp. 895-197). :

50 ft. Avs

67 ft. | (Prakrith 1942, Vol.I, No. 2,

pp. 102-115.)

(Indian Science Con gress,

amtte 1947, Zoology and En-

ifik, Be. | tomology Abstracts, p.

56 ft.

45 ft.

72 ft.

40 ft.

BARODA,

9th June 1947.

S. T. MOSES,

Lirector of Fisheries.

[ Pillay’s record of a whale ‘160 feet’ long mentioned in the

above list is open to grave doubts! The dimensions of the Great

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 379

Indian Fin Whale (B. zzdica) is given as 80-90 feet. For further

records, vide Journal, B.N.A.S., Vol. XXIII, pp. 576-7.—kEDs. |

11.—NOTES ON SOME BURMESE MAMMALS

(U7th a photo)

The following jottings regarding some of the mammals of Burma

may be of interest. Much in the notes concerns living specimens in

the Rangoon Zoological Gardens.

Pocock (Fauna of Brit. India, Mammalia, Vol. II, pages 162 and 3),

mentions that the litter of the Red Dog (Cwon) may be as many as

seven; Col. Burton, (.B.4V.A.S., Vol. XLI, p. 697) gives up ta

seven or ten, and -cites nine embryos taken from a dead female.

There is at present in the Rangoon Zoo a pair oi these dogs (Cuon

alpinus ssp.) which breed regularly once a year. The young are born

in about December or January. ‘The litter born in January 1946

numbered nine, and this year there were seven whelps. I am told

that none of these puppies are ever reared, the bitch either killing or

neglecting them. Iam not sure whether the bitch comes on heat

about the middle of the year or not, though I have an idea she does,

but if so it seems that she does not breed then. I don’t know if the

litters are always as large as the above, as I have not been in Rangoon

when she has had any others.

I persuaded the then Superintendent to let me have the last

remaining pup of the 1946 litter on the grounds that it would die any

way if left with the bitch. This was a female and the eyes were open.

She was about a fortnight old. The eyes were blue and the colour, as

usual dark. She reminded me much of a fox cub (Vulpes vulpes) of

similar age, but her smell was not really like either dog or fox. The

nearest description I can think of was she smelt like an English

domestic ferret. She would not take milk froma glass dropper, but

would lick it from my hand, and soon learned to lap. After only a

few days she was fed on beef, and atea surprising amount for sucha

tiny creature, and seemed to be thriving on it. I could unfortunately

keep her only a fortnight and then I returned her to the Zoo. She

died soon afterwards, death being attributed to a change from beef

to horse-flesh. She was unfortunately completely blind. When she

died, at the age of about two months her ears were fully erect and

the coat losing the dark colour, and assuming the characteristic red

tinge. I should like to have been able to keep her and bring her up

to maturity.

Her voice was similar to a domestic puppy’s of like age, but the

only noise I have ever heard the parents make is a kind of cackling

chatter, though I once heard the Indian Wolf in the Gardens (Cazzs

lupus pallipes) give a bark not unlike that of a domestic dog.

A young female Leopard Cat (Prionatlurus bengalensis) which I

acquired at Hopin in North Burma had been kept on a long string,

dirty and fed only on milk, though past the milk stage. Being there-

fore very hungry, it was only a matter of hours before she overcame

her timidity and would take meat from my fingers. After taking

the rope off her neck, and transferring her to a small travel-

ling cage I always fed her by hand. Once I had given her water to

380. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ‘HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47

drink she would never again look at milk—naturally enough. She

would eat anything in the way of meat including cooked dehydrated

meat granules and corned beef. She used to lick my fingers, some-

times gently taking a finger between her teeth, and occasionally pat

my hand in play.

With strangers she was as wild as she had ever been, but as far

as I was concerned the only thing taboo was picking her up, which

I could accomplish only when I could get her by the scruff of the

neck.

Considering how badly this cat had been treated before I got her,

I think she showed remarkable tolerance towards me. After a short

time in Rangoon Zoo she died of anthrax (diagnosed by the Veteri-

nary Research Institute, Insein).

The species is common in Burma and the proper Burmese name

is ‘Thit Gyak’.

Regarding the other representative of the genus found in Burma,

the Fishing Cat (P. vzverrinus), Pocock (Vol. I, Mammalia, p. 284),

though inferring from the extensive range of the species that it

occurs in Burma, states that there seems no record of it from that

country. This of course is incorrect and several specimens have been

recorded from Burma. There is at present in the Rangoon Zoo an

adult male from Insein district, Southern Burma. The Burmese call

it ‘Kyaung Ba’, which Pocock gives for the Jungle Cat (Felés

chaus), and the name is probably applicable to both.

On external characters it would seem that this cat (P. vzverrinus)

is correctly referred to the same genus as the Leopard Cat. I don’t

know if living specimens have been compared together before, but

irom certain angles I have noticed that the head appears very

similarly shaped in both, and there is also a characteristic ‘ facial

expression’, differing from the look on the face of a typical Felzs.

In fact, apart from colour and length of tail, the living Fishing Cat,

appears just a larger model of the live Leopard Cat.

From my own short experience in Burma I would not describe

the Jungle Cat (félzs chaus ssp.)as common in Burma. Ihave never

seen one in that country, though have come across a number of

specimens of the Leopard Cat.

The Golden Cat (Profelis), the Marbled Cat (Pardofelis) and the

Clouded Leopard (/Veofelzs) are all very rare and seldom recorded,

though the name for the Golden Cat ‘Kya min’ or ‘ king of the

cats’ 4 seems to be fairly well known.

A name I heard given to my attempted description of a Clouded

Leopard was ‘Thit tet kya’ meaning a ‘tree top tiger, or leopard,’

but the name, as well as the animal is not at ail widely known.

The common term of description in Burma of all the small cats,

as well as civets, palm civets, ferret badgers and possibly other small

carnivora is simply ‘ Kyaung’ (cat) or ‘Taw Kyaung’ (jungle cat)

though for many of them there are proper names in Burmese.

——_

——— “

1 This name has significance in the belief prevalent, e.g. among the jungle

Karens of Tenasserim, that tigers live in such terror of this cat that even a

single hair of its body carried on the person will keep a tiger away from the

carrier.—EDS,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 381

On p. 417 of Mammalia, Vol. II, Pocock ridicules the idea of the

Ferret-Badger (Helictis personata) being able to defend itself against

Burmese pariah dogs. In my opinion, knowing the type of pariah,

or ‘pye dog’ indicated, this ridicule is quite without justification.

The ‘pye dogs’ of Burma, as in many other areas, except those

trained and kept for hunting (as in some places they are), would, Iam

certain, not dream of going anywhere near a ferret-badger or any

other of the small carnivora. ‘These dogs are almost purely scaven-

gers and from what I have seen of them would much prefer eating

filth off a pile than tackle even the rats on the same heap, let alone

going after anything like Helzcizs.

A tame mongoose of mine (4. javan7cus), if anything smaller

-than the two specimens of A. fevsonata now in Rangoon Zoo, once

showed that he hadn’t much to worry about where pye dogs were con-

cerned. A pair of these pariahs approached him one day, and walked

up to him, with heads outstretched and legs stiff. Rikki (the

mongoose) turned and took a pace towards them, prompted by the

curiosity so typical of a mongoose, and at this gesture both dogs

about turned and trotted off smartly. The mongoose pursued them

for a short distance, and having so to speak ‘seen them off the pre-

mises ’ resumed his investigation of the grass bordering the road. (In

pursuing the dogs, I firmly believe the only desire on the part of my

mongoose was to satisfy curiosity. )

The point is that either of the dogs, had they the desire and

courage to do so, could easily have killed the mongoose. I consider

therefore that Tickell’s ferret badger anecdote should not be discre-

dited, and that no ferret badger would be in any way endangered by

pariah dogs (apart from any question of ‘warning colouration’ or

speical means of defence). With a properly trained hunting dog,

such asa terrier, it might be a different matter, though even then the

ferret badger would probably give a good account of itself, as all

the family is noted for courage and tenacity of life.

Lutrogale perspicillata, the Smooth Indian otter, is said by

Pocock (F.B.I. Mammalia II, p. 292) to have been described by

Hodgson as having the tail more flattened than is the case in Lu/va

and Amblonyx. |

During the past year or so there have been a number of speci-

mens of this otter in the Rangoon Zoo, and I have noticed the follow-

ing points about them. First, it seems that ‘smooth coated’ and

‘sleek’ are not particularly applicable to living specimens, though

by the side of one of the other forms they might well appear some-

what smoother by comparison, ] don’t know. But the tail, or

rudder, was quite definitely flattened for most of its length in the

five or more live specimens I have seen, both male and female,

juvenile and adult.

Iam certain this otter could be easily identified from other

Oriental forms by the rudder alone, and I consider the most suitable

trivial name that could be suggested for the species is ‘ Flat-tatled

Otter’ (the flattened tail can be clearly seen in the attached photo-

graph). Others of the species I saw in the Calcutta Gardens had the

tail flattened in like manner. A striking feature of the ‘ flat-tailed'

otters in Rangoon was the way in which they so quickly became

382 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 47

accustomed to humans. Even a fully adult female, timid enough at

first soon learned that fish was often the result of answering the

‘human voice, and was soon in vigorous competition with her com-

panion in diving for the fish thrown to them.

With the young I have spent hours playing, rolling them over

both on land and in the water and was never bitten, though often my

hands were between their teeth.

The Smooth Indian or Flat-tailed Otter.

Regarding the habits of these otters, I do not know how nocturnal

they are in the wild (they lose of course most of any such habits in

captivity), but an otter presumably L. perspicillata, was observed by

the boatman of a cance I was in, on the Shweli river in North Burma,

one morning long after sunrise.

It has often been stated that otters always come to the bank to

eat a fish. While they undoubtedly often do this, and no doubt have

to in the case of a very large fish, the ones in Rangoon often eat a

fish in the water, either treading water and holding it in their fore

paws, or, when it is half eaten, swimming and tilting their heads back

so as to keep the fish above the water. From the way in which they

do, this I would say it does not seem altogether an acquired captivity

habit, and probably: they do it in the wild too on occasion. Otters

always make a good exhibit in a Zoo, where they get wonderfully

tame and show quite an amount of intelligence.

To finish this note I will relate a kind of legend I have heard in

Burma concerning the bat.

The story goes that the animals (=mammals) and the birds were

engaged in a war. When the animals were winning, the bat

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 383

claimed to be one of them, while if the birds seemed to be in the

ascendant it associated itself with the avian fraternity. Hence,

according to my informant, to call a persona Bat in Burmese is to

designate him a turncoat, who tries to throw in his lot with the

winning side.

BompBay,

7th August 1947. Wola Jak VAIN DIDID

12,—DISPLAY OF A MALE MINIVET.

In May 1946, while in the Naga Hills, I had a very brief view of

a display by a male minivet. I was not able to determine the

species, so it may have been either the Common or the Short-billed.

My attention was first drawn to a small red dot above the trees of

a valley below me: and it proved to be a male minivet soaring up

with out-spread wings. After attaining the top of its flight, it spiralled

down, wings still outstretched, and perched on top of a tall tree.

Very soon it took off again, -and soared up once more in the same

manner—the bright scarlet shown off to perfection in the sunlight.

There was a female in a tree nearby, which suggests a sexual as

against a threat display.

‘Although my observation was a momentary one, [I put it- on

record as nothing is known of the displays of the minivets.

SHILLONG,

9th September, 1947. C. R. STLONOR

[In volume XXXIV of the Journal (p. 1061), Mr. C. McCann has

described the courtship antics of a pair of Scarlet Minivets, also

from the Naga Hills. The female suddenly flew up high into the

air from its perch on a branch. The male gave chase. caught her

up and seized the tip of her tail in his bill. Both birds came

spiralling down, separated when a few feet from the ground and

returned to the tree. The manoeuvre was soon repeated. Mr. Stonor’s

observation records only the male in solo display. It would be

interesting to learn the true significance of the two forms of be-

haviour.—EDS. |

13.—OCCURRENCE OF THE LAGGAR FALCON

KGALCO JUGGER GRAY) AT MT. ABU

In April a pair of Lagger Falcons visited our garden in Abu and

were twice seen in Jamun trees. A few days later I saw them

again down below the Nakki Lake and the following day out near

Bendermere. This is the only pair of Laggar Falcons I have ever

seen in Abu which I have visited off and on since 1928. Last week

I was out for a walk among the rocky hills two or three miles south,

west of St. Mary’s School where there is an isolated pinnacle of rock

some 300 ft. in height which I have named ‘ Cleopatra’s Bodkin ’

(you may recognise the rock from this description) and was looking

for a means of ascent when my attention was drawn by the activities

3384 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47

of what I think must have been the same pair of Laggar Falcons to

a small cave in the side of the cliff in which were two young laggars.

I studied them through my binoculars from a distance of about 40

yards. Yesterday I went out to the same place and found the family

still there with the two young birds in the same cave evidently not

yet able to fly but with their feathers very nearly fully developed.

The young birds were both very dark on top, almost black, with black

moustachial stripes running down from in front and below their eyes

and their under parts were of bright reddish brown streaked with

black, beaks blue grey, legs bright yellow, claws black.

THE WILDERNESS, R. K. M. BATTYE, MAsor 1.A., I.P.S.

ABU, 16¢h June 1947.

| This, curiously enough, appears to be the first specific record of

the Laggar for Mount Abu, though it is one of the most generally

distributed falcons throughout the length and breadth of India. The

recent Gujarat Ornithological Survey procured two specimens at

Deesa in Palanpur State, about 50 miles south-west of Abu.—eEDs. ]

14.—THE ALTITUDINAL LIMIT OF THE PHEASANT-

TAILED JACANA [HYDROPHASIANUS —

CHIRURGUS (SCOPOLI ]

While fishing recently (June) on the Vishan Sar, a mountain lake

in Kashmir, whose altitude is given as 12,050’ I was much surprised

to see a Pheasant-tailed Jacana.

I see Stuart Baker’s book says it is to be found to a considerable

altitude in the Himalayas, being common on the Kashmir lakes.

It is common on the Anchar Lake in Kashmir whose altitude is

about 5,200’. It however struck me as unusual to find the bird at

12,050’. If this altitude is, in fact, unusual, perhaps your readers

may be interested to read of this. 3

GuHAT 23, CHINAR BaGga,

SRINAGAR, F. A. BETTERTON

14¢h July 1947.

[According to Whistler («A Popular Handbook of Indian Birds,’

3rd ed., p. 447) the Pheasant-tailed Jacana occurs in the Himalayas

commonly on the Kashmir lakes at 5,000 ft. (about the altitude of

Srinagar and the Vale) and straggles up to 12,000 ft. Lt.-Col.

R. S. PB. Bates, an authority on Kashmir birds and co-author with

E. H. N. Lowther of ‘The Breeding Birds of Kashmir’ (now in

press) informs us that he has never seen one in Kashmir outside

the Vale. Vishan Sar lake has provided a number of surprises from

time to time, one of the more recent ones being a Black-winged Stilt

(Himantopus h. himantopus) reported thence by Mr. W. T. Loke in

the summer of 1944.—Eps. ]

MISCELLANEOUS: NOTES 383

15. RECOVERY OF RINGED DUCK IN INDIA

A bird ring bearing the inscription Moskwa 75330 E was sent to

us recently by Mr. J. A. M. Ede (then of Ajmer) with the following

particulars :

Date of recovery : 23rd December 1945.

Piacerof » : A tank about’ 6 miles from Kishangath,

Rajputana.

Recovered by: Mr. E. Claudius, Reserve Police Lines, Ajmer.

The duck from which the ring was obtained was described by the

shooter as a Garganey ‘Teal.

The Bird Banding Bureau, Moscow, when intimated, supplied us

with the following particulars concerning the ring :

Date of ringing : 27th July 1945.

Place of ~ ,, : Astrakhan, Volga Delta.

They pointed out however that the bird was a Pintail, and not a

Garganey as identified.

114, APOLLO STREET, EDITORS

BOMBAY.

16.—THE GREAT CRESTED GREBE [PODICEPS

CRISTATUS CRISTATUS LINN.] IN BHAVNAGAR STATE

Mr. Salim Ali has asked me to write a short note on the occurrence

of the Great Crested Grebe in Bhavnagar. He mentions that, the

bird in this part of the country constitute a very interesting record,

the southernmost in India. Its appearance in August apparently

in the middle of its breeding season is strange and of particular

interest. The Great Crested Grebe is known to be a regular breeder

in Tibet and Kashmir and sporadic records of its having bred as far

south as Karachi are noted in the Fauna of British India(E. C. Stuart

Baker).

On 22nd August, 1947, I had taken some friends out shooting and

as they were keen to bag a few Nukhta drakes we visited some tanks

one of which was round and large and about 200 yards wide. Here

I noticed what seemed to me at first to be a solitary Pintail drake but

as soon as the binoculars were handled, I immediately recognised it

to be a Great Crested Grebe for in my schoolboy egg-collecting days

I had seen this species on one of the reservoirs in England. Though

I never succeeded in collecting the eggs which were then considered

extremely rare, I hadsome glimpses of the birds in their natural

surroundings. As this rare bird which we were eagerly watching

Came into range, it was bagged with one shot and later revealed to

be a female. On going round the tank we saw the male bird and as

the tank was very thinly reeded another bird could hardly have been

overlooked. However, visiting the same tank on 24-8-47, a pair was

seen of which the male was bagged with one shot. The remaining

female then became very wary diving and re-diving at great

distances out ofrange. This is the first time I see the Great Crested

Grebe here and you can imagine what a great surprise it was for me,

The particular tank contains a fair amount of small fish and aquatic

386 JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL HIST..-SOCIETY, Vol, 47

life which could easily have awe the birds to stay for any length

of time.

Dit BAHAR, K. S. DHARMAKUMARSINHJI

BHAVNAGAR,

24th August 1947.

[Apart from being the southernmost Indian record for the Great

Crested Grebe, interest attaches to the birds being found in. Bhavnagar

as early as August when many of their confréres would still be busy

nesting on their Kashmir and trans-Himalayan breeding grounds.

The species is a comparatively rare winter visitor to the larger jheels

in N. India. the Bombay Natural History Society’s collection has a

specimen obtained at Gajner Lake, Bikaner, on 22nd March 1933 and

another from Viramgam (Kathiawar)—13th March 1905.—kps. |

17,—MORNING SONG OF BIRDS

(24th May 1947)

These observations on the serial succession of bird song were

conducted by a group of masters and boys of the C.M.S. Schools,

Srinagar, in the gardens of Dr. P. Edmonds, Principal and the Rev.

Canon C. E. Tyndale-Biscoe. The trees are beautifully arranged in

such a way that the big trees are surrounded by bushy under-growth

like a real forest. In between these trees, there are open spaces and

lawns like glades in a forest, which make the whole place a natural

bird sanctuary. Shady plane trees, willows, mulberries, acacias,

poplars, oak and walnut, rose bushes and creepers afford suitable

nesting sites for the birds. Hence we find here a fair variety of

suinmer visitors and sometimes rare species on spring and autumn

migration.

It is worthy of record that Cuckoos have now occupied this side

of the town, and that the Paradise Flycatcher is the first bird to open

the morning orchestra.

What a joy it is to listen to this celestial music! The young and

the old, the healthy and the diseased, find infinite happiness by

keeping their ears open at this blissful hour to receive the melodious

symphony.

We are very grateful to Mrs. Edmonds who very kindly accommo-

dated the whole group in her house with motherly care.

4-15 am. Paradise Flycatcher. (7chitrea paradisi leucogaster)

4-2la.m. Cuckoo, (Cuculus canorus)

4-22 a.m. Second Paradise Flycatcher

4-23 a.m. Third Paradise Flycatcher

4-26, a.Man (CUCKOOs.6 suaue distant

4-28 a.m. Paradise Flycatcher

4-29 a.m. ‘Tickell’s Thrush ( Turdus unzcolor)

Cuckoo and Paradise Flycatcher

Golden Oriole (Ordolus ortolus kundoo)

4-30 a.m. Golden Oriole, Cuckoo

4-31 a.m. . Tickell’s Thr ush

Golden Oriole, Cuckoo (Intermittent Song)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 387

4-32 am. Thrushes from different quarters. Golden Oriole

and Cuckoo

4-33 a.m. Ringdove. (Streplopelia decaocto decaocto)

4-33 a.m. Thrushes, the Golden Oriole. The Cuckoo stopped

4-34 a.m. Second Ringdove and Golden Oriole

4-35 am. Thrush, Golden Oriole from different directions,

Cuckoo

4-38 am. Ringdove, Golden Oriole, Thrush, Cuckoo

4-4] am. Tit. (Parus major kaschmiriensis )

Golden Oriole, Thrushes

4-44 a.m. Ringdoves from different quarters together

Tit, Golden Oriole, Thrushes: the chorus in full

swing

4-53 am. Ringdove, Golden Oriole, Thrush

A lull |

4-56 a.m. Hoopoe. (Ufupa epops epops)

The Golden Oriole, Thrush, Tit, Ringdove, Bulbul.

(MMolpastes leucogenys)

A scream of kite (M/tlvus migrans lineatis)

4-59 aim. Sparrow (Passer donvesticus bactrianus), Myna (Acri-

dotheres tristis ¢ristis) and Starling (Sturnzus

vulgaris hum) with chirping melody joined the

: chorus

5- lam. Myna, Thrushes, Ringdoves together

5-llam. Thrushes, Orioles, Ringdoves

5-l4a.m. Crow (Corvus splendens zugmeyert)

Sparrows, Golden Orioles

5-18 a.m. ‘Thrushes stopped, one Ringdove continues.

5-20 a.m. Rufous-backed Shrike. (Lantus shach erythronotus)

The birdisa mimic. It has no real song. It lies

in wait to butcher other birds. (!?— Eps.)

Several Mynas attacked a kite

5-24 a.m, Several Ringdoves together. Golden Oriole

5-28 a.m. Z2ck-Tuck-Tuck, the alarm calls of Tickell’s

AM Aer

Just before sunrise a note fyo-o of male Koel (Ludynamis

scolopaceus.) It is astraggler and hes re-appeared after five years.

Probably not the same bird.

The sky was partially covered on the eastern side by flakes of

fleecy clouds. The sun rose at 6a.m. The height of Srinagar is 5,200

feet above sea-level. Latitude 34° N.; longitude about 75° E.

C. M.S. CenrRAL H1GH ScHOOL,

SRINAGAR, KASHMIR,

25th May 1947.

SAMSAR CHAND KOUL

18.—THE LATE STAY OF MIGRATORY BIRDS IN

BHAVNAGAR, KATHIAWAR

This hot weather has been most interesting in bird life. We

have had an influx of Purple Moorhens all along our coast; they

have come in hundreds. Then I have seen the common Pochard

NS}

388 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Hist, SOCIETY, Vol, 47

throughout the hot weather at odd times. Only yesterday I saw a pair

ina pond with amale Shoveller, a pair of Spot-bill, and Lesser

Whistiing Teal and I also shot a male Garganey which had practically

changed into winter dress and was flying wel]. On the sea-shore, I

saw Oyster-catchers, Curlews, Red and Greenshanks, and Lesser

Flaming oes with young (newly arrived). How strange it was to see

all these birds together at this time of the year! :

BHAVNAGAR, K. S. DHARMAKUMARSINHJI

24th June 1947.

[The S-W Monscon was exceptionally erratic this year. Kathia-

war and Kutch had practically no rain till the middle of August.—

ELS. |

19.-ON THE COMMON BLIND SNAKE (7YPHLOPS

BRAMINUS)

Two years ago when was stationed with the United States Army

near Midnapur, Bengal, I came into the possession of a snake of the

genus 7yphlops and wrote to you concerning its identity.

I have recently had an opportunity to examine this specimen

more closely, and it occurred to me that you might possibly be

interested in the results of this examination.

The snake is definitely a Z. dvaminus ; length, 168 mm. ; diameter

at region of the heart, 3.1mm. It was captured and killed 14th June,

1945 and is a gravid female.

The eggs, which were seven in number, were rather well formed

in the posterior region of the body—though less well so in the more

anterior regions. The posterior egg measured 13.5 mm. in length

and 3.1 mm. in diameter. It was covered with a well formed, distensi-

ble, membrane or shell which, however, lacked the external covering

of long fibers characteristic ef ophidian eggs. Upon microscopic

examination, it appeared to be composed of very short fibers overlying

one another in a completely random orientation.

CHICAGO me elie RowAe WARREN P. SIGHTS

22nd July 1947.

20._AGGRESSIVE DEMONSTRATION BY RUSSELL’S

VIPER (VIPERA RUSSELL)

Yesterday atsunset, Mr. W. Ivanow and myself were walking from

Nacgaon to Kihim by the main village road. We fotind a Russell’s

Viper, about 24 ft. long, lying by the roadside. As we passed it, it

hissed and began to move away slowly. It was so close to an over-

erown parapet wall that it could not be killed with a stick. In order

to induce it to come out in the open, I stamped my foot on the ground

and made some noise. Upon this the viper turned round and deli-

berately leaped forward menacingly a foot or so in my direction

obviously by way of a threat demonstration. I withdrew ny foot

quickly, whereupon the snake calmly returned to its former position

and moved on, seemingly unperturbed, till it found refugein a pile of

stones,

MISCELLANEOUS. NOTES 386

This is the first experience I have had ofa snake demonstrating

in this manner, and [ would be interested to know if this habit has

been recorded. It postulates a consciousness of its own potency on

the part of the reptile; its unhurried departure after the feint would

suggest that it is a normal practice. Perhaps some reader can tell

us more about it.

‘YALI’, Kraim (KOLABA DIST.), A. A. A. FYZEE

15/h May 1947. :

[Russell’s Viper is sluggish in habit and ordinarily displays a

reluctance to move even when approached by man. It 1s this habit

to lie up or bask on open paths and roadways and the snake’s disincli-

nation to leave the resting place that lead to its being trodden upon

and to people being bitten. Inthis character the Russell’s Viper is

markedly different from most snakes whose first impulse upon human

approach is escape. ‘The viper’s ‘demonstration’ in the instance

described above was a natural reaction and protest against distur-

bance; its unhurried departure, its characteristic mode of progress.

—EDS. | |

21.—H AMADRYAD AT BHIM TAL, U.P.

Having discredited first hand accounts of the King Cobra being

seen and killed at Bhim Tal, 4,500 feet above sea level, I was witness

to its confirmation on the 23rd June 1947.

While having tea with Col. Jones he mentioned that a largesnake

had been reported. shot that morning in the process of swallowing

another snake of about five feet. We both agreed that if true, this

may be a Hamadryad and decided after tea to visit the place but

halfa mile from his lovely house. The whole party including Miss

Kalberer accompanied us to the spot. Miss Kalberer I: should

mention is the oldest European resident of Bhim Tal with some 50

odd years in the place, during which time she can recollect six other

instances of King Cobras being killed in the valley. She identified

this as the same species as was killed on previous occasions.

This was a fine specimen, 104 feet long in perfect condition

except for the head which was shot away. ‘The occipital shields with

the perietals had been shot away but the skin of the hood with cross

chevrons were intact. The colour was chocolate with dirty white or

yellow chevrons all the length of the body fading into stars or

broken chevrons on the tail. The throat was yellow, and~ ventral

scales entire dividing at the end of the tail.

This is the sevénth apecimen killed in the last 22 years, and all

but one, which was shot swimming the lake below Lake View Hotel,

have been accounted for at the top end of the lake or towards Sath

Tal. Col. Jones's father shot a pair near his house and in later years.

Miss Leslie shot another at the same place. Another pair were shot

above the upper bazar on the hill to the right.

No case is on record of any one being attacked, or cattle killed,

and there is no name for the snake in the local dialect which points

to them being stray visitors from the Gola or Naini stream through

path Tal,

390 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 47

This snake was shot by the main road to Sath Tal from Bhim Tal

in a thickly populated part. It was first seen by some small boys,

who looked on at the gorging from a few yards away while others

ran back to the village to call the headman with his gun. At no

time did it show any signs of aggressiveness and allowed the man

to come within five yards and shoot it.

BHIMTAL,

Dist. NAINI, U. P., A. St. J. MACDONALD

14th August 1947

[The King Cobra is fond of water and takes to it readily, It has

been met with at an altitude of 6,000 ft. in the Himalayas and

Nilgiris.—EDs. |

22.—-NOTES ON THE FAUNA OF BRITISA INDIA:

REPTILIA AND AMPHIBIA, by Malcolm A. Smith

Volume III Serpentes, 1943

Page 114. The range of John’s Sand Boa: Eryx johni johni

This snake is common in the neighbourhood of Trichinopoly and

Madras. Specimens, young and old, caught and bottled by me are

to be found in the museum of St. Joseph’s College, Trichinopoly, and

in the Loyola College Museum, Madras.

Page 415. The Common Krait : Bungarus caeruleus

I have a specimen five feet long, caught at Guindy near Madras.

Four feet six inches specimens are not rare in the neighbourhood of

Madras. Four feet specimens are common.

Page 429. It is stated that ‘there is no marked difference in size

between the sexes of Cobras.’

I once measured fifty cobras as they were brought to me day by

day by my snake-catchers.

The biggest, a male, was 68 inches long,

Twenty-five were males, and twenty-five were females.

The average length of the twenty-five males was 574 inches; of

the females 544 inches.

Page 489. Saw-scaled Viper or Phoorsa ; Echis carinata

The range of the Phoorsa is stated to be ‘the whole of India south

of the Ganges, except Bengal’.

I spent three years—June 1944 to May 1947—at readin on the

Chota Nagpur plateau (1,500-2,000 feet high), a dry region with a hot

weather temperature of 105° F. I questioned villagers and mis-

sionaries from outlying stations about the snakes found in their

districts. Not one had ever seen or heard ofa Phoorsa, or knew what

it was. Some had mistaken the Cat Snake (Défsas) for a Phoorsa.

I lectured on snakes in a score of camps within a fifty mile range of

Ranchi. Kraits, both the Common and the Banded, and Cobras, had

been killed in the camps but the Phoorsa was quite unknown.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 39%

ON THE BREEDING OF THE INDIAN PyTHON: Python molurus

I have two tame pythons, known as Benjamin and Jacob, both

females, their names notwithstanding. They were given their names

fourteen years ago, when they were only a few days old, and once

given, the names remained. Jacob was born (hatched out)on 22nd July

1933; Jacob on 24th July 1933. The eggs were laid by different

mothers, both wild.

On 28th March 1938, [put a male python (tame) into theircage.

On 4th April 1938, Benjamin and this male mated; I watched

them, and took them in my arms. Jacob must have mated a few

days earlier. On 4th June 1938, Jacob laid 21 eggs; on 31

June 1938, Benjamin laid 10 eggs. Both snakes began to incubate

their eggs at once. They abandoned them on 28th June. Conditions

for incubating were not favourable. So far all is normal.

Now comes a puzzle. On 9th June 1947, that is nine years after

the mating, Benjamin laid sixteen eggs. Most of them were im-

mature, hard, discoloured; five of them were perfect in shape and

size and covering, and differed in nothing outwardly from perfect

python eggs. On Ist August 1947, Benjamin laid one egg, immature,

7 inches in circumference round the centre, 9 inches round the ends.

To my certain knowledge no male python has been in the cage since

April 1938.

The Fauna of British India, Reptilia and Amphibia, Vol. III

Serpentes, 1943, page 21, has a tew remarks which may be a clue to

the solution of the problem, and may suggest a line of investigation.

‘Kopstein discovered that it was possible to have successive layings

of fertile eggs without re-mating. An isolated female laid 4 eggs on

5th May 1934, and 4 more on Ist January 1935. American writers

show that the spermatozoa can be retained in the uterus for several

months.’

In the present instance the spermatozoa seem to have been

retained for nine years.

LOYOLA COLLEGE,

CATHEDRAL P.O. Rev. C. LEIGH, s.s.

MADRAS.

31st August 1947.

[There is nothing to show that the eggs laid by python Benjamin

nine years after mating were fertile. The laying of eggs by caged

female birds (e.g. parrots) after many years of solitary confinement.

is well known. All eggs so laid are of course sterile. Might not

this same phenomenon be applicable to reptiles believed to be the

phylogenetic ancestors of birds? And why does the writer presume

that the spermatozoa in this case may have been retained for nine

years ?—EDs. |

23.—NOTE ON THE BULL-FROG (RANA TIGRINA)

EVERTING LUNG

On the 10th June (1946), I caught a Bull-Frog. When handled,

it inflated itself to capacity in the usual defensive way. The pulsa-

tion of the throat ceased, except for an occasional effort of ‘swallow-

134

—

392 JOURNAL, -BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47

ing’ (air). By constant handling, I kept the animal in this tense

condition for about 10 to 15 minutes. When shaken one could easily

hear and feel the viscera moving about inside, Finally, the animal

everted its left lung which was full of air. The lung measured

approximately 4” x 24” in the distende1 condition. The lung was

evidently forced out by the internal air pressure. This curious inci-

dent surprised me as I had never witnessed such behaviour before. I

put the animal on the ground, and the everted lung left a blood stain

on the floor. The frog now deflated itself, and its lung, and with the

alternate use of its fore-legs it pushed the lung back into its mouth

and ‘ swallowed’ it! After it had replaced its lung, the animal re-

mained quiescent for a while, and then moved off as if nothing had

happened. About two hours later, I saw the animal, but it seemed

none the worse for its experience.

BomBAY NATURAL HisToRY SOCIETY, C. McCANN

Lich June 1946.

24..—CULTURE OF MURRAL FISH (OPH/CEPHALUS

MARULIUS HAMILTON) IN IRRIGATION WELLS !

Ophicephalus marulzus, locally known as Avirz, is common in the

Bhavani and Cauvery rivers flowing through the Coimbatore and

Salem districts. In these rivers the fish attains a maximum size of

four feet. It prefers deep river sections with sandy bottom and

submerged rocks. It attains maturity at the size of 12 to 14 inches.

It breeds from March to June and from October to December, when

there are no floods. Like other members of the family Ophicepha-

lidae, this species also shows parental care by building nests at the

time of breeding. The nesting place is a sheltered weedy river

margin, where the depth is not more than four feet, with overhang-

ing trees and shrubs. The temperature of water in the breeding.

area ranges between 28° and 31°C. The cup-like nests are con-

structed: by inter-weaving stems and blades of water weeds, parti-

cularly Vallisneria spiralis Linn. at a distance of about two feet from

the river margin. The number of fry in a brood is about 500; and

they are golden yellow in colour. Both the parents take equal share

in the guarding of their nest and young ones. When the fry are

‘one inch in size, black pigments appear on the dorsal and ventral

sides, leaving a yellow band along the lateral line. They do not

swim beyond a distance of two yards from their parents, and take

shelter in the nest at the least disturbance of the water. The

parental care is discontinued when the young ones have attained a

size of four inches.

The ryots of the district collect the fingerlings and stock them in

their irrigation wells, at the rate of about 100 in each well. These

fingerlings are fed with live minnows and frogs, and dead birds and

rats, and with kitchen refuse. The fish attain a size of 14 feet within

one year, but only about ten per cent of their original number

mn rere intr an

* Communicated with the kind permission of the Director of Industries and

Commerce, Madras,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 393

survive. This may be due to their cannibalistic habit. The ryots

capture the grown up fish by angling with a live minnow or frog as

bait, for consumption as delicacy on important occasions. The

stocking operation is repeated annually. Asaresult of rural fishery -

demonstration work in the Madras Province, ryots in other districts,

such as Chingleput and South Arcot, have been induced to take to

culture of this species in their swampy irrigation tanks and wells,

which are difficult to be cleared and used for carp culture, The fish

is tenacious of life; and consignments of fingerlings, two inches in

size, have been transported over distances of 400 miles without any

casualty and without effecting change of water in the carriers

en route more than once. |

INLAND FISHERIES OFFICE, Pel CHACKOS

8, ORMES ROAD, G. K. KURIYAN

KILPAUK, MADRAS,

25.—A LARGE BLACK ROCK SCORPION

(From The Field 12-4-1947. p. 351)

I was interested in the photograph of Capt. D. W. Miuntrie’s

black scorpion, Readers may be interested to know that I forward-

ed to a military hospital for scrutiny, a black scorpion with an overall

length of 114 inches, which was discovered under a rock in the village

of Krishnarajapuram, S. India. This indeed seemed an outsize

704, LAKENHEATH, S. G. BURGESS

SOUTHGATE, N. 14.

[The above extract was sent to us by Mr. R. F. Stoney. The

specimen referred to is probably Palamnecus swamerdamt. There is

a specimen 9? inches long in the Society’s collection.—xEps. ]

26.—AN ANOMALOUS ANTENNA IN &A/PIPHOROTAHRIPS

CRUENTATUS HOOD. FROM TAMBARAM,

SOUTH INDIA

(With a text-figure)

Two female specimens of Ahipiphorothrifs cruentatus were

collected from the flowers of a shrub Lagerstroemia indica, in Tam-

_baram. The right antenna in one of the specimens shows an anomal-

ous type, while the left one is normal. The third antennal joint in

the anomalous type is longer than usual, the fourth very much

reduced, the fifth and the sixth with variations in shape and the

antennal style is also reduced.

Such anomalous antennae have been previously noted and describ-

ed by Karny. (Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri. India 1926) from rose leaves.

394 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47

Anomalous antenna in ARhkipiphorothrips cruentatus

A. Normal antenna; B. Anomalous antenna.

But the present type differs very much from the described by

Karny.

Length of antennal segments. (tn Microns)

— I II | IIL IV | V VI | VII vin

Normal oat pole C40) 40 68 66 50 61 33 20

Anomalous ... Pall Zak 41 96 20 47 4] 11 18

MADRAS CHRISTIAN COLLEGE, T. N. ANANTHA KRISHNAN,

TAMBARAM, CHINGLEPUT DIST., B SC. (HONS.),

11/h September 1947. Lecturer in Zoology.

27.—MIGRATION OF THE BUTTERFLY APPIAS

ALBINA DANADA

Some time ago some notes were published in the Journal

about butterfly migrations. The followiog information may there-

fore be of interest. We have had a spell of very heavy rain here for

over a week and it has been continuously cloudy and dull. During

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 395

this period a very big emergence of Apfpias albina danada has

apparently taken place. Yesterday the weather cleared and the sun

came out. At about noon, I noticed several specimens of the above

species flying past my window and looked out. [t was then apparent

that a large scale migration of this species was taking place. My

bungalow stands on a ridge about a thousand feet or so above the

valley of the Diyung river and the ascent is steep. There is a narrow

valley leading down to the river and the swarm was using this valley.

The valley runs more or less north and south and the butterflies

were coming up the valley, i.e. flying southward. There is a con-

siderable difference in temperature between the valley of the Diyung

which is hot and the ridge above, but 1 cannot say if this has any

bearing on the matter. The stream of butterflies was continuous up

to 4-15 p.m. when heavy rain commenced and they stopped. There

was however an interruption at about 1-15 p.m. for about ? of an hour

during a shower when large numbers ofthe butterflies began settling

under the leaves of bushes and shruts which incidentally enabled

me to catch a good series. There was half a gale blowing at the

time and the butterflies were all flying steadily up wind and against

the very heavy wind, resulting in their flight being very slow and

laborious but none of them attempted to turn back and fly down wind.

The density was about 35-40 per minute and sometimes they flew

singly, but usually six or seven specimens came up one behind the

other in a sort of ‘follow my leader’ string. In each ‘string’ there

were one or more females and more than once I noticed a female

following a male. There was no Sign of it being a mating flight of

any sort. There was no check in the stream and no sign of the

males paying any attention toor chasing the females. The whole

flight kept purposefully flying southwards. The females appeared to

be slightly in the majority. After reaching the top of the ridge the

wind caught them but only slowed their flight slightly. I was not

able to See where the flight continued to but it must either have

continued south-east along the ridge or down into the valley again

on the other side. Except for one female of Appias indra rnudra,

which I caught, I saw no other species in the flight except Aspzas

albina danada. Almost all the females were of the przzcipalis form

but about one in four was of the semz-flava form since out ot 15

females caught four were of thisform. All the specimens obtained

were freshly emerged.

I have once betore also noticed a migration of this butterfly in

somewhat similar circumstances. This occurred at Cherrapunji in

the Khasia and Jaintia Hills in 1944, when many specimens were

observed flying westwards up out of a very deep wide gorge but the

migration on that occasion was on a much smaller scale and consisted

almost entirely of males. Moreover they allowed themselves to be

diverted by flowers occasionally which was not the case yesterday.

HAFLONG, R.. BE. PARSONS, F. Rr. gs.

N. C. HiLts, Assam. Indian Police.

30th May 1947.

_ [In a subsequent letter, dated 23rd-June 1947, Mr. Parsons

writes ; °I notice from my diary that after I wrote to yoti we had

396 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURALSHIST) cSOQCIETY, Vol, 47

several days of heavy rain which drove the butterflies under cover

but the migration continued on almost, but not quite the same scale

on 2-6-1947, and in the same direction. The migration was greatly

reduced on 3rd June and by the 6th, except for odd specimens,

had ceased. Instead, the species was congregating in small numbers,

both males and females, on the flowering heads of Leea bushes and

moving about more or less aimlessly. . It is curious that both mig-

rations of this species I have witnessed have been up steep hillsides

and against heavy winds.’—EDs. | :

28.OBSERVATIONS ON THE HABITS OF THE

CONCHOSTRACAN CAENESTHERIA SP.

RECORDED FROM TAMBARAM (S. INDIA).

The writer records some of his observations onthis genus, on whose

habits much is not known. He believes that this little piece of

information, might piove to be useful to those who are interested in

phyllopods.

This bivalved Gondhisstralles Caenestheria sp. recorded from the

fresh water lakes of Tambaram, measuring about 2.5 to 4.5 mm. in

length, is found in large numbers during the months of September

and October, a time when the lakes are not full. The habits of these

animals which suddenly go down in numbers after heavy rains, are

very interesting. They can be seen burrowing in the muddy soil

near the shores of the lake and by the aid of the characteristic ellip-

tical openings on the muddy shores, their position can easily be located.

Very often they are to be found swimming in the waters near the

shore, with their shells slightly opened, and protruding their leaf-like

legs, by the aid of which they propel themselves in the water. But

they have a limited range of movement because they are not to be

found swimming in places where the water is more than three or four

feet deep, and at the slightest provocation they sink down and

burrow themselves in the mud.

These animals feed on diatoms and water weeds Av HiCH grow in

large numbers by the shore. The water weeds found in the lake are

usually species of Chara, Nitelia, Limnophyla, etc. When reared in

the laboratory in a trough of fresh water, wherein mud and water

weeds from the lake were put, these creatures were found to live for

some weeks.

Yet another interesting feature to be noted about these Conchos-

tracans is that they are very active by day and cease to be active

sometime after sunset. Rarely do we come across them swimming

actively a little while after sunset.

The writer is greatly indebted to Dr. Chopra of the Zoological

Survey of India, for having been kind enough to identify this genus.

His thanks are also due to Dr. Joshua of the Madras Christian College,

for having allowed him to carry on his observations in the laboratory.

MApDRAS CHRISTIAN COLLEGE

TAMBARAM, T. N. ANANTHA KRISHNAN, B.SC. (HONS. ),

23rd May 1947. Department of Zoology,

lia

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 307

29. AERIAL ROOTS IN THE SPONGE GOURD, LULA SP.

(With a photo)

Most of the plants with a trailing habit occupy an extensive area.

In order to supplement the water-supply and anchorage, the nodes

have a tendency to develop adventitious roots which strike the soil

and forma small root system. In the climbing forms the develop-

ment of such roots from nodes placed higher up from the soil level,

has not been recorded. It was observed that certain varieties of

Lutta acutangula Roxb, and Luffa aegyptiaca Mill. develop such

roots from aerial nodes at various heights. The photo presents a con-

spicuous view of such adventitious roots.

Aerial roots in Luffa aegyptiaca Mill.

Usually a single root emerged from each node in an extra-axillary

position. Insome cases more than one root (2 to 7) emerged from each

node but only afew developed. They were observed to branch either

after emergence or on reaching the ground or just after penetrating the

soil.’ In the jast case a network of root system was formed. Theircolour

‘in the aerial part was‘ green like the stem which turned brown in

-a later stage, but underground parts resembled the ordinary roots,

They were smooth and circular, Their cross section showed radial

398 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 4¥

arrangement of vascular bundles. The anatomical study revealed a

large number of vascular bundles in parts near the stem and compar-

atively a smaller number near the growing tip. Their length varied

from 4 to 6 feet from the node to the ground. ‘They elongated show-

ing geotropic response. Their elongation was favoured by damp

and cloudy weather during rainy season. Ordinarily the maximum

elongation occurred during the night, and it took hardly a week for

the developing roots to strike the ground under favourable circum-

stances,

BOTANY SECTION,

Govt. AGRI. COLLEGE, SURENDRA NATH SINGH,

CAWNPORE, M.SC. (AG.)

Ist May 1947.

30.—ABNORMAL PALMS OF SOUTH TRAVANCORE

I]. A THREE-CROWNED CoconuT PALM

(Cocos nucitera L.)

(With a plate) -

Branching in palms is a very rare phenomenon. Jacob (1) Davis

(2) and Srinivasan (3) have recorded are-anut (Areca catechu L.) and

palmyras (Borassus flabellifey L.) each having more than one crown.

Presley (4) has found that the Florida Silver palms (Coccothrinax

garber?) have produced true shoots. The appearance of this charac-

teristic trait in a single species, he says possibly represents an

example of a mutational change in reproductive physiology. ‘True

dichotomous branching occurs in the palms of the genus Hyphene,

Blatter (5). In the coconut palm (Cocos nuctlera L.) cases of stem

fasciation are reported by Jacob (6) and Yegnanarayana (7). Fertility

trials were conducted on branched coconut palms by Burkill (8) and

Furtado (9). Shortt (10) reports of coconuts branching at the base.

Ridley (11) who had observed a bulbulliferous coconut, reports it as

a branched one since the bulbils resembled branches. In this con-

nection it is interesting to recall the bulbulliferous coconut palm

observed by Davis (12) which is being published elsewhere! which has

given rise to branched bulbils instead of simple ones as reported by

Ridley. Distinct and healthy two-crowned coconut:‘palms are reported

by Wray (13) and Yegnanarayana (7), the crowns of which bear

fertile fruits.

Description of the palm:

Plate (1) shows an old coconut palm growing near Kulasekaram,

which is near Pechipparai dam of South Travancore. ‘The palm is

quite normal up to a height of nearly fifty feet from the soil. At

this place the main stem has branched into two, almost dichotomously.

1 Jn this Journal, Vol. 47, No. 3 (April 1948).—Eps.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Prate I,

T. A. Davis

A three-crowned coconut-palm (Cocos nucifera L.)

Kulasekaram, South Travancore,

Sh a Bien

Vig ah

erase

My P Sines te

yale

fetunts

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 399

The exact-cause of this phenomenon is not known, Yet the past

history of the palm is of remarkable interest. Some local people say

that the palm at this particular height was attacked by the ‘ determined

ravager’, the Rhinoceros Beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros) which causes

incalculable loss to the coconut growers. This affliction might

have resulted in the stimulation of the apical meristem which

might have continued its growth in two directions resulting in the

production of two branches. However, traces of the beetle attack

are not clearly visible now which may be probably due to age. Still

another interesting thing has happened very soon after, viz., the branch

on the left has divided into two from nearly two feet above the original

junction. This branching does not resemble a true dichotomous one.

This also may be attributed to further attack of Rhinoceros Beetle or

as some Other local ryots say, due to the after effect of lightning

which had struck the palm partly. Field (14) also mentions a

similar happening in a wild Date palm which had given rise to many

branches.

The three branches of this coconut palm are quite healthy and

the individual stems are almost as stout as the original stem. The

branching of this palm is very clear and distinct. All the three

branches bear healthy and normal fruits (see plate 1) which is not the

general case in fasciated palms.

Discussion and concluston:

True branches, as arule arise from the axils of leaves or their

other modifications, The production of shoots from roots, root

tubers, leaves, etc., are rare exceptions. In dicotyledonous plants

axillary as well as in some cases accessory branches are common

both of which are entirely absent in palms. Ridley (11) calls the

bulbils of an abnormal coconut plant which arise from the axils of

leaves, as true branches. No doubt the bulbils are homologous and

analogous with branches. Still the present writer dissents to call the

simple bulbils reported by Ridley or the compound (branched) ones

observed by Davis (12) as true branches, since they wither and fall

off after few years of attachment to their mother plants. |

The branching in these palms is not a hereditary trait and hence

their offsprings fail to imitate them. The appearance of true shoots

in the Florida Silver palms represents. an example of a mutational

change in reproductive physiology according to Presley (4). True.

genetical bearing is met with in the dichotomus branching of the

genus A/yphene and the offsprings of these palms continue the same

kind of branching hereditarily.

The branching of this particular coconut palm is also a true

dichotomous one resembling the branching of some cryptogamic

plants. The first division is obviously a dichotomous one. Also

the second division of the branch on the left one is due to the

division of the apical meristem since the two branches resulted from

this division developed simultaneously and are equally aged. To

confirm this the leaf scars of the two branches above the junction

Were counted and in both the number of scars were almost the same.

Some call the fasciated palms as branched ones. ‘These give rise

to a crowded and confused mass of shoots from the flattened stem.

goo JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATMJRAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47

The branches are generally of unequal size and thickness and they

develop at irregular intervals. Most of these fasciated palms remain

sterile without fruiting or flowering. These palms cannot be correctly

considered as branched ones.

The abnormal branching in palms is either due to inexplicable

physiological changes or to external stimulations. Their mode

of branching does not resemble a normal one and they do not follow

a definite order. This particular palm is highly interesting in the

sense that it has got distinct and dichotomous branches which are

healthier and almost as stout as the original stem. All the branches

bear fertile fruits.

LITERATURE CITED

1. K. Cherian Jacob ‘Stem fasciation in the Areca Palm’. Journal of

Bonbay Natural History Society. August, 1940. |

Trupaur A. Davis ‘A multi-headed Palmyra’. Journal of Bombay

Natural History Society. December, 1946.

K. R. Srinivasan ‘Instance of fasciation in Palmyra’. Journal of

Bombay Natural History Society. Volume 46, 1946,

Heredity. Volume 25: 485—1934.

- Rev. E. Blatter, S. J. ‘The Palms of British India and Ceylon ’, 1926.

. K. Cherian Jacob ‘Stem fasciation in the coconut palm’. Journal of

Bombay Natural History Society. April, 1942.

7. A.K. Yegnanarayana Iyer ‘Curiosities in coconuts’. Mysore Agricul-

tuval Journal. Volume 20, 1942.

8. J.H. Burkill ‘ Fertility of branched coconut palms’. Gadus. Bull. 3: 1-2.

Q) NCIX. Hie edo ‘Branched cocount palms and their fertility’. Gdns. Bull.

3: 274-79.

10. John Shortt ‘A monograph on the coconut palm or Cocos nucifera, L. 18.

11. Ridley H. N. ‘ Branching in palms’. Ann. Botany, London. 21: 415,

1907.

12. G. Wray ‘ Freaks of nature’. Jamaica Agri. Soc. Journal. 40 : 618.

13. F. Field. Journal of Bombay Natural History Society, Volume XVIII,

p. 699.

4. John T. Presley ‘ Off-shoots on the Florida Silver Palm’. Journal of

DEPARTMENT OF BoTANY,

MADRAS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

AND RESEARCH INSTITUTE, TRUPAPUR A. DAVIS,

COIMBATORE, Research Student.

SoutH INDIA,

13th Sebtember 1947.

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V, M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, 18 CHURCH ROAD,

VEPERY, MADRAS (P.I.C. NO. Q.H. MS. 5)—9-4-1948—C5834,

EDITORS : S. H. PRATER AND SALIM ALI, 114 APOLLO STREET, FORT, BOMBAY

Indian Natural History Series, Vol. I

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30MBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

EDITED BY

S. H. PRATER, 0.B.E., M.L.A., C.M.Z.S., SALIM ALI and S. B. SETNA, ph,b.

VOL. 47

Nos. 3 & 4

Containing 1 coloured plate, 20 black and white plates,

11 text-figures, 6 maps and 3 photos

Dates of Publication

No, 3. (Pages 401 to 564) ... April 1948

» 4 ( » 565 to 804) ... August 1948

LONDON AGENTS

DAVID NUTT (A. G. BERRY)

212 Shaftesbury Avenue,

LONDON, W.C. 2.

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS

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CONTENTS OF VOLUME ry

No. 3

SomME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS.

Atte VALI. SVN eb Oly) (Culsme uy Aye DISC SEAL Ss,

LFS, and M. B. Raizada, m.sc. (With 1 coloured and

4 black and white plates)... stem BARON. BUUS S

‘THE BIRDS OF THE SIMLA AND een en ee 1 Pak III.

By A. B. Jones, M.B.0.U. (deceased)... siessccccccsssetooeveoese

SOME BIRDS OF THE GANDAK-Kost WATERSHED, INCLUD-

ING THE PILGRIM TRAIL TO THE SACRED LAKE OF

GOSAINKUND. By B. E. Smythies...

THe STORM PETRELS OCCURRING IN THE NORTHERN

INDIAN OCEAN, AND ADJACENT SEAS. By C. A. Gibson-

Hill, M.A 3 M.B.O.U. (With a PIGLE) Weeciens 2@op 6@0 2&2 OB8 24282 +@e 2768480

EFFECT OF WEIRS AT THE CANAL HEAD-WORKS ON THE

DIsTRIBUTION OF Cadla catla (HAMILTON) IN THE PUN-

JAB. By Ude Singh Rai, M.sc., Php, PAS. (With a

INCIDENCE OF FisH MORTALITY ON THE WEsT Coast. By

Pai sacoprandy MipDevidas MenOinvenss.secseec ce esucce shite

THE HKARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA. Part XX. By

D. G, Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S..cc.c.scrccctseee es

@©2@80070 S09 e¢00 0809882 900

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE ANDAMANS AND NICOBARS. By

Lt.-Col. M. L. Ferrar, ¢.S.1.,C.1.E., O.B.E. (With five plates)

On THE Foop-PLANTS OF INDIAN GEOMETRIDAE AND

PYRALIDAE. By D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R.B.S..0sccssssseecco ces

Tor BUTTERFLIES OF THE KHASIA AND JAINTIA HILLS,

Assam. By R. E. Parsons, F.R.E.S., IP. and Sir Keith

Cantlie, (er LE ) I. Cc, Sin eo90%6e68 350 668 eae 800 490

ee@- 2602000 008 4280 oo

BAT MIGRATION IN iba AND OTHER NOTES ON Bats. By

Humayun Abdulali..

ABNORMAL PALMS OF ait pena LL By Trupapur

A, Davis. (With two plates)...

OBITUARY NOTICE :—

H. H. Maharao Shri Vijayarajji of Cutch (Wzth @ plate).

080 00098800688 8Be 2e00008880 800 ooo

PAGE

401

409

432

443

449

455

458

470

492

498

522

927

530

SUL 2 5 1967

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 47

REVIEWS :—

The Trees of Calcutta and its islediorcneodl By A. P.

Benthall. (D.R.)...

The Book of Indian Animals. By S. H. Prater. (R.W.B.)

The Common Birds of India. By Eha. (REC) icaceee eae

The Story of Migration. By E. A. R. Ennion. (EAS) eeeeeee

Festschrift, Prof. Dr. Embrik Strand, Volume IV.

(S. .Mahdihassanie,,2. cee. eee eee ee eee

Editoriale

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :--—

eS:

14,

How far cana Tiger swim. By D. P. Garga......

An extension of the known range of Bandicola

nemorivaga ace in China, By J. D.

Romer, F.Z.S..

Altitudinal limit of the Indian inate “By

BON. Betis, 4. eb ees Biss ee A Sees

The Movements of the Rosy Pastor in India. By

R. M. Simmons...

Occurrence of the Speckled 1 Picuilet t [Vivta iN0-

minaius (Burton)| in Khulna, Bengal. By

satya Churn ILaw; MiA.)'PH.DsoRIN.I. css ene ses

The Clicking Noise made by Owls. By Humayun

Abbaulalie et, BBs Meas Sets see ee ie se oe

Green Pigeons ina Swamp. By G. V.R. Frend

Peculiar behaviour of the Darter (Anhinga

melanogastey Pennant.) By Humayun Abdulali.

Wilson’s Petrel in India. By Humayun Abdulali.

Occurrence of the Snake Polyodontophis sagittarius

(Cantor) near Bombay. By Humayun

Abdulali...

Crocodiles te By Aaaeeus Pate oh

Notes ona few reptiles from the Nilgiri Hills.

By Garth Underwood.. ates

Acacia thorn in the sis ticrae ‘of a roe (Buto

meclanostictus prey, By Basanta Kumar

Behura..

eed

March nd saosin at cee (District Gales

—A Correction. By OD. G. Sevastopulo,

E.R EiShssdss ;

2 °0P coo ean eobeaod

PAGE

532

534

Swe)

536

538

545

546

547

548

249

549

SEO)

551

Soil

552

553

554

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 47

15. On the butterfly Deltas descombest leucacantha

Fruhstorfer. By R. E. Parsons, F.R.E.S.,,,...

16. Early stages of the butterfly Delzas aglaza Linn.

By R. E. Parsons, F.R.E.S.. sate i

17. Shamming death. By A. A. Dunbar aoa

18. Animals ‘shamming’ death. By D. G. oe

19. The influence of migrant birds on butterfly

mimicry. By D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S.......

20. Colour Sense in Nature. By Brian Vesey-

WitZoeraldleare predecsavesoseioaet eee tee

No. 4

AN EXPEDITION TO SANGLA IN KUNAWAR. By M.A.

Wynter-Blyth, m.A. (Cantab.), F.R.E.S. (With a map

GOO) BELLO. PDUGIEAS.0.<450800006 800 0UGHEO COB O00 LO JOCE OAOIODO AE DBSED. GED ao. NOBEL

LOCAL Lists OF LEPIDOPTERA FROM THE PUNJAB AND U, P.

By D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S.. BOO O55 Me Pe ee

METHODS OF COLLECTION AND HATCHING OF lake OVA IN

CHITTAGONG WITH SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR THEIR

IMPROVEMENT. By Nazir Ahmed, M.Sc. rea Ph.D.,

F.R.S. (With five text figures)... dMA USA

Witp LIFE PRESERVATION: INDIA’S aiinnetine ASSET.

By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton.. dais sett OaM GI acs ails. veciaeaca'e’s

Notes ON INDIAN Birps, I. The RaeHe oF Anthus Tadeo

By S. Dillon Ripley, ph.p..

NoTES ON PooNnA REPTILES, By Garth Undeteosd,

A FurRTHER NOTE ON THE BEARDED PIG IN MALAYA. ByC.A.

Gibson-Hill, M.A. (W2th @ text map).ecceesecorcrescnrensecsceses

A List oF BIRDS OBSERVED IN CHITTAGONG. E. BENGAL,

DURING 1944 AND 1945. By R. M-Simmons. (W7th a map)

BUTTERFLIES OF SOUTH BIHAR. By Major P. W. Morrison-

(COGN RT) AGMIgl CHI, MAUD WALIGH \eses SoS SEBODTE OSA OAHOGECO6 UDB EEE

NOTES ON THE SOLANACEAE OF BomsBAy. By H. Santapau,

Sgy 12) Sac Bee ee

BREEDING & aii Sader’ OF MULLETS (M/ugil) IN

ENNORE CREEK. By P. K. Jacob, 3B.A., M.Sc. and

Bey Krishna tlaieg Bus Cay (EONS) seus asta gasee ava ceehice .- sees woe cee

DESCRIPTIONS OF PLANT GALLS FROM TRAVANCORE. By

K, Karunakaran Nayar, M.A., Ph.D. (With a flate).....

663

668

vi CONTENTS OF VOLUME 47

A CENSUS OF NESTS IN A PRIVATE ‘ BIRD-SANCTUARY ’.

By C.G. Webb-Peploe. (With a text figure)......... 000-0

SPORTSMANSHIP AND ETIQUETTE IN SHOOTING. By Lt.-Col.

E.G. Phythian-Adams, 0.8.F., F.Z.S., 1A. (Retd.)....... 00 v0

BirD MIGRATION IN INDIA: A COMPLETE LIST OF RINGED

BIRDS RECOVERED UP TO DATE (INCLUDING THOSE

NOTIFIED IN THE Journal FROM TIME TO TIME). By

EGit Oryx ce: szleeeSgney Ss ob b<c8 be eee. loc eeesere at eee

ABNORMAL BANANAS OF TRAVANCORE. By Trupapur A. Davis.

(With two plates)... Lukielbe bcecate eis Eo os eee ee ne

ABNORMAL PALMS OF TRAVANCORE. By Tue A. Davis.

(With 1W0 Plates), hs ONS, AMR Te ER eh. Rees

THE USE OF THE BARK OF Sfrychnos Nuxvomica LINN., IN

POISONING A CROCODILE. By A. R. K. Zobairi.............

REVIEWS:

The Man-eating Leopard of Rudraprayag. By Jim Corbett.

ee ot Tndiia “By Chee: pos fan Bide daa)

List of additions to the Society’s Library... ces...ssescescessessceecs

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

1, A Man-eating Tiger of the Kollegal District, South

India. By Wt-Cola kaw Buntomretmetsseeacee

2. Abnormal clavicle bones in tigers. (Wath text

Ligurves) BY. Ce MO tii Saann tel edtance cee ee

3. On the ‘Thorn ’ or‘ Claw’ in Panthers’ Tails.

(With a photo) By K. Boswell............c066

4. Interesting shikar trophies: Hunting Cheetah

Acinonyx jubatus (Schreber) By Van Ingen

& Van ingen. (Wie D010) ean Seos se seeeeeet

5. Reactions of dogs to noises. By R. N. Champion-

Jones.. bao ceeen atcha tyeueee teat

6. Jackals. at C..H easels pee

7. More about Jackals. By C. H. Daudi

Sambar gnawing bark of Wendlandia notoniana.

By R. C. Morris.. Ee eRe Se whee: OP

9. Sambar neck sore. By R R. ¢. Morris Varese.

10. Wild deer in Mauritius. By Lt.-Col. R. W.

BUntonks, Ohl e. aaiaes Soleo cmioce vcamee retina tessa’,

PAGE

676

684

690

700

704

707

719

712

730

walle

IS:

14.

1S)

16.

Wipe

18.

19,

20.

24.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 47

Stranding of a whale (Megaptera nodosa) on the

Travancore Coast in 1943. By A. P. Mathew.

On the occurrence of Sztta frontalis Swains. &

Sztta castanea Less. in Khulna Sunderbans. By

satya Churn aw, MvA., Ph.D PNGd.........-..-

On the cccurrence of the Black-headed Cuckoo-

shrike (Lalage sykesz7) at Ahmedabad, Abu

Road and Ajmer. By R. M.Simmons..........

The status of the Dusky Willow-Warbler

[ Phylloscopus fuscatus ee in India. By

H. G. Alexander.. RAR SLES edu nan, eee

The Rosy Pastor oe Voseus ae B

Ceylon. By W. W. A. Phillips...

Occurrence of the Indian Cliff-Swallow (Hzrundo

fluvicola) in Ceylon. By W. W.A. Phillips...

Arrival of Wagtails in Assam. By H. P.O.

IR OIOEN Sococe SRO OD OOS MOORE Cee er te nr are

On the breeding of the Blue-tailed Bee-eater

(Merops superciliosus javanicus) in Rajahmun-

dry, East Godavari District. By K. K. Neela-

aint eernersuee siete. aoc taseee

Nightjars on Roads. By Humayun Abdulali ..

‘Occurrence of the Laggar Falcon (falco jugger

Gray) at Mt. Abu’—A Correction—and Nest-

ing of the Shahin Falcon (Falco peregrinus

peregrinator Sundevall) at Mt. Abu. By

TGGITOTS ras ee coke ee ek tee I oa ae aiehees wae

Snipe on the Nilgiris. By Lt.-Col. E. G. Phy-

PITA IVAN ANN S Meee eeietre scr arcemiorrenicnaieoe-osthian.sias ¢sisieeee der

Snipe in South India. By Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian-

Fishing with the Indian Darter (Anhinga mela-

nogaster) in Assam. ( Wuth a photo). By

CBR SLON OR a enccete ei caso esos a dencsor sh ese.

The Dwarf or Lesser White-fronted Goose

| Anser erythropus (L.)| in India: An authen-

biCepGeCOnG 5 Ge two text figures), By

Rditors... PME ae dates Use cso asee iieupsoaweancee dine

vii

PAGER

734

736

741

742

143

744

745

746

747

viii

CxS}o

26.

Oilke

28.

29.

30.

oie

32.

So:

34.

36.

31k

38,

Se)

40.

41.

42.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 47

The White-fronted Goose [Azser albitrons

(Scop.)] in Manipur, Assam. By J. C.

Higgins. icra sdveles epqeemeeie ects a houn bane

White-winged Wood- Duck [ dsarcornis scutulatus

(Muller)] on the Padma River, East Bengal.

By H. G. Alexander...

Bronze-capped ‘l'eal Ubvactie ie *(Georai

in Assam. By H. P.O. Robey...

Geese, Duck and Teal in South India. By Lt. -

(CONly 1s (EG PawndablevarevAVGlaveMSs4000 csc coocncsosoocancod

‘The Birds of Delhi and District’. By N. F.

Mortaiity within nests of tropical birds. By Char-

less Ww @iuaintatcess...: cence a Bees eee eee

My experience with pheasant breeding in Dharm-

salasCantonments bya C. bls onal daseteeee

Parakeets attacking aSnake. By Capt. A. G. L.

IOS) By IENEIDEY (RVENCb) k oandgcndoadetao see 000605000 c00cen

A King-Cobra’s speed. By S. K. Ghosh.........

MirrotsCanpn aby, ete COlemRe Vas U RL Oneeseeneeeeen

Outsize Whale-Shark in Bombay Waters. By

C. V. Kulkarni... 3, sodas eeeaah heoe ene becca

Utilisation of Fire setae ae for Fish rearing.

By Bl iGhackors Accs. Go a terete

Fish production in religious institutional waters.

Bygerele Chacko mascencepeeee:

Purse-seiner operating in Bombay: A new

experiment to catch fish. With a text fete

By S. B. Setna, Ph.pD.. é $3

The Biology of Danaus Deyo L. Be D. G.

Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S.. Bt A see

A Honey-Bee in the nest ot a uiseen! Wasp. By

Capt. K. Boswell.. : Tedaoreone

On a variety of een Ley: : Mayr.

(Formicidae) new to India. By Durgadas

Mukerji and Basanta Kumar Behura.............

Remarks on Aphids on Nerzum odorum Sol., and

Calotropis gigantea Br. By Durgadas Mukerji

and Basanta Mumar Behtitar..s., eee es eee ceecen

PAGR

748

749

751

753

TSS)

757

760

761

762

763

764

766

769

dg.

773

774

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 47 ‘

43. The genus me Comments. By

H. Santapau, s.J.. , Pe Re ao

44, Cave Fauna. By Brie. BL A. wae A,

45. ‘Shamming Death’: Snakes. or ie=Colk

IW VV ULC Miranren se ce see ce mtn eaneass dee eacsehies

46. ‘Shamming Death’. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton

47, Wild Life Preservation: Birds. By Lt.-Col.

| IBS Who » [BIBER WO FIs 566.000 0a0.000 ‘DOt00 060 bbe bea Son; uROCOOOOURD

48. Wild Life Preservation: Animals. By Lt.-Col.

Ro! Wii. 1] SHOT RLUO SOC r ecco OR CiGn oS ecole an SaSe Se ames

Annual Report of the Bombay Natural History Society for the

Vearmencinvysist Wecemiber, | 1947 ished, weeds deloewide. tastecees

The Honorary Secretary’s Report for the year 1947............

Appendix to Honorary Secretary’s Report covering the period

January-July, 1948.. a aE dc aasee ea? ete:

Statements of Accounts coe the ponte aaa Se

Society...

Minutes of the = aeenee een teeta ae of the spot! Nae

History Society held on llth August, 1948..................

Catalogue of Books in the Society's Library, Part I, Mammals.

795

G97

ALPHABETICAL, LIST OR (GONTRIROMOTKES

VOLUME 47

Nos. 3 and 4

PAGE ©

ABDULALI, HuMAyuN, Bat _ Indian Climbers and Shrubs,

Migration in India and other | Part XXVIII (With one

notes on Bats ¥, 522. ~—s- colouredand 4 black and white

——_— he Click- | plates.) he ne a

ing Noise made by Owls 548 | BOSWELL. Capt. K., On the

——-—— Peculiar | “Thorn’ or ‘Claw’ in Pan-

behaviour of the Darter (dAz- thers’ Tails. (With a photo)

hinga melanogaster Pennant) 549 | —— A Honey-Bee in the

— Wilson’s | nest of a Mason-Wasp

Petrel in India ase ..- 500 ) BRANDER,A. A. DUNBAR, Sham-

———— Occur- | amine Deathe ss:

rence of the Snake Polyodonto- BourTON, Lt.-Col. R. W., Wild

phis sagittarius (Cantor) near Life Preservation; India’ s

Bombay 551 Vanishing Asset

3 —_— —_ Grocoailes — ——_——- ———_-—— A Man-

bellowing : ite ond, wl eating Tiger of the Kollegal

- ——-— Night jars District, South India 6

on Roads 742 | ——-_--_~____——__ Wild

AHMAD, NAZIR, M.SC. (CHicsi.9) Deer in Mauritius

Ph.D., F.R.S. Methods of Col- — — ——- — —~-—— Mirror

lection and Hatching of Carp Carp aos 500 Be

Ova in Chittagong with some = ————-——‘ Sham-

suggestions for their improve- ming Death’: Snakes

ment. (With 5 textfigures) 593 | ————-——-————— ‘ Sham-

ALEXANDER, H.G., The Status ming Death’ ... ge

of the Dusky Willow-Warbler ———S SFG

[Phylloscopus fuscatus (Bly- Life Preservation: Birds «.

th)] in India 00 . (36 | ———-———-—_ Wild

White-winged Life Preservation : Animals

Wood-duck [ Asarcornis scutu- CANTLIE, SIR KEITH, C.1.E.,

latus (Muller)] on the Padma 1.C:S.,) SEC, PARSONS glxekuee

River, East Bengal 749 F.R.E.S. (1.P.)

BEHURA, BASANTA KUMAR, CHacko, P. I., Utilisation of

Acacia Thorn in the Stomach Fire Service Tanks for Fish

of a toad (Bufo melanostictus Rearing

Schneid.) 553 | ——_—--—— “Fish ‘Drailne:

—_—_—_ —— tion in Religious Institutional

seé MUKERJI, DURGADAS. Waters ee

Betts, F. N., Altitudina! Limit CHAMPION-JONES, R. N., Re

of the Indian Elephant 546 actions of Dogs to Noiees ee

Bor, N.L., C.1.E., M.A., D.SC.,

F.L.S., I.F.S,, and RAIZADA,

M.B., m.sc., Some Beautiful

Davis, TRUPAPURA., Abnormal

Palms of Travancore III.

(With two blates) ... ee

PAGE

401

716

771

557

602

778

780

763

764

720

527

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Davis, TRUPAPUR A,, Abnormal

Bananas of Travancore. (Wzth

two plates) 600 556 a00

— ————_- —- —— Abnormal

Palms of Travancore. (With

two plates) afi

DONALD, C. H., J nee

More about

Jackals 5a ba

— My experience

with pheasant breeding in

Dharmsala Cantonment

Epirors, Bird Migration in

India: Acomplete list of ring-

ed birds recovered up to date

(including those notified in the

Journal from time to time) ...

‘Occurrence of the

Laggar Falcon (Falco jug ger

Gray) at Mt. Abu’—A Correc-

tion—and nesting of the Shah-

in Falcon (Falco peregrinus

peregrinator Sundevall) at Mt.

Abu

— The Dwarf or Lesser

White-fronted Goose [Axser

erythvopus (L.)] in India: An

authentic record ? (With 2 text

figures) ...

HORA Me te= Cole MesleCeS lia,

PAGE

700

oe)

690

743

C.1.E., 0.B.E., The Butterflies

of the Andamans and Nico-

bars. (With 5 plates)

FRASER, Capt. A. G. L., I.M.D.

(Retd.). Parakeets uous

a Snake j

FREND, G.V.R., Green DIRSGRS

inaSwamp .. ee

FroME, N. F., ‘ The Birds of

Delhi and District ’

GaRGA, D. P., How far can a

Tiger swim

Animals ‘ Sham-

ming’ Death wie 506

Guosu, S. K., A King-Cobra’s

speed... eae 600 S00

GIBSON-HILL, C. A., M.A., M.B.

o.u. The Storm-Petrels oc-

curring in the Northern Indian

Ocean and Adjacent Seas.

(With a plate) O00 ave

470

757

443

GIBSON-HILL, C. A., M.A., M.B.

o.U., A Further Note on the

Bearded Pig in Malaya,

(With a text map)

GLENNI£, Brig. E. A.,

Fauna

HIGGINS, J. Gain IZGuS! (Reta. nf

The White-fronted Goose

Anser albifrons (Scop.) in

Manipur, Assam 500

JACOB, P. K.; B.A., M.Sc. and

Menon, M. DevipAs, Inci-

dence of Fish Mortality on the

West Coast ... oof

_ and

KRISHNAMURTHI, B., B.Sc.

(Hons.), Breeding and Feed-

ing Habits of Mullets (Zug?)

in Ennore Creek ?

JONES, A. E., M.B.0.U. (decea-

sed), The Birds of the Simla

and Adjacent Hills. Part III

KrRISHNAMURTHI, B.,_ B.Sc.

(Hons.) see JACOB, P. K.,B.a.,

M.Sc,

KULKARNI, C.V., Outsize Whale-

Shark in Bombay Waters

Law, Satya CHURN, M.A,,

ph.D., F.N.I., Occurrence of

the Speckled Piculet Vivia in-

nominatus (Burton)in Khulna,

Bengal

Cave

the occurrence of WSzfa

frontalis Swains. and Sztta

castanea Less. in Khulna Sun-

derbans se6 eae

MATHEW, A. P., Stranding of a

Whale (Megaptera nodosa) on

the Travancore Coast in 1943

MENON, M. DEviIDAS see JACOB,

Pek

Morris, R. C., Abnormal

Clavicle Bones in Tigers.

(With text figures) ts

Sambar gnaw-

Wendlandia

ing bark © of

notoniuna

Sambar neck

sore coe esis

NigREnsO Coomera, Major

P, W., A.M.1.C.E., Butterflies

of South Bihar, (With a map)

PAGE

632

777

748

455

663

409

762

548

644

xii

MUKEBRII, DURGADAS and

BEHURA, BASANTA KUMAR,

On a variety of Acantholepis

frauenfteldi Mayr. (Formici-

dae) new to India

on Aphids on Nerium

odorum Sol. and Calotropis

gigantea Br. ... ee dot

NAvAR, K. KARUNAKARAN,

M.A., Ph.D., Descriptions of

Plant Galls from Travancore.

(With a plate) nee 500

NEELAKANTAN, K. K., On the

breeding of the Blue-tailed

Bee-eater (WZerops supercilios-

us javanicus) in Rajahmundri,

East Godavari Dist. ae

Parsons, R. E., F.R.E.S. (1.P.)

and CANTLIE, SIR KEITH,

c.1.E., 1.c.S., The Butterflies of

the Khasia and Jaintia Hills,

Assam ... 400 aah 500

—— On the Butter-

fly Delias descombesi leuca-

cantha ¥ruhstorfer

of the Butter ae Delius aglata

Linn, »\ 2.

PHILLIPS, W. W. ke The Rosy

Pastor Pastor yoseus (Linn).

in Ceylon ae oes

Occurrence of

the Indian Clitf-Swallow (A7-

yundo fluvicola) in Ceylon

PHYTHIAN-ADAMS,

G.., OsB Be, BZ. Sey loAnq neta),

Sportsmanship and Etiquette

in Shooting Gap

——— Snipeon me

Nilgiris

Snipe in

South India Sats ook

Geese, Duck

and Teal in South India

QUAINTANCE, CHARLES W.,

Mortality within nests of Tro-

pical Birds 7 ae

ae UDE SINGH, M.Sc., Ph.D.,

A.S., Effect of Weirs at the

Cee Head-Works on the

a Renee

—— Early hanes

Lt.-Col. E,

PAGE

774

€68

741

498

554

556 |

740

684

744

745

749

753

‘pus L.

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

distribution of Catla catla

(Hamilton), in the Punjab.

(With a map) 50

RAIzADA, M. B., M.SCc.,

ING) Ibioj QIBIBS, MGA,

Hob Sis Se

RIPLEY gs. Db ONsw er oeDs

Notes on Indian Birds, I. The

Races of Anthus hodgsont

loa, HEI, 12, Oy eiaalyeyl wit

Wagtails in Assam

séé BOR,

M. SC,,

Bronze-

capped Teal Aunetia falcata

(Georgi) in Assam 400

RomER, J. D., F.z.S, An ex-

tension of the known range of

Bandicota nemorivaga (Hodg-

son) in China ...

SANTAPAU, © EL. 4S. Jee ress

Notes on the Solanaceae of

Bombay... 5a6 00 ves

eee

Genus Cevopegia—Further

Comments oe 5a ae

SETNaA, Dr. S. B., Ph.p., Purse-

seiner operating in Bombay:

New experiment to catch fish.

(With a text figure)...

SEVASTOFULO, D.G., E.R.E.S.,

The Early Stages of Indian

Lepidoptera, Part XX

———_-——_—-——— On

the Food-plants of Indian

Geometridae and Pyralidae ...

--—— March

Lepidoptera at Gopalpur

(Dist. Ganjam). A Correc-

tion 40 906

- The

influence of Migrant Birds on

Butterfly Mimicry

Local

lists of Lepidoptera from the

Punjab and U.P.

SS Sy MB aYS

Biology of Danaus chrysip-

SimMons,R.M., The Movements

of the Rosy Pastor in India ...

PAGE

449

749

546

652

775

766

458

492

554

559

586

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Simmons, R. M., A list of Birds

cbserved in Chittagong, E.

Bengal during 1944 and 1945.

(With amap) .. oe aoe

-—————_—— On the Occur-

ence of the Black-headed

Cuckoo-shrike (Latagesykesit )

at Ahmedabad, Abu Road and

Ajmer ar 600 ws

SMYTHIES, B.E., Some Birds of

the Gandak-Kosi Watershed,

including the Pilgrim Trail to

the Sacred Lake of Gosain-

kund see ate cos

Stonor, C.R., Fishing with the

Indian Darter (Anhinga

melanogaster) in. Assam. (I) 7th

a phote) ... rt 5

UNDERWOOD, GARTH, Notes on

a few Reptiles fromthe Nilgiri

TSU So60 cos

PAGE

432

746 |

952

UNDERWOOD, GARTH, Notes on

Poona Reptiles...

Van INGEN & VAN INGEN,

Interesting Shikar Trophies:

Hunting Cheetah =Acinonyx

jubatus (Schreber)

VESEY - FITZGERALD,

Colour sense in Nature

WEBB-PEPLOE, C.G., A census

of Nests in a Private ‘ Bird

Sanctuary’, (With a_ text

figure) ... see See

WYNTER-BiyvTH, M. A., M.A.

(Cantab.), F.R.E.S. An Ex-

pedition to Sanglain Kunawar.

(With a map and two plates).

ZOBAIRI, A. R. K., The Use of

the Bark of Strychnos Nux-

vomica Linn., in poisoning a

Cracodile

BRIAN,

ote

xiii

PAGE

676

565

LIST, OR PLATES

VOLUME 47

Nos. 3 and 4

PAGE

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs

Plate XXX. Bougainvillea glabra Choisy ... AQ]

Plate I. Aougainvillea spectabilis Willd. var. ‘Maharaja of Wise

New Forest, Dehra Dun 404

Plate Il. Gougatnvillea Buttiana Holttum & Standley (B. Mi

Butt), New Forest, Dehra Dun ee - bet. 404/405

Platelll. Bougainvillea spectabilis Willd. var. eid die New, Forest,

Dehra Dun 406

PlatelV. Bougainvillea glabra Choisy, New Forest, "Dene Dun

bet. 406/407

The Storm-Petrels occurring in the Northern Indian Ocean, and Adja-

cent Seas.

Plate: Fig. 1. Oceanites oceanicus (Kuhl) )

Fig. 2. Fregetta tropica (Gould) |

Fig. 3. Hydrobates pelagicus (Linn.)

}

Fig. 4. Oceanodroma monorhis (Swinhoe)

The Butterflies of the Andamans and Nicobars.

Plate I: Fig. 1. Tvoides helena heliconotdesM.

Fig. 2. i 3 3 M. + |

Fig. 3. 6 9 ferrari Tyt. df

Fig. 4. ” ” ” ”? 2

Plate IL: Fig. 1. Tvos aristolochiae goniopellis Roth. 4)

Bigs 2eea a, ; sawi Evans ¢ |

LENE Blo op "Or camortaM. ¢ (Fs

Higed. 55 9p koniulana Evans ¢ ;

Plate III: Fig. 1. Auploea climena scherzert Fd. 3 >

Fig. 2. 33 ” oy) 99 |

Fig. 3. . 2 camortaM. & |

Fig. 4, 9? 9 93 9? 2 Si

Fig. 5. 7 » Sstimulatrix WM, & deN. ¢

Fig. 6. 9 o? 9) 7) om) g)

Plale IV: Fig. 1. Auploea crameri espert Fd. 3)

Fig. 2. On » ”? 7) Y

Fig. 3. 3 » OseriataM. |

Fig. 4, ? ) Be) r) o if

Pico. Ap » frauentetdt Fd. 3g

Fig. 6. ” ” ” 9

Plate V: Hig i Euploea andamanensis andamanensis Atk. 3 \

ig. * ” o) 1) oe)

Fig. 2. g 5 ferrari &

Fig. 3. % 5 bumila Evans &

Fig. os ) ry) %) )

Fig. 6. » voepstorvfuM. fg

Fig. ihe 12 ? » 2

444

474

476

478

bet. 478/479

bet.

478/479

LIST OF PLATES <4

PAGE

Abnormal Palms of Travancore III. A Bulbulliferous Coconut Palm

(Cocos nucifera L.)

Plate I, Fig. 1. Close-up of the crown of the bulbulliferous |

palm. | 528

Fig. 2. The dissected inflorescences of both the abnor- fi

mal palms 600 500 J

Plate II. Fig. 3. (a-g). The conversion of the spathes into pin- )

nate leaves 500 680 ae |

Fig. 4. (h &i). Normal and abnormal coconut vo it 529

lings “J

Obituary :

Plate: H. H. Maharao Shri Vijayarajji of Cutch (1886-1948) an nO80

An Expedition to Sangla in Kunawar.

Plate I. Temple near Panda. Pack sheep and goats near Nachar.

Monastery, Nachar. Sangla Village oO me 580

Plate II, The confluence of the Sutlej and Baspa Rivers } 58]

Descriptions of Plant Galls from Travancore. )

Plate. Fig. 1. Stem and leaf gall on Mesua terrea Linn. |

Fig. 2. Leaf gall on Holigarna arnottiana Ak, oe U 670

Fig. 3. Stem and leaf galls on unidentified convolvulace- |

ous plant a00 aes 500

Abnormal Bananas of Travancore Il. A Banana Plant (Musa paradi-

siaca Lu.) with four-bunched inflorescence.

Plate I. A Musa with four-bunched inflorescence, Kannakurichy,

S. Travancore 700

Plate II. A closer view of the abnormal inflorescence with four

bunches ... boo 2 TUM

Abnormal Palms of Travancore IV. polecar nya in a Gocone: ( Cocos

nucifera LL.)

Plate I. A coconut fruit giving rise to three shoots, Kannakurichy,

S. ‘Travancore soe 704

Plate Il. The abnormal coconut fruit with the husk partly Pere ed

to show that all the three ‘eyes’ are fertile... eo (AUS)

VON DIES. TWO SILIL OSTA ARLONS

VOLUME 47

Nos. 3 & 4

PAGE PAGE

Acinonyx jubatus (Schreber Collection & Hatching of

Photo eee 718 Carp Ova in

Anhinga melanogaster ; Chittagong

) 7A re) 3S?

FOO eis pa GP Text Fig. 1 595

Anser albifrons (Scop.) | Text Fig. 2 597

Boxe get vs 748 Text Fig. 3 597

———— erythropus (L). | Sg enc 599

: beet es. d J Text Fig. 5 ; 601

Birds observed in Chittagong, ay

1944 & 1945 Effect of Weirs at the Canal

M ’ 638 Head-works on _ the

, Bae é eo.) Distribution of Catla

Bougainvillea Butiiana ;

: catla (Hamilton) in the

Holttum & Standley ;

Punjab.

(B. Mrs. Butt) Map 450

Plate II

———— glabra Choisy

Coloured plate

Plates:

——— spectabilis Willd.

var. lateritia

bet. 404/405

401

eoo

Plate III ...

——— — spectabilis Willd.

var. Maharaja of

Mysore

Pater 404

Butterflies of South Bihar |

Map 503 56 644

Census of Nests in a Private

‘ Bird-Sanctuary ’

Magpie-Robin

Territories

Text Fig. aes 678

Clavicle Bones in Tigers,

Abnormal.

Text Fig. (Actual

VAD) p00 715

Text Fig. (Actual

SIZ) ere 716

Cocos nucifera L.

Platel, Figs, 1 & 2. 528

Plate Il, Figs. 5&4. 529

Place amrres 704

Plate I 705

bet. 406/407

406

Euploea andamanensis

andamanensis Atk.

Plate V, Figs. 1& 4

bet. 478/479

ane ——— — Oumila Evans

Plate V, Figs. 3 &5

bet. 478/479

bie ee ferrari 4

Plate V, Fig.2 ,, 478/479

———— climiena camoria M.

‘Plate lH, Figs.3 & 4. 478

ete SS — scherzeri Fad.

Plate Ill, Figs. 1 & 2 478

———-- climena Simulatrix

WM. & deN.

Plate Ill, Figs.5 & 6 47 8

—~———— cramer biseriata M.

Plate IV, Figs. 3 & 4

bet. 478/479

——————— esperi Fd.

Plate IV, Figs. 1 & 2 bet. 478/479

Euploea cramert frauenteidi

Fd.

Plate IV, Figs. 5& 6 bet. 478/479

voepstorfiz M.

Piate V, Figs.6 & 7 bet. 478/479

Expedition to Sangla in

Kunawar.

Map of the Route

565

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

Plate I

Plate II

Fregetla tropica (Gould)

Plater icone

Hydrobates pelagicus (Linn.)

Plate Hisw 3

Musa paradisiaca L.

Plate I

Plate II... oe

Obituary Plate: H. H. Maha-

rao Shri Vijayarajji of

Cutch (1885-1918 )

Oceanites oceanicus ( Kuhl)

Plate: Fig. 1

~ Oceanodroma monorhis

(Swinhoe)

Plate: Fig, 4

Plant Galls from Travancore

Platersehigse 1e23.

Purse-seiner operating in

Bombay : New Experi-

ment to Catch Fish.

Text Fig.

PAGE

580

581

766

| Sus barbatus subsp, in

| Malaya

Map soe

| ‘ Thorn’ or ‘ Claw ’ in Pan-

thers’ Tails.

Photo

Troides helena ferrari Tyt.

Plate I, Figs.3 & 4

—- ——_ —— heliconotdes M.

Plate I, Figs. 1 & 2

Tros avistolochiae camorta

M. ¢

Plate II, Fig. 3

goniopeltis

Roth. ¢

Plate II, Fig. 1

—— ———— kondulana

Evans ¢

Plate lI, Fig. 4

| ———_————- sawi Evans ¢

Plate Il, Fig. 2

633

476

“ee Lot wives

: , ry ry

: oe ” ” Boat Sits

ph aati cue sia Re Cats eee

OPA ; is fue + Pi s

F ie ees SAE, , 4L4xG ly

} ie vee a cal ie bak,

ent ni ares * a | ‘Magick FE eee

este Sorts my: meee ta

es ae A Horie ~ ey os ' < .

4 Vinee aupled MEL: OGY On oe Oe

Pee a; a rin ae oy at es saw as oO vt iy igh Cheep

ewe

"he

fi 5 ee | ee * ns ; — $ aa :

f i k UNS : ak smeecoeriheg Saree he 2b mieten

gh geo aes tt eee e 7 =| Le Bsa

i, a a ree as Eee WG; olen Oe at ; hs Fe

we - *. < fs ” a G bee | N - *

SY SGUETS WTAAG a on) vie OFS a as &

a Wane 6 wae

. re A

. ana | apace

: ea kT ee Sani ae ;

ru ped ig peel ee: ash? «

BPO ok, ie ae ees Bt ati

Lane ath a eee a a a : rem

Pu re Pd | Sboqge St war! ape

—

nas

toe

pe ee PE lool

fast Ba 3

—-

—

< : FLA tite — pee * oe e ‘ GaP if iota D i esa

OT We ie Se =F ane bt . ue tees

my or

=~ ath gn ee

ra 7 -,

= Z

. : oe :

Bre: q 9 We “ ied

1eU 4 ries 51 _—

<a, ’

DY >

i’ « ‘ = " |

— | ae

= F

‘

» i

+1 ee er: ¢

‘oY we 1 i . ie ta .¥. a & a in ’ 470 ' zy

\ Ay | Pr , ‘ _ wana) resists tf 7 nae

hi: fds ™ 4

OT eal ia Sere eal

di, ; oy « ~s aarti |

ot EoD! we Rae SP

ox - ae t. «oe Sed aa

Abies pindrow

—-— webbiana ...

Abisara chela chela

—--echerius bifasciata

— suffusa

kekediiaaed’

——-- fylla

Abraxas grossulariata ...

——— sylvata ...

Acacia arabica

catechu

moniliformis

Acanthads

Acantholepis franentelan:

Achaea serva

Achalarus bifasciatus casviapin.

Acherontia styx ...

Achrota grisella...

Achyranthus Aspera

Acinonyx jubatus

Acridotheres tristis

Acrocephali

Acrocephalus i

————- -— dumetorum

Actias selene

-adima

Adolias evan pardvs

— — khasiana khasiana

Aegithina tiphia...

Aeromachus stigmata ...

Aeschynomene indica

Aethiopsar fuscus

fuscus

Agalope hyalina...

Aganais (Hypsa) ficus ...

Agathia laetata ...

——--— lycaenaria

Agathodes ostentalis ...

agathon, (A.)

agathon-nilgiriensis

aglaia

agostina

“Agromyza sp.

Se ee

-- neophron neopliren ao

fIHISHISE secs

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

435, 567 | |

435

521 |

486

59], 649

521

“493

493, 593

420, 553

494

—-§32

494

773

464

572

588

494

671

718

640, 679, 758 |

419

738

410, 639

590

Joe old

FL SIS

515

638, 677

572

dos

. 640

419

590

588

492

497

560

506, 557

505

673

—

PAGE

Agrotis biconica ... 591

aidoneus. ... 500

airavati oe. «= 486

alba, (D.) ... 658

-——, (D. fastucsa) 658

albifrons 748

Albizzia Bi 681

—amara ... 682

—-—-— Lebbek... 676, 677, 679, 680, 681

682

AICANOR es. . 475, 476, 501

Alcedo atthis 642, 683

alcippus Lia el

Allasomyia tenuispatine 669

Alstonia scholaris ae AN

Alternanthera 497

Amaranthus 496

Spp. wa. 674

Amata (Syntomis) picinets 592

———— (————) cyssea georgina 588

Amathusia phidippus andamanica 481

Amathusiidae : Tm ol2

Amathuxidia aniyihaon 512

Amaurornis phoenicurus 643

Ambassis ... 455

— dayi 455, 457

— spp. : Sa see 003

Amblypodia BG 600 aes 472, 484

Amblypodia alea constanceae 488

a alemon 650

———--— alesia 488

me amantes amantes 650

———-—— asopia asopia ods: 488

me centaurus coruscans 488

———- fulla andamanica 488

eee LA : oo. 488

Ampelophaga rubiginosa fasciosa 593

Amphora ... 765

amplifascia aa: 500 771

Amsacta (Creatonotus) lactinea 588

= (( --——— ) moorei 988

re es HATE, poe 591

a HAOORS 400 591

Anabaena 769

RX INDEX

PAGE

Anabaenopsis «a. 763

Anadebis himachala S11

Anaphaeis aurota a 580

one aurota ..459, 587, 590

Anas acuta 693, 096, 698,

- —-—— acuta i 691

—-— penelope ... 690, 691, “692, 693, 694,

697

——~ platyrhyncha 692, 693, 694, 695, 696

——— poecilorhyncha ... 749

strepera 694, 696, 697, 699

——— streperus ... E93

Anchoviella spp. ... 5 663

Ancylolomia chrysographella .. 494

locupletella 494

andamanensis 480

- bumila 480

Anerastia ablutella 495

Anguilla bengalensis 0 sods CAGE:

Anhinga melanogaster ... .. 049, 644, 745

Avisomeles ovata 497

Anisozyga 492

Annona squamosa : ae 677

Anodontostoma chacunda 456

Anser albifrons ... 748

erythropus 747, 748

Anthus b. hodgsoni oe OS

—— hodgsoni... 449, 623, 625, 626

——— ———— burzil 626

——— hodgsoni 626

——— ~——-—— inopinatus 625, 626

—-— — yunnanensgis ... 626

——— maculatus 625

—— ————— berezowskii 626

—— yunnanensis 626

—-—— rufulus AOL)

——— trivialis 625. 626

Antigastra catalaunalis .. 497

Anua (Ophiusa) tirrhaca 591

Apatura ambica ambica 513

——-— parisatis parisatis 513

-——--— parvata ... 513

Aphanocapsa «we 763, 765

Aphis : 774

Aphis asclepiadis” Soh 774, 775

——-- gossypii eee wee MROVE

——-- indica 673, 682

Aphis nerii 713, 774

aphnea 475

Aporia agathon 560

OF SPECIES |

Pacr

| Aporia agathon agathon 499 |

- ariaca 592

- leucodice sara 592 |

| - nabellica nabellica 584

| Aporosa Lindleyana 672,

tees ~ microcalyx 672 |

| Appias 500 vos AG)

| Appias albina iradis 473, 477, 507, 646

| chrysea 479 |

| ——— indra indra 506 |

| ——— lalage lalage 499, 506 |

| ——-— libythea olferna ... 477, 506 |

| ———— lyncida eleonora ... » 022 |

[fees cnsiar Sa galbana .. 477 |

—— ——— hippoides 522, 506.

| ——— ——— nicobarica 477

| ——— nero galba 507,

——— olferna No wee 473)

——— panda chrysea 473, 477, 484 |

paulina galathea... 477 |

arborea, (D.) 659 |

Ardeola grayi 644

Ardola grayi 683 |

Argynnis childreni 973)

———— ———— childreni 519, 592 |

————. ——-—— sakontala ... 589 |

--——— clara 084 |

-——-——. eugenia Tianna nme Pe Sil)!

—-~——— hyperbius hyperbius ... O19 |

———— kamala sow GON

——-—-— laodice rudra ... Pec)! !),

—— lathonia issoea 520, 589.

| —--—- rudra 499 |

| Arhopala Ge mecene spepiten |

ganesa eae, tual

ariana Be 583, 585)

ariana, (P. eros) .., 580)

ariaspa 587;

Aristolochiae 645)

Arius spp. tes 457

| Armandia lidderdalei 505)

Artamus fuscus 639°

| Artipe eryx ae 473, 489

Asarcornis scutulatus 749°

aspasia 560, 561)

Aster (thompsoni >) 433)

| Asterionella bleakleyi 665, 666,

| -——- japonica 667

| Asterionella sp. | ae 665

| Astictopterus jama permagnus ... 4y0)

| Astur badius

682

Astycus augias augias

———- pythias bambusae

Atella alcippe alcippoides

———_ ——-— andamana

—_—- -—-— fraterna

= phalanta

—~-— phalantha ...

athamas

Athene brama

Atropa physaloides

August dana

Aulacophora sp.

485,

aulicus

‘Aulocera brabus aabmines

—-—— padma 5

———— swaha swaha

auriga

Austrothrips aeoninehinenis

Azadirachta indica

‘Azanus uranus

‘Bacillaria paradoxa

‘Bacillaria sp. ae

‘Badamia exclamationis ...

: baldus By: 006

Baltia butleri butleri

‘Bandicota nemorivaga

Baoris agna agna

: : cahira cahira

'—— conjuncta narooa

—_———- guttatus bada

- mathias mathias

oceia farri

/—-— — scopulifera

——— sinensis subochracea

—— zelleri cinnara

barbatum, (R.)

_ Barbus hexagonolepis

f= (Tor) putitora

' Barringtonia

' Bassia latifolia

—— longifolia ...

Beara dichromella

_ Belenois mesentina

ama

mesentina

| belladonna Reor

' Belone sp.

Bemisia tabacci

/ benjamini, (F.)

| Berberis

| Berberis vulgaris

_ Berberis sp

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

491

491, 588, 651

520

485

588, 589, 648 |

520

513

642, 682

660 |

488

923

631

580

589

556

673

676. 677, 678

589

646

665, €66

.. 490, 650

oll

580

546

49]

491 |

651 |

651

491

65]

491, 651

434 |

765

451 |

493

671 |

677

oe OS

459, 587

476

560

663

672

488

420

434

412

xxi

PAGE

berezowskii 626

berezowskii, (A. h.) 627

Betousa stylophora 672, 675

Bibasis sena sena — 490

biflorum, (S.) se OSG

Biddulphia mobiliensis 665, 667

————— ————~ sp 666

Bignonia magnifica 679

Bindahara phocides areca 490

——-——— ———— _ phocides .. 490

Biston bergaliaria 494

— suppressaria 494

blatteri, (C.) 7795

Blumea balsa mifera 498

Boarmia acaciaria 494

--———- bhurmitra 494

———— boarmiaria 494

——-—— selenaria 494.

boeticus, (C.) 588

———— (L.) 473

Bombax 409

Borassus flabellifer 4 676

Bos gaurus hubbacki .,.. aoe ». 636

Botyodes asialis ve 497

Bougainvillea 40], “402, 403, 404, 406

Bougainvillea Buttiana 405

——————- glabra 405

| ——————- peruviana 407

—————-—- sp ve 679, 681

bowringi 771

Brachypternus benghalensis 641, 681

Brachythrips 671

Br.chythrips ceataunctias 671

Brahmaea wallichii es 355 ae O93

Brassicae es 505

Bryophyllum Panett 679

Bubo coromandus 642

——- lacteus ae cn ale O08

Buddlea... aes a: Nee 505, 506

Buddleia 200 : 519

Bufo melanostictus 553

Buginvillea 402

Bungarus caeruleus m 632

Butea frondosa «997, 679, 681

Butt, Mrs. (var.) 406

Buttiana, (B.) 403

Buzura suppressaria och. Ge)

Byasa 500 ‘ sen 2)

| Byasa aidoneus 506 sae 00

aristolochiae Aristolochia 501

——- coon cacharensis vee ~=— 8000

¥ xii

PAGE

Byasa crassipes 501

——- dasarada dnearada 501

——- latreillei kabrua 901

—- nevilli ae oe 501

——= philoxenus polycuctes 501

——- sambilanga 473

——-= varuna astorion 500

Callabraxas amanda 493

Callacanthis burtoni 425

Callicarpa lanata 653

callinara 649

Calluna oes 493

Calophyllum iPOBEN UT 672

—_ — Wightianum 672

Calotes rouxi 630

— versicolor 552, 630, 631

Calotropis ... 479, 769, 774

—- gigantea 498, 774

-—— procera 769

Calpe ophideroides coo OE |

Calycopteris floribunda 673, 675

cama: 516

camorta 479

campanulatum, (R. ) 434

Campodea cookei Va7

Campylotes histrionicus 592

Capparis horrida 460

Caprimulgus macrourus 442

Caprinia conchylalis 496

Caprona agama pelias ... : 651

——--—-— ransonnettii ransonnettii 651

— -——-——-- taylorii ... 651

Capsicum ° 606 661

Capsicum annum neamiae ta 506 661

-__— —- frntescens 661

Carallia : 492

Carallia integerrima 492

Caranx melamphygus 457

Caranx spp. 36 455

Carduelis caniceps caniceps 425

Caridina sp. coe | SS

Carissa carandas By: 492, 494

Carpodacus erythrinus roseatus 424

-—— pulcherrimus pul-

cherrimus 423

——-—— rhodochlainys grandis 424

—_——--——- rhodochroa 424

-—— thura blythi 423

Caryota urens : 677

cashmeriensis 442

Cassia ok

907 |

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Cassia auriculata : es bow

fistula 466, 494, “496, 677, 681

siamea 681

Cassia sp. 494

tora 495

Castalius elna noliteia 486

—- ethion airavati 486

—_-——_-——- —-——- ethion 486

-——— —— rosimon alarbus 486

—_—_—_- ——_-——- rosimon ... 649

——-——- roxuis manluena 486

— ———- roxus 486

castaiea, (S.) 734

Casuarina equisetifolia 677

Catachrysops lithargyria 500 487

- strabo 487, 649

catilla 616

Catla 451

449, 450, 451, 452, 453,

454, 594, 763, 765, 785

Catopsilia - aac 477, 590

Catopsilia crocale ... «477, 507,587, 646

—- florella gnoma... 477, 507, 587, 646

——-—— pomona ...

—-~ pyranthe mina..

Catla catla

477, 507, 587, 646 |

» 477, 507, 587, 646

Cedrela toona .. 495 |

Cedrus deodara «0 O41

Ceiba pentandra 676

Celaenorrhinus andamanica 490

————-- leucocera |

leucocera so 490m

-——- —— —-—- munda 571, SSom

Celerio lineata livornica a. OGG

Centropus sinensis 642, 681 |

Cephalopyrus flammiceps |

flammiceps 417

Cephrenes ead nicobarica 491] —

Cepora 522 |

Cepora (rapinay’ nerissa |

phryne 590 |

——-— (———-—) nerissa

phryne (evagete) 458 —

——-— nerissa ve 580

——-— —-—-— dapha ... 476

——-— —-—— lichenosa 476

——-— nadina andamana 476

Ceporas 471

Ceratoceros 763

Ceratophyllum 600

Ceratophyllum aenierann 765

Ceropegia 718, 776

Ceropegia Blatteri 900 200

| ———-—. odorata

' Ceropegia spp.

' Certhia familiaris

- Cethosia biblis andamana

———— —— nicobarica

————_— tisamena

‘——— — cyane 000

Ceryle rudis

Chaetoceros was

‘Chaetoceros decipiens

Chaetoprocta odata :

Chaimarrhornis leucocephala

Chalciope hyppasia

Chanos chanos

Charana jalindra Papin)

——-- mandarinus |

Charaxes aristogiton ... eae

———— fabius sulphurens

-———— kahruba ;

———- polyxena agna 500

Charaxes polyxena hierax

. — inma

-charltonius, (P ) sis

chela chela

Chersonesia risa

Chibia hottentotta

Chilades laius laius

Chilasa agestor agestor

-—-—— clytia clytia

—_ ——-- flavolimbatus

-——— epicydes epicydes

—— paradoxa telearchus ...

slateri slateri

‘Chilo simplex

—- zonellus

Chimacodium sp.

Chliaria othona ...

‘Chloridea obsoleta

‘Chloromachia divapala

Chloropsis aurifrons

Chordeiles minor poepens

‘chrysea ...

chrysippus

‘chrysippus, (D.)

Chrysocraspeda abhadraca

Cibaritis ...

cicada eos eee eee eso

Ciconia ciconia ciconia

Cidaria aurigena Sop 000

— Otten tottay

INDEX OF SPECIES xxiii

PAGE

OUIU TEE

777

776

44)

485

520

642

765

666

571

441

— &ee)

663, 765

. 489

489

513

481

512, 647

644, 647

580

521

oie OS

639

409

649

eo BOL

501, 645

475 |

501

50!

494

667

489

591

492

638

742

477

.770

473

493

482

490

cee «G59

eco AGS

PAGE

Cidaria diJecta ... nO aK ese4g3

- obfuscata ies a vey 19 493

- silaceata es 7 see 493

Cinclus pallasii 600 aes vo» «=6- 44

ciuerea, (M.) ... ane a0 ... ~ 640

Cinnamomea ,,., 606 500 we. 494

Cinnamomium ... ees oo .. 496

Cinnamomium zeylanicum ... ... 671

Cinnyris asiatica 500 500 iy OFT

——— zeyonic2 me: ae Sos 681

Cirrhina mrigala 449, 451, 453, 594, 601

C‘rrochroa aoris aoris ... an seen 020

-— fasciata ace Nis a. 485

—-—— nicobarica ... sis .. = 485

== (HENS Bey nod se see, 485

—-——- ——- mithila oe 50) ELD)

Cisticola juncidis cursitans ... woo 410

Citrus sp. 50 <a ». 493, 679, 632

Clamator jacobinus ... Teas, nn 642

Clanis deucalion eee Ph sess OOS

climena ... sae eee aa Ga)

Closterium Soc cot ores f AOS

Closterium sp. ... Fee SHol = wheccer ee LLSY/

Croaphalocrocis medinalis aa ... 496

Cnemaspissaracilises. =. ee a 552

oe jerdoni aoe “06 em OOS

Cocos nucifera ... 927, 679, 704, 705, 706

aa —- spicata ... 400 566 VAY)

Coenodomus hockingii ... Mea. ule 490

rotundinidus™ ... .. 496

Coladenia indrani indra... 00. yi wedi (58)!

Coleus parviflora ae aS 496, 498

ColiaSuGrOCeUS! s.00) Clecn a oes eee OTS

croceus fieldii ... ie oe Cy

— electo fieldii rere §87, 589

—— eogeneeogene ... §:.. .. 580

erate erate eee fee ae OS,

Colliurini (Carabidae). ... a0 x. 637

Collocalia brevirostris ... UR HOEY te geD

Colotislamataiamatal 0 6) es 8) sce O07,

etrida etrida Bo oes e687

protractus oe 606 PA eecley/

——— vestalis ... vole DSRS, eee 587,

Columba leuconota see ec vow 44 3

— -— livia... 560 as 643, 682

Colutea .... se se ate vee = 495

Combretum aBe nee as se. 494

Comibaena cassidara ... . 467, 493

Conostoma aemodium ... 566 vee 440

Convolvulaceae ... AhO pcg = ocd CE

Copsychus saularis 000 “ee LOGO MOU

“SRV

INDEX OF SPECIES

Das DAGE |

-Coracias b. affinis 642 |

Coreopsis .. 426

-Corgatha zonalis tee Ste AG3

-Corvus macrorhynchos ... 439, 638, 676

splendens... 676

Corydalis (crithmifolia ?) coos Gh)

Coscinodiscus concinnus 665, 667

~——-— lineatus ... 665, 667

————_-—— radiatus 665, 666

————_-——_ sp 669

- Coscinosira ~ a 665

= —— polychorda... 667

: Cosmoélyce beeticus 591

_ (Lam pides) pacticne 588

‘Coturnix communis 531

-crameri biseriata.. 479

- Creatonotus emitenc 591

— — gangis aneurin 588 |

crocalé, (C.) 590

Crocidolomia binotalis . 497

Crecidophora ptyophora 497 |

Crocopus phoenicopterus 643

Crotalaria juncea 495 |

cruentatum, (D.) 641 |

Cuculus canorus ectenOay

“Cucurbita spp. . nee ore

Cupha erymanthis andamanica 485

—— -—— lotis... 520 |

—-- —- nicobarica... io CES |

Cupitha purreea purreea 491, 651

Curcuma spp. 674

Curetis acuta dentata .. 650

-saronis ... 475

eee ee nrcobarical 488

ware obscura 488 |

——- —-—— saronis 488 |

cutla 606 762 |

Cutla buchanani... 762 |

cyanoides, (P. sylvia) ... ... «. 782 |

Cyathula tomentosa 425 |

Cycas 487 |

——-— rumphii Bs 683 |

“B@yclops’)) Kigeenne hyn Be Mantes esah et

Cyclotella... ae rs 763, 765 |

Cypheri (var.) ... oh 20% 405 |

Cynoglossus 000 456

Cynoglossus brevirostris 456

Cynoglossus semifasciatus 456 |

——-————Spp. ... oo «= 406 |

Cynthia erota erota Hoo, CD)!

PAGE

Cynthia erota pallida 485 |

| Cypridopsis 763 |

| Cyprinus carpio SAE: 761 |

Cypsiurus parvus , 642 |

Cyrestis Bs oe 484, 645.

——- andarianien be os wo. 484 |

—-~— cocles cocles ~ 518; 648 |

Cyrestis cocles formosa ... on 488 |

——-— tabula 477, 484

—-—- thyodamas oes 2922 |

a —— andamanica > 484

—_——- — indica 648.

ans as thyodamas vee BES |

cyrus . 503, 587; 646.

Dactylethra cana 674

Daimio bhagava andamanica... 490.

- — bhagava 651.

Dalbergia sissoo ... 466.

Danais aglea melanoides a 508,

-- chrysippus 508, 647)

———~ limniace... 770.

as | LIAR 508, 647.

——-- melaneus plateniston ... Pe) SIs)

———--- melissa septentrionis » 908)

———-- plexippus 508, 647,

-- tytia tytia . 508.

Danaus. 5 wes, OOM

Danaus affinis aia taane Mae 473, 479

- aglea melanoleuca 478, 592

- agleoides... 478

- aspasia : 560.

—-—- chrysippus. 479, 587, 590, 769, 786.

- gautamoides 479.

——-- limniace ; wen AGO)

——_- ——_- —— miutina .. 479, 587)

- melanippus camorta _ 479

——- ——:——— nesippus ae 479

- melissa septentrionis .. 479

'~nesippus.. 475

—— hileinenste — 5E0

———- plexippus 479, 590

—-~— similis nicobarica ... 478

danisepa ote 501

Daphnia ... 609 600 500 ss 768

Daphnids ... 765

daraxa aes 916

Dasychira bhana.. 592

Datura re 653

Datura alba 657, 659

——--—arbore «. 659

Datura fastuosa alba

———-— innoxia......

——-— Metel 500 000

——-— Stramonium

decaocto, (S.)

Deilephila nerii

Delias ‘ee

Delias aglaia 500 500

—-— agostina 00

== belladona clan

— ineeneae

———— berinda berinda ...

——— descombesi

eee

i -—— eucharis ... ;

> -—— hyparete hierte ...

— hypartete

——— sanaca aid

_ —- thysbe pyramus...

Delichon nipalensis

-——_—— urbica urbica...

_Delonis regia

Delphis ...

demoleus, (P.)

Dendrocitta vagabunda

deodara, (C.)

Dercas lycorias... é

- verhuli denbleday

Desmodium pulchellum ...

Desmodium sp.

determinata wee

Detonula sp. OD

deudoryx » obo see

Deudoryx epijarbas amatius

a ancs

—- -———~ epijarbas ...

Diacrisia casigneta ee

_—-—— leopardina

———— unifascia

_Diagora persimilis persimilis ...

Diaphorina truncata

Diaptomus

Dicaeum aayiinonnemnalliag

Dicerorhinus sumatrensis

Dichocrocis punctiferalis

| _Dichorragia nesimachius

Dicrurus longicaudatus longicaudatus.

——--———— macrocercus

Digama hearseyana

Dillenia indica...

leucacantha 506, 554, 557

albirictus

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

OS!)

658, 659

657, 658, 659

OS?

643

462, 588

oo BB |

506, 556 |

505, 556 |

556 |

505 |

506

956 |

990

505

556

foo Shel

506

430

677 |

313

ono Shu

638, 683

421

507 |

one 507

673

587

667 |

484

489,

590 |

650

590, 592

_.. ON)

care Ola

673

763

«- 641

506 OB

497, 786

514

409

639, 679

409

588, 591

pe 4. 7,

| Dysphania palmyra

dilutata ... oo 0 900

Dindica polyphaenaria ...

diphilus

Diphtherocome aispibiianen

Discophora continentalis andamanensis.

-— tullia zal

Dissemurus paradiseus ..

dissimilis

dissimillima

Dityiium brig htwelli

Ditylium sp.

dixoni 600

Dodona adonira ademas

- dipoea nostia

- durga

- egeon

—-—— eugenes ... a

— eulgenes

henrici longicaudata

——— ouida ouida

doleschallia

Doleschallia bisaltitte SEEN

- indiva

——— celinde continentalis

domesticus, (P.) ...

e002

dorippus ... 500 eos ee

dphilus ...

Dryobates

Dryobates macei... 900

durga see 200

dulciae, (P. marina)

Dyanopsylla grandis

——-———- prunicolor ...

Earias fabia

ebusa, (N.)

Echis carinatus ...

Egretta sae Si

Eichorina speciosa eee

Elaphe helena

Eletteria cardamomi

Elymnias cottonis cottonis

——--—— hyp ermnestra undularis

——-—— malelas malelas

——--—— nesoea timandra

- panthera mimus

——-—— patna patna

-——-—— penanga chelensls

Elymnias vasudeva deva

Emberiza cia stracheyi

— fucata arcuata,

501,

593;

X&V

XXV1

PAGE

Emberiza leucocephala oek 429

-— stewarti 422

Emegeraulis sp. 457

Enispe cycnus cycnus 512

euthymius 512

Enmonodia shiva 589

Eothrips annulicornis ... 673

———— crassicornis semOS

‘Ephestia cahiritella 495

— cautella 495

epicles, (H.) 489

Epizygaena cashmirensis 590

Ercheia diversipennis ... 006 464

-Ercta ornatalis 591

Erebia annada orixa oO)

hybrida we #580

kalinda kalinda .. OOO

nirmala nirmala 575, 592

shallada shallada 582, 585

Eremopterix grisea wee OOL

Eressa (Syntomis) conifis ... 588

Ergolis ariadne indica 648

— pallidior — 520

merione assama 520

Eriboea arja eae 50 es coo" GIS}

- athamas anderanice Ase

—- ———- athamas ae §13, 647

delphis ... co 313

dolon dolon Ba, 060 592

——— magniplaga 513

schreiberi assamensis ... OLS

——-—— ftissamenus ... 482

Erionota thrax acroleuca eee 491

erota 600 485

Erythrina ... 497

Erythrina indica .:. 497

erythropygia ooo! 432

erythropygia, (H. daurica) 432

eryx 600 600 ese 600 coe 489

Eryx conicus eee 631

esperi 480

Estigene (Alpnaen) esse 592

(—— ——) quadriramosa 592

Eterusia pulchella 590

Etiella zinckenella wenn 1490

Etroplus 764, 765

Etroplus erratencie 457, 763, 765

Euaspa milionia 971

Eublepharis macularius 628

Fuchrysops cnejus

pandava pandava 487, 649

“487, 588, 649

INDEX OF SPECIES

Eudorina eee O60

Eudynamis scolopaceus |

Eugenia

Eugenia Coben

———— jambolana

——— jambos

Euglena

Eulycianthes

eumagos wie 606 500

Eumenes cee

Eumenis mnizechii palaive

Eumeris parisatis

Eunetta falcata

Eunotia

Euonymus...

Euphorbia

Euphorbia neriifolia

642, 683

493, 671

763, 765

...468, 493, 496

eee

PAGE

765

671

493

655

500

7i2

580

531

765

493

~ 495

495,

480

474 |

474

Euplesia semifascia cuprea_ ... eso OOS

Euploea 472, 480, 509

Eurloea alcathoe Goupleday 508

——- andamanensis ...° eee ~ 471, 473 |

—__—- —_____-— andamanensis 1... 30m

—-—-— ———— + bumila ... «oe ~=—- 480

—~-— ———— ferrari ... 480 |

—-— climena camorta 479

—-—- —— scherzeri 479 |

——— — simulatrix 479 |

——-— core ae 505 O06 sco AO)

eo core 5&7, 590 —

——-— — vermicuiata 508

——-— corus phoebus ... zee 40M

——-— crameri esperi ... an Ae CY

——-— ——.— _ frauenfeldii.... we 480 |

——-— crassa crassa ... See 509 |

—-~— deione deione ... aoe ~508 |

—-— diocletiana diocletiana 508 |

——-—— harrisi harrisi E . ~ 480 |

— hopei er

~ klugii macclellandi 509 |

—leucostictos novarae ... « 480)

——-— midamus SeeeOSS

—--- — splendens - 909

- mulciber mulciber 479, 508 |

— roepstorffii

- scherzeri wae es

Euploeas ...

Eupodotis SAUTEREES 531

Euproctis guttata 590

Hupterote fabia 593

—_-_——. undata 588 |

Eurema

“477, 522, 590

}

EE a a ae

INDEX OF SPECIES

Eurema anderson andamana ...

andersoni andamana ...

———- blanda moorei

silhetana

—- brigitta 500 doo

——- hecabe ...

—_—- ———- hecabe...

——- ——- nicobariensis

——- (Terias) :

———- ( ) hecabe fimbriata

- ( ) laeta laeta

Euripus consimilis consimilis

——— halitherses

Euthalia

——_—— cibaritis

duda

evelina derma

franciae rajah

——— garuda acontius

- anagama

—_— ——-—- garuda

———— iva

———— jahnu jahnu

Euthalia jama jama_a..

———— julii adima

—-—— — sedeva ...

——— — kesava kesava...

———— lepidea lepidea

——_—— lubentina indica

————nais... 900

———— patala patala ..

——-—-— phemius

sahadeva nadaka

-— telchinia a

-—_—— teuta teuta

—— - teutoides

Euxoa spinifera ...

Euzophera cedrella

—— perticella

—— punicaeella ...

evansii, (C.) o0

Everes parrhasius pila...

exasperatua, (O. oceanicus)

extricatus

Falco jugger 50¢

peregrinus peregrinator

. tinnunculus

falconeri, (R.)

_ Fascellina chromataria...

. —- plagiata eee

fastuosa, (D.)

asT—S—T-—

eee

9@°0 eee

PAGE

478

473

477

569

471

478

472

587

482, 513

sey 4

499, 514

482

915

515

482

588, 647

514

515

514

914

514

515

647

592

514

515

514

ese 515

482

591

495

oo. GRE

495

sos 7/6

486

444

649

743

643

434

494

fastuosa, (D.metel) ...

Faunis arcesilaus

eumeus assama ..,

ferina, (N. ferina)

ferox, (S.)

ferrari

Ficus :

—- bengalensis

—- benjamini ...

—- dalhousiae

——- glomerata ...

—-— oppositifolia

——- parasiticus...

——- religiosa

-——- Spp. ...

——- talboti

Filodes fulvidorsalis

flaviventris, (O.)...

flavalba

flaviviridis

florella

formosa

Fragilaria ...

Franklinia gracilis

frauenfeldi

frauenfeldi, (A.)...

Frazer, Mrs. (var.)

Fregetta tropica

hodgsoni

... 469, 497, 758

eco

Fringilauda nemoricola altaica

Fringilla montifringilla

frontalis. (S.)

Fulica atra

Fulvetta vinipecta

fulvus, (H.)

fuscatus, (Ph.). ...

-— (Ph, fuscatus)

fuscus ath Ses COO

Galleria mellonella

Gallus gallus 500 oe.

Gambusia affinis tee

Gandaca harina andamana

assamica

nicobarica

ganesa a O00 eee

Gangara thyrsis yasodara

Garrodia nereis ... 300

Garuga pinnata ... :

garzetta, (E.) ... eee

Gazalina chrysolopha ...

657, 658 | Gelasma dissimulata

eee

493, 497

EXVii

PAGE

659

512

691

652

475

683

488

670

497

494

670

496

639

477

628

646

484

765

640

411

480

773, 774

404

443, 446

428

426

734

693, 697

oo ky Os CBE

200

440

523

739

476

494

643

7163

477

507

477

502

491

448

497

644

493

EXVIli

PAGE

Geoemyda trijuga 764

Geranium 494

Gerres filamentosus 663

gigantea, (C.) 769, 774

giganteum, (S,) ... 652

gilgitica $75

ginginianus, (A) 640

glabra, (B.) 500 403, 404, “405, 408

glicia : irene) 8007)

Gloecapsa : 7695 |

Glycosmis Seemineninensts 671

sa cyanocarpus 671

—— --—— Pentaphylla... soo OYJ

—__-—___ —____-- simplicifvlia. 671

—-sp.«. 671

glyphodes bivitralis 497

—_—-— —— caesalis . pot!

———— canthusalis... 469, 497

—-———— glauculalis... 497

———_— indica 497

= flegatalis 497

es STE 497

—— —— unionalis 497

—— vertumnalis ... 497

Gobius spp. oe bad seem oo

Gonepteryx mahaguru mahaguru

(aspasia zaneka) ... .589

——— -—— rhamni nepaiensis... DOO Oo 2s,

‘goniopeltis rt Or

-Gourami 763

gracilis, (C.) 5525)

-Grandala coelicolor 44]

_ Graphium 521

Guinardia flaccida 666

—sp. i. orp 667

Gymnodinium sp.. 00 oo), ae OO7

- Gymnorhis pentHocolies “és 680

——_— oe canthocollis 427

Gynaikothrips karnyii ... 669

—_-—_“-—— Sp. 669

Gypaétus. barbatus we 442

Gyps indicus 090 we «= 643

-Gyrosigma 765

Haematornis cheela 643

Haemorrhagia saundersi woe S93

Halcyon smyrnensis 651, 681

Haliastur indus ... 0 eeeo4d3

Hallomyia cardomonii... €68

Halosphaera 765

Halosphaera viridis _ 766

Halpe moorei moorei 491, “645, 651

INDEX OF SPECIES

_ Hesperiidae

_ Hestia lynceus cadelli

| Hipposideros alee

Harriet dubiosa fulva ...

—-——-. nora dilata

ERED ram Eyes —— nora

Hasora alexis we

——-— badra badra: ...

——-— khoda minsona...

——-— leucospila parnia

—~—-— salanga .. :

————- taminatus almea

—— malayana .,

—_———— vitta vitta

Hebomoia elaucippe ala cip ne:

—_—__-7) ———_ ——— Foepstoritiia se.

hecabe, (E.)

hecabe hecabe

hector

helenus Ree

Heliophorous onli ocles _.

epicles

— indicus

———-— sena

Heliothis armigera

Heliozoa

Hellula undalis

Henidactylus brooki

OTC LS ree

leschenaulti

—— maculatus

—_— triedrus a

Hemithea tritonaria ... ~— ...

Herona marathus andamana ...

-— marathus

Herse convolvuli

NeSPehAweerac see aia

Hesperia alpina alpina

Hestina nama in

Heterodera radicicola

Heterographis bengalella

ed —— venuctesle

Hibiscus esculenta 504,

— sp. 50 wee 677, 679,

hierax :

Hipparchus Bapilonenia

Hippocrepis

hippoides ... 905 500

Hippolais 500 737, 738

hipponax ...

INDEX OF SPECIES

thecloides nicobarica ... 489

F PAGE

Hippotion celerio 588, 591

Hirundo daurica ee ; 640

— Darihnopyelas 431 —

——-- - nipalensis ese

—-—— fluyicola aap es: weeny A407

— javanica domicola 740

—— — rustica gutturalis 740 |

— —— rustica 431

— smithii filifera - ~ 431

hodgsoni, 560 0 dci0 625, 626

hodgsoni, (A.) ... 50 wee 641

—, (A.h.) 600 BE 627

Holarrhena antidysenterica 496

Holigarna Arnottiana ... 600 See OVE

Holosphaera viridis 665

Homochlamys be 416

Homochlamys pallidus 416

Horaga albimacula we 489

— onyx rana oo GY)

hordonia = : 483 |

Horeites DeUnirtene melon 416

Hoisfieldia anita dina 650 |

—— ——- andamanica 488

Hubneri ... 600 50 aes foo LD

Huphina Ve. 5225

-Huphina nadina TAREE 50 oo UD

— nerissa evagete ss 646

— - phryne es 506 |

hyale, (C.) 5/3

Hyarotis adrastus praba 491

hydaspes 575

Hydatina ... sat : 765

-Hydnocarpus Wien 674

Hydrilla er 606 690

Hydrilla verticillata ... OS

Hydrobates pelagicus 443, 447

Hyelaphus poicinus _,., 600 732 |

Hymenoptera... seh 774

Hypacanthis spinoides 442

-— spinoides 426

Hypericum sp. ... aus 493

Hyperythra lutea : 591

Hypolimnas antilode anomala 473, 480,

484

: —— bolina 471, 484, 518,

588, 648

-——-misippus ... 484, 518, 588, 591,

7 648

hypolimnas mysippus ... 479

hypolyceana 600 ee cee oe 484

Hypolycaena erylus andamana 489

Hyposidra talaca

Hypsipyla robusta

Hypsopygia mauritialis

Ichthyophaga ichthyaétus

icteroides, (P.)

ictis wa are

lmpatienssp.... sis 500

incana, (Q,)

indicum, (8.)

indicus, (C.)

Indigofera gerardiana ...

innoxia, (D.)

inopinatus, (A.h.)

insana, (L.)...

insulana, (E.) ... 500 50C

lodis argutaria ... ate dep

Ipomoea aquatica

Iraota timoleon timoleon

Ismene amara 500

-—harisaharisa ... 300

— jaina astigmata

Isocentris opheltesalis ...

Issoria sinha sinha

Ixias pyrene 50

- pears

- pirenassa

Ixobrychus cinnamomeus

Ixops nipalensis

Ixora

Ixora spp.

Ixulus Boe Us

jacquemontii, (P. Sncquemonti

jainadeva, (A, adippe) .

—-——

Jambona

Jamides oat

Jamides alecto eurysaces

—— —-~-—- fusca

———- —-— kondulana

— bochus bochus

wo -nicobaricus ...

— celeno blairana

— cele=o

————— ferrari :

——— kankena kankena

aes Caen Iilgaelea)

——— — — ————— jnicevillei ...

— pseudelpis

Jasminum grandiflorum

Jasminum sambac

—— Sp. te

— trichotomum...

493,

412,

XXX

PAGE

Johnius carutta 456

jumbah amorosca eee S3

Jussiaea repens ops) ASD

Kallima 474

Kallima alberaeciatn 484

alompra (knyvetti) ONS

- inachus inachus wes 518, 648

kamala, (A.) AOC bs 73

Khasia khasia 606 509

khasianus 512

Kicksia 496

Kinkurka 487

Labeo gonius 60]

rohita 449, Gi, 453, 594, 763,

704

ladakensis, (C.) 5c 580

Lady Hudson, (var.) ... ate 407

Laelia exclamationis 588

Lagerstroemia flos-reginae we | 493

indica .. 467, 493, 494

Lagomys roylei ~569

Laiscopus collaris 200 aoe 441

Lalage ... 506 oes tee 507

Lalage sykesii 734

lalang 472

Lamoria anella eae we. = 494

Lampides boeticus 500 487, 649

-— obsoleta 487

Lamprocorax panayensis 640

Lam proptera 506, OLD

Lanius cristatus : OOS

Lantana sellowiana _... 443

lanuginosa, (Q.) 433

Laringa horsfieldii andamanensis 486

Larus brunnicephalus ... 643

Lasiurus borealis 525

Lasioptera falcata A00 Te OOS

lateritia 404, 407, 408

lateritia, (B. epectabilis) 404

lathonia, (A.) 573

Laurineae 494 —

Laurineae sp. oa ed 92

Lawsonia inermis 678, 681

Lebadea martha ismene 515

Leea Sp. 669 |

lehana, (P. pherees) 580

Leiognathus spp. 663

Lemna polyrrhiza 765

lepidotum, (R.) noo, folel

leptalina co OR)

Leptocircus O21)

INDEX OF SPECIES

156

PAGE

Leptocircus curius 499, 505

meges 505

Leptomiza calcesria 493

Leptoptilos ee 644

Leptosia nina aieobEnA, 200 55a YO

— —— nina 476, 505, 590, 646

Lepyrodes geometralis 497

— neptis 497

Lerwa lerwa 443

leschenaulti 628

leschenaulti, (M.) O00 .. 642

Lethe ‘ 567, 570, 582

Lethe bhadra ate 600 so, ll

—-- chandica flanona 210 |

—- confusa ss 582

ae - vanbare 510 |

——~- europa niladana 509 |

—- nudgara 481

—- — ragalva 647 |

ee tamuna 481

——- insana dinarbas 510

Lethe kansa ah 000 600 510

—-latiaris .. 0 510 |

——- pulaha pulamoraes 510 |

——- rohria nilgiriensis 647

en rohria me co) |

——- sidonis sidonis “s 509, $92

——-~ sinorix s-, LOR

——- sura 509 |

~——- verma Sintica 510 |

—— verma 592 |

——- yama yama es 592 |

a yamoides 510 |

Leucania irregularis .. 40cm

Leucinodes orbonalis 497, 591 |

_ leucocera, (C.) 585

levis, (L.) ae en eee 656 |

Libisosa (Simplicia) robustalis es) |

Libythea re 521.

| Libythea lepita lepita 589 |

-——-——— myrrha sanguinalis © 521 |

| lichenosa 000 woe «= 476

ligyes 66 ces 0/0; 0925 DOOM

Limenitis austenin austenia ) olG

— —-— daraxa om 000 516)

| ____.-—. duda .., 60 516 |

—- procris anarta 600 .- 483]

ae - procris 516, 647

Limenitis trivena .. 075, 582, 585 |

~ a ligyes 585

——-—- zayla

—————————

INDEX OF SPECIES

Limenitis zulema

Lissemys punctata

Locusteila naevia straminea ...

longicaudatus, (D.)

lonyifolia, (P.)

Loligo spp. 600

Lophomachia semialba :

Lophophanes dichrous aes

-— rubidiventris

Lophophorus impejanus

Loranthus

Loranthus elasticus

--—— lepidotus

——-——-- ligustrinus ...

—--—— pentandrus ...

Louis Wathen, (var.)

——=

492, 493, 554, 557

403, 407, 408

PAGE

516

627

410

639

421

457

492

440

443

673

954

6/3

Loxia curvirostra himalayana 442

Loxura atymnus continentalis 650

- — nicobarica 488

-_— prabha 488

Lucerne 600 497

Luxiaria ehliquata: 494

Lycaena kasyapa om 50¢ 573

— pavana 592

phlaeas indicus 589, 592

Lycaenesthes . 484

Lycaenesthes emolus enemanicds con, seu) ||

—- -— emolus ... wo. 649

——- lycaenina lycaenina 649

—_—— lycambes 487

Lycaenidae 470, 472, 474, 484

Lycaenopsis huegelii huegelii 989

-— puspa cyanescens -. 486

———_ —--— gisca 600 wo. 649

—-~-—— prominens 486 |

—~ telis coe 486 |

—- vardhana 589

Lycaon pictus bag 778 |

Lycianthes 652, 655, 656 |

Lycianthes biflora 656 |

——-— higeminata ... 653, 656 |

—_—-—- Kaitisis 656 |

— denticulata 656 |

Lycianthes lysimachioides 656 |

—_—— — macrodon 656 |

——— pachypetala . 656

Lycodon sp. (aulicus ?) 631

Lycopersicon ... 500. 659

Lycopersicon esculentum 660

_ lycopersicon ... co OOU

“———-- - pomum-amoris oso O00

XXX1

PAGE

Lycus 511

Lygropia neatennelia 497

Lymantria concolor superans .. 090

Lyngbia 763, 765

lysimachioides ... 656

Mabuya carinta a OSU

- trivittata or 628, 630

Macalla carbonifera acs 500 . 468

Macaria fasciata 494

——— fidoniata 494

maccei 641

macei, (D.) 641

machaon, (P.) 567

Macrocilix mysticata 590

Macroglossum bombylans 593

Macropisthodon plumbicolor ... 632

maculatus soot OS;

maculipennis, (P.) cieeatlo

Maesa chisia 492, 494

Maharaja of Mysore, ear. ) 434,

mahraitensis 641

mahrattensis. (D.) 641

major : : 490

Malacocincla connie abbotti... We 548

Malvaceae mo CRY

Mangifera indica 669, 670

— timorensis =) 020

Maniola davendra davendra 580

~— lupinus cheena 578

Marasmia trapezalis 496

Mareca penelope 698

Marmax ‘ies 513

Maruca testulalis 497

Mastogloia roy nttoo

Matapa aria 491, 651

——--= druna 491

~— shalgrama 491

Mauraena spp. a ey:

mayo ae 475, 476

McCannii, (S.) 652

McLean, Mrs. (var.) 407

Meandrusa 92]

Meandrusa evan apo GR)

-——-- gyas gyas 499, 504

-—— payeni evan 504

Medasina albidaria 494

——-——- strixaria .. 494

Megaderma lyra : 524, 526

Megalaima haemacephala 641

-—— lineatus es 641

Megaptera eo B06 at BY

XXX1i

Megaptera nodosa

Megatrioza hirsuta

Megisba inalaya presbyter

- sikkima

Mekara zuchara

Melanitis ismene

—_—— — leda ismene 481, 511,

———— phedima bela

—_———— — galkissa

— zitenius andamanica

— —— — zitenius

Melastoma normale

Melitaea arcesis sindura

Melophus lathami subcristata ...

Melo.-ira

Melosira sp. es

Memecylon qmplexi@anis

—_—_—--——- edule

-—— Sp.

memnon ae

Merops orientalis ...

~- superciliosus javanicus

Mesua ferrea

Metaponia pusilla

Metasia coniotalis

metel, (D.)

Metopidius indicus

Microcichla scouleri

Microcystis ait

Microcystis aeruginosa ...

Micronecta

micropterus, (C}

Microthrix inconspicuella

Millingtonia hortens's

Milvus migrans

Mimosa conscinna

Mimusops elengi

minima, (P.)

minor, (N.)

Mirabilis x

Mirabilis Jalapa ...

Mirafra assamica

Misenus

mississipiensis, (A, )

Mixornis gularis rubricapilla ...

Mocis (Remigia) frugalis

undata O06

Moduca

mollissima

Molpastes cafer

Momordica charantia

676, 682,

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

W312

673

486

510

471

647

511

572

48]

511

494

580

429

765

665

587, 5 oe 20,

763,

671 |

670 |

671 |

502 |

476,

642, 683

741

670

426

498

659

643

441

765

641

495

658,

763,

643, 683

wae 404 |

noe COE

656,

402

641, 680

509

551

£48

465

591

497

441

638, 677

668

683 |

657

765 |

401 |

Seeger

PAGE

Momordica dioecai 668

monorhis, (O, m.) we 447

Monticola cinchorhyncha 490 639

————— erythrogastra 441

——-—~— solitara 639 —

moorei ae Wreate: ee So 478

Morinda citrifolia ; 652

Moringa pterygosperma 498, 786.

Motacilla alba 640.

— maculata 625 |

——-—— maderaspatensis 680

Mugil 000 : 0, 2608

Mugil buchanani 663, 664, 666

——— dussumieri 663, 665.

——— oeur 663, 664, 665.

——— oligolepis 663, 666

——— spleigeri . €63, 667

——— spp. BAB S01 663

——— .tade 663, 667

——-— troschelli €63, 665

——-~— waigiensis 663, 665 |

Musa paradisiaca 667, 700 |

——-- sapientum 006 703 |

—- —— flabellata 700 |

mutina 606 479 —

Mycalesis anaxias Seema 509 |

a manii 480

es radza 480 —

——- francisca sanatana ... 509

a lepcha lepcha 575, |

——--—-— malsara 900 909 —

a malsarida 509) |

—-——---——. mestra mestra 509

—~—-——. mineus mineus S00 509

Mycalesis mineus nicobarica ... 480

-— polydecta 647 |

———-— perseus typhlus 647 —

—_———-— persius blasius 509 |

—_—_-_-— visala 471

———-— —-— andantana 480 |

Sp visala® <.. 509, 647 —

Mycerobas melanoxanthus 421

Myelois pectinicornella 495

Myrtus 492 —

Mytilus edulis 456

Nacaduba 472

Nacaduba ¢luta eoslestisl 488

———.-— ancyra aberrans 487

Nacaduba berenice nicobarica 488

———-—. ———-—-— plumbeomicans ... 488

——-—--— beroe gythion

488 —

hide. PAGE | |

Nacaduba dana «. : 645, 650

|-——-— dubiosa indica 650

———-— helicon brunnea 487

{==——-— ——-— kondulana. ... 487

{—_—-— hermus major 487

/__—-—- kurava euplea 488

ee ___—_ nicobarica .:. 4838

== —-— nora nora 650

i. pavana 487

\—-—-— poctolus madameniece 487

= —______. macropthalma\ .....‘- [487 |

\———-— vajuva varia ... 487 |

Nacoleia diemenalis 497 |

= ___. vulgalis 497

Naja naja 632

Najas indica 765

‘nandina ‘ §17

gar, (N.) «.. 473

‘nara cae eee 649

inasutus, (L.) «. 639

\Natrix piscator... 632. |

‘Nauplius 763, 765 |

Navicula ne 763, 765

WNavicula sp. 666, 667

imefte, (P.) on 486

Nelumbium speciosum ... 708

‘eophron , ae 521

\Neopithecops Zalmora 486

‘Neorina patria west woodi oll

Nephele didyma... G06 588, 591

‘Nephelium lichi ... 492 |

Nephopteryx divisella 495 |

|—___-—_ eugraphella asia 5 ERS, |

ee paurosema ces 495

—————— semirubella’ 495

Neptis 570, 645 |

Neptis ananta oC 570

——— antilope antilope 517 |

——— cartica cartica 517

columella kankena oto

——— ---——-—-. ophiana 517, 648

——— ebusa ebusa Seon 3

——— hordonia cnacalis a0 483

——-=- —-—+-— hordonia 518, 648

——— hylas ae “0 471, 475

— — ——— adara so SIG

——— ——— andamana 300 ow» 483

——— — + astola ». 017, 589,592

Neptis hylas nicobarica 483

——- —— — saimbilanga ctl iets me AOS

os varmona oret 648

INDEX OF SPECIES -~ gexiii

PAGE

Neptis jumba ... dak eae merna7L

——— jumbah amorosea uae we 483

-—— binghami aK 473, 483

a jumbah vt .. 648

_ magadha khasiana_ _... bch | aly/

—~——~-—— mahendra wii ser Bo eV)

——-— miah miah sine 300 Oly

———mnandinaclinia ... is fqn4ss

——— ———-— susruta Hi a> > OL7

———- narayana narayahna ... srr O0e

———-sankaranar... a: 483, 486

——-— —~—--— quilta ... vat $32 OL7

——— soma mananda a wee - 483

——— —--— soma __... Be 517, 648

—-—~-~- vikasi pseudovikasi _... ROL?

——-— viraja viraja... ane ranhte Od,

——-— yerburyi sikkima rit ii LT

——— = yerburyi 56 Boe ONY

Neptunus spp. wie as amp4oo

nerii, (A.) x whe ss er S74

Nerium odorum 506 aos fie eZ 14

nesippus oe BUC cof sees) 4/9

Netta rufina ane ane add 692, 696

Nettion crecca ... ... 690, 692, 697, 698

Neurosigna doubledayi doubledayi ... 516

newara ae es a oe Prue copia

Nicandra. ‘ ‘ins OSD Gao 0660

Nicandra payenloides 600 wine -. 660

nicevillei Bee sa S08 we 487

nicobarica re 900 we \e 483

NICOLA ars SOE ete aes .» 909

Nicotiana 3 ace eae .. 660

Nicotiana baer SS ess ces = 660

nigra COU 600 eee O06 «» 6489

nigrum, (S.) Soe 600 500 w. 652

nila 500 . 360 Rs ve «= 482

nilgiriensis, (D. 1 ou as seo. 900

nipalensis MT ose «ee cone 4S

nirius, (P. epaphus) ... eee ese 090

Nitella sp. ace 500 Ci 665, 666

nitidus sie sus a: ween Wit ciofer

nitidus, (Ph.) sa a wer Ccatin Le,

Nitzschia ... Res ASG ae seo 61 1:700

Nitzschia closterium ... ate < sa) 97 006

a seriata ... Sas 665, 666, 667

Nomophila noctuella_ ... wie eset ogl

Noorda blitealis “i 500 so» 498

Notocrypta curvifascia at «. 491

Notocrypta paralysos paralysos .. 491

Notonecta _—.... <i00 <aNe wo» «765

nubicola ase wae ies ie pi Sl9

XXL.

Nucifraga caryocatactes ......

Nyctalus noctula :

Nycticorax nycticorax ...

Nyctipao glaucopis

Nymphaea lotus

Nymphalidae

Nymphula

Nymphula affinialis

——-—-— depunctalis ...

fluct uosalis -

Nyroca f. ferina

eeu

rs ferina Oe ee OOO mabe 2

——-—- rufa Pere:

Oceanites oceanicus .

Oceanodroma monorhis

Ocinum sanctum

Octodiplosis fungivora

- 006"

odorata,.(C2) ss «2: see

Oedogonium 58 560 60

Oenospila flavifusata ... aoe

Oligodon arnensis

Oligotrophus quadrilobatus

Ophideres fullonica

Ophisops jerdoni ne 500

Ophiusa coronata. dw ke

optatus,. (C ) oce 2 Boe

Oreocincla dixoni

Oriens gola gola Mabiageay

orientalis

Orinoma damaris

Ornicocircus sp. ees

Oriolus oriolus kundoo aes

aoe = xanthornus

Orobanches

orseis 500 es

Orsonoba clelia... ee

Orsotrioena medus medus ...

nicobarica

— =o

Orthaga exvinacea 500 ver

-- Vitialis. ...

Orthotomus sutorius

ee - - ouzerata

orysus aon Ae

Osicerda squalidaria ... © ss.

Oscillatoria in “50

Osphronemus goramy

Osteosema sanguilineata

Otocompsa emeria

Otocomfpsa jocosa

Otolithes ruber

Ottelia alismoides

- 975,776, 777

PAGE |

Aciencry avdd 0%

ie5 -029-

593.

ees OD

474, 484.

496

691

693,- 95

443, 444, 550

443,447

496

PeG74

765.

493

631-

670 |

465, 524.

631.

524-

ANG

ho CE

491 |

soot O16 |

ieeqacol On|

667 |

418

yoo OO |

660 |

489

494

481, 511, 647 |

481

496

a 496

640, 679 |

410

732 |

493

763, 765

765 |

er 1492

eRe 007 53"

638, 771

456

765 |

- INDEX:OF SPECIES °

or PAGE

Otus brucei “0 549,

—— pembaensis . 5 549

Ozola microniaria S200) Ane 1.084 9en

pace 500 600.) Q00 478

Pachystemonum Ec 655 |

Pachyzancla aegrotalis ... 497 |

-—— phoepteralis 497

Padraona maesoides ottalina ... 491

— serinaserina ... 491

— tropica nina 49] |

Paduka lebadea andamanica ..., 491

Palinurus spp. et 456)

pallida sp aaa 575, 585, 587

Pamphila comma indicofusca » - 580)

Pandorina 763, 765

Pantoporia ye sah - 516)

Pantoporia asura asura 517 |

“—— cama ee. | SIGH

————-—— nefte inara 516

—-——— ——- rufula veer, 483 |

——_—----———. opalina opalina . 989, 592

—— —— ome - OFientalis o.. 516 |

—_—-—--— perius 500 060 917, 648 |

——-—--— pravara acutipennis ....°. 517 |

ee FaNGA Tanga | vast Ola

———~-—— selenophora kanara. .,. 645, 648 |

a += selenophora... 516.

—--—— zeroca 516 |

papilio 500 660 590 |

Papilio arcturus 567

ee —— arcturus 502

—---—- bootes bootes 502 |

—-——-—— castor castor see 502 |

—-—-— chaon chaon des 503 |

——-—-- demoleus demoleus.— ... 503, 587, 646 |

—-—-— elephenor elephenor vee 5028

—-—-— fuscus andamanicus PRE {8} ||

——— helenus helenus . cconec ocd lier |

——— krishna sas 34. TOOgE

———- machaon asiatica : Sime) |

anal — (ladakensis)-... ves O80}

machaon verityi soo 503 |

——--— memnon agenor wa 475, 501

——-— paris paris oe 902 |

——— polyctor 1 000 eee wwe > 080 |

te a PANCSA ee ae 502 |

——-— polymnestor polymnestor .., -- 645 |

——-—— polytes vee eee)! |

Papilio polytes nikobarus ... .... 476.

—-—— romulus .., 458, 503, 587, 645 |

~=——- polytes stichioides 08 ;

476

-Penthema lisarda lisarda

UNDEX Of SPECIES

“ XKXY

PAGE PAGE

Papilio protenor 5/2 | Peratophyga aerata 493

EEE enprotenor 502 | Pergesa elpenor. rivularis 590

——— rhetenor 502 | Pericallia (Areas) imperialis ... eo,

Parallelia mirabilis 589 | Pericrocotus peregrinus ‘639; 733

———-— (Ophiusa) algira wee PSO] | Perina nuda Seer era Gilt

Paramoecium eS 763 | Perissospiza affinis eras: |

Paranticopsis 521 | —— carneipes 44.2

Paranticopsis macareus Wonel 504 | ————--— carnipes carnipes..: 9° ~<.. © 421

———- megarus megarus 504 5 ——- icteroides ec arsyiiat (44)

- xenocles xenocles 504 | perseus ot oe 647

Perarge schakra .. 583, 589, 592 | peruviana, (B. iv Se 8 ws ~~ 408

Parasa lepida 591 | ———--——,, (P.) ... sah neue GOO*007,

Pareba vesta vesta 521 | Pete.la medardaria 494

Parenonia valeria hippia 646 | Petrea volubilis ... 682; 683

Pareronia 4 522 | Petunia nyctaginiflora ... ig Glo

Pareronia avatar avatar 508 | ———-— sp. ane OO

———--—- ceylanica naraka 478 | Phacus Be Sey 763,765

paris .. 502 | Phalacrocorax niger ~.«., 643

Parnassius 3H . +438 | Phaseolus re At ++ -495>-497

Parnassius hardwickei .~ 567 | Phaseolus mungo meet 97,

—_——— simo ae . 580. -_—_— radiatus 497,673

— ——— stoliczkanus 580, 585 | ———-— sp. : 673

Parthenos sylvia 471, 473 | phidippus.... et 481

——-— —--— cyanoides 482 | Philodina .. é & te a5 (ASS

—- — —--— gambrisius ... 515 | philomela .. ee ...099, 960, 561

- ——-- nila 482 ' philoxenus, (P. Biilecends) : 589

--——- roepstorfhi 482 | Phlyctaenodes nudalis ... «. ave = 497

Parus major 638 | Phoenicopterus ruber roseus vex = 789 ©

——- ——-- cinereus 733 | Phoenicurus ochruros .. 639

parvus 600 S00 550 | Phostria piasnsalis 60 498

parvus, (O. eeennicus) we «= 444 | Photoscotosia miniosata 493

Passer domesticua 640, 680 | Phryganodes analis. .., . ~ 496

——— ————— indicus 427 | Phycita clientella - 495

——— rutilans debilis. a, 427. | —-—— dentilinella ... 405

Pastor roseus 699, 739 [ -infusella ... « . AQS.

‘Pathysa 00 ae 6g OLE ~ jasminophaga ... ~ 495

Pathysa Hoamenmnon necorat te ve 476 Phyllanthus ACIGUS! Geass. “teem 681

———— —— ———— pulo +» 476 -—— emblica ee eOZZ

———- agetes agetes wnt ek ; 503 Phylloscopi Sees eke aes 738, 739

——— antiphates epaminondas .... 476 | Phylloscopus ... ees: 430, 737, 738; 739

—————— ——-—-— pompilius 503 | Phylloscopus afinis.... ees Hlieee i aCe

= aristeus anticrates seer 503. | — C, tristis. 2.000 a. 137.

——-— eurous sikkimica - . 503 ——— collybita tristis 412, 736

——-— nomius nomius oo. 646 | ————-— --— fuscatus .. 22.8.5 736,:739.

Pauropsylla depressa “670, | —=—--——‘griseolus veo Ad:

———-—— tuberculata ~ see = 672 —————— inornatus humii een 7413;

Pediastrum 65 > ——- maculipennis sO Tees

Pedicularis ws - 433 | ————-——~ magnirostris 414°

Pelagodroma marina wv 448 | ——— occipitalis 415;

‘Peltophorum inerme 683 | —————— —-— occipitalis ... 414:

| 514 | ——-—_——— proregulus simlaensis ...- .--413.

XEXVi

PAGE

Phylloscopus pulcher 442

rs kangrae 413

ee ee reguloides kashmiriensis. 415

—— sp. odo ae: re

—— subviridis cos eall8i |

————-——- = trochiloides ludlowi 414

———-—--—-— (trochiloides ?) nitidus. 414

ee ee trochiloides viridanus... 414

————————-— tytleri ... es 412 |

Physalis edulis 657

——-—— minima... 657

——-— parviflora 657

———— pertviana 657

———--— pubescens 657 |

——~——. pubesones 00 657 |

——-—somnifera . 657. |

Phthonoloba decussata 493

Phytometra nigrisigna 589

———-—-—~ orichalcea ... 539

Picea morinda hey

Pieridae ... : 474, 477

Pieris brassicae %.. (— ... 500 «a 005

——-= — nepalensis... 589 |

———callidice kalora ... sie 580 |

Pieris canidia indica. 505, 587. 589, 592

-———- deota ise . 580

napi ajaka.....; As eleih sshdre Sr |

——= —— montana 505, 576

Pingasa chlora 492 |

—-——= ruginaria 492

Pinus excelsa 980

———= Gerardiana 580

—-— longifolia .. 971

Pionea ferrugalis ae eae 498

Piper miniatum ... Sh e669

———= NIZTUM ae . 669, 674

Pistia stratiutes on aS Sea TOS

Pithophora 500 PED SE ASARD ss- --765

Plagusia eae ae _ 456

Plagusia marmorata .. oe = 456

Planktionella sp. of 665, 667

Platalea leucorodia major 697

Plectrurus perottetti 553

Plegadis f. falcinellus ... 697

-—~ falcinellus aes 698

pleistoanax 550 eee ise Pia iH

Pleurosigma a Srsrenn Ae

Pleurosigma sp. coe 3 666, 667

Ploceus philippinus philippints 420

Plotosus arab... Py woe = 456

—~ Spp. oes 457

648

ae nicobariensis aw. 485)

——— atlites 485, 648 |

| ---—— hierta hierta 591, 648)

—_— -—— magna - 484,518

-—— —— iphita iphita “519, 648

Precis lemonias lemonias woe ORS)

—--—- ——--— persicaria ee S88

—— vaisya $91, 648

——-— orithya ocyale 485, 518 |

——-~ ——-—- swinhoei 588, 591, 648

Premna latifolia Jou oe 492

Primula denticulata 433, 435

INDEX OF SPECIES

—--——- —— almana 485, 519, 588, 591,

PAOE

Plumbago capensis 493,

- -— 10Sea 494

Podiceps ruficollis 644

Polistes hebraeus : Er 496

| Polyalthea longifolia... 500 soe» 493i

Polydorus Rac se oe = 89.

Polydorus dasarada ravana 592

--— hector od Ae ‘os O00

Polygonum E 363 es 434, 498

| Polygonum ( ? sphaerostachyum) 433.

Polymeris 4 655

Polynemus rerrdac ine 663.

Polyocha cinerella 495

——-——— saccharella 495,

Polyodontophis sagittarius 551,

Polyommatus eros 585.

— - pseuderos ... - §89.

—— —-— galathea ; 569

—--———- ——- gigantea ar coe 000

See metallica metallica... 580

polytes 500 .. 476, 560, 646

polytes, (P.) a oe, 590

Polythlipta divaric ata ... 497

pomapadora, (D.). 549.

|| pomona, (C.).. 2 590.

Pomum spinosum «Ga

Pongamia glabra 495, 681-

Pongo pygmaeus 623

Pontia chloridice 580.

——~— daplidice moorei 980 |

Porana paniculata 683.

——-— volubilis 606 mt 679

Potentilla wos. BAlEMAgS ves 435 |

Potomogeton pectinlatus .— .. J ~-7GoH

Poydorus , 5ar)

Pratapa deva lila 489

Precis See 472, 588-

Precis almana 0. “471

INDEX OF SPECIES

F PAGE

Princess Margaret Rose, (var.) ao AAU

Prinia sylvatica gangetica ae fee SALT,

Prioneris clemanthe ... SOK soo US

———-— thestylis od os 500 lS)

Pristipomspp. ... ane sis se 405

Procarduelis nipalensis ... ie end 25

procera, (C.) Ge sis = OO

Procontarinia matteiana so OOM

procris, (L.) S80 ae sls 485, 486 |

Propasser puicherrimus a0 ie 84?

sree thura — ~ 506 »- 442

Propyrrhula yet LSAT 500 » 942

Prunella rubeculoides igi en AAT".

Psammophilus dorsalis nC jon OB |

Pseudergolis wedah Fae din RSE oe

Pseudeutropius garua ... is gan SS)

Pseudogyps bengalensis doe soon. 0058)

Psidium guajava Jo ste” doo RACY 4

Psilogramma menephron vates foo SEB

Psittacula fasciatus ee abe Pe Gae

—— krameri eo ane 757, €81

Psyra spurcataria me 300 chee os

Pteromys albiventer... sis OO

Pterygota alata O95 abo, CEO

Ptochophyle togata Bee oo 468, 493

Ptyas mucosus 50 00 OS

pubescens, (S.) ee ee OR ay

pulchella, (M,) ... Bes ae Te O80

Punica granatum So0 oe os) EEIOOL:

By cnarmon eribratay ser) sie seuss 496

Pyralis farinalis Bor an AQ G

pyrauthe, (C.) bt sis aoc ON)

Pyrausta bambucivora ae reat cq nd OS

———— coclesalis SR OO 48

———— incoloralis ... soe ov. 2, 498

ee MACHOETALIS. sy. pieden’ 00. - 2498

———— salentialis ... acto . 498

Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax ae wv. 440

Pyrrhospiza punicea ... va cree dol

——e ——— Tatbbaayh oc we 423

Pyrrhula aurantiaca ... ae boo 8 CY

— — erythrocephala a reo eee?

———-——-—— nipalensis ........ ww» 442

———— ——-—— nipalensis sine 422

Quercus semecarpifolia See joo Eos}

——--—= Sp. 600 i. So

Querquedula qderquedals 694, 697, 698

Quisqualis tndica tee ss sou. (hae)

Ragadia crisilda crisild@a ... ... S11

rama, (H.) wee sos 3465 aA 2I737.

Ramphalcyon capensis Homie, BI642

EXXVIiI

PAGE

ramsayi ... es 508

rapala “ 484

Rapala dieneces erecta 489

—~——. melampus 650

—-—-— micansselira .,, Pp OM)

———- schistacea 489, 650

——— suffusa rubicunda 489

———— varuna lazuliua 650

——— ne -— OFSEIS 489

———— rogersi .. 489

Rasbora daniconius 765

Rastrelliger kanagurta 457

Rathinda amor ; 650

Regulus regulus maaan ensis 417

Remigia archesia 591

Rhagastis albomarginatus ae O93

Rhinecdon typus ose 762,763

Rhinoceros sondaicus 784

Rhinolophus rouxi AG Sto) era!

Rhizosolenia sp. atte "665, 666, 667

| Rhododendron arboreum 433

Rhodophila ferrea 44]

Rbomborista pannosa ... : 493

Rhopalopsyche nycteris ny ene 588

Rhyacornis fuliginosa 44]

Rhynchium oe 772

Ribes wee aE Sc 493

Riopa guentheri 630

——— punctata So) OY}

Riparia paludicola Wewieanaets 430

——-— riparia diluta 430

= rupestris ? 431

Rita rita ie He a 453

roepstor ffi 480, 482

romulus ea Fic 560, 587

' Rosa Catalina, Gan) 404, 408

_ Rousettus se 523

| Rousettus leschenaulti ... 522

rouxi, (R.) 923

| rubra, (N.) 765

_ Rubus sp. vee a 493

rufa, (N.) 690

| Rusa unicolor unicolor see he

rustica, (H.) 500 ess 431, 640

_ Saccharum cilare 495

| Salvadora persica 547

Samanea saman 678, 680

Sanderiana, (var.) ati oes

Sapientum : i ~ 700

Sarangesa dasahara dasattat 490

Sarcogyps calvus Day 643

xxxviil INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Solanum denticulatum 656

— — diffusum 653

—-—-——. esculentum 655

——-—-— ferox oe so0 2 GDS)

——-—-—- giganteum ... es 003

—-~-—— incertum sco OOS

——--—~+— indicum 653, 654

———-—--- Jacquini 653

——.—-—- Kaitisis 656

——----— laeve an 656

—~—--—--— lycopersicum ... 660

—---—— lysimachioides 656:

—-—--—--— macrodon 656

—-—-—--—~ McCannii 654

———-- —- melongena 655

—-——-—- Neesianum spd (OSI)

——=-— nigrum 652, 653, 656

—-—--—--—- pubescens Go3

———-— rubrum 653

—__- stramcnifolium sop OB

——-—- - torvum . 654

———-— trilobatum 654

. ——--—— tuberosum 655

———-———— verbascifolium 653

————-— -_—————. exstipulatum 653 -

———— xanthocarpum 653, 654

sondaicus 604

Sonneratia apelin 734

sordida ... ee te a 513

Spalgis epius ne ee 600 486

—— nubilus 480, 486

Spatula clypeata vee 694, 696

spectabilis, (B.) _ se 403, 404, 405, 408

Speiredonia retorta oe 589

Spindasis elima elima s05 Sha")

——-—— ictis ictis ~ §54, 650

——--— lohita zoilus ... 488

——-— syama peguanus 650

~— vulcanus vulcanus .., 554, 650

Spinifex squarrosa “494

Spirogyra 763, 765

Spirulina 763, 765

spitiensis (P. stoliezanus) en OSU

splendens, (C.) neo OSS

Stramonia a RATE 658

Stramonium, (D.) 600 658, 659-

Staurastrum one MRT si A765

stellata, (N.) ... aes 765

stenosemus, (P. delphius) 585

Sterculia villosa 600 uae vee) 475

_ Sterna aurantia '... ee O98 » ° 643

PAGE

Saroglossa spiloptera spiloptera on om

sawi ae os ate a et ay

Siz icoteides fulveata Ss i OVE

Saxifragaceae sp. 500 50 ona

scandina Ke ns ag oy OO

Scatophagus areas a ee emeOOS

Sceliphron a: re ce Renn / 2/12

scherzeri Bc Ae Bt ree.)

Schizandra aR : Be fe edo 7ae|

Schoenobius Bipunetics ye sob EEN) |

Scirpophaga auriflua ... Bis oad 9 48S) |

——-— Monosticma Oe ae Ag

—————— me gee eo OB |

Scopula cleoraria - ... ae 49S OS0

——---—— emissaria aa ne 493

Scylla serrata 5A we 456

Seicercus burkii eigen wth 415 |

— xanthoschistos volt HOSeHigeO 415 |

Selenophora 68 ac Ves Sapien od (5)

semialba ee Gh eek Ae so OE). |

semiflava a Be 42 en OAC

Sephisa chandra as an te eros

——-— dichroa a iS. Oe

Serranus pantherinus an soo eS

Serrodes campana (inara) ... Seong ea)

Sesamum 0% 550 of: soo a SY

setosum, (R.) .. es oe Js M438

Sida rhombifolia as: ar ae NAOT,

Sideridis unipuncta one Ane ROO

sidonis Ae aeeiee sae nes sod) UN)

silhetana ee Je am 477, 507

Sillage sihamma = sh doo

Sillago sihama ... st, oe ase 400

simulatrix ... ; ; te 474, 479

Siphia parva elegy ant sect 2039

sipora, (A. pales) nt Ph eee S580

sita se pe sa sae 5. 008

Sitana ponticenane ee sah ve -629

Sitta castanea Se wed ee 733, 734

~—— frontalis ea ee Sa at e733

Siva strigula 33 500 ae we 447

Skeletonema costatum ... es sce , 666

— — sp. i i! 666, 667

Smilax... Ste ws oh Boe a)

Solanaceae 500 si 497, 652, 656

Solanum ... oe 495, 652, 655, 656, 659

Solanum biflorum 5 Sat OOO

—-——— bigeminatum ie) ODS O56

———— crassipetalum 00 Seer tOOO

———— decemdentatum ive OSG

——~w—_—-—=————= decemfidum ant noo (pie)

* INDEX OF SPECIES

XXX1X

Bo A PAGE: || = PAGE

Stibochiona nicea nicea ae .. - 514 ‘Lagiades litigiosa andamanica ~ 490

stichius ... es ee 503, 587,646 = a — litigiosa - 650

SUIGHEUSH Te. 08 ves) Hey evs oo. SO -—- obscurus alica 490

Sticopthalma camadeva miceyallel eos stagunia . As ped 84

: sparta tytleri... ee | Tajuria cippus Sonne Se 489, 650

streperus, (A.) ... a Vii soo OOH - jangala andamanica 489

Streptopelia chinensis ... = 643, 682 — - jehana oe: oy aon BLD)

senegalensis a .. 682 Tamarindus indica a 679, 681, 683

Strix ocellata tas 500 oon .. 949 | ‘Tanaorrhinus vittata 492

Strychnos nuxvomica ... sts 573, 707 Taphozous longimanus .. 524

Sturnia malabarica — ... Ht see 640) | —— melanopogon : 524.

_-——- malabarica.. ... 418 = Tarache lucida ES SO

Sturnopastor contra... Bar so 2640 | Tarsiger chrysaeus 44]

Sturnus vulgaris poltaratzskii ... eS | Tarucus callinara 649

Suastus gremius gremius _... .. 591 | ———— extricatus 649

-~ramaaditus ... & ..- 49] | ———— nara ee WS 588, 591, 649

superciliosus, (M.) .. SM oye se 642 | SH HN ve O49

Surendra quercetorum biplagiata’ ... 650 | praca ea theophrastus indica’ 649

———— qurcetorum latimargo ¢ 48s Tecoma ; 681

Suriella ... ie 1: sa 763, os | Teinopalpus fanerians heperalis 504

Sus barbatus ne ne 632. 633, 634, 637. | Telchinia violae ... 521, 648

——- =———— Oi... sce Rafe 634, 635 | Temenuchus pagodarum 418, 679

—- cristatus ae Seiretiie); woes: | Tephrodornis pondiceriana 683

P=IOAToantiai eee teens -OS2 || Lephrosia purpurea 674

esi a oo ae 632 | Werastia meticulosalis ves - 497

Suya criniger erinieen ee eee ee Gna betas iabisnig sh 507, 522

Syama_... es ae 500 . 650 | Terias blanda silhetana 507, 646

Sylepta aenaenten ese oe, . 497 | —--— hecabe hecabe 507, 646

-Junalis ... na oa soo. LF | —- - - simulata 646

Sylvia althoea ... 500 ee oan | laeta laeta 507, 646

curruca blythi ... AE cop) Gull libythea , 507, 646

sylvia, (P.) ae mtoe Tle terminalia aruda nf a xo? O08)

Sylviparus modestus ... at ww. 440 | - —— catappa 493, 679

Symbrenthia hippoclus khasiana =... 519 ——_—---——. paniculata ... 673

oe hypselis tee ae S7Q) | ee spp. 4 673

— cotanda . ve S19 | —-— tomentosa .. 673

Sympocos sp. . o.° .-, - +, - 494 | Terpna ornataria 492

Synedra af Me ae 763, 765 | Tetradon Sp. 663

Syngamia abruptalis ... wee woe 496 | Thalassiosira -665, 666

——-——— floridalis -... wee 468,496 | Thalassiosira sp. 666, 667

Syntarucus plinius ... ... 591, 649 | Lhalassiothrix sp. 665, €66

Syrichtus galba weit sees .f 651 | ‘Thalassodes ne 468

Tabanus sp. ds Cs ae .. 576 | Thalassodes dissita 493

Tabebuia rosea ... or in «6677.0 | —————-— quadraria 493

Tabernaemontana aes JO 1 497 | ——e — veraria 493

Tabernaemontana coronaria .. ...- 490 | Thamnophilus punctatus eee OS

Tagiades atticus carnica - ... -...; 490 | Thaumantis diores 512

—-—— elferie sees + .., 490 | Therapon jarbua 457

ee ravina is 490 | ‘Theretra nessus 0 ee he BOO

—~—-—— japetus (atticus nec) khasia- ———-—-—_—_— . oldenlandiae 593

na 608 900 606 500 ... 460 | Thespesia populnea 677

INDEX OF S! PECIES

PAGE

Thevetia neriifolia 678, 681

Thinopteryx crocoptera 493

Thunbergia alata 496

Thyrestis thyodamas ganesc¢ i 592

Timalia pileata 633

Tinospora cordifolia 669

—--—-—. crispa 669

tisamenus, (E. s Penrice) 473

Trachylepidia fructicassiella ... 494

transfuga 427

Trema orientalis 495

Trewia nudiflora 672

Trichoperrisia pipericola 669

triedrus, (H.) 628

Trifolicm 5G 495

trilobatum, (S.) .. 652

Tringa eenronucl 699

Trioza fletcheri ... 672

———-—- minor... 673

Tristellatia australasia Soo ler

tristis, (A.) . 419, 640

- 5 (eles) 736, 737, 738

trivena BA 575

trivialis, (A.) 626

Trochalopteron affine ... 440

————-— cerythrocephalum 440

a lineatum : 440

trochiloides fe su'é oo. 414

Troglodytes troglodytes 441

Troides aeacus : 500

~ helena cetera ap al)

————_—-—_—-—— ferrari oe ©=» «A785

——— heliconoides 475

‘Tros aristolochiae aristolochiae we 645

_—_— =-——— camorta Aho GS)

—<—— ——_—-—-—— goniopeltis... 475

eee es kKONdUIANA... 475

— sawi 475,. (45

——~camorta 500 aan) ho)

-——= coon sambilanga ... Jess fe470

—--— hector 545 ws “a 475, 645

(Polydorus) philoxenus

philoxenus 585

—— rhodifer | in 475, 476

Turdoides griseus cine AoC asen yl 10/0

wn on SOMMErVillei rp (OWIe)

Turnix dussumieri 500 cp A

Typha elephantina 000 nine 765

Typhlops braminus ... sist SOO

tytia eee 390 ot a OS

Udaspes fotus vay 9) son (OE

PAGE

unicolor see ie Boe igghse

Upupa epops Ben ld, BAD SP

Urapteryx sambucaria ... 493

Urocissa flavirostris 440

Uroloncha malabarica : 685

—~ punctulata .., BOD we 40

——-—— ——-_--— lineoventer 420

Uropeltis phipsoni we 63

Urticaceae sp. oe 600 200 poo Sw)

urticae, (V.) wate wee 580

Utetheisa (Deiopia) pulchella 588

———-— pulchella io ehh

Vaccinium 434, 438 |

Waleriasaee: 069 522, 560

valeria aspasia ous OLN)

Valeria valeria hippia OO ONE

Vallisneria 00 900 7€3

Vallisneria spiralis 765

VanesSa canace canace 519

—___. —__-_ MMA, ono 589, 592

vote cardut 485, 519, 569, 588,

| 589, 615

—- cashiniriensis 573

-= cashmirensis aesis 519

ee ee Cashmirensis .., 589

———— epea ass 567

—— —— indica indica 519

— ladakensis ane 580

Varanus — aa oe 523, 631

Varanus monitor 631

| varmona 900 98)

| vasuki 500 aie 600

verbascifolium, (S.) —... 500 652, 653

vermiculata RAP ake BGG 587

vicrama, (P. vicrama) tee OS0

Vipera russelii res OSS

Virachola smilis maseas . ~ 489

viridanus i 414

viri:danus, (Ph. Erochiloides) cho C/

visala B80 506 on coon OSH

Vivia innominatus 50 ae RbOSS

\YOUNOES ng sae AOD 763, 765

Vulcanus se ae . 650

Wallagonia attu a er 601

webbiana, (A.) 500 jade

| Wendlandia notoniana ae 729

wimberleyl 900 05 5 we = 488

Withania somnifera Ae waa. #692.

xanthocarpum, (S.) CeO OZ Oo

Xanthoxylum acanthopodium... © 502, 503

Xenorhynchus asiaticus ine

ic)

484

644

PAGE

| Yoma sabina vasuki 484

| ——-- sabrina vasuki 473

Ypthima baldus baldus 510, 572

— ceylonica 647

———-— hubneri hubneri 510, 647

inica 587 |

———— lycus lycus oll |

———— methor methor Sis

— nareda newara 510

— sakra austeni 510

Yuhina 440

yunnanensis 626

yunnanensis, (A.h.) 627

Zemeros flegyas indicus 521

Zesius chrysomallus 650

Zetides One ace ak mee woe

Zetides agammemnon andamanicus... 476

agammemnon agammemnon 504, 646

bathycles chiron cco

———-— cJoanthus 504, 572

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS,

INDEX OF SPECIES

Zetides doson axion

——— ——- eleius

——— eurypylus cheronus

——-— —-——--— macronius

——— sarpedon sarpedon

Zinckenia fascialis

perspectalis .

Zipoetis scylax

Zizeeria

Zizeeria gaika

——— lysimon

maha maha

——— otis decreta 600

trochilus putli

izera gaika

——— otis otis :

Zizyphus eee S00

Zizyphus jujuba ...

eoo

Zographetus ogygia andamana

Zosterops palpebrosa

MADRAS—15-5-1951. C3029

PAGE

504

458, 646

wo. «=: 504

476

504

496

S11

580

591, 649 ©

588, 591, 649

591, 649

991, 649

591, 649

486

sco) CRE}

467, 494

49]

641

“t) bd feo at bat id vv 7

ae ¥ 5 : ae

a. ‘ vs , 3 ed me

ly fe ‘4 ah é : i are ; q

a a) . ‘ - he

iia. os LAY J AA 20 * < a i, § aaah.

AOA Lees ASE S

nod ig ea ee ; ee

ae ' rite ous RORY, Bees < yi cyt 2 ee SHiGAS

er ae = Pee a nee Mat ces y

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Vol. 47, No. 3. APRIL, 1948 3 Prive Re. 12 nell:

THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Narurat History Socrery

EDITED BY

sALIM ALI & S. B. SETNA, PH.D;

focT2 71948 =) ,

aris =)

| ¥

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PUBLISHED BY

THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

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LONDON AGENTS:

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Indian Natural History Series, Vol. 11.

THE BOOK OF

INDIAN: SNIN ALS

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This is a companion volume to the Book of Indian Birds,

forming Volume II of the Indian Natural History Series.

To tell something of the beauty, the interest and the value

of the wild life of our Potesise fields and scrubland, is the

purpose of this book. are

It contains simple descriptions of the commoner mammals of |

India, and readable accounts of their ways and habits. It is

profusely illustrated in colour and black and white.

LIST OF CONTENTS :

What is a Mammal P

Distribution of Mammals.

How Mammals are classified,

The various tribes of Mammals,

their ways and habits.

oDescupeeye of Bees

Roo ht

Bound in full loth Price Rs. 16

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PUBLISHED BY

THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

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Set of COLOURED PICTURE POSTCARDS

COMMON INDIAN BIRDS

Reproductions of selected paintings from those specially prepared

by D. V. Cowen for the 4th edition of the Society’s ‘Book of Indian Birds ’.

if packets of twelve assorted species. Price Rs, 2-4-0 per set.

On sale at THE NATURAL HISTORY SECTION, ei)

PRINCE OF WALES MUSEUM, BOMBAY |

and at the Office of

THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, sl

114 Apollo Street, Bombay. 3

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 47, No. 3.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS. Part XXVIII. By

N. L. Bor, C.1.8., M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S., I.F.S., and M. B. Raizada, m.sc.

(With 1 coloured and 4 black and white plates)

THE BIRDS OF THE SIMLA AND ADJACENT HILLs. Part III. By A. E.

Jones, M.B.O.U. (deceased).

SOME BIRDS OF THE GANDAK-KOSI WATERSHED, INCLUDING THE

PILGRIM TRAIL TO THE SACRED LAKE OF GOSAINKUND. By

B. E. Smythies aoe BOR ae sa

‘THE STORM PETRELS OCCURRING IN THE NORTHERN INDIAN OCEAN,

AND ADJACHNT SEAS. By C. A. Gibson-Hill, M.a.,M.B.0.U. (With

a plate) eoo eoo eo0o eee

EFFECT OF WEIRS AT THE CANAL HEAD-WORKS ON THE DISTRI-

BUTION OF Cadla catla (HAMILTON) IN THE PUNJAB. By Ude

Singh Rai, M.sc., Ph.D., P.A.S. (With a map) ;

INCIDENCE OF FISH MORTALITY ON THE West Coast. By P. K.

Jacob and M. Devidas Menon 50 eee

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA. Part XX. By D.G.

Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S. 606 S06 cO0

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE ANDAMANS AND NICOBARS. By Lt.-Col.

M. L. Ferrar, C.S.1., C.1.E.,0.B.E. (With five plates) ... “he

On THE Foop-PLANTS OF INDIAN GEOMETRIDAE AND PYRALIDAE.

By D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.s.

Tur BUTTERFLIES OF THE KHASIA AND JAINTIA HILLS, ASSAM. By

R. E. Parsons, F.R.E.S., IP. and Sir Keith Cantlie, ¢C.1.#.. I.C.s.

Bat MIGRATION IN INDIA AND OTHER NOTES ON Bats. By Humayun

Abdulali eco eee

ABNORMAL PALMS OF TRAVANCORE III. By ‘Trupapur A. Davis.

(With two plates)

OBITUARY NOTICE :—

H, H. Maharao Vijayarajji of Kutch (With a plate) es son

REVIEWS :—

Trees of Calcutta and its Neighbourhood x ~

The Book of Indian Animals

Common Birds of India aoe AS

Story of Migration O86 on

Festschrift, Prof. Dr. Embrik Strand) Volume IV. Boe see

EDITORIAL aa ae

PAGE

401

409

432

443

ii CONTENTS OF VOLUME 47, No. 3

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

1. How far can a Tiger Swim? By D. P. Garga (p. 545). 2. An extension

of the known range of Sandicota nemorivaga (Hodgson) in China. By

J. D. Romer (p. 546). 3. Altitudinal limit of the Indian Elephant. By

F. N. Betts (p. 546). 4. ‘The movements of the Rosy Pastor in India. By

R. M. Simmons (p. 547). 5, Occurrence of the Speckled Piculet (Vivia inno-

minatus (Burton) in Khulna, Bengal. By Satya Churn Law (p. 548). 6 The

clicking noise made by owls. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 548). 7. Green

Pigeons in aswamp. By G. V. R. Frend (p. 549). 8. Peculiar behaviour of

the Darter (Anhinga melanogaster Pennant). By Humayun Abdulali (p. 549).

9. Wilson’s Petrel in India. By Jiumayun Abdulali (p. 550). 10. ‘he

occurrence of the Snake Polyodoniophis sagittarius near Bombay. By Humayun

Abdulali (p. 551). 11. Crocodiles bellowing. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 551).

12. Notes on a few reptiles from the Nilgiri Hills. By Garth Underwood

(p. 552). 13. Acacia thorn in the stomach of a toad (Bufo melanostictus

Schneid). By Basanta Kumar Behura (p. 553). 14. March Lepidoptera at

Gopalpur (istrict Ganjam).—A Correction. By D.G. Sevastopulo (p. 554).

15. On the butterfly Delzas descombesi leucacentha Fruhstorfer. By R. E. Par-

sons (p. 554). 16. Harly Stages of the butterfly Delzas aglaia Linn. By

Rk. E. Farsous (p. 556). 17. Shamming death. By A. A. Dunbar Brander

(p. 557). 18. Animals ‘shamming’ death. By D. P. Garga (p. 558). 19.

The influence of migrant birds on butterfly mimicry. By D. G. Sevastopulo

(p. 559). 20. Colour sense in Nature, By Brian Vesey-Fitzgerald (p. 561).

JouRN., BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.. PEATE, NOs oxacxa

ibd

BOUGAINVILLEA GLABRA Choisy

( 2/3 natural size )

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society.

1948. VOL. 47. No. 3

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS.

ING Ee DOR CAGE. MA. DSC. b.L.S., Ink Se,

Forest Botanist

AND

M. B. RaizabaA, M.Sc.,

Asstt. Forest Botanist,

Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun.

Part XXVIII.

(Continued from Vol. 47, (1947), p. 196).

(With one coloured and 4 black and white plates).

Nyctaginaceae

This family is important in Indian gardens because one of its

genera is the far-famed Bougainvillea, so commonly cultivated now-

adays. The family comprises herbs, shrubs and trees. The flowers

may contain only the male sexual element or the female, or both

may be combined in one flower. A brightly coloured involucre of

bracts often surrounds the flower or group of flowers and is usually

taken for the calyx. The actual calyx is tubular. This

again is often taken for the petals which are, however, absent. The

stamens are usually many but are sometimes reduced to one, inserted

below the ovary, which is 1-celled and ends above in a slender style.

The ovule is solitary within the ovary and inverted.

Another common plant belonging to this family which is found in

Indian gardens and also running wild is Mirabilis Jalapa more usually

Ary iGAS

402 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47

known under its popular names Marvel of Peru or Four-o’clock

Plant. This South American species is now cultivated everywhere

in the tropics and its magenta coloured perianth makes a striking

patch of colour. The flowers only open in the evening and this

fact gives rise to the trivial name. The scientific name of this

plant preserves the erroneous belief, at one time widely held, that.

the tuberous roots were identical with those of the true jalap. The

jalap is a renowned purgative, so drastic and powerful in its effects,

that it has been suggested that ‘jalap’ and ‘faith’ are synonymous.

Be that as it may, the purgative effect of the roots of Mirabilis are

very mild, though a decoction of the roots is said to possess curative

powers in a variety of diseases and disorders ranging from dy-

sentery, cholera and diarrhoea on the one hand to constipation

on the other!

The genus, however, with which most Indian gardeners will

be familiar is—

Bougainvillea Commerson.

This genus was published by Commerson, the French botanist

in 1789, in honour of L.A. de Bougainville, the famous French

navigator, based upon specimens collected in Brazil during de

Bougainville’s voyage round the world in 1766-69. The name as

published by Commerson was Buginvillea but the correct spelling

as adopted in the Index Kewensis Suppl. 9, 1931-35 is Bougainvillea

Comm. corr. Spach. In between these dates the name has been

spelt in half a dozen different ways.

The species of the genus, amounting in all to some fifteen, are

climbing shrubs in their homes in South America. In horticultural

practice they can be got to grow as standards and as pot plants

and are extremely effective. It is well to remember that the colour

of the bracts in some species at the base of the flower-group is very

vivid and the magenta shades especially clash with everything else

within range. Nothing can, however, be more effective than one

of these giant climbers in its natural setting, that is, rambling and

cascading over other vegetation in one of the wilder corners of the

garden.

The leaves of the species of the genus are simple and alternate.

The stem is covered with spurs or spines which aid the plant to

climb upon and ascend through other vegetation.

An examination of the ‘flower’ of Bougainvillea will reveal that

at the tip of the flowering shoot there are three (usually) brightly

coloured leaves or bracts which are heart shaped when flattened.

These bracts touch along their margins and give rise to the

common belief that they constitute the floral envelope,

Actually the true flowers will be found within the floral bracts.

These flowers are rarely solitary and usually three of them are

seated together within the bracts in an umbel-like structure. Each

individual flower is erect upon a pedicel attached to the midrib of

the subtending bract near its base.

The true flowers are tubular in shape, greenish-white or

cream-coloured, about 3/4 in. long and 1/3 in. in diameter, pedi-

celled, glabrous or hairy. The tubular perianth is roughly penta-

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 403

gonal in section and terminates in five equal lobes which often

present a frilled appearance from lateral outgrowth from the lobes.

Within the perianth-tube will be found the stamens, seven or eight

in number, the anthers being seated upon long flattened, capillary

filaments which are unequal in length so that in a mature flower

2 or 3 anthers will be found emerging from the perianth-tube.

Within the filaments is a solitary pistil surmounted by a solitary

style terminating in a hairy stigma. The pistil contains a single

ovule. Some of the bud sport varieties, e.g. var. Louis Wathen

have imperfect flowers.

All of the known varieties of Bougainvillea are derived from the

four species B. spectabilis Willd., B. glabra Choisy, B. peruviana

Humb. et Bonp. and B. Buttiana Holttum and Standley, but it must

be remembered that there is also a host of hybrids. The flowers

of Bougainvillea are self sterile and in the ordinary course of events

seed is very rarely produced. A number of hybrids have been

produced by Mr. Percy Lancaster in Calcutta by means of cross

pollination. There is likely to be a great advance in the coming

years and we may expect a large number of hybrids with tinted

bracts of every imaginable colour. All who are interested in

Bougainvilleas should read the works of Holttum (Malayan Agri-

Horticultural Association Magazine) Parsons (Tropical Agriculturist)

and Percy-Lancaster (Agri-Horticultural Society of India) from

which most of the information in this article is compiled. It is

quite impossible to describe all the cultivated varieties of the species

of this genus. Not only are some of the species of later hybrids

and sports given varietal rank based upon very subtle differences

in colour of the bracts, but also the true name of the parent is not

always known. It has happened more than once that a variety has

been introduced into several gardens in India under different

names. Hybrids have been produced from these and the result

has been nomenclatural confusion. Again a name used to denote

a colour does not always convey the same impression to the reader

as it does to the writer and there is the additional dithculty that

most of the varieties exhibit a change in colour in the bracts from

youth to age. Hence keen gardeners are informed that while chaos

has not yet come upon us in the naming of Bougainvillea varieties

it cannot be long delayed. With the big gardens producing hybrids

and the small nurseries following suit, there is bound to come a

time when each valid variety has three or four names. We sym-

pathise with our readers but cannot do anything about it.

As has been said above four main species have given rise to the

true varieties known in India at the present time.

KEy TO THE SPECIES.

Plant definitely hairy. ... B. spectabilis

Plants glabrous or nearly so

Tip of the floral bracts acute;

Bracts magenta ... B. glabra

Tip of the floral bracts obtuse

Bracts crimson

Bracts delicate mauve pink

. Buttiana

. peruviana

404 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol,’ 47

Bougainvillea spectabilis Willd.

Description.—An arborescent shrub climbing over large trees and

through other vegetation by means of the curved spines on the

stem and branches. Bark pale and corky cracking into rectangular

plates. Branches and shoots hairy ; very hairy when young. Spines

woody, axillary, 1-2 inches long, more or less curved, tomentose

or sometimes glabrous. Leaves petioled, ovate or even rotundate

in Shape, obtuse or shortly acuminate, entire, somewhat wavy on

the margins, membranous to somewhat leathery in texture, 2.5-3 in.

long, 2 in. wide, sparsely hairy above, hairy to hirsute below.

Flower-heads terminal or axillary, seated on peduncles and more

or less gathered into branched panicled inflorescence; peduncles

simple or sometimes divided. Each flower head consists of three

bracts arranged as an involucre and carrying the flower. Bracts

purple or rosy purple, ovate in shape, 1.5 in. long, 1.2 in. wide,

obtuse at the tip, cordate at the base, membranous. in texture, reti-

culately nerved. The flowers are adnate to the median nerves of

the subtending bracts. Perianth tubular, corolla-like, hairy, 1 in.

long, ending above in a 5-lobed narrow mouth. Fruit club-shaped,

5-ribbed, glabrous or pubescent.

Distribution.—This species grows wild in the mountainous parts

of eastern and central Brazil.

This was the first species of Bougainvillea to be introduced to

cultivation. A specimen was brought alive to Paris in the eighteen-

twenties and flowered in a tropical greenhouse there. It was culti-

vated in England in 1844 and the plant was well known in India

as far back as 1860. The flowering of this species is always sea-

sonal and depends upon the occurrence of dry weather. It is said

that only very large plants, especially those grown over tall trees,

flower well.

Varieties of B. spectabilis Willd.

Var. lateritia. ‘This very fine variety is difficult to propagate

and is therefore not as common as it deserves to be. The colour

of the bracts has been described as brick red or a very fine shade

of jasper red, fading to brazil red as the bracts fade. The variety

follows its parent in the seasonal flowering and it only bursts into

full colour after periods of drought.

Var, Maharaja of Mysore. It is not quite certain whether this

is a hybrid between B. spectabilis var. lateritia X B. glabra or

whether it is a chance variety of B. spectabilis. At all events the

leaves and other parts of the plant are hairy. The bracts are des-

cribed as being spinel red to rose dorée in hue, and to change to

brick or brazil red with age. It is a fairly free flowering variety and

can be propagated very easily.

Var. Mrs. Frazer. This variety which is probably a hybrid has

bracts which are spinel red in colour turning to eugenia red with

age. It again exhibits seasonal flowering and does not do well

unless it is placed in a hot and dry position.

Var. Rosa Catalina. This distinct variety is known as the

‘Pink’ Bougainvillea in our Indian gardens. It was introduced into

nz °F

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SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 405

England from the Canaries and first exhibited in London in 1910.

The bracts are spinel red in colour or pale red or a bright rosy

scarlet. One advantage of this plant is that the colour of the

bracts is capable of harmonising with other flowers in the garden.

It flowers more freely than some of the varieties of B. spectabilis

and deserves to be more widely cultivated. Its propagation is

rather difficult.

’ Bougainvillea glabra Choisy.

Description.—A climbing shrub with leafy, glabrous, spreading,

spiny branches. Spines short, scarcely curved. Leaves glabrous on

both sides, oblong-lanceolate or ovate-oblong in shape, acuminate,

entire, cuneate or cordate at the base, seated on a petiole .2-.3 in.

jong, 1-2 in. broad, firmly membranous in texture. Flower-clusters

arranged in axillary or terminal panicles which are many- or few-

flowered. Bracts elliptic or elliptic-lanceolate in shape, cordate at

the base, acute at the tip, reticulately nerved, magenta in colour.

Perianth tubular, less than 1 in. long, slightly hairy. Fruit turbi-

nate, 5-ribbed, glabrous, .5 in. long. :

Distribution.—This plant is at home in evergreen woods on the

mountainous parts of Rio de Janeiro and San Paulo.

This climber differs from B. spectabilis in being less hairy in all

its parts, and more particularly in habit. B. glabra flowers almost

continuously throughout the year and therefore is of far more value

horticulturally than the former species. B. glabra arrived and was

exhibited in London in 1860, it having come from Brazil by way of

Mauritius. This species has been known in India for the past 60

Or 70 years and is very common.

Varieties of B. glabra Choisy.

Var. Sanderiana. This variety has been exhibited over and over

again in London and is commonly cultivated in Europe. It is very

free flowering and can be grown as a small pot plant. One

advantage in north India is that it is able to withstand slight frost.

The colour of the bracts is described as phlox purple to magenta.

Var. Cypheri. This variety appeared in 1897 and is quite com-

mon in the East. The bracts are paler than those of var. Sanderiana,

but larger, and the flower panicles are produced in large quantities.

Bougainvillea Buttiana Holttum & Standley.

Description.—A widely climbing spiny shrub of open growth.

The stem and other parts are usually hairy when young but become

almost glabrous with age. Leaves deep green in colour, ovate-

rotundate or elliptic ovate in shape, 5-6 in. long by 4 in. wide,

acuminate at the tip, truncate or rotundate at the base, usually

with some hairs even when old.

The inflorescence is lax and few-flowered. The flower clusters

are seated on glabrous peduncles about 1/3 in. long. The bracts

are rotundate-elliptic or ovate-orbicular in shape, crimson in colour,

upto 1.5 in. long by 1.5 in. broad, rotundate or broadly obtuse at.

406 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47

the tip, broadly rotundate, or somewhat cordate at the base, glab-

rous or occasionally minutely hairy on the veins, reticulately nerved.

Perianth about 3/4 in. long very minutely hairy to almost glabrous.

Distribution.—The species is supposed to be Brazilian in origin.

This magnificent plant had an interesting history which has

been so well summarised by Mr. Holttum in Malayan Agri-

Horticultural Association Magazine April 1941 that it is reproduced

here verbatim. |

‘How long this Bougainvillea has been cultivated in South

America in unknown. The first recorded item of history is that Mrs.

R. V. Butt, of Trinidad, visiting Colombia in 1910, found a plant in

a garden near Cartagina, and brought cuttings to Trinidad. It

was found easy to propagate and was soon distributed to the other

West Indian islands.’ |

‘In October 1916 the U.S. Department of Agriculture recorded

the introduction from British Guiana to Florida of a crimson flowered

Bougainvillea of which sufficient information is given to make its

identity with Mrs. Butt certain, though that name is not mentioned.

But it seems that the species had been introduced into Florida at

an even earlier date.’

‘It seems that this Bougainvillea did not cross the Atlantic until

after the 1914-18 war, and then it was introduced to Europe both

as Mrs. Butt and as Crimson Lake.’

‘The next item of history comes from India. Mr. Percy-Lancaster,

Secretary of Royal Agri-Horticultural Society of India, informed

us that a Bougainvillea resembling Mrs. Butt arrived in India direct

from the West Indies in 1920. Mr. Percy-Lancaster gave the name

‘*Scarlet Queen’’ to this plant. He writes ‘‘The coloured bracts are

slightly darker than in Mrs. Butt but the actual flower is malformed

so that instead of there being three white or cream flowers in the

bracts, there are merely little bunches of anthers. In growth

and foliage these plants are identical. The original Scarlet Queen

gave rise at Madras in 1932 to a bud sport with orange bracts which

was called ‘Louis Wathen’. Mrs. Butt was soon distributed from

Kew to the eastern tropics and to Africa. In 1931 in the garden

of Mrs. McLean of Trinidad, a plant of Mrs. Butt produced a branch

with apricot-orange instead of crimson bracts. This was shown

to Mr. R. O. Williams, who propagated it and called it ‘Mrs. Mc

Lean’. The next year the variety Scarlet Queen did the same thing

in Madras, in the garden of Mrs. Wathen, and the orange variety

so produced was called ‘Louis Wathen’ by Mr. B. S. Nirody,

Honorary Secretary of the Madras Agri-Horticultural Society. Mr.

Nirody actually said that Louis Wathen was derived from Mrs. Butt,

but Mr. Percy-Lancaster in his letter on Scarlet Queen informed

us that the latter variety was concerned. This statement is borne

out by the fact the ‘Louis Wathen’ can be distinguished from ‘Mrs.

McLean’ by its imperfect flowers. I know of no other distinction

between the two. To be quite accurate, Louis Wathen does occa-

sionally have a perfect flower, which one may see as a little cream

coloured. star, among the orange bracts, but most of the flowers

lack, the. white star-like end entirely, the remainder consisting of an

inconspicuous group of stamens protruding from a short tube.”’ ’”

“und e1iyoq ‘

rpvzwy °F °W ; ———

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JourN., Bompay Nat, Hist, SOG: PLATE IV

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Saw

Photo by M. B. Raizada

Bougainvillea glabra Choisy.

New Forest, Dehra Dun.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 407

‘Mrs. Butt, like Bougainvillea peruviana is evidently native of

more tropical regions than the original purple Bougainvilleas which

were found in the south of Brazil, on the borders of the tropics. It

has also a quite distinct habit, with its stronger, more open growth,

very broad leaves and close branches of flowers. It is needless to

describe in detail its many well-known qualities, but will point out

two facts which have not, so far as I know, appeared in print.

The bracts of Mrs. Butt and its derivatives turn from crimson

or orange when young to purple or mauve as they grow older but

the bracts of the orange varieties (var. lateritia and hybrids) of the

older Bougainvilleas start purple when they are young and pass

through red to orange when they are old. The other feature of

Mrs. Butt is one of which gardeners should beware. It will not

stand hard pruning back so that no leafy shoots are left. The old

purple Bougainvilleas can be cut back almost to the ground, and

they rise again more vigorous than before, but Mrs. Butt will net

stand rough treatment.’

The varieties, var. Mrs. McLean and var. Louis Wathen, are

very common in Indian gardens and their history is given above. As

stated, it is not certain that var. Louis Wathen is actually a variety

of B. Buttiana since the origin of Scarlet Queen is not known, but

if the only difference between the two, Louis Wathen and Mrs.

McLean, is the presence of imperfect flowers in Louis Wathen, the

two plants surely have a common origin.

Bougainvillea peruviana Humb. et Bonp.

Description.—A climbing, spreading, spiny shrub. The branches

are covered with a greenish bark and bear spines which are straight

when young but become curved when old. This species is said to

lose its leaves entirely each year. The leaves are quite glabrous,

alternate, ovate in shape, upto 4 in. long by 3 in. wide, entire, acute

at the tip, cuneate at the base, thin in texture, seated on very slender

petioles. Flower-clusters panicled in the axes of the leaves. Bracts

ovate-obtuse, upto 1 in. long by 3/4 in. wide, delicate mauve pink in

colour. Perianth tubular, much more slender than that in any other

of the species, quite glabrous except for a few hairs on the subtend-

ing bracts, ending above in a 1o-toothed limb, of which 5 teeth are

longer, entire, while the 5 are broader, 2-fid, yellowish in colour.

Stamens 7 shorter than the perianth. Fruit oblong.

Distribution.—The home of this plant is said to be Peru, Colombia

and Ecuador.

Again Trinidad seems to have been the scene of the first intro-

duction of this species, when a Mrs. Rover in 1920 brought back a

specimen to the island. It was introduced into Florida about 12

years afterwards and is a recent acquisition in the East. There are

two varieties.

1. var. Lady Hudson.

2. var. Princess Margaret Rose.

The two varieties are very similar, the latter has longer bracts (upto

1; in. long as against 1 in, in Lady Hudson) of a decidedly deep

shade of pink. Both varieties do well in pots.

408 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIS. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

General Notes on Gardening.

Bougainvilleas form one of the most prominent and prolific sources

of colour in tropical gardening and are deservedly very popular.

They flower a great part of the year and are invaluable in providing

broad colour effects in the garden. But most of the magenta coloured

varieties are apt to kill other colour effects when planted in a small

garden. They, however, look very charming against a background

of green and are consequently suitable for climbing any large tree

on the borders of the compound. In large gardens and parks they

are useful particularly for boundary hedges, arches, pergolas, up

tall trees, and look spectacular rambling down a grassy slope. Grown

as an isolated shrub on a lawn they are exceedingly decorative.

They can also be grown as standards and for this purpose Mrs. Butt

and Louis Wathen are very suitable. Almost all the varieties stand

pruning with impunity and are used particularly in southern India

as a hedge. 8B. glabra and B. spectabilis are types commonly used

for this purpose.

Bougainvilleas thrive in almost any kind of soil and will grow

with ordinary care almost anywhere except at hill stations. They

are, however, most luxuriant between 2,000-4,000 ft. above sea level.

They essentially love full sunshine and thorough drainage. An

occasional top dressing and periodic manuring is all that is necessary

in later stages of growth. The majority of the varieties are propa-

gated by cuttings or by layering or gootee, but certain varieties like

lateritia, Rosa Catalina and Louis Wathen are nut easy to propagate

and strike root with difficulty. The usual method is to select well

ripened shoots of the previous season’s growth. Cuttings 9-10 inches

long and a pencil thickness are selected and inserted in beds of sandy,

well drained soil. Most of these take roots in 4-5 weeks from the

time of insertion. Those varieties which fail by this method should

be either layered or gooteed and when sufficiently rooted they are

transplanted into larger containers and kept there for some time

before finally planting out. |

Though Bougainvilleas will grow in almost any kind of soil they

require a certain amount of manure and humus in the early stages

of growth. Later on periodic top dressing of manure and clean

weeding immediately round the plant is all that is required in the

way of after treatment.

(To be continued)

THE BIRDS OF THE SIMLA AND ADJACENT HILLS

A. E. JONES, M.B.O.U. (deceased).

Part III

(Continued from page 249 of this volume)

123. Dicrarus macrocercus albirictus Hcdgs. The Black Drongo or King

Crow.

LENGTH: 13 inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: Sexes alike; entire plumage black glossed with blue;

often with a white spot at the gape.

DISTRIBUTION: This race is a summer visitor to the Simla Hills from

2,500 ft. to 6,000 ft. With other races spread all over the Plains.

GENERAL Hapits: A bird of the open country near cultivation and the

edge of light forest. Commonly seen on the telegraph wires or some other

conspicuous coign of vantage. Bold and fearless, it doesn’t hesitate to attack

crows, hawks and even eagles should they venture near its nest. It also

quite frequently perches on the backs of cattle and goats, I even saw one

seated on the back of a cultivator as he was planting out rice seedings

(Gorakhpore).

NipiricaTION: Most nests are found in May and June. They are shallow

cups made of fine grass and spiders’ web bound to the bifurcation of a bough

at varying heights from the ground from to feet to 4o feet. There is no

attempt at lining and not much as regards concealment. The eggs number

three or four; they vary in colour from white to pinkish cream, sparsely

blotched with black or reddish-brown.

124. Dicrurus longicaudatus longicaudatus Jerdon. The Indian Grey Drongo.

LENGTH: 12 inches.

FrELD CHARACTERS: Sexes alike. Upper plumage black glossed dark blue,

lower plumage dark grey.

DISTRIBUTION: Also a summer visitor to the Hills arriving at the end of

March, leaving these parts September and October. Ascending to a_height

of 8,000 ft.

GENERAL Hapits: A forest bird, it will be found also on the edges of

cultivation where these offer small groves of suitable trees for its nest. It feeds

mostly on winged insects but will also descend to the ground to capture its prey.

Like the Black Drongo this is a very courageous bird and attacks all and

every suspicious (avian) character.

-NIDIFICATION: Similar to the foregoing species. The nests may be at

any height from the ground from 10’ to 60. Four is the normal clutch but

it is not uncommon to find three as the full complement. May and June are the

principal laying months. The eggs are slightly smaller than those of the

Black Drongo and more heavily marked.

125. Chibia hottentotta hottentotta (Linn.). The Indian Hair-crested Drongo.

LENGTH: 12 inches.

FieLD CHARACTERS: Entire plumage black with green reflections;

comparatively long curved beak; the tips of the two outer tail-feathers curled

upwards. Sexes alike,

DISTRIBUTION: Found in the lower hills up to 3500 ft.

GENERAL Hasits: To a great extent its distribution seems to be governed

by the presence of the silk cotton tree (Bombax). This is a true forest species

410 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

usually seen singly but frequently two or three may be observed feeding in

the same cotton tree, where the nectar and insects are an irresistible attraction.

Some of its notes are quite melodious. .

NipiricaTION: This does not differ to any great extent from the other

drongos except that the mest and eggs are a trifle larger. The breeding

season is April-June.

126. Acrocephalus dumetorum Blyth. Blyth’s Reed-Warbler.

LENGTH: 5 inches.

Fretp CuaracTers: Upper plumage olive brown; there is a pale buff

streak over the eye. Lower plumage pale buff.

DistrisuTIoN: This is a Spring and Autumn passage migrant passing

leisurely through these hills from the end of April to the first ten days in

June. On the return passage in September it hurries through to the Plains.

GENERAL Hapsits: Bush-clad hillsides, hedgerows and gardens form its

favourite haunts while it visits these Hills. It is of a skulking nature not

venturing into the open more than it can help. Its song consists of a jumble

of harsh notes uttered as it works through the cover.

127. Locustella neevia stramineaSeebohm. The Eastern Grasshopper-Warbler.

LENGTH: 5% inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: Upper plumage olive brown; each feather centred dark

brown; a narrow white supercilium. Below pale buff, chin and throat white;

under tail coverts broadly centred with black.

DISTRIBUTION: Spring and Autumn passage migrant, May being the month

of upward movement and August of return.

GENERAL Hapits: So secretive a bird that very few observers would suspect

its presence. Its movements on the ground would lead one to believe it was

a mouse. It has a reeling song when on its breeding ground but is silent

while on migration.

128. Orthotomus sutorius guzerata (Latham). The Indian Tailor-Bird.

LENGTH: 5 inches,

FIELD CHARACTERS: Crown of head rufous; remainder of upper parts

yellowish green; lower plumage sullied white.

DIsTRIBUTION: Resident in the lower hills generally not ascending above

4,500 ft., rarely to 6,500 ft.

GENERAL Hapits: Keeps low down in the harbage and evergreen under-

growth where it is more often heard than seen. Its whereabouts are revealed

by its comparatively loud call pitch-er, pitch-er, pitch-er.

NipiFicaTion: May to July are the months in which most nests will be

found. The true nest is made of grass-stems and fibres, lined with some soft

substance and a few hairs. This is placed between two or three leaves which

have been sewn together by the birds with white vegetable down. Three

to five eggs normally constitute the clutch. In colour these are of two types;

one pale blue, the other white in ground colour, marked with blotches of

red-brown.

129. Cisticola juncidis cursitans (Frankl.) The Streaked Fantail-Warbler.

LENGTH: 4 inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: Upper plumage very dark brown each feather broadly

edged fulvous; rump plain rufous; eye streak and lower plumage pale buff;

most of the tail feathers with broad white tips. Sexes alike.

DIsTRIBUTION: Found at the foot of the hills, i.e. the Grass Farm at Kalka,

2,500 ft. Outside our area practically the whole of India.

GENERAL Hapits: Resident though it may have to shift its ground due to

grazing or grass cutting for it must have ample cover. Its flight is low and

unsustained. Silent for the most part except in the breeding season when the

male may be seen performing his jerky nuptial flights which are accompanied

by a clicking note.

NIDIFICATION: July to. September are the principal months in which nests

may be found. These are placed a few inches from the ground in tufts of

THE BIRDS OF THE SIMLA AND ADJACENT HILLS 411

growing grass. Their structure is peculiar, i.e. the grass blades are drawn

together and fastened with white vegetabie down with the opening at the top

reminding one of. a huge chrysalis trom which the moth has emerged; the in-

side is lined with vegetable down. The usual clutch is 4 or 5; these are pale

blue or white with blotches and freckles of pale red-brown and lilac.

130. Franktinia gracilis hodgsoni (Blyth). Franklin’s Wren-Warbler.

LENGTH: 4 inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: In summer the whole upper plumage is dark ashy grey ;

the wings and tail washed with rufescent brown. Under parts white with an

ashy band across the breast. In the winter plumage the upper parts are brown;

wings and tail coverts rufous; supercilium white; under parts white. The tail

at this season is $ inch longer. Sexes alike.

DisTRIBUTION: From the foot of the hills to 5,000 ft. A slight downward

movement takes place in the cold weather. Outside our ‘area widely spread,

in several races over most of India.

GENERAL Hapits: Gregarious for most of the year when parties of 12 to 30

may be met with working their way through the bushes and undergrowth in

their search for insects. They keep up an incessant call-note pfree-dee-dee as

they move along.

NIpDIFICATION: This takes place from June to September. The nest and

method of enclosing it within 2 or more leaves resemble closely those of the

Tailor-Bird. Three or four eggs are laid which are either pure white or pale

blue speckled with reddish-brown.

130a. Sylvia althea Hume. Hume’s Lesser Whitethroat.

LENGTH: 6 inches.

FrELD CHARACTERS: Upper plumage greyish brown, slightly darker on the

crown; tail dark brown tipped with white, the outermost feathers almost entirely

white; lores, round the eyes and ear-coverts dark brown; the whole lower

plumage pale cineraceous. Sexes alike.

DistRIBuTION: Mr, H. W. Waite obtained two specimens in the Sutlej Valley

in May, one at Urni, the other at Kanam. In winter it migrates to S.W. India

and Ceylon.

GENERAL Hapits: The same as the next species.

NIDIFICATION: It is known to breed in Kashmir, otherwise the nesting habits

re similar to those of the Indian Lesser Whitethroat.

131. Sylvia curruca blythi Ticeh. & Whist. The Lesser Whitethroat.

LENGTH: 53% inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: Upper plumage earth-brown; crown of head greyer ;

outer tail feathers broadly edged white ; the whole of the undersides sullied white.

Sexes alike.

DISTRIBUTION: A winter visitor, common in the plains of Northern India.

In our area I have observed it rarely at Kalka, 2,500 ft. Whistler found it

scarce in the Kangra District.

GENERAL Hapits: A quiet unobstrusive bird which moves through the bushes

and tree tops in its hunt for insects uttering, from time to time, a loud tchak.

Just before its departure in spring for its northern breeding grounds it occa-

sionally utters a pretty little jumble of a song.

132. Phylioscopus affinis (Tickell). Tickell’s Willow-Warbler.

LENGTH: 4% inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: Upper plumage olive-brown; a broad yellow supercilium ;

lower plumage deep dull yellow. Sexes alike.

DisTRIBUTION: A Spring and Autumn passage migrant passing through on

the upward migration in May and returning in October on its.way to its winter

quarters.

GENERAL Hapits: As with alt the Willow-Wafblers this is an active sprightly

dittle bird, always hunting for the smail insects which constitute its food. It

feeds mostly at some little height from the ground. The male has a curious

dittle medley of a song.

412 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

133. Phyl!ioscopus tytieri Brooks. Tytler’s Willow-Warbler.

LENGTH: 5 inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: Upper plumage olive brown; wings and tail brown edged

with brighter olive; a buff supercilium; lores and behind the eye dark brown;

lower plumage sullied buff. Sexes alike.

DISTRIBUTION: Another passage migrant passing through Simla in April and

early May, returning in October.

GENERAL Hapits: This species haunts the lower bushes 2 or 3 feet above

ground level. The usual call-note is a thin squeak. The song consists of 4 or 5

notes. Whistler (Birds of Kangra District ‘Ibis’ 1926 p. 543) found it difficult

to distinguish from Ph. nitidus but the respective songs and habits are quite

different.

NIpIFICATION: Breeds from Kashmir to Kumaon at elevations from 8,ooo0 ft.

to 12,000 ft. from the end of May to July. The nest is domed and placed from

10 ft. to 20 ft. or more from the ground. It makes a neat nest of grass mixed

with feathers, birch bark and hair with a quantity of lichen; lined with feathers.

The eggs are unmarked white and usually 4 in the clutch.

134. Phylloscopus collybita {ristis Blyth. The Brown Willow-Warbler or

Chiff-Chaff.

LENGTH: 5 inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: Upper plumage brown (faintly tinged with green in fresh

plumage) with a pale buff supercilium. Wings and tail dark brown, finely

edged with olive-yellow. Lower plumage buff; wing lining primrose-yellow.

Sexes alike.

DISTRIBUTION: This is a winter visitor to the Simla Hills arriving in October

and leaving us again in early April.

GENERAL Hapits: This is the only migratory Willow-Warbler that remains

in the hills during the cold season; at this time of the year it frequents bush-clad

open hillsides (Berberis sp.) flitting from bush to bush in its hunt for insects,

and uttering from time to time a thin low squeaking note. Its well known cheery

chiff-chaff song is freely uttered in the Spring when it often mounts to the tops

of trees. During a bad spell of severe weather it descends to the lowest valleys

but in fine weather is found up to 6,500 ft. or 7,000 ft.

135. Phylloscopus griseolus Blyth. The Olivaceous Willow-Warbler.

LENGTH: 5 to 5% inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: Upper plumage earth brown; wings and tail brown with

paler edges; supercilium bright yellow. Lower plumage buffy-yellow, dusky

yellow on the breast and flanks. Axillaries and under-wing coverts brown.

Sexes alike.

DISTRIBUTION: Spring passage migrant passing in a westerly direction along

the foot of the hills in April. It is then common at 4,o00 feet. Not observed

on its downward passage.

‘GENERAL Hapsits: A bird of the low herbage, even clambering over stones

and boulders like a small babbler. Its call-note is a characteristic pluck.

136. Phylloscopus maculipennis (Blyth). The Grey-faced Willow-Warbler.

LENGTH: 4 inches. .

FIELD CHARACTERS: A broad coronal strealk and supercilium very pale whitish

buff; rest of head, nape and hind neck olive-brown, shading into yellowish green

of the back. Rump bright sulphur yellow; 2 wing-bars, the upper one rather

indistinct; tail with inner webs of outer feathers largely white; chin, throat

and breast grey. Remainder of lower plumage dusky yellow. Sexes alike.

DistRIBUTION: A winter visitor arriving in November and leaving again in

March and April.

GENERAL Hapits: During its stay in these hills it is mostly addicted to

haunting the medium sized evergreen trees, Holly, rhododendron and the two

oaks (Q. incana and dilutata). Usually inhabits the zone 5,000 feet to 7,500:

feet. Whistler only observed it in the Kangra Valley from December to

March. Its note is a sort zitt.

THE BIRDS OF THE SIMLA AND ADJACENT HILLS 413,

137. Phylloscopus pulcher kangrae Ticehurst. The Orange-barred Willow-

Warbler..

LENGTH: 4% inches.

FiELD CHARACTERS: A faint coronal streak yellowish; supercilium greenish

buff; crown and nape olive green; rump yellow; two well marked wing-bars

orange; tail brown the edges of the feathers olive-yellow, 3 outer ones mostly

white; lower plumage greenish yellow. Sexes alike.

DISTRIBUTION: This is another winter visitor to the Simla area. Said to

occur from Afghanistan to Garhwal. Its winter habitat is mostly from 4,o00 ft.

to 7,000 ft. November to March when it disappears entirely from these parts for

its breeding quarters at higher elevations. Waite did not meet it along the

Hindustan-Tibet Road.

GENERAL Hasirs: Similar to the last species.

NipIFIcaTION: Takes place in June and July. The nest is composed of

green moss, grass, lichen and strips of birch-bark and warmly lined with

feathers. It is domed with the entrance at the side and placed at varying heights,

8 ft. to 15 ft. from the ground. The clutch is usually four eggs, white with

reddish-brown blotches and specks mostly at the large end and sometimes

forming a zone here.

138. Phylloscopus proregulus simlaemsis Ticehurst. Ticehurst’s Willow-Warblet.

LENGTH : 33 inches.

Fretp CHARACTERS: Broad coronal band and supercilia to the nape yellow;

head dark olive brown, lighter on the back; rump bright yellow; two yellow

wing bars; tail brown edged with olive-yellow; under parts pale buff suffused

with yellow on the abdomen. Sexes alike. This is our smallest Willow-Warbler,

differing from P. maculipennis by the absence of white in the tail.

DISTRIBUTION: Resident, only descending to lower elevations in the coldest

weather. Found from 4000’ to 10,500’ and probably up to tree limit.

GENERAL Hasits: Usually solitary but in winter often found attached to

the mixed foraging parties composed of the various species of Tits, Tree-

Creepers and other small birds. Its favourite haunts are the deodar (Cedrus

deodara) forests.

NIDIFICATION: The breeding season is May and June. The nest is a neat

little ball of moss, lichen, a few strands of grass and. lined with feathers.

A number of nests found were all placed in deodars, at heights of 6’ to 35’ from

ground. One was against the main stem but most were some distance from

the trunk, usually at the bifurcation of two branches. Eggs four, white with

numerous blotches and dots, mostly at the large end.

13Y. Phylloscozus subviridis (Brooks). Brooks’s Willow-Warbler.

LENGTH: 3% inches.

Fretp CuHaracTeRS: Whole upper plumage clear greenish yellow; faint

coronal streak and supercilium yellow; two wing-bars yellowish white; tail

brown each feather edged greenish yellow; lower plumage pale dusky yellow.

Sexes alike.

DistTRIBUTION: In winter I found it fairly common in the Kala Chitta hills

below Attock. Rare passage migrant through the Simla area.

GENERAL Hapits: In the plains its favourite haunts are the ‘Kikar’ and

other thorny trees. The call-note is very. similar to those of the three fore-

gcing species.

NipiricaTIon: Major C. H. T. Whitehead found it breeding at elevations

between 7,000 ft. and g,ooo ft. in the Kurram Valley in June and July. The

nest was placed on the ground on a sloping bank; made of grass, lined with

goats’ hair and domed. The. eggs are white with red spots and speckles.

140. Phylloscopus inornatus humii (Brooks). Hume’s Willow-Warbler.

LENGTH: 4 inches.-__

FIELD CHARACTERS: An_ obsolescent coronal streak; upper plumage dull

olive green; a broad buffy white eye-streak; two wing-bars, the upper one

rather obscure; tail brown each feather edged with olive green; under parts

sullied white. Sexes alike. |

DisTRIBUTION: Spring and Autumn passage migrant and common at these

seasons from the foot-hilfs to 9ooo ft.

414 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47

GENERAL Hapits: Like all the other Willow-Warblers a restless bird

frequenting alike forest and trees bordering cultivation, incessantly uttering

its call-note tis-ip. :

NIDIFICATION : Breeds commonly in Kashmir where its nest may be found

in May and June. The situation is on a sloping bank; shape globular with

the entrance at the side; materials, coarse grass, lined with finer grass and

hair and fur. Four eggs are the normal clutch. They are white marked with

red brown specks and spots.

141. Phyiloscopus trochiloides viridanus (Blyth). The Greenish Willow-

Warbler.

LENGTH: 5 inches.

FiELD CHARACTERS: Upper plumage light olive-green, brighter on the rump ;

supercilium bright yellow; lores and a line behind the eye dark yellow; wings

with a single buff bar; tail brown each feather edged greenish ; lower parts

dusky yellow, greyer on flanks. Sexes alike.

DISTRIBUTION: Passage migrant April and May. Outside our area

practically the whole of India during the cold season. On the Autumn migration

it is common from the end of August and throughout September.

GENERAL Hasits: In some years this bird passes through Simla in great

numbers with the next subspecies during April and early May. At this season

they keep to the upper branches of the oak trees (2. incana) and keep up a

continuous warbling.

NipiFIcATION: Very few authentic records of its breeding in Indian territory

can be relied on; perhaps a few breed high up in the Kashmir highlands and

Baltistan. Waite found a nest of the race Phyll. trochiloides ludlowi above

Nachar in the Sutlej Valley at c.a. 10000 on June 8 containing four eggs

and obtained the female which Whistler identified as above.

142. Phylloscopus (trochiloides ?) nitidus Blyth. The Green Willow-Warbler.

LENGTH: 5 inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: Resembles virvidanus but the colours are _ brighter,

specially the under parts which are bright yellow. Wing bar bright yellow,

and in freshly moulted specimens a second bar is also indicated.

DISTRIBUTION: Not uncommon on the upward migration which takes place

in April and May but seems to follow quite a different route on its downward

passage.

GENERAL Hapits: Differs in no way from those of viridanus.

N.B.—Dr. C. B. Ticehurst in his masterly work ‘A Systematic Review of

the Genus Phylloscopus’ was somewhat of the opinion that nitidus was a

species apart from the trochiloides group due to the lack of any intergrades.

143. Phylloscopus magnirostris Blyth. The Large-billed Willow-Warbler.

LENGTH: 5% inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: Upper parts, edges to the wings and tail dark yellowish

olive; a conspicuous supercilium yellowish white with a dark olive line below

it; wings and tail brown with a faint white edge to the inner web of the outer

tail-feather. A single wing-bar yellowish white; there is a faint indication

of a second wing-bar on the median coverts. Underparts dusky yellowish

white.

DistriBuTION: In Simla and the immediate neighbourhood only occurs as.

a passage migrant in May and September. Very few records for these hills.

GENERAL Hapits: A forest bird. The few I have encountered in Spring

were haunting the upper branches of tall trees. The Autumn bird was in my

garden. The song is of four notes tsee-seesee-tseee and is diagnostic.

144. Phylloscopus occipitalis occipitalis (Blyth). The Large Crowned Willow-

Warbler.

LENGTH: 54 inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: A very distinct median coronal streak and two broad

lateral coronal streaks dusky olive; Supercilium primrose yellow. Upper parts,

edges of wing feathers and tail light yellowish-olive ; double wing-bars yellowish

THE BIRDS OF THE SIMLA AND ADJACENT HILLS 415

white; three outer tail-feathers narrowly edged white on the inner webs.

Under parts dull white tinged with pale grey on breast and flanks,

DisTRIBUTION: A very common breeding visitor to the Simla Hills arriving

early in March and leaving again about the first week in July descending

into the lower hills for a month or more before final departure to their

winter quarters in S. India.

GENERAL Hasits: Arboreal. Breeds between 6,000 ft. and g,o00 ft. A

very restless bird continually flapping its wings and flirting the tail. It is the

noisiest Willow-Warbler, the song being a rapidly repeated chi-zit.

NipiIFIcaATION: Takes place in May and June. The nest is made of moss

and lined with the fur of mammals (monkeys, squirrels, and deer). It is

almost invariably placed well out of sight in a hole of some sort, a hole in a

revetment wall being the most favoured site in these parts. Other sites are

among the roots of a tree or a hole in a tree. The eggs are immaculate white

and usually number four.

145. Phyllescopus reguloides kashmiriensis Ticehurst. Blyth’s Crowned

Willow- Warbler.

LENGTH: 5 inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: A small edition of Phyll: occipitalis. :

DISTRIBUTION: From Kashmir to Garhwal in summer. Probably winters

in the foothills as I found it common at Berrik in the Tista Valley (1,200 ft.)

during the cold weather of 1944.

GENERAL Hapits: An uncommon species. Arboreal and met with singly;

like all the Willow-Warblers a restless little bird constantly flirting its wings

as it moves about.

NipiricaTION: May, June and July are recorded as being the breeding

season. I never came across it during the breeding time but Whistler recorded

it as being common during summer at 9,500’ to 10,500’ in the Kharsu Oak Zone.

The nest and eggs don’t differ from those of the preceding species except

that they are a trifle smaller.

146. Seicercus barkii whistleri Ticehurst. Dharmsala Black-browed Flycatcher-

Warbler.

LENGTH: 43 inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: A distinct green coronal streak; 2 broad _ blackish-

brown lateral coronal stripes bordered distinctly with grey; a conspicuous

yellow ring round the eye; upper parts, margins of wing and tail feathers

olive green; outer two pairs of tail-feathers mostly white; under parts bright

yellow. Sexes alike.

DISTRIBUTION: A_ resident between 2,500’ to 10,000’. Single birds are

usually seen about Simla both on the upward and downward movements.

GENERAL Hapits: A forest bird keeping much to the under storey uttering

its subdued little call-note pillip, a faint edition of that of the Cinnamon Tree-

Sparrow. It is not common but a few may be heard and seen each season,

NipiFicaTIon: Breeds in June and July, making the usual domed nest of

green moss placed on the ground. The eggs are white without markings.

147. Seicercus xanthoschistos xanthoschistes (Gray). The Kashmir Grey-headed

Flycatcher-Warbler.

LENGTH: 43 inches. i

FIELD CHARACTERS: Forehead, crown and nape ashy grey, the centre of

the crown paler; sides of head ashy brown; back, visible parts of wings and

tail yellowish olive; the inner webs of the two outer tail-feathers white ; a

white supercillum; lower parts bright primrose yellow. Sexes alike.

DISTRIBUTION : Very common. Resident between 2,500’ to 9,000’, with some

downward movement in the cold weather.

GENERAL Hapits: A forest bird keeping mostly to the lower storey. Found

alike in pine, oak and deodar forest, sometimes in the denser growth but

usually in the more open parts. Tame and fearless,

NIDIFICATION: Breeds from March to June. The nest is the usual domed

structure made of green moss and grass lined with hair and fur. It is placed

on the ground often protected by an overhanging bush. The eggs number four

416 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 47

or five and are immaculate white. This species is often. victimised by the

Himalayan Cuckoo (C. optatus), .

148. Homochlamys pallidus (Brooks). The Pale Bush-Warbler.

LENGTH: 5 inches.

FIELD CuaracTers: Dark earth brown above, the edges of wing and tail

feathers tinged rufous; supercilium pale buff; lower plumage sullied white

almost fulvous grey. Sexes alike.

DisTRIBUTION: In summer found up to 10,000 ft. descending in winter to

the foothills and rarely some miles out into the Plains. .

GENERAL Hapits: It is an arrant skulker and rarely shows itself to the

observer, keeping to dense cover in forest glades where the wonderful song of

the male proclaims its presence. Apart from the breeding season it is a solitary

bird uttering a single note tchuk. ;

NipIFIcaTIoN: Breeds in June and July from 7,500 ft. to 10,000 ft. The

nest is usually placed in a bush of Honeysuckle sp. or Syringa sp. within

6 feet of the ground; it is made of the broader leaved grasses and_ lined

copiously with feather; sometimes it is domed or it may be a very deep cup-

shaped structure. The eggs normally number four and are a deep chocolate.

149. Horeites brunnifrons whistleri Ticehurst. The Simla Rufous-capped

Bush-Warbler.

LENGTH: 4 inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: Forehead, crown and nape chestnut; upper plumage

including edges of wing and tail-feathers rufous brown; supercilium pale buft ;

ear-coverts ashy brown, chin, throat and breast grey; flanks fulvous brown;

abdomen white. Sexes alike.

DIsTRIBUTION: Resident from 4,000° to 19,500° the lower elevation being

its winter habitat. It passes through these hills in April and October.

GENERAL Hasits: A bird of the open bush-clad hillsides and an arrant

skulker. Its song is very similar to that of the Greyheaded Flycatcher-Warbier.

NipiricaTion : Hugh Whistler found it fairly common at 10,500 to 11,500’

on the Duala Dhar range above Dharmsala in June and recorded that it was

clearly breeding though he found no nest. B. B. Osmaston however found

the typical form breeding near Darjeeling; he records the nest as being very

similar to that of Homochlamys, but the eggs are terra cotta with a darker

cap at the larger end. They number three to five.

150. Suya criniger criniger Hodgson. The Brown Hill-Warbler.

LENGTH: 7 inches.

FIELD CuHaRAcTERS: Upper plumage dark brown; tail rufous brown

obsoletely cross rayed; cheeks and ear-coverts dark brown; lower plumage

fulvous-white. The female during the breeding season has a short buff

supercilium and is 13 inch less than the male’s total length. In winter the

sexes are alike, the plumage at this season being rufous brown each feather

with a dark centre; below pale fulvous.

DistrIBUTION: In summer it is found from 4,000’ to 7,500’ but occasionally

up to 10,500’ (summit of -Mt. Huttoo!) which no doubt is exceptional. In

winter down to the foothills 2400’.

GENERAL Hapirs: A denizen of the grassy hillsides. The usual call-note

is a tchak-tchak. The song of the male a repetition of chik-ra-chu uttered

ad nauseum from some elevated point of vantage, or as it dive-bombs at the

female or in the vicinity of the nest.

NIDIFICATION: The breeding season is from June to August. The nest is

almost always placed in grass within a foot or 18 inches of the ground; the

materials used are mostly vegetable down strengthened with a few strands of

green grass firmly attached to the supporting stems. .In shape it is oval with

the entrance near the top. The eggs are white or cream with a zone of bright

red closely set blotches; they normally number four. If they should. number

more it would be advisable to examine them very carefully as Mr. W. H.

Matthews finds that the Plaintive Cuckoo victimises this species and it takes

a keen eye to differentiate the eggs.

‘ THE BIRDS OF THE SIMLA AND ADJACENT HILLS ‘417

‘151. Prinia sylvatica gangetica(Blyth). The Jungle Wren-Warbler.

LENGTH: 7% inches, para

FIELD CHARACTERS: Above dull earthy brown tinged rufous on the rump;

tail brown all but the ‘central’ pair tipped white with. a black subterminaf patch,

the outermost pair almost wholly white on the inner web; all the feathers

faintly cross-rayed; a short supercilium buff; lower plumage buff. Winter

‘plumage warm rufous brown, the lower parts ochraceous. No white in the

lateral tail feathers. Sexes alike.

DISTRIBUTION: Resident between 2,000 ft. to 3,500 ft. from Kangra to

‘Assam. Common at Kalka just outside the forest.

GENERAL Hapits: Frequents the low prickly bushes choked with coarse

grass which so often clothe the margins of the small ravines in the foothills.

It has a loud shrill song during the monsoon at which time it breeds, and

indulges in the dive- -bombing display and beak-snapping much like the Brown

Hill-Warbler.

NipirIcaT1ion ; From June to September. The nest is domed or a deep cup.

The materials employed are much the same as those used by the last species.

The situations are mostly a small dense bush or a clump of coarse grass. The

eggs are white, pinkish or pale-blue green marked with fine specks of red-

brown. The usual clutch is four.

152. Regulus reguius himalayensis (Jerdon). The Himalayan Goldcrest.

LENGTH: 33 inches,

FIELD CHARACTERS: Adult male, centre of crown flame coloured edged with

bright yellow, sides of crown black, upper parts olive-green, brighter on rump;

tail feathers brown edged with olive yellow; a black ‘patch on the centre of

the wing and two wing-bars; below pale dusky white tinged with olive green.

Adult female lacks the flame coloured crown of the male, but is otherwise

similar.

DISTRIBUTION’: A common winter visitor to the coniferous forests about

Simla between 6,000 ft. and 8,oo0 ft.

GENERAL Hasits: Arrives here towards the end of October remaining with

us till the end of March when it leaves for the higher elevations. A’ very

hardy little mite. I have watched a small party of them bathing in a handful

of melting snow, about a dozen taking their turn one by one while 1 was

standing five or six feet away. The note is a high-pitched mouselike tse-tse-

tse.

NipiFicaTIon: May, June and July are said to be the-breeding séason in the

Kashmir hills; the nest is a beautiful little hammock slung from the under-

side of a bifurcation of a horizontal branch of a coniferous tree at from 12’ to

40° or more. It is made of green moss, lichen and spiders’ web and cocoons.

The eggs are pinky buff with a zone of the same, but a shade darker, at

the larger end.

153. Cephalopyrus flammiceps feammiceps (Burton). The Fire-capped Tit-Warbler.

LENGTH: 4 inches.

FreELD CnaracTERS: Male: forehead and crown flaming scarlet; upper

parts bright olive yellow; wings and tail brown, each feather edged olive

yellow; lores and. -supercilium washed with scarlet; chin and upper throat

scarlet orange, lower parts golden yellow. Female: a dull edition of the

male. A dumpy little bird. with a comparatively short tail.

DiIsTRIBUTION: Occurs from Kalka (2,500 ft.) to 8,500 ft., the upper limit of

its breeding range. In winter it wanders out into the . plains as far as the

Central Provinces.

GENERAL Hapsits: This bird is very . tit- like in its feeding habits clinging

to. the extremity of the small twigs to’ examine the fresh foliage for insects

which its strong feet and tarsi enable it to do. It has absolutely no affinities

with any warbler that I know of. It is a forest bird, found in small scattered

parties during the winter: months. Arrives in the hills in March, departing in

October. The song of the male is a subdued edition of that of the Goldfinch.

NipiricaTIon: April and May are the only months in which I have found

the ‘nest which is always placed in a small hole in a tree from a foot to

20. feet above ground level. The material used is fine long strips of dry grass

which the female alone: brings-though the male is always in close attendance.

418 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY; Vol. 47

The female isa close’ sitter and hisses at thé?-intruder after thé’ manner of

the tits. The eggs usually number four and are munmaneses) (RE green in

peclour:

154, Oriolus orioltis kundoo (Sykes). 459 Indian Oriole, 2

LENGTH :. 93 inches. _ |

“FIELD CHARACTERS + Male: ‘the ‘Sabolls feed and body ‘rich Sais ‘lores and

space round the eye black; middle tail feathers black with narrow yellow tips,

the others progressively less black till the outermost pair are almost entirely

yellow; wings black, all the quills tipped and partially margined with yellow.

The female differs from ane male in having the back and scapulars . tinged

‘with’ green.

DistriputION: A common summer visitor to these hills from. 2,500 feet to

5,000 ft. or more. Arriving early in April and leaving for the plage in Seb

témber. Found throughout India; not E. Bengal. —

GENERAL Hasits: Partial to ‘the small groves of trees in ee vicinity

of cultivation. Does not enter heavy forest. The food consists of rust and

insects. The call-note is flute-like but it has no real song. °

NipiricaTIon: Most eggs.are laid in May and June. The nests are slung

10 to 40! from the ground from a bifurcation of a branch to. which they are

strongly attached by stout strands of grasses and fine strips of bark. From

below it looks like a yellow ball of grass. The eggs, which number two to

four, are china white sparsely blotched with black or dark brown.

155. Sturnus vulgaris poltaratzskii (Finsch). The iStaclingm

LENGTH: 8% inches. eet)

FIELD CHARACTERS: The whole plumage is metallic black, the irridescence

comprises green, purple, blue and red; each feather tipped with buff. At A

distance it appears all black or dark grey. Sexes alike.

DIsTRIBUTION : Occurs rarely at the foot of the hills, i.e, around °Kalka.

The hosts of Starlings seen in India are winter visitors arriving in the North

West in. October and leaving us again in March. But there. are two resident

races, one in Sind, the other breeding in Kashmir. —

GENERAL Habits : Highly gregarious feeding mostly on the eu, where

it does untold good in destroying. noxious insects.

156. - Sturnia malabarica malabarica (Gnietihy. at iflee Geheee ial

LENGTH: 8 inches. © ae . ae

_. FyeLtp CwaracTers: The whole upper plumage dark Geren the feathers on

the head and neck long and pointed; wings blackish; the feathers edged» with

silvery grey; lower plumage rufous paler. on the chin and throat. and: deeper

on the abdomen and flanks. Sexes more or less alike.) |

DISTRIBUTION : Widely distributed in the plains where I have seen it once

at Nabha and once at Jagadhri, both localities in the Punjab where it is

rare. But it is to my son Paul that the credit goes-for finding it, breeding

in these Hills; this was at a village near Suni, 2,500 ft., Bhajji State, on June

6th, 1944.

GENERAL Hasits: The Grey-headed Mynah is eR more arboreal than

are most of the mynahs. Its main diet consists of fruit and nectar from

flowering trées, it also feeds on insects and occasionally descends to the

ground. After the breeding season’ the birds collect into small flocks. When

feeding a continual chatter is kept up, the song is a pleasant warble. |

NIDIFICATION: Takes place in April, May and June. The nest is in a

hole in a tree, either a natural one or a disused woodpecker’s or barbet’s

from ten to fifty feet from the ground. In the nest my son took there were

four partially incubated eggs and he found a~second. one in which there

were three young ones. In colour the eggs are a pale sea-green without

markings. The material lining the holes was green leaves only.

157. ‘Temenuchus pagodaram (Gmelin). The Brahminy _Mynah.

Lenctu: 8 ‘inches. , ghee iaiceit

. Freep CHARACTERS: . From: forehead to nape a black crest; upper plumage

pale grey; sides of the head and underparts rich buff; primaries and PY

coverts black; tail. brown broadly tipped - white. Sexes alike.’

-THE\BIRDS. OF. THE SIMLA. AND ADJACENT. HILLS, 419

i¢oDistRipution :; Almost:.the whole. of India ;:it::dvoids «the: humid: country

to the East, and the. arid. country on the. West.'; In. these. hills it: is»a sutamer

visitor up to 5,500 ft. where it is not uncommon about the cultivated. areas.

(GENERAL, Hapits} A terrestrial:species more addicted to feeding on the ground

than, the _Grey-headed. Mynah, otherwise their. habits are much .the same,

though | it prefers: more open country.

, NipiricaTIon,: Takes place in) May «and ones The Restae sites, mateesal

for the nests and colour of the eggs are all much the same as those oe the

last species. if ait, GIRGiae Bus sFehg 822806 aa

158. Acridotheres tristis tristis (Biases) The Common Mynah.

_ Lgncta: gi inches. fe] locaenqgerials

+), BIELD,. CHARACTERS : ‘Head, neck and heeast black ; ‘remainder of body

plumage rich vinous brown ‘paler on the abdomen where it. tends to be

white; a large white patch on the flight feathers... Tail broadly tipped white.

Sexes alike. bet ae

DiIsTRIBUTION: The whole of India ascending the Hills to 8,000 ft.

_; GENERAL Hapsits: | Familiar and confiding, practically parasitic. on man. At

the approach of the breeding season, great battles take place: to decide which

pair is to retain possession of a certain nesting site. At these. times the

females are _just as aggressive as the males. . Not much harm seems to be

done as grasping each other’s feet the opponents lie on their. backs and shout

at the tops of. their voices.

NIDIFICATION: May to August is the normal duration of breeding activities,

which rather looks as if the birds were double-brooded. Any hole in a house,

a tree, in a wall and not uncommonly down a well will do. The nest is

made of straw, feathers, green leaves and scraps of paper. The eggs number

four or five and are unmarked pale bluish-green. —

_ 159. ARthiopsar fuscus fuscus (Wagler). The Jungle Mynah.

‘LENGTH: 9g inches. .

FrELD CHARACTERS: To the casual eye very similar to the Common Mynah

but the pale eye and the tuft on forehead are diagnostic, besides which its

ashy brown upper and lower parts also differ from its larger cousin. Sexes alike.

DistriBuTION: Almost the whole of India in the more forested hilly tracts.

It ascends the Himalayas to 5,o00 ft. or more. In the Simla Hills there are

colonies at the Ashni River bridge and one between Salogra and Solan.

“GENERAL HasitS: It appears to be gregarious for the whole year. The

colonies cited above consist of a dozen or more pairs in each. In the cold season

it descends to the plains returning to its breeding quarters in April. Its food is

more insectivorous than is the case of A. tristis ; it is also fond of fruit of all kinds.

NIDIFICATION: Nesting operations take place in May and June. The

nests at the Ashni River colony are in the weep-holes of the masonry support-

ing the. bridge, those at Salogra are in natural holes in. igneous rocks, The

holes are lined with straw, grass, feathers and’ green leaves. The clutch

consists of 4 or 5 eggs as a rule and in colour resemble those of the Common

Mynah. :

160. Saroglossa spiloptera spiloptera (Vigors). The’ sail car, 28 Stare.

LENGTH: 7% inches.

' Fretp CHarAcTERS’: -Male: upper plumage grey, each feather _margined:

narrowly with black; rump plain brown; upper tail coverts rufous-brown ;. tail:

brown tinged rufous; lores, cheeks and. earcoverts black; ‘chin. and ‘throat deep:

chestnut ;- the whole lower plumage rufous, paler on the abdomen; primariés,:

Serna diaries and primary coverts black edged with metallic green and all the

printaries with a white patch at their bases. Female: uppef* ‘plumage

sooty brown; sides of the head dark brown; lower plumage pale ashy-brown

with broad white margins, the whole suffused with fulvous.

DISTRIBUTION : From. the Kangra Valley to Assam visiting the submontane.

districts, din winter ; Manipur and - Pegu... It is a summer visitor. to.the. , Simaka,

Hills up to 3,500 feet arriving in April when it is gregarious... - a

GENERAL Hasits: Closely resemble those of the Grey-headed Mynah. Goon

after “its arrival in these hills’ the flocks divide’ up into pairs and distribute

themselves over the) country;;::\Open forest is their: favourite habitat. They feed

420 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIELY, Vol, 47

much on the nectar of flowers of the different forest trees ahd small figs and

berries, besides indulging in short sallies’ after HSADS insects. The note is a

twittering warble. 4

NipIFICATION: Takes place in May in which month I took a nage near

Salogra on 24-5-20. This was in a barbet’s old nest-hole 20 feet from the

ground. There were 4 slightly incubated eggs resting on a lining of green leaves.

Colour pale bluish green blotched sparingly over the surface with reddish-brown.

161. Ploceus philippious philippinus (Linnaeus). The Baya Weaver-Bird.

LENGTH: 53 inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: Male in breeding plumage: a mask, including sides of

head, chin and throat cinerous black; crown of head and breast bright golden-

yellow ; upper plumage dark brown, each feather edged buff or yellow; wings

and tail dark brown, edged buffish-yellow ; lower parts fulvous. Male and female

in winter plumage: the whole upper plumage is fulvous streaked with blac kish

brown, which are obsolescent on the rump; wing and tall the same as une male in -

breeding plumage; a buff supercilium; underparts buff.

DIsTRIBUTION: Almost the whole of India and ascending the Himalayas to

4,000 ft. from Kangra eastwards. In the Simla Hills I have observed it at

3,500 ft. in. Kunihar State where I found a scattered colony in August.

GENERAL Hapits: Highly gregarious for the whole twelve months. Its

habitat is open country dotted about with palms of different kinds and babool

trees (Acacia arabica). The diet is mostly grain and the seeds of various grasses.

Insects also are occasionally eaten.

NIDIFICATION: The principal breeding season is from July to October. The

wonderful retort-shaped nest is built jointly by the male and female. The

materials used are fine strips of various grasses which the birds fashion into

this unique structure. Mr. Salim Ali, who has given us minute details of the

economy of a nesting colony, tells us that the female lines the nest proper to

her liking, while the male finishes off the tube entrance. Most nests are sus-

pended over water. The eggs are from two to four in number and are unmarked

white. ;

162. Uroloncha punctulata lineoventer (Hodgson). The Spotted Munia.

LENGTH: 4% inches.

FigLp CHARACTERS: Upper plumage including wings chocolate; rump barred

with brown and yellowish and streaked with white; upper tail-coverts glistening

yellow; sides of head, chin and throat rich chestnut; lower plumage white,

each feather edged with fulvous brown. Young birds of the year’ are rufous-

brown above and pale buff below. without markings. Sexes alike.

DISTRIBUTION: Practically the whole of India with the exception of the more

arid tracts to the west. Dalhousie is about its westerly limit.and from there it

extends .eastwards to Assam from the foothills to 8,000 ft. which is

exceptional, 5,000 ft. being about its upper limit. In the Simla Hills it is found

from 2,500 ft. to 5,500 ft. and exceptionally to 8,000 ft. (Fagu).

GENERAL Hapits: Out of the breeding season it goes about in small family

parties which break up on the approach of the breeding season and pair off. The

rood is grass seeds, the flowering heads (when ripe) of the Indian corn and an

occasional insect. It frequents open bush-clad hillside.

NipIFICATION: Breeds during the monsoon. Capt. D. W. Cotton took a

nest containing 6/7 fresh eggs on August 16th. The nest is large for the size of

the bird. It is made of coarse and fine grass, domed, with an entrance at the

side: The situation of the nest is in a Berberis bush and occasionally in a ‘small

tree at from -4 ft. to 15 ft. from the ground. The eggs are white without markings.

163. Perissospiza icteroides (Vigors): The Black- an -Yellow Grosbeak.

LEenortu : 9 inches. _

FIELD CHARACTERS: Male: wile head, chin, throat, wings and tail black ;

remainder “of plumage bright yellow. The thighs are black. Female: upper

parts ashy-grey; breast ashy-brown; .remainder, of ,lower plumage and rump

bright tawny fulvous. ’ Ce OA dad |

iy i

if t and adults in non-breeding plumage.—S.A.

THE BIRDS OF THE SIMLA AND ADJACENT HILLS 42l

‘DIsTRIBUTION: Not uncommon in the Simla Hills between 6,500 ft. and

10,000 ft. in the breeding season, descending to somewhat lower levels in winter.

Also occurs to the west as far as the borders of Afghanistan.

GENERAL Hasits: This is a bird of the coniferous forests. Usually found

in small loosely scattered parties; even in the breeding season the males are

sociable. The food consists of berries and small fruits. I have even seen one

eating a large slug on a public road. The usual note may be syligpilizes Twenty-

two, rapidly uttered.

.NipiricaTIon: Breeds in May and June. The nests are placed from 12 ft.

to 4o ft. from the ground, usually close to the main stem of a deodar (C, deodara)

and are quite substantial structures composed of fine twigs as a foundation

on which are placed grass moss, plant stems and lichen. The lining consists

of fine grass and rootlets. The eggs number 2 or 3 and are pale sea-green

marked mostly at the broad end with coarse dark brown twisted streaks.

164. Perissospiza affinis (Blyth). The Allied Grosbeak.

LENGTH: g inches. :

FIELD CHARACTERS: Male: very similar to that of the last species. Differs

from P. icteroides in having the thighs not black, but yellowish. _ Female: breast

and rump olive yellow; back ashy-green.

DISTRIBUTION: Rare in the Simla Hills. My authority for including it in

this list is Mr. J. D. Michael who saw some at Dharanghati 9,240 ft. It is

found from Hazara to Sikkim at high elevations. Whistler found it above

Dharmsala at 10,000 ft.

GENERAL Hapits: A. E. Osmaston found this species fairly plentiful at ele-

vations from 6,000 ft. to 11,500 ft. in British Garhwal where they frequented

mixed forest which contained a good percentage of coniferous trees. He tells

us that they feed on unripe fruit and on one occasion he extracted two hairless

caterpillars from the gizzard of one he had shot.

NIDIFICATION: Osmaston says from what he observed they start building

operations at the end of May and beginning of June. I can find no further

information regarding its breeding habits. ed-gniwa yo did

165. Perissospiza carnipes carnipes' (Hodgson). The White-winged Grosbeak.

LENGTH: 9g inches. ;

FIELD CHARACTERS: Male: upper parts black with the exception of the rump

which is greenish yellow; chin, throat and breast black; wings black, the pri-

maries with white bases; abdomen, flanks and under tail-coverts greenish yellow.

female similar to the male but the colours are more subdued.

DistRisuTION: A bird of high elevations found from Baluchistan to Sikkim.

it Occurs at Chini 9,000 ft. to 10,000 fit. whence I received a pair which Dr. van

der Sleen kindly presented to me.

GENERAL Hapits: Nothing on record, “but these Bet onle do not di Fee from

those of other Grosbeaks. ~ x

NipiFicaTIon: Unknown.

tare

166. Mycerobas melanoxanthus (Hodgson). The Sporedswiiged Grosbeak.

LENGTH: 83-9 inches.- : as

FieLpD. CuHarAcTERS: Male: whole upper plumage slaty-black ; white

bases to some of the primaries; yellow, oval spots towards the tips of the ter-

tiaries; chin and throat slaty-black ; lower plumage deep yellow. Female: upper

plumage black, each feather edged pale yellow; a broad black streak through the

eye; under parts yellow streaked with black.

DISTRIBUTION: From Hazara to Manipur, in summer at considerable ele-

vations, in winter down to 4,000 ft. It occurs in some numbers, during. March,

April and May in flocks, the ‘Glen’, below Viceregal Lodge, . Simla, abeing a:

favourite locality.

GENERAL Hapits: A woodland species occurring in spring in ‘Teale on from

6 to 40 of 50. They feed at this season on the kernels of the wild «cherry which

their powerful bills enable the birds to extract from the ‘stone’. :.The, call.,note

isi krrrr. On one occasion, in May, while I was Watching a, "flock. ersittang, in a

pine tree (P. longifolia) I saw. a pair in copula... 0 y 63h YQ syesits-

422 JOURNAL} BOMBAY NATURAL’ HIST. YOCIETYS Pol): 47

oii Nebipscation: 3. -Présutialfly:. breeds: sins JunesaCapt. Skinner; took: :aCi nest

containing 3 eggs: which; closely..resembled those ofthe: Black-«and-Yellow Grosbeak

aes beh the Sune aceat Were) pe Oe hiss was at, ee ae aNd the

Ree ic VOL Pe i ices fi

1676. Pyerhula nau: Gould. The Orange Bullfineh, is = aati J2idaio0e

“LENGTH :' gt Snchbe at tom feueu on P| Dect 1 ee

_ Frerp CHaracters : Male: a broad lack: na Pound the? lee . tHe pitt:

rump, under’ tail+coverts and ‘under wing: Coverts - white’; tail and wings ‘black

with steely- -blué’ metallic reflections ; AYES: bat! dusky,” ‘edged’ with’ ‘orange-rufous ;

‘remainder of plumage deep | orange.’ Female + ’a ‘broad black’ band ‘rotind the

base. of the bill a$ in the male‘ crown, neck and sides of head ashy brown, “shading

to yellowish’ brown ‘én’ the back ; rurhp: white ; “throat and breast pale rufous ;

abdomen GUT Sy ETO We ee eae cena ee ge eka

DistTRIBUTION: From Hacer and mesa to Gan “Vary rare winter

visitor in our area, the only: record: being ‘when''my)son Paul and’David Cotton

saw a pair on Jakko Hill (Simla) 7- 4-1941, elevation 7,600 ft,

GENERAL: Hapits: A woodland species feeding on fruits, berries and. buds of

trees such as cherry and. willow. Small flocks and_ pairs, dine flight | the, white

rump of all the bullfinches is diagnostic.

NiniricaTIon ; Breeds, in Kashmir in August, none liv placing ‘its, nest at no

great height from the ground | in a coniferous tree. The foundation of the nest

is composed _ of fine twigs on which are placed fine roots. It is lined with moss

roots and rhizomorphs. The eggs number 3 or 4, white in colour blotched with

dark reddish-brown mostly. at the large end. ete raperik

a 168, Pyrrhula serineePn, Vigors. The Red- headed Baan a ve

~ sLENGTH” ‘53. inches..,

Fretp CHarAcTers: Male: a: ee black bad at’ the these ay ihe ‘billy sown,

nape and. hind--néck! vermillions; sides of. the, head, »neck, throat; . breast and

abdomen: paler’ red; back pure ashy-grey ;, rump white ; tail, and ; wings , metallic

black; wing-bag ashy grey; under tail coverts, white. Female :, resembles . the

male except that the head and nape are moss green ; lower plumage earth brown.

_ Distripution: Resident from.6,o00 ft. to 9,000 ft. or slightly higher. Not

uncommon in precincts of Simla during the cold weather but ieee to the inner

Hills in May. Found from Chamba to Sikkim. aie}

“GENERAL Hasits * ‘ A woodland-species keeping much 6 the: eseandery growth,

feeding ' largely on the dried: blackberry seed’ and leaf buds of Willow, Sallow and

other ‘shrubs. “Usually seen in small parties. The call: rote is a soft phew-phew.

NIDIFICATION : Breeds’ during August in the Narkanda- -Baghi. area. | The nest

ig much the'same as that of the Orange ‘Bullfinch. ‘ B.B.< ‘Osmaston' i is, I think,

the only ornithologist who has taken the? eggs of this species.'° They are: white

with dark red- brown plocchics mostly. ina zone ‘round. 'the large end. a

169. Pyrrhula nipalensis nipalensis Hodgson. The Beowe, -Bullfingh, ts

LENGTH: 62 inches. f

FIELD CHARACTERS: Male: A dark brown band roca he see w the bill:

crown:and nape ashy'brown, the feathers with dusky centres; back ashy brown ;

rump white ; wings and tail black with purplish metallic reflections ; wing bar

pale ashy brown ; the innermost tertiary margined exteriorly With crimson ; under-

side plain’ ashy. brown ;'°under tail-coverts white. Female :'! Same’ ‘as the. male,

with the exception’ ‘that’ the’ inner margin of the Sunsslaysenoet, tertiary i is yw instead

of, (Cc SON es a a acgs Joob a Dee A

{DISTRIBUTIGN : Bibs” ‘in’ the Narlaiiddle Baghi aréa, Citca 8,500: fel ‘tO POS000.

ft. . during the summer; for the. winter months | there ‘is ‘NO. insformation> Found

of * the Daula’ ‘Dhar, “ABOVE Dharamsala, to Sikkim! ooo: Pee!

GENERAL’ HaBris * Arboreal’” Has °4 phore! mélodious catlinote’ Tet the Red-

headd Bullfinch. Otherwise it reséfibles that’ bird’ in. habits one dood preys

NIDIFICATION : Nothing recorded,

Avityisyeres?

Vhaey h

foDTQ. ° -hoxia! icurvirostra : himatayana Blyth. Rh) "Himalayan Crossbill,

#4 “yeh! eae ‘Biches, 9 mot ies alfid tulveroa stony

rump; feathers of the wings and-tail dark Brown’ with ddges with’ narrow rufols

“THE BIRDS- OF THE-SIMLA ‘AND ‘ADJACENT HILLS: 433

margins; lower” plumage réd; under: tail-coverts: ‘brown broadly eds ed with ‘dusky

whites": Female > olive: green: ‘(alinost yellow-onthe rump) where the male is red.

--DIsTRIBUTION::» From the 'Sutlej River and Lahoul to Sikkim. In October

rox ‘on ‘two. cbnsectitina? week-ends I- observed ‘several small parties on’ Kufri Hill

(8,800 ft.) ; they were frequenting ° ‘the: tops of spruce and were ‘very’ restless, ‘sO

much so that I failed to’secure’ a specimen.

GENERAL Hasits: ‘A bitd of the coniferous forests. The seeds of ‘these,

especially: Spruce (A. webbiana),- constitute its ‘food,’ the bill being so formed as

to. enable it .to extract the eee with ease. Its movements when feeding are: very

Basen tals: Bh ON

»NIDIFICATION : Nothiig on® eeceré: fais the Himalayan ‘race. but in ‘Europe

March and April: are the breeding months. The nest is: placed in a conifer fairly

high up.in the tree; it is constructed of fine twigs -and lined with fine -grass~ and

rootlets. The eggs number 3 or 4 and are very pale stipe sparsely marked

with dark red-brown ‘blotches. . _ DBC radegins BN!

othe Pyrrhospiza puaicea humii Sharpe: The nia aul ‘Rosefinch,

LENGTH: 7s inches; aug eee

pa, MIELD ie: CHARACTERS + Male:. forehead anda short» supercilium:: crimson,

each feather: tipped. black; crown to lower back edged with light brown’; rump

rosy-red with dusky tips; cheeks, ear-coverts, chin, throat and breast crimson ;

abdomen ‘ashy. brown faintly.'streaked. black; under tail-coverts ‘brown, margined

with. pink... Female: - whole: upper «plumage. dark’ brown, smargined paler ;

rump dull. greenish; lower plumage fulvous with narrow black streaks.

DisTRIBUTION: From Kashmir to Sikkirh into Tibet and China at high ele-

vations from g,ooo ft. in. winter to 17,000 ft. in ,summer..

GENERAL Hapits: Frequents the most desolate mountainous country ‘where

it feeds on the precipitous: hillsides.. Except»for a fine male which Dr. van “der

Sleen. obtained above Chini, and which he kindly presented to me, I know of

no other record for. these parts... The food:consists mainly of! seéds and: other

vegetation. Where found, the birds are not shy.

NipiFicaTION: July is the only month recorded when a female collected. by

Whistler in Lahoul was gathering goat’s hair for its nest. Many yeats ago

Stoliczka found the nest in Spiti and Ladakh; it was made of coarse :grass and

placed in a furze bush. ‘The eggs were dirty white or greenish with some dark

brown spots’... . * reid ve io olpitt : fon

(172, Carpodacuis thura biythi (Biddulph). The ayes Senet Rees

LENGTH : 62 ‘inched.

Fretp. CuaracTers: Male: lores and front of. the face crimson; forehead,

. supercilium, cheeks, ear-coverts, chin’ and throat pale shining (silky) ‘pink, with

white © shaft-streaks ; the end of the: supercilium white; crown, mape and back

brown, broadly streaked with black ; rump rosy pink ; wings and_ tail dark brown,

all the feathers margined with dull pink; lower plumage from throat uniform

rosy pink. Female’: “upper” ‘plumage dark brown, streaked’ with black ; rump

and upper tail-coverts edgéd with golden yellow; forehead’ and‘ a ‘broad super-

cilium buff; chin, throat, breast and sides of ‘body pale rufous, streaked with black:

DisTRIBUTION: A bird of high elevations occasionally coming in ‘to Simla

during the cold weather. It is found from ile to Sikkim. CEB ion 7 ie ft.

to 12;000 ftv... %. - MEHEREAYTS CuSO’ é

GENERAL Hasirs : Gregarious in winter, though Beer oneliy, ainminne are

encountered, found both -in forest and on the more open hillsides. .,The flocks I

have personally encountered . in these parts were composed of adult and immature,

males only. They, feed on grass seeds and _fly into a neP TOY, tree when disturbed,

though, they are ‘by no. means shy.

“NIDIFICATION : Mandelli are: it breeding in Neral jin iueose The nest

was found in a thorny bush ; it was composed. of fine grass and.moss and..lined

with: white” fur. | The ees. number. 3 and are alt , Shen blue with: blotehes, ef

brownish-grey.

123. Carpodacas pulcherrimus pulcherrimus Hodgsoii The Beautiful Rosefinch.

“LEnetit : eb inches. Le

“FYE | CHARACTERS : “Male: upper plumage. ashy | brown strealeed! erithh datle

brown ; rump rasy red; quills and tail black margined with ruddy brown;

424 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SQCIETY, Vol, 47

a very broad supercilium, cheeks, ear-coverts, chin, throat and forehead pale rosy

breast and abdomen rosy-red with black streaks; sides of body brown streaked

darker, Female: upper plumage fulvous; brown, streaked black; wings and

tail dark brown edged with fulvous; ap indistinct supercilium fulvous; lower

plumage pale fulvous profusely streaked. dark. brown.

_ DistrisuTion: From Chini in Bashahr State 9,000 ft. (where Waite found

it not uncommon) it extends to Sikkim and western China.

GENERAL Habits: Gregarious until the approach of the breeding season.

NipiricaTion: A, E. Osmaston found three nests at 13,000 to 13,500 ft.

in Garhwal on the borders of Tibet in August, placed low down in. bushes.

They were composed of strips of bark and grass and lined with fine roots

and sheep’s wool and hair. The eggs numbered three in each nest and were green-

ish-blue sparingly spotted and blotched with black round the large end.

174. Carpodacus rhodochlamys grandis Blyth. The Red-mantled Rosefinch.

LENGTH: 7 inches. J

FIELD CHARACTERS: Male: whole upper plumage, wings and ‘tail rosy-

red; rump pure rosy; the feathers on the head and back with dark brown streaks ;

supercilium ; sides of head, chin and throat pale shining rosy; lower plumage rosy-

red. Female: upper plumage ashy-brown streaked with darker brown; lower

plumage ashy-white, heavily streaked dark brown.

DISTRIBUTION: Comes to the precincts of Simla in October when it is not un-

common in certain years. Waite found it in summer as far as Namgia.at 9,750 ft.

on the Tibet border. In winter it descends to the low hills in the Kala Chitta

Reserve and the Salt Range, elevation 1,500 ft.

GENERAL Hapits: Found, in small scattered parties on the barer bush-clad

hillsides. Has: a low plaintive call-note.

NIpIFICATION: Very little known. Hugh Whistler found it not uncommon

at Jispar, Lahoul, in June and early July where it was frequenting the juniper

forest; he opined that they were on their breeding grounds.

175. Carpodacus rhodochroa (Vigors). The Pink-browed Rosefinch.

LENGTH: 6 inches. : a

Fretp CHARACTERS: Sex for sex this species is a small edition of the Red-

mantled Rosefinch ; the female being a warmer brown and having a. very distinct

supercilium. Bi

DISTRIBUTION: From Dharamsala to Nepal. Comes into Simla from October

to March when it is quite common. Descends to 4,000 ft. in winter and breeds

at elevations above 8,ooo ft.

GenrraL Hapits: Gregarious in winter, small parties of 6 or 8 birds keeping —

company. They feed mostly on the ground under bushes in the better forested

parts and are tame and of a skulking disposition. The usual call-note is a

canary-like sweet. F | .

NIDIFICATION: Whistler records it as breeding fairly commonly in the high

tree zone about 10,000 to 11,000 ft. and quotes Hingston who says down to 7,500 ft.

Neither of these authorities, however, gives any particulars regarding the nest

and eggs.

176. Carpodacus erythrinus roseatus Hodgson. The Common Rosefinch,

LENGTH: 6 inches. | <n

Fietp CuHaracTERS: Male: winter plumage; forehead, crown and nape

dull crimson; back crimson-brown; lower back and rump rosy-red; cheeks,

chin, throat and upper back rose colour; lower breast paler, becoming pure

white on the abdomen. Spring and summer plumage, all the colours become

intensified. Female: whole plumage olive-brown, streaked darker.

DISTRIBUTION: In the Simla District this is a passage migrant passing leisurely

through in April on its upward journey and hurrying through to its winter quarters

in September. Ascends the Himalayas to 10,000 ft. and over. In winter extends

over the whole Indian continent to the south. r

GENERAL Hapits: Apart from the breeding season, found .in small. flocks

which feed on the ground particularly in the fields of Indian corn. On the spring

migration they do a certain amount of damage to the ripening wheat, and at

THE BIRDS OF THE SIMLA AND ADJACENT HILLS | 425)

this season they are very partial to the inflorescence of the White Acacia. Open

country is their usual habitat; occasionally met with in open woodland.

NIDIFICATION: June to August is the breeding season. The ‘nest is made of

grass-bents and is lined with fine roots and a little hair and is placed in a low

bush. The eggs number 3 or 4 and are deep blue, blotched with dark brown or

black. The complete moult is performed after their arrival in the plains in

September and October.

177. Procarduelis nipalensis (Hodgson), The Dark Rosefinch.

LENGTH: 63 inches.

Fretp CHARACTERS: Male: forehead, anterior part of crown, broad super-

cilia, cheeks, chin and throat rosy-red; lores and a broad band through the eye

over the ear-coverts black tinged with red; upper plumage and the upper

breast dusky tinged with vinaceous, each feather margined with sanguineous ;

abdomen rosy-red. Female: whole upper plumage brown, each feather

margined with ochraceous; sides of the head, neck and the whole lower plumage

uniform ochraceous-brown.

DISTRIBUTION: The Himalayas from Kashmir to China at elevations between

4,000 ft. to 12,000 ft. or more. Whistler found it common on the Daula

Dhar range above Dharamsala at 10,000 ft. to 12,000 ft. from June to September

and was confident they were on their breeding ground. In the Simla Hills it is

very rare.

GENERAL Hasits: Gregarious after the breeding season.

NIpIFIcATION: According to Hugh Whistler there can be little doubt that

this species breeds in July and early August, but the nest and eggs have not

been described.

178. Carduelis caniceps caniceps Vigors. The Himalayan Goldfinch.

LENGTH: 53 inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: Sexes practically alike. Forehead, cheeks and _ chin

crimson; upper plumage ashy-brown; rump and upper tail-coverts ashy white ;

wing black, with a considerable portion of it bright yellow ; tail black, the inner

webs of the 2 outer pairs largely white, some of the feathers tipped white;

throat ashy-white; sides of the breast ashy-brown; abdomen white. The juvenile

lacks the crimson on the face, otherwise resembles the adult.

DISTRIBUTION: Resident in the Simla Hills, its numbers are much augmented

in the cold weather. It is found from the Afghan border to Kumaon.:

GENERAL Hapits: The flocks break up towards the end of March and some

of the pairs commence building operations in April. May to July, however, are

the usual breeding season. Its food consists of the seeds of thistle Cyathula

tomentosa. During the breeding season the male has a pretty little song.

NiDIFIcATION : Takes place from the end of April to July. The nest is usually

placed in one of the coniferous trees from 9 ft, to 30 ft. or more and is generally

situated towards the end of a bough. The materials used are mostly white

vegetable down and wool, lined with a few strands of hair. The clutch usually

consists of 4 eggs. These are pale blue with US blotches of dark ee and

rusty-red mostly at the larger end.

179. Callacanthis burtoni Gould. The Red-browed Finch.

LENGTH: 632 inches.

Firtp CHarAcTerRS: Male: forehead, lores and a ring round the eye crim-

son ; crown and nape black; cheeks and ear-coverts black with pale shafts; upper

plumage and scapulars brown, suffused with rose colour; wings black, the lesser

coverts margined with red and the remaining feathers tipped white ;; tail black,

tipped white; lower plumage brown suffused with rosy-red. Female; the crim-

son of the male replaced by buff ; upper plumage ochraceous-brown ‘as in the

lower plumage.

DIsTRIBUTION: From Kashmir to Garhwal. In the Simla Hills it is an ir-

regular visitor in the winter, some years: in considerable numbers, arriving in

November and departing in March.

GENERAL Hasits: Highly gregarious. The flocks feeding for the most part:

on the ground where they eat the seeds of the deodar and other plants; their

beaks get caked with resin. Towards the end of their stay the males may be

2th JOURNAL, BOMBYY ‘NATURAL, HIST. SOQCIELY;: Vok 47

seen indulging in:‘postuting: before thé: females ‘reminding - the: observer: ‘of the:

display. of. ‘the. BGotdnach: aThe birds .are: extremely fearless.

NipIFICATION: © Major. He: 2 P,..E.: Waters: is the ‘only orf thobigise thoi Vias

faben the nest. and: ‘eggs. of this bird... This:was.at- Gulmarg: on July roth, elevation

g,500-ftz. The nest :was:7o ft. from the’ ground in a-deodar.’ It: contained 2 eggs,

clear. greenish blue with. spots and: specks. of. blackish-brown. ~The nest wds a

shallow, massive cup made of wiry lichen strengthened by stout, dry. twigs, the

lining being ore kg of dry perp ae ane rootlets finished off with a thick

ee Metaponia pusilla (Pallas). The Goel 3

- LENGTH : 5. inches. fg :

RIELD | CHARACTERS : -Male : Hotenena and, anterior MGorion) of the ): ‘crown

ariel coloured ; remainder of crown, nape and. sides- of neck -black with broad:

grey fringes; back and rump: black with broad buff edges, as are the wings. and

tail; lower- plumage yellowish: streaked with black. The female closely resembles,

the male.

DIstTRIBuTION: . A’ winter .visitor to: the Simla Hills, arriving in November

and leaving these parts. in March.

GENERAL HasitTs :. A bird-of the. open uucheeled filleides where it moves: eatene

in small flocks, feeding on. ‘thistle and other seeds much after; the- manner of the

Goldfinch.

NipIFICATION: The-Gold-fronted Finch breeds in'the Himalayas from ieee

to. Garhwal up to.12,500 ft. The nest is made of grass fibres and strips of

bark «plastered externally with spiders’ web and thickly lined with wool. The

nests are placed in juniper trees from 1o ft. to 20 ft. from the ground ; occasionally

in a briar bush. The eggs usually number 4 and are pale bluish-green marked

with rusty-red and dark brown. : i:

: apt Hy pacanthis spinoides polnoldcs) (Vigors), die. STENTS Greentinc,

. LENGTH : 5 inches.

_.. FIELD CHARACTERS:: Male: -a broad: ‘supercilium, some markings on the tile

of, the face, an indistinct. collar, the rump and the whole lower plumage bright

yellow ; remainder. of upper. plumage -greenish-black, darkest on. the Cap ;, wings

and tail variegated. with yellow: Female: .a- duller~ edition. of the male. In

the -first. plumage the young. one is heavily streaked with black or dark brown on

the underside.

‘DISTRIBUTION : Commer ecent species wandering down. to the foothills and

some.distance out into the plains during the cold-.weather. Occurs from the

Afghan border to Manipur up to 10,000 ft. or more.

GENERAL Hapits: During the cold weather gathers into large, flocks eign

wander about,the country in search of food, which consists of all kinds of seeds,

and enters’ the gardens freely to feed on. sunflower and Coreopsis seeds. The

annual .moult takes .place in. April and May. Song and breeding; gisP ais are

very ‘similar. to.,those of ' the European Greenfinch. ,

NIDIFICATION : : The. birds arrive at. their breeding Bations in June and start

pealing operations in July which, to the end. of September, constitutes . the

breeding season. Their favourite haunts are coniferous forests and groves. The

nests are mostly built in deodar trees from io ft. to 50 ft, from the ground

of small twigs and rootlets and lined with hair and wool. The» egps number

from 3 to 5 and are aed DS, sparsely. marked with blackish- beown spots: and

blotches.; elt Bison “ey wos . ve ;

182... “Fringilla ‘monfitringilla Linnaeus. | The Beambling

Lenetu : : 63 inches! aM Ww preset

RIELD CHARACTE Rs)? Male: winter erat forehead; ‘crown “tidpe, + fain

neck ‘and backoare black with’ broad rufous margins ; rump and upper tail-coverts

white; tail black, the feathers narrowly margined with white; wing’ black ‘with

two wing-bars} | ‘ithe wpper one” orange-rufous, ‘the lower one mostly white 5: isides

of. head ‘black “mottled “with “rufous ;° chin, “throat ‘and breast orange- -rifous ;

abdomen white; flanks buff, spotted with blact’ Femialé;' much the ‘same as thé

male differing: only ‘in’ that ¢the black is. replaced ‘by brown, !

DISTRIBUTION; Al rare vagrant to'thesSimia Hills’ I procured ia fama in

my garden)'ont 13-1224: and ‘Hugh’ Whistleritook) several: on! Kufri» Hill 8,800: ft:

THE BIRDS “OF THE SIMLA AND ‘ADJACENT: HILLS. $27.

én 22-2: tZe when ‘he found ‘a flock’ feeding: onthe ground. : -Breéds'‘ in: the ‘northerly

countries of Europe and Asia’ It Has ‘also been found “in Rawalpinui® and ‘Gilgit.

GENERALE: HABiTs'}’ After the breeding ‘season colletts into flocks whi¢h wander

far ‘and’ Wide ‘in ’search’ ‘of Hecate, EROR UES “as ‘food consists of seeds ewhieh: ‘it

finds‘ on the ground. © * “ SPER GALEN ta oo SEL

NiDIFIcCATION : Does not treed in Tindal “in? Sedbdiavia it. Breeds: ‘in May;

June’'and’ July. The nest is’ composed of moss, lichen and grass- -bents, lined! with

feathers The eggs number dni “ MD fe and are pale BS Wide GES: brown

bictches. - vt See

183. haymuorhis eauthocollis ‘Fanthacollize erranic ins The Sallonsineearen

Sparrow.

“LENGTH: 6 inches. a sac ad SWE

FIELD CHARACTERS: Male: upper plumage ashy-brown,;: wings..and. tail

brown ; lesser: wing-coverts chestnut, there!arestwo wing-bars tipped with white or

pale buff; chin dusky-white ; throat yellow ; lower: plumage ashy- awhitte eemale

differs. from the: male in having less yellow.on: the throat. . : YT

_ DistrisuTion: A spring and summer visitor to, the lower hills. up to 5,000: ft.

arriving in flocks which soon pair off and.take up their breeding stations., [Birds

from ‘about’ Ambala are intermediates with: the upale _Sind- -Baluchistan | :, race

transfugaiS.A.] vs iene setehcosicoiew i

GENERAL HapsitTs: nN jamal bird found in. poorest avenues. of trees and the

edges: of forest: “Its call-note is much the:same as. the typical sparrow’s but has

a more> mellow tone.. It feeds mostly on the ground; its diet consists: smainly

of small ‘seeds’ and small insects.

NipiricaTIon : - Takes place from Aacils to July. The nest is placed in:a hole

in a tree or other cavity; I once found a pair in possession. of a inest of the

Rufous-backed Sparrow at Lahore. The materials for the nest are grass, straw

and feathers.:. The clutch consists of 3 or 4 eggs.,.which are whitish, heavily

blotched with ashy-brown which almost obscures the eoounas cofour in some

specimens. BE OMe

184, Passer duinesttcus indicus Janine & Selby: The. Hause ‘Sparrow.

LENGTH: 6 inches. :

‘FIELD: CHARACTERS : Male : crown Behe grey ; a broad band, fans the eye

chest which colour ‘extends to. the rump and is streaked with black; rump

ashy-grey ; tail dark. brown, each feather edged with pale brown; wings chestnut.

at. the shoulder followed by two white wing-bars; chin, throat and upper breast

black forming a. bib; cheeks and lower plumage albescent. Female: Supercilium

pale buff; upper plumage pales earthy-brown streaked with black ; whole lower

plumage. ashy-white. —

DisTRIBUTION:. The whole of India up to: 7,000 ft. or more. olin Se: every

bazaar has its colony. SN Bae) Veet ©

/GENERAL Hasits: Too well- aoa to need any description. Their. food con-

sists of the various grains which they pilfer from dealers’ shops, but in the

br eeding season they make some amends by feeding their young ones on, insects

of. various. kinds. Resident: in+ Simla. |

~NIpiricaTIonN :) The. breeding. season. is, from Meh to. June. The nest. is

placed in any convenient hole in a building safely. out of sight of prying eyes;

the holes are: lined with dry. ‘grass and straw and finished off, with a warm lining

of feathers. The usual clutch is four, but I have known 3 and 5 incubated eggs

The ground colour is very Pale greenish-white, prokane, and Ean vr brown

and ashy-grey. DEVIN 83 is: ;

“185. Basse ratilans debilis .Hartert. The Kashmir Cinnamon Sparrow.

~ Lenetir: | 5 inchés: ye-od) Divot al ; otitiw ersritest od) to send off

FIELD, ‘CHARACTERS : Male: ‘upper. plumage: cinnamon,’ streaked ‘with black

on’ the, ‘pack’; wings and tail black edged with! rufous; two wing-bars white:

chin, ‘throat “And: upper breast black’; rémainder of lower plumage greyish- -yellow. |

Female : upper, plumage” tuddy-browh,. ‘Stréakedon the back: with -blacki; rump:

tinged | rufous ¥ a broad ‘buff supercilium ; lower’ plumage ashy-buff, tinged: yellow:

Distrtpurion ¢ ~The’ ‘whole’ Himalayas from Chitral to China. ‘In the sum-

merit ascends to 8,000' lft, “or more ; in winter it descends to. the foothills: and: at:

times out into the plains (Chandigarh), | oar pep ty!

428 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47

' GENERAL Hapits: After the breeding season it collects into flocks which,

frequent the now bare, cultivated tracts where they feed on the ground pickin

up the fallen grain and the seeds of wild plants. Their call-note is a ee

edition of that of the House-Sparrow. In Simla it is found for the most part

on the outskirts of the town. Its movements and general demeanour are more

refined than those of the House-Sparrow.

NipiFicaTION: More of a forest bird than P, domesticus and, in consequence,

its nest is frequently placed. in a Woodpecker’s or Barbet’s hole. The materials

are the same as those of the House-Sparrow. The eggs are usually 4 in number

and resemble closely those of that species, but are smaller and generally more

heavily marked.

186. Fringiflauda nemoriccla altaca (Eversmann). Stoliczka’s Mountain Finch.

LENGTH: 63 inches. |

FIELD CHARACTERS: Sexes alike. Resembles in general appearance a dark

slim female House-Sparrow, with a finer bill.

DISTRIBUTION : Winter visitor to Simla where it first appears at the end of

October to March, when it leaves for higher elevations.

GENERAL Hasits : Highly gregarious and restless frequenting the more open

hillsides. Shuns the more sunny sides of the hills and when disturbed flies right

away or up into nearby trees. The note is a cheery twitter. Its breeding grounds

are among the most desolate wastes, rock scree and desert.

NIDIFICATION: The nesting economy of this bird is very abnormal in that

the nest is placed inside a marmot’s burrow where bird and mammal live peace-

fully together. The nest is made of dry grasses and lined with wool and hair.

The eggs are pure white and. number 3 or 4 in a full clutch. The breeding

season is July-August.

187. Emberiza fucata arcuata Sharpe. The Grey-headed Bunting.

LENGTH: 6 inches. |

FIELD CHARACTERS: Forehead, crown, nape and sides of the neck ashy,

streaked with black; back reddish brown with broad black streaks; rump red-

dish brown, faintly streaked brown; shoulder chestnut with black bases, the

larger wing feathers brown, edged with rufous; ear-coverts chestnut; a mous-

tachial streak black, which gradually widens to the lower throat where it joins

the other streak forming a gorget on the lower throat; chin and throat fulvous:

a band of chestnut across the upper breast; lower plumage fulvous streaked.

with dark brown; tail dark brown edged with rufous, the bases of the feathers

show a considerable amount of white when the bird is in flight. The female’s

plumage is somewhat paler than that of the male:

DISTRIBUTION: Waite observed a few between

(9,000 ft. to 7,500 ft.) in June. I obtained one at Fagu.

Simla Hills. It occurs from Kashmir to Assam,

GENERAL Hapits: Frequents open bush-clad hillsides. Its food consists of

grass-seeds and small insects. Apart from the breeding season it appears to be

a sociable bird.

NIDIFICATION: The breeding season is from May to July. The nest is placed

on the ground sheltered under a bush or tuft of grass; it is the usual cup-shaped

structure composed of dry grass and is lined with hair. The eggs, usually 4 in

number, are pale greenish-grey speckled with dull reddish- and purplish-brown.

Narkanda and Matiana

It is uncommon in the

188. Emberiza leucocephala Gmelin. The Pine-Bunting.

LENGTH: 7 inches. ;

FiELD CuaracTErs: Male: forehead and crown ashy, streaked with brown,

the base of the feathers white; lores, round the eye and a short but broad super-

cilium, cheeks, chin, throat and sides of the neck chestnut; ear-coverts brown,

divided down the middle. by a band which extends under the eye to the gape;

back rufous streaked with black; rump and upper tail-coverts rufous; tail dark

brown, narrowly margined pale rufous, with a considerable amount of white at

the bases of the feathers; wings dark brown, the feathers margined with pale

rufous; a large patch of white on the lower throat; breast chestnut; abdomen

white; flanks white, streaked with chestnut. Female: Lacks the white bases

to the white on the head which is ashy, streaked with brown; remaining upper

- THE BIRDS OF THE SIMLA‘AND ADJACENT. HILLS 429

plumage, wings and tail as in the male; it also lacks the chestnut on the face, chin

and -throat ; otherwise the undersides as in the male.

~DIsTRIBUTION : Winter visitor to India. In the Simla area it arrives in Novem-

ber and passes on down. to the foothills and plains. Not observed on the spring

migration. In summer it migrates to Northern Asia. wld

GENERAL Hasits: Gregarious during the winter months. Its food consists. of

grass seed and any grain, mostly rice, which has fallen on the ground at harvest

time and the birds become very fat on this diet: The usual call-note is. itt.

NipiricaTion:; I can find no record of. this. —

189. Emberiza stewarti. Blyth. The White-capped Bunting.

LENGTH: 63 inches. é

FIELD CHARACTERS: Forehead, crown, nape and ear-coverts grey; a broad blacix

supercilium ; the whole upper plumage chestnut ; tail brown, margined with rufous,

the two outer pairs almost entirely white ; chin and throat black ; lower throat and

fore-neck white ; remaining lower plumage pale fulvous. Female: forehead, crown,

nape, hind neck: back and scapulars ashy-brown, streaked with blackish ; rump and

upper tail-coverts chestnut ; tail as in the male; wings brown, each feather margined

with rufous ; lores and round the eye fulvous ; ear-coverts and sides of neck brown ;

lower plumage - pale fulvous streaked with ‘brown.

DISTRIBUTION: This is a spring and autumn passage migrant in the Simla

area on its way from and to its breeding grounds which lie further in the interior

as Waite saw it frequently from Nachar to Poo and again between Sarahan and

Baghi. Stoliczka found young about the middle of June. :

GENERAL Hapits: Gregarious in the cold season, the flocks frequenting the

open bush-clad slopes where they feed on the ground. The flight is undulating

and graceful like all the Buntings.

NIDIFICATION: Breeds in June and July, making a cup-shaped nest of grass-

bents and fibres lined with hair and wool. It is placed on the ground under the

shelter of a bush or a clump of. overhanging grass. Eggs number from 3 to 5.

They are white mottled and blotched with dark brown and ee purplish- -grey.

90: “Eniberiza lic ‘stracheyi Moore. The Eastern Meadow-Bunting.

LENGTH: 63 inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: Sexes alike. Head, throat and uppér breast bluish-

grey marked with two broad black coronal stripes; a black line through the eye

and encircling the ear-coverts; remainder of the body plumage chestnut brown,

which on the back is streaked with black; wings dark brown, the feathers edged

with rufous and chestnut; tail dark brown edged with “chestnut, the outermost

feathers with conspicuous white tips.

DISTRIBUTION: Resident, with some downward PaOverientel in the cold weather.

Found from the foothills in winter to 10,000 ft. in the breeding season, from

Gilgit to Kumaon.

GENERAL HaBits: The Meadow-Bunting is a bird of the open grassy, bush-clad

hillsides, rarely entering forested country. In the cold season it collects into

flocks which feed on the ground in their search for seeds, grain and small insects.

NipiricaTIoN: ‘The breeding season is from April to September. The nest

is placed on the ground or, exceptionally, in a thick bush. One in my garden

was in a honeysuckle bush 3 ft. from the ground and contained 4 eggs—the

only time I have known this number—the usual clutch being 3, sometimes only

2. The nest is made of grass-bents and roots and lined with hair. The eggs

are stone-colour marked with lines and scrawls of blackish-brown.

191, Melophus lathami subcristata (Sykes). “The Crested Fusing

_ LENGTH: 6 inches.

Fietp CuHaAracTERS: Male: entire plumage, tachidids the crest, black except

the wing, tail and thighs which are chestnut. Female: Crest and upper plumage

dark brown}; lower’ plumage dull buff, streaked and mottled on the throat with

dark brown, getting.more rufous under. the tail.

DistriBuTION: A summer visitor to the lower hills from 2,500 ft. to 5,000 ‘ft.

Common at the lower SATE: It.extends from the Hazara country to Assam

and China. i ay ibai fo ante i

437 JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL: HIST. SOCIETY, V0l,:47

GENERAL. Hapits:: Much the same asthe other. buntings except that it seldom

perches on a bush, preferring a rock :for its look-out. and song perch. After the

breeding season the ‘birds band - together, ‘sometimes. forming: .considerable flocks.

.NipiFicaTIon::’. The breeding: season is from June: to: August,:most nests being

found in July. The materials. employed. are grass-bents and: fine rootlets, and

for the lining. fibres and hair. The nest.is placed on the ground under a rock

or ina hollow of some: ‘accommodating dimensions where itis well screened from

view.°. The clutch consists. of..3 or 4 eggs’ which are white or stone-coloured,

blotched with red, brown and purple. ROnt Sf 2

192. Delichon urbica ‘urbica (Linnh.). -The House-Martin.

LENGTH: 6 inches. ag Tape

FIELD CHARACTERS: Sexes alike. A black and white Swallow-like ‘bird

Upper: parts from forehead. to rump black, glossed with metallic blue; rump

pure white; upper tail-coverts, tail and wings black, glossed with blue; cheeks,

ear-coverts and lower plumage white. Legs:and feet feathered) white to the toes.

DISTRIBUTION : Passes through the Simla area in May in large. flocks, «return-

ing in smaller numbers in September. and October on: the downward migration.

In ;winter it is found as: far couth as the eee eae! in. summer ave to 12,500 ft.

in the Himalayas.

GENERAL. Hasits:.. Highly Prcuatious even in the breeding season the nests

are. clustered closely together under over-hanging ledges of cliffs: Its food is

flying insects which iare taken :on the: wing.

NiIpIFICATION: The nest is constructed of: mud pellets and is lined with feathers

and a little grass. The eggs number from 3 to 5 and are mybite very barely marked

with pale red spots at the large end.

[Mr. Jones’s collection has 2 skins also of - isd esor? s House- Martin’ (Delichon

BR EESS Ses) collected at Ranibagh, Kumaon, on 13! and 28 Jan. “1942. |

93. Riparia paludicola brevicaudata (Horsf.). The Indian Sand-Martin.

LENGTH: 44 inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: Sexes alike. Upper plumage greyish-brown; wings and

tail darker brown; chin, throat, breast, sides of head and’neck pale greys abdomen,

vent and under tail- coverts white.

DISTRIBUTION:: In our area only found in 1 or 2 ieealitice down on the

Sutlej River, near Suni.’ Widely spread. over the whole of Northern India.

GENERAL Hasits: This is ‘a bird mostly found near water at, low elevations.

It flies tirelessly over the water where -it catches its food which consists of. flies,

mosquitoes and other winged insects.

NIDIFICATION: Breeds in colonies in the, sandy banks of. rivers, For the nest

they first tunnel into the earth for 2 or 3 ft. at the end of which the -nest-chamber

is made and here the nest is made of .a few whisps of dry grass with usually 2 or

3 white feathers. The eggs number from 3 to 4 and are white, without markings.

194. Riparia ‘riparia diluta (Sharpe & Wyatt). The ‘Sand-Martin.

LENGTH :. .5 inches. |

FIELD CHARACTERS : Distinguished from the Indian Sand-Martin. in having

a well defined band across the upper breast and a tuft) of sae plumes at the

back of the tarsus..—

DISTRIBUTION: A passage migrant passing over these Hills in ‘May and return-

ing in September on its way to the plains.

GENERAL Hapits: Same as the foregoing species.

NipiFIcATION: Differs in no way from the Indian Sand-Martin., It does,seem

worth mentioning here that I have found this sub-species breeding at Attock

and Sukkur on the Indus and as far east as Madhopur on the Ravi in, February

and.-have, collected both birds and eggs at each of these localities. These have

been..examined by, Whistler, Ticehurst and, Meinertzhagen. The problem. now is

what becomes of the birds of these colonies after they have finished breeding?

Are these the birds seen by Salim Ali'in) Tibet at 15,000 ft. and by myself here

in Simla..on passage in. May, and»;September? Salim) Ali (J.B.N.HiS. pt.

Vol... 46, page 301) ‘presumed, breeding}. | Could it) be that this bird breeds

both in the plains of India and up in Tibet at 15,000 ft. ? seal :

- THE BIRDS)OF THE SIMLA AND ADJACENT) HILLS, 431

195...Riparia .rupestris. (Scopoli). .The.Crag-Martin. b uboupili., eer

LENGTH: 6 inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS; Sexes alike. Upper plumage, sides of meets rice vand

tail ashy-brown ; a large white spot on the inner web, of all tail feathers, except

the middle and outermost pairs; chin, throat and breast white, tinged with pale

rufous, the chin and upper throat spotted with -brown; abdomen and... flanks

rufous-ashy ; under tail-coverts dark ashy-brown,

DisTRIBUTION: A winter visitor to Simla from the middle. of. Sentence to

March from 8,000 ft. down. to the. foothills. The whole Himalayas down to

Tenasserim (? winter). Waite observed it in, the Sutlej Valley from Wangtu. to

Namgia in May and Salim. Ali found it: breeding in Tibet in June.

GENERAL Hapits: This Martin is usually seen beating backwards and forwards

across the face of a cliff, feeding on such winged insects as it can catch. It roosts,

on the ledges of cliffs.

NIDIFICATION: Breeds from Aga to June or tee making a nest of mud pellets

lined with dry grass and a few feathers.’ The nest is placed under a ledge of a

cliff. The eggs usually number 4 and are white spotted with red and purple.

196. Hirundo rustica rustica (Linnaeus). The Swallow.

LENGTH: 8 inches.

FIELQ CHARACTERS : +; Forehead, chin and’ throat chestnut ; upper plumage, and

wings black glossed sth metallic blue ; tail black suffused with glossy green,

all the feathers, except-the middle pair, with a white patch on the inner web;

sides of head, neck and a broad, pectoral band glossy black; lower plumage pale

rufous. Sexes alike.

DIstTRIBUTION: In Simla excessively rare. I found it breeding commonly in

Suket State across the Sutlej River. In winter the whole of India.

GENERAL Hapits: Highly migratory. Feeds mostly on winged insects which

it takes on the wing but on the outskirts of Peshawar I once found a number

feeding on black ants which they were taking on the ground. The flight is much

swifter than that of the Red-rumped Swallow.

NIDIFICATION: The breeding season is .from April to August.. The nest is

made of mud pellets lined with dry grass and ‘a féw feathers. The clutch numbers

from 3 to 5; in colour the EES: are white marked with dark red and purple

blotches. and spots. pus

197. Hirundo smithii ‘filifera Steph. . The Wire- tailed Swallow.

LENGTH : To tip of ordinary tail-feathers 5 ‘inches ; the wire- -like outer tail-

feathers © Sy inches extra; rather’ shorter in’ the female.

FIELD CHARACTERS: Top of the head bright chestnut ; sides of the heady neck

and the.-whole upper plumage glossy steel-blue ; ‘all the tail-feathers except. the

two central pairs with a white spot.on the inner web; lower plumage ,white.

DISTRIBUTION : A summer visitor to the Simla Hills ‘breeding from the foot-

ula up to: about 7,000 ft. (Tara Devi). ‘Resident and widely spread in the Plains.

GENERAL Hapits: Do not’ differ from‘ those’ of the other swallows? 908°:

_NiprricaTion:: The nest is a smaller edition of H. rustica and is Strallawers:

The eggs also resemble those of. that species.. : felt. os

198. Hirundo daurica erythr opygia Linnaeus. ~The Red- rumped ‘Swallow.

| LenétH+ 6 inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS :’''Sexes alike. iUpser. phates glossy ‘steel-blue, except

the rump which is aerate an indistinct white patch on the inner web ofthe

outermost .tail-feathers;. ear-coyerts anda more or less distinct,.collar' round the

neck chestnut ; the whole lower plumage pale rufous, finely- streaked with brown.

DISTRIBUTION : ‘A° summer visitor, arriving in March ‘and leaving the Hills in

September. Also breéds commonly on the plains.

‘GENERAL Hasits:: ‘Takes practically all its food, which consists of cig eeh

insects,. on the wing. The flight is graceful-but,not fast. After the breeding:

season it collects into large flocks, often seen on telegraph wires. ,

- Nipirication : The breeding season is from April to August. The nest is

built of.mud pellets” brought, one by one; by the birds. After a certain portion

has ;been put in place this is ‘allowed (toi.dry before» work is continued; the

entrance. to the; nest,.is through: @ bottleneck ‘prolongation ofthe, mud’ work, uspally:

_5 or 6 inches long.- The nest chamber. is lined_.with «dry. grass; and feathers. The:

eggs number 3 or 4 and are unmarked white.

432 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

199. Hirundo daurica nipalensis Hodgs. Hodgson’s.Red-rumped . Swallow.

LENGTH: 63 inches.

FIELD CHARACTERS: Sexes alike. Differs from the last-mentioned bird in

having the rump a pale rufous and the striations on the lower plumage much

coarser.

DISTRIBUTION: In summer found from 6,000 ft. to 9,000 ft. Distributed all

along the Himalayas.

GENERAL Hapits: The Jangiatd of this swallow often arrives at their breeding

Stations at the end of January if the weather is fine; if the weather changes these

birds return to lower altitudes. They leave the Hills in September.

NIDIFICATION: Same as for H. daurica erythropygia.

[There is obviously some confusion in the breeding records. Surely it cannot

be that both the races erythropygia and nipalensis breed in the same area !—Eps. }

(To be continued)

SOME BIRDS OF THE GANDAK-KOSI WATERSHED,

INCLUDING THE PILGRIM TRAIL TO THE

SACRED LAKE OF GOSAINKUND

ZBYy

B. E. SMYTHIES,

Burma Forest Service fi

Two mountain passes guard the road to Katmandu. The visitor

who is fortunate enough to cross the second of these, known as the

Chandragiri pass, on a clear day will see one of the finest mountain

views in the world, one that will live long in his memory. Spread

out at his feet, 2,500 feet below, is the fair vale of Katmandu, a

green expanse of rice and other crops with the towers and gorgeous

palaces of the town. in the middle distance; on the north this fertile

basin is bounded: by the forest-clad ridge of Sheopuri, whence the

watershed of the Gandak and the Kosi—those two great tributaries

of the Ganges that rise in Tibet and drainlarge areas of Nepal—

leads the eye up to a dark and jagged. curtain of naked rock that

runs up to the snow peaks of the Nepal-Tibet boundary, the main

crystalline axis of the Himalayas. From the highest point of the

Chandragiri ridge, some four miles east of the pass, can be seen no

less than six peaks of over 26,000 feet :—Daulagiri (partly concealed),

Ananpurna Himal, Himalchuli, and Manaslu i in the west § Gosainthan

due north; Everest in the east.

A collection of mountain tarns known as Gosainkund, sacred to

the worshippers of Vishnu, lies high up (at about 14 ,000 ft.) on the

western side of the Gandak-Kosi watershed; and every year in

August, when the monsoon is in full force, large numbers of pilgrims

undertake the arduous journey to these lonely lakes. From Katmandu

the first 9 miles is by motor road to Sundari-jal (= Laughing-water,

aname no doubt suggested by the stream that comes cascading

down: to. the valley at this point), whence a rough track climbs

steeply to. the Sheopuri ridge;* from here the trail follows the

Gandak-Kosi watershed to a point marked Thare Pati‘on the map at

SOME BIRDS OF THE GANDAK-KOSI WATERSHED: 433

an elevation of about 12,000 ft., and then turns off left to traverse the

tremendous cirque of precipices at the head of the Tadi Kola, even-

tually climbing to a 15,000 ft. pass some 5 or 6 miles short of the

lakes.

What ornithologist, sweltering perhaps in the dusty plains of

India or the steamy teak forests of Burma, has not pored over the

descriptions of birds found only at high elevations in the Himalayas:

such intriguing birds as the Great Parrotbill, the beautiful Blue

Grandala, the Golden Bush Robin, the gorgeous Rosefinches, (and

if he be shikari too) the Monal Pheasant, the Tragopan, the Snow

Partridge, and the Snow Pigeon: and wondered whether he would

ever be privileged to see them intheir mountain homes? He could

scarcely have hoped to see them in this part of the world, for the

Nepal Government very rarely allows outsiders to travel in the

Nepal Himalaya and the visitor to Katmandu is not allowed outside

the valley; there isa photograph of Gosainkund lake in Landon’s

book on Nepal, taken by Oldfield many years ago, but I do not know

of any other outsider who has ever followed the pilgrim trail. The

writer was therefore very fortunate in obtaining sanction to accom-

pany Lt. Tej Jung Thapa,an officer of the Nepal Forest Depart-

ment, on a fortnight’s tour in this area; the stipulation was made

that I should not go within 5 or 6 miles of the sacred lake.

The tour started on the Ist September, and the area is covered

by Survey of India 1”’ sheets 71. H and 72. E. The first three days

took us from Sundari-jalto Thare Pati, a distance of about 22 miles.

For the first two days the path keeps to the crest of the Gandak-Kosi

watershed, rising and falling between 5,500 ft. and 8,300 ft., and

tuns mostly through scrub or past terraced fieids of Indian corn ;

high forest is seen only on the summits of the peaks traversed, and

consists mainly of Quercus semecarpttolia, with some Q. lanuginosa,

mutilated by lopping for buffalo fodder and therefore ugly to look

upon, and harbouring few birds. The Himalayan Greenfinch is

commonly seen all along this section.

On the second evening we camped at a place known locally as

Tarkol, but not named on the map. The camp site has, no doubt, a

fine view, but the mists never revealed it to us; it swarms with

leeches, and a mosquito net had to be put up to keep them off at

night. From here the trail, still keeping to the watershed, rises

steeply for 3,000 ft., first through oak forest, then through a dense

closed canopy of Rhododendron arboreum, finally emerging near the

top into a different world.

: Nature’s garden: a world of Silver Fir, of high-level Rhodo-

dendrons, of Juniper, of Berberis, and above all of flowers;:a world

-of colour in great variety. ‘There were the young Silver Fir cones,

a dark purple-blue; a Polygonum (? sphaerostachyum) with neat

cylindrical heads of numerous small flowers in a compact cluster, of

a beautiful carmine-pink set off by the black anthers of the stamens;

a delicate mauve Pedicularis growing in groups with a corolla that

turns over to form an umbrella in wet weather thus protecting the

long curved style and stigma; a primrose-yellow Balsam;a large

pale blue Aster (thompsoni?); a beautiful Corydalis (crithmifolia?)

yellow with purple tips; Przmula denticulata, one of the loveliest

flowers I have seen, rising on a 10” stalk from a rosette of leaves,

434 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47

the head a cluster of blue-mauve flowers with a yellow ring at the

base of the corolla and above that a purple ring, exhaling a delicate

perfume; and many other flowers.

Then there were the shrubs; Berberis vulgaris with its coloured.

leaves, pink fruits, and three-pronged spines; a Vaccinium with light

blue berries, perhaps those referred to by Shipton (‘ Nanda Devi’,

p. 220) as being considered a delicacy in Sola Kombu, though no-

one seems to eat them in these parts; and finally the Rhododendrons

covering the hill-sides (what a wonderful sight they must be when in

flower); A. falconert with its thick leaves gone rusty beneath;

R. barbatum with its green leaves and pink bark; R. campanulatum

with thin papery bark and leaves a delicate cinnamon colour below.

And so we came to Thare Pati, a collection of huts with stone

walls and roofs of rough-hewn fir planks laid loosely on top of each

other, maintained by the Government to shelter pilgrims. A more

magnificent site it would be hard to conceive. Most of the huts are

built on a grassy alp, sprinkled with the pink Polygonum, just below

the crest of the ridge, at an altitude of about 12,000 ft. Facing the

camp is the cirque of precipices round the headwaters of the Tadi

Khola, already mentioned, terrific slopes of grass and threatening

rock and foaming torrents dropping 8,000 ft. from the snow-capped

heights above to .the slit-like valley floor far beneath; across these

precipices runs the slender thread of the pilgrim trail. From the

crest of the ridge behind the camp one sees, across the valley of the

Malemchi Khola running 7,000 ft. below, the ridge called Dhukpu on

the inap along which runs a path to the Ganja La, an 18,450 ft. pass

across the Gandak-Kosi watershed ; to reach this pass was our ob-

jective. Over the Dhukpu ridge appear the fine snow peaks of Jugal

Himal, Gaurisanker, and others in the direction of Everest. Look-

ing south the eye follows down the ridge by which we have come to

familiar landmarks of Katmandu: Sheopuri, Nagarjun, Kakani

bungalow, and the Chandragiri pass, and sweeping on over blue

foothills sees the cloudless glare that marks the sweltering plains.

It was on my return that I halted here a day (13th September) to

explore the last section of the pilgrim trail; I planned to reach the

15,000 ft. pass 5 or 6 miles short of the lake (beyond which point I

was not allowedto explore) at 8:00 a.m., at which hour if the day were

fine the view would still be unobscured by clouds. Although the

route was there in front of me, I under-estimated by 24 hours the

time it would take to reach the pass, so deceptive is the scale of

these mountains.

After an early breakfast I set out at 2-30 a.m. with my Gurkha.

orderly ; the stars were shining, giving false promise of fair weather,

and in the absence of a moon we could proceed but slowly over the

rough track by feeble lantern light; we crossed ‘a spur at 5:00 a. m:

and rested for 10 minutes, after which the track being visible by the

light of dawn we. hid the lantern under a convenient boulder. Dawn

broke grey and cheerless with the pass and the higher peaks. before

us swathed in mist, and a cold drizzle started soon after 6:00 a.m. to

continue without respite through the day.

.. By 7:00 a.m. we had reached the small bridge (three fir poles

lashed side by side) crossing a side torrent that marks the end of the

traverse and the start of the climb to the pass; for all the terrifying

—s.

SOME BIRDS OF. THE GANDAR-ROSI WATERSHED © 433.

aspect of the traverse as seen from a distance, the path has been so

aligned that nowhere does one have to look down dizzy heights,

though the towering cliffs above are often. an imposing sight.

Primula denticulata grows abundantly beside the path, being a lover

of moist localities; above the bridge a Brown Dipper and a Little

Forktail were working their way upstream, while a pair of White-

capped Redstarts bobbed and fussed about the nearby rocks. ‘The

bridge itself is lower than Thare Pati, and the pass would appear from

the contours on the map to lie at 15,000 ft. so the final climb must be

more than 3,000 ft. The pathleads up through a rocky terrain in its

lower levels completely carpeted witha yellow Pofentilla, now mostly

bearing fruit like small black berries but assuredly a fine sight in full

bloom; here and there a short-stalked pale blue Gentian grew; and

at one place from the rocks above came the shrill whistles ofa covey

of Snow Partridges.

At 9:00 a.m. we reached the top, unexpectedly ornamented with a

vast pile of walking sticks heaped up here by the pilgrims a month

ago; one can picture the relief and joy with which they attain this

point, with nothing but a gentle descent of 5 or 6 miles between

them and their goal, after the considerable hardships they must

endure, ill-clad and ill-provided for mountain travel as they are, from

the persistent driving rain and the cold and rarefied air of this

elevation.

Crouching in the lee of a large boulder we ate and rested ‘toe Half.

an hour, looking down on the littlelonely mountain tarn of Surja Kund,

or as much of it as we could see in the driving mist. As visibility

never increased beyond 200 yards and there was no hope of the

weather improving we reluctantly began the descent at 9°45. I was

wearing locally-made rope-soled shoes. which proved about as tough

as wet blotting paper on that path of granite chips and boulders, so

that the return walk of 6 hours back to camp was done mainly on the

bare soles of my feet. I spent some minutes. observing a marmot at

the mouth of its burrow; it appeared to lack a tail, but otherwise in

size and appearance was something between a large rat and a small

rabbit; the front part was reddish, and the back and rump blackish-

brown. These animals are common at this level, and we often saw

them vanishing into holes in the ground.

_ We had intended to halt a day on the 4th to do the above trip, but

the weather being unfavourable we decided to postpone the attempt

until our return, arguing that the iweather could not be worse (it

was), and accordingly moved camp to Malemchigaon, a Sherpa

village perched ona shelf of the hillside 4,000 ft. below. It had

rained hard early in the night, and dawn disclosed heavy rain clouds

blowing up from the south. We left at 7°15 and dropped steeply

down, first through Juniper, Silver Fir and Rhododendron scrub, and

then lower down through Silver Fir high forest with Rhododendron

undergrowth. Brandis (‘Indian Trees’ p. 692) states that he has

never seen Adzes pindrow and Abies webbiana growing together, soit

was of interest to see them growing here side by side; some of the

trees were fine specimens and had attained 18 ft. in girth.

The Chini Lama of Boddnath (a famous Buddhist shrine near

Katmandu) spends the summer in Malemchigaon, where he maintains

a°monastery.. He is an interesting character and speaks many

436 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, ¢y

languages, including English, Nepali, Sherpa, Hindustani, and

several Tibetan and Chinese dialects; he belongs tothe red-hat sect

of Tibetan lamas, which permits marriage, and once went on pilgri-

mage to Shigatse but was prevented by illness from going on to Lhasa

as he had hoped to do. He invited us into his house, and we

mounted to an upstairs room floored and roofed with short wide

rough-hewn planks of Silver Fir, and ornamented chiefly with brass

and iron cooking pots of various dimensions. A fire was burning in

the back centre of the room, and over the hearth was suspended a

platform on which numerous large packets of goats’ meat, neatly done

tp, were being smoked. His kindly wife brewed us some Tibetan

tea, complete with tsampa, which we found a pleasant warming drink;

we drank countless cups while talking to the lama, who drank his

tea from a beautiful jade cup in a silver and gold mounting.

In the evening he arranged a village dance, in which half a dozen

men and as many women performed; the dance consisted in tapping

or stamping the feet while singing (1 found it an excellent method of

warming the feet, which was perhaps how it originated!).. At first

the performers were shy, but warmed up after several rounds of rice

spirit had been served in bright brass bowls, and thesinging was

robust and melodious, with an attractive rhythm. At intervalsa

villager would come before the lama and receive a benedictory pat

on his bared head.

The Sherpas of these parts are of Tibetan appearance, and some

of the women have fair complexions with pink cheeks. They keep

buffaloes, chumries (a cross between a cow and a yak), sheep and

goats, and for their staple food grow potatoes and Indian corn in

terraced fields. ‘The herdsmen live a semi-nomadic life, construct-

ing temporary huts with stone walls roofed over with long rolls of

bamboo matting, and moving their animals from time to time

according to the dictates of the grazing or the season. The men are

powerfully built and wear long tight trousers like the Nepalese,

and rough weather-proof homespun woollen jackets with or without

short sleeves. ‘The women dress much like the Nepalese and wear

ornaments of coral, turquoise, gold, silver, and onyx, this last ap-

parently the stone most highly prized in Tibet. At times the men

indulge too freely in rice spirit and fights ensue, sometimes with

fatal results ; one elderly whiskered gentleman wno accompanied us

to the Ganja La as a shikari was ‘ wanted’ for three murders, and I

was told of a wealthy young man who wished to do away with a

rival in another village and successfully liquidated him by means of

hired assassins. The Sherpas seem to smoke mainly cigarettes,

which they pass from hand to hand, or occasionally a hookah, in

contrast to the pipe-smoking hill tribes of Burma. The odour of

rancid butter is all-pervading, emanating most strongly ftom the

women, who do most of the butter-making, and noticeable in all the

houses. Wood carving is a hobby with the Sherpas, as with the

Nepalese, and is the chief interior ornament of their houses. The

work is well done, and the chief themes are: a conch shell; an

elephant; and what appears to bea dragon surrounded by leaves,

but is Meant to represent lightning and thunder inthe clouds.

Early next morning the lama showed me round his monastery,

a stone building with wooden floors and roof of about the same size,

SOME BIRDS OF THE GANDAK-KOSI WATERSHED 437

as his house; prayer flags flutter outside, and on the left of the en-

trance porch is a large prayer-wheel. The interior consists of one

room containing images representing five manifestations of the

Buddha, one of them identical with the seated Buddha to be seen all

over Burma, and elaborate mural paintings, executed by an artist

from Lhasa in 1935; the paintings represent Buddhas and their dis-

ciples, and tookthree months to complete, the fee charged being

Rs. 2 per day plus free board and lodging. ‘The lama explained the

significance of the various images and paintings, but I was not suffi-

ciently az fazt with Tibetan Buddhism to follow all he said. The

room also contained a conch shell, blown at times of worship, a large

drum, butter lamps, offerings of barley and maize, a pair of millstones,

and several pieces of cloth; these last are apparently offered by the

bereaved on the death of a near relation, whose name is written on a

piece of white cloth at the top.

We left at 9:00 a.m., descending over 2,000 ft. to the Malemchi

Khola,a roaring torrent fortunately bridged, and climbed the same

height up the far side along a leech-infested path through terraced

fields. At 2:30 p.m. we reached Tarke Gyang,a larger and more

prosperous village, the houses crowded together ona shelf of the

steep hillside. While the tents were being put up we looked at the

local monastery (apparently every village has its own lama and

monastery). The chief feature was an enormous prayer wheel, about

10 ft. in height by 20 ft. in circumference, which is turned by hand

and rings a gong at each revolution to mark the mounting toll of

merit. The monastery was two-storied with mural paintings, old

and rather tarnished, on both stories; some beautiful paintings on

cloth, the work of a local artist, were hanging in the upper room.

No white face had ever appeared in these Sherpa villages before,

and that evening my tent was besieged by curious villagers, mainly

women and children, while my servant’s cooking operations ona

Primus stove proved an attractive side-show; only when darkness

fell were we left in peace.

The coolies had to prepare rations (mostly Indian corn crushed

and roasted, in which form it can be eaten without further cooking)

for the next few days, and this delayed our start the following

morning till just before mid-day. The first two hours ofthe march

were tip a vile and slippery track, crawling with leeches but bright-

ened by a variety of fine balsams, pure yellow, deep purple, white,

and pink, that flourish in wet forest; it took us up 3,000 ft. toa hut

on the shoulder of Yangri (12,443 ft.) and was a short-cut, the main

path reaching the hut by a more roundabout route. We continued

on up the ridge for some distance and pitched camp at an altitude of

about 12,000 ft. I was surprised to find the leeches troublesome

even at this height, and put up the mosquito netto keep them off at

night. After sunset the mists cleared fora few moments to show

the snows of Jugal Himal in the north-east, but the weather made up

for this momentary weakness by its ferocity on the following day.

Dawn revealed an overcast sky and heavy clouds rolling up from

the south, and as we started at 7.40 a.m. the rain commenced; we

climbed steadily in the drizzle, the track at first following the crest

of the ridge and then traversing well below it on the east side. At

11.40 a.m. we had lunch in the shelter of an overhanging boulder,

438 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47

and- thereafter the wéather became worse, a strong: wind driving:

sheets of rain across the ridge from east to west. ‘The coolies had

no clothes warmer than those they wear in Katmandu, and their

cheerful endurance of the unpleasant conditions was remarkable;

the camping ground was eventually reached at 4:30 p.m. and it was

dark before we settled in, it being necessary to send back two of the

Sherpas to carry the loads of coolies who had become exhausted..

Rain and mist interfere seriously with bird observation, but they do

not obliterate the flowers, and of the sights seen this day a pink

Vaccinium that covers patches of hillside and resembles heather ata

distance, and a deep blue Gentian or Campanula scattered profusely

on a hillside of Potentilla leaves were the most memorable. At dusk

the mists cleared a little to reveal a hanging glacier across the valley

high above the camp.

The camp was pitched on easy grassy slopes sprinkled with

yellow flowers below a small hill with a cairn on its summit, at an

elevation of perhaps 15,000 ft. Our plan was to halt two days and

to goup tothe Ganja La on whichever day might be the finer; as it

turned out both days were equally wet, but the first day being un=

promising Lt. Tej Jung went out after Tahr andI pottered round

the camp in search of birds. We were above the Juniper zone and

the only shrubs that grew weretwo species of dwarf Rhododendron:

R. lepidotum which covers large areas of hillside and gives outa

delicious fragrance underfoot; and A. sefosum, of more resinous scent,

growing in mixture with the former; both species ascend to about

16,000 ft. Near the camp I saw a butterfly of the genus Parnassus

(Snow-Apollo), the only interesting butterfly seen on the trip. I

climbed up towards the crest of the ridge, and saw a small flock of.

Snow Pigeons ; higher upa brace of cock Monal Pheasants, which

got up out of apatch of boulder scree scarcely 10 yards from me

and flew protesting down thehill, afforded a magnificent sight with

their metallic purple plumage, white rumps, and cinnamon tails.

- The rain continued all night and well into the next morning;

however we left for the pass at 9:00 a.m. and the rain stopped for

two hours, which enabled me to observe a flock of Hodgson’s

Grandalas, those beautiful blue birds I had hoped to see up here;

we also saw a dozen or more Monal Pheasants and a covey of Snow

-Partridges, and I watched a Nepal Wren hopping in and out of the

rocks in a patch of scree. After going about 2 miles from camp we

rounded the base of a cliffand topping a small rise looked down into a

wide flat valley. This would be the best camp site, sheltered to some

extent from the wind and lying close up to the backbone of the ridge,

for exploring the surrounding mountains, but firewood would have

to be brought up from below. A Brown Dipper was observed on

the stream. Crossing to the upper end we entered a side valley, the

‘entrance being marked by a rock the size of a large house, and

started climbing in earnest ; passing'a prominent concave stone shute

on our right we eventually reached the crest of a spur neara small

but massive hanging glacier ; crossing some snow-covered rocks and

then half a mile of snow-field in a soggy melting condition and ofa

nasty bluish tinge like fohn snow in the Alps, we reached the

foot of a steep but easy scramble of about 200 ft. that took us to the

top of the pass (18,450 ft.). The path is not well marked in several

-SOME BIRDS OF THE, GANDAK-KOSI WATERSHED 439

places and the pass would not be easy to find without a guide. At

this height the rain had changed to sleet, and visibility was limited

to about half a mile.

Descending a few steps on the far side we sat down out of the

wind for arest. The path dropped down the rocks below us for

100 ft. and then crossed a small glacier to a scree-strewn valley,

bearing north-east from where we sat, which disappeared from

sight round a spur. East and west the ridge rose steeply in shat-

tered cliffs and an attempt to advance far in either direction would

have involved difficult rock climbing. From the pass itself the

view iS very restricted by neighbouring spurs, and the fine snow

pyramid of iangtang Lirung (23,771 ft.) which lies about 10 miles

to the north-west, is probably not visible. The path leads down to

the Langtang Khola (a tributary of the Gandak) and across the

valley is the Tibet border, the nearest point being about 7 miles in

an air Jine, but there is no pass across the main rangein this area.

The Ganja La is a little used pass, and is open only for two or three

months in the year. We started down at 2°45 and reached camp

three hours later.

We marched back the next day; I halted at the footof peak

14,934 ft., in the fond hope of obtaining a view from the summit

either that evening or early the following morning, while Lt. Tej

Jung carried onto Tarke Gyang, his coolies having run out of

food. Golden Bush Robins were commonly seen this day.

The following morning I left camp at 6°25 a.m. and reached the

top of the peak at 7:25. The sun was actually shining and Gaurisan-

kar and other snow peaks to the east were clear, but the nearby ones

were veiled in cloud. It was very pleasant sitting up there, at the

height of the summit of the Matterhorn, until the mists, rising all

too quickly from the valleys, blotted out the view. Looking north

the eye followed the Dhukpu ridge to its junction with the Gandak-

Kosi watershed, but the Ganja La itself was not visible; to the left

one looked down immense depths to the Malemchi I<hola. 7,000 ft.

below, while in the foreground a jadegreen tarn nestled on the

shoulder of a mountain. Looking south one saw, far below, the

little cluster of huts on the green hillside that was Malemchigaon,

which we reached the same evening. We stopped at Tarke Gyang

on the way down; Lt. Tej Jung had arrived the previous evening,

and we now parted company, he to return to the Ganja La and over

it into the Langtang Khola (where he shot a Tahr) and I, unwillingly,

to’ Katmandu, my leave being nearly up. I arrived back on the

15th September, and my only regret was that I had been unable to

devote two months, instead of two weeks, to the mountains of the

Gandak-Kosi watershed.

NOTES ON BIRDS SEEN

The names and serial numbers are taken from Zhe Fauna of British India

—irds, 2nd edition, by Stuart Baker. For want of suitable ammunition no

Specimens were collected. ‘The mountains of the Gandak-Kosi watershed are

the nearest high mountains to Katmandu, andit is probable that many of

Hodgson’s type specimens of mountain birds came from this lovality.

8. Corvus macrorhynchos. Jungle Crow.

Seen round villages and huts up to 14,000 ft.

440. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47

22. Urocissa flavirostris. Yellow-billed Blue Magpie.

Seen above Tarkol at about 8,500 ft., but not higher.

46. Nucifraga caryocatactes. Himalayan Nutcracker.

Several pairs seen round Thare Pation hillsides covered with Silver Fir—

Rhododendron scrub. The white outer tail feathers and the loud harsh call-

note are distinctive features.

48. Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax. Red-billed Chough.

Several pairs seen round our top camp below the Ganja La at 15,000 ft.

The call-note is high-pitched.

65. Lophephanes rubidiventris. Rufous-bellied Crested Tit.

One ofthe most characteristic birds of the Rhododendron scrub zone at

11,000—13,000 ft. The birds of which I had a good view appeared to have

rufous on the centre and sides of the breast and an ashy patch in between.

68. Lophophanes dichrous. Brown Crested Tit.

A small mixed party of this and the preceding species was noted at 11,500 ft.

below hare Pati in open tree and rhododendron forest. Grey above, tawny

below, with an interrupted buff collar on the hind neck and a fullcrest. I thought

at first itwasa Yuhina or Zxulus, to which genera it has a curious resemblance.

70. Sylviparus modestus. Yellow-browed Tit.

Not uncommon in scrub up to 14,000 ft. and makes its presence known by a

curious grating churr ; in habits it is shy and rather a skulker, spending much

time concealed in dense bushes.

89. Conostoma aemodium. Great Parrotbill.

I had an excellent view ofa pair of these birds in a bush at 11,000 ft. near

Thare Pati, and watched them for some minutes preening each others feathers.

The orange bill, whitish forehead, dark lores, and mouse brown plumage are

diagnostic ; except for the bill it resembles a large Laughing-Thrush.

148. Trochalopteron erythrocephalum. Red-headed Laughing-Thrush.

One of the commonest birds up to the upper level of oak forest (say 9,000 ft.)

but not seen at higher elevations.

161. Trochalopteron affine. Black-faced Laughing-Thrush. 7

Common round Thare Pati and along the pilgrim trail thence to Gosain-

kund, in rhododendrons at 11,000—13,000 ft. It has a melodious call-note

to-we, to-we-you, and harsh churring alarm-notes. Contrary to the statement

in the Fauna, I saw it always in parties, not pairs.

171. Trochalopteron lineatum. Streaked Laughing-Thrush.

Seen round Malemchigaon and Tarke Gyang villages (both 8,000 ft.); it

appears to like being near houses and one bird had its abode close to Malem-

chigaon monastery.

304. Fuivetta vinipecta. Hodgson’s Fulvetta.

Fairly common in parties in rhododendron and Juniper scrub at 11,000-

12,000 ft. A very active tit-like bird, constantly uttering a high-pitched chip,

chip calil-note that indicates the presence of a party. A broad white eyebrow

starting from above the eye, brown crown, ear coverts and patch over the eye

white chin and throat, and earlier primaries edged with bluish-grey, are notice-

able field characters.

326. Ixops nipalensis. Hoary Barwing.

Common in the upper oak forests at 7,000--9,000 ft., but not seen above ;_

possibly it goes higher when the rhododendrons are in flower.

SOME BIRDS OF THE GANDAK-KOSI WATERSHED 44

333. Siva strigula. Stripe-throated Siva.

Commcen in parties in rhododendron scrub at 10,000—11,000 ft. and also seen

lower down in oak forests at 7,000 ft.

448, Certhia familiaris. Nepal Tree-creeper.

Several birds were seen in a patch of open forest just below Thare Pati at

11,500 ft. The birds hunted over mossy boulders as well as tree-trunks.

458. Troglodytes troglodytes. Nepal Wren.

Seen both in rhododendron-juniper scrub and on bare boulder-strewn hillsides

up to 16,000 ft. The habits are well described in the Fauna.

479. Cinclus paliasii. Brown Dipper.

Seen on the Ripar Khola at 15,000 ft., on the way to the Ganja La, and also

at 12,000 ft. on rocky streams below the pilgrim trail.

502. Rhkodophila ferrea. Dark Grey Bush Chat.

Seen amongst berberis-juniper scrub at 11,000 ft.

525, Microcichla scouieri. Little Forktail.

One bird seen at 12,000 ft. where the pilgrim trail crossés the ‘Tadi Khola.

534, Chaimarrhorais leucocephala. White-capped Redstart.

A common and characteristic bird of streams and mountain tarns up to

15,000 ft. two or three birds commonly being seen together.

535. Rhyacornis fuliginosa. Plumbeous Redstart.

One bird seen at 8,000 ft. near Malemchigaon,

541. Grandala coelicolor. Hodgson’s Grandala.

A small party seen at about 15,000 ft. on the way to the Gunja La.

546. Tarsiger chrysaeus. Golden Bush Robin.

One of the commonest and most characteristic birds above the tree-line ° it is

usually seen about patches of juniper, berberis, or rhododendron scrub, but is

frequent in the higher dwarf rhodcdendron zone. Far from being ‘a quiet, retiring

little bird’ (vide Fauna), I found it bold and conspicuous. As male, female and

young have different plumages the bird appears in various guises that are

puzzling at first; the tail is the best key to identity.

599. Oreocincla dixoni. Long-tailed Mountain Thrush.

An astonishingly tame bird frequented a Bhuddist stone shrine on the

ridgé abouta mile short of Thare Pati at 11,500 ft. It walked about on the

ground and allowed one to approach almost within touching distance before

flying off ashort way. I noted that the primary coverts were tipped with

pepe which identifies this bird as dzxvonz and not mollissima (vide Fauna, 1st

edition).

605. Monticola erythrogastra. Chestnut-bellied Rock Thrush.

A pair seen at 11,000 ft. just below the shrine mentioned above. The male sat

calling for some time on the topmost shoot of a Silver Fir; the white neck patch

and black barring on the under-parts of the female were noticeable.

620. Laiscopus collaris. Eastern Alpine Hedge-Sparrow.

Seen round our top camp at 15,000 ft. on the way to the Ganja La.

(628. Prunella rubeculoides. Robin Hedge-Sparrow.

I thought I saw this bird also at the top camp, but am not sure of the

identification.)

(A Bush Warbler or Willow Warbler, dark brown in colour with a pale

supercilium, uttering a treble call-note, is common in scrub to 14,000 ft.)

442. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol..47

Phylloscopus pulcher. Nepal Orange-barred Willow-Warbler,:

..,, Not uncommon in rhododendron scrub at 10,000—12,000 ft.

Phylloscopus sp. Onespecies with greenish upper-parts, a supercilium, and

a single wing-bar is very common in the area, and its call-note of two notes re-

peated half-a-dozen times .is commonly heard. A

1041. Perissospiza carneipes. White-winged Grosbeak.

Several pairs seen round Thare Pati. The Fauna description ofit as a noisy

restless bird with a rasping call-note is apt.

1047. Pyrrhula nipalensis. Brown Bullfinch.

Two pairs seen: one inSheopuri forest at 7,000 ft., the other along the pil-

grim trail at 8,000 ft. A restless bird with an arresting melodious call-note. The

‘general brown colour with purple-black primaries and tail, and dark brown

round the eye and bill are diagonistic. ave

1052. Propyrrhula subhimachala. _Red-headed Rosefinch.

I twice saw females at 11,000 ft. in rhododendron scrub, but no males.

1053. Pyrrhospiza.punicea. Red-breasted Rosefinch.

‘A male seen at 12,000 ft. in rhododendron-juniper scrub by the pilgrim trail.

1055. Propasser thura. Nepal White-browed Rosefinch.

“- “Not uncommon in rhododendron-juniper scrub and seen up to 13,500 ft. The

white end to the broad pink supercilium is diagnostic in the male.

1059. Propasser pulcherrimus. Beautiful Rosefinch.

Also fairly common to 13,000 ft. One noisy party, uttering harsh bleating

notes in rhododendron bushes, seemed to consist entirely of males.

1089. Hypacanthis spinoides. Himalayan Greenfinch.

The most markedly characteristic bird of the pilgrim trail from Sheopuri to

Thare Pati, seen both in open country and in forest clearings. A noisy obtru-

sive bird with handsome black and yellow plumage ;one of its notes is strongly

_reminiscent of the. call-note of the lora, weeeeeee-tu, dropping in pitch at the

end.

1142? House Martins, which I identified as Cashmeriensis, were seen hawk-

ing insects at 7,000 ft. over the pilgrim trail.

1186.. Anthus hodgsoni. Indian Tree Pipit.

Common in parties above the tree line at 12,000—15,000 ft.

1579. Upupa epops. Hoopoe.

Pairs seen in open country, usually near tarns or camp sites (especially

where short green grass is found), at 12,000—15,000 ft.

1609. Collocalia brevirostris. Himalayan Swiftlet.

* Parties seen on the wing over the pilgrim trail at 8,000 ft. The rump was

noticeably paler than the wings and tail.

1624. Caprimulgus macrourus. Nepal Long-tailed Nightjar.

_Iput up a nightjar, light brown in colour and showing little white on

wings or tail, at Thare Pati, 12,000 ft., that I believe to have been a female of

this species. It seemed altogether too light for C. indicus, which I would. have

expected at this altitude.

1716. Gypaétus barabtus. Lammergeier.

' One bird seen over the pilgrim trail at 7,000 ft,

STORM-PETRELS IN THE NORTHERN INDIAN’ OCEAN 443

1858. Coiumba leuconota. White-bellied or Snow Pigeon.

A small flock seen several times round our highest camp at 15, 000 ft,

1928. Lophophorus impejanus. Monal Pheasant.

~..Common from 11,000 to 15,000 ft. both along the pilgrim trail and Along the

track to theGunja La. Cocks and hens were always separate, usually in parties

of 3to6 birds. A young female shot had yellow soles to the feet, whereas. in

the adult they were greenish-brown. In flight the female appears brown ‘with

much white on the tail. t

1993. Lerwa lerwa. Snow Partridge.

_Coveys seen at 16,000 ft. on the track to the Ganja La, and at. 12 0.00 ft.

above the- pilgrim trail. Red bill and legs, chestnut breast, and closely barr ed

black and buff upper-parts are diagnostic ; the white bars near the tips of the

inner secondaries show upin flight. Birds uiter shrill whistles when alarmed. :

THE STORM-PETRELS OCCURRING IN THE NORTHERN

INDIAN OCEAN, AND ADJACENT SEAS.

BY |

C. A. G1BSON-HILL, M.A., M.B.O.U.

(Rattles Museum, Singapore)

(With a plate)

Four species of storm petrel have been recorded at different

times from the north portion of the Indian Ocean and its adjacent

seas. They are,

Wilson’s Storm-Petrel, Oceanztes oceanicus (Kuhl)

Black-bellied Storm-Petrel, Fregetta tropica (Gould)

British Storm-Petrel, ydrobates pelagicus (Linn.)

Swinhoe’s Storm-Petrel, Oceanodroma monorhis (Swinhoe)

The most plentiful and interesting of these is Wilson’s Storm-Petrel,

which occurs as a regular winter visitor from June to October. The

other three would appear to be only very rare vagrants, and in the

case of one at least the identification may be erroneous.

In the following notes an attempt is made to summarise what is

known of the occurrence of these birds in our area, with the inclusion

of some unpublished data. It must be stressed that records are still

meagre, and further information, supported if possible by skins,

would be welcome. For this reason a brief statement of the essential

characteristics of each species, as seen on the wing, has been added

at the end of the section dealing with it.

cid | haye decided, after careful consideration, not to ‘include in this paper

the records of W.W.A. Phillips (Journal B.N.A, S., Vol. 46 pt. 4, pp. 593-613).

444 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Oceanites oceanicus (Kuhl); Wilson’s Storm-Petrel.

Wilson’s Petrel breeds at a number of points on the coast of the

Antarctic Continent and the adjacent islands, and on several islands

in the Antarctic and Sub-Antarctic zones. In the sector south of the

Indian Ocean it is known to nest in Enderby Land, Kaiser William

II Land, Queen Mary Land and Kerguelen. It probably also breeds

on Heard Island, but the point has not yet been confirmed. A re-

cord has been published of its supposed nesting on Mauritius (Bent,

1922, p.172), but it must be considered erroneous. Birds seen in

the Indian Ocean are most likely to be either O. oceanicus exasperatus

Mathews, from the Antarctic Continent, or O. oceanicus parvus

Falla, from the Kerguelen group.

Dr. Brian Roberts in a monograph on this petrel quotes all the

information accessible to him on its oceanic migrations (Roberts,

1940, pp. 176-187). There are a large number of records from the

Atlantic Ocean, from which it would appear that the majority of the

adult birds breeding south of this area make a clockwise tour of the

region from March to October, extending north as far as the latitude

of Newfoundland and the British Isles. They normally reach the

vicinity of the former in April, and leave the entrance to the English

Channel by the end of September. There is considerably less in-

formation available with regard to the Indian and Pacific Oceans.

The data collected by Dr. Roberts for the Indian Ocean suggests

that the bird is not present north of about 30° south latitude until

after the end of April. More recently in this journal P.I.R. Maclaren

has recorded Wilson’s Peirel as sparsely distributed from “Aden toa

point 600 miles eastward about the middle of February, 1945

(Maclaren, 1946, p. 543). I saw a single bird some fifty miles north-

east of Socotra in the same month in 1947: I was not in a position

to keep a continuous watch, and there may have been more. Both

these records are appreciably earlier than Dr, Roberts’s data for this

latitude. His information would suggest that the birds move north-

wards in the Indian Ocean rather later than in the Atlantic. These

observations raise a different point. Birds seen in February can

scarcely have finished breeding for the season, and still reached the

Gulf of Aden so early inthe year. It would suggest that a proportion

of the non-breeding birds remain in this area, north of the equator,

throughout the southern summer. This is an interesting possibility,

but one would have felt that if it were so, there would have been

other records for the period December to April. At present there

are none.

There are several records from the southern Indian Ocean for

May, but by the end of this month at least some birds are in the

Arabian Sea. Captain Butler took a specimen, now in the British

Museum, off the Mekran coast, between Charbar and Pusni, on 28th

May, 1877, and saw others (Butler, 1877, p. 291). Captain Bishop,

who was with him at the time, later met with it off the coast of Sind,

between Karachi and the Indus, but unfortunately no date is given

to this observation (Butler, 1878, p. 178).

A number of records show that Wilson’s Petrel is plentiful in the

area comprising the western portion of the Arabian Sea, the Gulf of

Aden and thesouthern half of the Red Sea from June to September,

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc,

1. Wilson’s Storm-Petrel [Oceanites oceanicus (Kuhl) |

2. Black-bellied Storm-Petrel [/regetia tropica (Gould)]

3- British Storm-Petrel [Hydrobates pelagicus (Linn.)]

4. Swinhoe’s Storm-Petrel [Qceanodroma monorhis (Swinhoe)

{

iy)

We tee.

1 i! ba uh

PEP Fe ee

“NE

STORM-PETRELS IN THE NORTHERN INDIAN OCEAN 448

and apparently absent from the southern half of the Indian Ocean. In

addition to the data summarised by Dr. Roberts, Maclaren (267d) re-

ports a few birds within 500 miles of Suez in June 1944, and huge

numbers between about 240 and 270 miles east of Aden, and near

the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, in the same month of 1946. H.G.

Lumsden (1947, zz dz.) saw occasional birds from 600 miles east of

Aden to about half way up the Red Sea early in June, 1947.

BE. H. Bromley (1947, zz /zz.) observed Wilson’s Petrels following in

the wake of the ship in ones and twos, or up to about half a dozen,

during the first part ofa journey from Aden to Colombo, on5th to 8th

September, 1931. In 1945 I saw Wilson’s Petrels continuously from

the vicinity of Socotra to the neighbourhood of the Twelve Apostles,

north of Perim, from 29th September to 2nd October. At times over

forty were in sight atonce. There can be no doubt of :the identity

of the bird as one landed ina life boat during the early morning of

2nd October, and was captured without difficulty.

According to Dr. Roberts, southward movement begins in

October, but some birds still linger in the Arabian Sea until the end

of the month. Bromley (zbzd) saw several Wilson’s Petrels in the

Gulf of Aden on 9th October, 1946, and one near the entrance to

Colombo harbour on 14th October. There are no certain records for

the Indian Ocean proper north of latitude 40° south for November,

except for a bird captured off Ceylon by Captain Fletcher in 1908

(Wait, 1925, p. 418), and it would seem that the main body of the

migration has already passed below 50° south latitude. The Ceylon

record is interesting. Various observers since Legge, who saw

birds probably of this species on 19th August, 1874 (Legge, 1880, p.

1057), report birds off the Ceylonese coast, often without dates, but

the only specimen that has been taken is Captain Fletcher’s.

The general conclusion of these records, as Dr. Roberts points

out, would be that the principal northerly goal of the migration

across the Indian Ocean is in the extreme north-west. Probably the

main mass of birds reaches the neighbourhood of Socotra and the

Arabian coast in May and June, and moves south by way of the

waters off Ceylon in September and November. There remains to

be considered the extent to which they can be said to travel further

east. ‘There are no records from the northern part of the Bay of

Bengal, but there are now several from the neighbourhood of the

Malay Peninsula.

Davison saw birds which were probably of this species near the

Moscos, off the coast of Tenasserim, north of Tavoy, in July (Hume

and Davison, 1878, p. 490). Robinson and Chasen (1936, p. 87)

note that on several occasions small black petrels with white rumps

had been seen in stormy weather in various parts of the Straits of

Malacca, but they give no details of dates or localities. On 19th

September, 1945, I saw a single bird in the neighbourhood of the

Aroa Islands (Straits of Malacca, lat. 3° north, long. 100° 40’ east).

Bromley (1948) records three or four of these birds seen about midday

on 12th December, 1938, while crossing from the Langkawi Islands to

1, This information is also given in a note by Hume to Butler’s paper

(Butler, 1877, p. 292),

446 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, ‘47

the Kedah mainland. On the whole one would suggest that these

represent a smal! proportion of the total mass, rather than the main

body of the movement. The Straits of Malacca are relatively

narrow, and much frequented by shipping. Ifany large number of

birds were passing down them annually one would expect to find

more records. It would seem also that Bromley’s birds were rather

late for a southward movement towards the breeding grounds. They

must either have been strays that were lost or, like the early records

from the neighbourhood of the Arabian Sea, birds wintering north of

the equator. !

Several of the earlier observers, particularly Legge (1880, p. 1057),

appear to have been unwilling to make positive identifications.

Caution in these matters is very desirable, but there would seem to

be little doubt that Wilson’s Petrel is the only storm petrel witha

white rump and dark underparts occurring regularly in the Indian

Ocean proper. Identification can be further confirmed by the long

legs, with yellow webs to the feet, which trail behind the tail in a

conspicuous and characteristic manner in flight. Two of the three

recorded rare vagrants, the British Storm<-Petrel and the Black-

bellied Storm-Petrel, also have whiterumps, but their legs are en-

tirely black and appreciably shorter, and they are smaller, witha

weaker, more fluttering, bat-like flight. The Black-bellied Storm-

Petrel also has prominent white areas on the flanks and. sides of the

abdomen, andthe middle of the under surface of the wings. These

points might be difficult to distinguish from the deck of a large ship,

but my feeling is that they would not be. I had experience of both

birds on a passage by a whale-catcher from Durban via Cape Town

to’ South: Georgia, and certainly from. that low level there was no

doubt of the’ white on the esate surface of Fregetta ne

Fregetta tropica (Gould) : Black-bellied Storm-Petrel.

‘Inthe southern Indian Ocean this bird breeds on Kor edelent and

elie Crozet Islands... It may also nest on St. Paul and Amsterdam

Islands, but>:these sites have never been confirmed. -The Black-

bellied Storm-Petrel is plentiful in parts of the southern oceans, parti-

eularly the South Atlantic, but it does not appear to make-a. feaivlar

crossing of the tropical zone. Sperling (1872, p. 75) writes of about

thirty of these birds playing round the wake of his ship in latitude

5° south, longitude 30° west, but I know of only one record from

the ‘ North! Atlantic—the type specimen which was taken-in latitude

6" 33’ north, off the coast of Sierra Leone.

‘This species is included inthe fauna of the wortherd Indian

Ocebii: on the strength of a ‘single specimen labelled. ‘ Bay. of

Bengal’ in the Marquis of Tweeddale’s handwriting, which was ‘in

his collection when it was acquired by the British Museum. Blanford

(1898, p. 355) accepts the locality, and since then this region has been

included in its range (Stuart Baker, 1929, p. 302)... There‘ do Hee

appear-to be any reliable sight records from our. area.

The interest of this bird here would seem to be lareely cunt

it has several times been considered when a white-rumped storm-

petrel was seen. The plumage differences are given above; under

Wilson’s Petre]. In addition I would stress the very weak, fluttering)

STORM-PETRELS IN THE NORTHERN INDIAN OCEAN 449°

flight, which struck me most forcibly when I watched these birds

in the South Atlantic. ;

igdrabetes pelagicus (Linn. }. British Storm-Petrel.

The nearest breeding grounds of this bird are on certain of the

islands in the western Mediterranean. Its occurrence within out-

area, even aS a very rare vagrant, is doubtful. Von Heuglin.

(1873, quoted by Dr. Roberts, 1940, p. 186) records the presence. of.

storm-petrels i in the neighbourhood of Bab-el-Mandeb and the Gulf.

of Tajura, inthe Red Sea, in September and October. He did not:

obtain any specimens, but thought that the birds belonged to this,

species. In view of the extent to which Wilson’s Storm-Petrel is

now known to occur in this area during these months, it would seem

probable that his identification was erroneous, and that the Red

Sea should be excised from the range of this. bird until. formal: evi-

dence is forthcoming.

The British Storm-Petrel, like Wilson’s, has a witite rump; bibs ap

is smaller, with an irregular, whitish patch onthe middle of the

undersurface of the wings and dark webs: to. its feet, which do «et

project beyond the tail in fight. ‘The last two points are diagnos-.

tic. It also has more rounded wings and a much weaker, and

more fluttering flight, not unlike that of the Black- bellied | ‘Storm

Petrel.

243 if Wain

ate Wras

Oceanodroma monorhis (Swinhoe) : Swinhoe’s Storm- Petrel.

This is a Pacific Species, with races breeding on both. sides be fe

Ocean. The typical form, O. m. monorhis (Swinhoe) nests omislands

off Formosa, ranging north to Japan and south to the SQVINey ie end’

of the Straits of Malacca. j

Swinhoe’s Petrel would seem to Be not uncommon in the Seis

bourhood of Horsburgh Lighthouse, 374 miles east of Singapore,

from September to May. ‘The Raffles Museum collection contains:

specimens taken there in April, May, September, October and

November. I visited Pedra Branca on 28th September, 1947. “No.

petrels were seen in the vicinity of the lighthouse, but two, undoubt-

edly of this species, were observed about ten miles east of Singapore

harbour, on the return journey. Robinson and Chasen (1936, p. 86)

quote a visual record by C. Boden Kloss of asmall flock seen inshore

off Singapore Island in November, and a specimen was captured on

a ship in the harbour in May, 1913.

This species occasionally travels at least a short distance north-

wards up the Straits of Malacca, and thus enters our area. . There is

a specimen in the Raffles Museum collection from. the One Fathom

Bank Lighthouse, between the Aroa Islands and'the coast of

Selangor, taken in November, 1918. It is possible that it sotnetimes

strays further west, though there is only a single record, unsupported

by’a skin. H. M. Tomlinson (1924, p. 51) describes a petrel of a

uniform dark chocolate colour which came aboard the ship-on which

he was travelling, late at night on 10th June 1923, when they’ were

about fourteen hours west of Colombo. It was liberated after he

had examined it, but he was. of the opinion that he recognized the

species immediately : when he was shown- specimens of Swirnhoe’s

448 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, ¢7.

Petrel on his arrival in Singapore. A bird so far west must, how-

ever, be considered to be no more than avery rare vagrant, well

~ away from its normal range. It is significant that all the unidenti-

fied petrels recorded from the Indian Ocean are said to have had

white rumps.

Swinhoe’s Petrel is about the same size as Wilson’s, with a

similar, rather swallow-like flight, appreciably stronger than that of

the two smaller species. It differs in having short, black, legs with

black feet, and in appearing a fairly uniform, sooty brown, slightly

greyer on the neck and underparts. The dark rump distinguishes

it from all other storm-petrels so far recorded from the northern

Indian Ocean.

APPENDIX

The following species also include islands to the south of the

Indian Ocean within their breeding range, but have not yet been re-

corded definitely from the northern Indian Ocean.

Pelagodroma marina (Latham): White-faced Storm-Petrel,

A race of this bird, P. marina dulciae Mathews, nests on the

south-western and southern coasts of Australia: the type locality is

Breaksea Island, in south-west Australia. The species is widely

distributed as a breeding bird in the southern oceans, but there are

few pelagicrecords. It can be distinguished from all other storm-

petrels by its white face and entirely white under surface, including

the under wing-coverts. The rump is light grey. The legs are

long, and the webs of the fect yellow except attheir edges. On these

latter points it might be confused with Wilson’s Petrel, but the wide

area of white on the under parts is distinctive, and, in my experience,

that on the face, throat and neck can be seen easily in flight.

Garrodia nereis (Gould): Grey-backed Storm-Petrel.

The breeding range of this bird includes the Kerguelen Islands.

There are again very few pelagic records, and it does not appear to

stray into the North Atlantic from the nesting grounds south of that

area. It is smaller than the White-faced Storm-Petrel, from which

itcan be distinguished readily by its shorter legs, and dark grey face,

neck and chest.

REFERENCES

Bent, A. C.—1922. Life Histories of the North American Petrels and their

Allies, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus,, No. 121.

Blanfords W. T.—1898. Fauna of British India (first edition), Birds

Vol. 4.

Bromley, E. H.—1948. Notes on some Birds from parts of Kedah, Bull,

Raff. Mus., No. 19 (in preparation).

Butler, E. A.—1877. Astola, a summer cruise in the Gulf of Oman, Stray

Feathers, Vol. 5.

Butler, Ry A.—1878. My last notes on the Avifauna of Sind, Stray Featherst

Vol. 7.

Hume, A. O. and Davison, W.—1878. A revised list of the Birds of

Tenasserim, Stvay Feathers, Vol. 6.

Legge, V.--1880. A History of the Birds of Ceylon.

EFFECT OF WEIRS ON DISTRIBUTION OF CATLA CATLA | 4469

Maclaren, P. I. R.—1946. Bird Notes of the Arabian and Red Seas, Journal

of the Bombay Natural History Society, Vo}. 46, No. 3.

Roberts, Dr. B.—1940. The Life Cycle of Wilson’s Petrel, British Grakam

Land Expedition, 1934-37, Scientific Reports, Vol. 1, No. 2.

Robinson, H. C. and Chasen, F. N.—1936. Birds of the Malay Peninsula,

Vols3:

sporing, B M.— 1872. Letter on Tristan da Cunha, etc. /67s, 1872, pt. 2,

pp. 74

Stuart Baier H. C.—1929. The Fauna of ecalsis India (second edition),

Birds, Vol. 6.

Tomlinson, H. M.—1924. Tidemarks.

Von Heuglin,—1873. Ornithologie Nordost Afrikas.

Wait, W. “E.—1925. Manual of the Birds of Ceylon.

EFFECT OF WEIRS AT THE CANAL HEAD-WORKS

ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF CATLA CATLA

(HAMILTON), IN THE PUNJAB

Upre SINGH RAI, M.Sc. (Lucknow), ph.p. (Durham), P.A.S.,

Deputy Warden of Fisheries (Research), Lyallpur,

(with a map).

I. INTRODUCTION,

Catla catla is a valuable food fish attaining to six feet or more in

length, and is an inhabitant of fresh water. It was at one time found

in great abundance in the rivers and streams of the plains of the

Punjab. Its presence in the hill-streams has never been reported.

Unlike Labeo rohita (Hamilton) and Cirrhina mrigala (Hamilton),

Catla catla (Hamilton) is now, however, not so widely distributed in

the Punjab. Consequently, an investigation into the causes of the

rarity of Caila cat/a in the Punjab was undertaken.

Il. LOCATION OF WEIRS IN THE PUNJAB RIVERS.

Apart from the Jamuna- and the Indus which form respectively

the south-eastern and the north-western boundaries of the province,

the Punjab is endowed with five big rivers and a network of canals.

The five rivers, Sutlej, Beas, Ravi, Chenab and Jhelum take their

origin from the hills on the north-east and flow through the plains of

the Puniab towards the south-west, falling ultimately into the Indus,

beyond the boundary of the Punjab.

The waters of ail the above-mentioned rivers except the Beas,

are utilized for irrigation purposes by building weirs across the

rivers for the canal head-works. The Beas joins river Sutlej at

‘ Hari-ke-pattan ’, about thirty miles on the east of Husainiwala

(Ferozepore) weir.

_ Two weirs have been built across river Jhelum, one at Mangla,

where the river leaves the hills and enters the plains. The Upper

Jhelum Canal takes its origin from Mangla Head-works, ‘The second

weir for the Lower Jhelum Canal at Rasul is about eighty miles from

Mangla weir. All the water of the Jhelum is diverted into these

canals, and the river below the Rasul weir. remains dry for the

450 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47

greater part of the year. Except during a few months in the summer

(monsoon), the Upper and the Lower Jhelum canals work alternately,

as there is not enough water in the river for both the canals during

winter.

The Chenab has three weirs, one at Marala, the second at Khanki,

and the third at Trimu. The Upper Chenab Canal takes its origin

from the Marala Head-works, where the Chenab enters the plains.

The Lower Chenab Canal takes its origin from Khanki Canal

Head-works. The water in the Chenab below the Marala weir is not

sufficient for the Lower Chenab Canal during the winter months.

It is, therefore, supplemented by the supply from the Upper

Jhelum Canal. During winter, no water is allowed to pass into

the river below the Khanki weir, and one can easily walk across

the river during these months when its bed is either dry or the

water is hardly a few inches deep. ‘he author, himself, crossed the

river during the month of January, 1929, about forty miles below the

Khanki weir, where the water was only ankle-deep. The canal

which takes its origin at Trimu weir gets its full supply of water

during the period when there is excess of water in rivers Chenab and

Jhelum which join a few miles above the Trimu weir, During

winter the supply into the canai is hardly sufficient to meet the

minimum demands of the people whose lands are irrigated by this

water. Nota drop of water is allowed to pass at the Trimu weir into

the river during the greater part of the year.

Like Chenab, river Ravi has three weirs, one at Madhopur,

gecoud at Balloki, and the third Sidhnai weir near Ram Chontra.

From Madhopur toa distance of about hundred miles, river Ravi

contains very little water during the winter months. ‘The supply of

water is supplemented by the water from the Upper Chenab Canal

which is diverted into the Lower Bari Doab Canal at Balloki weir.

No water passes below Ballcki weir for the greater part of the year.

River Ravi, like the Jnelum and the Chenab, remains almost dry for

the greater part of the year, and whatever fish is left in the pools which

are formed in the beds of these rivers, is caught by the fishermen

during the winter months.

The Sutlej enters the plains at Rupar, where the head-works for

the Sirhind canal is built. The conditions of the Sutlej below the

Rupar weir upto ‘ Hari-ke-pattan’ where the Beas pours its supply

of water into the Sutlej, are similar to those of the Ravi before the

Upper Chenab Canal falls into it. During winter the water in river

Sutlej above the Rupar weir is not sufficient even for the Sirhind

Canal. Asin river Ravi, the pools in the bed of river Sutlej from

Rupar to ‘ Hari-ke-pattan’ are netted by the fishermen, and no fish is

left in this tract of the river. Below ‘Hari-ke-pattan’, river Sutlej

gets all the water from the Beas, and the three weirs of the Sutlej

Valley Project, Husainiwala (Ferozepore), Suleimanki, and Islam at

Palla, divert the water into the canals which take their origin from

the above weirs. Below the Islam weir, the river is absolutely dry.

Ill. SuRVEY OF THE WATERS.

In order to trace the distribution of Ca¢/a catla, a sutvey of these

waters was conducted, . Quite a large nutnber of fishing places along

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EFFECT OF WEIRS. ON DISTRIBUTION OF CATLA CATLA 481

the rivers were visited by the author during the course of the last

few years. River Jhelum contains mahseer, Barbus (Lor) putitora,

to a considerable extent, even during the journey to a great distance

in the plains, and Catla catla is not reported to exist even upto the

Rasul weir. Although river Jhelum is said to enter the plains at

Mangla, still we find small hills running parallel to the river even

beyond the Rasul weir in Jhelum District.

Catla catla was at one time caught in considerable numbers by the

fishermen from river Chenab and Palkhu, its important tributary.

But for the past few years, neither adult Cadéla nor its fry have been

found in Palkhu and the pools round about it, where it once spawned

in large numbers. The deep pools and the important fishing places

on Palkhu, which at one time gave shelter to adult Cala, have now

been silted up.

The big pools formed in the back-waters of river Ravi, were at

one time the home of Catla catla. -But, during the course of the last

few years, Catla catla seems to have become extinct in river Ravi.

In a pool about ten miles from Lahore in river Ravi, several maunds

of big adult Catla catla alone were netted, some years ago. But

Caila catla has been caught in very small numbers for the last few

years above Balloki weir. The author got certain pools netted below

the Sidhnai weir near Katalpur, where a few specimens of Caéla catla

were found. But these pools remain, cut off from the main stream

due to the paucity of water below this weir. Cad/a catla lias not been

able to get its hold for the last few years anywhere in river Ravi, due

most probably, to scarcity of water ina great stretch of the river

between the weirs, and due to lack of opportunity for spawning.

Nikki Deg, a tributary of river Ravi, where fry of Catla catla was at

one time caught in considerable numbers, now remains dry for the

greater part of the year. Catla catla has not been traced for the last

few years along with Labeo rvohita and Cirrhina mrigala fry in the

pools where they are stranded during the monsoon floods. Catla fry

is not found in Sakki, another important tributary of the Ravi in

Amritsar District, where fry of Crrrhina mrigala and Labeo rohita are

met with in great abundance.

No weir has been built across river Beas, hence it is always full

of water. Big adult Cava has been caught in this river throughout

its length and breadth. Even above Naushera ferry, which is hardly

ten to twelve miles from the place where the Beas enters the plains,

Catla catla weighing about thirty seers was netted. River Beas

merges its identity into the Sutlej at ‘ Hari-ke-pattan’. The distance

from ‘ Hari-ke-pattan’ to Mirthal where river Beas enters the plains,

upto which Caéla catla can survive, is about 120 miles. Abundance

of Catla catla is found in river Sutlej from ‘ Hari-ke-pattan’ down-

wards, although very little Cat/a is found in the pools of river Sutlej

from ‘ Hari-ke-pattan’ to Rupar. Buddha Nala, a tributary of river

Sutlej near Ludhiana, which at one time had not only deep pools but

also good fishing places in its bed, has, like Palkhu, been deprived

of the deep pools and fishing places where Catla catla could take

shelter.

There are certain big dhands, above ‘ Hari-ke-pattan ’ in Ludhiana

and Ferozepore districts, cut off from river Sutlej, where big Cadla

is caught in quite a large number, but they are few and far between,

452 JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47

They, no doubt, serve as sanctuaries for Catla cat/a, but they cannot

supplement the supply of Catia catla into the river, unless very heavy

floods which come after a decade or so, connect these dhands with

the rivers. Below ‘ Hari-ke-pattan’, Catla catla is found in great

abundance in river Sutiej, its tributaries and other pools, dhands and

back-waters which are flooded when the river swells before the rains

or during the monsoon floods. During the visit of the author to

different places along river Sutlej from Islam weir to ‘ Hari-ke-pattan’,

there was no place where Caé/a catla was not found in large numbers.

There is a big dhand enclosed by the ‘ bunds’ of the head-works, on

the right bank of river Sutlej, a little above the Islam weir, which

serves as a pocket to store large quantity of water for the use of the

head-works authorities. The reservoir contains big pools where

Catla catla and other big fishes take shelter. The backwaters of

river Sutlej at Tibbi Lal Begh and Machhisinghwala in Montgomery

District, serve aS sanctuaries for the fry of Catla catla. The fields

lying in between the Sutlej and these dhands serve as spawning

grounds for Catla catla. At one time the dhands at Machhisinghwala

contained large numbers of Ca/la caéla and its fry, but they are being

filled up.

During the course of the summer months (May and June), large

numbers of adult Catla catla are seen in the pools just below the

weirs at Suleimanki and Husainiwala (Ferozepore), but they are

helpless and do not venture to pass through the fish-ladders to come

into the lakes formed above the weirs.

Khakhra, a tributary of river Sutlej] in Lahore District, has a big

dhand containing large number of carp fry. Fry of Catla catla

formed 60 per cent of the fish=population of this dhand when netting

was tried in October, 1944, and it still dominates the fauna of this

dhand. Khakhra is a small stream, and this dhand in Khakhra is

said to be a part of the old bed of river Beas when rivers Beas and

Sutlej flowed parallel for a considerable distance in Lahore and

Montgomery districts. ‘The other dhands and pools on either side

of river Sutlej below Khakhra also contain quite a large number of

fry of Cadtla catla.

IV. DISCUSSION.

From the survey of the waters carried out, it is evident that Cadla

catla is in abundance in the waters of river Sutlej and its tributaries,

viz. Beas, Khakhra and other pools below ‘ Hari-ke-pattan’, connected

with it during floods. The lakes above Husainiwala (Ferozepore),

Suleimanki and Islam weirs serve as sanctuaries for Catla catla. 'The

Sutlej, thus, always contains enough of water from ‘ Hari-ke-pattan’

to Islam weir, and Catla catla gets an opportunity to reach its

spawning grounds in the Sutlej and the Beas above the Ferozepore

weir, as the Beas contains enough water throughout the year.

Catla catla and its fry is found in great abundance in the pools

which are flooded during July and August above the Husainiwala

(Ferozepore) weir. Fry of Cadla catla has also been found in large

numbers in the areas which are flooded above Islam and Suleimanki

weirs,

Catla catla, on the other hand, has not been found in appreciable

numbers at any place in rivers Ravi and Chenab and their tributaries

EFFECT OF WEIRS ON DISTRIBUTION OF CATLA CATLA 453

like Palkhu, Deg and Sakki, where at one time they were found in

large numbers.

Weare, therefore, led to the conclusion that the weirs at the canal

head-works in the Punjab rivers, enumerated above, seem to have

interfered seriously with the distribution of fishes in general, and

Catla catla in particular, due to the following reasons:

1, Most of the water at the weirs, e.g. Rupar, Madhopur,

Balloki, Khanki, etc., is diverted into the canals, and large stretches

of the rivers below the weirs either remain dry or contain very small

-amount of water. Catla catla is a big fish as compared to other

fishes, and requires deeper and larger volume of water for its abode

and at the time of its spawning. It, therefore, cannot live in greater

stretches of the rivers which contain very little amount of water,

except in the pools formed in their beds here and there, from which

ali the fish is netted out during the winter months.

2. ‘The migration of Catla catia is seriously interfered with by the

weirs which obstruct its passage from the rivers to the spawning

grounds higher up above the weirs. Hamid Khan (1924) mentions

that most of the Cyprinidae, such as Rohu (Ladeo rohita), Morakha

(Cirrhina mrigala), 'Theila (Catla catia), as well as some Siluroids,

namely, Bachwa (Pseudeutropius garua), Khagga (Rita rita) and

others, ascend the rivers during the monsoon rains in search of

suitable spawning grounds. Hamid Khan (1940) says that for the

propagation of all game and food fishes of the Punjab, proper

facilities are needed to enable them to ascend the rivers so as toreach

such waters as will suit them to lay their spawn. He has further

stated that with the development of irrigation projects in the Punjab,

dams or weirs have been constructed in the form of masonry works

at the head-works of the canals for the purpose of deflecting water

into the canals. The weirs run across the entire width of the river

obstructing both the upward and the downward passage of fish.

3. Day (1873) recommended that every irrigation weir spanning

a river should have a practicable fish-pass in it. Dunsford (1911)

drew the attention of the Punjab Government to the erection of fish-

passes and suggested certain principles for guidance. But although

fish-ladders have been constructed across the weirs at the canal head-

works, yet Catla catla does not seem to pass the weirs through the

fish-ladders, due most probably to certain defects in the working of

the fish-ladders. Bayer (1908) says that the underlying principle in

the construction of fish-ways is the retardation of the current velocity

of a waterfall so as to enable fish to surmount it.

4. In most cases the pools at the bottom of the fish-ladders,

where the fish would naturally collect before ascending the river, are

either too smail and are full of silt and other accumulations and

deposits, or are not connected with the main current of the river

below the weir. According to Dunsford (1911), the pass (fish-iadder)

must be situated where it will be self-advertising, i.e. it must form a

current impinging into a certain place below the obstacle so strongly

that it becomes the chief or predominant current of the stream, where

the fish will be led to that point for attempting the ascent.

5. Due to its timid and shy nature Cada catla does not seem to

make use of the defective fish-ladders constructed across the weirs,

6. The fish, especially Catla catia, which enters the canals at the

454 | JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47°

canal head-works, is considered lost. In the absence of any - fish

passages from the canals into the rivers, Catla catla cannot come

back into the rivers in most cases due to the strong current and steep

falls of water into the’ canals at their origin.

In other countries, e.g. U.S.A., great care has been talcen to

facilitate the migration of fish and to reduce the harmful effects of

the weirs on their productivity. But although fish-passages have

been constructed in the weirs at the canal head-works in-the Punjab,

yet they either donot work properly and remain out of use, or they

are not built suitably and are not wide enough to allow big. varieties:

of fish, like Catla catla, to pass up and down the river.

V. SUMMARY.

The Punjab, as its name signifies, has five big rivers which

irrigate the parched soil of the province. ‘There are twelve weirs in

four out of the five rivers, the Beas being an exception, from where

eighteen canals take their origin. ‘The weirs at the canal head-works

divert, in almost all the cases, most of the water from the rivers into

the canals. Due to the weirs built at different places, large stretches

of the river-beds remain dry cr contain very little water during the

major part of the year.

Catla catla, which is a fresh-water fish and grows to a big size,

was at one time found throughout the plains of the Punjab. Due to

its build and size, it needs deeper water for its abode and spawning.

Its movements before and during the spawning season are interfered

with by the weirs built at the canal head-works. The fish-ladders,

which have been built as passages for the fish to cross the weirs, are

not suitably built, and do not work properly. Cadla catla does not

seem to make use of the fish-ladders, due perhaps to its size and its

shy and timid nature. The fish which enters the canals along with

the water of the rivers at the weirs, is considered lost, there being no

passages from the canals to the rivers, as the fish cannot go back into

the rivers due to the absence of fish-passages at the heads of the

canals.

VI. REFERENCES.

1. Bayer, H. Von.—Fishways. Proceedings of Fourth International

Fishery Congress. PartII. Washington, U.S.A., 1908. Pp. 1043-1057,

2. Day, F.—Report on the Freshwater Fish and Fisheries of India and

Burma. Calcutta, 1873.

3. Dunsford, H.S.— Report on the Fisheries in the Punjab. Lahore,

Fateh

4, Hamid Khan.—‘ Observations on the Breeding Habits of some Frésh-

water Fishes in the Punjab.’ Jour., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., XXIX.

4, 1924.

5. Hamid Khan.—‘ Fish Ladders in the Punjab.’ Jour., Bom. Nat,

Hist. Soc.; XI. 3, 1940, ;

INCIDENCE OF FISH MORTALITY ON THE WEST COAST!

P, K. JAcoB AND M. DEVIDAS MENON

Marine Biological Station, West Hill.

‘ Widespread fish-mortality is a well-known phenomenon on the Malabar and

South Kanara coasts: its recurrence yearly along certain stretches of the coast

line is regular, though its intensity varies within wide limits’ (Hornell, 1917),

This unusual incidence of mortality has been attributed to the suffocative

influence of certain forms of Marine Euglenoids that suddenly burst in particular

regions. Since the initial report of Mr. Hornell on this subject was published

in 1917, no attention was paid to this problem, although its importance is

self-evident.

A detailed investigation by us in 1944 and 1946 has thrown some more light

on this subject. The present communication serves to add further to

Mr. Hornell’s observations (1917).

There is a regular uniformity in the incidence of fish mortality on the West

Coast, since the phenomenon usually occurs during the North-East monsoon,

On the 3rd of November 1944, a large number of Sz//age sthamma, Gobius spp..,

Caranx spp., Ambassis dayi, prawns and Pristipom spp., were seen struggling

for life in the water near the shore regions off Calicut. Asmbassis was found to

be much affected. The fishermen of the locality made a big haul of these

fishes struggling in the initial stages of death. As the day aged on, the

phenomenon continued with greater intensity and shoals of these fishes died,

decayed and were washed ashore in heaps, emitting a foul odour all around.

The water in which the casualty occurred was muddy, and it was thought that

the movement of mud banks had caused this whoiesale death in the inshore

regions. Mr. C. F. Sims, Port Officer, Calicut, in a communication to the

Biological Station, wrote on this question of mud banks: ‘The mud bank

‘appears to extend from the shore to nearly four cables seawards all along the

ccast. The absence of the usual shore waves and swells over this particular

area, indicates the presence of the mud deposit there, below the still waters. It

is perhaps due to under currents shifting mud from the bed of the open sea

towards the shore, or from subterranean rivers of mud forced to the surface,

through the sea bed, due tothe action of the sea. This silt is gererally oily

and alien to the sea sand and is not conducive to fish life. The formation of

this mud bank usually occurs during tne North-East monsoon.’ No more

intormation could perhaps be obtained at that time.

The incident recurred next year, although not near the inshore regions but

far out inthe open sea. Mr. Sidney Schofield, Master of S.S. Wing Sang, in

a communication to the Station, wrote that some 10 miles off Cochin beyond

Lat. 10°27’ N., Long. 76° East, the ship ran into a shoal of dead tunny ‘all

handsome, fresh and healthy specimens’, obviously only recently dead perhaps

within the previous two or three hours. The mortality extended to 10 miles.

Each carcass'was separated by .0°27’ or 150 yards from its neighbour and on the

assumption that they covered a circle of 10 miles in diameter, Mr. Schofield

calculated their number to be between 20,000 and 40,000. Theship is said tohave

steamed through this area for an hour at 124 knots speed. Eight days later and

about 48 miles south of this area of catastrophe, Mr. Schofield again witnessed

some hundreds of dead fish along atide-rip. ‘The head, guts and gills were all

missing, but the fresh barbs of the dorsal fins still remained and manifested the

fact that they were all tuany, all except a very large one at some considerable

distance.-away which was probably a shark. Many birds were leisurely feeding

on them and the smaller fish under the surface were having a good time. Pre-

sumably the fish seen that day were remnants of those witnessed by Mr. Schofield

eight days earlier and carried southwards byacurrent. The Port Officer, Cochin,

writing on this incident commented that every year masses of dead fish float

in the harbour area, producing a stench. ‘ Thece float in on the flood tide. The

cause has always been attributed to the presence of mud banks along this coast

which whenstirred up, probably as a result of the South-West monsoon, give off

1 Published with the kind permission of the Director of Industries and

Commerce, Madras, .

456 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 47

gas Or iiquid, which poisons the fish over a period of two or three days annually

in August.’ The cause was now also attributed to mud panks.

Hornell (1917) also observed a series of similar incidents. There have been

of course, differences and fluctuations in the periods of occurrence, sites in

which casualty took place, and the species affected. But certain inferences can

be drawn from these observations which may be summarised as follows :—

(1) That the casualty is caused by localisation of poisonous water called

Kedunir and Karanir (Shore water). (Sennir (Red water) that Hor-

nell has Gans with this is not poisonous and is caused by Noctiluca

swarms.

(2) That this phenomenon occurs soon after the South-West monsoon, or

just after the outbreak of North-East monsoon—more commonly

the latter.

(3) The phenomenon lasts for a short period only, since perhaps the effect

of Kedunir and Karanir is soon counteracted by the flowing in of

good water.

The popular beliefs and English versions of this incidence of piscine morta-

lity have been dealt with in detail by Hornell (1917). The phenomenon recur-

red twice in the course of the last year.

The first incident occurred in and around a rock (Pambankallu), half

/a mile to the west of Pudiappa shore in the sea and two miles to the north

4 of West Hill Biological Station. On the 20th of September 1946, the staff

of the Biolcgical Station in the course of collecting spat of Mytilus edulis,

fell upon a big haul of a variety of fish in different stages of asphyxia-

tion, coma and death. The species affected were Plotosus arab, Serranus

pantherinus, Palinurus spp., Scylla serrata, Neptunus spp., Plagusia mar-

moraia and Cynoglossus breviyostvis. Big specimens of Plagusia, Cynoglossus

and Plotosus arab were swimming in a state of coma, struggling hard for their

life, evidently due to lack of oxygen ; ‘many keeping their mouths above water

were collected by mere hand’. As soon as the incident was reported to us, we

repaired to the place immediately. But unfortunately, by this time the pheno-

menon had been eclipsed by the flowing in of fresh sea water, and so we could

collect no more data. The gills of the dead fish were red and blood-shot. The

stomachs were empty in all cases.

On the 31st of October 1946, a similar incident occurred near West Hill

Biological Station. Heaps of fish were washed ashore by the mild swells of

the sea, and many more were found floating dead in the mild breakers very

near the shore. ‘he incident was noticed in the afternoon. ‘The fish were in

a high state of putrefaction and the whole region stank in a nauseating manner.

Evidently the creatures had died some 10 or 12 hours before, at some other

place. This was conflrmed by local enquiries; fishermen told us that the

incident had occurred just past midnight on the 30th, about a mile away from

us. When we noticed the incident, there was a very slight drift to the south and

the water had begun to flowin. The area affected was apout two miles long

and about half a mile wide.

The water in which the fish were found floating was brownish, resembling

hay decoction in colour, The following physical conditions were noted :—

Time. Surf. Temp. Sp. gravity, bH.

3 p.m. 337956; 1020°0 Si

4 p.m. 33 Ce 1020°3 9°]

5 p.m. 32°4°C. 1020°6 . 9:0

6 p.m. Sltor@e 1020°8 8°8

The oxygen content of the water at 3 p.m. was 3/100000, and at 6 p.m.

6/100000. ‘There was a slow but moderately big current lowing from north to

south, andit was evidently carrying fresh sea water into this area. The pheno-

menon passed off at about twilight. The catalogue of the species affected,

which is a long one, consisted of the following :—

Anodontostoma chacunda (Buch, and Ham.).

Ololithes ruber (Schn.).

Johnius cavutta (Bloch).

Sillago sihama (Forskal),

Cynoglossus semitasciatus (Day).

Cynoglossus spp. (specific characters beyond recognition ),

FISH MORTALITY ON THE WEST COAST 457

Muraena spp. (beyond recognition).

Rastrelliger kanagurta. (Rupp.) (one specimen).

Therapon jarbua (Forskal).

Caranx melamphygus Cuv. and Val.

Etroplus suratensis (Bloch). (one specimen).

Loligo spp.

Emgraulis spp.

Amibassis dayt.

Arius spp.

Plotosus spp.

The presence of Htvoflus suvatensis, a brackish-water form, in this list is

interesting. ‘The only plausible explanation is, that this incident occurred first,

perhaps, in the early hours of the 31st, at the mouth of one of the various

brackish-water canals that enjoin the sea a few miles to the north of the West

Hill Station.

The plankton collected from this area and centrifuged showed myriads of

Euglenoids which were brownish-yellow with plenty. of chloroplasts. The

flage lam which Hornell (1917) described was not visible; nor could we find the

red eye-spot. However, the rapid peculiar settling of these organisms to the

bottom of the water to form a ‘ semi-quiescent’ light-yellowish jelly was

witnessed by us also. |

This flagellate was described in detail by Horneil and Naidu (1924) who

observed also the existence of the jelly-like matrix with many of these organisms

embedded init in the sea bottom of the West Coast. ‘The range of this

organism seawards is great. It appears to assume its motile stage only so long

as the water is in gentle agitation. In calm weather this is quite quiescent

ready to throw off new swarms of the motile form when the preper excitation

occurs’ (Hornell and Naidu).

The outbreak of the monsoon is usually attended by an abundant supply of

nutrient materials in the inshore waters of West Coast. The rough seas

prevailing at this time of the year render observation of the phenomenon

difficult. With the graduai return to normal weather, the sea becomes calm.

Currents begin tochange and the mud banks to shift. This movement of mud-

banks induces the slight agitation required to throw off the motile forms of the

Euglenoid from the gelatinous matriz. The first indication of the movement

of the mud-banks is the throwing ashore of a large number of Cavernularia and

Hippa. This agitation of mud casts up a lot. of oily material and causes a

mild, but efficient, mixing of the different strata of water. ‘The sun after

the heavy rains becomes a power in the Malabar sky’. The Huglenoids

thrown off by the gelatinous matrix are immersed in a medium surcharged

with all the necessary nutrient material for their development and multiplication.

Photo synthesis occurs and results in the production of myriads of active and

motile Euglenoids. They use up the oxygen in the water medium at night,

when the water is almost completely deoxygenated. Simultaneously, the mud

suspension settles. Rapid decay of the multitudinous Huglenoids sets in

creating and producing ‘nauseous and evil smelling’ decomposition products.

The death of all living forms in the area is thus effected by two causes:

asphyxiation due to lack of oxygen and tosic effects of dead and decaying

Euglenoids.

The course of events leading up to the mortality of ish may be summarised

as follows :—

1. With the change in current very soon after the monsoons, the mud-

banks begin to move and this gives the required agitation for the throwing off

of the quiescent Euglenoids from the jelly-like matrix at the bottom.

2. Fine sunlight and sufficient nutrient materials in the sea water

end in a sudden outburst of these Euglenoids, which at night use up almost all

the oxygen in the surrounding medium, thereby causing she) pinhyacanetio to the

fishes in the locality.

3. With the settling of the mud in the area, the sea becomes calm, and

with the powerful sunlight acting on it, causes a rapid decay of the dead

organisms, thus creating ‘deleterious and toxic effects to the piscine fauna.

4. Good sea water flowing into the region restores normal conditions.

The authors are grateful to Professor Benicharan Mahendra and Dr.

H. Srinivasa Rao, for kindly going through the manuscript of the present paper

and for making suggestions for its improvements.

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA

D. G. SEVASTOPULO, F.R.E,S.

ParRT XX

(Continued from Vol. 47 p. 219)

RHOPALOCERA

PAPILIONIDAE

Papilio polytes L., vomulus Cr.

Sevastopulo, Journz., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., x\vi, 575. 1947.

A rare form of pupa, which I have only seen formed in capti-

vity, is green, the wing cases lightly mottled with fawn and witha

darker green, triangular, central mark. The keel on the meso-

thorax filled in with fawn, and with the subdorsal triangular mark

on the anterior portion of the abdomen fawn instead of the usual

yellow-green. The subdorsal tubercles and a ring round the

spiracles fawn. ‘The cephalic horns, the sides of the thorax and the

abdomen mottled lightly with fawn.

Described from a pupa bred in Calcutta in November 1946,

Zetides doson Fidt., eleius Fruhs.

Sevastopulo, Journ., Bontb. Nat. Hist. Sec., xliv, 415. 1944.

Ovum-—Very pale green, spherical, the base flattened. Fairly

large. Laid singly on the underside of a young leaf of the food-

plant.

Ist instar—Head dark olive brown. Body jet black, the anal

somite whitish. A double subdorsal anda lateral series of short

tubercles from 2nd to 12th somite bearing long, forked, black

bristles, 2nd and 3rd somites with an additional dorsal pair. Ist

somite with a subdorsal, 2nd and 3rd somites with an additional

tubercle between the subdorsal and lateral series, anal somite with

an outspread pair of whitish dorsal tubercles, all the preceding

rather larger than the others and armed with medium length

bristles. The thoracic somites swollen, the body tapering towards

the rear.

2nd instar—Similar, but only the large tubercles on the thoracic

and anal somites present. Colour bronzy, clad with very short

black pubescence, giving a velvety appearance.

Described from a larva bred from ova found in Calcutta in June

1946.

PIERIDAE

Cepora (Huphina) nerissa F., phryne F. (evagete Cr.)

Sevastopulo, Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., x1, 394. 1938.

Talbot, fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies, i (2nd edit.), 363, pl. 2,

figs. 7, 8. 1939,

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA | 459

My above quoted description was a comparative one for publica-

tion in a London magazine. The following is a more complete

description.

Ovum—Typical Pierid shape, the upper onal terminating ina

ring of teeth, sides longitudinally ribbed. Colour white when first

laid, later becoming orange. Laid singly on a leaf or shoot of the

food-plant, above or below.

Young larva—Head brownish green. Body yellowish green,

rather oily-looking. Under .a lens clothed with brownish pubes:

cence.

Full grown larva—Head and body rich leaf green, densely

sprinkled with minute white points, those on the body placed in

transverse lines, and clad with short white pubescence. A fringe of

slightly longer whitish far sublaterally. Venter greenish white

with a green median stripe. Legs and prolegs greenish white, ~

Pupa typically Pierid in shape, the cephalic snout rugose and

slightly down-curved, the thorax keeled, 3rd abdominal somite ‘ex-

panded laterally and ending in a spine above the wing case. Suspend-

ed by a girdle and tail pad of white silk. Colour usually bluish

green, but may be yellower green or, rarely, brownish, the wing

cases and venter paler. The cephalic snout, a dorsal iis on the

pro-thorax, the thoracic keel, a subdorsal patch on the 2nd and the

whole of the dorsal area of the 3rd abdominal somite to the tip of

the spine pale buff. The spine itself and the extreme edge of the

thoracic keel black. Traces of a buff dorsal line on the abdomen

and a yellow lateral line. A subdorsal series of black specks.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 11. vi, 46,

pupated 13. vi. 46 and a male emerged 22. vi. 46.

Talbot, quoting Bell, states that the head in the first two instars

jis black. I did not observe this.

Anapheis aurcia ¥., aurota (Belenors mesentina Cr.)

Moore, Cat. Lep. Mus. E. I. Co., i, 72, pl. 12, figs. 9, 9a. 1857.

Bell, Aitken and Davidson, Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., x, 575.

1897.

Moore, Lep. /nd., Vi, 158, pl. 527, fig. 1. 1904.

Bingham, Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies, ii, 157. 1907.

Bell, Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxi, 1153. 1912.

Talbot, Fauna Brit. I[nd., Butterflies, i(2nd edit.), 381, She 2, figs.

Sy IMS).

Ovum—Of typical Pierid shape, upright, longitudinally ribbed,

the top surrounded by a ring of teeth. Laid in fairly large batches.

Colour almost white when first laid, later becoming a bale creamy

yellow.

Istinstac—Head black. Body oily, yellowish-green. Clothed

with forked, colourless hairs.

Full grown larva—-Head black dotted with yellow, each dot emit-

ting a white bristle, the clypeus filled in with greenish and outlined

by a broad, green, inverted V. Body with a broad, shiny, yellow-

green, dorsal stripe with the central portion rather bluer green, a

grey-black lateral stripe and a yellow green sublateral. 1st somite

with a yellow dorsal collar. 2nd and 3rd somites with four raised

yellow points dorsally, 4th to llth somites with an anterior

460 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCLEVY, Vol, 47

inner and a _ posterior outer pair of raised yellow _ points.

The lateral stripe, which encroaches slightly onto the dorsal

area on the 12th somite and which joins on the 13th leaving

asmall V-shaped yellow-green dorsal spot, minutely yellow-

speckled and with a median series of raised yellow points. A sub-

lateral series of raised yellow points. Anal plate black. Venter, legs

and prolegs yellow green, the legsand prolegs with black shanks, The

dorsum of the lst somite anteriorly and the sublateral area clothed

with short white hairs, the rest of the body pubescent,

In the 2nd and 3rd instars the head is black and the larvae are

gregarious. The yellow speckling of the head and the V mark

develop inthe 4th instar, when the larvae scatter.

Typical Pierid pupa in shape, head produced into a short central

point, thorax slightly keeled, 3rd abdominal somite with a large

spine over the edge of the wing case. Suspended by a girdle and

tail pad of white silk. Colour pale whitish-, greenish», or pinkish-

grey, the cephalic snout, the posterior slope of the thoracic keel and

the abdominal spine outlined with black. The thorax streaked and

spotted with blackish, abdominal somites with two dorsal and a

subdorsal series of minute black specks. ‘Thoracic somites each

with six, abdominal with four, raised yellow spots. A whitish

lateral line, below which the abdomen is paler. Wing cases paler,

streaked along the inner margin with blackishand with short blackish

streaks along the veins starting from black specks on the outer

margin.

Food-plant— Capparis horrida.

Described from larvae bred from ova found in Calcutta, one of

which pupated 20. v. 46 and a male emerged 25. v. 46.

The pupa is described as being dimorphic, a green form being

produced among leaves. Talbot’s figure shews a green pupa with

yellow spots, although the text states that the green form has them

black.

I found the larvae very delicate in the pre-pupational stage, many

of them bleeding profusely and dying after they had hung up.

GRYPOCERA

CELAENORRHINAE

Tagiades japetus Cr. (atticus Swinh. nec F.), khasiana Moore.

Ovum—Pale crimson. Almost spherical, the base flattened.

Under a lens with a few, slightly raised ribs running from imicropyle

to base, and covered with pale buff hairs, presumably from the anal

tuft of the female. Laid singly on the upperside of a leaf of the

food-plant.

Newly hatched larva~-Head large, honey-coloured, slightly in-

dented above. Body dull green, with a broad dorso-lateral crimson

stripe.

Half grown larva—Head black, heart-shaped, fairly large. Body

ereenish yellow with a dorso-lateral crimson stripe.

Full grown larva—Head dark mahogany, broadly heart-shaped,

rather large. Body greyish green, minutely speckled with white, a

—

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 401

dark, pulsating, dorsal stripe. Legs and prolegs pale grey-green.

Anal flap fat and rounded, yellowish. Ist somite constricted forming

a neck.

The young larva lives in a cel] formed of a roughly circular piece

cut from the edge of the leaf, turned over and secured by a few

silken threads. The circular piece is not entirely severed, a small

attachment being left. ‘The habit is lost in older larvae, at any rate

in captivity.

Pupa between two spun-together leaves, and supported by a girdle

and tail pad. Unangled, head truncate, square, with a short, central,

forward-pointing, tuberculate process. General ground colour pale

bone, minutely speckled with brown so that there is a pale brown

appearance. Head and pro-thorax suffused with brown, a diffused

brown stripe on the meso-thorax and with the thoracic sutures brown.

Paired blackish dorsal spots on the 2nd, 6th and 7th abdominal

somites, which may be obsolescent. Underside of the head with a

chalky-white diamond containing a dark brown M. Wing cases with

two, roughly diamond-shaped chalky-white blotches, the anterior

small, the posterior larger. The 3rd abdominal somite with a

triangular, chalky-white, lateral mark just above the wing case. An

interrupted subdorsal brown stripe on the abdominal somites,

indistinctly edged below with chalky-white. 6th to 8th abdominal

somites with indistinct chalky-white lateral patches. Two lateral

black spots on the 4th abdominal somite against the wing case. 4th

to 6th abdominal somites with a sublateral series of brown streaks.

Cremaster down-curved. The chalky-white markings composed of

an external waxy powder.

Described from larvae bred from ova found in Calcutta, one of

which pupated 13. xi. 46 and a male emerged 22. xi. 46.

HETEROCERA

LYMANTRIIDAE

Perina nuda FE.

Sevastopulo, Journ., Bomb, Nat. Hest. Soc., xi, 405. 1938.

Ovum—Spherical, flattened above, the micropylar area depres-

sed. Colour reddish purple,a silvery ring round the micropylar

area. Laid in small, neat, regular batches. Laid 31. x. 46. Hatched

6. xi. 46.

1st instar—Head chestnut. Body yellowish, 4th and 5th somites

With the dorsum black, 7th to LOth with adouble dorsal grey stripe,

which joins on the 10th somite. Ist somite with subdorsal tubercles.

Clothed with long, plumose, colourless hairs.

2nd instar—Head black. Body grey, the Ist, 4th and 5th somites

black dorsally. A subdorsal black stripe on the 2nd and 3rd and

on the 7th to 10th somites, where it is joined by a black transverse

bar. Subdorsal tubercles onthe Ist somite and a transverse band

on the llth orange. Clad with long, grey, simple hairs.

3rd instar—Similar but generally darker. The tubercles on the

Ist somite black and the orange on the llth reduced and more

crimson.

462 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

4th instar—Body blackish, the dorsal area of the 2nd and 3rd

somites blue-grey, a white dorsal line on the 7th to 9th somites.

Otherwise similar to previous instar.

5th instar—similar.

6th (penultimate) instar—Similar to preceding, but the head dark

brownish grey. The subdorsal area on the 7th to 9th somites with

the hair-bearing warts ringed with blue.

Described from larvae bred from ova obtained froma female

caught in Calcutta.

SPHINGIDAE

Detlephila neriz L.

Sevastopulo, Jowrn., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xiv, 420. 1944.

Re-reading Bell and Scott’s description of the larva of this species

(Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, v, 270. 1937), I have noticed an error.

The 3rd instar larva is said to have the horn particoloured, the basal

half green, the apical half thin and translucent, the two parts

separated by a black ring, whilst the 4th instar larva is described as

being similar in all resyects to the full grown one. This is incorrect,

it is the 4th instar larva that has the horn particoloured, the horn

of the 3rd instar larva being piace With the extreme base yellow and

of normal shape.

Nectar

Leucania trregularis Wk.

Ovum—Very pale yellow with slight opalescen reHections. Al-

most spherical, the base flattened, but usually flattened above as

well through the pressure of the grass blade within which it is laid.

Laid in small batches ina folded blade of grass and covered with a

transparent cement. Unsculptured. Laid 22. xi. 46. Hatched 28. xi.

46.

Ist instar—-Head dark honey colour. Body grey, turning green

after feeding. A few short colourless hairs. Moves as a semi-

looper.

2nd instar —Head dark honey colour. Body brown, turning green

after feeding, with eight longitudinal purple lines.

3rd instar —Similar to preceding.

4th instar—Head pale brown, a darker line on each side of: the

clypeus. Body with the dorsum olive green witha pale dorsal line

and two more indistinct paie lines on either side, the olive green

area bounded by a pale subdorsal line. Below the subdorsal line

there is a brownish-green line, its edges darker, and bordered below

by another pale line, below which is a narrow purple-brown lateral]

line edged below in turn by a pale line, a yellow-green line anda

pale line.

5th instar—Head pale brown, a darker line from outside the

clypeus to the vertex. Body green, the colour and pattern formed

by minute dots ona pale ground. A double dark green dorsal line,

a narrow dark green subdorsal stripe with an indistinct dark line

between it andthe dorsal line. A white line below the subdorsal

line, followed bya pale olive stripe with darker edges, a very

airow white line and a dark green stripe with a pale central line, A

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 403

white spiracular line, below which is a brown stripe and a second

white line. Venter, legs and prolegs pale green.

Final instar—Head pale brown with a darker honeycomb pattern

laterally and a dark line outlining the clypeus and median suture.

Body with the dorsal area blackish, a white median line and a white

subdorsal line with a black line immediately above it. Below the

subdorsal line, a narrow olive stripe with a rufous centre, below

which is a narrow blackish stripe, very narrowly edged above and

below with whitish, followed by a rufous stripe edged below with

whitish. The sublateral area and venter greenish grey. Legs and

prolegs greenish grey, the latter with an external blackish shield-

shaped mark. ‘The above is a description of the newly moulted

larva, as the instar progresses the colours become paler and duller.

Pupa subterranean in a slight earthen cocoon. Pale chestnut

brown, the intersegmental areas darker. ‘The anterior edge of the

4th to 7th abdominal somites with a transverse dentate dorsal ridge.

Cremaster a divergent double spine.

Food-plant—Grasses.

Described {from larvae bred from ova laid by a female caught in

Calcutta, one of which pupated 21. xii. 496 and a male emerged

721-47,

Corgatha zonalis W1k.

Head dark grey, round and very small. Body mottled dark grey,

Some examples with zig-zag transverse stripes of paler grey. Trans-

versely wrinkled, the skin very rough. First two pairs of abdominal

prolegs obsolete. The larva normally walks with a looping motion,

but when alarmed it moves sideways with a peculiar jerking gait. It

rests stretched out in chinks of bark, and is very difficult to detect.

Cocoon of greyish silk covered with minute fragments of lichen.

Slipper-shaped, one end much more pointed than the other, and the

blunt (front) end attached to a short silken pedicel. Pupa slender,

pale olive, the thorax and base of the wing cases deeper green. ‘he

free segments of the abdomen with the intersegmental areas dark

brown. Cremaster a twin point without any hooked spines.

Food-plant—A grey lichen growing on the trunks of Palm

trees.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 1. vii. 45, spun

3. vil. 45 and a male emerged 12. vii. 45.

Beara dichromella WIk.

Sevastopulo, Jourvn., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xiii, 289. 1941.

Another form has the head orange brown. The body yellow-

ish-olive. Thoracic somites with the dorsal area greyish and with

large subdorsal black spots on the 2nd and 3rd somites. 4th somite

with a transverse, chalky white bar. 5th somite orange brown

dorsally with two orange brown dorsal tubercles. 6th to LOth somites

with a broad, chalk-white, dorsal stripe. 11th somite orange brown

dorsally, with a transverse white band posteriorly, slightly humped

and with two dorsal tubercles and a black lateral speck. 12th and 13th

somites tinged with orange. Clad with single, medium length,

464 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47

whitish hairs arising from white specks, the subdorsal ones, and also

the lateral one on the 5th somite, black-ringed. Spiracles black.

Venter, legs and prolegs pale green.

Described from a full fed larva found in @aleutes 29, ix. 46, spun

1. x. 46 and a male emerged 7. x. 46.

Ercheta diversipennits Wik.

Forsaythe, Zvans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 412. 1884.

Hampson, Cat. Lep. Phal., xii, 487, 1913.

Gaede, Seztz Indo-Austr. Noctuidae, xi, 477. 1938.

~Ovum—Almost spherical, with numerous beaded ribs from

micropyle to base. When first laid deep greenish-blue, afterwards

becoming heavily blotched with purple-brown, finally ending up all

purplish-brown with two whitish C-shaped marks joined by a

curved line at top and bottom. In captivity, laid singly on blades of

grass. Laid 6. xii. 46. Hatched 12. xii. 46.

Newly hatched larva--Grey, long and-slender, the first two pairs

of prolegs absent. Under a lens clothed with sparse black hairs.

Rests erect like a Geometer and moves with a looping motion.

Food-plant—Forsayeth gives Grass, but my larvae refused it

and died without feeding.

Described from material obtained in Calcutta.

Hampson, quoting Forsayeth, gives the following description :—

‘Pale grey, ventral surface deep pink. Cocoon in a doubled-up leaf

with a piece of grass attached.’ Seitz’ description is almost the same

except that the venter is said to be dark red.

Achaea serva F.

Head dark reddish brown, the clypeus filled in with pale brown

and outlined by a pale brown stripe, a yellow spot on either side of

the vertex. Body with the ground colour pale grey, plentifully

sprinkled with minute specks that compose the markings. These

consist of a purple-brown dorsal stripe, expanding in the middle of

each somite, a darker brown subdorsal stripe, the specks on the edge

of which are still darker, a purple-brown lateral stripe anda darker

brown sublateral stripe, all these stripes with the outline very

irreguiar. llth somite slightly humped and with two orange red

dorsal tubercles, a transverse black line just behind them, which

continues obliquely to the lateral area. 12th somite with two

blackish dorsal dots. Spiracles orange brown. Legs pink. Abdomin-

al prolegs greyish with a yellowish shield-shaped mark edged with

black externally, the first pair obsolescent. Anal claspers very long,

grey speckled with purple brown. Venter almost without speckling

a dark brown spot between each pair of legs, a larger spot on the 6th

somite between the prolegs, on the 7th somite with the spot be-

tween the prolegs pinkish-purple, shading into brown anteriorly,

a pinkish-purple spot between the prolegs on the 8th and 9th somites,

a median brown spot on the 10th somite and a median streak on the

Lith.

Pupa in a slight cocoon between two leaves. Pale chestnut

brown in colour, but so thickly powdered with bloom that it appears

_ / a

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 463

very pale lilac, except on the intersegmental areas. Extreme tip of

the abdomen almost black, not covered with bloom, and long-

itudinally wrinkled. Armed with a few short stout hooked spines,

the central pair longer and entangled in the silk of the cocoon.

Described from afull fed larva found in Calcutta 6. vi. 46, pupated

8. vi. 46 and a female emerged 18. vi. 46.

Mocts (Remigia) trugalis F.

Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xliii, 45. 1942.

Ovum—Darkish green when freshly laid, afterwards blotched

with dull purple. Almost spherical, under a lens with numerous ribs

from micropyle to base. Laid singly on blades ofgrass. Laid 28.x.46.

Hatched 1.xi.46.

Ist instar—Very long and slender; at first brown, becoming green

after feeding, the head pale brown. Very like a Geometer, both in

its resting attitude and mode of progress.

2nd instar—Greenish with a subdorsal, lateral and sublateral

purple line, the subdorsal line slightly broader and continued onto

the head.

3rd instar—Similar but the ground colour between the purple

lines whitish. Traces of the black intersegmental colouring between

the 4th-5th and 5th-6th somites.

4th instar—Very similar to the adult.

Described from larvae bred from ova obtained from a female

caught in Calcutta.

Ophideres fullonica L.

Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xiii, 290. 1941.

Ovum—Yellowish-green, translucent. Dome-shaped. Under a

lens the chlorion dull. Laid singly on the under-side ofa leaf of the

food-plant.

Ist instar—-Head yellow brown. Body rather oily green, Ist

somite with a brown dorsal plate. 4th to 7th and 11th somites with

transverse brownish bands laterally. Under alens with fairly large

black specks emitting short black bristles. Legs and prolegs black,

first pair of the latter obsolete. Resting position gripping with the

abdominal prolegs, the rear part of the body held erect, the fore part

also erect and curved, the true legs not gripping, the whole forming

a rather flattened S.

A larva found in the 3rd instar had the head olive brown.

The body olive green with a darker dorsal line. Ocelli on the 5th

and 6th somites with the pupil dark olive green instead of black. The

blotches in which the spiracles are set dull plum-colour, the spiracles

themselves orange-brown rimmed with black, the whole ringed with

olive-green. Legs olive brown, the terminal joint black. Other

markings as in the usual black form,. but lacking the maroon

subdorsal stripe. Assumed the normal black colour in the final

instar, but stillslightly bronzy, and still lacked the maroon subdorsal

stripes.

466 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, a7

Another larva found in the final instar had the head olive brown.

The body pale green, speckled laterally with white, the dorsal area

of the abdominal somites glaucous. The blue dots very pale. Ocelli

on the 5th and 6th somites consisting of a very pale bluish green

pupil, with a pale blue spot in the lower quarter, rimmed with black,

round which is a black-edged white ring, in the anterior ocellus this

is wide in the anterior half and narrow posteriorly, in the posterior

,ocellus only the upper anterior quarter is wide, and that not so wide

as in the anterior ocellus, the rest narrow. Spiracles terra-cotta, not

set in terra-cotta blotches. No maroon subdorsal stripes. A bluish

white line running from above the proleg on the 9th somite obliquely

upward to the subdorsal area of the 10th. Legs honey colour, the

terminal joint black. Prolegs and venter pale green, the latter with

a darker median line.

Described from material found in Calcutta in July 1946.

Libisosa (Simplicia) robustalis Guen.

Ovum—Bun-shaped, almost transparent pale grey. About

twenty-four hours after being laid, they develop a few, irregular,

criss-cross, purple-brown streaks. Under alens unsculptured. Laid

singly. Laid 10.v.46. Hatched 13.v.46.

1st instar—Very long and thin, a semi-looper. When first hatched

almost transparent greyish pink, after feeding very pale green,

but stillalmost transparent. Under a lens with transverse series of

minute black specks emitting fine black bristles, Ist and 2nd pairs

of prolegs obsolete. ;

2nd instar—Head pale honey colour. Body pinkish grey, fairly

transparent and taking its general colour from the contents of the

intestines. Under a lens with minute black specks. Slightly stouter

proportionately than previously. lst and 2nd pairs of prolegs

rudimentary.

3rd instar—Head pale brown. Body dull green, minutely

reticulated with purple-brown. Traces of a purple-brown dorsal,

subdorsal and lateral line. The intersegmental areas tinged with

brownish. A brown dorsal plate on the Ist somite.

4th instar—Very similar. To the naked eye it appears a dull

dark grey. The head purple brown minutely speckled with

yellowish.

5th instar—Similar.

6th instar—Similar. The dorsal line prominent, the subdorsal

and lateral lines almost obliterated by the reticulations.

7th instar—Similar.

Food-plant—The larvae refused Dalbergia szssoo, both fresh

and dead, but nibbled Cassia fistula and appeared to prefer a species

of Amarantus. The food-plant was evidently unsuitable, as the

larvae grew very slowly and pepeures stunted, all dying by the 7th

instar.

Described from larvae obtained from ova laid by a female caught

in Calcutta.

Maxwell-Lefroy (dian Insect Life) describes this as a brown

larva feeding on the fallen, dead, dry leaves of Dalbergia sissoo ? -

THE EARLY STAGHS OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 4Oy

GEOMETRIDAE

Comtbaena cassidava Guen.

Hamps., ///.'Het., ix, 145, pl. 176, fig. 18a.18, 1893.

Hamps., fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, iii, 488. 1895,

Prout, Seztz Lzdo-Austr. Geometridae, xii, 92. 1933.

Ovum—Broadly ovoid, flattened above and below. Colour pale

straw yellow, with a white line outlining an oval patch on the upper

surface. Under a lens minutely punctate. Laid singly or in threes

and fours. Laid 24. xii.46. Hatched 31. xii. 46. |

lst instar—Head pale chestnut. Body greyish, with a subdorsal

series of stout black bristles, to which the larva immediately on

hatching attaches particles of leaf. Shape rather short and stout.

2nd instar—Pale buff, the subdorsal bristles replaced by short

fleshy processes, to which the scraps of leat are attached. Process on

the 8th somite lateral rather than subdorsal.

Adult larva—Head brown, an indistinct pale stripe on either

side of the clypeus, small. Body of varying shades of brown, some

distinctly tinged with yellow or orange, others with olive. A dark

dorsal stripe, interrupted intersegmentally and broader at the

anterior margin of each somite, and a short subdorsal streak origin-

ating from the intersegmental area, whichis darker. A dark undulate

ventro-lateral stripe. ‘Thoracic somites each with a fleshy subdorsal

scolus and a pair of minute, raised, dorsal points. 4th to 7th somites

each with a fleshy subdorsal scolus and two lateral, the lateral. pair

smaller than the subdorsal and the anterior lateral one slightly larger

than the posterior. 8th somite with the subdorsal scolus minute, the

lateral pair larger. 9th somite backwards with simall sublateral

scoli, 12th somite with a subdorsal scolus. All the scoli termi-

nating ina stout bristle. Spiracles large, dark brown. Resting

attitude with the head and thoracic somites curled under the body.

The larva attaches fairly large pieces of leaf and stick to the scoli

with short strands of silk.

Pupa in a domed net, covered with the pieces of leaf previously

worn by the larva. Colour reddish brown, speckled with dark

brown, some examples very much darker than others. The sides of

the thorax suffused with dark brown, a dark brown dorsal, subdorsal

and ventro-lateral stripe on the abdominal somites. Wing cases

streaked with dark brown and covered with pale granules. Antenna

cases with a brown streak. Spiracles black. Head and pro-thorax

truncate. ‘Tip of the abdomen armed with hooked spines.

Food-plant—Zzziphus jujuba, Lagerstroemia indica, [xora spp.

Described from larvae bred from ova obtained from a Calcutta-

caught female, one of which pupated 22.1. 47 and a male emerged

31. i. 47.

. Hampson’s description is ‘ Uniform yellowish-drab. ‘The sides

of each somite are produced into fleshy processes, upon which the.

larva fastens small pieces of withered leaves and sticks as a disguise.

It rests with the anterior somites doubled undeineath its body.’ The

larva figured has the fleshy processes rather larger than mine, Seitz.

merely records the food-plants.

468 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47

Ptochophyle togata F.

Sevastopulo, Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xlvi, 87. 1946.

Ovum—Cylindrical, the ends rounded. When first laid bright

yellow, later a deep scarlet suffusion develops at the ends and centre

and gradually spreads over almost the whole of the surface. Laid,

3. x. 46. Hatched 6. x. 46.

Newly hatched larva—Very pale straw colour witha dark purple

dorsal and ventral line. }

Full grown larva—Head pale yellowish green, tinged with pink,

bifid above and outlined with deep pink. Body dull pale green,

slightly tinged with pinkish. 6th somite with a -purple, heart-

shaped, dorsal spot anteriorly, a sublateral blackish-brown tubercle

and a V-shaped mark composed of five blackish-brown spots

ventrally. Legs purplish-pink. Prolegs pale yellowish green.

Venter rather yellower green and more deeply tinged with pink.

Under a lens with very minute black specks. Shape long and

slender. Resting position with the body extended and slightly

arched. As the instar advances the degree of pink suffusion lessens.

Apart from the absence of the tooth on the anal claspers, the larva

greatly resembles a Zhalassodes.

Food—-plant—4ugenza jambolana.

Described from larvae bred from ova obtained from a Calcutta-

caught female.

PYRALIDAE

Macalla carbonifera Meyr.

Head bright lemon yellow, minutely blotched with pale orange.

Body yellow-green. A pale mauve dorsal line and subdorsal stripe,

the latter edged below by a dark violet line, followed by a whitish

line, a broader violet line and a narrow greenish-yellow stripe.

The greenish-yellow stripe edged below with dark violet on the Ist

and 2nd somites. Spiracles white rimmed with dark brown. A few

longish single colourless hairs arising from minute black specks.

Venter, legs and prolegs yellow green. The colours are brighter im-

mediately after ecdysis, becoming paler and duller as the instar

progresses. Becomes. suffused with brownish-purple before

pupation. The iarva lives ina web of white silk.

Pupa in a cocoon of parchment-like brown silk spun in a folded

leaf. Dark mahogany, the thorax and anterior abdominal somites

still darker dorsally. Wing cases slightly olive-tinged. Head square

in front. Cremaster a bunch of fine spines.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 5. v. 46, spun

8. v. 46 and a male emerged 19. v. 46.

Syngamia tloridalis Zell.

Head whitish with a black lateral stripe. Body green, the colour

due almost entirely to the contents of the intestines, and very much

paler below the spiracular line. Ist somite with a green dorsal

plate, the sides thereof black. 2nd and 3rd somites with a black

subdorsal spot, two black lateral spots and a blackish streak be-

tween the subdorsal and lateral spots. Abdominal somites with a

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 46g

subdorsal, lateral and sublateral black spot, the sublateral

spot smallest. A pulsating dark dorsal line and a very fine, white,

spiraculat line. Legs honey colour. Prolegs and anal claspers al-

most colourless. A few colourless hairs. Lives in a silk-lined fold

of a leaf.

Pupa in a slight cocoon of white silk in a turned-over leaf. Pale

yellowish chestnut, the intersegmental lines on the abdomen darker.

Cremaster a stout spike, slightly knobbed at the end and terminat-

ing in a few hooked spines. Pro-thoracic spiracie rather large and

black.

Food—plant-Urticaceae sp,

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 2. xi. 45, pupat-

ed 6. xi. 46 and. a male emerged 14. xi. 46.

Gly phodes canthusalis W1k.

Ovum—Scale-like ovals, laid in small batches. Colour yellowish

ereen, tinged with grey. Laid 14. x. 46. Hatched 19. x. 46.

Newly hatched larva—Pale green, the head black.

Half grown larva-—Head black. Body green, the colour due

mainly to the contents of the intestines. A black dorsal plate on the

lst somite, 2nd and 3rd somites with a lateral and subdorsal block

dot. The spiracle on the llth somite set in a black dot. 12th

somite, anal flap and claspers blackish. A few colourless hairs.

Legs black.

Full grown larva—Head iarge, pale buff, the clypeus and lateral

area suffused with fuscous. Body itself almost colourless,but appear-

ing green due to the contents of the intestines, the thoracic somites

tinged with amber. A dark green, pulsating, dorsal line. First

somite with a pale brown dorsal plate, fuscous at the sides. Spiracle

on the 11th somite large and black. 12th somite with a transverse

series of four black idots. Legs: pale amber. Preolegs and anal

claspers almost colourless, glassy. A few colourless hairs.

Spiracles, except that on the llth somite, white. Segmental divi-

sions rather deeply cut laterally.

The larva lives in a web:of fine white silk between two leaves.

Pupa in a slight cocoon in a turned-over leaf. Very pale, trans-

lucent, grey-green, the abdominal somites, except for a dorsalstripe

marbled with yellowish-chestnut, darker laterally. A double brown

line on the thorax, the thoracic sutures all outlined with brown.

Wing cases outlined with brown, and with a brown line running from

the base to the inner margin just above the tornus. Antenna sheaths

brown, faint brown lines along the sutures of the leg, antenna and

proboscis sheaths. Abdominal somites with a very fine median and

posterior transverse brown line. Head with two small forward.

pointing tubercles. Antenna and leg sheaths extending to the 6th

abdominal somite. Cremaster a stout brown spike, ending in a

cluster of hooked spines. Spiracles white, slightly raised.

Food-plant- /zcus veligiosa.

Described from larvae bred from ova obtained from a Calcutta

caught female, one of which pupated 5, xi, 46 and a female, emerged

NE Xt 40

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE ANDAMANS AND NICOBARS

LT.-COL. M. es FERRAR, C.S.I., C.1.E.; O.B.E.

(Indian Army, retired list.)

(With five plates)

These notes were nearing completion when War broke out in

1939 and they were put to one side. With the return of opportunity

in the winter of 1945-46, I was able to complete the rearrangement

-of my collection, which is now the property of the British Museum

and also to write up the Lycaenidae and Hesperiidae and thus finish

my task.

No general paper on the butterflies of the Andamans and Nicobars

has appeared since the series of papers published by Woodmason

and de Nicéville in various issues of the Journal of the Asiatic Society

of Bengal for the years 1880-82. The number of forms described

therein is 133. The present paper deals with 268 forms and is based

on a collection of 3,000 set and 1,000 unset specimens, the result of

eight years collecting while I was Chief Commissioner of the Islands

during the years 1923 to1931. Three months before I left Port Blair

on retirement I had the great good fortune to receive a visit from

Brigadier W. H. Evans, who worked several of the localities in the

Great and Little Andaman and also accompanied me on a trip round

the Nicobars. Asa result of work in the field and of examination of

my collection Brigadier Evans was able to name one new Species and

22 new races and to restore the names of a few races which had

latterly been sunk and to include this new information in the second

edition of his Identification of Indian Butterflies, then in preparation

for the press. Though progress has been made, much remains for

other collectors in these islands to achieve, especially among the

Hesperiidae, which through a foolish prejudice I neglected until my

last year in Port Blair. Again certain areas remain completely or

partially unworked, among the former Narkondam, Barren Island,

the Brothers, the Sisters and in the Nicobars, Bompoka; among the

latter, the Cocos, North Sentinel, the Little Andaman and, in the

Nicobars, Tillanchong. No attempt was made by me to study the

food plants or the life history of purely local forms, but the unusual

length of my stay in the Islands was of material help in determining

the comparative rarity of different butterflies and in deciding whether

some should not be regarded as occasional migrants or even storm-

driven refugees.

The Andamans and Nicobars lie on a curve between Cape

Negrais in Burma and the west end of Sumatra. The Great Anda-

man may be considered as one large island though actually

divided by narrow tidal creeks into five parts, the North, Middle and

South Andamans, Baratang and Rutland. This mass is 170 miles

long and has an average width of 15 miles. Round it lie numerous

oad

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE ANDAMANS AND’ NICOBARS 471

small islands of which only the Cocos, 20 miles to the north and

North Sentinel, 25 miles to the west are sufficiently far away to

merit special attention from the butterfly collector. The Gt.

Andaman is deeply indented by bays and creeks and is almost every-

where hilly. The highest point, Saddle Peak, 2,400 ft., is in the

North Andaman, elsewhere ranges or isolated peaks rise to 1,000 or

1,500 ft. Except where cleared by man or where a rare extrusion

of serpentine rock on the summit of Saddle Peak or in Rutland or the

Cinque Islands forbids tree growth, the entire land surface is covered

with tropical forest and open spaces are only to be met with along

the banks of a few streams, as in the Betapur, Bomlungta and Rongat

valleys of the Middle Andaman or the Social River running through

the Karen village We Bi. The forests start with mangrove, then

cane brakes and evergreen forest on alluvial land, then on the lower

and more gentle slopes are found deciduous species, then on steeper

slopes more evergreens occur with finally ringalls and scrub jungle

clothing a few of the highest summits. Round Port Blair there are

some 20,000 acres of cleared land comprising ricefields, coconut and

other plantations and grazing land, mixed with scattered patches of

secondary jungle crossed at the foot of the bigger hills by nullahs

with small perennial streams holding the patches of moist sand dear

to tropical butterflies and their collectors. Rain to an average total of

150 inches may be expected throughout the months May to December.

During the dhup kala or sunny season of January to April the

streams dry up and the land where cleared turns to iron, though

sufficient humidity remains inside the forest to make forest fires un-

known. ‘This short and incomplete dry period prevents most of the

seasonal dimorphism common on the Indian continent. Dimorphism

occurs mainly among prairie forms such as Melanttis itsmene,

Mycalesis visala, Precis almana, Hypolimnas bolina, Eurema hecabe

and the two Cedoras and toa less extent /xzas pyrene, Euploea anda-

manensis, Neptis hylas and Neptis jumba in the Andamans. It is

absent in the Nicobars.

Narkondam and Barren Island lie some 60 miles to the east of

the Gt. Andaman. The former with its unique hornbill may also

possess some unique butterfly. Barren Island now well wooded was

barren indeed when seen by Blair in1788(?) but nevertheless deserves

a visit from an entomologist.

A channel of 30 miles width separates the Great from the Little

Andaman, a low flat island 350 square miles in extent. Several

landings at Bumila Creek in the north and Hut Bay on the east

produced numerous specimens of a very distinct local race of

Euploea andamanensis and three pairs of alovely grey blue race of

Parthenos sylvia and a more prolonged search might produce other

exciting finds.

The stream flowing into the S. end of Hut Bay should be worked.

Extensive air photographs of the Little Andaman are now in exist-

ence and will considerably aid any ground exploration of the island.

Between Little Andaman and Car Nicobar lies the Ten Degree

Channel, 75 miles wide. The Nicobar Islands are scattered and form

three groups. Car Nicobar, area 50 square miles, lies isolated in the

North. 45 miles to the southward begins the Central Group which

includes Kamorta, Nankauri, Trinkat and Kachal fairly close to one

472 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47

another with Teressa, Bompoka, Chaura and Tillanchong a little

further away. These total some 250 to 300 square miles, After’30 miles

of open sea we come to the Southern Group, Pulo Milo, L. Nicobar,

Kondul and Gt. Nicobar. This group somewhat resembles the

Gt. Andaman in physical features and vegetation but the mountains

are grander and more abrupt, and the forest is more tropical, and

the streams are real rivers.

The dangerous reefs surrounding this group make landing often

impossible even on the lee side, and proximity to the Equator brings

almost daily rain. Many of my visits have been unhappy failures as

far as butterflies were concerned owing to rough weather. To the

forbidding Gt. Nicobar with its barrier of surf, its deserted shores and

gloomy cloud capped mountains, Car Nicobar offers the greatest

contrast. It is a vast coconut plantation with occasional patches of

lightjungle,swamp or /alang grass. A comparatively dense population

of 150 to the square mile lives happily without causing undue dis-

turbance to plant life and the flora remains sufficiently varied to

produce plenty of butterflies of numerous species. The Central

Nicobars range from the high forest of Kachal to the bare lalang

downs of Kamorta. Generally speaking wherever there is a little

flat land behind the beach there is a rough plantation of coconut,

pandanus and lesser fruit trees through which the collector can

wander in search of some small stream descending from the hills

that form the background. Such a stream exists at Kondul and the

collector should make straight for its upper pools as soon as he sets

foot ashore. A much larger and better stream I only found in my

last year. It descends from Mt. Thuillier to the deserted bay of

Laful on the east of Gt. Nicobar. Its valley is full of good things.

Often the newcomer lands to find the shore is merely a narrow sand-

bank with impassable mangrove swamp behind. This was particu-

larly the case on the Little Andaman. The result was disappointment

and wasted effort so far as butterfly collecting went, though the ex-

tensive air survey of the Little Andaman made during the war will no

doubt lessen the difficulties of the explorer in the future. Time is

scheduled and programmes must be kept, so the collector has had to

return to the shipto hope for better luck or a more seasonable landing

hour at the next anchorage. All these islands should of course be

worked by collectors as Boden Kloss worked them, in a privately

owned craft. Butterfly collecting and a Government steamer

programme are necessarily a bad fit.

The fauna of the Andamans is held to be more closely allied to

that of Burma than of India, while the fauna of the Nicobars has some

affinities with that of Malaya. The butterflies follow these general

lines, but with many vagaries of distribution for which one cannot

account. Why are certain common species found in the islands while

others equally common are absent although their food plant is availa-

ble? Many large genera have no representative. Of the six species

of Precis three occur in both groups. Why not any of the other three?

Of the very large genus Amblypodia not one form occurs in the Nico-

bars and only one commonly in the Andamans. On the other hand

some genera are in great strength, eg. dppias, Eurema (Terias) and

Euploea. Among Lycaenidae there are no less than 17 forms of

Nacaduba and 10 of Jamides. Thenagain several butterflies extremely

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE ANDAMANS AND NICOBARS 473

common in India are extremely rare in the Andamans but do occur

regularly, such are D. chrysippus, L. boeticus and Appias olferna.

Again the Gt. Andaman had been industriously worked by Wimber-

ley, de Roepstorff, Woodmason and others, 50 years and more ago

and by several collectors since, but it was not till 1927 that the cons-

picuous Yoma sabrina vasukt was observed. In that year it was ex-

tremely numerous for several months in the Middle and South Anda-

mans and must have bred there for it was repeatedly taken quite

fresh. Since then it has not been seen. During my first four years

I saw and took only one Appias albina darada. In 1927 this species

was to be taken by the hundred. During the next four years I never

saw it. Some seven or eight of the species recorded in this paper

are almost certainly stragglers and indeed some of the individuals

among them were captured after heavy gales. Some forms have

only been taken in areas which are inexplicably small. Aelzophorus

epicles is common at ‘Bomlungta in December and January but has

been seen nowhere else. It is identical in appearance with the same

species occurring in far off Kumaon. Avtife eryx,a rare form, also

occurs only at Bomlungta. It is impossible to understand why these

two butterflies are not found throughout the Gt. Andaman. Jamddes

kankena pseudelpis and Eurema andersont andamana fly in great

numbers at Bomlungta in December. They are extremely rare in

the S. Andaman. One interesting Malayan form, Aypolimnas

anttlope anomala is found only in one smali locality on Car Nicobar,

the furthest of the Nicobars from Malaya. Danaus affinis malayana

has been taken only in one small locality in the Central Nicobars

where there are considerable areas suitable for it. Some of the

insects recorded by previous collectors were never seen by me in eight

years. Of these Ayasa sambilanga is not in the British museum.

Neptis jumba binghami, N. ebusa and Artife eryx I never saw, nor

the females of WV. mar and Doleschallia celinde continentalis. 'The

female of Appias panda chrysea evaded me for 95 out of the 96

months I was in the Islands. During my last month I took three.

A female specimen of 4. schreiberi tisamenus was brought me as a

sort of visiting card by Bhagwan Din my local collector, when I first

engaged him in 1923. It was damaged. I kept the wings of the

right side. In the next seven and a half years neither he nor I

caught or saw another.

The study of the local sub-species and their territorial limits has

proved very interesting. It has been said above that for some un-

ascertained reason certain species in the Gt. Andaman are

very severely localized. In spite of this there is no instance of jany

species in this homogeneous area developing different races. For

this argument I include with the Gt. Andaman all those

appurtenances known as the Ritchie Archipelago, the Labyrinth Is-

lands and the Cinques, each of these islands lying within six miles of

some other or of the main Andaman. But when the sea barrier in-

creases to 25 miles it is enough to produce ina few instances very

marked races. Thus Hudloea andamanensis has an undoubted and

most distinct race in the Little Andaman and another not so distinct

but none the less constant race in the North Sentinel. These two

islands are respectively 30 and 25 miles distant from the Gt.

Andaman. Again in the Little Andaman Farthenos sylvia is not

474 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

moss-green as in Port Blair but'a lovely powder blue. Both these

islands have for various good reasons been very imperfectly worked

and more races should be forthcoming. Iam inclined to think that

one or two local races may occur in the Cocos Islands and there mdy

also be more seasonal dimorphism there. I paidaone day visit to

the Gt. Cocos in October 1930 and took or observed some

40 forms all normal. The /Pzeridae seemed specially numerous.

Novelties may reasonably be expected from Narcondam and possibly

Barren Island. Inthe Nicobars the greater distances and depths of

water between islands have led to pronounced localization. Many

species are fotind only in one island or one group, while other species

common to several islands have developed as many as three

races each. Previous writers such as Bingham were content to label

an insect ‘“Andamans” or “ Nicobars”’, without further detail.

Consequently Colonel Bingham in the belief that branded and un-

branded males of Auploea scherzert were to be found flying together

in the same locality treated them as one race whereas in fact un-

branded males are only found in the Southern Nicobars and belong

without dcubt to a constant and well defined race—simulatrix, so

named by. Woodmason and de Nicéville.

A little should be said about hunting seasons and hunting

srounds in the Gt. Andaman. July and August are very poor months

with often not a single butterfly on the wing. By December things

have brightened up and several Lycaenidae have their only or at

least their larger brood then. Bomlungta should without fail receive

attention during December. For the rest March to early June is, as

elsewhere, the great catching time. All the lesser used roads well

away from the cleared settlement should be worked, especially those

to Rangachang, Maimyo, and between Austinabad and Birchganj.

Where these roads cross streams much may be done. At Mt.

Harrietin April a walk round the flowering hedges near the bungalows

once an hour will each time produce afew good Lycaenidae. The

walk to Black Rock has its own special Wymphalidae and the paths

from that walk down to Wimberleyganj should be worked. Hill tops

other than Mt. Harriet I found disappointing, neither Saddle Peak

nor Mt. Ford produced anything. A collector should be sent occa-

sionally to a forest extraction camp with orders to watch elephant

droppings and sap from newly felled trees. allima are attracted

by a whiskey and soda or a glass of claret at a picnic. To conclude

this introduction it should be said that care is necessary to avoid

damage from the prevailing damp of the region. Papered speci-

mens should be dried out before being put away. Store boxes need

watching for psocids. I avoided general damp by an electric light

bulb in the cabinet. Set butterflies are apt to spring, this is specially

the case with the Zuploeas. I must not conclude without expressing

my cordial thanks to Dr. Corbett and his staff at the British

Museum for their kindness and courtesy, and to Brigadier Evans for

his unstinted help and advice.

Note—The paper is accompanied by five uncoloured plates

designed mainly to exemplify the constancy of localraces, especi-

ally among the 4uplocas. Coloured plates would bring out the

differences more clearly. Several other species exhibiting distinct

PLATE I

Journ., BomBay Nat. His. Soc.

a) ’

ferrari Tyt.

a»)

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE ANDAMANS AND NICOBARS 475

localized races have been omitted, such as JVefits hylas and Curetzs

‘sayonts, each with three races.

‘The order and nomenclature in the following list is that of Evans’s Indian

Butterflies, second edition.)

A. PAPILIONIDAE

Wil, TROIDES.

*1 (§) helena heliconoides 8 and 2 v. aphnea Jord, and Andaman. N. R.

March to May and September. Flies high most of the day near the broad leafed

Sterculia villosa but may be taken early and late near the ground. Good places

are the roads to Rangachang and Maimyo and the path to Black Rock on Mt.

Harriet. aripabaee

* () helena ferrari Tyt. Gt. & L. Nicobar and Kondul. Females typically

with whitish stripes upf. It is strange that this well-marked race was never

recorded by de Roepstorff, Man and other entomologists in the nineteenth cen-

tury and was first taken at Kondul in 1926. There are only eight specimens in

collections. On landing at the usual beach at Kondul the collector should turn

left along the shore for three hundred yards, over asmall rocky promontory and

on reaching a small stream just beyond turn right handed and he should soon

see one, possibly two ferrari high above his head. He will be lucky to get one

and luckier stillif that isa male. At perhaps my fifth visit to Kondul I took

two males. The little valley of four or five acres extent watered by this stream

contains many interesting blues and skippers especially at the very top. In

the course of a dozen landings and explorations of the G. and L. Nicobars |

only saw two other individual ferrarz.

A2. TRoS.

6. (Y): coon sambilanga Doh. I searched the B. M. and Tring and

Calcutta museums and found only one at the last named. It bore a Gt. Nicobar

label. In spite of a diligent look out I never saw one in the Southern

Nicobars. ;

7. wvhodifey But. Gt. Andaman, N. R. female much scarcer than male,

Good series in B. M. and Calcutta. Flies slowly along jungle paths in contrast

to the female of szayo, its mimic.

9, hector, 1. A pair were taken by McMillan, very fresh, on 24-6-22, possi-

bly blown to Pt. Blair from Madras. V. R.

* 10. (Y) aristolochiae gontopeltis Roth.—Gt. Andaman especially Pt. Blair,

a prairie flier and very common. Seasonal dimorphism mentioned by Bingham

not apparent. ! {

* (§) aristolochiae sawi Ev.—Car Nicobar, very common, especially at Sawi

Bay, the N. E. monsoon landing place. The race is constant for Car Nicobar.

# (4) aristolochiae ¢amorta. Very common on Camorta and Nankauri but

not found on Kachal only some half dozen miles across the sea.

* (3) aristolochiae kondulana By. Another constant race, N. R. Taken on

Kondul and probably to be found on the rest of the Southern group. In ampli-

fication of Evans’s description I should say that the ends of the post cellular

white spots uph are not convex, and clearly defined asin gomopeltis and sawi

but concave and obscured by a sprinkling of black scales,

A3. CHILASA.

5. (8) clytia tlavolimbatus Ob. g N.R Q much scarcer than 2 March to

May in Gt. Andaman males on flowers or sand.

A4, PAPILIO.

2, memnon agenor L.—R. Two males and two females taken in S. Nicobars

where the butterfly is frequently seen on the open banks of the Galathea and

other big rivers in company with Danaus nesippus. Difficult to obtain. The

female mimics Zyros coon sambilanga. One male straggler taken on Car Nicobar

and one female on Ross Island, Port Blair. The latter was typically alcanor in

form, and both stragglers were probably blown over from Tenssserim. The two

476 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47°

females from Gt. Nicobar have the white markings uph much reduced and the

body almost black in contrast to the yellow body with black stripe of alcanor,

3. mayo, Atk. Gt. and L. Andaman, males N. R. females scarce but should

be got in December. Best locality is the Black Rock path, Mt. Harriet, but

any road through jungle has a few males hurrying up and down it. The

females on the other hand only leave the jungle on one side to dart across the

road and be lost in the jungle on the far side. A mimic of Zyros rhodifer.

Possibly a sub-species of s#ennon.

23. fuscus andamanicus Roth. Gt. Andaman, rather local. The best place

is the Rongat stream East of Bomlungtain the M. Andaman. Males N.R.

females scarce. March and April.

25. B polytes stichioides Ev. Common in open places in the South Andaman,

The two forms of female in equal numbers.

Y polytes nikobarus Fd. Common on Car Nicobar and Camoria, and taken

on Kachal. Females of folytes form at Camorta, as one might expect, incline to

mimic Z7vos camorta.

A5. PATHYSA.

6. 8 antiphates epaminondas Ob.—Males common iocally in Andamans,

females lessso. Found with fuscus at sand and on flowers. A rapid flier

through dense jungle, yet I have never taken a specimen with damaged tails.

A6. ZETIDES.

5. B eurybylus macronius Jord. R. taken locally with fuscus at sand.

8. Y agammemnon andamanicus Lathy. Gt. Andaman, N. R. males fond of

flowers inthe open. More often seen than caught—a remark which applies to

many butterflies.

8S agamemnon decoratus Roth. Very common in Car Nicobar, less so in

Centrai Nicobars.

n agammemnon pulo Ev. S. Nicobars. INot common and in fact only taken

by me after several visits on which I had never seen it, The race has been

separated on three males and one female but seems a good one.

B. PIERIDAE

B 1. LEptTOSIA Hub.

Lnina nina F. N.C. Extremely local in Port Blair, in fact in the 100

square miles of settlement my collector and I took it only in the neighbourhood

of Tusonabad and Cadellganj, to the west of the harbour. Not on the wing for

long in the year; my specimens all taken in June except for one in December

when there is presumably another brood. No seasonal difference apparent.

Mr. Field with four years’ experience only took it at Tusonabad and calls it

rare.

B nina nicobarica Doh. N. R. very local in the Southern Nicobars. My

specimens were all taken in March with the exception of one 2 in September. ~

B8. BELENOIS Hub.

B mesentina mesentina Cr. Bingham reports that a dsf specimen was taken

in 1903 on the Gt. Nicobar. A straggler.

B9. CrEporRA Billberg.

2y nerissa dapha M. On a brief visitto Tillanchong, Nicobars, in March

1924 I took two dsfQ@Q2. They may have been stragglers from Burma.

28 nerissa lichenosa M. Common throughout the year, Gt. andL. Anda-

mans and Gt. Cocos. A distinct dsf occurs for both sexes and also inearly wsf 2

before the full wsf comes in. Sexes equally common.

38 nadina andamana Swin. Andamans, N.R. like dichenosa flies through-

out the year. Bingham says there appears tobe nodsf. This is true for males

but 1 have a female taken on February 8th with black markings on the upper

side very much restricted. Females of this species are not easily come by.

PLATE II

JourN., BomBay Nat. His. Soc,

) Tros aristolochie goniopeltis Roth. 4

) i a sawi Evans <6

) 2, 5 camorta M. 4

) kondulana Evans 6

9? a?

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE ANDAMANS AND NICOBARS 4y7

B10. Appras Hub.

48 libythea olferna Swin. My collectors took 2ggand 399 dsf and 24¢

and 12 wsf on Car Nicobar. The fact that both dry and wet forms occur may

mean that the butterfly is an occasional migrant from the mainland. It is

extremely rare in Car Nicobar. No dry season. forms occur in the Nicobars

normally.

58 lyncida nicobarica M. Car and Central Nicobars. Common. This

females vary considerably in size and in the amount of black on the upper

side.

5») lyncida galbana Fruh. Southern Nicobars, N.R.

68 albina darada Fda. The British Museum contained no specimens of this

race from the Andamans. I have earlier in this paper described how in 1927 it

suddenly appeared in the Andamans in great numbers, at least as regards

males. I obtained only seven females of which two were v. flavalba Fruh.

If it ever reappears in Port Blair, there will probably be no one there interes-

ted in butterflies and able to appreciate the rareness of the visit. Thespecimens

taken are exactly similar to those marked Rangoon in the B. M. I took a pair

on the Gt. Cocos in April 1930 similar to Port Blair specimens of 1927. A female

obtained in Car Nicobar resembles Tenasserim specimens.

79 paulina galathea Fd. Common throughout the Nicobars. There appear

to be six forms of 2

1. upf and uph white

2. upf and uph yellow

3. upf white uph yellow

These forms are found flying together and are not peculiar to any island or

locality

2). z panda chrysea Fruh. Gt. Nicobar is the chief habitat of this most

aristocratic of all the local Pzeridae, and I only once took one on any other of

the South Nicobars. The males may be taken on wet-sand on the banks of big

rivers like the Galathea, in company with males of cyrestis tabula, or if you

land in one of the sandy bays look for any little stream whose outlet to the sea

is headed up by the sand and you should come across a few of the males of

these two species, but not the females which are very rare. At the last of some

12 or 15 landings on different parts of the Gt. Nicobar, whichI was able to visit

only three times in eight years, I took 399 of chrysea in undergrowth inside the

jungle.

; The Calcutta Museum has a good series of chrysea, males but no females.

The B.M. has also had no females.

Each of these three forms may have white or

orange below.

Bll. Catopsir1A Hub.

1 crocale Cr. This is the only Catopsilia which approaches being common

at Port Blair. I have someS5¢¢ and 10 9° from there and one or two. from

-Nankauri. It may beclassed N. R.

2 Pomona F. Andamans R.I have 2 ¢éand 499 taken in October and

April, | have none from the Nicobars.

4 pyvanthe minna Herbst. N.C.6 gd and 2 29 taken in South Andamans

and Gt. Cocos between December and May.

5 florella gnoma F. Andamans, R. 4 taken between December and March.

B12. GANDACA M.

Y havina andamana M. Common everywhere in the Andamans and for the

most of the year, but tnere seem to be two main broods. No _ seasonal

difference.

6 harina nicobarica Ev.—R. taken at Car Nicobar, Nankauri, Gt. and L.

Nicobars, in all 7 ¢¢ and 3 99.

B15. EUREMA, Hub.

4 < blanda silhetana Wall. Andamans, common January to July.

B dlanda moorei M.—Northern and Central Nicobars, N. R.6 ¢¢ from Car

Nicobar and 8 from Nankauri, 229 from Nankauri. The males mostly

resemble Bingham’s figure( Vol. 11, p. 259), but 5 out of 14 have the black border

upf. broader at the apex and show the typical Awrema projection of black in-

wards at V.4. The females much resemble in marking males of sz/hetana from

478 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 49

the Andamans and do nct resemble their own males as Bingham states they do,

except that their ground colour is not paler than that of the males. ¥ a2

Y blanda grisea Ev. S. Nicobars, N. R. 14 gg and2@2. One or two of the

males have the apical markings upf dark enough to make them difficult to

separate from szoorez found at Nankauri but the rest have merely a powdering

of dark scales which gives them a grey appearance in decided contrast to moorez.

The females here again do not resemble their males, except in having minute

dots at the ends of the veins uph. The forewing markings are similar to those

of moorez 2, but the ground colour is distinctly paler than that of the males.

5 ¥ hecabe hecabe L.. Andamans V. C. dry season forms occur Nevember to

March, upf shows little variation, especially among males.

5.0 hecabe nicobariensis Fd. Nicobars, V. C. only wet season forms found..

They vary considerably, those from the Southern islands being for the most

part difficult to separate from Andaman examples of hecabe hecabe. The res-

triction of the border upf is greatest at Chaura and Car Nicobar but not always

constant even there. he females especially those from Chaura and Car

Nicobar are paler than females of Andaman hacabe hecabe.

7 Y anderson andamana Swin. Andamans N,R.

I found the males common in the M. and S. Andaman in January and took

a fair series of females in the S, Andaman in July to October but, it so happened

not both sexes at the same time.

B17. Ixras Hub.

25 pyrene andamana M. Andamans C, Gt. Coco V. C.

The males have distinct dry season markings in January and February, but

I can find no seasonal differences among a series of twelve females. Two pairs

from the Gt. Coco, April, are smaller than Andaman specimens. ;

B19 HEBomor1A Hub.

8 glaucippe roepstorffii WM. Andamans and Gt. Coco. The males are not

rare, one sees one or more on most days, but capturing them is another matter.

The females are not common. My collector in spite of encouragement brought

me only four in some five years. ‘The males are certainly lighter underneath in

the dry season but that is the limit of their dimorphism and the females appear

to make no change.

B20 PARERONIA DEN.

28 ceylanica navaka M. Andamans and Gt. Coco, C. On the wing through-

out the year with a specially large November brood. A pair taken on the Ct.

Coco show no difference. No seasonal dimorphism. |

C. DANAIDAE

Cl HestiA Hub.

1s lynceus cadelli WM. & de N. Andamans, N. R. Named after Colonel

Tom Cadell, V.C., for 13 years Chief Commissioner at Port Blair. To be ‘taken

most days from December to May indark jungle where it flops slowly about.

A sure place was where the path to Black Rock entered well grown secondary

jungle five hundred yards or so from Mt. Harriet House.

C2 DANAUS Lat.

1 ¥ aglea melanoleuca M. Andamans: Common throughout the year, flies

weakly in glades and near the ground. Does not, face Bingham, occur in the

Nicobars.

2 agleoides Fd. Nicobars, V.C. at Nankauri, not quite so common in the

S. Nicobars and I have only two ¢¢ from Car Nicobar. |

8y similis nicobarica WM.®& de N. Southern Nicobars, N.R.° 1 took

iton Pulo Milo and L, Nicobar, but chiefly on the Galathea river and the Laful

mountain stream in Gt. Nicobar. Sexes taken in equal numbers. I. obtained

a good series.

9 limniace mutina Fruh. Car and Central Nicobars V.C. ‘To be seen in:

very large numbers on the top of the bank at Sawi Bay, Car Nicobar and is-as:

Journ., BomBay Nat, His. Soc. PLATE IIE

BSE

(1) Euploea climena scherzeri Fd. ¢

(2) >”? >”) ”» a>, 2

(3) ”» camorta M. gd

(4) >”) ” +e) a” 2

(5) Op », simulatrix WM. & deN. ¢

(6) ” ” a? oe) ”? 2

JOURN., BomBay Nat. His. Soc, PLATE IV

(1) Euploea crameri esperi Fd. 6

(2) a” 2) 2) AY 2

(3) 3) 9? biseriata M. ‘ei

(4) a? 2?) 2) BO 2

(5) 3 frauenfeldi Fd. ¢

(6) »? a” ” 392 2

JOuRN., BomBay Nat. His. Soc. PLATE V

(1) Euploea andamanensis andamanensis Atk. ¢

(4) ” , ”» 2? 2

(2) i . ferrari o

(3) ” 5 bumila Evans 3

(5) ”? ”? ” ”? 2

(6) s roepstorfii M. o

(7) >? ”» +) 2

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE ANDAMANS AND NICOBARS 446

common at Nankauri. Never seen in the South Nicobars, Isawa number of

specimens on Gt. Coco in April and took a male. Two stragglers seen at Port

Blair in September 1929.

10Y melissa septentrionis But. 4¢¢ taken, one at Port Blair in November

and three at Nankauri in December, January and February respectively. I

know of two or three more individuals being taken at Port Blair and the

butterfly must be considered a regular if rare visitor.

118 gautama gautamoides Doh. Seems to take the place of mutina in the

South Nicobars where it is decidedly rare. I took 8¢¢ and 322 in my 15 or so

landings in March and September. No really fresh specimens obtained in these

months.

12 plexippus L. Port Blair, NR. Nankauri, C. I have one specimen from

Kachal and none from the remaining Nicobars. WM anddeWN record it from

Car Nicobar. Taken at Port Blair December to April and in September.

138 melanippus camorta Ev. Nankauri and probably Kachal, common

on the former. ‘The difference between this race and weszppits is noticeable and

constant.

Y melanippus nesippus Fd. Common along the river banks of the Gt. Nicobar

- but not seen by me on any other island of the Southern group. As conditions

now are, and they will hardly improve, this butterfly must continue with Appzas

chrysea and a few others peculiar to Gt. Nicobar to be common or at least not

rare in its own habitat but very uncommon in butterfly collections. I myself

only secured five pairs.

14. affinismalayana Fruh, I received some 20 specimens of this butterfly

from the Tahsildar of Nankauri in 1927 and 1929. 1 was at first under the im-

pression that his man took them on the east side of Kachal, but he later told me

they were obtained on the west side of Camorta. No more were forthcoming

and their exact habitat remains unknown. I never saw one onthe wing on any -

of the Central group of the Nicobars at any of my numeroue visits. I can accord-

ingly not agree with Brigadier Evans in calling it NR. While the visits of

European collectors or their agents remain so unfrequent and so fleeting this

must remain a rare Insect in the Nicobars. The Port Blair administration sends

its only ship but two or three times a year to Nankauri and its stay there isa

matter of five or six hours.

15. chrysippus L. Itook two ¢¢ and four 2° of this elsewhere common-

est of butterflies at Port Blair. Should be taken on the slopes above Brookesa-

bad where a few bushes of its food plant, Cilotropfis, have somehow established

themselves. One ¢ at Car Nicobar and two 9292 at Nankauri. Its mimic,

hypolimnas mysippus is found in these same localities equally seldom. The

Nicobar examples all have the row of white terminal dots on the upper side of

the hind wing complete. Also the Port Blair examples without exception have

these spots only in interspaces 1 to 4.

C3. EupLta@a F.

1. 8 mulciber mulciber Cr. One 2 straggler was taken on 6th of May 1930

on Mt. Harriet, a fresh specimen presumably blown over from Madras. Bingham

gives the Nicobars as a locality. He may have received a straggler or two from

Mr. Rodgers.

*31 climena scherzeri Fda. Car Nicobar, V.C. Evans’s key says of climena

generally ‘ Above normally unmarked dark velvet brown, outwardly cinnamon.’

‘his description can only be applied to the males of the three races. On Car

Nicobar about one in every five males of scherzerz has a white spot on the

costa ; at Nankauri only one camorta male out of fifteen is so marked and in the

Southern islands szmmulatrix males if spotted have one or two spots at the apex

of the wing and neveron the costa, The females of all three races invariably

have a spot on the costa and generally another near the apex of the cell either

inside or ii interspace 3. Afew females have both these spots present Szmu-

latrix females also frequently have one or two apical spots upi similar to those

carried by the male. ‘They also may have unh, a terminal row of small white

spots in the interspaces,

*B climena camorta M. Central Nicobars, VC.

*y climena simulatrix WM & de N. South Nicobars VC.

*6Y cramert esperi Fd. VC. From examination of along series of forms

from Car Nicobar and Mankauri I consider that there is a prime facie case for

separation of Nankauri specimens as *crameri biseriata M. ‘Their general

480 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, ay

appearance is invariably much whiter than esperyz from Car Nicobar or frauen-

feldi from the Southern Nicobars. One might confuse the two latter with each

other so far as the upper sides go, but not the Nankauri form with either.

*9 cvameri trauenfeldii Fd. Southern Nicobars. Common but less so than

in the other groups.

S89 andamanensis andamanensis Atk. VC throughout the Gt. Andaman

and seen on the Gt. Coco where they appeared normal. On the wing throughout

the year. Individuals vary in size and in intensity of ground colour and

amount of white marking, but I am unable to couple these variations with

the seasons.

*8 andamanensts bumilaTyt. L. Andaman, VC. Called after Bumila

creek on the north of the Little Andaman. Bumila (flies and sand) was the

contemptuous name given to the creek by Portman’s Andamanese when he

explored the island some 60 years ago. ‘The flies remain and pester the visitor

and hasten his return to his launch anchored beyond their reach. The beach

has behind it a great fresh water lagoon which carries at times quite large

numbers of Andaman teal, a fact discovered by me when in search of butter-

flies. Quantities of andamanensis bumila are to be had round the lagoon,

also Spalgis epius nubilis which is difficult to get in the Gt. Andaman. Bing- |

ham mentions the Little Andaman form but as usual refuses it status as a

race.

*y andamanensis ferrart Tyt On avisit to North Sentinel, I took a few

males of andamanensis which have differences from the forms of the Gt. and

Little Anandaman and to which General Tytler has given a separate name.

One of the plates accompanying this paper shows a male from each of the three

localities.

ll. 6 harrisi harrisi Fd. One male straggler at Port Blair in March,

taken after a gale.

13Y covrus phoebus But. Nicobars, V.R. A male taken on Kachal in March

and a male and a female taken in January and March respectively at Nankauri.

168 Jleucostictos novavae Fd. N.R. at Car Nicobar and a few taken at

Nankauri. On the former island its mimic Hypolimnas antilope anomala Wall.

is found locally.

*17 voepstorffii M. Andamans, V.R. [ have seen this butterfly moving

rapidly, in contrast to axdamanensis of which it is presumably a mimic, but I

never myself took one. My collector who was always on the look out for this

Euploea only took for me some 15 or 16 in six years. ‘They were mostly got on

the Rangachang road four or five miles from headquarters at Port Blair.

Andamanensis is to be seen everywhere on flowers or hovering near them and I

never passed by a single one without a good look to be sure it was not

roepstort fai, but I never met with the latter except when it was in rapid flight.

D. SATYRIDAE

D2. Mvycarrsis Hub.

3Y. anaxias radza M. R. A rare and local species in-the Gt. Andaman.

1 think it should be found in bamboo jungle for I saw two or three in the

bamboo thickets on the east side near the top of Saddle Peak in the North

Andaman in April. Mr. Macmullen assured me that it was to be had in the

nullahs on the Rangachang road a mile or two north of the plantation, but my

collector could never get it there. In eight years he and I took 8¢¢ and 729. Of

these two males alone were fresh, taken in January and April respectively.

Most of the 13 other specimens were taken in December and January. Three

males taken in April in the North and Middle Andamans though fresh have a

distinct dry season appearance underneath, the ocelli being reduced in size,

The remaining five males are from the South Andaman. They were all taken

in December or January, but four of the five have the full wet season appear-

ance. Of the seven females, all from the South Andaman, one only, a worm

specimen taken in May, has the reduced ocelli of a dry season form. The rest

taken chiefly in December, have a wet season appearance.

0 anaxtas manit Doh. V.R. Ihave one male and three females from

Gt. Nicobar and one female from L. Nicobar. They were taken in, rough

grass in the coconut groves. April or September.

lOY mineus nicobarica M. Nicobars, C.

l2y visala andantana M. Andamans C. dsf. December to April, wsf.

April to November.

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE ANDAMANS AND NICOBARS 481

D3. LETHE HUB.

21y europa nudgava Fruh, Andamans. N.R. in shady jungle, Taken

throughout the year.

218 europa tamuna deN. Described by de Niceville in 1887 from a female

taken on the L. Nicobar. I do not know of any other specimens having been

taken. ‘There were none in the Calcutta museum in 1930. I saw a female at

Pulo Babi on the Gt. Nicobar.

D, ORSOTRIG@NA Wallen,

B medus medus F. Andamans C. dsf as usual December to March.

Y medus nicobarica Ey. Nicobars, V.C. especially on Camorta.

D22. MELANITIS Fab.

1 ledaismene Cr. Andamans V.C. in both wet and. dry season forms on

rice land. Nicobars V.R. The wet season form appears in very great numbers

in September. Before long the dry season form is found flying with it and then

continues alone until February. As the rice land dries off the butterflyseems to

take to the jungle. I took one male wsf. on Gt. Nicobar in February.

39) zitentus andamanica Evans. Andamans V.R. I have only four males

and one female, all dsf. The males were taken, one in October, one in

December, two in April of which the last one is very fresh. The female was

taken in June, very worn. In the cane thickets at Casuarina Bay in the

North Andaman I saw a dozen or more on the wing one day in January, but

they were very worn and I let them be. No such opportunity occurred again.

D25. ELyMNIAsS Hub.

28 cottonis cottonis Hew. Andamans. C. On the wing throughout the

year. ;

3. panthera minus WM. & de N. Nicobars. C, especially on Car Nicobar

and at Nankaurti.

E. AMATHUSIIDAE

£7. AmarHusia Fruh.

Y phidipbpus andamanica Fruh. Middle and South Andamans. R. In

eight years only six males and five females taken. ‘These were mostly found

at rest in bungalow verandahs where they take cover when the morning

daylight gets too strong for them. ‘The 11 individuals caught bear dates from

April lst to May 15th. On Mt. Harriet at 1,200 ft. during the latter half of

April this butterfly gets on the wing every evening at ten past six. Any I

managed to take with a net were caught at this precise time at the spring 150

ft. below Bungalow No. 3 on the western slope where in my time there was

dense shade. A good spot too for skippers. ‘The food plant of phidippus else-

where is the coconut palm, but in the Andamans it must be something else for

the coconut is not indigenous. The extensive planting of coconuts during the

past 80 years does not appear to have increased the numbers of this butterfly.

Only two females and none of the males taken by me have four ccelli unh, the

remainder have three, of which the middle one is often minute.

E10. DiscopHora Bdv.

48 continentalis andamanensis Stg. N., M. and South Andamans. V.R,

five males taken in eight years. Onein Aprilon the east side of Saddle Peak,

two in the South Andaman in April and one in August and lastly one in the

Middle Andaman in October. Mr. Field took two females at Aberdeen, South

Andaman in May. ‘There is one female with one male in the Caleutta museum,

none in South Kensington. The males should be found on damp sand in dark

jungle according to de Nicéville.

F. NYMPHALIDAE

Fi. CuHaraxs Ochs. ;

2n polyxena agnaM. A female taken in a battered condition at Namuiia-

ghar July 1925 almost certainly a straggler from Burma.

482. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

F2. ERrBora Hub.

ly schreiberi tissamenus Fruh. Andamans, V.R. a rather battered female

was brought me in 1923. In the succeeding eight years Inever saw another of

either sex.

27 athamas andamanicus Fruh. Andamans, VR. Three males taken in

June of 1925 and 1930. Mr. Field took four males in May 1923 after the first

heavy rain.

E8. HERONA Db.

Y marathus andamana M. Andamans, R. 4 ¢% and5 Q& taken in eight

years. Mainly on jungle paths west of Port Blair harbour. Flies in May and

June and a stray one or two round Christmas.

F1Q. Euripus Wd.

1 B consimilis consimilis Wd, A _ straggler was taken by Mr. McMullen 20

years ago.

F18. EoTHaALia Hub.

5 cibaritis Hew. Andamans, C. On the wing for most of the year but

especially from July to October. There come days in July and August when

one meets with nothing all day in the jungle but a few czbarztis. Specimens vary

considerably, but I have failed to find any fixed seasonal feature. The white

discal band varies in breadth, and the conical black spots vary in size. In the

female only the tornal spot asa rule has any blue associated with it. in the

males the blue irroration is often found not only surmounting the majority of

spots but also forming a well marked marginal band.

14 & garuda acontius Hew. Andamans, R. A dozen foé and 4 2° taken

the latter are rare, and I was lucky to have so many. They were got in April,

September, December and January. The males mostly in May.

30 0 deuta teutoides M. Andamans R. Both sexes fly from late in May to

end of July and may sometimes be found on the rotting fruit of one of the

smaller figs in darkish jungle.

F20.. PARTHENOS Hub.

6 sylvia voepstorffii M. NR. Thougha few males may be seen in April and

May this is really a July butterfly. I haveno females earlier than that month.

There is another big brood, chiefly of males, in December. This dry season

brood is larger and paler than the July one and it should be added that the white

tips upf are generally only found in the males of the December brood. The

July males have just a suspicion of whiteness. No female taken by me shows

it at all. July specimens have the dark post-discal band upf confluent,

December one have it macular.

) sylvia nila Evans. Gt. Nicobar, VR. Two males taken by me on 27-9-30,

in the stream descending from Mt. Thuillier to Laful in the Gt. Nicobar. Visits

to the Southern Nicobars by Government vessels are usually made in March, a

time of year when P. sylvia is not often seen. This must account for this form not

having been taken since Doherty’s time (see de Nicéville, Vol. II, p. 149). I

have visited Gt. Nicobar in September in other years but never left the flat

coast land until my visit to Laful. Brigadier Evans’s remark about’ the

confluent post discal band must be discounted. ‘The specimens he examined

are wet season ones and follow the rule of voepstorf fit.

E sylvia cyanoides Tyt. Little Andaman. R. The Little Andaman is most

easily visited in April when vessels may safely anchor and landings be effected.

P. sylvia not being then on the wing the fact that the Little Andaman form

was quite a different colour to roepstorffit was never noticed till September 1926

when I took three pairs which were found to have an area of blue on the upper

wings similar to but more extensive than that of mda, the blue being more a

pow ‘der blue than the bright cyaneous blue of wzla. General Tytler has

described the form in December 1938 under the name of P. sylvia cyanoides.

Specimers should be obtainable on the stream that enters Hut Bay at its

southern end. Hut Bay is generally a safe anchorage in September before the

North-East begins to blow.

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE ANDAMANS AND NICOBARS 483

F24, LimmMeEnitis F.

8 procris anarta M. Andamans, NR.

Iwo main broods, May and December. I have tried to find seasonal

differences but there is nothing definite. The spot in the cell upf is occasionally

quite large. In halt the number of specimens I set it is absent. Males and

females in equalnumbers. The males are found with the males of the next

species, each on his special leaf, 10, 20, or 50 ft. above the ground and darting

out every now and then in a fury and then back again for a breather. ‘The

road to Black Rock on Mount Harriet always holds a few.

F25. PANTOPORIA Hub.

2 8 nefte rufula de .N.» Andamans, NR.

Two broods, May and October, a few on the wing most of the year, males

and females in equal numbers, but the latter commoner in May. Found with

L. procris avd possesses the same traits,

F26. Neptis F.

1¥ columella kankena Evans. S. Nicobars VR.

Two females taken in March, one male in September ; these are the only two

months in the year when the Andaman station ship visits the Southern Nicobars.

2 Y jumbah amorosca Fruh. Andamans, NR.

Easily taken when seen but by no means seen every day or every week. I

only took some 25 in all. The dry and wet forms are clearly differentiated.

Dry season specimens have the white bands much wider and the dark discal

spots unh paler and smaller. ‘The females are scarce in the dry season.

2 8 jumbah binghami Fruh. Described from the Nicobars, VR. and never

seen by me.

6 § Aylas andamana. M. Cocos and Andamans, C.

Dry and wet season forms differ though not in so marked a degree as in

jumbah amorosca. Tyhe white discal band uph is narrower and the black

edging to this band unh far more pronounced in the wet season forms. Here

again the dry season female is scarce and the wet season one very common.

6 hylas nicobarica M. Car Nicobar and Central Nicobars, VC.

6 % hylas sambilanga Ev. Southern Nicobars C,

This is a very well marked race. Its whole appearance is different to

nicobarica. It is decidedly a dark insect while in the other white predominates

Both sexes are constantly smaller than uzcobarica. :

7] soma mananda M, Andamans NR. ‘The males seem commoner in June

and the females in January to March. No seasonal variation.

8 y nandina climia M. Andamans, C. ‘Two strong broods of both sexes. in

the dry and wet seasons but no seasonal variation noticeable. The males are

often very smail. ae

10 ¥ sankara nar deN. I took one male on 1-4-23 in a valley runni )

from Saddle Peak in the North Andaman to the east coast. Nests Redaeeeanes

here are two faded females and a fresh male in the Dehra Dun Forest Museum,

and one female in the British Museum. [

17 ebusa ebusa Fd.

32 y hordonia cnacalis Hew. Andamans, NR.

Very faithiul to localities. There was a point on the Black Rock road where

i never failed to see a solitary hordonia on the wing. If it was fresh and I took it

I would find another next day at the same place. I have separated my speci-

mens according to the dry and wet seasons but cannot refer them to one or

other by their appearance. Dry season males are usually much yellower on

the upper side. ;

27, CyRestis Bdv. -

26 cocles formosa Fd. Andamans C, Brigadier Evans has called this butter-

fly rare, but my collector Bhagwan Din always had it in considerable numbers

in May and June at his favourite hunting ground. This is the road to Birchganj

where at the foot of the steep hill it enters secondary jungle. Some 50 yards

or so from the road is a rare tree, the only one of its kind I ever found at Port

Blair, of the size and appearance of an ordinary English holm oak, which in

May produces a small white flower as sweet asthe English lime and a sure draw

484 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY; Vol. 47

for all flower loving butterflies. Cyrestis, doleschallia, and many lycaenidae

especially Lycaenesthes, amblypodtia, tajuria, hypolyceana, deudoryx and rapala

all are to be had on it; some, such as vapa/a, in very great numbers.” In the

bed of the stream, a perennial, that descends from the Birchganj Pass are more

skippers than anywhere else in Port Blair. The Forest Department at Dehra

Dun identified this tree but I have lost the record. In the jungle near by are to

be had most of the rarer Vymphalidae of Port blair.

ve andamanica WM. & deN. Andamans, notcommon. Flies alongside of

formosa but in very much fewer numbers, not really rare.

45 thyodamas andamanica WM. Andamans NR, found with formosa.

The females are uncommon.

5 tabula deN. R. Gt. Nicobar and sparingly on Little Nicobar. Not

taken on Pulo Milo or Kondul. The males are found in company with males of

Appias panda chrysea on the sandy edges of fresh water pools above HW mark

and on the banks of rivers in the Gt. Nicobar. Only one female and some

twenty males taken in some 8 visits to the island. I rank the males as rare

owing to the inaccessibility of their habitat. The Gt. Nicobar has, 1 believe,

not been visited by a Government vessel for eight years. Visits when paid are

for a very few hours.

F30. HypoLtimnas Hub,

1 misipfpus L. Andamans and Car Nicobar. VR.

Probably migratory. Of six individuals taken in the Andamans 5 wore

caught on 19-10-29 at Mitha Khari. All were worn. The sixtha fresh ¢ was

taken on the Little Andaman in September. I took three on Car Nicobar in

March, June and August, none fresh.

2 dotina L. Andamans VC and Nicobars VR. In the Andamans the dsf

begins in September, is very common in October, odd ones to be had in March.

The wsf is abundant in June and July. In the Nicobars only the wsf is found,

five only taken by me in Car Nicobar, Nankauri and Kondul.

3 antilope anomala Wall. Car Nicobar, C.

It is very strange that this Malayan species should be found only in Car

Nicobar, the most distant of the Nicobars from Malaya and there in one small

locality only. 1 never saw it on the wing, but my collector often brought me

some, and Brigadier Evans took a large series at his visit. Most numerous in

December and January, a few to be had up to June and July.

F31. Yoma Doh.

Sabina vasuki Doh. Andamans VR.

The first record of this species was July 2nd 1926, when my coliector and I

took a dozen or more at We Bi near Stewart Sound in the Middle Andaman.

One or two were taken a few weeks later at Port Blair. For the next 43 years

of my time in the Andamans I never saw itagain, The specimens were fresh

and could hardly have crossed from Burma in the height of the south-west

monsoon. It would be interesting to know whether vasuwki was common in

Burma in 1926. I understand it appears only at intervals there. i

F33. DoLESCHALLIA Fd.

» btsaltide andamana Fruh. Andamans NR. Car and Central Nico-

bars VR.

Taken on flowers on the Birchganj road in June. The Nicobars yielded only

3 9Y, of which two irom Car Nicobar in January and February and one from

Nankauri in August. There is one specimen only in the B.M. from the Nicobars.

K34. Kartitima Bde V.

3 albofasciata M. Andamans R. Only some four or five pairs taken,

mainly on the Birchganj road and in the Middle Andaman, June and July; one

X in October.

F35. PRECIS Hub,

1 B hierta magna Evans. Andamans C. —

Found in the cleared parts of the Port Blair settlement.

Specimens vary considerably but there seems to be no seasonal dimorphism,

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE ANDAMANS AND NICOBARS 485

2 B orithya ocyale Hub. A straggler taken on Car Nicobar.

4 < almana, almana L. Andamans C, Seasonal dimorphism occurs.

B almana nicobariensis Fa. Car Nicobar. C. My specimens all taken in

te wsf only. I cannot find any striking difference in size between ~ wsf

and B.

9 atlites L. S. Andamans. NR. April to June, wsf only taken, Nicobars,

Nankauri only January to April, NR. The Nankauri specimens are washed

out looking and paler than those from Port Blair and the markings on

underside are obsolescent.

F36. VANESSA Fd.

1 carduiL. Two stragglers taken at Port Blair and two at Nankauti, all in

the South-west monsoon,

F41. Cupya Hub.

& evymanthis andamanica M. Andamans, NR.

To be taken sparingly in secondary jungle such as on the Birchganj and

Maimyo roads, March to August.

” erymanthis nicobarica Fd. Central and South Nicobars. NR. February

and March. ‘This race is very distinct from the Andaman one and its general

appearance is very much paler. There is no mistaking the two.

F42. ATELLA Db.

1 phalanta Drury. ‘Two pairs taken in the Central Nicobars three indi-

viduals in January—March 1929 and onein February 1930, presumably stragglers

from Burma.

2% alcippe andamana Fruh, Andamans, Gt. Coco VC.

I have seen this butterfly in clouds in April and there is another big

brood in October. About April 20th, 1924, the perennial streams running down

from Mt. Harriet to Bamboo Flat and Stewartganj contained hundreds of

thousands of males in patches on the sand. For several days after there was a

thin migratory stream of females flying from north to south past the Chief Com-

missioners house on Mt. Harriet, at the rate of 200 a minute for several hours at

atime, In April of another year Ross Island which lies to the south of Mt.

Harriet was flooded with this butterfly. I also noticed it 6n an occasion at We B

in the Middle Andaman in a similar flight, again from North to South.

2& alcippe traterna M. Central and South Nicobars R.

Of nine individuals one 2 was taken in September, the rest January to

March.

F44. CyntTuia F,

6 évota paslida Stg. Andamans, C.

deNiceville says that 29 of evota are rare in Continental India, but they are to

be taken in fair numbers in the Andamans. The Black Rock roaion Mt.

Harriet is a good locality and so is any other jungle road in the islands.

F45. CrRROCHROA Db.

1 fasciata Fd. I took one individual on 13th April 1923 on Mt. Harriet. Mr.

Field during the same week and at the same place took eight. The butterfly

was not noticed again during the next eight years. Presumably stragglers from

Burma,

3 B tyche anjira M. Andamans, C.

Both sexes to be had March to September, Q2 commoner than ¢¢ in

April.

7 nicobariea NM, & deN. Gt. Nicobar C.

Considerabie numbers of this butterfly in the Mt. Thuillier streams taken

in March and September.

F47, CETHOSIA F.

1 B 6iblis andamana Stich. Andamans C,

Not taken on Mt. Harriet but common at the foot of the range in the

Wimberleyganj forest plantations ; both sexes May to July, 2° in December,

Y biblis nicobarica Fd. All the Nicobars. C,

486 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

I have examined large series of these two races and found the post discal linee

as described by Brigadier Evans, that is in the Andaman form the line is broken

and in the Nicobar one it is continuous, otherwise the races appear

identical.

F50. LAaRINGA M,

2 8 horsfieldi andamanensis deN. Andamans. é¢ NR. 9° R.

I took 12 of the former and seven of the latter in eight years. A very local

butterfly. Certain spots on the Black Rock Road usually had one 4 sitting 20 ft.

orso up on a leaf in rivalry with males of Z. procris, P. nefte, etc. If this one

were caught there would usually be’ another on duty at the next visit.

G. ERYCINIDAE

G4. ABISARA, Fd.

5 1) echerius bifasciata M. Andamans NR.

An uninteresting creature. . ¢¢ July—September.

Qe April—December.

H. LYCAENIDAE

H8. SPALGIS.

< epius epius Wd. 2 gg and3 99 from Gt. Nicobar taken in February

and March.

B epins nubilus, M. Ross Island, Port Blair. Found in great numbers in

mangrove behind Bumila Beach, Little Andaman. One 2 from Gt. Nicobar.

Hil. CaSTALIUS

18. vosimon alarbus Fr. V.C.in Andamans in December to April. Also

common in Central but rare in S. Nicobars.

3 <. ethion ethion Dh. & Hew. All Andamans most of the year, C.

8 ethion airvavati Doh. Common on Kondul and Gt. Nicobar, not taken

elsewhere.

4. elna noliteia Fruh. Andamans, December to May. N.R.

5B. voxus roxus God. All Andamans February to September. N.R.,

Y. voxus manluena Fd. Flies with aivavati on Kondul and Gt. Nicobar.

H17. NEoprrHEcorps ZALMORA But. December to June in Andamans C,

H18. EvERES.

57. parrhasius pila Evans. Common on Car Nicobar. One 2 each from

Nankauri and Gt. Nicobar.

H20. MEGISBA

B. malaya sikkima M. Andamans C.

yY. malaya presbyter Fruh. Central and South Nicobars. 2 ¢% and 399

taken, R.

H21. LyYycaAENoPSIS

26. puspa telis Fruh. On Mt. Harriet ridges, March to April, when it is

not rare. A few in December.

). puspacyanescens deN. One @ from Car Nicobar, V.R. de Roepstorft

took only five individuals in Camorta, Central Nicobars, where he lived some

years,

€. puspa prominens deN. Also extremely rare. Mr, Man took one 2 on

Little Nicobar 4nd I took another 2 on Gt, Nicobar.

24, ZIZERA

5. gaitka Trimen. S. Andamans C.

§ B. otis otis P. Andamans, Car and Central Nicobars V.C,

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE ANDAMANS AND NICOBARS 487

H25. EucuRyYSsops

1. cnejusF. Andamans. C. Central and South Nicobars C.

3B. pandava pfandava Hors. All Andamans and Nicobars, V.C. owing

to the prevalence of a wild Cycas which the larvae damage very severely. One

tree in Government Howse garden was killed outright. Also taken in Great

Coco.

H26. LYyCAENESTHES

1 8 emolus andamanicus Fruh. Mt. Harriet hedges October to April N.R. .

2 B lycaenina lycambes Hew, As above but taken chiefly in April and May

ahs

H27. CATACHRYSOPS

1. strabo F. Andamans and Nicobars V.C.

2. lithargyria M. Andamans, especially Little Andaman. Nicobars

especially Car, V.C.

H28. LAMPIDES.

boeticus, L.. Andamans, chiefly in Jail Garden. Nicobars generally but

rare, possibly a migrant only.

v. obsoleta Evans. Sent to Brigadier Evans by Jailor Macmullen. Never

taken by me,

H29. JAMIDES.

1 < bochus bochus Cr. Andamans, Gt. Coco. V.C.

B bochus nicobaricus WM & deN. All Nicobars. V.C. Both races mainly

in March.

5 celeno blairana Evans. V. Common throughout the Andamans, through-

out the year.

§ celeno kinkurka, Fd. V.C. Car and Central Nicobars.

» celeno nicevillei Evans. Common in South Nicobars, Evans says

‘entirely overlaid fuscous scales.’ de Nicéville says ‘ leaden (sooty) instead of

opalescent whitish.’ This hits off the difference between kinkurka and nicé-

villei rather better.

7 ferrari Evans. This new species was detected by Evans who found a pair

in my collection. One from Camorta and one from the South Nicobars. One

more was found in the General Collection in the British Museum. They are

the only three known specimens. One of mine was taken on the little stream on

Kondul and more should be forthcoming there.

8 < kankena pseudelpis But. Common at Bomlungta but less common in

the South Andaman. December to April.

8 kankena kankena, Fd. All Nicobars. January to July. R.

9 y alecto fusca Evans. Common on all Andamans especially on Black

Rock road, Mt. Harriet, where the food plant, wild cardamum, is common.

§ alecto kondulana Fd. Central and South Nicobars. Rare, especially the

female.

H32, NAcADUBA’

De Nicéville states that the females of all the species appear to be very

rare in all localities. This does not apply in the Andamans or Nicobars

where both sexes are equally obtained.

28 pactolus andamanicus Fruh. All Andamans mainly June and July C.

pactolus macrobthalma, Fd. ‘Throughout the Nicobars, C. excepting in

Car Nicobar. .

3 hermus major Evans. South Nicobars, February and March. R,

4 vajuva varia Evans. Three taken in Kachal and Gt. Nicobar. R,

5 pavana Hors. Andamans, Januray—May C.

6 ancyra aberrans El. One male taken on Car Nicobar and one on

‘Tillanchone. R.

7 Y helicon brunnea Evans. Andamans, April, on Mt. Harriet hedges. C,

8 6 helicon kondulana “vans. Camorta and Kondu!. Only four taken, R,

488 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

8 Y kurava euplea Fruh. Andamans C.

6 kurava nicobavica Toxopeus. South Nicobars. R.

9 B beroe gythion Fruh. Andamans. April to June C.

12 & bevenice blumbeomnicans, WM & deN. Andamans C.

Y berenice nicobarica WM & deN. All Nicobars C,

13 aluta coelestis deN. Andamans, April to July. Chiefly taken on Mt.

Harriet. R.

15 nora nora, Fd. As for 13 but V.C.

nora dilata Evans. All Nicobars NR.

16 dubiosa fulva Evans. I took two females on Ross Island, May and

August. R. :

19 dana deN. Andamans, January—May. R.

H35. HELIOPHORUS

2 epicles indicus Fruh. Only at Bomlungta, M. Andaman, where it is

common. Two broods, June and December.

H44. CuRETIS

2 saronis savonis M. Andamans and Gt. Coco. NR.

saronis obscura, Evans. Always some white uph.

Car and Central Nicobars. C.

sarvonis nicobarica Swin. No white on uph.

S. Nicobars. NR. The females of all three forms are more commonly taken

than males.

H45, IRAOTA

1 ¥ timoleon timoleon Stoll. Sé¢ and 3 QQ all taken in December 1930 and

April 1931 on Mt. Harriet, mainly on frews benjamini. R.

H46. HORSFIELDIA

n anita andamaniea Ril. Some 20 taken between April and August 1929

and 1930. Not otherwise seen. Mt. Harriet only. R.

H49. AMBLYPODIA

31 B alea constanceae deN. Only two ¢¢ taken. One when I took my only

Neptis sankara nar below Saddle Peak, North Andaman in April 1924, another

on Mt. Harriet in May 1930. V.R.

36 6 centaurus coruscans WM & deN. Andamans and Gt. Coco. C.

49 alesia Fd. described under wimberleyi by de Nicéville from two females

received from Port Blair. Not taken by me. VR.

56 asopia asopia Hew. recorded from Andamans by de Nicéville under

tounguva from ee males sent by Wimberley. Never seen by me.

57 zeta M. 4¢¢ and 2 99 taken, two in each of the years 1926, 1929, and

1931.

80 fulla andamanica WM & deN. A dozen of each sex taken in five days

from the same fig tree (7. benjamini?) near Government House Mt. Harriet,

mid December 1930, otherwise not seen. R.

H50. SURENDRA

1 gurcetorum latimargo M. All Andamans, May to July, and Gt. Coco,

October. N.R. ;

H53. LoxXUuRA

6 atymnus prabha M. Andamans C.

n atymnus mnicobarica Kvans, All Nicobars N.R. All specimens from

Car Nicobar are the palest, the colour increasing as one goes south. The two

races remain, however, unmistakable,

H57. SPINDASIS

13 § lohita zotlus M. Andamans December to June. 7 ¢¢and6@Q in all

taken in two out of my eight seasons, R.

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE ANDAMANS AND NICOBARS 489

H59, PRATAPA

5 6 deva lila, 3 #4 and 2 QQ taken during two successive Aprils on Mt.

Harriet VR,

H60 Tasuria.

1¥ jangala andamanita WM. Some 25 including 9 29 taken on hedges

on Mt. Harriet and also on cashew trees on open spurs of the hill leading down

to Wimberleyganj, allin April 1924, a very notable year for strong blues. R.

1S Bp Cees cippus KF. Some 18 taken on Mt. Harriet hedges, February to

April.

H61. CHARANA

1 < jalindra tarpina Hew. Eight males March to July, three females

April, all from Mt. Harriet. R. :

2 mandarinus Hew. recorded trom the Andamans. Not by me.

H77. HorRaca

l onyx rvana deN. de Niceville records three males and four females, I

too six males, one or twoa year on the South Andaman, between March and

Auetst. V.R.

3 albimacula WM &deN. de Niceville records seven males only. My

collector took 3 pairs off one small bush near WeBi, Middle Andaman on

8-6-27. Noothers. V.R.

H 79. CHLIARIA

1. othona Hews. Two males and one female taken on Mt. Harriet, May to

July. VR.

H 80 HvyvPpoLyvCAENA

28 thecloides nicobarica Evans. Central and Southern Nicobars. A pair

from Camorta have a distinct triangular fulvous patch upf. The rest are all

uniformly dark brown. ‘Taken in opei! coconut groves near beaches. R.

38 erylus andamana, All Andamans and Gt. Coco, September to Febru-

WAY on INL AIRS,

H 82. ARTIPE

eryx L. Recorded only from Bomlungta in the Middle Andaman, As this

station was closed during my time I only paid’ it two flying visits and never

took or saw eryx. Even at Bomlungta it is rare. Curious that this species and

H{, epicles should be confined to this one small locality.

H 83, DEUDORYX

1. Y epijarbas amatius Fruh. Andamans, Apriland May, C. Nicobars. VR,

One worn female taken in March on Kondul.

H 84. VIRACHOLA

368 smilis maseas Fruh. Three pairs in all taken on the South Anda-

man. October to March. VR.

H85. RAFALA.

78 sutfusa rubicunda Evans. Birch Ganj and Mt. Harriet, South Anda-

man. Males emerge in January, females in March, both on the wing till June.

VC.

lly varunaorseis Hew. As forlast. VC.

Y varunavogersi Swin. Two fresh males from Camorta in January, no

others taken. VR.

12 schistacea M. Andamans, found with orse7s. VC.

15 dieneces inteymedia Stz. As above. VC. The blue rapalas have a

shorter season than the red. All four are very plentiful,

490. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

H 87. BINDAHARA

8 phocides phogides ¥. All Andamans, mainly in April, but a few males

in October and December. R.

Y phocides areca Fd. All Nicobars, most of the year. C. Both forms

very variable in size, sexes equally obtainable.

I. HESPERIIDAE

1. Hasora

1p. bdadra badva M. Two males from Andamans, one female from

Gt. Nicobar. N.R.

9. leucospila parnia Fruh. Recorded from Nicobars, not taken, V.R.

10. salanga Pi. Recorded from Nicobars, not taken.

13 B. vitta vitta But. Andamans. A big flush emerges in April. again

in September. N.R.

14. khoda minsona Swin. One female taken in April in the South Anda-

man. VR.

15 Y. taminatus almea Swin. ‘Two females from South Nicobars. R.

6 taminatus malayana Fd. Six males, two females from South Anda-

man in April. C. Recorded from Car and Central Nicobars.

16. alexis F. One male from Kondul in April. 1 should have taken more,

both in the Nicobars and the Andamans,

I 2. ISMENE

Mm Jaina astigmata Evans. Two males from South Andamans in May.

VR.

13. harisaharisa M. Recorded from Andamans.

16 amara™M. Three worn specimens from South Andaman taken in May,

July and November. V.R.

I 3. BIBASIS

sena sena M. One male from from South Andaman.

15, BADAMIA

exclamationis Fab. One male and three females from South Andaman

and Gt, Coco, April and May. R.

I 11. CELHZNORRHINUS

168 leucocera leucocera Koll. One male and four females from South

Andaman. j

0. andamanica WM & deN. One female taken at the mouth of Bumila

Creek, Little Andamanin April. V.R. :

I 14. ‘TAGIADES

—@ 8. obscurus alicaM. Andamans. N.R.

5y. atticus ravina Fruh, Andamans. N.R,

y. atticus carnica Evans. Car Nicobar. Four males named by Evans

since publication of his book. N.R.

5. atticus helfeyi Fa. Centraland South Nicobars. N.R.

10. Jitigiosa andamanica vans. Andamans. N.R.

Also a pair of seasonal form major Evans,

I 19. Darmro

6. bhagava andamanica WM & deN. Three pairs from South Andaman,

Recorded from Nicobars. R.

I 21. , SARANGESA

37. dasahara dasahara M. Andamans. C,

[ 39. ASTICTOPTERUS

jama permagnus ruh, Recorded from Andamans,

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE ANDAMANS AND NICOBARS 4g1

147. Suastrus

3. vamaaditus M. Andamans and Gt. Coco. N.R.

158. NovrocrRypta

4 ¥Y paralysos paralysos WM & deN. Only three by me in Andamans.

Recorded from Nicobars, R.

6 curvifuscia Fd. Andamans. C,

I 59. GANGARA

1 ¥. thyrsis yasodara Fruh. Andamans and 8. Nicobars, N.R.

I 60. ERIONOTA

1 thrax acroleuca WM & deN. Eight taken. Andamans and Nicobars

Np rill: sek 3

I 61. PADUKA

1 ¥. lebadea andamanica WM. Six taken. Andamans. R.

I 64. MATAPA

avia M. Fourtaken. Andamans. C.

drvuma M. ‘Three pairs. Andamans. N.R.

shalgrama M. Recorded from Andamans.

wn We

I 66. HYAROTIS

1 adrastus braba M. Adozentaken. Andamans. N.R.

I 68. ZOGRAPHETUS

3 ogygiaandamana Evans. ‘Three males. Andamans. R.

I 83. HALpE

31 <. mooret mooret Watson. Five taken. Andamans. N.R.

I 87. CuUPiITHA

purreca purreea M. Eleven taken. Andamans. N.R.

I 89. ORIENS

3 8. golagolaM. Eight taken. Andamans. N.R.

I 90. PADRAONA

6 Y maesoides ottalina Evans. Described from Andamans. Not taken.

14 ¥ tropica nina Evans. Seven taken. Andamans. C.

16 ~ serina serina Plotz. Six taken. Andamans. R.

191. Astyvcus

augias augias L. and pythias bambusaeé M. Both recorded from Andamans

Not taken,

I 92. CEPHRENES

3 palmarum nicobarica Evans. Car Nicobar C. and Gt. Nicobar N R.,

1 97, Baoris

1 oceia scopulifera M. Eight taken. Andamans. N,R.

7 cahiva cahiva M. Nine taken. Andamans. R.

3lagnaagnaM. (Mathias). Andamans. C.

33 zelleri cinnara Wallace. Andamans and Nicobars. C,

This list of Hesperiidae is noticeably bald and incomplete, and should be

capable of very considerable improvement,

ON THE FOOD-PLANTS OF INDIAN GEOMETRIDAE

AND PYRALIDAE

D. G. SEVASTOPULO, F.R.E.S.

This paper is the third of the series started by that Ox the Food-plants of

Indian Bombyces (Heterocera), (1940, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xli,

817-27) and followed by one On the Food-plants of Indian Agaristidae and

Noctuidae, (1941, 267d, xlii, 421-30).

The two families treated in the present paper appear to have been even more

neglected than the Bombycidae and Noctuidae, they are probably less impor-

tant from the economic point of view, and recorded food-plants are very few.

I have been able to obtain a number of records from Lefroy’s Judian Insect

Life, but unfortunately the copy I have been able to consult is incomplete, the

pages dealing with the Geometridae being missing.

I have used the same abbreviations as in the two previous papers, the only

fresh one being ‘ Lefroy’ for Zudian Insect Life.

GEOMETRIDAE

OENOCHROMINAE

Ozola Wik.

O. microniarta Wik.—Premna latifolia (Lep. Ceyl., Seitz).

Some Australian species feed on Eucalyptus.

HEMITHEINAE

Pingasa Moore

P. ruginaria Guen.—Nephelium lichi (mihi).

P. chlora Cr.—Coffee (Lep. Ceyl., Seitz).

Terpna H.—Sch.

T. ornataria Moore—Laurineae sp. (mihi).

Dindica Moore _

L. polyphaenavyia Guen.—Laurineae sp. (mihi),

Dysphania Prout

D. prunicolor Moore—Carallia (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna, Seitz).

D. palmyra Stoll.—Carallia integerrima (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna, Seitz).

Agathia Guen,

A. lycaenaria Koll.—Oleander (mihi).

A. laetata F.—Oleander (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna, Seitz, mihi), Carissa carandas

(mihi).

Hipparchus Leach

A. papitionaria L1.— Birch (non-Indian).

Tanaorrhinus Btlr.

T. vittata Moore—A pupa was found in a curled leaf of Quercus sp. (mihi)

Anisozyga Prout

An Australian species feeds on ferns.

Chloromachia Warr.

C. divapala Wik.—Myrtus (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna),

Lophomachia Prout

L. semialba Wik.—Loranthus (Lep. Ceyl,), Myrtus (Seitz).

Osteosema Warr,

O. sanguilineata Moore-—Maesa chisia (mihi),

FOOD-PLANTS OF INDIAN GEOMETRIDAK AND PYRALIDAE 493

Rhomborista Warr.

Rk. pannosa Moore—Loranthus (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna, Seitz).

Comibzena Hbn.

C. cassidava Guen,—Zizyphus, I[xora (Seitz mihi), Lagerstroemia indica (mihi).

Gelasma Warr.

G. dissimulata W\k.--Terminalia catappa (Seitz).

‘Thalassodes Guen.

T. quadraria Guen,—Polyalthea longifolia (mihi).

T. veravia Guen.—Rose, Chrysanthemum flowers, Lagerstroemia flos-

reginee (mihi).

T. dissita Wik.—Barringtonia (Lep. Ceyl.).

Oenospila Swinh.

O. flavitusata Wik —Barringtonia (Lep. Ceyl.), Eugenia jambos (Aiyar,

Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xiii, 673).

Hemithea Dup.

Hi. tritonaria W\ik.—Ficus (Fauna).

Iodis Hbn.

l. argutaria Wik. Se bus Sp. (mihi).

STERRHINAE (ACIDALIINAE)

Ptochophyle Warr.

P. togata F.— Eugenia jambolana (mihi).

Chrysocraspeda Hamps.

C. abhadraca Wik.—Kugenia (Lep. Ceyl.).

Scepula Schrank.

S. emissarvria W\k.—Aeschynomene indica (mihi).

S. cleoraria Wik.—Lantana sellowiana, Plumbago capensis (mihi),

LARENTIINAE

Cidaria Treit.

C. silaceata Schiff.—Impatiens sp. (mihi).

C. delecta Btlr.—Virginia Creeper (mihi).

C. auvigena Btlr _—Impatiens sp. (mihi).

C. obfuscata Warr.—Impatiens sp. (mihi).

Photoscotosia Warr.

P. miniosata Wik.—Rubus sp. (mihi)

Callabrasas Btlr.

C. amanda Btlr.—Saxifragaceee sp (mihi).

Phthonoloba Warr.

P. decussata Moore—Rose, Apple, Citrus spp. (mihi).

BOARMIINAE

Abraxas Leach.

A. grossulaviata L.—Ribes, Euonymus, Calluna ad many others (non

Indian).

A. sylvata Scop.—In Europe on Elm.

Peratophyga Warr.

P. aerata Moore—Hypericum sp. (mihi).

Urapteryx Leach

U. sambucaria L.—Ivy (non-Indian).

Thinopteryx Btlr.

T. crocoptera Koll.—Vine, Virginia Creeper (mihi).

Osicerda Wlk. (Prionia Hbn )

O. sgualidaria Hbn.—Ixora (Lep. Ceyl.).

Leptomiza Warr.

L. calceayia W\k.—Rubus sp. (mihi).

464; JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Macaria Curt.

M. fasciata F.—Mimosa concinna (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna).

M. fidoniata Guen.—Acacia catechu (lac Research Institute Bulletin).

Orsonoba W1k.

O. clelia Cr.—Convolvulaceae (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna).

Hyposidra Guen.

ff. talaca Wik—Jambona, Combretum, Ficus parasiticus (Lep. Ceyl.,

Fauna), Castor (mihi).

Luxiaria Wlk.

L. obliquata Moore—Melastoma normale (mihi).

Petelia Herr.—Sch.

P. medardaria Herr.—Sch.—Zizyphus. jujuba (mihi).

Fascellina W1k.

F. chromataria W\k—Cinnamomea (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna).

F. plagiata W\k.—Laurineae (mihi).

Biston Leach.

B. suppressaria Guen.—Cassia auriculata (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna), Cassia sp.,

Lagerstroemia indica, Carissa carandas (mihi).

B. bengaliaria Guen.—I suspect Pine trees.

Medasina Moore.

M. strixaria Guen.—Acanthads (Lep. Ceyl.).

M. albidaria W\k.—Rose, Cherry (mihi.).

Boarmia Treit :

B. bhurmitra Wik.—Rose, Geranium, Maesa chisia, Sympocos sp., Mela-

stoma normale (mihi.).

B. boarmiaria. Guen,—Plumbago rosea (Lep. Ceyl.).

B. selenarvia Abn.—Apple (mihi).

B. acaciavia Bsd.—Cinnamomea (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna), Rose, Apple, Pansy

(mihi).

Psyra WIk.

P. spurcataria W\k.—Rose, Maesa chisia (mihi).

PYRALIDAE .

GALLERIINAE

On wax in bee hives and nests of wild bees (Lep. Ceyl.).

Trachylepidia Rag.

T. fructicassiella Rag.—Pods of Cassia fistula (Fauna, mihi).

Achroia Hbn. ;

A, grisella F.—Wax in bee-hives (Fauna).

Lamoria WIk.

L. anella Schitt,—Fallen indigo leaves (Lefroy).

’ Galleria F.

G. mellonella L.—Parasitic in bee-hives (Fauna), bee comb (mihi),

CRAMBINAE

Usually grass ot reed feeders (Fauna), amongst moss in grassy places or in

the stems of aquatic plants (Lep. Ceyl.).

Chilo Zinck.

C. simplex Btlr.—Cultivated cane, Juar, Bajra, Maize (Lefroy).

C. zonellus Swinh.—Jowar, Wheat, Maize, Bajra (Trehan and Pingle

Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xivi, 141). Bere,

Ancylolomia Hbn.

A. chrysographella Zell.—Grass, Rice (Lefroy).

A, locupletella Koll.—Spinitex squarrosa (Fauna, Lefroy),

FOOD-PLANTS OF INDIAN GEOMETRIDAE AND PYRALIDAE 468

SCHOENOBIINAE

In the interior of reeds (Fauna).

Scirpophaga Treit.

S. aurvitlua Zell.—Sugarcane, Saccharum cilare (Lefroy).

S. nivella F,—Sugarcane (Trehan and Pingle, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc.

xlvi, 141).

Ss monostigma Zell.—Sugarcane, Saccharum cilare (Lefroy).

schoenobius Dup.

S. dipunctifer Wik.—Rice, probably grasses (Lefroy), Paddy (Trehan and

Pingle, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xivi, 144)-

ANERASTIINAE

Anerastia Hbn.

A. ablutella Zell.—-Sugarcane (Lefroy).

Polyocha Zell.

P. saccharella Dudg.—Sugarcane (Lefroy).

P. cinerella AHamps.—Euphorbia neriifolia (Lefroy).

PHYCITINAE

On leaves or in the stems of plants, some in dried animal or vegetable sub*

stances (Lep. Ceyl.).

E phestia Guen.

£. cautella W\k.-——Rice and wheat flour, tamarind seeds (Lefroy).

£, cahiritella Zell.—Rice and wheat flour (Lefroy).

Heterographis kag.

FH, verrucicola Hamps,—In wart-like excresences on ‘Trema orientalis,

tunnelling in the diseased wood (Fauna). .

H. bengalella Rag.—In Custard Apple fruits (Fauna).

Euzophera Zell.

E. perticella Rag. erin (Lefroy, Trehan and Pingie, Journ. Bomb. Nat.

Hist. Soc.. xivi, 147).

Ve punicacella Moore.—Jn Pomegranate fruits (Fauna).

£. cedvella Hamps.—Deodar cones (Lefroy).

Microthrix Rag.

MW. inconspicuella Rag.—Sugarcane (Lefroy).

Nephopteryx Hon.

N. eugraphella Rag.—Cured Tobacco, Mimusops elengi (Fauna).

N. divisella Dup.—Euphorbia (Fauna),

N. paurosema Meyr.—Pods of Cassia tora (Lefroy).

N. semirubella Scop.—Lotus, Hippocrepis, Trifolium, etc. (Fauna), Maize

(Lefroy),

Myelois Hbn.

M. pectinicornella Hamps.—Seeds of Pongamia glabra (mi hi).

Hypsipyla Rag.

A. robusta Moore.—{n the small branches of mahogany (aaunay, in shoots

of Cedrela toona (Lefroy).

Phycita Curt.

P. dentilinella Hamps.—Chitin (Lefroy).

P. clientella Ze\l.—Solanum (Lefroy).

P. infusella Meyr.—Cotton (Lefroy, Trehan and Pingle, Journ, Bomb, Nat.

Hist. Soc. x\vi, 145).

P} jasiminophaga Hamps.—Flower buds and young leaves of Jasminum

sambac (Fauna).

Etiella Zeil. AS

E. zinckenella Yreit.—In pods of Colutea, Crotalaria juncea, Phaseolus, etc,

(Fauna). a

496 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. ay

E PIPASCHIINAE

Coenodomus WIsm.

C. hockingti Wism.—Eugenie jambolana (Fauna).

C. rotundinidus Hamps.—A tree of the Laurel tribe (Fauna).

Orthaga WIk.

O. exvinacea Hamps.—Mango (Trehan and Pingle, Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist.

Soc., xlvi, 150).

O. vitialis Wik.—Cinnamomium (Lep. Ceyl).

CHRYVSAUGINAE

ENDOTRICHINAE

Nothing recorded concerning the Indian species,

PYRALINAE

Hypsopygia Hbn.

AH. mauritialis Bsd.—Wax, larvae, etc. in nests of Polistes hebraeus —

(Lefroy).

Pyralis L.

P. favinalis 1..—Oatmeal, Potato, etc. (Lefroy).

HYDROCAMPINAE

The larvae of some epecies of Vympfhula feed on water-plants and are fitted

for a life below the surface of the water (Fauna).

Nymphula Schrank.

N. affinialis Guen.—Water plants (Lefroy)

N. tluctuosalis Zell.—Rice (Fauna).

N. depunctalis Guen.—Rice (Lefroy), Paddy (Trehan and Pingle, Journ.

Bomb. Nat. Hist, Soc., xlvi, 144).

SCOPARIINAE

The larvae feed on mosses and lichens, except in a few ancestral forms in

New Zealand, which are grass feeders (Fauna).

PYRAUSTINAE

Pycnarmon Led.

P. cribrata F.—Coleus parviflora (Aiyar, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xi,

336).

- Zinckenia Zell.

Z. perspectalis Hbn.—Amaranthus, Beetroot, Maize, Garden ae (Lefroy).

Z. tascialis Cr.—Impatiens sp. (mihi).

Cnaphalocrocis Led.

C. medinalis Guen.—Rice, grasses (Lefroy).

Marasmia Led.

M. trapezalis Guen.—Maize, Juar, Bajra (Lefroy).

Syngamia Guen.

S. abruptalis Wik.—Ocinum sanctum (Lefroy).

S. floridalis Zell.—Urticaceae sp. (mihi).

Caprinia Wlk.

C. conchylalis Guen,—Kicksia, Holarrhena antidysenterica (Lefroy).

Filodes Guen.

F. fulvidorsalis Hbnu.—Thunbergia alata (Fauna, Lep. Ceyl.).

Phryganodes Guen.

P. analis Snell.—Cassia fistula (mihi).

oo 5 FOOD-PLANTS OF INDIA GEOMETRIDAE AND PYRALIDAE 497

Dichocrocis Led.

; Dd, punctiferalis (guen.—Mango flowers, Castor, Garuga pinnata fruits,

” Cacao (Lefroy), unripe seeds of Castor (mihi) Guava, Castor, Mango (Trehan

and Pingle, fourn., Bomb, Nat. Hist. Soc., xlvi, 149).

Nacoleia Wlk. _

NV. vulgatis Guen.—Lucerne, Soya, Phaseolus radiatus (Lefroy)...

N. diemenalis Guen. —~Phaseolus mungo (Lefroy).

Botyodes, Guen,

~ B, asialis Guen.—Ficus (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna).

_Sylepta. Hbn.

-S. aerogata F.—Cotton (Trenan and Pingle, Jowrn., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc.

xlvi, 144), Hollyhock and other Malvaceae (mihi).

S. Son Guen.—Grape vine (Lefroy).

Lygropia Led.

L. guaternalis Zell.—Sida rhombifolia (Lefroy):

Agathodes Guen.

2. ostentalis Hbn —Erythrina indica (Lefroy).

Glyphodes Guen.

. negatalis W\k.—Ficus religiosa, Dillenia indica fruits (Lefroy).

vertumnalis Guen,—Tabernaemonians coronaria (Lefroy, mihi).

glauculalis Guen.—Tabernaemontana (Lep, Ceyl.)

untonalis Abn.—Jasmine (mihi).

étvitralis Guen.—Ficus oppositifolia (Lep. Ceyl. ), Ficus religiosa (unt)

. caesalis W\k.—Ficus religiosa (mihi).

canthusalis Wik.—Ficus religiosa (mihi).

. Sinuata F.—Moduca (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna).

. indica Saund.—Cotton (Fauna), Cucurbitaceous plants (Lefroy).

Polythlipta Led.

af Givaricata Moore.—Phaseolus (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna).

-Lepyrodes Guen.

L. neptis Cr.—Jasminum sambac (Lefroy, mihi).

‘os L, geometralis Guen.—Jasminum sambac (Lefroy).

~ “Leucinodes Guen.

“L. erbonalis Guen. —In brinjal fruits (Fauna, Trehan & Pingle, Journ.,

Bomb. Nat.’ Hist. Soc., xivis 147), in fruits of various Solanacez (mihi).

Crocidolomia Zell.

C. binotalis Zeil. —Crucifers (Lefroy). i

Hellula Guen.

H1, undalis F.—Cabbage, Cauliflower (oy).

“Terastia.Guen.. . .--

T. meticulosalis Gien. BS ii young ‘stems of Baythrins (Fauna).

Isocentris Meyr. if

I. opheltesalis W\k.—Sunflower (Lefroy).

Crocidophora Led.

C. ptyophora Hamps.—Bamboo (mihi).

Maruca WIE.

MM. testulalis Geyer—Pulses ( Lefroy).

Pachyzancla Meyr.

P. phoepteralis Wik.—Anisomeles ovata (Lefroy), grasses (Cherian &

George, Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxxi, 530).

P. aegrotalis Zell, —-Croton, Schizandra, Alternanthera (Lefroy).

Phlyctaenodes Guen.

P. nudalis Hbr.—Croton, Fenugreek (Lefroy).

Antigastra Led.

A. catalaunalis Dup. —Sesamum (Lefroy, Trehan & Pingle, Journ., Bomb.

Nat, Hist. Soc., xlvi, 149).

SA ne Me RSA

Meengewawl whigeane ei

498. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST...SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Noorda W1k.

_) LV. blitealis W1k.—Moringa plerygosperny, (Lefroy).

“ Metasia Guen.

M. coniotalis Hamps. —Sweet potato tibere (Lefroy).

Pionea Guen.

P. ferrugalis Abn.—Cabbage, Se balsamifera, (Lettoy).

Pyrausta Schrank.

P. machoeralis W\ik.—Teak (Fauna).

P. incoloralis Guen.—Calotropis gigantea’ (mihi):

P. coclesalis W\k.—Bamboo (Fauna), occasionally on M aize (Lefroy).

_P. bambucivora Moore—Bamboo (Fauna).

P. salentialis Snell.—Boring in stems of Polygonum (Lefroy).

I have, in addition, the following record, but the species does not appear in

the Fauna and lam not sure of its actual affinities,

Phostria piasnsalis Wik.—Ccleus parviflora (Aiyar, Journ., Bomb. Nat.

Fiust. Soc., x1, 336).

THE BUTTERFLIES OF. THE: KHASIA

AND JAINTIA HILLS, ASSAM:

sil) aivsholeedqa. auth ats 2

R. E. Parsons, F.R.E.S., Indian Police. _

AND epra

SIR KEITH CANTLIE, C. I. ElaCsSr

Since the publication of Swinhoe’ S sha: in Neca we hase: not been

able to trace any detailed list: of butterflies: from the Khasia_and

Jaintia Hills in Assam and the present list is intended. to assist

collectors in giving as precise information as possible ; with regard

to localities.

The high plateau of the head and faite: Hills is almost! bare

of trees save scattered pines. The forests are on ‘the lower ‘hills.

They commence at Umran, 21 miles ffom Shillong, called the 42nd

Mile since miles are reckoned from Gauhati on the Gauhati Road

(G; S. Road). Good localities are Mile 40 near the Margaret Falls ;

Mile 36 near Umsaw Nongkharai Village; the path into the: forests

at Mile 33; another such path at Mile 36; Nongpoh Inspection Bunga-

low at Mile 30; Umling forest path at Mile 23; Burnihat Inspection

Bungalow and the path leading up the river from it at Mile 16.

Shillong 5,000 ft., Umran 2, 30°. fe 2 meteven I oe ft., Burnihat

plains level. rh,

No advantage has been found fein amnion into ‘he apes

elsewhere. The villages are few. and: the: whole region «is. very

malarious in the monsoon.

The other wooded area is to: thé :south:.on. the: ‘slopes. towards

Sylhet District, extending from the Garo: “Hills border on the west

to the North Cachat Hills on the east.: There are many villages

growing oranges, areca nuts, bag leaf trees and ‘pan vines; but

travel is difficult except for the district"officers, as there ‘are ho "rest

houses and porters are needed. The only areas accessible*aré’ those

beside the’ Shillong-Sylhet motor road’ arid’ that: below: <Betapealee.

BUTTERFLIES OF THE KHASIA.- AND JAINTIA HILLS, ASSAM. 4099

Along the Shillong-Sylhet road are the Laitlyngkot Inspection Bunga-

low, 6,000 ft., 17 miles from Shillong where Argynnis rudra is found ;

Pynursla Inspection Bungalow 4,900 ft., 30 miles from Shillong

where Meandrusa gyas gyas, Meandrusa evan, Appias lalage lalage

and Aporia agathon agathon occur in the small woods. behind: the

bungalow; Poontoong, 4o miles from Shillong where Leptocircus

curius is found at the bridge; the wooded area onwards to Dawki

and finally the villages Darrang and Shnongpedeng reached by boat

or on foot within 2 miles of Dawki and-called simply Dawki in this

list, for brevity. There is a bungalow at Dawki and the place is

excellent, yielding uncommon species.

The area below Cherrapunjee has always been noted but MAS

mai where the motor road ends, 3 miles below Cherrapunjee bunga-

low, is also excellent. Further on one must walk 2 miles down to

the woods at Mahadei (Laitera). An arrangement to stay in a

Khasi village house there would save much tramping. There is an

inspection bungalow at the foot: of the hills at Therria. On the

south-west, a Welsh Mission bungalow at Laitkynsew could be

occupied by permission as a centre, but a daily steep climb up and

down to the best localities below the bungalow is required. Another

route is from Cherrapunjee bungalow eastwards across the plateau

2 miles to Kut Madan by cycle and from there a steep path goes

down through woods from where one can return on the same day.

In the precipitous gorge of the Umiam, west of Cherrapunjee the

Khasi collectors in the villages of Mawphu and Thiedding produce

rarities for a dealer but the woods are not swarming with butterflies

as one of us found, who had to stay there on duty for a week in

June and saw nothing even on days where there was no rain, and

the rainfall in Cherrapunjee area is the heaviest in the world, up-

wards of 4oo inches. Trips may be entirely fruitless, as there may

be no sunshine for days together.

There are no species on the high plateau not obtainable near the

motor roads, Shillong-Cherrapunjee or Shillong-Mawphlang, so

journeys into. the interior of the plateau are of no benefit.

The high plateau of the Jaintia Hills (Jowai sub-division) is a poor

place as trees are mostly planted blocks of: pines. The southern

slopes towards Sylhet District are of course as good as the Cherra-

punjee area; but the only accessible place is Syndai Inspection

Bungalow, 6 5 ft., 6 miles from Jaintiapur Inspection bungalow.

which is on the ‘60th mile of the Shillong-Sylhet road. The path

below Syndai is a prolific place especially for the genus Futhalia.

Porters are needed.

The Khasi Hills are so . frequently mentioned by authors that the

reader might have an idea that butterflies were to be seen in swarms

and rare ones at that. The idea would be entirely wrong.

_ One of us was for many years a District Officer in the Khasia

and Jaintia Hills but touring mostly on the high plateau in the cold

weather, had small opportunity of collecting. In ‘the villages on

the steep slopes towards Sylhet or in the forests towards Gauhati

little was seen on winter tours. Everything collected was during

the . march or a spare hour. around . the | camp. After retirement. re-

cently more time has been available. ) ae

500 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

The other of us was Superintendent of Police whose duties took

him along the main roads and spare hours, though infrequent,

yielded more than the long journeys into the interior of the District

Officer. In recent months a few days have been available.

Some purchases were made from professional collectors when

this list was contemplated and from the old stock of the Himalayan

Butterfly Stores, Riatsamthiah, Shillong (proprietor Mr. Sircar).

His export business, suspended in the war, began again in early

1947. The butterflies were examined only after the printing of

proofs of this article and final changes made are mostly indicated

by ‘Produced from below Cherra’ or ‘From below Cherra’. ‘The

months and places S., S.W. or S.E. of Cherrapoonji are unknown.

Mr. Sircar’s men collect entirely from this area and obtain species,

often in some quantity, seldom or never seen by the amateur

elsewhere.

The nomenclature and numerical order of arrangement follow

that in Evan’s Identification of Indian Butterflies, our incentive

and guide. The illustrations of every species in Antram are most

helpful. We have had the luck to procure for ourselves all the

standard works including Seitz but the visitor can consult Marshall

and de Niceville, Bingham and Evans partly in the Public Library

and partly in the Shillong Club. We were unable to visit museums.

The months given against species are merely those in which we

saw them.

A list of Lycaenidae is ready and will be published later.

Ai. Troides helena cerberus, Fd.

This species is common at Dawki. There are spring and autumn broods.

Females of Var. euwmagos Jord. are more often seen than the typical form of

the female. It has been noticed in Shillong on several occasions but is not

common above 3,000 feet.

Troides aeacus Fd.

This is more frequent on the Gauhati-Shillong Road than on the slopes to

Sylhet and has not yet been noted at Dawki.

Az. Byasa aidoneus Db.

The headquarters of this very rare butterfly appear to be the Gauhati-Shillong

Road. The best locality appears to be the stretch of jungle between the road and

the river on the outside of the big curve just beyond Mile 41 in the Gauhati

direction. Here this species flies amongst the tree trunks up to about 3 p.m. in

almost any weather. A long handled net is very necessary as it flies about 14-15

ft. above the ground. There are other localities also; the best being on the west of

the road at Umran Nong Kharai.. The former locality is best in the middle of

July ; the latter in October and it appears therefore that there are two broods.

It is very difficult to distinguish this species on the wing, from the next, and hence

it is possible that many are missed by collectors.

Byasa varuna astorion Wad.

This is very common on the plains all over Assam but is inclined to be local.

In our area it occurs below Cherrapunjee, at Margaret Falls and Burnihat in

small numbers; but is quite common at Umran Nong Kharai where it flies with

aidoneus. It flies more or less continuously from May until late in the autumn.

Byasa coon cacharensis But.

Taken at Umsaw Nong Kharai in October. Seen at Syndai. Very rare. It

occurs commonly in the Garo Hills and in the North Cachar Hills on both sides

of the south Khasi Hills.

BUTTERFLIES OF THE KHASIA AND JAINTIA HILLS, ASSAM 501

Byasa aristolochiae aristolochiae F.

Common in forest areas at all times and in some years appears in considerable

numbers in Shillong itself. Var dphilus Esp. also occurs.

Byasa latreillet kabrua Tyt.

Has been obtained in large numbers from professionals in the Naga Hills

east of our area but not in the Khasi Hills. They are not high enough.

Byasa nevilli WM.

One specimen obtained from a professional; taken below Cherrapunjee.

Very rare.

Byasa philoxenus polycuctes Db.

Taken below Cherra in spring and autumn. Occasionally seen on Lantana

just above Burrapani. Not common.

Byasa dasarada dasarada M.

One taken at Cherrapunjee and another at Umsaw Nong Kharai in October.

Occurs also at Syndai in the Jowai subdivision of the Khasi Hills. Taken by

professionals below Cherrapunjee.

Byasa crassipes Ob.

One specimen has been obtained by us in the Sadiya Frontier Tract and

others in Manipur by General Tytler. There would appear to be no valid reason

why it should not turn up in the Jowai subdivision of the Khasi Hills.

Chilasa agestor agestor Gray.

Not rare. Many obtained from professionals, taken below Cherra.

Chilasa slateri slaterti Hew.

Rare. Single brooded. In March-April at Dawki. Produced in some num-

bers from below Cherra. Female very rare.

Chilasa epicydes epicydes Hew.

Rare. Some produced from below Cherra, e.g, Nongpriang early Oct.

Chilasa pavadoxa telearchus Hew.

Rare; but occurs in some numbers at Dawki in March and again in July

and October and below Cherrapunjee in September and October, so it is at

least double brooded although Seitz states it is single brooded.

Var. danisepa. But is very rare but is found at Mawphu in the Umiew river

gorge west of Cherra and is said to be fairly common at Thiedding village.

Chilasa clytia clytia L.

Var. dissimilis is the common form, clytia clytia (the dark form) is much

rarer. Obtainable both below Cherra and on the Gauhati-Shillong road in

March to June and in the autumn. Very common at Dawki where specimens

of var. dissimillima Evans, have also been obtained.

A4 Papilio memnon agenor L.

Common in the forest areas of the Khasi Hills and also all over the plains

districts of Assam throughout the monsoon. Occurs in Shillong. All three

forms of the female are found but are not rare. Some striking forms of the

female var. alcanor Cr. have been noted including one in which the discal white

spots on the hind wings have been almost completely dusted over with red scales.

Tt is an easy species to breed and the larvae are often numerous on lemon and

orange trees.

soz JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.-4p--- © ©

Papilio bootes bootes Wd.

‘Rare, taken in the gorges below Cherrapunjee, e.g. Maephu ne professional

collectors.

Papilio rhetenor Wd.

_ Fairly common at Pynursla and Dawki, obtainable at roe Nong. Kharai,

on the Gauhati-Shillong Road; at and “below Cherrapunjee. Females, easily

distinguishable by the peculiar shape of the hindwing, are rare buf one or iwo

can generally be found round the solitary lime tree in the Pynursla Inspection

Bungalow compound. Numerous larvae have been obtained from this tree and

a good series bred out. The dry season form is very noticeably smaller than

the wet season form. The species occurs on the plains of Assam, e.g. in the

forest areas bordering the Naga Hills in Golaghat, throughout the monsoon and

in the autumn.

Papilio protener euprotenory Fruh.

Common in the same localities as memnon, e.g. on Othe Gauhat Shillong road,

Umsaw Nong Kharai down to Burnihat throughout the monsoon. The larvae

have frequently turned up on citrus in the Government Experimental Station at

Burnihat and has. frequently been bred by us. from larvae found at the back of

Kench’s Trace in Shillong on Xanthoxylum acanthopodium. The females are rare.

Papilio elephenor elephenor Db.

Professional collectors have taken this species from the gorges below

Cherrapunjee in May but we have not seen any in their hands. It is said to be

single brooded and flies only for about three weeks. .

Papilio polyctor ganesa M.

Common in the forest areas throughout the monsoon. It is not by any means

rare in Shillong and we have bred a very long Series from-eggs and larvae founda

on Xanthoxylum acanthopodium at the back of Kench’s Trace in Shillong.

Included in this series is a fine variety of the female with a complete set of

red lunules on the upper hindwings. We also have a male which is little. bigger

than a Cabbage White. The larvae are exceeding easy to rear if kept in

ordinary glass jam jars provided not more than three are placed in each jar.

Papilio paris paris L.

Common in the same areas as ganesa but less so in Shillong. At least one

specimen has been bred by us from amongst ganesa larvae found on’ Xanthoxylum

acanthopodium at Kench’s Trace in Shillong. The dry season form is very smali

compared with the wet season form and pygmies are not rare. A very fine

series can. generally be obtained in March on wet sand below Darang village

on the Dawki River.

Papilio arcturus arcturus Wd.

Not .nearly so common as either ganesa or paris and is not found low down.

It prefers the oak woods in the Cherrapunjee and Pynursla areas where it is

not very rare, but it is difficult to obtain as it flies high. Professional Cherra-

punjee collectors however obtain many fine specimens’ including the rare females

with long handled nets. It is found throughout the monsoon. Also Shillong.

Papilio krishna M.

Not seen by us in the Khasi Hills but taken by Mr. Perry, S.D.O. in the

Cachar Hills to the east of our area.

- Papilio castor castor Wd.

Rather rare but can ‘generally be obtained on wet sand along the ‘Dawki

River below Darrang and Snongpedeng villages in April and in “October : and

also Umling on the Gauhati-Shillong Road between Nonghoh and _ Burnihat.

The females are very rare but we have obtained two at Mawsmai near Cherra-

punjee in thick jungle; and one at Dawki in April. They are however quite

common on lantana below the waterworks at Gauhati in the Kamrup District.

BUTTERFLIES OF THE KHASIA AND JAINTIA HILLS, ASSAM?’ 50%

Papilio helenus helenus L.

Common in forest areas’ in ‘Shillong from. May throughout the monsoon.

Very common and in fine. condition’ on the Dawki river sandbanks. Larvae

common on lemon and orange low down and on ORDA VED scanthopodjum at

Kench’s Trace in Shillong.

Papilio chaon chaon . Wa.

Common from Umsaw Nong Kharai to plains level on the Gauhati- Shillong

road and at Dawki throughout the monsoon in the same areas as helenus but

is rarer. It occasionally turns up in Shillong and is sometimes seen in plains

villages, e.g. Silghat in Nowgong District. The dry ‘season form is not so

noticeably smaller than the wet season form as is the case with helenus. It is

plentiful in heavy forest areas in Upper. assamy but is rarely seen in orp country

in the plains.

Papilio polytes romulus Cr.

Very common at all times and all over Assam. All three forms of the female

have been noted, but var. stichius F. is by far the most common. ~The typical

form of the female and var. cyrus F. are both rare. Intermediate forms between

the typical and var. stichius have been noted and a fine series of forms would

not be difficult to obtain and would ‘at the same time be most interesting to

illustrate the transition from the typical form to var. stichrus. The larvae teed

on a small aromatic shrub which is extensively used in Assam and elsewhere as

a flavouring for curries.

Papilio embléus demoleus: ‘1, °°

Very common indeed at low levels in orange and: lemon: groves’ on which the

larvae feed at Burnihat and on the Sylhet slopes of the hills. It is very common

all over Assam and interesting varieties sometimes turn up. It is very easy to

rear from-egg or larva: There is a difference of coloration in some specimens

in which the usual clear yellow is suffused with a dark brownish tinge. Careful

examination has shown however that this coloration is never found in fresh

specimens and must be put down to staining due to age or other causes... Such

specimens are invariably ragged and worn. They are most certainly not varieties

nor can they be said to represent'a separate species or subspecies.

Papilio machaon verityt fruh.

Not seen by us in the Khasi Hills but it is known to occur at Suroi in Manipur

and is almost certainly to be found in the Naga Hills but is unlikely to turn

up in the Khasi Hills unless it is introduced and establishes itself on carrot in

the extensive market gardens in’ Shillong.

As. Pathysa eurous sikkimica feron.

Taken at Umtyngar gate, 14 miles from Shillong, on the Shillong-Sylhet Road.

It is not rare at Laitlyngkot in the valley of the small stream below the Inspec-

tion Bungalow but is difficult'to secure owing to the speed at which it flies.

As with all Pathysa, females are very rare.

Pathysa agetes agetes Wad,

Not rare on wet sand at Dawki in ‘the area of Darrang village but numbers

vary NED, considerably from veal to year.

-Pathysa avisteus anticrates Db.

‘One obtained on wet sand at Darrang village on the Dawki River in n April and

one at plains level below Cherrapunjee, also in April.

Pathysa antiphates pompilius F.

~-Common in’ the low: hills along: the’ GauhatizShillong Road and. is. numerous at

Dawki along the river on wet sand in’ March- and ae available. below: ‘Cherra-

punjee at plains ‘level throughout the: monsoon. wo latter altel es

504 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Ao. Zetides cloanthus Wad.

found occasionally in Shillong in April. Is fairly common on the top of the

Peak and on lantana blossom well above Kench’s Trace. Is taken by professional

collectors in some numbers in the Cherrapunjee area but is rarely seen below 3,000

ft. It flies high round the tops of oak trees and is difficult to secure except with

a net having at least a 12 foot handle. It appears to be rare, but this is due to its

habits and is actually fairly common. Mr. Perry reports it to be rare in the north

Cachar Hills which is a very fine collecting ground. We have noticed it to be

very common on Birch Hill in Darjeeling.

Zetides sarpedon sarpedon L.

Zetides doson axion Ed.

Both are very common along the river at Dawki on wet sand in March and

April and from Umsaw Nong Kharai to Burnihat on the Gauhati-Shillong Road

in spring and autumn.

Zetides eurypylus cheronus Fruh.

Not common like doson. In same places.

Zetides bathycles chiron “Wall.

On wet sand along the river at Dawki in April but is not common.

Zetides agammemnon agammemnon L.

Not scarce on wet sand along the river at Dawki in April and obtainable on

lantana blossom on the Gauhati-Shillong Road, but not often seen. It appears

to be commoner in the Golaghat forest areas towards the Naga Hills than in

the Khasi Hills. Syndai in our area is, however, a good locality, in October.

Az Paranticopsis macareus lionels Fruh.

The males are common along the river at Dawki in March and April. No

females have been taken. .

Paranticopsis xenocles xenocles Db.

Less common than lioneli but obtainable in fair numbers along with that

species at Dawki in April and occasionally at Burnihat along the Umran River

in May and June. Only two females have been obtained, both from the area

below Cherrapunjee in dense forest. Many produced from below Cherra.

Paranticopsis megarus megarus Wad.

Common at Dawki along the river in April 1940 but not seen there since.

One obtained from a professional probably from the area below Cherrapunjee

in May. Only one female was taken, to the North of the District in 1939.

A8 Meandrusa gyas gyas Wd.

Many seen near the Pynursla Inspection bungalow in April, but keeps to

the tops of oak trees requiring a net with a very long handle. One taken in

April in Jirang State in low hills on the Kamrup border. Professionals catch

them in large numbers including a few of the rare females, in the Cherrapunjee

area. We have not seen it on the plains; but the late Mr. Deeks took it at

Mariani, near the railway station, in Upper Assam.

Meandrusa payeni evan Db.

At Umsaw Nong Kharai on the Gauhati-Shillong Road in April. Settles

on plants of Lady’s Fingers (Hibiscus esculenta). Many have been seen on grassy

slopes at Poontoong. Taken in April at Lawbah on the slopes towards Sythet.

Professionals take many in the area below Cherra. The females are very rare.

Ag Teinopalpus imperialis imperialis Hope.

Obtainable at Laitryngew and Laitlyngdoh and neighbourhood on the Cherra-

punjee Road on fine days in May and early June especially on the bare tops of

the hills which have trees on their lower slopes. They fly from dawn. till

BUTTERFLIES OF THE KHASIA AND JAINTIA. HILLS, ASSAM. 505

10 o’clock after which they retire to tree tops. Males occasionally settle on

stones and are easily taken, females are rather rare.

The Khasi Hills variety is a new subspecies which has not yet been described.

As this butterfly is confined only to a particular area in the Khasi Hills, it

provides an export business for professionals, who may cause its extinction.

A1o Leptocircus curius F.,

Found at Poontoong on the Shillong-Sylhet road and obtained by professionals

in numbers towards Sylhet below Cherrapunjee. We have taken one or two

at Syndai in October. Taken by Mr. Delanougerede at» Umsaw Nong Kharai

(Mile 36) on the Gauhati-Shillong road. It is rare and very local. Mr. Perry

saw it at only one place in the North Cachar Hills. One of us saw it in

large numbers in the Ghildarri Forest Reserve at plains level near Golaghat in

the Sibsagar District in early October.

Leptociycus meges, with its green band, has only been taken by us in the

Naga Hills. It does not occur in the Khasi Hills.

Air. Armandia lidderdalei Atk.

Does not occur in the Khasi Hills. Taken by us only in the Naga Hills

in June. Kirbari in the Naga Hills in June is an excellent locality.

PIERIDAE

Bi. Leptosia nina nina fF.

Very common in the orange groves at Dawki, upstream from Darrang village,

throughout the monsoon. Some are very small indeed. Easily mistaken for

a moth as it flutters in low herbage. Noticed also at low levels on the Gauhati-

Shillong road.

Bg Pieris napi montana Ver.

Pieris canidia indica Evans.

Pieris brassicae L.

All these are common in Shillong and other parts of the district from April

onwards.

Brassicae is a pest in market gardens. It is curious however that it is

common at Sylhet, in Sylhet district, to the south of the Khasi Hills but has

not been noticed at Gauhati, in Kamrup district north of the Khasi Hills.

Although General Tytler reported its presence in considerable numbers in Manipur,

it is unknown in Lakhimpur district. Members of the cabbage family are

widely cultivated in all these areas and this somewhat curious density of distri-

bution is remarkable. Easy to breed but may be parasitised.

Evans in his ‘Identification of Indian Butterflies’ has stated that the female

of Pieris napi montana is ‘yellow and often much darkened’, This is, however,

mot correct so far as the Khasi Hills are concerned, at least. We have dark

females as well as many lightly marked specimens but have never met with a

yellow female amongst the many hundreds we have examined.

Bs. Aporia agathon agathon Gray.

In Shillong in May and June and Pynursla in oak woods on the Shillong-

Sylhet road in April. Not rare.

Bo. Delias agostina Hew.

Not rare on wild blossom at Mile 45 on the Gauhati-Shillong road at the

end of November including many fine dark females. It is usually hard to get

as it keeps to the tree tops.

Delias hyparete hierte Hub.

Not common. A few in the same locality as agostina; also from Cherra.

Delias belladona lugens Jord. |

Not rare on the Peak in April and June and again towards the end of the

monsoon on Buddlea blossom.

506 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

ye) 404

Delias berinda berinda M.

A few are generally to be obtained round the ce Bungalow at Jowai

in June.

Delias descombesi leucacantha fruh.

Common all over the district, particularly at Mile 45 on the’ Gauhati-Shillong

road on wild blossom in November.

Delias aglaia L. ;

Common all over the district except on the high treeless plateau.

Delias thysbe pyramus Wall.

Not rare on wild blossom at Mile 4o.and 45 on the Gauhati-Shillong road

and elsewhere in November. Can be confused with aglaia in. fight. Tt. has

also been taken at Syndai in October.

Bz. Prioneris thestylis Db.

Taken at Dawki on wet sand. Occasional specimens are to be found all over

the district except on the high treeless plateau throughout the monsoon. Speci-

mens in fine condition including the rare females are not rare on Buddlea blossom

along the Shillong-Sylhet road in the Mile 21 area and towards Pynursla in

October and November. Plentiful at Nongpriang below Cherra, September.

' Prioneris clemanthe Db.

Very rare but we have obtained this species on wet sand upstream fiom

Dawki in October and November. It has also been noted in lots from pro-

fessionals who have obtained it below Cherrapunjee.

Bg Huphina nerissa phryne Fruh.

Huphina nadina nadina Luc.

_ Dawki upstream along the river. The latter is the commoner of the two

species.. The males are met with on wet sand and an occasional female is to

be found on lantana at somewhat higher levels. It has been taken in Shillong

in August and at Syndai.

Bio. Appias lalage lalage Db.

Common on wet sand along the river aber Dawki in March and April.

Not raré in Shillong during the monsoon where many fine examples of the female

are obtainable. In late October and November a good series can be obtained

on Buddlea on the Shillong-Sylhet road between Mile 21 and Pynursla. A.

number of. specimens with yellow on the underside of the hindwing have been

noted. This form is not noted by Evans in his ‘Identification of Indian Butter-

flies’.

Appias indra indra M.

Occasional specimens can be picked up from amongst droves of lalage sipping

wet sand along the river above Dawki. We have also recorded it below Syndai

in October.

Appias libythea olferna Swin.

Is very uncommon but we have one specimen taken in Shillong in June

and another at Dawki in March. Specimens of both males and females have

however been. obtained by us at Burnihat near the bridge in early June.

Appias lyncida hippoides M. = Sae

The male is very, common everywhere. along. rivers and also comes as high

as Cherrapunjee. Fond of wet sand. The female is not uncommon in ‘the

orange groves at Dawki. ;

BUTTERFLIES OF THE KHASIA. AND JAINTIA HILLS, ASSAM. 507

Appias albina darada Fd.

Somewhat scarce but a few can generally be obtained while’ sitting on wet

sand on the river» bank above Dawki in company with lalage and hippoides.

It comes as high as Cherrapunjee in large numbers in October to blossom.

A number of females, which are very rare, have been obtained in Shillong and

also at Cherrapunjee.

Appias nero galba Wall.

The dealer, Shillong, got very rarely from Cherra in past years. We took

one at Piphima, Naga Hills. Lt.-Col. Betts saw a number at Lumding, Now-

gong district, in September.

Bri Catopsilia crocale Cr.

Common towards Kamrup. The female is very variable and some interesting

varieties have been obtained through breeding large numbers of larvae, which

sometimes completely defoliate Cassia trees. One of these varieties corresponds

almost exactly to a form usually found in the Phillippines.

Catopsilia pomona Ff.

Common towards Kamrup but rare towards Sylhet.

Catopsilia pyranthe mina, Herbst.

Catopsilia florella gnoma F,

Not rare at plains level on the Sylhet side of the Hills. Not so common

towards Kamrup.

B12 Gandaca harina assamica M.

At Burnihat and Nongpoh on the Gauhati road in April; also on the river

upstream from Dawki in March and April and again in the autumn. Fond of

sitting on wet sand and near puddles in the jungle. The white female is not

common. It is also available at Syndai.

B13. Dercas verhuli doubledayi M.

Rare. A few were taken on the Gauhati-Shillong road. in’ September.

A few obtained from Cherrapunjee professional collectors and caught by them

low down below Cherrapunjee. It is much more common in Sikkim and

along the Kobo-Pasight road on the N.E. Frontier. of Assam.

Dercas lycorias Db.

Several specimens taken at Laitlyngkot 6,o00 ft. in June and July and also

on the Causeway along the Shillong-Sylhet road. A few specimens obtained

at Mawsmai near Cherrapunjee in early March. A number were obtained from

Cherrapunjee professional collectors. It is very easy to mistake this species

on the wing for a common. Terias and gréat care is necessary to avoid missing

this species as a result of this similarity. It is not common,

Bis. Terias libythea F.

Terias laeta laeta Bdv.

Terias blanda silhetana Wall.

Terias hecabe hecabe L.

The first two and the last are very common in Shillong and all over the

high plateau, also at low levels.

Silhetana is the prevailing form at Dawki in autumn.

With regard to silhetana, we have obtained this at Dawki in December, but

is probably much more widely distributed throughout the monsoon at low levels.

B16. Colias croceus fieldit Men.

Is common on the Peak at Shillong and at. Laitlyngkot: It is found: also

in Shillong itself and at Mawflang but is not so, numerous at the latter place.

The larvae feed on a small blueflowered vetch-like plant .but females in confine-

ment lay freely on clover. We have secured one white female of this’ species.

508 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Br7. Ixias pyrene pirenassa Wall.

Is found in Shillong occasionally but is mostly seen at low levels on the

road to Gauhati and the slopes towards Sylhet. Good specimens of the female

are hard to obtain.

B18. Hebomoia glaucippe glaucippe L.

Occurs in the river gorges leading to the Sylhet plains and at low levels on

the road to Gauhati throughout the rains. Many good specimens can be obtained

during the late monsoon on wild balsam in the orange groves near Dawki.

B2o. Pareronia avatar avatar M.

We have obtained one specimen of this butterfly, rare in Assam, at Gauhati

in Kamrup district on lantana flowers and there is therefore no reason why it

should not also occur in the low hills of our area to the north along the Kamrup

border. Not on Sylhet side. Mr. Perry took it in Garo Hills.

DANAIDAE

C2. Danais aglea melanoides M.

Common all over the district.

Danais tytia tytia Gray.

Common all over the district above 3,500 feet. It is plentiful at Cherrapunjee

and along the road to Sylhet between Mile 21 and Pynursla. Some interesting

varieties have been obtained at Laitlyngkot, a few of which are indistinguishable

from the subspecies sita, Koll and others show the complete transition from

sita to the true tytia.

Danais limniace mutina Fruh.

Danais melissa septentrionis But.

Both occur all over the district but mutina is rarer.

Danais melaneus plateniston fruh.

Is found in the same localities as tytia but is rarer and also occurs lower

down in the hills.

Danais plexippus. L.

Very common all over the district, particularly in the Dawki area where

many fine specimens are available in a reed bed below Darrang village.

Danais chrysippus L.

Common all over the district but is not so often met with as plexippus.

C3. Euploea mulciber mulciber Cr.

Very common all over the district. Also found in Shillong. We have scme

very small examples of the female.

Euploea core vermiculata But.

Common at low levels. The larvae feed on oleander.

Euploea alcathoe doubledayi Fd.

Numerous at Syndai, October. Also from below Cherra. Scarce elsewhere.

Euploea deione deione Wd.

Fairly common on sandbanks at Dawki and at mile 4o G. S. road.

Euploea harrisi hopei Fd.

Not rare. Dawki sandbanks; below Cherra; G. S. road.

Euploea diocletiana diocletiana F.

Common in forest areas below high plateau, especially at Margaret Falls

on G,.S. road where it sits on tarmac. We, have not distinguished ramsayi.

BUTTERFLIES OF THE KHASIA AND JAINTIA HILLS, ASSAM 509

Euploea klugit macclellandi M.

Somewhat rare. Below Syndai April and October and at Dawki and from

below Cherra.

Euploea midamus splendens But.

It is said to occur fairly plentifully here but we have obtained only cne at

Dawki in August. N.B.—We have seen one Kuploea not blue glossed and almost

certainly Euploea crassa crassa flying over sand below Darrang village near

Dawki, but as we failed to take it we cannot state the occurrence of this species

here.

SATYRIDAE

D1. Mycalesis anaxias aemata Fruh. a

A few to be found in orange groves on the eee near Dowki in October

(worn). Below Syndai and rarely produced fram below Cherra. Not seen

elsewhere.

Mycalesis francisca sanatana M.

A few obtained at low levels. At Umran mile 42 G.S. road 2,300 feet

October.

Mycalesis persius blasius F.

Taken on plains Upper Assam (Jorhat) but search for it here has so far been

unsuccessful.

Mycalesis mineus mineus L.

Very common at all levels.

Mycalesis visala visala M.

Probably uncommon. Our specimens are few. Khasia khasia must occur

here but we have no specimen.

Mycalesis malsara M.

One at Syndai in October. The dealer says rarely taken below Cherra.

We got at Piphima, Naga Hills, 3,000 feet, October.

Mycalesis malsarida But.

Not rare at Dawki in October. Also from below Cherra. One at Mile 35

G.S. road. Seems scarce.

Mycalesis mestra mestra Hew.

Produced by professionals from Cherra. Rare.

Misenus and nicotia are recorded by Bingham from the Khasi Hills.

D3. Lethe sidonis sidonis Hew.

We have a long series of this species from various portions of the high plateau

including Shillong, particularly from the valley of the small stream below

Laitlyngkot Inspection Bungalow. We have referred the specimens to the above

but it is virtually certain that they belong to a new and undescribed sub-species

in view of the fact that all the ocelli below are disintegrated in all specimens,

whereas this is not so in sidonis from Darjeeling.

Lethe sura Db.

We have obtained several specimens in various parts of the district, most of

them on the Shillong-Sylhet road between Laitlyngkot and Pynursla where it

is at times not uncommon but flies high, seldom settles and is therefore difficult

to secure.

Lethe europa niladana Fruh.

At low levels. Not rare but seldom seen in the jungle.

510 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Lethe rohria rohria F. ( Wislassee Yaaetst rid

In Shillong gardens, at Barapani below Shillong, Dawki, Burnihat and

Nongpoh. 3

Lethe confusa gambara Fruh.

Common, at low levels Assam Valley ane Sylhet sides.

Lethe verma sintica Fruh.

Common in Shillong from April onwards ‘and on ign neat

Lethe insana dinarbas Hew.

Rare. It flies high round the tops of oak trees, e.g. round the Inspecticn

Bungalow, Pynursla. Also from Cherra. | :

Lethe latiaris Hew.

Rare. In woods near Mawsmai below Cherra. At mile 4o G.-S. road Novem-

ber and taken in Shillong.

_ Mekara zuchara_ Fruh.

Not rare. Nongpoh, Burnihat, Dawki, Syndai. May to October.

Lethe chandica flanona Fruh. "a :

Burnihat in April and two from below Cherra. Scarce.

Lethe kansa M.

Not rare. Nongpoh in May, Syndai in October, on slopes to Sylhet 2,000 feet.

April and from below Cherra.

Lethe sinorix Hew. x

Not rare on Sylhet road between mile 21 and Pynursla, ates in wood beyond

Mawsmai below Cherra. | elon aa

Lethe pulaha pulahoides M.

' Recorded by Bingham from: here.

Lethe bhadra M.

The dealer says he gets from Cherra, very rarely.

Lethe yama yamoides M.

Not rare at Mawphlong 17 miles from Shillong in May. At Shillong April-—

May and Shillong peak and Laitlyngkot, | 6,000 TEC.

Ds. Orinoma damaris” Gray.

Common at Mawsmai, near Cherrapunjee, sniaiky in the autumn. It is met

with above qioce feet sparingly in most oak woods but not in the open.

Di2. Erebia eanlidi orixa M.

Very common on the Cherrapunjee road and on the road to Sylhet between

Laitlyngkot and Mile 26 during the monsoon. We have obtained a long and

fine series.

D14. Ypthima baldus baldus F,

Very common, particularly at low levels.

‘ Ypthima, hubneri hubneri Kirby. ne ora eae

Ypthima sakra austeni M.

Common high plateau and Shillong. Hubert. on, plains also,

Ypthima nareda newara M,.

BUTTERFLIES OF THE KHASIA AND JAINTIA HILLS, ASSAM. 511

Ypthima lycus lycus deN.

_In Shillong and over high plateau.. Newara also on Upper Assam plains,

e.g. Lumding. Lycus is peculiar to these hills. The male differs from newara,

in having, like baldus, a patch both sides median vein. To detect this needs

close scrutiny.

Ypthima methora methora Hew.

At Dawki in October and a few from below Cherra. Seems rare.

Di5. Zipoetis scylax Hew.

Raré. One at Mile 36 G.-S. road in September; at Gauhati in April and

several from below Cherra. -

D116. Orsotrioena medus medus F.

Very common in forest areas below high plateau.

Dis. Ragadia crisilda crisilda Hew.

In a wood west of the road beyond Mawsmai below Cherra. In. dense shade

at Mile 39 G.-S. road in October. Produced from below Cherra in some numbers.

One at Dawki November. Not seen elsewhere.

D20. Neorina patria westwoodi M.

We have obtained numerous specimens from Shadwell’ s Wood at G@herrapunjee

in September. It ig a common species in the hands. of Cherrapunjee professional

collectors. » Bw

Dar. Anadebis himachala. M.

Not rare low down in the orange groves ‘near ‘Dawki and in the valley of

the. Umran river south of Burnihat on the Gauhati-Shillong Road. It is also

to. ‘be found in woods at ayaa and at Miles. 36-40 on the Gauhati-Shillong road.

IDeA. Melanitis leda ismene Cr.

Very common at low altitudes, becoming rarer as the altitude increases;

but is available in Shillong. The wet season form does not apparently occur at

all above 4,000 feet, where the ordinaty dry. season form occurs. during the

monsoon,

Meldnitis phedimat ‘bela, M. | |

Taken at Elephant Falls ‘above Shillong and at Cherrapunjee, Dartielardy

in the neighbourhood of Mawsmai. Careful search will generally result in seven

or eight being obtained each season.

Melanitis zitenius zitenius Herbst.

Not rare in the area of miles 36-40. 0n the road to Gauhati and has also

been secured by us in the Mawsmai woods near Cherrapunjee, and at Syndai

in October.

D2s. Elymnias hypermnestra undularis Drury.

Very common at low levels, particularly in the orange groves near Dawki

but good specimens of. the female are rare. It. is also. difficult to avoid damag-

ing them, in the net as the wings of the female appear to be very brittle. Also

common at Umling on the Gauhati Road. :

Elymnias nesoea timandra Wall.

Not rare in the orange groves at Dawki in October and Noveniber: The.

food plant appears to be the areca nut which is also grown very extensively

at Dawki. Also noted at Umling on. the Shillong-Gauhati Road,

Elymnias malelas malelas Hew.

_ We have obtained it along the river. ious, Dawki | on re Faale paths ‘and

also at Umling on the way to Gauhati. It is common on the plains, —

512 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Elymnias patna patina Wd.

We have secured several specimens in the orange groves at Dawki and in

the oak woods at Mawsmai near Cherrapunjee, but it is very seldom seen.

Elymnias vasudeva deva M.

Seen once in the orange groves at Dawki,

Elymnias penanga chelensis deN.

Antram records this as a rarity in the Khasi Hills but we have not seen it.

AMATHUSIIDAE.

E2. Faunis arcesilaus F.

Not rare in the undergrowth along the paths and streams in the orange

groves upstream from Dawki and at Syndai in October.

Faunis eumeus assama Wd.

Not rare during the middle and late monsoon in the oak woods at Mawsmai

near Cherrapunjee.

E4. Sticopthalma camadeva nicevillet Roth.

We have noticed enormous numbers in the hands of Cherrapunjee professional

collectors who undoubtedly obtain this species low down below Cherrapunjee

on the slopes towards Sylhet. We have ourselves: secured this beautiful species

in bamboo jungle on the banks of the Umran River just south of Burnihat

on the road to Gauhati in June.

Sticopthalma sparta tytlevi Roth.

Lt.-Col. Betts very kindly presented us with a specimen of this beautiful

butterfly obtained by him near Haflong in the North Cachar Hills, so there

would appear to be no reason why it should not occur in the east of the Jowa:

subdivision of the Khasi Hills towards Hot Springs.

Es. Thaumantis diores Db.

We have seen many specimens with professional Cherrapunjee collectors

obtained from the borders of Sylhet. We have ourselves secured it in the orange

groves at Dawki and at Margaret Falls on the road to Gauhati during the

monsoon in June and again in November and also at Umling and Umsaw

Nongkharai in thick forest in the evenings. It is common at Syndai, in the

Jowai subdivision in October.

E8. Amathuxidia amythaon Db.

One only taken in the orange groves near Dawki. Very rare here. Most

Amathusiidae come to over-ripe bananas hung up with skins partly removed.

E10. Discophora tullia zal Wd.

In all forest areas but seldom seen unless bait is used.

E11. Enispe: euthymius Db.

Some are produced by professionals from the area below Cherra. At Mawdon

State, 2,000 feet, S.W. of Cherra in April. At Mile 36 G.-S. road 1,q00 feet.

Rare.

Enispe cycnus cycnus Wd.

Mile 36 G.-S. road and one from Cherra area. Rare.

NYMPHALIDAE.

Fr. Charaxes polyxene hierax Fd.

Also the varieties hipponax and pleistoanax. (Var. khasianus of pleistoanax

has the discal band uphind slightly blue). Not rare in forest areas Assam and

Sylhet sides and rarely in Shillong.

BUTTERFLIES OF THA KHASIA AND JAINTIA HILLS, ASSAM 513:

Charaxes aristogiton Fd.

Dowki March and November. Also rarely from below Cherra. Scarce.

Marmax Wad.

On G. S. road May and October. Also from ‘below Cherra. Scarce.

Charaxes kahruba M.

Two produced from Nongpriang below Cherra early October. Rare.

Charaxes fabius sulphureus Roth.

Very rare here. One taken Nongpoh and one at Umsaw Nongkharai G.S.

road. In Ghiladhari forest Golaghat, Upper Assam, October. Not rare along

rail at Langting, N. Cachar Hills in October.

F2, Eriboea schreiberi assamensis Roth.

‘One got from a professional from the slopes to Sylhet.

Eriboea athamas athamas Db. °

Common in forest areas down’ to plains. From March to end of year.

Eriboea arja Fd.

Flies with athamas.’

Eriboea dolon magniplaga Fruh.

Eviboea delphis Db.

Both these rarities obtained by professionals below Cherra. The Jatter in

the Mawphu area and in quantity. Delphis was seén by us in Ghiladhari forest,

«Golaghat, Upper Assam in October.

F7. Apatura ambica ambica_ Koll.

Is obtainable in fair numbers at Margaret Falls (Mile 40) on the Gauhati-

Shillong road and on the Umran river in the same area from May till June

and again in October. Sordida is recorded by nice from the Khasi Hills,

but we have not seen one.

Apatura parvata M.

This species is generally available between Mile 21 and Pynursla on the

Sylhet road on fine hot days in September on the tarmac and is easily caught.

Apatura parisatis parisatis Wad.

Is met with fairly frequently at Dawki and at other places on the rivers

‘where these emerge from the hills on the Sylhet side. Taken by us in August

at Dawki and in October at Syndai. The female is rare.

F8. Herona marathus marathus Db.

One pair taken at Mawdon, 2,500 feet south-east of Cherrapunjee in April.

One also seen at Poongtoong. Also noticed at Mile 36 on the Gauhati-Shillong

road and taken at Burnihat plentifully and at Dawki in October.

Fo. Sephisa chandra M.

Many males and one female obtained from Cherrapunjee professional collec-

‘tors and a female was caught by us near Sohrarim on the Shillong-Cherrapunjee

road in October. One male has also been taken in Shillong in June.

A specimen was taken by another collector at Mile 36 on the Gauhati- Shillong

‘road during the monsoon.

‘'Fio Huripis .consimilis consimilis Wa.’

One obtained on the Umran river south of Burnihat in March.

514 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Euripus halitherses Db.

We have obtained several males at Dawki in the spring and two forms of

the female have been secured from Cherrapunjee professionals. Not uncommon

on the Gauhati-Shillong road below Mile go in April and May and again in

July. Females are rare but specimens of the two forms of the female have

also been taken in the latter locality (Umran Nongkharai) by Mr. Delanougerede.

Fir. Diagora persimilis persimilis Wd.

One from below Cherra, from the dealer. Rare.

Fiz. Hestina nama Db.

Fairly common near the 25th mile on the Sylhet road and at Cherrapunjee

in the Circuit House compound in October. Also taken near the tea room at

Nongpoh in June.

. Fis. Penthema lisarda lisarda Db.

We have obtained one specimen of this rare butterfly from a Cherrapunjee

professional, one was taken by us at Nongpoh in August, another at Margaret

Falls (Mile 40) on the Gauhati road in April and a third in August. It was

also obtained near Haflong in the adjoining North Cachar Hills. One was.

sent to us this year from the Stillwell Road in N. Burma. :

F16. Dichorragia nesimachius. Bdy.

Nongpoh and Burnihat, June, August and autumn. At Dowki and fronyY

below Cherra. Uncommon.

F17. Stibochiona nicea nicea Gray.

In the low hills towards Kamrup (Jirang State) in April. We have also

obtained it at Dawki where it is common during the rains, at times sitting low

down on the trunks of orange trees. Common Syndai (October) and Cherra

Fi8. Euthalia lepidea lepidea But.

The only common Euthalia. Plains and forest areas below pfateau.

Euthalia julii adima M.

Fairly common at Dowki spring to autumn and below Cherra.

Euthalia julii sedeva M.

Ditto. Flies with adima.

Euthalia jahnu jahnu M.

Many worn females Dowki November but no male. Many females from

Cherra in dealer’s stock but only two males. Male very like adima,

Euthalia kesava kesava M.

Six males Dowki, August, November, and one female. One pair from

Cherra.

Euthalia telchinia Men.

Two males and three females from below Cherra.

Euthalia garuda garuda M.

Two females Dowki, May and December. A pair from. below Cherra.

Euthalia jama jama Fd.

Three at Dowki, November, and a few from below Cherra. One femaie.

Euthalia phemius Db. and Hew.

Fairly common in a small wood, Mawsmai below Cherra. Males sit on

telegraph wires, females on oaks. A few produced yearly from Cherra,

BUTTERFLIES OF THE KHASIA AND JAINTIA HILLS, ASSAM 515

Euthalia lubentina indica Fruh.

Males not rare, often sit on tarmac. Females very scarce and in dense

jungle in small valleys. Both Assam and Sylhet sides.

Euthalia franciae rajah Fd.

We have taken it in fair number on oak trees in Cherra area, e.g. just below

the control gate and just beyond Mawsmai. © Professionals take in some quantity

Euthalia duda Stg.

Several obtained from professionals taken below Cherra.

Euthalia sahadeva nodaka Fruh.

Not rare on slopes towards Sylhet. Taken in Shillong in June.

Euthalia iva M.

A perfect specimen of this extremely rare butterfly was caught by Lt.-Col.

Betts just east of our area and is now in the senior author’s collection.

Mr. St. J. Perry took another in the North Cachar Hills. So it may occur in

the eastern Jaintia Hills.

Euthalia evelina derma Koll.

Specimens of this beautiful butterfly have been obtained by us not only at

Dawki in August, October and November, but also in the Valley of the Umran

river, above Burnihat, on the Kamrup side.

Euthalia teuta teuta Db. & Wd.

This species has turned up fairly frequently from the slopes towards Sylhet

and we have obtained several from professional collectors.

Fig. Adolias cyanipardus But.

Many specimens seen and obtained at Dawki and Syndai on the Sylhet side

in March, August and November and in the valley of the Umran River on the

Kamrup side, and taken at Burnihat in June. The females are always damaged,

due to the dense jungle in which they fly.

Adolias khasiana khasiana_ Sivin.

Many specimens obtained by professional collectors from the borders of Sylhet

below Cherrapunjee. Taken by us Dowki, November. It has also been found.

in thick forest near Mile 36 on the Gauhati-Shillong road and at Nongpoh.

F20. Parthenos sylvia gambrisius F.

Common in open spaces and along the banks of the river at Dawki in March-

April and again in October. It has also been seen sparingly on the Gauhati _

road. At least one specimen has come to notice in Shillong. It is very difficult.

to get good specimens. It is obtainable during the same periods at Syndai

and below Cherrapunjee also.

F21. Lebadea martha ismene Db. & Hew.

Very common in the orange groves along the river upstream from Dawki

and Syndai in April and more or less throughout the year. It is also to be

found in the woods at Mawphlong in May but is gr ancly seen in Shillong. It is

not found on the high treeless plateau.

F22. Neurosigna doubledayi doubledayi Wd.

Rare; we have caught and seen a few specimens on laurel blossom along

the stream just beyond the Mawsmai near Cherrapunjee in September. Speci-

mens have also been obtained in considerable numbers from professional collectors

which they have taken on the slopes towards Sylhet. The females are very

rare and seldom come down to ground level inside the dense jungle in the same

vicinities as the males are found. The senior author has obtained two females.

in the little wood just beyond Mawsmai village near Cherrapunjee.

316 JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 47

24. Limenitis austenia austenia M. ln li

Not. actually taken by us but many specimens including one’ of the rare

females have been obtained by us from professional collectors which they had

‘obtained low down below Cherrapunjee. It is obtainable in the autumn also,

Limenitis zayla Db. & Hew.

Shillong in May but not seen elsewhere on the high plateau. Many’ speci-

mens were obtained from Cherrapunjee professionals. It flies also in September

and October. Rare.

Limenitis darata Db. & Hew.

Very common everywhere from 4,000 feet downwards throughout the summer.

It is fond of sitting on roads and three or four can always be obtained on

the tarmac at Margaret Falls on the Gauhati road and on the road near Mawsmai

village close to Cherrapunjee.

Limenitis procris procris Cr.

Very common and is found along with and has the same habits as daraxa.

It is also a filth eater. One of our specimens measures only 50 mm.

Limenitis dudu Wd.

One taken in March at Lawbah, 2,000 feet on the slopes to Sylhet, two

‘specimens taken at the foot of the Peak, Shillong in August, one at Pynursla

in October and three at Mawsmai near Cherrapunjee, two of which were obtained

in March and one in October. Antram says durga occurs here.

Limenitis zulema Db.

Many specimens seen in the hands of professional collectors at Cherrapunjee.

Not seen by us anywhere on the wing save at Syndai in October.

F25. Pantoporia nefte inara_ Db.

Fairly common at Dawki in November and since it has also been obtained

at Gauhati in September it must also be obtainable on the slopes of the hills

towards Kamrup. Also noted at Syndai in October. Many from below Cherra.

Pantoporia cama M.

Cherrapunjee in March and Margaret Falls near Umran on the Shillong-

‘Gauhati road in October, not rare. Many from below Cherra.

Pantoporia selenophora selenophora (oll.

This species is common and we have obtained it near the Circuit House at

‘Cherrapunjee in October and at Mawsmai also near Cherrapunjee in March.

It is common at Margaret Falls near Umran on the Gauhati-Shillong road in

October and like the males of cama it is fond of sitting on the hot tarmac.

These various species which like to sit on the tarmac must be looked for there

before mid-day since after that time the surface gets too hot for them. Selenop-

hora is also obtainable at Dawki in February and many other localities.

Pantoporia zeroca M.

This is also a fairly common species on the tarmac at Margaret Falls on

the Gauhati-Shillong road (in the Mile 40 area) in October. . This month appears

to be best in the Khasi Hills for obtaining good specimens of the genus Pantoporia.

Pantoporia opalina orientalis EF).

Common on the ‘Causeway’ on the Shillong-Sylhet road in October. It is

also obtainable on fine days in June and-October at Cherrapunjee. It is notice-

able that the specimens of orientalis from the Khasia Hills are much. darker

‘than those from Darjeeling.

BUTTERFLIES OF THE KHASIA AND JAINTIA’ HILLS, ASSAM 9 517

Pantoporia ranga ranga M.

This is an uncommon species of which it is difficult to get good specimens.

The best locality is Dawki in November but the tarmac at Margaret Falls also

attracts it in October. Taken at Nongpoh and Syndai in the same month,

Pantoporia pravara acutipennis Fruh.

This is an uncommon species but the tarmac at Margaret Falls generally

attracts a few in July and August. Two at Dowki in November.

Pantoporia asura asura M.

We have obtained four specimens of this rare species at Mawsmai near

CO TEPPUIISS J in March and one at Syndai in October and a few from below Cherra.

Pantoporia perius L.

Common everywhere below about 3,000 feet but has also been taken in

Shillong in July.

F26. Neptis columella ophiana.

One specimen obtained at Dawki in November and one at Umran Nong Kharai

in October. It must be more common than this leads one to suppose, We

have also obtained two at Syndai in October.

Neptis magadha khasiana M. .

Rare. Umran, Mile 42 G.S. road October, Dowki one April and one

November. Also one below Cherra.

Neptis hylas astola M.

In higher hills. Common.

Neptis hylas adara M.

In lower hills and plains. Common.

Neptis soma soma M.

Not rare. Our specimens are from Cherra.

Neptis nandina susruta M.

Very common, specially at low levels.

Neptis yerburyi sikkima Evans.

Not common like nandina. On. Assam and Sylhet sides.

Neptis sankara quilta Swin.

One from Nongpriang below Cherra, early October.

Neptis vikasi pseudovikasi M.

Not rare. In forest areas below high plateau.

Neptis cartica cartica M.

Not rare. Our specimens are from Cherra.

Neptis mtah miah M, |

Rare. Margaret Falls, Mile 40 G.S. road, one in July, one in December.

One from below Cherra.

Neptis antilope antilope Leech.

Very rare. One taken by us in Shillong in October.

5 Neptis viraja viraja M.

Uncommon. One at Dowki March, omens from below Cherra.

518 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Neptis hordonia hordonia Stoll.

Common through the year. Also in Shillong.

F27. Cyrestis cocles cocles F.

Many specimens obtained from Cherrapunjee professional collectors which

are said to have been obtained in the Shella area,

Cyrestis thyodamas thyodamas Bdv.

Found at the foot of the hills on the Sylhet border in April. We obtained

numerous specimens at Dawki in March and November. Many specimens have

also been seen and obtained at Cherrapunjee in June. At least one specimen

was bred by us in April from a larva found in March at Poongtoong on the

Shillong-Sylhet Road. One or two have been taken at Syndai in October.

F28. Chersonesia risa Db. and Hew.

One taken at Burnihat in July. A number obtained at Dawki and scme

also at Mile 36 on the Gauhati-Shillong road. Several taken at Syndai in

October.

F29. Pseudergolis wedah Koll.

This species has been noted at plains level on the Kamrup border in April

and has been obtained by us on the warm tarmac below Pynursla on the Sylhet

road at the end of September and in October. It seems to be very uncommon

in Assam. Several produced fr@m below Cherra.

‘F30. Hypolimnas bolina L.

Generally common in suitable open localities and along hedges at plains

level. Both sexes are very common at Dibrugarh in Upper Assam.

Hypolimnas missippus.

We took one male in Gauhati so it must occur in the foothills.

33. Doleschallia bisaltide indica M.

Seen in Shillong in September, and some obtained at Dawki in July and

November. Others seen at Dawki, Laitlyngkot and Poontoong.

34. Kallima inachus inachus Badv.

Common at plains level particularly at Dawki and also on the Kamrup side.

Several obtained by us at Mawsmai near Cherrapunjee and at Mile 36 on the

Gauhati-Shillong road in June and October.

Kallima alompra M. (knyvetti deN.)

This species was taken by one of us in the Nambor Forest at the foot of the

Naga Hills but it does not occur in the Khasia Hills, according to our information.

F35. Precis hierta magna Evans.

Common from Nongpoh to plains level towards Kamrup. Sometimes seen

in Shillong.

Precis orithya ocyale Hut.

Very common all over the high plateau at all times and occasionally lower

down. At dusk the larvae may be found climbing up the grass at Cherrapunjee

and can easily be reared on a small weed which looks very like the English

plantain by which method many fine specimens with occasional varieties can be

«obtained.

Precis lemonias lemonias L.

Very common low down and particularly so in the valley of the Umran river

south of Burnihat and throughout the plains of Assam.

BUTTERFLIES OF THE KHASIA AND JAINTIA HILLS, ASSAM 519

Precis almana almana L.

Common in the same localities as lemonias.

Precis iphita iphita Cr.

Common at Elephant Falls above Shillong, but very rarely seen on the high

plateau: common at low levels on the Kamrup side. It is very common ail

Over Assam.

Precis iphita iphita Cr.

Aommon everywhere in the district including Shillong.

F36. Vanessa indica indica Herbst.

The imagines of this species are not very often seen but the Tarvae are very

common on nettles at Mawplang in August and are very easy to rear. Some

interesting aberrations have been obtained, details of which it is proposed to

publish later. Among the more common aberrations is one which approaches

nubicola, in the fusion of the two lower central black spots which are also

confluent with the basal dark areas of the fore wing. This aberration is how-

ever without the black termen on the hind-wing of nubicola. One of us has

also secured a very small specimen of this species which measures only 45 min.

against the normal 65 mm,

Vanessa canace canace L.

Common all over the district.. Good specimens are however scarce. The

larvae feed on a very thorny creeper of the genus Smilax and are very casy to

rear but the pupae are delicate and need careful handling.

Vanessa cardui L.

Very common everywhere. Thistles are plentiful all round Shillong and on

the high treeless plateau. The larvae are very easy to rear. Aberrations are

very rare indeed and minor variations are all that can be expected. Hundreds

of specimens congregate on the Buddleia flowers on the Peak in November.

Vanessa cashmirensis aesis Fruh.

Although there is no reason why this species should not be found on the

high plateau we know of no record.

F38. Symbrenthia hippoclus khasiana M.

The imagines can be obtained in Shillong and other places or the high plateau

in June. At times large numbers of larvae can be found on the nettles and a

good series can easily be bred out. Common in the low hills down to the plains,

Symbrenthia hypselis cotanda M.

Several specimens have been obtained on the slopes rotants Sylhet. One

‘specimen was caught in Shillong by us in September.

F39. Argynnis hyperbius hyperbius L.

This species is common in Shillong and all over the high plateau througcut

the summer. The larvae are frequently found on pansies in the garden.

Argynnis childreni childreni Gray.

Very common at high levels.

Argynnis laodice rudra M.

This species is uncommon but specimens are generally to be obtained at

Laitlyngkot, on the Peak above Shillong and at the back of Kench’s Trace on

various wild flowers during the first part of the monsoon, Wild raspberry

blossom at Mile 21 on the Sylhet road at the end of May and beginning of June

* generally produces a couple of specimens every day.

520 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Argynnis lathonia issoea Db. .

An intensive search has failed to find this species in the Khasia Hills although

there would appear to be no reason why it should not be found since it is known.

to occur in the Chin Hills and probably also in the Naga Hills.

F41. Cupha erymanthis lotis Sulz.

Not rare at Dawki on the Sylhet side and at Burnihat and fn the valley of

the Umran River on the Kamrup side. A few specimens have also been obtained

near Mile 4o on the Gauhati road up to October. Not ‘seen elsewhere except

in the thick woods near Lumding in Nowgong District and one at the foot of

the Naga Hills during a week’s search.

E42. Atella phalantha Drury.

Common at low levels and on the plains of Assam throughout the rains parti-

cularly at Dawki from March and April; also seen sometimes in Shillong.

Atella alcippe alcippoides M.

Not common, We have obtained a few specimens at Dawki in November

‘and August.

F43. Issoria sinha sinha Koll.

Taken on the lower slopes of the hills towards Sylhet. Not rare in the area of

Mile 4o on the Gauhati road where it is fond of sitting on the hot tarmac and

roadside gravel in early September.. The latter specimens are very large. One

taken at’ Syndai in October. It seems very uncommon.

44. Cynthia erota erota F.

Common in Shillong from June and at Jowai. It is available on the high:

plateau in October and below Cherrapunjee in March. It is generally common

at low levels throughout the summer but good specimens of the female are rare.

F45. Cirrochroa aoris aoris Db.

This species is more common on the Gauhati Road in August and September

than the Cabbage White ever is in Shillong. It is available in Shillong also

from April, and below Cherrapunjee in April, September and October. It is

probably the commonest butterfly in the district.

Cirrochroa tyche mithila M.

Not common but a few specimens are generally available on the Gauhati

road near Mile 40 early in September. Taken in Shillong from May also.

47. Cethosia biblis tisamena Fruh.

Very common in Shillong and all over the hills at higher levels from May

to October. Large numbers of the pupae are found on grasses and levels at

Mile 24 on the Sylhet road in October, but many of them are parisitized.

Chethosia cyane Drury.

This species is often seen in Shillong during the monsoon particularly the

females. The males are commoner lower down on the Kamrup side in the

area of Burnihat and above Dawki on the Sylhet side.

F49. Ergolis ariadne pallidior Fruh.

Not rare at low levels.

Ergolis merione assama Evans. dt ete Raa

Common. at low levels and throughout the plains of Assam. It is generally

found in the vicinity of castor plants, Taken in Shillong.

BUTTERFLIES OF THE KHASIA AND JAINTIA. HILLS, ASSAM §21

F51. Pareba vesta vesta F.

Very common indeed everywhere. Some fine dark varieties of the female

are generally available in Shillong in small numbers in August and early Sep-

tember. At times the brown and black larvae are exceedingly numerous and

in the middle of August large numbers of the black and white pupae are

generally to be found on grasses and low herbage at Upper Kench’s Trace just

beyond Bishop’s House. : cee

F52. Telchinia violae. Fab. ;

In the orange groves at Burnihat in April. Rare,

FERYCINIDAE.

Gi. Libythea myrrha sanguinalis Fruh.

A few are generally to be found in‘ August on ‘the shingle and stones beside

the river at Snongpadeng village near Dawki. The genus Libythea is always

fond of sitting on hot stones and shingle. We have noted this species on stones

in the bed of the small stream below the Inspection Bungalow at Laitlyngkot

at over 6,000 ft.

G2. Zemeros flegyas indicus’ Fruh.

Common at all levels from ‘April.

G3. Dogana ouida ouida M.

Not rare on the road to Sylhet on the ‘Causeway? a other bacalities near

Pynursla. The female is rare.. cae

Dodona adonirva adonira Hew.

Rare. From below Cherra. We have no female. Dodona eugenes and

Dodona egeon are recorded by Bingham from here.

Dodona heres longicaudata deN.

“We have obtained three perfect specimens of this very 1 rare Butterfly sunning

itself on the warm tarmac just below Margaret Falls (Mile 40) on the Shillong-

Gauhati road at the end _of the monsoon.

G4. Abisura fylla Db.

Common in: Shillong and in woods on the high plateau: It is particularly

common in the woods close to Mawsmai near Cherrapunjee where the rarer

female is also obtainable.

Abisara neophron neophron Hew.

One or two have usually been obtained by us each season at fairly low levels,

though we have a specimen from Mawsmai near Cherrapunjee. It is us sually

found in deep shade in the jungle. Margaret Falls on the road to Gauhati

and jungle paths along the river north of Dawki are good localities. This.

species so. closely resembles Abisara chela chela deN: that it is more than

possible that we have also seen chela chela._ and mistaken it for neophron,

Since completing the above list we have been able to obtain a copy of Talbot’s.

‘Butterflies’ from the Fauna of British India series which, owing to war condi+

tions, we were not able to examine before. As a-result certain changes in the

generic and specific nomenclature of the list are necessary to bring it dp-to- date.

These changes are enumerated as follows :—

> . PAPILIONIDAE.

Poydorus, Swainson ese % ~~" “replaces Byasa Moore >

Graphium Scopoli , |. ss replaces. // Zetides Hubner

; ped Ne: « algae tle | Pathysa Moore

nO < GS TOL 28 ap | Paranticopsis deN. and

ot itis TRIN Sew fine Meandrusa Moore

-Lamproptera. Fab. civ Qo, oereplaces. . -Leptocircus. Swainscii Part

522 JOURNAL,;YBOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

PIERIDAE.

Cepora Billberg oo) %: replaces Huphina Moore

Valeria Horsfield © | replaces Pareronia Bingham

Eurema Hubner replaces Terias Swainson

Appias lyncida eleonora’ Boisduval replaces Appias lyncida hippoides M.

BAT MIGRATION IN INDIA

AND OTHER NOTES ON BATS.

HuMAYUN ABDULALI

Some years ago (1940) my attention was drawn to a book Jez

Years Under the Earih by Norbert Castaret in which there was a re-

ference to bats migrating from France to Japan.

This was very unexpected and an inquiry put to Prof. Lands-

borough Thomson failed to elicit a confirmation. In his reply he

stated that ‘‘ there was at one time supposed to be evidence that bats

crossed the Atlantic, but this was shown to be ill-founded’. He also

referred to some notes on the subject in the Journal of Mammology,

and some interesting information on the movements of Fruit Bats in

Australia by Ratcliffe in the Journal of Animal Ecology, 1926, Vol. 1,

p. 32. These papers, however, are not accessible to us.

In spite of the fact that there was no obvious evidence of bat

migration similar to bird migration, all observers in India must have

noticed that the smaller bats appear to come and go during different

seasons. In 1942-43 when travelling was very restricted, we thought

it would be a good idea to keep notes on the bat populatioa in the

caves of Elephanta Island in Bombay Harbour, and the writer with

Messrs. Salim Ali and Charles McCann made an attempt to do so.

It was unfortunately impossible to keep notes over any length of

time and no concrete evidence of migration is claimed, though they

certainly indicate that extensive notes kept over a longer period

would bring in valuable information.

As in birds, it was evident that the only method of individual

identification was to ring them and we used a small aluminium bird-

ring on the bat’s forearm, the membrane being slit and the ring turned

over the bone. All the males were ringed on the left wing; females

on the right in order to facilitate observations.

Our attention was necessarily restricted to the bats inhabiting the

several caves and dungeons and no tree-inhabiting bats were collected.

The fragmentary notes are summarised under each species.

The Fulvous Fruit Bat—Rousettaus leschenaulti (Desm.)

This was the most numerous species, and was seen at some time

or the other in all the caves, though the larger number was usually

in the ** Dungeon Cave” at the western end of the cave-hill. The

entrance has fallen in and the floor has also silted up to some extent.

The average visitor does not approach or enter this cave,

On 11 April, 19+2, the fruit-bats were plentiful and roughly esti-

mated at about a thousand. Many had young clinging tothem. When

BAT MIGRATION IN INDIA AND OTHER NOTES ON BATS $523

first approached they squealed in chorus, with intervals of complete

silence. On further molestation, they flew out of the cave and hung

on the rocks and trees outside. This was at about 6 p. m., but Pariah

Kites were attracted and two bats were seen to be captured on the

wing. In the excitement, several young fell off their mothers in the

cave.

On 10 May most of the young were independent, and we made our

first attempt at ringing. Of 43 bats captured (with a large butter-

fly net) 26 were males and 17 females (as against 9 males and 21

females on 14 June). Thesex ratio over the total number examined

was 35 males to “8 females (52 percent). Of 16 juveniles included,

11 were females (69 per cent).

On 26 July, they were still abundant, but on 29 November this

Dungeon Cave was deserted except for 5 or 10 individuals, There

is definite indication that they had left the iocality in Jate November.

On 10 January, 1943, their numbers had increased to some

‘extent. On 28 March 150-200 bats were back, the females being

pregnant or with new-born young. Hundreds were back again on

8 October, 1944.

At Kihim, across the Harbour, about 16 miles from the caves, on

13 May, 1943, my brother Shaman picked up one.of the bats ringed

by us on 28 March, struggling on the ground, covered by ants and

with a festering wound near the ring.

In the cave harbouring these fruit bats, there was in the right-

hand corner a hole running into the earth at an angle of 45 degrees

or mere. A quill outside suggested a porcupine and an attempt to

investigate the hole further was discouraged by a rumbling noise

from within. Small numbers of two small bats, H. fulvus and

R. vouxt, were occasionally noted in this cave, but in separate corners

and far from Rouwsetfus.

Tenebrionid beetles were abundant on the walls and on the floor

under the bats, presumably being associeted with.the bats’ droppings.

A Chrysomelid beetle, Azlacophora sp., formed small clusters on

the walls, in this and other caves. The large gecko (/lemidactylus

maculatus) was seen in this cave as also a monitor lizard (Varanus)

at the entrance.

Mr. McCann has more detailed notes on the biology of this bat on

Salsette Island, /.B.N.H.S. 41, pp. 805-816. Brother Novarro of

St. Xavier’s High School informs me that there are several large

colonies of this species in the tunnels on the disused railway line

just below Khandala. These tunnels are deserted about the end of

June (depending upon the incidence of the monsoon) and the pas

return early in December. .

The Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat—Aipposideros fulvus (Gray.)

On 11 April, this and the next form were thinly scattered all

through the series of caves, but formed largish colonies in the

two small caves on either side of the main cave. (These will be re-

ferred to as the Right and Left cave.) Here also they appeared to

form independent colonies, this species being more numerous in the

Left cave though a few were captured in the Right. The next species

appeared to be more restricted to the Right cave. 39 were ringed of

524 . JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL: HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47.

which. 28. (71 per cent) were females, many being heavily, pregnant.

Six secured in the Dungeon Cave were all females.

. On:14 June, many females were carrying new- born young. On

25-26 June, both this and the next species were scarcer and on 29

November, as in the fruit bat, their numbers had. dwindled to a few

individuals. :

‘The Horse-shoe Bat—Rhinolophus rouxi (Temm.)

As stated above, this was common in the Right cave’ on 11 April

‘and was not seen on the 10 May when both the small caves were in

the possession’ of the previous species: On13 and’ 14 June, they

-had regained their numbers in the Right cave, several juveniles and

newly-born young being noted. Later, their numbers | decreased in

the same way as for other species. ;

. Of11 ringed on 14th eae, 9 were sexed sav included Six : females

(66 per cca) ) ee ae

The Indian Vampire Bat—JZegaderma lyra (Geofi.)

This was first noted on 25 July when 5 or six were seen in the

Left cave with a greater diminuation in the numbers of both the

small bats. Had the monsoon driven it in and was its présence

responsible for the departure of the smaller bats? Below their per-

ches, we picked up the wings of two species of Noctuid moths,

Ophiderus fullonica L. and Ophiusa coronata F. which had been taken

by this bat in some numbers. Both these moths have the hind-wings.

brightly colored (black and yellow). No remains of plain coloured

moths were seen. iid

Solos of this bat were noted on 25 October and 29 November,

though none were seen'on 10 January.

The Long-armed Sheath-tailed Bat— 7aphozous longimanus (Hardw. )

_ This.can immediately be identified in the field as it clings to the

vertical wall rather than the ceiling as do the other bats. Three or four

were seen on almost every trip, but were solitary and seemed to live

happiest apart. They were more frequently in the.small lingam

eave adjoining the. rock-pool from which water 1s. drawn. > Curiously,

the five individuals ringed on 9 May and 13 June were all. males, and

in spite of the scarcity of their numbers,-none seen, there again on the

10 January carried a ring.

The Bearded. Bat—Zaphozous eae Ce the of aiicll there: is a

large colony at the Kaneri Caves in Salsette Island was not ‘observed

at Elephanta. Hi id

After the above notes were compiled, I noticed a very interesting

article in the July 1946 issue of'the National Geographic Magazine

entitled ‘ Mystery Mammals of the Twilight’ by Donald-R. Griffin of

Harvard University. In view of the very limited information in

India and the. unavailability. of literature, I have been tempted to

pick, out. the highlights of this,article,as it: may be a very.long time

before we, are able to bring together similar: information concerning

Indian species. The ufollprine is almost a verbatim. extract from the

BAT MIGRATLON IN. INDIA AND. OTHER NOTES ON BATS 5828

Most of the bats.in the United States belong to the family

Vespertilionidae which feed exclusively on insects. Those living in

the Northern States therefore find themselves without food in winter.

This difficulty is overcome by one of two methods—Hibernation or

Migration. Asa general rule, cave bats hibernate while those that

live outside migrate. The North American Red Bat, Laszurus borealis,

is reported to appear in Bermuda in autumn and disappear again at

other seasons. If this ts true, it must make a sustained flight ol

more than 600 miles over the open ocean.

In Germany, Dr. M. Eisentraut, banded several thousand bats

and recaptured many of them later. One, Wyctalus noctula, was ree

captured nearly 500 miles from where it was banded and several

others were recorded after they had travelled more thar 100 miles.

Mr. Griffin banded the bats on the hind legs with an aluminium

bird band of the smallest size and some ofhis bats have been recovered

150 to 170 miles from the caves where they were banded in winter.

There is reference to a very positive homing instinct in bats,

30-40 percent of those banded in a given cave being retaken in the

same place the following winter. Bats transported over distances

upto 150 miles also found their way back with comparative ease.

24 were released out at sea 12 miles from the nearest island and 35

miles from their home roost. Six of these or 25 per cent were later.

retaken at the building where they were banded.

It is also noted that bats from large caveless areas have to mieratel

to limestone areas to enable them to hibernate.

Another very interesting part of the article explains the remark-’

able and inexplicable manner in which the bats have always been

known to avoid obstacles in the dark. As far back as the 18th century,

the Italian scientist, Lazaro Spallanzani wrote that bats which had

been blinded flew about the room avoiding walls, furniture and silk

threads stretched in their path. His friend, Louis Jurine, repeated

these experiments and made the additional discovery that bats lost

their ability to avoid obstacles when their hearing was impaired.

This observation was again confirmed by Spallanzani, but the cele-

brated anatomist, Georges Cuvier expressed his incredulity in the quip

«Since bats see with their ears, do they hear with their eyes?’ So

convincing were a great man’s words that Jurine’s discovery was

completely forgotten until the present century, when Dr. Robert

“Galambos and Mr. Griffin, by holding a bat before an electronic

apparatus for detecting supersonic sounds (sounds of.a pitch higher

than what the human ear can hear) found it actually making loud

supersonic cries. Their later experiments showed that the echoes of

these cries enabled the bats to detect obstacles in their flight and

dodge in time to avoid collision. This has been established as the

chief mode of perception available to bats. and isso distinct from

other types of perceptions that a new word ‘ echolocation’ has been

coined to represent its meaning. This can beso exact,that even when

blind-folded they can fly between vertical 16-gauge ‘wires spaced 12”

apart, brushing the wires only once in 6to10 passages. They do

this while flying at full speed, ‘echo-locating’ the wites when a foot or

two away, and banking or pulling in their wings to pass between them.

The process of ‘ echo-location’ is not confined to bats, and many

totally blind persons acquire an uncanny ability to muve about with-.

526 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

out striking furniture, wails or other obstacles. Most of them have

no clear idea how they do this. Three psychologists at Cornell Uni-

versity have shown that they lose this ability if their ears are stopped.

In foggy, coastal waters fishing and steamboat captains can detect

the presence of cliffs or rocks by blowing a short blast with the

ship’s whistle and listening for echoes. Another example is the

sonic depth-finder or the fathometer which sends down sound waves

through the water and measures its depth by the time interval bet-

ween each sound and its echo.

The modern miracle of Radar is analogous to this process, but

different in so far as Radar employs radio waves while bats use

sound waves.!

While talking of bats, it might be interesting to record that E. C.

Humphries and T. S. Jones in an interesting article on bat-hunting

in Trinidad published in the /ve/d dated 19 January, 1946, state that

the Vampire Bat is ‘the carrier of paralytic rabies—a dread

human disease’. ‘This bat is also known to transmit Murrina, a try-

panosome disease of cattle, a factor of some economic importance in

many parts of South America. F

They also say, ‘ One of the most interesting Trinidad bats is the

Fisherman Bat observed and described as long agoas 1871 by Charles

Kingsley in “ At. Last’”’. It may be seen at dusk, skimming over

the sea, occasionally darting to the surface to pick up a fish. Owing

to the difficulty of observing this bat.at close quarters, together with

the poor light at the time they were active, there is still some contro-

versy about the exact method of catching their prey. The current

opinion is that the interfemoral membrane (the membrane between

the hind legs) scoops downwards as the bat approaches the water

and acts as a brake to its motion. It was formerly thought that the

interfemoral membrane acts as a scoop to pick up the fish, but the

prey is probably lifted out of the water by the claws of the hind feet

which are large and apparently well adapted to this purpose. These

bats live in colonies, usually in sea caves but they have also been

found in hollow trees and under houses. Their presence is usually

quickly detected by the unforgettable stench which is a mixture of

bat odour and decaying fish!’

It might be interesting to recall that there has been some discus-

sion in India regarding the fishing propensities of the Flying Fox

which is known to skim over water. McCann in his notes on the

Flying Fox, (/.B.NV.4.S. 37, pp. 146) discredits this habit, and though

we have seen bats do this on both fresh and salt water we agree with

him. Dr. E. W. Gudger in Fish-eating Bats of India and Burma

(J.B.N.F.S. 43, pp. 635-40) has gone into the question in detai! and

it appears that in our area, only the Vampire Bat, Wagaderma lyra,

has been known to eat fish, small pieces being found under their

roosts. How the fish are caught is unknown, but a considerable

number of frogs are also said to be taken by this species.

Bats are abundant.in India and of many kinds, but so little is

known of their habits that any information which members may be

able to offer from their own experience would be of considerable value.

1 For more details see ‘Bat Radar’ by Richard H. Knight (The New Biology,

1947—Pelican Books).

ABNORMAL PALMS OF TRAVANCORE III:

A BULBULLIFEROUS COCONUT PALM (COCOS NUCIFERA L.)

TRUPAPUR A. Davis

Research Student

Depariment of Botany, Madras Agricultural College and Research

institute, Coimbatore.

(With two plates)

INTRODUCTION

The coconut tree is one of the most common plants along the coastal plains

of Travancore. The palm is so familiar and so remarkably uniform in its out-

ward characteristics, that. one hardly has any opportunity of observing variations

in them. Many freaks in coconut palms undoubtedly do occur, some of which

have been recorded by eminent scientists from time to time.

The palm under discussion is the one growing at Manguzhi near Eraniel,

South Travancore with an abnormality in flowering. Regarding floral abnor-

malities in Cocos nucifera, Shortt (1) Has seen at a horticultural show in

Travancore that from the flowers of the spadix a shoot of spring leaves was

thrown out with a slight tendency to fructification from the flower and then

converted into spring leaves apparently forming a young shoot. ‘The same

author has seen a forked tree which never puts forth well developed fruits ; on

the contrary the flowers terminate in vernal leaves. On an average each

spadix or branch bears about thirty or forty such shoots ata time. Venkata-

raman (2) observed an instance of bulbulliferous spadix (which he called

parthenogenesis) occurring in a coconut palm. The buttons or the young nuts in

the spathe did not develop into normal fruits, but some of them grew into

bulbils somewhat resembling ordinary seedlings. The abnormality could be

traced to a very early stage before the spathe actually opened. The seedlings

when planted in the soil failed to get established.

From the above facts it is clear that a flower or a button is capable of giving

rise to a small seedling without becoming a normal fruit. . But in the interesting

palm under study we see the entire inflorescence or the spadix being converted

into a seedling. Unlike the above instances where many seedlings are produced

from a single spadix, this plant gives rise to only one seedling in the place of

one whole spadix. Hence the seedlings of this plant are healthier, bigger in

size and less in number. Ridley (3) Burkill and Sands.(4) have recorded

similar instances where the spadices instead of normally developing in the

flowers and fruits have grown into branches four to five feet long in the axils of

the leaves. Dr. M.O.P. Ayengar has also described a coconut palm giving

rise to bulbils.

Ridley (3) and Sands (4) report a palm which gives unbranched bulbils.

But the palm under discussion gives rise to bulbils which remain simple in the

early stage and which grow bigger and bigger giving rise to branches even upto

fifteen in each (Plate Il, 3. h and i). Thus one well developed and branched

bulbil of this palm will appear four or five times bigger and weigh proportion-

ately heavier than the bulbils reported by the above authors. ‘Thus instead of

a single bulbil from the axil of a leaf, here we get nearly a dozen bulbils due to

the further development of the original ones.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PALM

The bulbulliferous palm growing at Manguzhi is now nearly forty years old.

It was planted as a small seedling along with hundreds of others in the same

field. ‘The early growth of the palm was so normal that nobody noticed any

peculiarity in it till it began ‘flowering’ at the fifteenth year. The floral

peculiarity was noticed by many including the owner. Apart from the spadix

abnormality the palm is quite normal, having a fairly thick crown.

528 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

‘THE INFLORESCENCE

The inflorescence of a normal coconut palm is a spadix about four feet long,

‘stout about the middle, and tapering towards the apex. It stands at first erect

‘and finally droops down. ‘The spadix is enclosed in a tough pointed longitudi-

nally grooved bract called the spathe (inner) which is elongated, boat-shaped,

about the same length as the spadix and covered by a brown tomentum with-

out. At the base of this inner spathe and extending nearly a third of its length

is the outer spathe. In addition to these two, there are two more inconspicuous

ones. ‘The one at the base of the outer spathe is about an inch long, scale like

and may. be called the. first or the outermost bract. . The scaly bract at the base

of the spadix may be called the fourth or the in :ermost or the primary bract in

relation to the spadix. The branches or the rachillae are subtended by small

‘inconspicuous secondary bracts and each branch is a long androzynous spike

with a few female flowers towards the base and the numerous males above.

In this abnormal palm also the bulbulliferous ‘inflorescence’ is about four to

five feet long in the young stage which uniformly tapers above; and has no bulged

region in the middle. At first it is erect and isin a line with the main stem.

As it matures it gradualiy turns side-ways and makes an angie of about sixty

degrees to the growing apex. It does not droop down furtheras the normal

spadices doeven in the later stages. Unlike the normal spadix which has got four

-spathes (including the bracts) this bulbil has got an indefiaite number of them.

This can be seen clearly from plate I,2 where a dissected bubil is shown along

with a normal spadix. The smail inconspicuous secondary bracts in a normal ’

spadix subtending the branches or the rachillae are highly developed at the

expense of the rachillae which are reduced to rudimentary buds.

The rudimentary secondary bracts subtending the rachillae of a normal

spadix can be very clearly seen in the case of uabraiched spadix reported by

Sands, where the bracts which are fairly developed are seen to subtend few

flowers in their axils. Specimens of such interesting unbranched spikes

-collected and reported by Jacob (5) can be seen in the Madras Herbarium,

Agricultural College and Research Institute, Coimbatore. ‘The unbranciaed

spadix can be said to be an intermediate stage of bulbil formation. In the

unbranched spike, the lateral branches or the rachillae with numerous Mowers

are highly reduced to the state of only three or four Mowers. Again the incons-

picuous rudimentary bracts subtending the rachillae have developed considera-

bly and are conspicuous and big enough to cover and protect the flowers

in their axils. The last stage of the transformation of the spadix is the bulbil

formation, where the rachillae are extremely reduced to small buds (which after

.a long period of rest in this particular palm develop into branches each forming

a small bulbil) and the bracts are developed to their maximum which gradually

become true pinnate leaves. The gradual conversion of the spathes which

are nothing but the developed bracts into pinnate leaves can be seen from

plate II, 3. a-g. Hence a bulbil in the young stage possesses a compact series of

spathes of different developmental stages arranged in an acropetal condition.

As the bulbil grows its basal rezion swells up like aa onion bulb (vide plate II, 4).

As it advances in age the bu!bil produces more and more narrow spathes whose

tips become coiled in the early stages. As more and more new spathes emerge

their coiled tips gradually develop into leaflets Thus pinnate leaves are

‘developed from the spathes. After the formation of the many leaves the butbil

looks like a small branch which produces secondary branches after a certain

‘period of growth. The secondary bulbils are homologous with the rachillae

of the normal spadix. ‘The author has counted eight to fifteen branches in

many bulbils. Hundreds of such bulbils give the crowded appearance of the

-erown (vide plate I, 1).

N.B.—The leaflets of the bulbils even in the young stage are quite free

and separated from each other like those of adult palms as against the fused

leaflets of a normal young seedling.

It is interesting to note that the buibil formation is just the reverse of

the formation of an inflorescence. In an inflorescence the normal leaves

are reduced to bracts and the buds in their axils modify themselves into flowers

or inflorescence-lets. In this case the bracts expand themsel\es to form spathes

which develop into true leaves, ‘I'he buds in their axils which rep-esent rachil-

lea (branches of spadix) develop into vegetative branches (bulbils).

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

(AY

. Dav

Photo by

alm

iferous p

n of the bulbull

CrOW

up of the

Clo

It, (On) eral

The dissected inflorescences of both the abnormal and normal palms.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE II

Photo by ToC. Paul

3. (a—g) The conversion of the spathes into pinnate leaves.

(h & i) Development of compound bulbil from a simple one.

Photo by T. A. Davis

4. Normal and abnormal coconut seedlings

Note the gradual development of the abnormal seedling from a closed spadix

‘inflorescence ’

BULBULLIFEROUS COCONUT PALM (CVCVS NUCIFERA L) 529

CYTOLOGICAL AND HISTOLOGICAL STUDIES

To see if the abnormality is accompanied by ‘chromosomal differences, root

materials were taken from the same palm. Fresh roots (only the vigorously

erowing tips), both from: the abnormal and a normal palm growing in the same

field were fixed in different fixatives—Chromium Acetic Formalin and Uraniam—

at about 2 p.m. to study the variations in them. ‘The cytology of the palms is

being studied. Comparative anatomical work’ of the palms is also in progress.

Specimens of only the leaves and roots of the abnormal palm were available.

However, striking differences in ‘the structure of leaves were not noticed.” |

GROWTH TRIALS WITH THE BULBILS

The first question that will occur to one on seeing the bulbils is whether they

will ‘strike roots and establish themselves if planted in ideal conditions? . Many

bulbils from the particular palm‘are grown after treatment with auxins such as

Indole’ acétie acid, Thiourea, Dimethyl tetrachloro phenoxyl acetic acid,

Ethylene Chlorhydrin etc. The first chemical that. is being tried is B Indole

acetic acid. Different concentrations of the acid solution are treated separ-

ately with different sets of bulbils. After careful planting .water is: given at

regular intervals... Some of the bulbils are expected to give very encouraging

results since they appear to get established.. Further observations are in

progress.

A detailed study—cytological, anatomical, growth trials ete.—of this highly

interesting coconut palm in progress is expected to be of great importance due

to the novelty of the freak. The results will be presented as a separate paper.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The writer wishes to express his deep gratitude to the Government Lectur-

ing and Systematic Botanist,: Sri’ S:N. Chandrasekhara Iyer, M.a., for his

kindly guidance and poset oats help in the preparation: of this paper. Also

his thanks are due to Mr. C. M: John, B.a., the Oil Seeds Specialist, for

his keen interest and valuable suggestions: made in bringing out this' piece of

“work.

Literature cited.

1. John Shortt. 1885. A Monograph on the Coconut Palm or Cocos

nucifera Le

2. Venkataraman. 1928, Madr. Agric. Dept. Year Book, 29-31.

3. Ridley, H.'N. 1907...‘ Branching’in palms ’,-Anaals:of Botany, 21; 415.

4, W.N. Sands. ‘Abnormalities in the coconut palm’, Malayan Agricul -

tural Journal.’ 15 : 290-3.

5, Cherian Jacob, K. ‘ A new variety of coconut palm (Cocos nucifera L.

var. spicata K. C. Jacob).’ Journal: of Bombay ‘Natural. History

Society, August-1940. . yor Sig.

OBITUARY

H. H. SHRI VISAYARAJJI MAHARAO OF CUTCH

(With a plate)

By the death of His Highness Shri Vijayarajji, Maharao of Kutch,.

on 28 February 1948 the Society has lost one of its most sympathetic

friends and benefactors.

His Highness assumed the reins of government in 1942 at the age

of 57. During the short span that was vouchsafed him as ruler, he

introduced a number of measures for the betterment of the lot of his.

subjects, and for liberalizing the State administration. However, it

is perhaps not so much as a ruler, but as a man that his memory

will best abide. His naturalist and sporting friends will remember

him not only for his genial personality and his genuine love of

nature but for his unfailing readiness to assist in all schemes for the

advancement of biological knowledge, especially concerning his own

territories.

In his younger days as Maharajkumar and even uptil recently,

before some knee trouble forced him to give up strenuous physical

exercise, he was reputed to be an excellent rider and an outstanding

all round sportsman. As a tennis player he figured regularly and

prominently in many all-India championships. His prowess with

the shot gun had become a by-word amongst his confréres, and

though unable to indulge his love for small game shooting as

vigorously as before, he nevertheless retained his expertness aS a

bird shot to the end. Inability to participate in field sports threw

into relief a facet of his nature that was perhaps somewhat over-

shadowed in more active days. This was his intense love of wild

life and solicitude for its conservation. His particular interest

seemed to Jie in the domain of birds and it was mainly as a lover of

birds that the writer had the privilege of his friendship. It was at

Maharao Vijayarajji’s invitation that a proper survey of the birds of

Kutch was undertaken, and later it was he again who sponsored the

publication of the ‘ Birds of Kutch’, a work which has so clearly

demonstrated the desirability and usefulness of regional faunal

publications of this kind.

I shall long remember the great personal, almost boyish, interest

Maharao Vijayarajji evinced in the breeding colony of flamingoes in

the Great Rann in 1945 (an account of which is published in Vol. 45 of

the Journal); it was completely characteristic of him. Owing to

administrative pre-occupations and the poor health he was keeping he

was unable to accompany the expedition in person, but short of this.

he spared no pains to see that the arrangements were perfect

in every detail so that the investigation should lack nothing in

the way of facilities. The obvious interest and enjoyment with which

he followed the answers to his minute cross questioning and the

detailed information which the party had brought back were positively

refreshing.

His Highness’s interest in bird migration was no less, Last

autumn he had sponsored a scheme for establishing a chain of experi-

mental self-contained observation posts along the edge of the Great

grOI—9gelI

younyy jo-tifereAvliA ys oereyes{ ssouysipy stH

‘20S ‘ISIFT ‘IVN Avawog “Nunof

OBITUARY 531

Rann to be manned by competent observers. He was greatly taken

with the idea of establishing permanent observation posts at suitable

spots, should the experiment prove promising, with facilities for

trapping and ringing migratory birds, rather on the lines of Heligo-

land and other well known stations. Owing to unseasonable and

very heavy rains, however, which submerged large tracts of the area

where the proposed work was to be carried out, the project

had to be abandoned to be taken up, it was hoped, in the present

year. |

On his return from the U.S. of America at the end of 1947 after

medical treatment, feeling considerably improved in health, he wrote

with his usual cordiality and much enthusiasm that he was expecting

me to visit Kutch and how greatly he looked forward this time to be

able to share a month’s birding with me and make up for the

opportunities he had missed before. Unfortunately soon after this

he went down with an attack of influenza, seemingly mild at first,

which confined him to bed for about 10 days and finally took the

tragic turn.

The naturalist tradition of the ruling family of Kutch of which

Maharao Vijayarajji was such a shining example can be traced back for

at least 3 generations. His father Maharao Khengarji whose obituary

we recorded in 1942 was a great nature lover, and so was his father

Maharao Pragmuijee before him. Maharao Madansinhji who has

now succeeded to the gadi with all the best wishes of the Society, can

be fully depended on to see that the tradition is upheld.

The late Maharao joined the Bombay Natural History Society as

an ordinary member in 1920 and was elected a Vice-Patron in 1943.

During this long connection with the Society he took the keenest

interest in its affairs and welfare, never denying any help that

was asked of him, whether in the way of information, facilities

or funds.

He possessed a vast store of authentic information, particularly

concerning game birds in Kutch, gathered during a life-time of

discriminating shooting and of careful and intelligent observation.

Unfortunately he wrote little, and on looking through old files of the

Journal we find only the following contributions from his pen :—

Goose-shooting in Cutch,—Vol. XXI, 678.

Gray Quail (Colurnix communis) in Cutch,—Vol. XXIJ, 630.

An Albino Bustard (Eupodotis edwardst),—V ol. XXX], 526.

Occurrence of the Bronze-capped or Falcated Teal (Aunetta

falcata) in Kutch,—Vol. XXXV, 899.

It was well for Kutch ornithology therefore that a great deal of

the information accumulated by him has found permanent record in

the Birds of Kutch. That publication will stand as a fitting memorial

to his zeal as a lover of birds.

8. A.

REVIEWS

1, THE TREES OF-CALCUTTA AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD. By

A.P. Benthall Pp. cii+513 (82” x5”) with 274 text illustrations. Calcutta:

Thacker Spink & Co. (1933) Ld. 1946. Price Rs. 25.

India has numbers of beautiful and interesting trees which the lover of.

nature wishes to know about. His efforts to acquire the knowledge are not

always successful; people able to satisfy his curiosity are few, and the books on

the subject are generally too technical for the ordinary man. For years Ihave

believed some roadside trees near the office in which | work to have been

specially imported from Australia, and my children have spoken of them.as

“horse-teeth trees’, from. the appearance of the winged seeds .when seen

through the crack in the opening seed-case... Now I discover them to be_speci-

mens of Pterygota alata, known in English as Buddha’s Coconut, a native of

South-Western India, Sikkim, Assam and some other places, the seeds of which

are said to be used in parts of India and Burma as a cheap substitute for opium.

In the same way, my children gave their own name, Chiki, to a slender tree

with peculiar sickie-shaped ‘leaves’, ard curly seed-pods from which in due

time there hung flat black seeds at the end of curly orange threads. No one

could tell them anything about it. Now, I discover that this is the Acacia

montiliformis, a native of tropical Australia, recently imported into India, and

that the sickle-shaped ‘leaves’ are not really leaves, but, merely flattened leaf-

stalks...'The source of my information is Mr. A..P, Benthall’s ‘ The Trees of

Calcutta and its Neighbourhood’. The book is intended for persons not acquainted

with botany, and in the compass of about 500 pages describes and illustrates over

250 trees. Though confined to-trees to be foundin or near Calcutta, the book is of

much wider application and I have found it useful at Patna in Bihar and Cuttack

in Orissa. ‘The descriptions are short, clear and non-technical, and each one is

accompanied by carefully-made drawings, a study of which alone is often suffi-

cient to identify the tree. Wherever available, the vernacular (Hindi or Bengali)

name and the. popular English name are given. These are collected together in

the form of,an index.at the. end,.of the book, and furnish another means of

identification. Athird means of identificationis a key of about sixty pages,

based.,on characteristics, within the powers of observation of the ordinary

layman. So,if the possessor of the book is unable to identify any particular

tree, if will not be. for want of effort on.the part. of the author. For the use

of persons acquainted with botany, short descriptions in botanical language

have ,been added in the text... The book is of convenient. and handy size, and

pleasing in, its get-up. Considering the present-day cost of materials and

printing, the price is not unreasonable, and I have not the slightest hesitation

in recommending it as well worth the money. CO.

D. R.

2... THE BOOK OF INDIAN ANIMALS... By.S. H. Prater, 0.B.5., ¢.M.z.S.

With a map, 73 plates in colour, 17.in line and 86 in half tone. Pp: xxxii+

263 (74” x 5”) Bombay : The Bombay Natural History Society, 1948. Price Rs. 16.

This is Vol. Il of the Indian Natural History Series designed and published

by the Bombay Natural History Society, and a companion volume to The Book

of Indian Birds which has now attained a 4th edition. It can be anticipated

that this volume will be in similar demand.

. ‘Itis a book which helps one to know the wild animals seen in the forest,

‘scrubland and fields or about towns and villages in India ; which tells of their

ways and habits in simple language : in short a book for Nature lovers young

and old.

Thus the short notice on the dust cover; to which may be added that the

arrangement of the book readily lends itself to preparation of longer or shorter

talks or lectures for instruction in schools and colleges. By themselves these

would be interesting and informative, but the more so were they accompanied

by lantern slide pictures arranged from the illustrations in the book or others

sot together for the purpose.

REVIE WS. OSG

This. is of great importance, for there is much need in this country for

stimulating the interest of the present generation’ of young people in the wild

life that, is their national asset, and the urgent necessity for preserving it from

destruction.

‘In most western countries Nature Study teaching is a Serious part of the

earlier stages of the school curriculum.——It is true that in India Nature Study

forms part of the curriculum in our primary and secondary schools. But

_teachers are often handicapped by want of suitable books which they can

consult. This book is therefore written with the purposé of providing a popular

and well illustrated account which will give people general information about

the Mammals of India.’

The book is admirably arranged and is throughout iastructive, informative

and interesting. The preface (v to xi) and other preliminary and descriptive

pages hold the attention of the reader. What is a Mammal? (xii to xxii);

How Mammals are classified (xxi-xxii); The Distribution of Mammals

(xxiii to xxxii), The pages previous toeach of the 19 families comprising the

Animals of India are equally interesting. Apes, Monkeys and Lemurs—The

Cats—Civets—Mangooses—Hyaenas— The Dog Tribe—etc., etc., Each of these

_ preliminary pages to the species, is followed by ‘ Descriptions of Species ’ which

give the Local names ; Size ; Distinctive characters; Distribution ; Habits of all

the wild animals which inhabit this sub-continent. ‘ There are more than 500

different species of Mammals found within the Indian Region.’

Notwithstanding the many years of field work by trained naturalists, and

the recorded observations of generations of sportsmen, there is even yet some-

thing that remains to be known concerning some of the commonest of the

Mammals of India. The Common Monkeys of the country: ‘ We know little of-

their social life and breeding habits’. The Common Langur: ‘Common and

easily observable as these animals are we know little of their social lives’. The

Common Indian Hare: ‘Its particular breeding season is not recorded’; and

there are other gaps in our knowledge of a number of the animais dealt with in

this comprehensive work ; so there is still work for the field naturalist.

On the other hand how much has been discovered ; how many of the secrets

of Nature have been laid bare through the patient research and trained

observation of naturalists. Perhaps it isin regard to Bats that we are particu-

larly brought to realize this. Reading about these creatures we see on most

evenings of our lives, we find how little we really know about them. And so it

is with many parts of this valuable work.

The issue of this book from the Press has been much delayed, but its

appearance now (April 1948) is opportune as greatly aiding the All-India

movement being launched by the Society for the preservation of wild life.

Regarding the need for this the author has much to say (pages v to Xxxil

and other parts of the book), much that is well expressed and authoritative.

‘For many years the Bombay Natural History Society, through the

medium of its Journal and other attractive publications, has endeavoured to

create and stimulate in India an interest in the wild life of the country.

The necessity for this interest, particularly among our educated classes,

is becoming more and more evident with the passing of time. During the past,

extensive undisturbed areas of primeval forest, jungle and desert gave safe

harbourage to wild creatures, and provided guarantee of their survival, But

changing conditions in the country, the gradual’ conquest of forests and waste

lands; above all the building of new roads and great improvements in methods

and rapidity of transport have left few areas in the Peninsula of India which are

free from intrusion by Man.

These factors have had, and are continuing to have, a disastrous effect on

the wild life of the country. The danger to it has been accentuated in recent

years by the enormous increase of firearms in use, and by the inability of many

of the Provincia! Governments to enforce such laws as exist for the protection of

wild animals.’

And again :—

‘ Various factors, as a result of human activity, are threatening the wild

creatures of India with extermination. There is, as we have shown, great need

in this country for adequate measures to preserve wild life from the destruction

which threatens it.’

It is a common saying that in this world Man has become The Great

Destroyer: and in no country is this more marked than in this subcontinent at

534 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

the present time (1948). Somewhere it has been said, ‘Where can a poor

animal go these days and nut see mankind ?’. a

A number of the coloured plates are from the author’s own drawings.

These, and pictures by other artists, some photographs of scenery and of

animals in their natural surroundings and some of Museum exhibits, attract-

ively illustrate the book.

‘The photograph (Zoo enclosure ?) of the slinking wolf is a libel on the fine

appearance of the animal in the wild state as many times seen by the reviewer

in earlier days. ‘The author’s coloured plate at page 96 perhaps depicts the

desert colouration. ‘That of the wolf of the central areas of the Peninsula is

different, more grey, like some Alsatian dogs.

On the whole the printing is good ; that of pages 234, 238, 239, and 257 some-

-what faulty. There are very few printers’ errors. ‘The stitching of the pages

does not appear up to required s:andard for a work which will be much handled

in use.

It can be safely anticipated that this Bcok of Indian Animals will be as

popular as has been the companion volume on birds. It will be much in

demand by educational institutions throughout the country; will be welcomed

by all lovers of wild life, sportsmen and tourists. In has great value as a book

of reference, and should be possessed by all libraries. ;

R.W.B.

3. THE COMMON BIRDS OF INDIA. By Eha. 3rd edition, pp. xxii+

193 (8% x51”), illustrated with the author’s original pen and ink drawings.

~ Bombay : Thacker & Co. Ltd., 1947. Price Rs. 9/8.

Here is good news. EHA’S Common Birds of Bombay, that fastinating

book so long out of print, has at last been re-published by Thacker’s under

the title ‘The Common Birds of India’. The new edition contains some expla-

natory notes by Salim Ali and a well-written biographical sketch by W. T. Loke.

It is gratifying to note that besides the title nothing else has been changed

in the new edition. EHA’s original text is intact and even his quaint pen-and-

ink sketches have been retained. The present editor is right when he states

that to have attempted to replace these original drawings by more finished

photographs would have amounted to the desecration of a much-loved person-

ality ;

Th this book EHA coes not baffle the lay reader by scientific terminology,

on tbe rare occasions when he is obliged to make use of it, he hastens to

explain that those ‘solemn words were not invented oniy to bamboozle the

unlearned’. The book contains patient and acute observation recorded in the

most vivid and sparkling language. ‘The author’s irrepressible sense of

humour seems to manifest itself all the time, no matter what he is talking

about. Here is his description of Vultures closing in on a dying animal ; ‘They

descendin decreasing spirals and settle at various distances and wait for the

end like American reporters.’ Discussing the classification of the Owl, he says,

‘Is the Owl only a weak-eyed hawk that cannot bear the light of day, or isita

bold and bad parrot which has taken to night walking and murder?’ How

telling is his phrase about the Sparrow: ‘a vulgar little body which tries to be

a gentleman and attains to being a gent’.

No one who reads this description of sparrows building a nest will doubt

EHA’s powers of observation; ‘A sparrow comes in and makes up its mind

that it will have its nest in the corner of your ceiling. And whena sparrow

makes up its mind nothing will unmake it except the annihilation of that

sparrow. Its faithful spouse,is always and very strongly of the same mind as

itself. Sothey set to work to makea hole in the corner of the ceiling-cloth,

and they tear and tug with an erergy which leaves no room for failure. ‘Then

they begin to fetch hay. The quantity of hay that a couple of sparrows will

carry in aday is almost miraculous. Most of it tumbles down in their efforts

tostuff it into the hole, for they always bring larger loads than they can

manage. J remember a pair which made a hole directly over one of the pictures

cn my drawing-room wall, and I declare solemnly that you might have fed a

horse on the hay which I removed daily and hourly from behind that picture.

This savours of exaggeration, perhaps, but I mean a hack-victoria horse.’

EHA has the same facility of style when he is describing other natural

objects: ‘When a fig tree fruits, it fruits all over and all at once, offer-

REVIEWS 535

Jng a feast to the whole country such.as a Raja gives when an heir is born to his

throne; and as mendicant Brahmins gather from distant provinces to the Raja’s

feast so the fruit pigeons from afar flock together to the tree while it lasts ana

gorge themselves twice a day.’

But his gift for accurate, humorous description is not EHA’s only recom-

mendation. He is a scientific observer with a poet’s soul, for in this book he

has distilled for us snatches of picturesque folk-lore and poeticai superstitions

associated with various Indian birds. —

He gives us a Mahomedan legend that explains how the Paradise Flycatcher

came to have its streaming tail feathers, Again, after he has descrited the

ghostly hooting of the Owl, he adds in a whisper: ‘ When it sits on the top of a

native house, uttering this dismal sound, the Devil is walking about inside,

marking somebody for death. I know this because the Hamal told me.’ But

perhaps the quaintest and most poetical of local theories that he has preserved

for us is that the little lumps of clay in a Baya’s nest are wall-brackets in which

fire-flies are stuck for the illumination of the nest.

The price of this book is Rs. 9 8-0 a very modest investment considering the

perennial dividend it will pay. The book makes an ideal gift for childrea: It

will help them te grow up with their eyes focussed on the beauty of Nature and

their ears attuned to the harmony of life. Its value to ornithologists is of

course, inestimable. And next time you are foraging for a birthday present

for your gout-stricken but wealthy uncle do give him a copy, for the book is

guaranteed to smooth out the creases in the mental make-up of the most

-crotchety-‘individual and give him many sunny hours.

Rane:

4. THE STORY OF MIGRATION. By E. A. R. Ennion, pp. 97 10” x

73”), illustrated with drawings. London: George Harrap & Co. Ltd., 1947.

Price 10sh.

In the preface, the author says that the story is as told to Sheila, who is 17,

Hugh 12 and Juliet in between. It is really the kind of book which should he

read by all between 12 and 70 and who will all profit thereby—the young

because it forms an evolutionary background for the fragments of information

which they will be given in schools and the old because many of them will see

something which they have missed entirely or seen in such academic terms that

they haye failed to grasp the charm and simplicity of the story.

It opens with the cooling of the molten earth and the relatively rapid changes

in the earth’s surface. The first migration is the story of the drift and dispersal

of land masses dependent ‘on the spinning of the globe, the hammering of the

tides, by the pull of the moon and the magnetic poles’.

The world at one stage is a singleland mass surrounded by water. This

then splits into a northern (Laurasia) and a southern (Gondwana) continent

separated by the Tethys sea which ‘crept in over Central America, ran between

Spain and Mexico, crossed North Africa, Arabia, Persia, Northern India (this

was long before the rising of the Himalayas), and wandered out again through

China. The continents might possibly arrive at an uneasy truce, if they all lay

the same distance from each other, spaced round the globe, “and all were of

equal weight and make and shape and all equally influenced by outside forces.’

The theory of continental drift is still working itself out.

The migration of continents is intrinsically linked with the migration of

animals and their present distribution. Australia and Antarctica broke away

from Gondwana at a very early time when true mammals had not evolved and

in the absence of their competition, Monotremes (egg-laying mammals) and the

pouched Marsupials have survived in Australia. There is evidence of this

continental drift in innumerable places—the Marsupials in South America and

the concentration of Lemurs in Madagascar.

The history of manis also tied up with the changes in the earth’s surface.

In the first place he was a hunter, mostly of small game—of mice, frogs,

shellfish, birds’ eggs and wild honey, of roots and berries. His spears and flint

axes were no weapons against the mastodons and rhinoceri which then roamed

the earth, ,

When large areas of the earth were covered by ice and deserts came into

existence, the larger animals were driven into the areas of the heavier forests

and replaced on the open spaces by large herds of sheep, antelopes and camels-~

536 - JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

a class‘of animals which it:was easier for. man to hunt... These large herds, had

also to move very considerable distances with the changes in, the season, , and

man, who had now become a seasoned hunter, followed them periodically

with the seasons. While civilised man was building churches and. workshops,

‘man’ the: nomad, still existed and it was only with the coming.of the rifle that

the uncounted herds of bison in. North America and the antelopes, zebras and

other herbivorous animals of Africa were reduced to countable numbers and

even threatened with exinction. In India, we have a close parallel.in, the story

of the blackbuck which, within living memory, existed in vast numbers an

has now been almost exterminated except in a few private preserves. thi

There are references and details of the more, interesting migrations as. of

the Lemurs and the Reindeer, the gigantic mammals of.the.sea, the whales and

the seals, and the curious life cycles of the eel and the salmon... Then we have

a chapter on: the birds of the sea dealing mainly with the curious family of

penguins followed by interesting details of the evolution of flight in the

different group of animals.

The last part of the book is devoted. to the migration of birds with a

summary of the present information available. ‘Though they form the most

important group of living migrants, the evidence of the origin and formation of

this instinct is missing from the book of rocks. Their bones were too smali

and brittle to survive and most of the fossil remains are of the larger extinct

birds which had become flightless through disuse of their wings. Their descen-

dants are the ostriches, the rheas and the cassowaries as well as a. few other

flightless forms of pigeons (dodos) and rails. With the progress of civilisation,

most of them have been killed out and it is said that one man alone, a settler

on one of the Australian islands, wiped out a whole species of emu. The Moas

of New Zealand, twice the height of the Maoris who hunted them, were not

killed out until relatively recent times, as also the dodo.

With the beginning of the Ice Age, the territories occupied by the innumer-

able species of birds were restricted and the pressure on population increased.

During a few months however, large parts of the snow-covered territories were

free from snow and ice and brought forth a large quantity and variety of

insect and otheranimal and plant life which had survived the severity of winter by

various methods. The timeinterval wastoo short to enable mammals to enter and

leave this area but birds could travel much faster and they came here relieving

the population pressure in the warmer countries, building theirnests and bringing

up their young. ‘The whole process of reaching the breeding place, staking

out territory, building a nest, rearing young, and flying back is governed by

an instinct which works with clock-like precision.

In spite of periodic press reports, the actual basis of bird migration, i.e. the

manner in which birds find their way from one place to another, is still

unknown, nor do we know the mechanism by which this very ‘mechanical’

process of migration, breeding and return is stimulated and controlled.

There is no doubt that with more facts and figures at their disposal,

scientists will be able to take us nearer to the solution of this problem. ‘There

is a tremendous amount of work to be done in this direction in India about

birds, bats and other migrant animals and it is hoped that many people—both

young and old—will read books of this kind so that they may appreciate the

value of their every-day observations and take the trouble of placing them on.

record.

Leta nan

5. FESTSCHRIFT ZUM 60. GEBURTSTAGE VON PROF. DR. EM-

BRIK STRAND. (60th birthday commemoration volumes of Prof. Dr.

E. Strand)—Vol. iv, Riga (Latvia, U.S.S.R.) 28-5-1938.

Prof. E. Strand, a scientist of international fame and Director of Systema-

tic Zoology, Riga, Lettland, reached his 60th birthday on 28th May 1938;% His

numerous admirers and friends have communicated many articles which have

been compiled and dedicated to him. These communications have been

published in 4 volumes and a fifth is expected to follow which would give the

recister of allthe names. Vol. 4 of this Festschrift or Jubilee-Book has been

contributed entirely by foreign zoologists and paleantologists. It covers nearly

800 pages with 16 additional plates and 203 figures in the text; the contents

are given on page 783 showing a list of 27 contributors, The writers belong

REVIEWS ou

mostly to Hungary ; next comes Tschechoslovakia; Germany, Austria, Bulgaria,

Russia and even Turkey are represented. The language used is almost entirely

erman.

The names of celebrities who have undertaken to edit the five volumes of

Strand-Festschrift are not given but of these editors four expired and their lives

.appear as brief sketches with photographs; one of them was a lady, the late

Prof. Rina Monti of Italy. Another editor, a Russian professor of entomolgy,

is reported missing since 1936 and his colleagues in Russia are unable to ‘tell

any thing moreabout him.

_ It has been said that if the animals on land be divided into insects on one side

and the rest on the other, the number of insects would far outweigh the

others. It is certain that insect systematists have far more work than ‘others.

‘This is well borne out-by the fourth volume of Strand-Festschrift. The largest

contribution is by Breuning, being a monographic study of 587 new species of

Cerambycid beetles. Of them 7 are dedicated to Prof. Strand, 5 have been

dedicated to Mr. Gardner of Dehra Dun and one to Dr. Beeson also from there.

Avew genus and a new species has been created for an insect discovered-at

Chikkaballapur which lies in Mysore. Many other new species have been

described from India. |

~ Roubal covers a study of 30 pages to thermophilic beetles of Slovakia. A

warm country like India offers ample opportunities for such a study and those

interested in the problem can well take Roubal’s monograph as a model. In

about the same number of pages Balogh describes his biosociological studies on

Hungarian spiders found in the vicinity of Budapest. Liefke of Hamburg has

a monographic study on Collzurini (Carabidae) covering over 100 pages with

115 figures. Many new species and several new genera have also been

mentioned.

The most popular study of animals belongs to that of birds. Their beautiful

colours and their fascinating songs have always exerted an irrepressible charm.

Others have been fascinated by birds as obiects of game. Thus ornithologists

usually dominate zoological societies. Auber of Vienna devotes over 100 pages

to parrots of the genus Hos. Formerly systematists were faced with distin-

guishing species. Now these have to be subdivided into geographical and

biological races, a problem which requires a subtle handling of the material of

study. With 35 illustrations on 4 plates and 43 in the text added to the

long text the monograph may wel! be taken as a model study by any one faced

with asimilar problem. Molitor of Vienna has a. long and interesting paper

on colour sense amongst hymenoptera. Moczar of Budapest has a long study

of wasps of the genus Odynerus covering 37 pages. Kleiner of Budapest

contributes to the importance of biotopes in bird migration. For such ecolo-

gical observations on bird life in India there are ample opportunities but from

the literature published in this country it appears badly in need of expansion,

Prof. Terpovsky of Brunn has a small article to widen our knowledge of

Molluscs and Dr. Kormos of Budapest on the rodents of Southern Hungary,

otherwise the rest of the volume is devoted to birds, insects and spiders.

We wish Prof. Strand a long life! We sincerely believe that there are already

in this country several admirers of his but who were unfortunately not in touch

with the honorary editors of the Festschrift. For the absence of an Indian

name amongst those who have thus paid a tribute to Prof. Strand we beg to

apologise.

Poot S. MAHDIHASSAN

EDITORIAL

The chief purpose of editorials in our Journal has been to keep

its readers informed of the general activities, plans and policies of

the Society as directed by its Executive Committee, and other

matters of current interest germain to its aims and objects. Owing

to the severity of the paper restrictions imposed by the war this

feature had perforce to be suspended. Paper restrictions still con-

tinue, now as an aftermath of war, but happily in a less aggravated

form. We are thus able in some measure to resume contact with

members.

Members’ suggestions.

It will be recalled that after the Annual General Meeting in

August 1947, a questionnaire was sent round to all members to

ascertain their particular interests and obtain suggestions for popu-

larizing the Society and enhancing its public usefvlness. Of the

1,000 individuals addressed only 349 members took the trouble to

reply ; and of these only 135 had any suggestions to offer. We hope

to publish soon an up-to-date list of our members with their

addresses. The subjects in which the individuals are particularly

interested will be indicated against their names. This will enable

members with kindred interests to contact one another, particularly if

they happen to be residing in the same district or locality. All

suggestions received were tabulated, and their analysis has provided

some useful cues to the management.

The principal heads under which the suggestions fall are given

below, together with the number of members from whom they come.

1. Publish non-technicai, popularly written and _ well-

illustrated books and booklets on various natural

history subjects (also in Indian languages) 37

2. Publish more non-technical and well-illustrated articles it in

the Journal, such as would appeal to the amateur... 36

3. Encourage actively wild life conservation and formation

of sanctuaries and National Parks oe: 9

4, Arrange popwiar lectures illustrated by movie films 2G

lantern slides asi sas flO

5. Arrange conducted nature rambles and excursions ieee 9

6. Bring together members with kindred interests ree 4

7. Form sub-societies (entomological and others) and

mofussil branches; also branches for juniors ik 4

The suggestions include award of prizes for natural history

essays, teaching of nature study in schools, instruction of nature

study teachers in proper methods, guided museum tours for school

children, commercial and economic application of zoology, regular

popular nature articles in magazines and newspapers, establishment

of local museums and travelling museums, preparation of lantern

slides and cine films for sale or loan, and many others some practical,

others not so practical.

Members will now naturally ask us ‘What are you going to do

about it?’ We cannot of course hope to satisfy everybody, neither

EDITORIAL 539

is the Society in a position to undertake too much and all at the same

time. But these suggestions have definitely helped to crystallize our

plans several of which have already been in some measure of oper-

ation. To take item No. 1 which tops the list in popularity

Publications.

Anglers and Fishermen will be glad to learn that Major A. St. J.

Macdonald’s long awaited ‘ Circumventing the Mahseer and other

Sporting Fish in India and Burma’ is in the last stages of printing

and should be available by the end of July.

This handy volume, containing as it does much of the inform-

ation to be found in Thomas’s Rod ix /ndia and other works of that

kind, plus much that has not been dealt with before should prove of

considerable interest and usefulness to anglers. It is profusely

illustrated with black and white plates and four in colour depicting

various mahseers.

The price of the book is expected to be Rs. 1? to members and

Rs. 15 to the public.

Picture Postcards.

We hope soon to have on sale at the Prince of Wales’s Museum

a set of 12 coloured picture postcards of Indian birds. ‘These are

reproductions of selected paintings from those specially prepared by

D. V. Cowen for the 4th edition of the Society’s ‘ Book of Indian

Birds’. At the price of Rs. 2/4 per set they seem very good value,

and it is hoped that the public will appreciate the publication. If

this venture proves successful we hope to publish further sets of

birds, as well as of other groups of animals. Members may obtain

sets by writing to the Honorary Secretary.

We have plans for expanding as early as may be the Society’s

Indian Natural History Series to include volumes on Butterflies,

Reptiles, Fishes and other groups of animals. The first volume

of this series ‘The Book of Indian Birds’ is already familiar to

members, and so is, or soon should be, the recently published Vol. II

«The Book of Indian Animals’ by S. H. Prater. Volume III of

this series will be ‘The Book of Indian Butterflies’ by M. A. Wynter-

Blyth who is well-known to butterfly collectors and students

through his interesting articles published in our Journal from

time to time. The manuscript of this book is ready and so are most

of the 65 odd coloured and the numerous black and white plates.

What we now need are the funds, and to obtain these we have to wait

until we can recoup ourselves on the large outlay on Vol. II. ‘The

sooner this can be done, the sooner is there a chance of the butterfly

book seeing the light. Conditions have changed considerably since

the war ended. British and American military personnel then in

India were our best customers for natural history publications. With

their withdrawal sales have dwindled appreciably, and until we can

make our own countrymen nature-minded, the demand for such

publications must remain weak and tardy. ‘Therefore we are faced

with the important question, How are we to finance our other pro-

jected publications?. The answer is obviously that we must obtain

an adequate grant-in-aid from the Government of India and the

local government. There is no doubt—it has been demonstrated

clearly enough in the countries of Europe, and in the United States

540 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL‘HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

of America—that nature -education-and a living .imterest in, and

appreciation of, the natural objects: that:surround us play a vital role

in the: cuituralswell-being of:a people. {It-cannot,also.be, denied that

lack ofunature education in our schools leaves.a void in the life of

the Indian child which is hard to fill at a later age. He has.not been

taught: to ;extract: enjoyment and-satisfaction from. the birds and

animals and trees he sees:around:him. ‘Sooner.or later he. realizes.

that Man does not live by bread alone, and it.is then often too late to

make amends. ‘Therefore: there is-every reason why the. Society

must. count on Government to come tovits assistance in the further-

ance. of its nature educational programme. An application has. been

made to the Government of India through: the National Institute. of

Sciences of India, whose good offices .we gratefully acknowledge, for

a grant for carrying out the Society’s publication programme, during

the next 2 years. This programme includes not only the ‘ Book of

Indian Butterflies’, but the first two of a series of attractive colour

illustrated booklets on various natural history subjects written in

simple English and translated into several Indian languages such as

Hindustani (Devanagri and Persian scripts), Marathi, Gujarati,

Kannada and Bengali decided on by the Society’s Executive Com-

mittee at one of its recent meetings. The grant applied for covers

in addition a much more ambitious publication, namely, a compre-

hensive work in 5. volumes on the birds of India under the joint

authorship of Salim Ali and S. Dillon..Ripley (of the U.S.A.) fully

illustrated in colour and more or less on. the lines of Witherby’s.

‘ Handbook of British: Birds’. In effect this work will.be a new

edition of Stuart Baker’s bird volumes in the ‘ Fauna of British India’

series which was meant largely for the museum, worker and which

is not only iargely outmoded by. subsequent taxonomical and field

work in India and abroad, but is now also out of print. It is obvious

that with the scant interest so far taken-in bird study in India an

expensive publication of this kind is not likely to prove a commercial]

proposition, and would only be possible if helped by a subsidy from

Government. Apart from its general interest, such a book collating

all the data so far recorded on the food.and feeding habits of Indian

birds is bound to prove of inestimable value in the study of Agricul-

tural and Forest ornithology, comprehensive schemes for . which,

prepared by the relevant departments are now under the consider-

ation of Government.

2, Regarding item: 2:it is fully realized by the: Society’s

Committee.and the editors of the Journal that the majority. of our

membership’ consists of non-technical. or amateur nature’ lovers.

widely distributed over the country and outside, with whom the only

medium of contact the Society has. is its Journal. °Therefore, we

are for ever striving to find the golden mean. between: making the

Journal too technical or ‘highbrow’ (as. some have dubbed it) for

the average reader, and allowing it to descend to the level of an

elementary primer or a story-telling magazine. During the 65 years.

of its existence, the Journal has built up an. international reputation

and is recognised as the premier scientific natural history publication

of the East; it is encumbent on us to.see that this reputation,.as a

scientific publication is not only not allowed to suffer in any way,

but to do‘everything possible to enhance it. But while keeping. this.

- EDITORIAL L ARARUOL cine

goal in‘ view, we’ fully’ appreciate’ that’ there is’ a typeof scientific

writer who revels in’ employing abstruse’ and pedantic phraseology:

and names when he’ might’ just as well’ use others’ which: the

not-so-learned' reader can readily follow, without! in the least bit

detracting from’ the scientific value of his contribution. Thisiis what

the editors have constantly to be’ on the guard’ against. |

Addition of more plates, particularly coloured ones, would cert-

ainly add’ greatly to the Journal’s popularity with members and also

to its usefulness and attractiveness: But coloured plates. mean

money, and unless we can: improve our revenues appreciably there is

slender hope of being able to improve in this direction. Costs of

printing and paper have already mounted considerably, and it is as

much as we can do'to keep within our budget. Perhaps a solution

to this difficulty can be found if such members‘as can afford it will

volunteer to donate from time to time one coloured plate (or more)

for each issue of the Journal. Each coloured plate inserted in the

Journal costs us something like Rs. 350, exclusive of the painting.

Another difficulty experienced in making the Journal ‘popular’

is that of getting suitable contributions. Many people who could

write on various subjects with experience and authority do not do

so either because they feel that they do not possess the necessary

literary talent or that what they have to tell is not worth telling, or

has already been told before or, as is unfortunately most often the

case, because they are too lazy to do so. This is definitely what we

would call anti-social inactivity. We have stressed the point again

and again with would-be contributors that no lofty literary attain-

ments are necéssaty for wiiting for the Journal. It is essentially a

scientific publication and expects only facts to be simply and clearly

told. It sets more value on what is told than on the manner of

telling it, not that it does not appreciate good writing. We can meet

much of the criticism that the Journal does not carry a sufficiéncy of

readable natural history articles if only members willtake the trouble

to send uS notes of anything that has excited their interest or

curiosity on holiday treks or shooting and fishing trips, or may be

even on their way to office. The Miscellaneous Notes section of the

Journal has always beén very populat with readers. It will be

patent to many that it includes notes varying steeply in their scientific

worth, yet all of them are interesting and some even refreshingly

controversial. We could expand this section considerably, and with

members’ co-operation this can be done without difficulty.

4&5. What with the day to day administration of the Society’s

affairs, the work connected with the editing and piloting of the

Journal through the press and our other publications, and the manage-

ment of the Natural History Section of the Prince of Wales Museum,

the Curator has his hands completely full. The Honorary Secretary

cannot be expected to devote more than a part of his time to the

affairs of the Society. ‘Therefore it was realized that if the important

and very necessary publicity and educational work was to be done

efficiently and effectively it was essential to engage a competent

person whose chief business it would be to prepare and carry out

schemes for ctéating public interest in natural history. The Society’s

Committee considered this question at one of its meetings and

decided, as an experimental measure, to appoint a man to take

542 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

charge of the proposed activities. As it happened there was a suitable

candidate available, and by.a happy coincidence we were able to

obtain his services without any additional financial burden on the

Society. This, however, is only a temporary arrangement and it is

hoped that the Government of Bombay, who have been approached

in the matter, will appreciate the need of such an appointment and

the steps we have taken, and sanction the special grant asked for in

order to put the scheme on a permanent footing. It has long been

felt that the fullest benefit of our excellent Natural History Museum

was not being made available to the public and to schools by our

inability to provide proper facilities for instructing nature study

teachers from local schools in the correct approach for arousing an

interest in natural history among their pupils. Some will perhaps

remember the Nature Study Scheme we conducted at the Museum

with such marked success from 1926 to 1929 and which had to be

discontinued as a measure of economy by the Government of Bombay.

A note on this is published in Vol. XXXIII of the Journal

(pp. 163-165).

In addition to lecturing and conducting parties through the

Natural History galleries, the preparation of simple guide books and

the translation of the labels on the exhibits into simple Hindustani

(in the Devanagiri script) will be amongst the duties of the Nature

Education Organiser. Apart from the immediate benefits the scheme

is expected to confer on the public, the Society will thus be doing a

bit of long term planning on its own account. In an appendix to

the Annual Report for 1946, the Honorary Secretary pointed out

what a small proportion of our total individual membership

comprised of Indians. Unfortunately it is only too true that the

number of Indians who are interested in natural history is infinitesi-

mal. That with suitable opportunities and encouragement Indian

children can become just as enthusiastic naturalists as their counter-

parts in Europe and America was amply demonstrated during the

operation of the old guide lecturing scheme referred to. In the plans

now proposed, we hope to provide the required opportunities to

school children and incidentally to build up a potential membership

of the Society in the years to come, thereby insuring its future

existence. |

3. Col. R. W. Burton’s indefatigable zeal and energy and drive

might well be the envy of a much younger man. He has written a

comprehensive article on Wild Life Conservation and its urgent need

in India which we hope to publish in the next issue of the Journal.

At the rate our press has lately been turning out the Journal it may

be some mouths after it is due that the August number is published.

In the meantime slaughter continues apace and the matter needs

urgent attention from the authorities. Therefore Col. Burton had

400 copies of the article printed in pamphlet form for judicious

distribution, he sharing the cost with the Society. Copies of this

with suitable covering letters from the Society have been sent to the

Governors-General of India and Pakistan and to the Prime Ministers

and members of the Cabinets of the two dominions. The pamphlet

and similar letters have also been addressed to the Governors and

Ministers of all the provinces and also to Secretaries, departmental

heads, Chief Conservators and Conservators of Forests, Presidents

EDITORIAL 543

and various members of the Constituent Assemblies of India and

Pakistan and the heads of all provincial legislatures. A special

Appeal relating to Reserved Forests, also prepared by Col. Burton,

has been distributed among a wide circle of Divisional and other

forest offcers throughout the country. A precis of the pamphlet

prepared by its author has also been widely circulated among news-

papers and press services all over the country, and it is confidently

hoped that they will attach sufficient importance to the question to

give it the widest publicity.

; We earnestly hope that the Society’s efforts will bear fruit.

Indeed it is imperative that adequate measures both legislative and

practical, be taken before it is too late. In many instances we fear

it is already none too early. The existing legislation for wild life

protection is adequate enough on the whole, but some machinery for

enforcing the laws is absolutely essential. Therefore Col. Burton’s

stress on the need for early formation of a competent Department of

Wild Life Conservation, whose chief responsibility it will be to see

that the law is effectively administered, deserves serious considera-

tion by the authorities. This separate department could work in

close co-operation with or even under the existing Forest Department.

Mr. R. C. Morris, another expert on wild life on the Society’s

Advisory Committee, writes :—

‘I am strongly of the opinion that all efforts will be unavailing,

as in the past, unless the Education Department, together with the

Department of Information, Broadcasting and Propaganda, concen.

trate onan intensive educative and propaganda drive through the

medium of all Schools, Colleges, and Universities; as well as the

Cinemas and the Press. If we could get Pandit Jawaharjal Nehru

and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad really interested in this I think

much can be effected; otherwise very little. Iam sure well illust-

rated pamphlets specially written for the young in simple language,

and yet absorbingly interesting even for those of maturer years, such

as are published by the American Museum of Natural History and

by the London Zoological Society, would go a long way in educating

public opinion—especially if supplied to schools, libraries ‘and

bookstalls.

I wonder how many of the touring cinemas that tour the

villages in the rural areas, show the Ministry of Information and

Propaganda’s excellent films? TZhese are the cinemas the countryfolk

chiefly see.

Just as Village Congress Committees conducted propaganda

efforts in grain procurement and weaving so their services could

be enlisted in propaganda work in respect of conservation of Wild

Life.

What should be hammered into the minds of ryots and villagers

is that if the deer are all slaughtered the carnivores will turn to

man-eating; and that if bird life is decimated the crops and grain

stocks will be increasingly destroyed by insect pests, rats. mice, etc.;

now preyed on by birds.

Propaganda will be of no avail without emphasis on the veasons

for the measures suggested. ‘=

I consider it is essential that (@) magistrates should inflict

deterrent sentences on poachers and those convicted of offences

544. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

under, the game. laws; (@).Forest, Guards, Watchers, and. eyen

Foresters, should; be. made to understand: that.their, jobs depend upon.

their eliminating. poaching in. their. beats; and. the reporting of un-

licensed) guns; the. existence of, which in. his area,every F.G. very

quickly learns.

Finally, in areas. adjoining Reserve Forests the plea i is bound.

to be advancedithat the. game damage crops, so must be kept down.

Early last year I gave a, successful demonstration ata Forest Guards’

School, of the use of kamboo rocket-guns, with ordinary bazaar-

made rockets of the type bursting at the end of flight, fired

horizontally. -If such rockets were made available to ryots of forest

bordering, cultivated areas I think there would, be less. excuse for

killing the deer.’

The Honorary Secretary of the Zoological Society of India sends

us the following announcement :— |

Zoological Society of India. The following Members of. the

Executive Council were elected at the annual meeting held at Patna

in January 1948 :— President: Dr. S. L. Hora, Vice- President: Prof.

D. R. Bhattacharya, Secretary: Hony. Major Dr. M. L. Roonwal,

fiditor: Prof. K. N. Bahl, Zveasurer: Dr. B, S. Chauhan, JZenzbers :

Dr. K. Panikkar, Prof. M. A. Moghe, Dr. B. N. Chopra, Dr. Bhatta-

charya, Dr. G.D. Bhalerao, Dr. D. V. Bal, Dr. T. J. Job. - It is

intended to bring out the first volume of the Journal of the Zoological

Society of Judia this year. Papers intended for publication, which

should either be original contributions or critical reviews of current

researches, not published elsewhere, should be sent either to the

Editor (at the Zoology Department, Lucknow University, Lucknow,

or to the Secretary (at the Zoological Survey of India, Benares

Cantonment). Persons intending to become members should contact

the Secretary.

‘MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1—HOW FAR CAN A TIGER SWIM?

I shall be much obliged to know what is the maximum distance

a tiger has been known to swim. . None of the books on the subject

enlighten me on the matter. A few of them only refer to the fact

that tigers inhabiting the Sunderbans in Southern Bengal have been

known to swim pretty long distances.

Let me refer to certain facts which give some idea as to their

capacity to swim long distances. I would be very grateful to. have your

remarks on this incident and shall be pleased to know your surmise

as to what could have forced the tigers to swim such great distances.

If any of the readers of your Journal have any information on the

subject I shall be happy to learn.

The facts are as follows :—

The nearest to Sunderbans one could reach from within the

‘district of Midnapur (my home) was at Khedgeree in Contai

Subdivision 18 miles across the river Hooghly, to what is now known

as Frasergunj, which is at present devoid of any jungle. But even

uptil 1922, while the deforestation was in progress but not complete,

tigers crossed this 18-mile wide river with currents and were killed

by the villagers at Khedgeree. From 19U7 deforestation started at

Frasergunj and the Revenue Department started to lease out lands to

cultivators. The plan originated from the brains of the late Sir Andrew

Fraser, after whom the place is now called. Before 1907 the place

was densely wooded and a favourite haunt of tigers. This part of

Sunderbans was then known as Mahis Khela Khas-Mahal forests. In

the year 1900 a tiger crossed this river and came on to the shore at

a place called Horkhali in Tamluk Subdivision in the District of

Midnapur and was killed at a village called Deulpata about 14 miles

from Horkhali. Now, if the tiger started swimming from Mahis

Khola, where the jungle finished, then it would have swam as many

as 35 miles, before it reached Horkhali. But there was another

possibility. The tiger might have walked through thickly populated

villages under cover of darkness for 31 miles just on to the opposite

bank of Horkhali and then swum across the Hooghly, which is about

‘6 miles wide at this point. Having achieved this it might again have

walked 14 miles to Deulpata, where it was found early in the morning

and killed by one of the nephews of late Hon’ble Mr. Nilmoni

Mandal, the local Zamindar.

Either of the above feats would seem, at the outset, to be

impossible for a tiger, but I have related the bare truth.

HAMPTON CourRT, D. P. GARGA,

HAZARIBAGH (BIHAR), Kumar of Mahishadal,

19¢h October, 1947.

{Tigers have been shot on Bombay and Salsette Islands, which

they must have reached by swimming across the Lhana.Creek or

546 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Bombay Harbour. A list of records ending with one at the

Vihar Lake in 1929 is published in J.B.NV.Z.S., Vol. xxxiii,

p. 973. This reads in part ‘On March 2, 1858 the crew of the

steamer Aden killed a large tiger which was swimming across

to Mazagaon from the opposite shore.’ The Bombay Courier also

records the sudden appearance of a tiger at Mazagaon ‘the animal

apparently swam across the harbour and landed near the ruined

Mazagaon fort’. This is roughly seven miles from the nearest

point on the mainland.—Ebs. ]

2.—AN EXTENSION OF THE KNOWN RANGE OF

BANDICOTA NEMORIVAGA (HODGSON) IN CHINA

The only record of the Smaller Bandicoot Rat, Bandicota nemori-

vaga in China appears to be from Tengyueh, in extreme south

western Yunnan (vide The Natural History of Central Asia, Vol. XI,

The Mammals of China and Mongolia, Part 2).

I record here a very interesting extension to the known distri-

bution of this species in China, namely, from the Colony of

Hong Kong. During the months of April to July, 1946, about one

dozen specimens were trapped in the fields at Un Long in the New

Territories, Hong Kong. A single specimen was also trapped at

Taipo inthe New Territories. After my departure from Hong Kong

in July, 1946, I received the skull of a specimen obtained by the

Rodent Control Inspector from the Aberdeen district of Hong Kong

Island itself. The identification of this skull has now been confirmed

by Sir John Ellerman at the British Museum (Natural History)

in London.

Since it is unlikely that the distribution of this species has been

extended via the medium of shipping routes, these records of its.

occurrence in China from two such widely separated localities cause

me to doubt very much that it does not occur over a much. wider

range in southern China.

I publish this record by kind permission of the Hon. Director of

Medical Services, Hong Kong.

MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, | J. DRO MERA. EezaSs

Hone Kone, Rodent Control Officer.

23rd September, 1947.

3.—ALTITUDINAL LIMIT OF THE INDIAN ELEPHANT

While crossing the Bompu La (9,600’) in early September I was

surprised to find fresh traces of anumber of elephants on the very

summit, and to learn that one had actually been encountered on the

path a few days before. The Bompu La is in the Se-La Subagency

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 547

of the North-East Frontier of India lying some 30 miles east of the

eastern boundary of Bhutan. The range whose highest peaks are

over 10,000’ rises straight from the plains and the southern base is

covered in evergreen forest. Above 9,000’ this becomes a dense

growth of Ringal Bamboo under a cover of Rhododendrons and other

evergreens and it is apparently this bamboo which attracts the

elephants during the summer months only, since from December to

February the Pass is regulariy under snow.

I should be very interested to learn the record altitude at which

the Indian elephant has been found.

N. Laxrmevr, | F. N. BETTS,

ASSAM, Political Ofticer,

23rd October 1947, Subansirt Area.

[Prater in Zhe Book of Indian Animals (p. 186) says, ‘In

Burma they wander at all seasons of the year into bamboo forests

at a height of 10,000 ft., while in Sikkim their tracks pave been seen

in the snow 12,000 ft. above sea-level. ’— EES. |

4. THE MOVEMENTS OF THE ROSY PASTOR

IN INDIA

With reference to the paper by Mr. Humayun Abdulali

published in Vol. 46, No. 4 of the Journal, I am writing in the

possibility of being able to fill a small gap in the records collected

from Rajputana.

The area covered by my observations was the line of the B. B.

and C.I. Railway from Abu Road to Ajmer and the period was

1929-1933.

Normally large flocks of immature birds wouid be observed about

the middle of July, but in 1933 when there was unusually early rain,

the first flocks were noted at the end of June. I was not able to

observe any particular directional trend in the movement of these

flocks and their wheelings seemed to be quite aimless.

The birds were present throughout the cold weather, but in

smaller numbers (apparently) than during July-September.

In March flocks of birds in mature plumage were busy feeding

and sunning themselves in Butea frondosa, wild caper and a shrubby

tree locally known as ‘ pilu’ (Salvadora persica) of which the fruit-

bunches of small purplish black berries—were then ripening.

During this period their cheerful murmuration was to be heard

almost everywhere that these trees and shrubs were to be found.

By the end of April they had all gone.

1 B, IMPERIAL MANSIONS,

CuFFE PARADE, COLABA, BoMBAy, 5. R. M. SIMMONS

7th November, 1947.

548; JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

5..__OCCURRENCE OF THE SPECKLED PICULET

[VIVIA INNOMINATUS. (BURTON)] IN UE

BENGAL ,

Having secured on 28th September! 1947, fom a local bird-

catcher a live specimen of Vivia zxnominatus (Burton) it will be at

this stage out of place to record anything more than that the locality

where it was spotted and captured lies in Khulna on the eastern bank

of the river Bhairab opposite Daulatpur. A considerable patch of

bamboo clumps abounding there seems to be the favourite resort of

the bird, where in fact it was caught with bird-lime. Any further

details regarding its occurrence and habitat in Central and South

Bengal must await my opportunity of a personal visit to the area and

first hand encounter with the bird. I am inclined to mention,

however, that this birdcatcher, having seen in my aviary some live

examples of the Speckled Piculet (captured from the forests of Buxa

Duars), told me several times that he had sighted it more than once

during his periodical birdcatching trips to Khulna.

The specimen being devoid of tail feathers has to be kept under

special care. J/easurements: Wing 52 mm. +5 tarsus 12 mm. ; culmen

ll mm. Sex: Apparently female as it has the whole crown olive.

Incidentally it may be noteworthy that some Himalayan

species, e.g. Mixornis gularis rubricapilla (Tickell) and Malacocincla

Sepiarta abbotti (Blyth) do occur in the jungles of Khulna and Jessore

(/bis, 1945, pp. 405-408).

SATYA CHURN LAW, M.A., Ph.D., F.N.I.

50, KAILAS BOSE STREET,

CALCUTTA,

20th November, 1947.

6.—THE CLICKING NOISE MADE BY OWLS

On page 542 of the Isis, 1939, Pakenham states that a series of

clicks—* tac-tac-tac ’"—produced by Otus pembaensis (Pemba is near

Zanzibar) was not with the mandibles but from inside the mouth.

In Vol. 40 of the Journal (page 368) we have recorded the

Striated Scops Owl, Otus brucez (Hume) as making a sharp noise

by clicking its mandibles when annoyed, and I have another note on

Strix ocellata making a loud clicking noise when handled.

This appears to be fairly common among owls, and it would

be interesting to obtain more opinions as to how this noise is

produced.

75, ABDUL REHMAN

STREET, BOMBAY, 3. HUMAYUN ABDULALI

October 30th, 1947. |

+ - -MESCELLANEOUS NOTES. IRVSLU OL sa5p

7.—_GREEN PIGEONS IN A SWAMP

Reference Major E. G. Phythian-Adam’s note in Volume xliv,

No. 1, August 1943. For the last two seasons in the hot weather

(March-May) I have noted the Grey-fronted Green Pigeon (D. poma-

padora) visiting the lower end of some paddy-fields near‘here, where

they were still moist. They had been cultivated but there were also

one or two uncultivated patches. Which of these the birds visited I

could not ascertain. I shot one bird that came out of a tree nearby

and it undoubtedly contained mud in its crop.

KuRADY KHAN ESTATE,

SANGAMESWARPET P.O.,

Kapur DIstTricr, . | G. V. R. FREND

(MYSORE STATE).

October 20th, 1947.

[That, contrary to the old belief, Green Pigeons do descend to

the ground to drink is now sufficiently well known to need comment,

Observations are invited as to whether they and other birds eat the

earth at salt Jicks in the same way as deer and most mammals do.

| We have frequently observed jungle mynahs flying out to little

rock pools on the seashore left by the receding tide, and drinking

salt water (presumably as an aperient ?), and it is probable that when

salt water is unavailable, the damp earth of salt licks may be

swallowed as a substitute.—EDs. | ;

8-—-PECULIAR BEHAVIOUR OF THE DARTER

(ANHINGA MELANOGASTER PENNANT)

In October, 1939, I was fortunate enough to visit the famous

Keoladeo Ghana in Bharatpur and among many other curious and

wonderful sights, we noticed that Darters which were fairly common

on the babool trees overhanging water, would, when approached, let

themselves drop plumb into the water with closed wings, as if shot

dead, knocking against the branches as they fell. They would also

fly out of the trees and then suddenly flop into the water and disappear

below without any preliminary hovering in the air or alighting on

surface as is usual among other such birds.

I was reminded of this note when I recently saw a pair of Darters

perched on a Jamun overhanging water at the Powai Lake. near

Bombay, drop in similar fashion.

‘This therefore appears to be a widespread habit though I cannot

recollect having seen it published before.

Messrs. Faiz & Co.,

75, ABDULREHMAN S?.,

BomBay, 3. - *HUMAYUN ABDULALI

October 30th, 1947.

~ [This habit is recorded on p. 387 of Lhe Book ot Indian Birds

(4th edition).—EDs. | }

sso JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

9.—WILSON’S PETREL IN INDIA

James Fisher in his delightful Penguin Book ‘ WarcHING BIRDS’

(page 107) mentions Wilson’s Stormy Petrel, Oceanites oceanicus, as

‘one of the most numerous species of birds in the world, huge flocks

passing into the Atlantic, Pacific and the Indian Oceans during the

off season’. In the Inrs for 1929, page 41, H. G. Alexander records

seeing this bird on 10 September, ‘about 150 miles out from

Bombay and also common in the Gulf of Aden’. There is however

no record from India, except for one collected by Butler off the

Mekran Coast, and as ‘a visitor to the coasts of Ceylon chiefly during

the S.W. Monsoon’ (Whistler, Spolia Zeylonica, 23, page 289).

On the 21 October, through the courtesy of the Fisheries

Department, I had the opportunity of going out on a short shark-

fishing trip on the Government trawler ‘TapPaskE’. We left Bombay

near midnight and anchored about 6 miles off the Janjira shore,

where several! hundred hooks were cast overboard. ‘These were

drawn back at sunrise with no result, but during the return to

Bombay during daylight, we continually saw one or two small dark

petrels with square tails and white rumps. Though many shots were

fired, we failed to get one, until just as we were entering Bombay

harbour, a flock of 8 or ten birds (the only flock seen) permitted us

to approach within range, and one was secured and identified as this

species. Witherby in a footnote on page 39, vol. 4 of Handbook of

British Birds, admits the four races described by B. B. Roberts

(British Graham's Land Expedition of 1934-1937, Scientific Reports,

Vol. 1, No. 2, page 141/194, British Museum, 1940), but states that

due to the large overlapping in measurements and in the absence of

any plumage differences it would not be practicable to assign the

birds obtained in England to any particular race. I am therefore

recording the measurements and leaving the name binomial. Wing

145 mm., bill 18°5 mm., tail 59 mm., tarsus 35 mm.

The frequency with which this bird was noticed only six miles out

at sea raises an interesting question. Was this exceptional or are

they always present at this season in such numbers? It would be

extraordinary indeed if it should have been so near us all these years

and never recorded.

This petrel is a small black bird, reminiscent of a swallow, only

slightly larger, with a square tail and a white rump. The feet have

yellow webs and extend beyond the tail in flight. We also saw

these birds pattering over the surface, i.e. practically walking on

water, in a series of hops, and it might be interesting to recall that

the word Petrel is derived from St. Peter (Matthew 14: 29),

BoMBAY, HOMAYUN ABDULALI

December 20, 1947. :

[Dr. C. Gibson-Hill of Raffles Museum, Singapore, to whom the

specimen was sent for examination, writes;

‘It is very probably the race farvus Falla, from Kerguelen,

but one cannot be a hundred per cent sure with a bird taken at sea.

The differences between the subspecies are very slight, and to some

extent they overlap in their measurements.’

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 51

Sinclair in ‘Waters of Western India’ says that Mother Carey’s

Chicken ‘is known but rare’ off the Konkan Coast (/.8.N.H.5S.,

Vol. I, p. 167) and also mentions it as occurring off the Sind Coast

(J.B.N.A1.S., Vol. 3, p. 7). Phillips records it frequently on a trip

from Aden to Karachi (1st to 7th July) and he last saw it within

sight of Karachi (7.B.NV.47.S., Vol. 46, p. 613).—Ebs. |

10.—OCCURRENCE OF THE SNAKE

POLYODONTOPHIS SAGITTARIUS (CANTOR)

NEAR BOMBAY

On the 13th November, when I was shooting with Messrs. H. B.

Hayes and F. Sharpe around Ambernath (Kalyan District), we picked

up a small snake which has been identified at the Society as

Polyodontophis sagittarius (Cantor's Polyodont) (length 114”; 205

ventrals, 8 supra-labials).

This is not mentioned in Prater’s list of the Snakes of Bombay

Island and Salsette (1923), though older specimens from Poona

(G, W. Vidal), Salsette, Lonavla (J. P. Mullan), Nagpur, Jhansi and

Cannanore (F. Wall) are listed on the card catalogue of the Society’s

collection. The Mew Fauna restricts the distribution to ‘ North

Eastern India from the Central and United Provinces to Eastern

Bengal. Wall records it from the Western Himalayas’. (‘As far

west as Chamba’, Wall, /.6.N.A.S. xxix, p. 599.)

c/o Mzssrs. Faiz & Co., HUMAYUN ABDULALI

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET,

BomMBAy, 3.

November 19, 1947.

11.—CROCODILES BELLOWING

With reference to the two notes on the abovein Vol. 45, one by

Major R. K. M. Battye (pp. 93/94) and the other by Lt.-Col. H. G.

Rossel (pp. 428/29), the following extract from ‘The Reptiles of

North America’ by Raymond L. Ditmars (Doubleday & Co.,

Incorporated, New York—1946) relating to the Alligator [A.

mississtpiensis (Dauden)] may be of interest.

‘Among reptiles the alligator is unique in giving voice to a loud

noise or ‘bellow’. Inthe southern swamps the night air carries the

call of a large individual for a mile or more. The ‘ bellowing’ of

an alligator is hard to describe, as it varies greatly in cadence

according to the size of the reptile, from a sound like the gentle

“mooing’ of a cow from a small alligator of about five feet, ranges

to the thundering and tremulous blast of a big male—ten feet or

52 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 47

more in length. As the patriarch gives voice to his roars the scent:

glands on the undersurface of the chin, are opened, and fine steamy

jets of a powerful, musky-smelling fluid float off into the heavy

miasmatic atmosphere of the bayou. The odour may be carried for

miles and to the negroes it always signifies ‘a big ol’gator’. |

BomBay, : HUMAYUN ABDULALI

15th November, 1947.

[Hamilton in ‘Wild Life in South Africa’ p. 315, says that

crocodiles ‘when angry, hiss like most other reptiles. At other

times they utter a fairly loud throaty noise ’-—Ebs.]

12.—_NOTES ON A FEW REPTILES FROM THE

NILGIRI HILLS

During a leave I collected a few reptiles in the Nilgiri Hills and:

some points of interest are here noted. ‘The notes are written with

reference to the account by Malcolm Smith in Fauna of British

Lndia, 2nd edition.

SAURIA

Cnemaspis gracilis Beddome.

1 9 in a cairn of stones, Kotagiri-Mettupalayam road mile-

stone XI, 6-12-45, contained two eggs.

Cnemaspis jerdont.? Theobald.

J juvenile, Elk Falls, body 18 mm., under log, 8-12-45. About

the same time a number of gecko eggs were found below large

boulders at Catherine Falls.

Calotes versicolor Daudin.

1 specimen, Kotagiri, the dorsal row of scales ran straight

down onto the middorsal line of the tail.

Psammophilus dorsalts Gray.

6 specimens were collected on Windy Gap Hill, Kotagiri, 3g'¥,

3 juveniles. The general appearance was blackish. ‘Top of head

nearly black; back olive grey; 5 black ringed white spots on

sides of largest 3’; from lips down side olive band changing some-

times to brick red ;, belly slightly golden; tail black and white bands.

The colour was changeable quite markedly.

Riopa punctata Gmelin.

1 specimen caught with C. graczlis, 25 scale rows at midbody.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES | 553

SERPENTES

Plectrurus perottettt Dum. & Bib.

1 specimen Windy Gap Hill, Kotagiri, 5-12-45. V. 162, C. 7.

Ground colour purplish brown, slight brick red spot at each corner of

the mouth, briek red under tail, narrow brick red line on dorsal

surface of tail,

Elaphe helena Daudin.

1 specimen, 14-12-45, near Kotagiri, V. 235, C. 91. Light

olive ground colour, 9 black bands with white ocelii, expanding

ventrolaterally, linked by black loops on belly, no longitudinal

stripes on belly.

12 GIRDLER’S ROAD, ' GARTH UNDERWOOD

Brook GREEN,

Lonpon, W. 14. —

13. ACACIA THORN IN THE STOMACH OF A TOAD

(BUFO MELANOSTICTUS SCHNEID.)

Among a number of toads supplied for dissection in the class, a

fully grown female toad (Bufo melanostictus Schneid.) measuring

about 95 mm., distended with ripe eggs was found to have swallowed

a biradiate Babul thorn (4cacza aratica Willd.) The two arms

of the thorn were at right angles to each other within the stomach

and measured 22 mm., and 20 mm. One of the pointed ends of the

thorn rested freely against the middle region of the muscles over-

lying the parasphenoid in the buccal cavity and the other arm of the

thorn had penetrated through the oesophagus right into the lett

urinary bladder. Due to this, the oesophagus had become greatly

dilated so as to present little difference between the oesophagus and

the stomach in size. The wound caused by the penetration of this

thorn appeared to be completeiy healed up. On opening the stomach,

I noticed bits of food such as cuticles and muscles of insects. This

indicated that the toad was apparently without any discomfort and

probably was leading a normal life. The swallowing of the thorn by

the toad seems to be purely accidental.

I am indebted to my student Mr. Suresh Chandra Das for first

drawing my attention to the above and to Dr. J. L. Bhaduri, D. Sc.

(Edin.) of the Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, for his

valuable suggestions and criticisms,

MAHARAJA’S COLLEGE,

PARLAKIMEDI, } , ont fe

GANJAM, ORISSA. BASANTA KUMAR BEHURA

182 November, 1947. | 7 : i

10A

554 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

14. MARCH LEPIDOPTERA AT GOPALPUR (DIST.

GANJAM)—A CORRECTION

In a short note in this Journal (1940, vol. xlii, 211) I published

a list of the Lepidoptera observed at Gopalpur during a short holiday

in March 1940. Setting the specimens then collecte d recently has

revealed an error. The list included SAzzdaszs zctis Hew., ictés, this

is incorrect—the actual species being SAzndasis vulca nus F., vulcanus.

LONDON, D. G. SEVASTOPULO, £.R.z.s.

Novenler 10th, 1947.

15—ON THE BUTTERFLY DE&LIAS DESCOMBESI

LEUCACANTHA FRUHSTORFER

I do not remember having seen any detailed description of the

larva and pupa of the butterfly Delias descombest Jleucacantha

Fruhstorfer. I have recently been lucky enough to obtain two

broods of larvae which I have successfully observed.

Both broods were found on a Loranthus, which has been

provisionally identified by the Forest Department herbarium at

Shillong as Loranthus ligustrinus Wall. at a height of some 20 feet

from the ground. Both broods were gregarious in that the larvae

remained together on one large growth of Loranthus, although there

were other growths of the same species very close by. ‘The larvae

were usually scattered in groups of 3to 10 amongst the leaves but

occasionally a single larva was noted feeding by itself. It was usual

for each group to feed or rest all at the same time. While resting

the larvae usually did so at the end of a twig in a large bunch

overlapping and entwined together with their heads towards the

main stem.

The larva is lemon yellow in colour with very sparse fine short

yellow hairs. ‘The head is black and the spiracles are also black. It

tapers very slightly towards the head and tail giving it a somewhat

hump-backed appearance when resting.

The first brood was found on 15-9-47 and the second a day later.

Alli the larvae were almost full fed and had all pupated by the 20th.

They fed voraciously while under observation. When ready for

pupation the larvae usually craw] down the trunk of the tree and set

for pupation in large groups on the under surface of large leaves

either belonging to the parent tree of the Loranthus on which they

have fed or on nearby bushes. It was also however noticed that

some larvae let themselves down on long silk threads and pupated

singly under leaves in nearby undergrowth. 64 pupae were

obtained from the first brood and 79 from the second brood. ‘The

ground colour of the pupa is a dark pinkish yellow with ‘short black

spines along the dorsal ridge. These spines number six on each

pupa. ‘There are three further spines at the tornal angle of the wing

cases on either side, the central spine being longer than the other

two. ‘The cremaster is black with a few black marksand spots at the

anal end of the pupa. There are some diffuse brownish marks on

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 555.

the dorsal surface of the head which has a pronounced keel which is

brownish. The head terminates in a projecting black spine. The

wing cases are of the ground colour with the veins broadly outlined

with short dark brown stripes, while there is a thick very dark brown

stripe at the base of each wing case. The legs and eyes are outlined

in brown and the antennae are outlined with a line of fine brown dots

but the clubs of the antennae are not indicated.

The silk girdle of the pupa is very fine and rather loose so that

the pupa often attains a curious misshapen angular attitude when in

an upright position. The silk is white and very tough indeed and

there is some indication that it is also occasionally used to fasten the

leaf to the stalk when the larva is about to pupate. This was done

by the larvae of the first brood which were brought indoors to.

pupate; but there was no indication of this procedure having been

adopted by the second brood which were allowed to pupate under

natural conditions.

Mortality in the larval stage seems to be low since I only lost

three from the first brood which were kept in captivity. Mortality in

the pupal stage and after the larvae have set for pupation on the

other hand is very high. It was noticed that in a number of cases

after the larva had set for pupation that they became discoloured

after about 36 hours, then began to sag badly in their girdles and

finaliy putrified. The healthy larvae on the other hand remained a

clear yellow colour; a period of up to three days elapsing from.the

time the larva set to the time of the formation of the pupa. This

pre-pupal mortality was noticed equally in the captive brood and in

the brood which was left in a natural condition. -

_ Mortality in the pupal stage was also very high but only in the

brood which was left in its natural surroundings. Only two pupae

were lost in the brood kept in captivity but at least 35% of the brood

kept out of doors died in this stage. The unhealthy pupae turned

dark brown all over and sagged at an angle in their girdles inertly,

finally going almost black and putrifying. Several of the dead pupae

were closely examined at intervals but no trace of any parasites was

ever found, The cause of this mortality was therefore unexplained

but may possibly be a natural method of limiting the numbers of the

species to the available food supply, since | have, on two occasions

previously, Come across two very large broods of pupae of this

species all of which were dead with the perfect insect fully formed

inside, not a single specimen having emerged alive. It was further

noticed that some of the pupae were much darker in general

appearance than the others, and when they began to emerge these

proved to be the females. The second brood was also brought

indoors after they had pupated.

The species appears to have no natural enemies since I have

never seen the perfect insect being attacked by birds or other

enemies and although the larvae are conspicuous they do not appear

to suffer. This apparent immunity may, however, be due to the

fact that the food plant makes both larva and perfect insect

poisonous.—[? Eps. |

The perfect insects began to emerge on 29/9/47 and all had

emerged from both broods by the Ist of October. The usual time of

emergence was in the early morning before 8 a.m.

550 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 47

All the specimens obtained from the first brood were of the

typical form and no individual variation was noticed either among

the males or the females,

With regard to the second brood however, while the males were

all of the typical form the females showed considerable variation

from the typical form. Two specimens are referable to form auriga,

Seitz and several others appear to be intermediate between this form

and the typical form, the under surface of the hind wing of aurzga

being a much darker yellow and much more heavily dusted with

black than the typical or intermediate forms. ‘The remainder of the

females from the second brood showed very great differences from des-

criptions I have so far come across or specimens so far seen by me.

The upper surface is intermediate between the typical form and the

form auriga, the veins of the fore wing being slightly more broadly

white-grey than typical auwviga while the hind wing is less yellow.

The under surface of the hind wing, however, is quite different from

either the typical form or auviga. The ground colour is white with

a scarcely noticeable basal yellow tinge and the black discal dusting

is very greatly reduced.

These specimens appear to represent an undescribed form of the

female for which I propose the name semzalba, nom. nov. The

almost complete absence of the usual dark yellow discal colouring on

the underside of the hind wing in these specimens gives them

a curious pallid appearance.

It is noteworthy that the larva of this species very closely

resembles that of Delias hypartete the only difference, according to

the description in Seitz, being that the larva of the latter species has

black legs and anus.

It is necessary also to note that while Delzas descombesz appears to

pupate in groups, sometimes as large as 25-30, I have never noticed

this habit in respect of either Delzas belladona ithiela Butler in the

Himalayas or Delias agostina Hewitson in the Khasi Hills, pupae of

which I have always found singly on the under surface of leaves and

bushes at the foot of the trees on which the larvae have been

feeding.

HAFLONG, R. E. PARSONS, F.R.E.S.,

NortTH CACHAR HILLS, Indian Police.

ASSAM,

October 22nd, 1947.

16. -EARLY STAGES OF THE BUTTERFLY DZEZL/AS

AGLAIA LINN.

I have recently obtained two broods of the butterfly Delias aglaia,

Linnaeus and a short note on the larva and pupa of this species may

be of interest, more particularly as it involves a correction to the

description of the larva published by Seitz in Vol. 1X, page 133 of

his ‘Macrolepidoptera of the World’. Seitz mentions that the Jarva is

MISCELLANEOUS ‘NOTES , 557

red, each segment with long hairs of which the lateral ones are black

and the dorsal yellow. This description does not tally with the larva

found by me, which was dark red with bright yellow bands approxi-

mately one millimetre in width which gives the larva a banded

appearance, in which the red bands are approximately 24 times as

wide as the yellow bands. The long hairs mentioned by Sietz are

present but are very sparse indeed. ‘The head is black.

One of the broods found was in the pupal stage and the other

was in the larval stage, all the larvae being in the last instar. The

food plant in each case was a smallnarrow leaved Loranthus growing

low down. It was noted that ag/aza, unlike some of the other species.

of Delias, forms its pupa on the leaves of the food plant in twos-and

threes which is quite different from the habits of Delzas descombesit

leucacantha Fruhstorfer, for instance, which pupates in large groups

on the undersides of large leaves at the foot of the tree on which the

food plant is growing. Unfortunately almost all the pupae of aglaia

found in this state were parisitised by a small wasp-like fly, black in

colour, as yet unidentified. The brood found in the larval stage was,

however, successfully reared. The pupa is about % the size of that

of Delias descombest leucacantha and is very dark brown indeed so as

to appear almost black. The coloring is however somewhat lighter

towards the anal end. There are five blackish dorsal spines on the

back gradually decreasing in length towards the analend. In addi-

tion there are five small spines at the tornal angle of each wing case,

the central spine being much larger and thicker than the others.

These tornal spines are whitish. The head of the pupa is not so

prominently keeled as that of Delzas descombest leucacantha and the

spine (which is black) which terminates the pupa at the head end is

also much shorter. The pupal stage lasts for 17-18 days, at this time

of the year. All the perfect insects obtained from these two broods

were of the typical form except one which was aberrant. In this

specimen the white discal patch between veins two and three on the

underside of the right fore wing is entirely missing while the tornal

white patch immediately below is greatly reduced in size and thickly

dusted with black scales. The white patch in the cell on the underside

of the same wing is also reduced in size. ‘The underside of the left

fore wing is quite normal and the uppersides of all four wings are

normal. The specimen is a female of normal size,

HAFLONG, R. E. PARSONS, F.R:E.s.,

NORTHERN CACHAR HILLS, Indian Police.

ASSAM. 3

10th December 1947.

17._SHAMMING DEATH

Col.. Burton’s experience with jackal is precisely the same as my

own, when hunting these animals with dogs. Nor did I ever hear the

jackal give a death cry: but this was not to be expected, as the

animal was not on the point of death. I have always ascribed the

558 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

behaviour of insects to be one of pure instinct: to ‘freeze’ and

remain motionless often on the slightest disturbance, without the

insect actually being touched. These are very different conditions

from the jackal who is having a horrible time of it, and hopes to

avoid further punishment by pretence of death.

There is certainly no previous record of anyone having heard the

tiger’s death cry and I doubt if it has ever previously been heard by

anyone having the necessary qualifications to interpret what was

happening and the significance of the noise.

When one considers the enormous strength and vitality of the

tiger, with his tremendous tenacity of life, merely to contemplate on

his death cry, his protest against his departing spirit, is in itself awe-

inspiring, and Col. Burton is to be envied over his experience.

SCOTLAND, A. A. DUNBAR BRANDER

October 6, 1947.

[Hamilton in ‘Wild Life in South Africa’, p. 286, refers to a

slightly wounded Giant Owl (Budo lacteus) which shammed dead for

two days, being carried about and freely handled. It walked away

one night, and when found 50 yards away it resumed dead !—Eps. |

18.—ANIMALS ‘SHAMMING’ DEATH

In Vol. 46, No. 2, Mr. Dunbar Brander, the well-known naturalist,

says in his letter entitled, ‘Shamming Death’, that animals have no

knowledge of death. Question of time is infinity to them. But my

idea is not that. If they do not realise what death is, they certainly

preconceive a danger. I do not mind if you term it ‘ Instinct’.

But how can instinct tell goats that one is going to be slaughtered

and the other is not when both are led along in the same fashion ?

The one which is not going to be slaughtered will in all probability

follow without any sign of resistance, but the other requires to be

hauled. He gives out successive cries and shows resentment. I

know cases and also I say from my experience that when chickens

are tamed they can ordinarily be caught without any difficulty, but

before slaughter the same will invariably fly and run about and

refuse to be caught.

2. With regard to death-cry of animals Mr, Dunbar Brander

rules out excessive fear being the cause of it and questions whether it

is instinctive. I] would rather rule out both and am inclined to suggest

—it isthe outcry of agony and excessive pain that precedes a violent

death. If some one saysthat whenan animal gets a sudden shock all its

nerves are benumbed and it doesnot feel the death-agony, I would then

attribute this cry to unexpectedness of the stroke or hit rather than

call it instinctive. The hit startles the animal to such an extent that

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 559

it gives vent to a succession of cries which are never uttered under

ordinary circumstances.

PHUL-BAG PALACE, | D. P. GARGA,

MAHISHADAL, Kumar of Mahishadal.

MIDNAPUR DT.

June 6, 1947.

[Mr. A. A. Dunbar Brander, to whom the above note was

submitted, comments as follows:—‘ Animals possess very strong

instincts and very acute perceptions with regard to danger and unless

special precautions are taken, it would be apparent to the animal that

some design with respect to itself was contemplated. But can this

consciousness of danger be extended so as to include consciousness

of death itself? Personally I believe not, and all my experience of

animals is that they are not conscious of death, in other words of

time; to them their life appears infinite. Be it fully understood that

I merely express an opinion, I have no certain knowledge on the

Subject, and my original letter was.written with the object of inducing

a correspondence which might throw more light on the subject.

That the death cry is due to fear, or excessive pain or agony

Iam ina position to deny factually. Much more painful wounds

than an actual death wound, are frequently endured by animals

in silence, The death cry is never uttered save immediately on the

point of dissolution: it is intimately connected with death itself. I

recollect smiting a noble stag through the heart with a °577 bullet.

He was quite unware of my presence, had no fear, anticipated

no danger. He stood up on his hind legs extending himself to his

fullest extent, pawed the air with his fore legs and letting outa

heart-rending death cry, fell dead. As most of your readers are

probably aware, the usual procedure under such circumstances, is for

the stag to gallop blindly forward for 50 yards or so and then fall

dead. But what I have related above happens now and again.

Does the desire to preserve its life necessarily imply that the

animal is conscious of its ultimate death? ‘The discussion on this

point is in the realm of philosophy rather than that of natural

history.’—Eps. |

19.—THE INFLUENCE OF MIGRANT BIRDS ON BUTTERFLY

| MIMICRY

I was pleased to see from Mr. Wynter-Blyth’s note on Valeria

valeria hippia(Fabr.) & form philomela (1947, Journ., Bomb, Nat. Hist.

Soc., 46: 736) that, at any rate as far as this species is concerned,

both he and Mr. Salim Ali share my doubts regarding the correctness

of Rosa’s theory that the two members of a pair of Batesian mimics

need not necessarily fly together but may be found at the opposite

ends of the range of a migrant species of insectivorous bird.

560 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

' It is unfortunate that my two short, papers criticising this theory

(1939, Extomologist, 72 :222 and 1940, zbzd, 73: 191) were published

after Talbot’s Aauna volume had gone to press, and the impression

was therefore given that the theory had not been disputed. As all

these papers were published in the Avtomologist and, although they

concern Indian insects, may not be generally available to entomolo-

gists working in India, it may be worth while giving a brief

summary of them here.

In the Extomologist (1937, 70: 32), possibly as a result of his’

collecting trip to India a few years earlier, Rosa published, under the

title ‘The Influence of Bird Migration upon the Distribution of Mimetic

Species of Lepidoptera’, a hypothesis that the two members of a

Batesian pair need not necessarily fly together but might be found

at the opposite ends of the range of a migrant insectivorous bird.

Three pairs were cited as examples—the vomulus Cr. form of female

of Papilio polytes L. and Polydorus hector L., Aporia agathon Gray

and Danaus nilgiriensts Moore, and the 2 form philomela F. of Valeria

valeria Cr. and Danaus aspasia F.

In my first reply I pointed out that it would generally be conced-

ed that, provided a mutant was not actually harmful, once it had

occurred and established itself in one part of a species’s range, it

would gradually diffuse throughout the species’s entire contiguous

habitat. This is what had obviously taken place in the case of polytes

and valeria. In the third example, A. agathon and D. nilgiriensis,

I considered the true model to be Delzas sanaca Moore, or possibly

another of the black and yellow belladonna F. group, which occur in

the same district as the mimic.

Rosa in his reply (1940, Avtomologist, 73:66) drew attention EG

minor points that I had not touched on, admitted the spread of a

mutant through diffusion, and migration but entirely ignored my

criticism of his agathon-nilgiriensis pair.

In my final reply, I suggested that any selection exercised by the

migrant bird would be entirely nullified by the indiscriminate feeding

of the resident species, which would not be acquainted with the

model; and there the dicenssion ended.

The spread of a mutant through diffusion depends on its genetic

constitution, many mutants being weaker than the type, and on

whether it is at a disadvantage to the type form in the struggle for

existence. Ifitis at no disadvantage and if itis a vigorous form it.

will spread, and this is undoubtedly what has happened in the case

of the vomulus form of folytes and the phzlomela form of valerita. The

fact that both these are sex-linked forms, being carried by, but not

appearing in, the male would also tend to reduce any tendency to

delay diffusion through slight unfavourableness. In polyfes we have

a powerful and conspicuous insect, which is hardly likely to suffer

severe losses from the preying of insectivorous birds, whatever its

form, and the habit of the female of flying in and out of ‘bushes is

‘likely to be an added protection, as birds large enough to eat it are

unlikely to be able to follow and catch it, so that it is safe to say

that the spread of the vomulus form in areas» where fecfor does not

occur could not be harmfulto the species in any way. In the valeria

-aspasta pair, I think that, concentrating on the close mimicry be-

tween Philomela and aspasia, sight has been lost of the general Danaid

MISCELLANEOUS: NOTES. 56r

appearance. Of recent years the emphasis in the mimicry theory

seems to have shifted away from the very. perfect and exact mimics

towards the species which exhibit a more general type of mimicry,

sufficient it is thought to make a predator hesitate for an instant in

its attack and thus allow the mimic to escape. Even to a bird un-

acquainted with aspasia, philomela must appear sufficiently like one

of the small black and pale blue, or white, Danaids to produce this

momentary hesitation, and the presence of the yellow on the hind

wing cannot be harmful to the species. Richmond Wheeler (1944

Entomologist’s Record, 56: 90) denies that the females of this genus

are mimics of Davaus at all, but-this question is outside the scope

of this present note, and I do not think many entomologists in India

will be found to agree with him.

LONDON, 9. x. 47 D. G. SEVASTOPULO, F.R.E.S.

20.—COLOUR SENSE IN NATURE

(Reprinted, with acknowledgments, trom ‘The Field’ of «

6th September, 1947.)

‘Are many animals colour-blind?’ The difficulty of questions like

that is that man has a natural tendency to read himself into the

creature under discussion. If a butterfly visits a flower of lovely

colour, surely it must be appreciative of colour? That sort of thing.

But as a matter of fact it need not be. Experimentation has shown

that the possession of sense organs analogous to our own by an

animal does not necessarily imply that the creature sees or hears, or

whatever it may be, as we do. Plateau showed that certain insects

continued their visits to brightly coloured flowers after the petals had

been removed or concealed. Experiments of that nature led to a

great reversal of opinion, and a school of thought sprang up that

suggested that all backboneless animals were colour-biind. And

that, as a matter of fact, can be disproved as easily.

What do we mean by colour-blind? In the first place it has 2

variable meaning for man, according to the number and nature of the

colours that he can distinguish. Many people can distinguish only

between red, green and violet; but that is not the only form of

colour blindness. And then again, of course, one must discriminate

between colour as colour and its brilliance asa reflector of light in

general and ultra-violet rays in particular. When we think of

colour, it is the colour of objects and not coloured light that comes

to mind. |

Daylight is the source of all colour, but we do not think of it as a

colour at all. Probably we think of it as invisible, we certainly

think of it as colourless. Yet it is this complex white light of day

462 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

striking objects and being split up and reflected by them in a variety

of ways that makes colour. A leaf is not green because it is green,

but because it is full of a material that absorts all the light-rays

except the green and yellow ones which it reflects. Colours, in

other words, result from the action of light on material objects.

That, of course, does not mean that there is actually such a thing as

red or blue or green. You cannot prove the reality of red or green

or blue or any other colour by reasoning. All that we can say for

certain is that our eyes and our minds working through our nervous

systems give us the experience of colour.

A very slight difference in make-up (in the nervous system, that

is) will result in what we term a colour-blind person, and it also

results in animals, which are not so very different in structure (of the

eye, etc.), being without a colour sense at all, (Butin this connexion,

I should like to point out that there is some evidence that our coJour

sense has changed a great deal within historic times. The ancient

Greeks spoke of the human face as green: Homer speaks habitually

of the sea ‘ wine-dark.’)

Every group of animals has its own pattern of eyes, of course,

just as it has its own pattern of life. And we must remember that

the less like ourselves the animal is—and this also applies to its way

of life—the less can we understand how it sees the world. Each

animal must live in a world of its own to a very large degree. We

must remember that the appearance of a thing exists only in our own

minds: beauty lies in the eye of the beholder!

But we can tell a good deal by experiment and a good deal by

deduction. Let us take the second first. So far as we can tell there

are many animals that do not see colours (as we understand colours)

at all. They live entirely in a black-and-white world. That is a

perfectly possible and realistic world (the cinema has only recently

taken to technicolour, and most photography is still black-and-white)

and need not be in the least strange to us. Most four-footed

mammals are thought to see their world in this way,asa world made

up of blacks and whites and greys. Most of them are nocturnal or

crepuscular. During these hours the world itself is a world of black

and white and grey, a world of shadows.

So far as we can tell dogs and cats are quite unable to distinguish

a colour from atone of grey of the same brightness. ‘There is no

colour sense as such. (Bulls are not particularly sensitive to red.

If they want to charge, they charge, red or not. They cannot

distinguish red as red so far as experiment has shown, and a great

many experiments have been made on this in Spain). The only

mammals, other than man, that have a colour sense are the apes and

the monkeys, and these are the only mammals that have bright

colours such as reds and greens and blues. The colours of other

mammals are blacks and whites and greys and browns, and the

richest colours—e.g., the red squirrel—are chestnuts.

Birds, of course, can distinguish colours. ‘They are themselves

often brightly coloured, and that deduction would in any, case be

pretty safe. But there is also proof. Experiment has shown that

birds distinguished red, orange, green and yellow colours clearly.

They do not see blue very clearly (except the Lyre Bird of Australia)

and they do not see violet at all. In this relation again it is interest-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 563

ing to note that violet is not found in the colouring of birds, and that

blue is not common. Moreover, when it does occur—as in the

macaws and the kingfishers—it is a very bright and metallic blue.

There can be no doubt that some fish can distinguish colours. It

has been proved that the shanny can distinguish between a wide

range of colours, and the same appears to be true of the minnow.

There seems to be little doubt that the perch has also an acute

colour sense, and anglers have claimed wonderful things for the

trout! It may also be deduced that shrimps and prawns have

a colour sense, and this would be true too for ail those fish that have

the ability to change their colour to suit the background against

which they are resting.

But all these animals, excluding the prawns, have eyes very

similar to our own. The eyes of bees and butterflies are very

different from our own.

More experiments have been conducted on the colour sense of

bees than on any other animal. Their importance as pollinators and

as honey gatherers has resulted in the most intensive study of their

habits—and the bee literature is perhaps the best, as it is certainly

the most extensive, in this particular field. The visits of bees to

flowers (bees, of course, are not the only pollinators) suggests

strongly that they do see colours. But it must be remembered that

some flowers at least do not attract bees by their colour but by their

scent—holly, ivy, lime and willow for examples. But if you look at

a list of the flowers most often visited by bees (Plants and Beekeeping

by F. N. Howes, is the most complete that I know) you will find that

a large number of them are blue or purple in colour. The fact is

that bees do not see red as a colour. They are quite unable to

distinguish red from black. This does not stop them visiting red

flowers though, and they will even visit flowers that are pure red.

We must remember that some flowers that appear red or pink to our

eyes will not appear the same to the bee, but will look blue-pink.

Foxgloves are a good example, for they have a blue component as

you can see if you look at one through a green glass.

Indeed, bees may be said to live ina world of blue and yellow,

a very, very different world from our own. ‘They can see in ultra-

violet light, and many white surfaces (white to our eyes) will not

look white to them, for some will reflect or absorb ultra-violet light

and so will appear blue-green to the bee, and thus will be most

attractive. :

_ Owls, of course, use part of the infra-red rays as light. (The

green pigment of plants reflects a good deal of infra-red). ‘This is

something that is quite beyond the imagination of humans, since the

infra-red is invisible to us, but if you consider the wonderful effect

obtained by infra-red photography you wiil get close to realising the

powers of the owl’s eye. We talk about ‘Seeing in the dark’, but

that is, of course, not what happens in the sense we mean. Mice are

exceptionally warm-blooded animals and they emit infra-red rays and

so are visible to the eyes of such birds as owls. Yet the eye of the

owl is also sensitive to the violet end of the spectrum. ‘This is so

because there is much more violet light in the spectrum in the early

hours of the morning. It is in these early hours that owls do most

of their hunting.

£64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Animals move about at the times when they can best see. If we

had no artificial light we would have no night life. It is the age-old

custom of peasants and of natives to get up at sunrise and go to bed

at sunset. The human eye is a ‘ daylight’ eye first and foremost. It

can adjust itself to twilight (which is the daylight of crepuscular

animals), but it never gets really good, not even with very long

training, at seeing in the dark.

Ours is by no means the only world.

BRIAN VESEY-FITZGERALD

WANTED

A copy of

The Fauna of British India series—

Mammalia: 1st edition

By W. T. BLANFORD

Apply :—W. F. H. ANSELL,

Game Ranger,

Kasempa,

Northern Rhodesia.

fRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V, M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS,

18 CHURCH ROAD, VEPERY, MADRAS 22-6-1948—C6367,

EDITORS: S. H. PRATER AND SALIM ALI, 114 APOLLO STREET, FORT, BOMBAY

“Vol, 47, No. 4. AUGUST, 1948 | Price Rs. 15 net-

THE

JOURNAL

Bomsay Natura History Sociery

EDITED BY.

sALIM ALI & S. B. SETNA, PH.D.

i PUBLISHED BY

THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

114 Apollo Street, Bombay.

LONDON AGENTS:

DAVID NUTT, (A. G. BERRY),

212 SHAFTESBURY AVENUE,

LONDON, W.C, 2.

Indian Natural Liistory Sevtes, Vol. Ll.

THE BOOK OF

INDIAN ANIMALS

S. H. Prater, Bee. C.M.Z.S.

This is a companion volume to the Book of Indian Birds, »

forming Volume II of the Indian Natural History Series.

To tell something of the beauty, the interest and the value

- of the wild life of our forests, fields and scrubland is the

purpose of this book.

It contains simple descriptions of the commoner mammals of

India, and readable accounts of their ways and habits. It is

profusely illustrated in colour and black and white.

LIST OF CONTENTS :

What is a Mammal ?

Distribution of Mammals.

How Mammals are classified.

The various tribes of Mammals,

their ways and habits.

Descriptions of species.

* “

Bound in full cloth , Price Rs. 16

(To members of the Society Rs. 13)

WILD LIFE CALENDAR

FOR [949

Illustrated with beautiful wild life

photographs of Birds, Mammals, etc.,

by well-known Nature photographers.

Price Rs. 2-4 to members, Rs. 3 to non-members

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PUBLISHED BY

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rz4 APOLLO STREET, BOMBAY.

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CONTENTS OF VOLUME 47, No. 4

PAGE

AN EXPEDITION TO SANGLA IN KUNAWAR. By M.A. Vas seme:

M.A. (Cantab.), F.R.E.S. (With amap and db plates) .. 565

Locat Lists oF LEPIDOPTERA FROM THE PUNJAB AND U.P. By D.G.

Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S. oe dos bas oe bo 6586

METHODS OF COLLECTION AND HATCHING OF CARP OVA IN CHITTAGONG

WITH SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR THEIR IMPROVEMENT. By Nazir

Ahmed, M.sc. (Hons.), ph.D., F.R.S. (With 5 text figures) ee, O93

WiLtp LIFE PRESERVATION: India’s Vanishing Asset. By Lt.-Col.

R. W. Burton we oft Ste oy: eae one OZ

Notes ON INDIAN Brirps, I. By S. Dillon Ripley, ph.p. tent O22

Nores ON POONA Reeriies. By Garth Underwood i om £627.

A FurtHER NOTE ON THE BEARDED PIG IN MALAYA. By C. A,

Gibson-HILL, M.A. (With a text map) 53 ode $60 R032

A List oF BIRDS OBSERVED IN CHITTAGONG, E. BENGAL, DURING 1944

AND 1945, By R. M. Simmons. (With a map) A Oh

BUTTERFLIES OF SouTH BrHArR. By Major P. W. Morrison-Godfrey,

A.M.1.C.E. (With a map) bd ae see vo» 644

NoTES ON THE SOLANACEAE OF BomBAy. By H. Santapau, S.J.,

F,L.S. eee eco eco eee ooo eee 652

BREEDING AND FEEDING HABiTS OF MULLETS (MUGIL) IN ENNORE

CREEK. By P. K. Jacob, B.a., M.sc. and B. Krishnamurthi, B.Sc.

( Hons.) <5 ves as eae set pp O09

DESCRIPTIONS OF PLANT GALLS FROM TRAVANCORE. By Karuna-

karan Nayar, M.A., Ph.D. (With a plate) ... nee ee OOS

A. CENSUS OF NESTS IN A PRIVATE BIRD-SANCTUARY. By C. G. Webb-

Peploe. (With a text figure) Ba} ah ae 210676

SPORTSMANSHIP AND ETIQUETTE IN SHOOTING. By Lt.-Col. E. G.

Phythian-Adams, 0.B.E., F.Z.S., IA. (Retired). 600 «ssi Ook

BiRD MIGRATION IN INDIA: A complete list of ringed birds recovered

up todate. By Editors. wae yes se soees O40

ABNORMAL BANANAS OF TRAVANCORE. By occa A. Davis. (With 2

plates) Joo bob ae 00

ABNORMAL PALMS OF TRAVANCORE. By Trupapur A. Davis. (With 2

plates) ats a ‘es MSs oe ws 404

THe USE OF THE BARK OF Strychnos Nuxvomica, LINN., IN POISONING

A CrocoDILE. By A.R. K. Zobairi. 600 eee ao WU

REVIEWS :—

The Man-eating Leopard of Radhuohiyan: GRSWiabrs)) css ceo ZAK)

Trees of India. (J.I.A.) Sy on wath o7'12

List of additions to the Society’s Library 600 one fo, Cy

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

1, A Man-eating tiger of the Kollegal District, South India. By Lt.-Col.

R. W. Burton (p. 713). 2. Abnormal clavicle bones in tigers. (With text figures.)

By R. C. Morris (p. 715). 3. On the ‘Thorn’ or ‘Claw’ in panthers’ tails,

ii CONTENTS OF VOLUME 47, No. 4

(With a photo.) By K. Boswell (p. 716). 4. Interesting shikar trophies. “(With

a photo.) By Van Ingen & Van Ingen (p. 718).5. Reactions of dogs to noises. By

R. N. Champion-Jones (p. 720). 6. Jackals. By C. H. Donald (p. 721). 7. More

about Jackals. By C. H. Donald (p. 726). 8. Sambar gnawing bark of Wend-

landia notoniana, By R. C. Morris (p. 729). 9. Sambar neck sore. By R.C.

Morris (p. 729). 10. Wild deer in Mauritius. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton (p. 730).

11. Stranding of a whale (Wegaptera nodosa) on the Travancore Coast in 1943,

By A. P. Mathew (p. 732). 12. Oa the occurrence of Sz/ta frontalis Swains.

& Sitta castanea Less. in Khulna Sunderbans. By Satya Churn Law (p. 733).

13. On the occurrence of the Black-headed Cuckoo-shrike (Lalage sykesii) at

Ahmedabad, Abu Road and Ajmer. By R.M. Simmons (p. 334). 14. The

status of. Phylloscopus fuscatus in India. By H.G. Alexander (p. 736). 15.

he Rosy Pastor [Pastor roseus (Linn.)] in Ceylon. By W. W. A. Phillips

(p. 739). 16. Occurrence of the Indian Cliff-Swallow (Mirundo fluvicola) in

Ceylon. By W. W. A. Phillips (p. 740). 17. Arrival of Wagtails in Assam.

By H. P. O. Robey (p. 741). 18. Onthe breeding of the Blue-tailed Bee-eater

(Merops superciliosus javanicus) in Rajahmundry, East Godavari District. By

K. K, Neelakantan (p. 741). 19. Nightjars on Roads. By Humayun Abdulali

(p. 742). 20. ‘ Occurrence of the Laggar Falcon (falco jugger Gray) at Mt.

Abu’—A Correction—and Nesting of the Shahin Falcon (Falco peregrinus pere-

grinator Sundevall) a Mt. Abu. By Editors (p. 743). 21. Snipe on the

Nilgiris. By Lt.-Col. G. Phythian-Adams (p. 744). 22. Snipe in South

India. By Lt.-Col. i. G@ Phythian-Adams (p. 745). 23. Fishing with the

Indian Darter (Anhinga melanogaster) in Assam. (With a photo.) By C.R.

Stonor (p. 746). 24. The Dwarf or Lesser White-fronted Goose (Anser ery-

thropus L.) in India. (With 2 text figures.) By Editors (p. 747). 25. The

White-fronted Goose (Azser albifrons Scop.) in Manipur Assam. By J.C.

Higgins (p. 748). 26. White-winged Wood-Duck on the Padma River, East

Bengal. By H. G. Alexander (p. 749). 27. Bronze-capped Teal Eunetta

falcata, Georgi) in Assam. By H. P, O. Robey (p. 749). 28. Geese, Duck

and Teal in South India, By Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian- oA (p. 749).% 29.

‘The Birds of Delhi and District’. By N.F. Frome (p. 751). 30. Mortality

within nests of tropical birds. By Charles W. Quaintance (p. 753). 31. My

experience with pheasant breeding in Dharmsala Cantonment. By C. H. Donald

(p. 753). 32. Parakeets attacking a Snake. By Capt. A. G.L. Fraser (p. 757).

33. A King Cobra’sspeed. By S. K. Ghosh (p. 769). 34. Mirror Carp. By

Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton (p. 761). 35. Outsize Whale-Shark in Bombay

Waters. By C. V. Kulkarni (p. 762). 36. Utilisation of Fire Service tanks

for Fish rearing. By P. I. Chacko (p. 763). 37. Fish production in religious

institutional waters, By P. I. Chacko (p. 764). 38. Purse-seiner operating in

Bombay: A new experiment to catch fish. (With a text-figure.) By Dr.S.B.

Setna (p. 766). 39. The Biology of Danaus chrysippus lu. By D. G. Seva-

stopulo (p. 769). 40. A Honey-Bee in the nest of a Mason-Wasp. By Capt.

K. Boswell (p. 771). 41. Ona variety of Acantholepis frauenfeldi Mayr.,

new to India. By Durgadas Mukerji and Basanta Kumar Behura (p. 773).

42, Remarks on Aphids on Nerium odorum Sol., and Calotrop’s gigantea Br.

By Durgadas Mukerji and Basanta Kumar Behura (p. 774). 43. The genus

Ceropegia—Further Comments. By H. Santapau (p. 775). 44. Cave

Fauna. By Brig. E. A. Glennie (p. 777). 45. ‘Shamming Death’: Snakes.

By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton (p. 778). 46. ‘Shamming Death’. By Lt.-Col.

R. W. Burton (p. 778). 47. Wild Life Preservation: Birds. By Lt.-Col.

R. W. Burton (p. 778). 48. Wild Life Preservation: Animals. By Lt.-Col.

Rk. W. Burton (p. 780).

PAGE

Annual Report of the Bombay Natural History pace! for the year

ending 3lst December 1947 ait /82

The Honorary Secretary’s Report for the year 1947 a core Cask)

Appendix to Honorary Secretary’s eo: covering the period January

to July 1948 ... ace aD AL ee soso 790

Statements of Accounts of the Bombay Natural History Society oo. ZN}

Minutes of the Annual General Meeting rae an) o> ot 200

Catalogue of Books in the Society’s Library, Part I. MAMMALS

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JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society

1948 VOL. 47 No. 4

AN EXPEDITION TO SANGLA IN KUNAWAR*

M. A. Wynter-BiytH, M.A. (CANTAB.), F.R.E-S.

(With a map and two plates)

Ever since my first view of the Himalayan snows twelve

years ago I had planned to make a trip into the inner hills. In

particular I wanted to visit the Baspa Valley as it is wel! off the

beaten track and I knew it was good butterfly country. Although

I had made a number of shorter trips in the Simla Hills it was

not until May 1947 that J eventually had an opportunity to

carry out my ambition.

Except that the Baspa River joined the Sutle] scmewhere

near Chini I had only the vaguest idea of the valley’s where-

abouts, nor could I obtain the information I wanted in Simla. No

maps were available, apart from a route map showing distances

only (and these were inaccurate off the main Tibet road). I knew

of no one who had been there and neither the P.W.D. nor the

Forest Office could help me. Apparently nobody had visited the

Baspa Valley for years.

Consequently I made all arrangements for a trip to Chini hoping

to pick up information en route which would enable me to reach

my first objective.

For the journey to Chini I had the cross section map that

is reproduced in part here. It will be seen that this was a popular

trip in days gone by and one that was fraught with considerable

danger to both man and horse, though a more foolhardy means

of transport over this road is difficult to imagine. Still, we were

a hardier breed in those days, or can it have been that it was

bad form to walk?

* As it is difficult to get information about routes and conditions in the

Simla Hills, I feel that this account of my journey to the Baspa Valley may

prove of value to naturalists and others who wish to visit that attractive

meighbenrhood. M.A.W-B

JAN 31 qQag

566 fOURNAE, BOMBAY, (NA GUtRATE SSS Wines. S OGRE levees VsOl mez,

I once read a graphic description in some mid- Victorian memoirs

of a journey to “‘Cheenee in Koonawur’. Such a trip was in the

nature of a royal progress. The whole family travelled (and in

Victorian times that in itself was often no small number), the

women and children being carried in dodlies and the men riding,

followed: by a veritable army of menials . . . cooks, bearers, syces,

sweepers, bhistis, shikaris, and baggage coolies carrying all the

paraphernalia of a complicated camp ... the whole caravan

numbering, one imagines well over one hundred souls.’

My expedition could not compete with such as this. In fact

it was almost as small as it possibly could be. There was myself,

Sheba (my labrador and a very. important person), two amiable

mules and a pony, one muleteer and his chokra, and a servant.

To take the last first. His name (as far as I remember) was

Koofy or something equally unsuitable. Although I was. travelling

as lioht as possible I felt that a servant was essential and

this person was the only applicant. He was long and lanky, had

drooping moustaches and was of a sour demeanour. He sagged

ominously at the knees. Still, as he was undoubtedly a hillman

I felt that he would at least be able to walk. He also said

that he could cook. In actual fact he could do neither.

He went sick the-first day out and. for the next three days

arrived at our halting place so late that he had no time to cook

my meal. Thereafter I mounted him on the pony and by dint

of arriving at the day’s destination in the early afternoon he just

had time to heat some ‘tinned food and prepare chapatis and

boil rice or potatoes ready for my supper. He could also make

tea and porridge, and boil eges. This was the’ sum of his

accomplishments.

Even having reduced his exercise to. these (to my mind)

reasonable limits there were nasty moments when J expected him

to leave me for a better land: -I was much put to it to decide

whether to deposit him somewhere en route on my outward journey

and pick him (or his corpse) up on the return, or to carry him

with me. . In the end I left him at Kilba and picked him up three

days later,

‘He only smiled once and that was when he rode into Narkanda

at the end of the last stage of all . . : looking’ as’ usual” very

like; Don Quixote; .. and ‘asked me to find him another iob.

So I told him I knew ‘a very important sahib’ in the Posts and

Telegraphs who would doubtless be delighted to find him employ-

ment as a dak runner. Poor man! he hated every minute of our

journey. We finally parted on the best. of terms.

I subsequently learnt from the muleteer that’I had been

wasting my sympathy ‘and that Don Quixote had really been’ quite

well after the ‘first Ulanee days.” He was just slow. and disagreeable

by nature:

The muleteer was a very natty, dapper little’ “man who had

the misfortune to have a cleft palate. ~ Nevertheless in spite of this

disability ‘he. was. efficient, always helpful, and cheerful, even’ at

the end of a twenty mile stage. His chokra, aged possibly twelve,

knew all the answers and was likewise helpful and happy.

‘The pony. was; I think, a retired children’s:pony. “She showed

no: desire to come out. of her retirement, ‘and’ nothing ‘could »make

her move faster than a slow walk. This held up progress -consider-

ably but suited -Don Quixote. However, she’ was a pleasant

creature and very fond of biscuits. 4 fh

ere

To Nolé teers bk the Wisner Link A

On May 21st I set out from Wildflower. Hall for Neaemin by

bus. Had Cherry. Garrard ever undertaken this journey he would

have changed the title of his book to ‘The Second Worst Journey in

the World’. I have driven across the.Andes in a LOVE oy ns 1

journey that involved a climb of. four thousand feet to a sixteen

thousand foot -pass,.a drop of. twelve thousand feet and a final

climb of two thousand five hundred feet, all in the space of sixty

miles on a road of the most terrifying nature, but for sheer terror

that journey was as nothing compared with the trip to Narkanda

in a ramshackle bus driven” by a maniac driver.

- Still we got there. All was ready when I arrived and we

completed the ten miles to Bagi through the lovely Bagi forests

long before nightfall.

These forests, which are mainly composed of Spruce (Picea

morinda). and Narkanda Pine (Abies pindrow) with a _ liberal

admixture .of oaks, planes, horse-chestnuts and walnut trees, are

a fine place for butterflies (especially Lethe) and birds. I am

afraid my comments on the bird life of the country I passed through

on this trip are almost negligible. This does not mean that I

was disinterested but is due to the fact I am unable to concentrate

successtully on two branches of natural history at the same time.

- There is a second route to Bagi over the top of Mount Hatu

(10,450') which is even more attractive than the lower road through

the forest and, if somewhat more exhausting, is about one mile

shorter. ‘The summit gives a fine view.over the country to be

passed through during the next few days and is also the home cf

many kinds of butterfly . . . in particular the very local Comma

(Vanessa egea), the beautiful Blue Peacock (Papilio arcturus), the

Common Yellow Swallowtail (P. machaon), the Common Blue

Apollo (Parnassius hardwickei) and other species that haunt hill-

tops. .

Why do so many butterflies love the tops of hills ? ‘Surely

such cold and draughty spots should be particularly gene oe for

these. fragile ‘creatures ? But such is not the case, and in the

Himalayas hilltops rank second only to sunny forest niiltahé as happy

hunting grounds for the collector.

To. my mind Bagi in its quiet unobtrusive way is one of the

most beautiful places in these hills. Here are no broad vistas or

stupendous views of snowy peaks but pleasing forest elades anc

wooded hillsides. The: village and “the bungalow are set in a

clearing and all around are trees. The bungalow is small and

clean and in front is a lawn kept close cropped by the tiny pu

cattle.

568 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Good food too is provided here (and also at Narkanda), but from

now on the traveller must rely almost entirely on provisions carried

with him. In some places it is possible to buy eggs, fruit (if it

is the season), potatoes, chickens and atta but such supplies are

chancy and uncertain.

At Bagi the water was brown and cloudy so J doctored it with

some vivid yellow pills I had brought for the purpose. The result

was unfortunate for it made the water taste nasty as well as

upsetting me so violently that I was extremely unwell for the

next two days. After this my rule was to drink freely of spring

water, and from any clear streams running down the hillsides un-

less they had obviously passed near a village. At the rest houses

I always had the water boiled. This seemed a satisfactory plan .. .

at least I suffered no il effects.

It is supposed to be a bad thing to drink much water when on

the march. Why I do not know. I always drink a lot when walk-

ing and find frequent draughts of water most invigorating,

The stage from Bagi to Sungri though long is not tiring.

There are no steep hills and the way, lying as it does between 8,500!

and 9,600’, is cool. After the first four miles, at which point the

road to Jubbal turns off on to the fine ridge known as Ganasi Dhar

(a good place for the beautiful little Blue Sapphire butterfly,

Heliophorus oda, in early June), most of the way gives extensive

views over the valleys of the Tons river and its tributaries. At

7 miles hes Khadrala (9,600! and the highest point on the whole

trip) near which place I met Bazalgette, the Political Agent

for the Simla Hill States, returning from Rampur, where he

chad been installing the council of regency. From him I got

valuable information about the route to the Baspa Valley, and

from now on this was my objective.

I have an acquaintance who once .had a dog taken by a panther

close to Khadrala at 10.00 in the morning. As the same man

also lost a dog at 3.00 in the afternoon in Kulu it would seein

that it is quite wrong to suppose a dog safe from attack between

dawn and dusk as one is so often told. I kept my dog on the

lead almost the whole of the trip, not because she is likely to

wander, for she has a keen eye to her own security and does not

like me far out of her sight, but because monkeys prove an irresis-

tible attraction to her. Furthermore, if the wind is favourable

she can scent them at a distance of several hundred yards and is

then off like the wind. This is not a good thing in panther infested

country. It was not until I reached Nachar that the monkey

menace ceased but panthers are bad all along the road as far into

the hills as the Baspa Valley itself. The shepherds whom I imet

beyond Sarahan driving their sheep and goats up the Tibet road

all keep one or two dogs to guard their flocks, These dogs, which

are all much of a type, are large creatures with fine heads and

bushy curling tails. Jn colour they are usually black with tan

markings and in spite of their fierce appearance are singularly

docile animals. To protect them against the attacks of leopards,

which always seize their prey by the throat, they wear around

their necks broad iron plates with their edges deeply toothed and

AN EXPEDITION TO SANGLA IN KUNAWAR 569

upturned. These will protect the dog, at least till the owner has

time to come up and drive the beast away. ‘The hill people have

little fear of the leopard and there are many tales of men pulling

‘sheep and goats away from them. Later on I met one of these

shepherds whose dog had been attacked by a leopard the previous

night. This dog, though a very sick dog with a torn throat, was

far from dead, but as the shepherd was on the move up the road

I fear that it cannot have survived long.

And so on to the squalid bungalow at Sungri with its dirty

village and swarms of flies. Here in an exhausted state I waited

a miserable two hours for my transport to turn up, followed

considerably later by Don Quixote in such a state of collapse that

I had to cook my own food.

Hereafter I always took the essentials for a midday meal with

me. ‘To avoid the heat of the day I started soon after sun up

with the inevitable result that I reached my destination far ahead

of my transport.

It was nine years since [ had visited Sungri but httle had

changed in that time. The bungalow was perhaps a shade more

dirty, it was certainly more dil apidated, but there were still the

same difficulties of obtaining water and firewood, and the staff

was just as slovenly. In short it is perhaps the least attractive

place on the whole of this route.

Sunegri is situated on the southern slopes of Maralkanda (12,250,

a fine hill, and itself an outlier of that magnificent mountain

Hansbeshan. JI had made the ascent of Maralkanda in the past.

It is an easy though long climb and is well worth doing if only

for the magnificent view from the top. My main memory of

that ascent is that our guide (a hillman who climbed so rapidly

that we felt that the laws of gravity must have been relaxed in his

ease), armed with a very nasty looking axe, went well ahead of

us through the forest and every now “and then signed to us to

stop as he went ahead to prospect round some blind corner.

Though the hill folk think little of leopards they have a very

healthy respect for the Himalayan black bear which is common

round here.

The route goes straight up the forested spur by the side ot

Suneri and at about 10,500’ turns left along a ridge and thence

up to the grassy summit of the mountain. “No trees grow above

about 11,000’. The summit is peopled with Himalayan Pikas

(Lagomys roylei), guinea pig-like little creatures that have their

homes among the scattered stones and rocks. It was amusing to

see them poking out their heads to look at us and scuttling about

when they thought they were not observed. I remember, too,

that there were many Red-billed Choughs living among the crags

below the summit, and at 12,000! I saw a Small Grate Mellow:

(Hurema brigitta). This is, of course, a common plains bubtertly

and its discovery at this altitude must give it a climatic range

ereater than that of any other Indian species except the Painted

Lady (Vanessa cardui), which may be found everywhere up to

15,000! (and probably much higher). Lower down I caught a

female of the Large Green Underwing (Polyommatus galathea),

570 JOURNAL, BOMBAY, NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,, Vol. 47

the nearest point to Simla at which this lovely little butterfly

has been found.

However, this was nine years ago and I had no time to repeat

the ascent. |

It is an easy, pleasing walk to Bahli. First incre is a fairly

steep descent through forest for five or six miles followed by a

very gentle climb for the remaining five along the sunny side of

the long ridge running from Maralkanda to the Sutle}. The forest

is a fine hur nting sround for ‘Treebrowns (Lethe), the Common

Forester (lL. save’ in particular being quite an abundant species,

and in one of the nullahs I saw the Himalayan Jester (Symbrenthia

hypselis) sailmg about in the chequered sunshine. Although I

had sought in vain for this butterfly during the five years I

collected in the Simla Hills it was not the last tune I saw it on

this trip. Indeed it proved to be quite common about forest

streams between this spot and Sarahan, though it was too late to

catch good specimens as I fancy they had emerged from their

chrys alids some two or three -we eks earlier. In flicht and habits

it is very like a yellow Neptis and indeed, when I first saw it, I

mistook it for Neptis ananta, that ereat rarity in these hills. Here

also was Heliophorous androcles which is like a flash of ereen

heht on the wing.

The last six miles lie through pleasant fields of wheat, potatoes

and poppies, and the roadside is made beautiful by masses of white

roses and a purple broom-like plant (Indigofera gerardiana?),

Bahli, with its attractive whitewashed bungalow, hes on the

top of the ridge with the land sloping down very steeply both

to the north and the south. On the other two sides is forest of

Blue Pine. Visibility was very poor and there was no view except

of the dim outline of the large rounded peak of Shikar over the

valley to the north and a Slimapse of the Sutlej distant a mile or

two down to the left. ;

Towards evening the sky darkened and a violent storm broke

upon us. For half an hour there was torrential rain and incessant

thunder. Then the sun broke through again and within a very short

time the clouds had cleared away leaving the air cool and crystal

clear to reveal a magnificent panorama of the mountains, from che

Kulu Hills on the left, to the Great Himalayan Range straight

ahead and Hansbeshan close to the right. It is the most extensive

view to be had on this journey and one of the loveliest I have

ever seen,

Night fell and the singularly attractive night noises of the

middle Himalayas eae to. make themselves heard . . . the pink-

pink of the Himalayan Scops Owl (exactly the sound of a smith

beating iron on his anvil), the moan of the flying squirrel, the

sneezing bark of the hill fox and the invamensolel other sounds

most of whose owners I have never been able to trace.

But if the noises of the night are attractive it is of the day

sounds that I have the most pleasant memories ... the shrill wail

of the Himalayan Barbet from a treetop, the curious calls of the

various cuckoos, the grating and ubiquitous cry of the nutcracker, the

melodious songs of the rockthrushes, the tuneless whistle of the

(AN EXPEDITION:TO:SANGLA IN: KUNAWAR +: 571

Kastura’? and the ever present background of twitterings and tiny

noises of titmice, tree creepers and other such small fry.

The stage from Babli to Taklech is another easy one. / . 11 miles

and all downhill. The first nve miles are through the forest aleng

the northern side of the ridge that was traversed the day before.

One of the most characteristic features of the Simla Hills is

that the southern sunny slopes are bare whilst the northern slopes

are more often than not completely forested. Consequently from

a southern aspect many of the hills appear as grassy slopes

curiously topped with a fringe of trees.

From Bahli to Deo, near Sarahan, where the main trade route

is joined, the road is very lonely and I have often wondered for

what purpose it was built because it is used hardly at all. All

the. trade between Tibet and India takes the direct and shorter

road along by the Sutlej and up to Narkanda. This upper road

is only of use for local. traffic, which would be served just as

well by the ordinary hill track, and for such as myself who wish

for a cool journey in the summer, for the bed of the Sutle] between

Narkanda and Sarahan lies at about 3,000’ and is terribly hot at

this time of the year.. This, I think, is :the solution of the

problem. I suspect that in days gone by some Viceroy or Governor-

General wished to visit Chini and, wanting a cool journey, gave

the order for the road to be built.

Shortly after leaving Bahli IJ made a great catch

Celaenorrhinus munda (or more simply the Himalayan Spotted

Flat), a singularly, dull-looking Skipper of whose existence in the

Simla Hills I had grave doubts. Subsequently I caught three

more and saw others between Bahli and Sungri so that it seems

that this insect is not uncommon here.

After five miles the road descends abruptly, first through cak

forest and then through a rich growth of deciduous trees with a

thick bamboo underwood. Lower down this gives way at 6,000!

to an open forest of Pinus longifolia.

Half way down the hill begins a very prolific butterfly area.

This was heralded by the appearance of a solitary specimen of the

pretty little blue and white Water Hairstreak (Huaspa milionta),

a rarity in these hills. Lower down I saw one or two more and

presently, where the road crosses over a well-shaded stream, I came

upon their home. Here they were in their dozens, resting on.

mossy banks, on ferns and on the leaves of trees and bushes.

They are sluggish little creatures and shun the sunlight; if they

are disturbed they flutter about slowly but soon come to rest

again. So averse are they to flight that it is almost possible

eatch them in the fingers.

With them, but in smaller numbers, was the little purple Walnut

Blue (Chaetoprocta odata), an equally lazy ereature and also a

lover of the shade, though this butterfly flies about in the open

rather more briskly towards evening. It was more common lower

down by the stream just above the Taklech bungalow. Indeed

on my return it was to be found there in its thousands, being more

* The Himalayan Whistling Thrush.

572. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

common than I would have believed any butterfly could be. Both

here ard at many other places along the road the walnut trees

had been half stripped of their foliage by the larvae of this butterfly.

This did not seem to have harmed the trees as they were healthy

enough. Doubtless they are stimulated to put out a second growth

of leaves and httle damage results.

From the large numbers that were about it seems probable

that the Walnut Blue is very favourably placed in the struggle

for existence. This may be due to the domestic arrangements of

the female who lays her eggs in batches and thatches them with

a protective layer of scales, a proceeding unknown in any other

Indian butterfly. These scales may be seen at the end of her

abdomen grouped together in a bunch that looks very lke the

business end of a tiny shaving brush. As each egg is laid several

of the scales attach themselves to it fanwise, covering most of

the egg itself and the exposed part of the next egg laid, and so on.

The batches are so arranged that all the eggs are covered except tor

a small portion of the last ege laid, and the whole mass, except

for the last egg, is thus admirably protected from the minute

parasites and other insect enemies that prey on butterflies’ eggs.

Close to the bridge near the Taklech bungalow many kinds.

of butterflies may be caught, and there, in particular, I took the

Marbled Flat (Achalarus bifasciatus casyapa), the Veined Scrub

Hopper (Aeromachus stigmata) and the Dark Evening Brown

(Melanitis phedima galkissa), as well as numbers of the more

attractive local species such as the Map Butterfly (Cyrestis

thyodamas), the Spangle (Papilio protenor) and the Glassy Blue-

bottle (Zetides cloanthus), which, with many others, were drinking

ereedily from a small moist patch of ground. Further up the

hill I caught the Common Five-ring (Ypthima baldus baldus), an

abundant butterfly in many parts of India but a rarity in the

Simla Hills. This specimen was remarkable in that it was a

fully marked wet season form.

Taklech lies in a narrow valley, thickly wooded on the protected

side, down which a little river runs steeply to join the Nogli Khud

some 800! lower and a mile away. Its waters ran crystal clear

until the late afternoon when they became cloudy, due, I believe,

to the melting of snow high up near their source.

The inhabitants here are some of the poorest that I have ever

seen and are clad in the meanest rags. It must be a very hard

task to wrest a livelihood from these steep hillsides, but nevertheless,

like most hill people, they seemed contented and cheerful.

Taklech, and the hillside before Dharangati, is a home of the

‘jaldi aru’, the tree that provides the little round apricots that

ripen early. They were not yet ready but I made of them an

admirable addition to my diet by boiling them with honey. They

were ripe on my return and as the tree is very common I could

have as many as I wished, but after all they are a somewhat

tasteless fruit and a poor substitute for the true apricot.

That evening, just as it was becoming dusk, a Spinetail swooped

down towards the bungalow and was gone in a flash. These are

the fastest of all birds and with their robust bodies and pointed

AN EXPEDITION TO SANGLA IN KUNAWAR 573

wings, shorter than in other swifts, are easily recognised and

curiously resemble some of the more modern fighter planes.

Two and a half miles away from Taklech and at a height of

only 4,309’, the lowest point reached on the expedition, the road

crosses the Nogli Khud, a turbulent little river that here runs

through a considerable gorge. The Upper Link Road, however,

soon atones for this fall from grace by climbing 5,121’ in the next

seven miles to attain an altitude of 9,430! at Dharangati.

For five tedious, tiring, interminable miles the track twists up

a shadeless hillside towards a ridge that looks deceptively like the

end of the climb, but when I reached it I was horrified to see

that Dharangati was a further two miles away at the top of a

sort of pass over another and higher ridge.

Half way up the hillside (which is locally famed for its Chukor,

though I only saw one covey) I came across an encampment of

gujars with their herds of horses and buffaloes grazing round

about. Though tall, dark and handsome, they are a wild-looking

race of nomadic Muslims from towards the Kashmir border. They

drive their animals down to the plains at the foot of the hills in

the winter and return to these summer pastures in the spring.

The view from Dharangati compensates for the endless climb.

Dharangati looks across the deep valley of Mangalad Khud to.

Hansbeshan (17,500/), a magnificent mountain whose sharp peak

rises above precipices. As it is usual to hken such mountains to

the Matterhorn I shall perhaps be original when I say that

Hansbeshan bears no resemblance to it at all but is nevertheless

the finest peak in this part of the Himalayas. ‘To the right is a

long ridge, which runs in a wooded semi-circle to join a spur of

the great mountain itself, and to the left is a fine view of snow-

capped peaks. Around the bungalow is forest, the home of Monal,

Koklas and Kahj pheasants, all of which may be seen close by.

It proved a disappointing place for butterflies as I had hoped

to catch the Green Copper (Lycaena kasyapa) and the Large Green

Underwing here, but all that there was about were als species

usually found at this altitude nearer Simla . .. the Large Silver-

stripe (Argynnis childreni), the Common Silversiripe (A. kamala),

the ubiquitous Queen of Spain Fritillary (A. lathonia), Indian

Tortoiseshell (Vanessa cashmiriensis) and Dark Clouded Yellow

(Colias croceus), as well as an occasional Pale Clouded Yellow

(C. hyale), Common Yellow Swallowtail and Common Blue Apollo.

On our arrival there was no rest-house keeper to be found,

so we sat ourselves down on the hard boards of the verandah and

shivered, for there was a cold wind blowing. After half an hour

the chowkidar turned up, opened the place and boiled me some

water. As I sat in peace, drinking coffee and admiring the view,

the belated arrival of Don Quixote inspired me to poetry. The

limerick that I composed pleased me immensely at the time,

though subsequently I have had doubts as to its perfection. Here

it is:—'I took an old cook to Bashahr! where he found out that

life was unfahr, for although he was sickly, he was made to walk

quickly, until he was put on a mahr.’

* Pronounced to rhyme with ‘stair’.

874 JOURNAL, ‘BOMBAY 'NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

This day the transport. turned up even later than Don Quixote,

having had: trouble with the second mule, the less pric of the

two, which had hurled one of my boxes of supplies far down a

khudside. The only damage was to a packet of Lux which. had

burst all over the other contents of the box with the result that

henceforward much of my food was flavoured with soap.

Mules, by the way, in my experience, are much maligned

animals and not the vicious creatures that they are supposed 60, be.

I have always found them fairly amiable and very long suffering.

Perhaps once in a trip they will throw the baggage down the

hillside and they must be carefully watched at the end of a day’s

stage to see that they le down to have the roll they so much love

to have after their loads have been removed. On the whole they

are very reliable and will, if pressed, willingly do their 30 miles.

The rest of the afternoon was not peaceful. Sheba discover-

ed a remarkable triple echo and spent two happy hours barking

at three imaginary dogs which invariably hurled back her abuse

word for word from the forest over the way.

Don Quixote distinguished himself by breaking the only bunga-

low teapot. As he had already broken a lamp at Babli and a

water jug at Taklech I began to have fears that I should not

stand the pace financially. “How ever, this was his last lapse and

he broke nothing more.

It is an easy descent of 38,000’ through forest to the bridge

over the Mangalad Khud. After crossing it the track runs across

precipices and steep sunny slopes to join the main Hindustan-

Tibet road at ‘Deo. It was a hot and thirsty walk.

Sarahan is in two parts. Below the road is old Sarahan, a

typical hill village: above the road is Durbar Sarahan, the summer

capital of Bashahr State. The bungalow is situated between the

two.

The Sutlej] Valley is wide here and gives a fine view of snowy

peaks,

Just after leaving Sarahan I overtook the first of many flocks of

sheep and goats being driven up the road to Tibet. Most of the

animals were carrying little packs containing salt or grain and the

herds were always escorted by one or two bie dogs wearing the iron

collars inentioned earlier on. Their return journey is made in the

autumn when borax and wool are brought down to the markets in

India. Whether, like the Marchas of the Kumaon, these shepherds

have villages high up on the Tibetan border which they inhabit

during tae brief summer I do not know, nor did I enquire, as at

that time I had never heard of the Marchas.

Having left the Upper Link Road I was now on the main trade

route to Tibet and there was plenty of traffic passing up it, for the

Shipki Pass usually opens at the beginning of June. As well as

the flocks of sheep and goats there were ‘strings of donkeys and

pack ponies and numerous foot passengers.

Bevodd Sarahan the road enters the Sutle; Gorge and. runs

fairly level at about 8,000! above the river bed. The scenery 1s

impressive but the vs ulley is so narrow and the sides are so high

that views of the snowy peaks are limited and remain so amis

Sangla ig reached,

« AN -EXPEDITION. T.O SANGLA IN .KUNAWAR J, 575

_ 1 saw few butterflies. The Himalayan Sailer (Neptis mahendra)

Was very common and I caught a number of Common Argus

(Erebia. nirmala nirmala) in the hopes of catching the race

scandina which has the under hindwing overlaid with pale grey

scales, and is listed from Bashahr and Kunawar. I did not see

it and I imagine it is a dry zone form. The only other butterflies

ft remember catching were the Marbled Flat, the Lepcha Bushbrown

(Mycalesis lepcha lepcha), the Common Forester and the Green

Sapphire, as well as a most interesting form of the Indian White

Admiral (Limenitis trivena). This species is remarkable because

it displays racial variation more clearly than any other Indian

butterfly. Indeed if the two extreme races are seen without the

intermediate forms they can hardly be recognised as the sanie

species. The races mainly differ in the width of the white band

that crosses both wings, this being very broad (7 mm.) and con-

fiuent on the hindwing in the Simla form (pallida), but very narrow

(2 mm.) and broken into separate spots in that from Chitral

(gilgitica). Of the intermediate races hydaspes (from the Sind and

Liddar Valleys, Kashmir) grades into gilgitica, the discal band being

broader (8 mm.); ligyes (Pir Panjal, Kashmir), with the discal band

broader still, grades into hydaspes, but as trivena (Murree to Kangra)

is almost the same as pailida (and in particular has the white band

of the same width), there is a very considerable difference between

this form and ligyes.

Evans only gives the distribution of the races as mentioned

above, but as I already possessed hydaspes from Chini, I assumed

that I should find the same sequence of races in a_ northerly

direction. As I expected, I caught ligyes in the Baspa Vailey,

and very likely gilgitica is to be found round about Jangi, but

trivena was not to be seen anywhere. However, the specimen I

caught close to Chaura is perfectly intermediate between ligyes and

pallida and in all probability replaces the trivena race in the Simla

Hills, but although palaeontologists may reconstruct an extinct

species from the fraction of a fossil skull, and tell us all about

the habits of the creature it belonged to, such latitude is not

allowed to the entomologist, and, because I only caught this one

specimen (which possibly may have been an aberration), I am,

quite rightly, not allowed to assume that it is a typical example

of a new local race.

The bungalow at Chaura, although, like all these forest rest

houses, situated in a place of great natural beauty, is rendered

almost uninhabitable by the swarms of flies that infest it. With

the notable exceptions of Narkanda, Bagi and Sangla, all the

bungalows along my route were swarming with flies. and they

are the one great drawback to this trip. But of all of them Chaura

is the worst. The flies settle in countless hundreds on food, on

tables, on the shiny leather backs of chairs, on the floor and on

one’s face, making life almost unbearable. The repeated use of

Flit inside the rooms undoubtedly keeps the numbers down but as

there are invariably tears in the fly-proof netting on doors and

windows it does not stop a constant influx of new arrivals, nor is it

of any use on the verandah. A large supply of netting or muslin

covers could be used to protect food and drink . . . but this would

576 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

mean removing and replacing the covers between each mouthful.

IL decided that the problem was insoluble and did nothing about

it. The addition of flies to my diet did me no harm, but it is a

wise man who takes with him a cure for dysentery.

But these flies, which were house flies or their near relatives,

are not the only members of the order sent to torment the traveller.

There are also the large brown horse-flies (Yabanus sp.) which are

common everywhere between Wildflower Hall and Dharangati

(beyond which place they cease to be a trouble). These inflict

very painful bites and tear chunks of flesh (or so it seems) out of

one’s knees and ankles, but as they fly with a loud buzzing noise,

they give warning of their approach and so may be avoided,

especially if long trousers and not shorts are worn,

In addition Chaura is a bad place for panthers and a reference

to the bungalow register will show that owners of dogs should

beware.

Finally there are good apricots to be had here and having at

last found something ood to say about the place let us hasten to

leave it.

Four miles from Chaura there is a fine view down the Sutle}

Gorge and from there for a couple of miles the road is bad al

erosses some uncomfortable precipices which are especially un-

pleasant as the road has no parapet. After this there is a steady

descent to Soldanga Nullah with its squalid serai, close to which

is the first sign of Tibetan influence, a prayer wall. These are long

structures built down the middle of a road, especially at a pass

or at some point of importance. The stones on the top of the

wall, and often at its sides, are inscribed with Tibetan characters

representing ‘Om mani padme hum (I am in the pericarp of the

Lotus')’, the prayer that the lama mutters as he turns his prayer

wheel. The correct procedure is always to pass them on the left-hand

side. Although, working on the principle of when in Rome do as

Rome does, I conscientiously observed this rule, truth compels me

to relate that the local inhabitants do not.

That the Tibetan influence was once strong in these eee may

be seen from the number of prayer walls further on and also from

the style of some of the buildings, especially the temple a mile

and a half beyond Paunda and the monastery at Nachar.

After a long two miles climb Paunda was reached at the end of

a most exhausting day's walk. The transport was miles behind and

did not arrive until dusk, as it had been badly held up by the

flocks of sheep and goats, and it had been a hard task to manage

the mules over some of the difficult stretches of road.

However, their late arrival did not matter as the bungalow

was already occupied by Dr. Crookshank, Geological Adviser to

the States, who fed and entertained me.

Before I left the next morning the chowkidar tried to sell me

the skin of a Red Flying Squirrel (Pteromys albiventer). It is

a shame to kill these pretty little creatures for although their fur

is soft and fine the pelts are too fragile to be of any use.

‘ More usually, but loosely, translated ‘Hail to Thee, Jewel of the Totus.’

AN EXPEDITION TO SANGLA IN KUNAWAR

I wonder how many people know that flying squirrels make

the most engaging pets. They are very easily tamed, although

wild and frightened when first caught. I knew one that was

quite at home within twenty-four hours. For the first day or two

it was kept shut in the house, given a dark cage in which to spend

the daytime, and fruit and nuts to eat. When it had grown quite

accustomed to its new quarters it was not confined at all and was

allowed to leave the house at dusk, returning to its cage at dawn.

This mode of life continued for some time, but after a while it

would every now and then be absent during the day as well,

and ultimately it stayed away altogether, though it was seen near

the house on more than one occasion.

It was quite tame and did not mind being handled, even by

strangers. When picked up in the daytime it would crawl up the

person’s sleeve to lodge between the coat and shoulder, presumably

an ideally warm, dark place.

In a wild state they spend the daytime in a hollow in a tree,

or in some similar place, and only come out at dusk to look for their

food. Their method of progression is interesting. Having come out

from their hiding place, they climb high up the tree and then hurl

themselves into space to glide down towards the trunk of another

tree, which may be as much as 80 yards away if the flight is

down a steep hillside. Just before reaching’ it they suddenly

flatten out to land on all four feet. They then climb that tree

and the process is repeated until they reach their destination. Up

hill, of course, their progress is laborious.

As the transport was still tired from the previous day’s exertions

I decided to have an easy day on the 28th and to make for Nachar,

only 43 miles up the road.

It was a pleasant early morning’s walk and by ten o’clock I was

sitting on the verandah of the Nachar forest bungalow eating luscious

white cherries from the garden. The bungalow is an attractive two-

storied building and struck me as being palatial . . . subsequently

I was surprised to learn that it had been condemned as unsafe

some years ago!

The garden is a delightful spot with a hawthorn bush and apple

and cherry trees. All sorts of vegetables were growing but un-

fortunately none were yet ready.

The Dry Zone

As the 8. W. monsoon proceeds up the Sutlej Valley its in-

fluence decreases so that it is possible to divide the adjacent regions

into three climatic zones;—a wet zone which extends to Paunda, a

dry zone (where the influence of the monsoon is slight) which

begins there and extends to within 30 miles of the Tibetan frontier,

and an arid zone (where the monsoon disappears) beyond that.

Annual rainfall figures are about 60” at Simla, 44” at Kotgarh

and 32” at Kilba, but in the dry zone much of the precipitation

takes place in winter in the form of snow’.

* Precipitation figures for Kilba are as follows:—June to September 10.5”.

October to May 21.5”.

78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL’ HIST. \SOCIETY,*-Vol. 47

‘AS a consequence of this change of climate the vegetition and

butterfly fauna’of the dry zone is very different Frenne that of the:

wetter regions nearer’ Simla. The rich forests’ of Spruce and

Narkanda “Pine® are now replaced by Cedars (Deodars), and. lower

down the characteristic tree is the Chilka Pine, of which more anon:

In particular there were two dry zone butterflies that I was

anxious to catch which I knew could be found at’ Nachar ..°. the’

Branded’ Meadow Brown (Maniola’ lupinus cheena) and the davk

form of the Green-veined White (Pieris napi montana).- But I was.

unlucky and did not see them. Of course it was us I had feared.

I was much too early for butterflies in the dry zone where they

are only abundant during the short summer fron: the end of June

until mid- August.

‘There’ ig thick cedar forest round the bungalow anda’ pretty

view over the treetops to the mountains on the other side of the

valley. Close by is the local school, doubtless an admirably

conducted, institution but apparently run on non- repression lines;

a little beyond is a picturesque building which I tock to be ‘a

monastery, for it bore a clerical air and, unlike the school, was

wrapped in monastic calm.

_ Nachar is the forest headquarters of the Upper Bashahr division

and the D.F.O. is stationed here during the summer months: in

the winter when snow closes the road he moves down to ene

on the plains., I doubt if any government official is stationed }

a more remote spot than this.

The forests are leased from Bashahr State and the main business

of the department is the extraction of cedar timber. Except near

the Sutlej this has to be manhandled as it is a difficult country for

forestry, but down the sides of the gorge there are wire ropeways

to transport the wood to the river bank, where it is stacked and

cast into the water when it is near its highest flood. A month

or two later it reaches the plains and is ‘collected ‘at (I think)

Bilaspur. The losses amount ‘to 10%.

In addition to its other amenities Nachar possesses a sub- “post

office and a dispensary.

The building did not collapse during the night and shortly after

dawn we set off into the ereat unknown. Being by this time in

good training I trotted down the steep road to Wanetu AacehearanuKe al

to the astonishment of Sheba, who is unaccustomed to such levity

on my part. However, there was method in my madness as i

rightly suspected that the 5 or 6 miles along the Sutlej gorge

would be unpleasantly hot later in the day. Té must be admitted

that I did not trot up this stretch on my return’ journey for. a

more unpleasant climb during the middle of the day it has noe

been my lot to experience. The hillside radiates the heat like the

outsidé of a furnace, the road is steep, so’ steep that most of it

is stepped, the steps being placed just so’ far ° apart that ‘1t is

impossible to climb with any rhythm, the surface: is loose and

rough and I was tired at the end of a long walk. How I should

have loved a quart of beer when TI arrived “at’ the top. AMT had

was Nescafé and that was as nectar! i

Jf I were to write a murder story without any doubt at ‘all I

should make its setting the Wangtu bungalow, for a more forbiddiig

7. . AN. EXPEDITION TO\SANGEA IN’ KUNAWAR.* * 575"

spot I have never seen. Jt stands stark and lonely on ‘thésbare

craggy ‘hillside above the Wangtu bridge, where the Sutle} rashes

with incredible fury: through the gorge, penned into a width: of: a:

mere 25: yards betw een the cliffs. » I made\no stop: here but lrurried

past.

The Sutlej is a Juniohtenine ahve ts fury sind pow er smndst be:

seen to be believed. “Looking down upon it ‘from near Taranda I

had wondered how it had out. this terrific gorge straight across the

Himalayan ranges. On seeing the-river at close quarters it was:

no longer hard to understand. : |

The road runs along the gorge and file seven miles keeps alee

to *the Sutle] except for one stretch where it climbs steeply over

a bluff. The scenery is bare and grim and the noise of the river

is deafening. At the seventh mile the track turns ‘left up the

hill to: Urni’ and almost immediately the forest road to Kilba

branches off to the right, descends for a mile and, after crossing

the river, begins the stiff ascent of four miles to Kilba.

~The main Tibet road continues on, ultimately to reach Gartck.

Shipki, the first village in Tibet, is 82 miles away and, after Urn,

which is four miles from the junction with the Kilba road, the

stages are as follows:—

Urni to Rogi 10 miles,

Regi to Chini 4 miles,

Chini to Pangi 44 miles,

_Pangi to Jangi 14 miles,

Jangi to Kanam 114 miles,

Kanam to Poo 16 miles,

Poo to Namgia 8 miles,

Namegia, to Shipki 94 miles.

_ There are rest houses at all these places except Shipki, which,

of course, is over the border in Tibet.. There is no particular

difficulty about the journey except that the traveller must have a

eood head for heights as the road cuts across very high cliffs in

several places. The Shipki Pass, w hich lies between iN eanete and

Shipki, is more that 15,000’ and is normally open in early June.

Whether any serious attempt is, made to stop the Buropean

traveller from crossing the border I doubt, but I do know that he

is supposed to get permission to.do so.

An tore auinte point about this road, is that by the time Paes

has been reached the traveller has passed right through the main.

Himalayan range, this being the only easy w ay by, w vhich this is

possible. |

For some years Mr. Alec Jones and myself employed a asaya

W ho pliéd between Gartok and Simla, to catch. butterflies for us

along this route... Good butterflies are to, be caught at Chini

but we received little of interest between. that place and the

Shipki. P ass, the country probably being too barren and, dry for

them. Buf. the ; northern slopes of the pass and the country

around Shipki itself abound in butterflies during July, as may be

seen- from .the- list that follows of -the more ‘interesting species”

we received :from.there-

580 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Papilionids: the short tailed form of Papilic machaon

(ladaikensis), Parnassius simo, P. charltonius, P. stoliczanus

spitiensis, P. epaphus nirius(C)' and P. jacquemontii jacquemontit.

Pierids—Baltia butleri butleri, Pontia daplidice meorei (C),

Pieris callidice kalora, Colias eogene eogene. C. ladakensis (C), and

also Pontia chloridice from Puri close by.

Satyrids—Maniola davendra davendra (C), M. pulchella (C),

Aulocera brahminus brahminus (C), Erebia kalinda kalinda (C) and

Eumenis mnizechu baldiva (C).

Nymphalids—Argynnis eugenia mackinnoni, A. adippe jainadeva

(C), A. pales sipora, Melitaea arcesis sindura (C), Vanessa

ladakensis and V. urticae. °

Lycaenids—Polyommatus metallica metallica, P, pheretes

lehana, P. eros ariana (C), and P. vicrama vicrama from Puri.

Skippers—Hesperia alpina alpina and Pamplhila comma indi-

cofusca.

From the Shirang La (18,000'), ten miles beyond Shipki, we

also obtained a long series of a hitherto undescribed race of

Parnassius stoliczkanus, the characteristic features of which are

given in the Appendix at the end of this article. From Gartok

(ninety miles further on as the crow flies) we have also received

Polyommatus gigantea and Pieris deota.

There were few butterflies between Wangtu and Kilba and such

as there were were those that are common at this height in the

foothills. The Pioneer (Anaphacis aurota) and the Common Gull

(Cepora nerissa) were abundant, the Yellow Orange-tip (Ixus

pyrene) and the Hybrid Argus (Erebia hybrida) were common, and

an occasional Common Peacock (Papilio polyctor) supplied a much

needed dash of colour to the scene. A few tiny Grass Blues

(Zizeeria) fluttered about, and once or twice I saw a White-edged

Rockbrown (Eumeris parisatis) dash rapidly past. This handsome

butterfly, which has always been a favourite of mine, flies faster

than any other Satyrid that I know of. It is very much a lover

of open and rocky places and is particularly difficult to catch as

it is both very shy and has the exasperating habit of settling in .

inaccessible spots. To my mind it is one of the finest of the

Browns, only surpassed in the Simla Hills by the Great Satyr

(Aulocera padma) whose sober dress of velvet-black and white and

graceful flight can be matched by very few Indian butterflies.

A little beyond the Choltu bridge the road climbs steeply to

Kilba. Here for the first time I saw the Chilghoza Pine (Pinus

Gerardiana), the tree that produces the oily edible nuts? known as

chilghosas. ‘The tree looks very like the Blue Pine (Pinus excelsa)

of Simla but the bark is smooth and the needles are in clusters

of three. The wood is soft and only of use as firewood, but is

admirable for this purpose as it is very oily.

The rest house at Kilba is about 800! above the river and some

800! above the village which is the range headquarters and like

Nachar has a dispensary and a sub-post office. Urni is to the

left across the valley and behind it is the high snow peak of

ee a

* (C)=Common * Mere correctly ‘seeds’.

Q Shore Aye

OSe[IIA e[sUeS IeyoeN ‘A1oySseuOoyL

iP SLU ‘90S “LSIE] “IVN Avawog “nanof

Journ.; BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

is Pas? SEAS LSS ‘S

BF OMNI RO Fad ERNE ORE RSE NS ECS

The confluence of the Sutlej and Baspa Rivers

PLATE TI

AN EXPEDITION TO SANGLA IN KUNAWAR 581

Pandusar (19,000/). Straight up the Sutlej Valley to the right

is a fine view of the Kailas Peaks. In front of the bungalow,

on a lower terrace, are walnut and Spanish Chestnut trees, the

latter an importation that does well in these parts.

Having left the main road with its slight but pernicious taint

of civilisation I was now in unspoilt country among a primitive

and courteous people. Certainly the atmosphere at Kilba was

friendly for not only did the resthouse keeper refuse his legitimate

dues for supplying me with a hot bath and firewood, but the range

officer was most helpful and the compounder’s gon insisted on

feeding me, giving me eges for breakfast and a monal for dinner

(let us forget that it was the close season for the latter), and

generally entertaining me. This remarkable youth was busily

learning Russian, contemplating walking to Rampur in one day,

and training a body of guerilla troops to deal with goondas in the

event of civil war. Although there was no trouble here when the

disturbances broke out this activity was not as far fetched as I

thought at that time.

Close to the bungalow there is the grave of a very young

Huropean child and I was much puzzled to know how it came to

be there, as this is hardly the country into which to travel with

a child in arms. However, I discovered that in days gone by,

before the forests were leased by the Indian government, they were

privately worked and that it was the grave of the small son of

one of the local managers.

Grapes grow well here and a potent spirit is made from them.

Although it is very fiery, it is not unpleasant and has a distinct

taste of the grapes from which it is distilled.

IV,

The Baspa Valley

Early on the morning of the 80th we set off for Sangla, leaving

Don Quixote behind to recover. The road descends steeply to the

Sutlej and then runs for two miles close beside the river, a compara-

tively tranquil stream here. Not far from its junction with the

Baspa River is one of the celebrated ‘jhula’ bridges, a form of

structure which fortunately I had no occasion to use. A. strong

wire is stretched tightly from one bank to the other and along it

runs a wheel from which is suspended a wooded seat. The traveller,

having commended his soul to providence, sits on this and, hanging

on for his life, is pulled across the river. Sometimes rope is used

instead of wire and this is even more alarming as the rope sags

badly in the middle and sways violently from side to side.

The road turns up the Baspa Valley close to the point where

the two rivers meet, a sombre but beautiful spot. The contrast

between the waters of the two rivers is interesting: those of the

Sutle] are dirty brown but those of the Baspa River are milky

erey (a sign that they have their origin in a glacier), and after

their confluence the two streams continue to run separately for a

hundred yards or so before mingling.

The lower part of the Baspa Valley is very like other tributary

valleys that I had seen. It is narrow and steep and the river

82 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

rushes down it in a series of cascades and rapids. For the first

thousand feet the track climbs through a sparse growth of Chilghoza

pines but above that cedar forest is entered and it continues to

run through this until the middle valley is reached.

Of butterfly life there was little (I repeat I was a month too

early) but I caught two specimens of the ligyes race of the Indian

White Admiral (Limenitis trivena) and a good series of the Mountain

Argus (Hrebia shallada shallada), neither of which had previously

been recorded from this neighbourhood. The latter catch interested

me especially, as I had always believed this to be a high elevation

butterfly that flew about on the grassy mountain sides above 12,000!.

Yet here it was between 6,500° and 8,300° (I saw none after leaving

the lower valley) flying alnount in ihe shade of the forest just like

the Common Argus . . . but unlike the Hybrid Argus, mentioned

above, which keeps to open and preferably rocky oui.

Lower down than this on my return I saw a Lethe which I,

failed to catch as it dived into some bamboo undergrowth. This

was in all probability the Banded Treebrown (Lethe confusa) of

which I have specimens from Nachar. Although common in many

parts of the hills it is a rarity in the Simla region.

The track is bad and only just passable for mules, especially

in one place where it has been overrun by a fine scree.

Shortly before I reached this spot I had a surprise. As I

turned a sharp corner in a particularly gloomy piece of forest I

saw in front of me what I took to be a bison! As I was preparing

to move off in the opposite direction as unobtrusively as possible

J realised that I was no longer in the South Indian jungies.

I had another look and decided that it must be a yak... but I was

again wrong for on closer inspection it proved to be a dazo!

doubtless an animal of many admirable domestic qualities but a

nasty looking customer when blocking a very narrow path. How-

ever, having given us each a very dirty look, it hastened past,

probably being even more startled to see us than we were to

see him.

I had hoped to meet a few yaks at Sangla but they were up

on the high pastures, even the moderate summer temperature of

the valley. being too warm for them.

After seven miles the river rushes down between two cliffs in

a series of waterfalls and the track zig-zags steeply over the hill-

side close to the right. At the top is a small tree-covered plateau

and beyond and a little below me lay the beautiful valley I had

come to see.

Without a doubt the valley was once a chain of lakes, probably

formed by the moraines of glaciers flowing down from the south.

T do not think that anything else can account for its topography

which is so different from that of any other valley in this part

of the Himalayas, for its floor is w ide, perhaps a mile across in

places, and is fairly level and set at a gentle slope. It is well

cultivated and dotted with fruit and walnut trees. The northerii

side is dominated by two great peaks, the first (19,500/) above

Sangla, and the second (21,150/), a very graceful mountain, some

<r nee

* The cross between the yak and the domestic ox.

AN EXPEDITION TO SANGLA IN KUNAWAR 583

ten miles further on. This side of the valley is too steep to

support much vegetation but the southern side, where the slopes

are more gradual and the mountain tops are hidden, is thickly

covered with fine cedar forest.

The valley has a great reputation in Kunawar for its fertility and

the ease of life there. Indeed with its flat fertile fields and

pleasant summer climate it must seem a promised land to other

Kunawaris who, at best, can only scratch a miserable living from

their steep hillsides.

Although, according to our standards, life in the valley is hard

and the winter climate very severe, the inhabitants have plenty

to eat, an abundance of firewood and are well clothed in their

homespun garments. Being quite out of touch with the rest of

the world they can have few worries, and pursue their Arcadian

existence exactly as they have pursued it for hundreds of years.

The river is stocked with trout and I had hope to have fish

to eat at Sangla. I was disappointed, of course, because the river

is flooded with snow water at this time of the year. October and

March are the fisherman’s months. .

Although the villagers catch a few of the trout (by the poacher’s

time honoured method of tickling) the river is badly in need of

fishing as many of the fish are now hoary old cannibals.

The valley is a sportsman’s paradise, for in addition to fish

in the river, there are Panther and Black Bear in the forest, as

well as Koklas, Kalij, Monal and Tragopan Pheasant; and Brown

Bear, Snow Leopard, Bharal, Musk Deer and Snowcock high

up on the hillside. Furthermore, if anyone were hardy enough to

shut himself up here for the winter (the valley is snowbound for

three months), he would find fine skiing slopes on the southern

side of the valley.

The bungalow, which is situated where the valley narrows and

where the second of the lakes probably ended, is large and solid

and was undoubtedly built as a fishing lodge for the recreation of

lonely D.F.O’s from Nachar. There can be no other reason for

its presence in this remote spot for it has seldom been occupied

and apparently only for that purpose. It is placed well above the

river on the side opposite to the village, which is just over the

way and is of a curious appearance resembling nothing so much as

an untidy conglomeration of wooden boxes. Straight ahead,

beyond the village and rising directly behind it, is the towering

Sangla Peak with its magnificent crags and precipices. Directly

behind the bungalow the hillside slopes steeply up into the forest,

whose magnificent cedars are one of the glories of the valley. [

saw many giant trees but the biggest of them all grew close by and

was a gnarled old veteran whose girth at the base was 47 feet.

As it was still early spring in the valley the only butterflies that

were about in any number were the Dark Clouded Yellow, the

Indian Tortoiseshell and the Common Wall (Pararge schakra), 30

that I caught nothing of interest except a single specimen of the

ariana (dry zone) race of the Common Meadow Blue . . . inciden-

tally quite a different race from that flying nearer to Simla in the

wet zone. But in July and early August the valley is a fine place

for butterflies and many of those mentioned as comir 2 from Shipki

534 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

can be caught here, as well as the Silverstreak Fritillary (Argynnis

clara), the “most westerly point from which it has been recorded,

and the Dusky Blackvein (Aporia nabellica nabellica).

The valley cannot be left without mention of the rest-house

chowkidar, a wizened, friendly old gnome, who strongly resembled

one of the seven dwarfs. In spite of his three score years and

ten, on the day of my arrival this remarkable old person walked

the 28 miles to Kilba and back (with the 8,000’ climb on the

return) and was as lively as a cricket at the end of it.

The Return

The obvious and most direct way home, had I known about it

when I planned my journey, was over the Rupin Pass (15,000')

directly opposite Sangla and to Khadrala via Rohru. But coolies

are needed for this and also a tent. There would have been little

difficulty over the former, but the latter I did not have with me.

There are also three other tracks leading out of the valley,

all of which are impassable for mules, of which one leads over the

shoulder of the Sangla mountain to Shongtong on the Sutlej, and

thence across the river by jhula to Chini; a second crosses the

Dhauladhar range above Chitkul to join the Rupin route, and a

third goes to Gangotri over the very high pass at the end of the

valley.

There is little to write about my return except that it was done

at great speed and that towards the end I became very short of

food. This was not due to overeating on my part but to Sheba’s

voracious appetite. When I came to weigh myself at the end

of the trip I found that whereas I had lost 10 pounds, she had lost

exactly eight ounces . . . which, I consider, goes to show considerable

self-sacrifice on my part.

Indeed by the time we reached Bahli supplies were reduced to

a little tea, a few walnuts (a present from Kilba) and a tin of fish.

There, however, I bought what there was... two eggs and some

very poor flour, which was so bad that Don Quixote had to forego

his afternoon sleep and spend an hour or so in picking the weevils

out of it.

At Bahli I was most interested to see half an acre of potatoes

which had been stripped of their leaves overnight by a beetle of per-

haps three quarters of an inch in length with a purple-brown body

and a red head. It looked like a Cantharid, but, most unfortunately,

the specimens I collected in a match box escaped before I could

give them their quietus. It is more than probable that the habits

of this beetle are well known, but if not it is one of which the

authorities may well beware, as a serious plague of it might ruin

the potato crop, the chief export of these hills.

The state of supplies being what it was it was essential for me

to return as quickly as possible, so I did a double stage the next

day and completed the 21 miles to Khadrala by 1 p.m.

Never has anyone been made less welcome than I was in the

forest rest-house at Khadrala. In this they were within their

rights as I had no pass (though no objections on this score had

AN EXPEDITION TO SANGLA IN KUNAWAR 585

been raised at Sangla, Nachar and Kilba) but they were certainly

at fault in trying to charge me one rupee for a quart of water. .

all that I was able to persuade them to supply me with!

Having eaten my last sour chapati and delivered myself of a

few wingéd words to the chowkidar, I left at dawn the next

morning and, breakfasting hurriedly but very well at Bagi, arrived

at Narkanda before noon.

The return to Chharabra by “bus was even worse than my out-

ward journey, as the driver was a popular soul with many friends

on the road. However, every journey comes to an end sometime

and I arrived at Wildflower Hall just as the sun was setting.

APPENDIX

Additions to The List of Butterflies of the Simla Hills (See Vols. 41, No. 4;

45, No. 2; 46, No. 4).

995. Tros (Polydorus) philorenus philorenus, Gray. Recorded from Simla

in June.

296. Limenitis trivena ligyes, Hew. Baspa Valley, 31-5-1947, 6,000 ft. to

7,000 ft.

297. Limenitis trivena race nova? Chaura, 28-35-1947, 6,500 ft. Intermediate

between pallida and ligyes. UPH white discal band 5 mm.; marginal spots

obscure. UPF basal spot in lb. present but not joined to discal band. Above

and below considerably darker than pallida. Unfortunately only one specimen

was caught so that it cannot be stated whether this is typical of a local race

or is only an aberration.

298. Polyommatus eros race nova. This race flies in the wet zone and is

not uncommon between Matiana and Sungri. It is very different from the

dry zene race, adriana. UNH discal white streak is absent and the marginal

orange spots are very prominent.

(Huploea midamus. There is a report, from a reliable source, that this

butterfly was caught in Simla in 1947. As it has hitherto not been caught, as

far as I know, any nearer than Sikkim, more definite proof is needed before

it can be included in the list.)

Notes

86. Hrebia shqllada shallada, Lang. Common in forest, 6,500 ft. to 8,060 ft.

in the lower Baspa Valley on 31-5-1947 and 2-6-1947.

249. Celaenorrhinus munda, Moore. Apparently not rare at Bahli and below

Sungri at the end of May and in early June between 7,500 ft. and 8,000 ft.

Previously included in the list on the authority of a doubtful specimen. At

first sight the species is extremely like C.leucocera but is easily distinguished

as follows :—UPH is plain ; antennae shafts are chequered and club white

tipped in both sexes; spot in 8 UPF joins the spot in cell and in 2, and

reaches base 3.

280. Pernassius stoliczkanus race nova, Tisted previously (with a query) as

P. delphius stenosemus, but is almost certainly not that race. The main

characteristics are that the black markings are very clearly defined and that

the discal spot in 2 HW is always, and the large spot in 5. is generally

entirely black. (Out of 13 specimens the latter spot is red-centred in are

instance only; in one or two others it bears a few red scales). Irom Shirane

La in July. -

LOCAL LISTS OF LEPIDOPTERA FROM THE

PUNJAB AND U.P.

D. G. SEVASTOPULO, F.R.E.S.

Rereading back numbers of this Journal recently, I have been

struck by the almost complete absence of local lists of Moths. There

have been a few records of individual occurrences, usually of

economic pests or striking species, but, apart from Col. Mosse’s list

of the Sphingidae of Kathiawar (Vol. xxxiii, 888), the only local lists

from 1924 to date are my two lists of the Calcutta Pyralidae (Vols,

¥xXXViii, 204, and xl, 132) and my very short list of March Lepi-

doptera at Gopaipur (Vol. xlii, 211).

The Journal of the Darjeeling, now the Bengal Natural History

Society contains rather more of these lists, but here again, apart from

a serial paper by Col. Scott on the Sphingidae likely to occur in the

Darjeeling Hills, the only contributor from 1932 to date is myself.

My papers comprise three lists and a supplement of the Moths of

Darjeeling (Vols. x, 59; x, 134; xi, 28, and xiii, 91), a list and

supplement of the Lepidoptera of Peshoke, December 1936 (Vols.

xii, 73, and xili, 90), a list of the Moths of Calcutta (Vol. xix, 43) and

one of the Moths of Tukdah, May/June 1944 (Vol. xx, 20), and I

have a further paper on the moths of Tukdah, October/November

1945 and one on a collection of moths from Baheri in the Darbhanga

District in course of publication.

In view of this paucity of records, I have been tempted to publish

lists of the species in my collection caught in the Punjab and U.P.

during my first spell in India. During this period Iewas stationed

in Amritsar from January to November 1925, in Lyallpore from

November 1925 to March 1927 and in Cawnpore from November

1927 to March 1929, and made three short trips to the hills, to

Murree in September 1925 and August 1928 and to Naini Tal in

June 1926.

These lists are unfortunately very far from complete. Apart

from the fact that my collecting technique had not been fully adjusted

to Indian conditions, I did not realise in those days how little was

known of the insects of India, and felt that an amateur, particularly

an ignorant one—iny only book at that time was Antram’s Butterflies

of India—could produce little work worth publishing. Consequently

I kept no records, and the lists given below are compiled from

specimens still existing in my collection. It must not be assumed

that because a particular species is not mentioned as occurring in,

say, Lyallpore, it was not met with there. During the last twenty

years or so, many specimens have been discarded or disposed of as

duplicates, and also, when an adequate series had been accumulated,

further captures were not made.

As mentioned above, these lists are very far from complete, but

I think that positive records, however few, are better than no records

at all, For this reason I have also included the butterflies. The

LOCAL LISTS OF LEPIDOPTERA FROM THE PUNJAB AND U.P. 587

lists are given in four sections, Amritsar and Lyallpore together, the

two visits to Murree, Cawnpore and Naini Tal.

I have followed Evans’s J/dentification of Indian butterflies (2nd

edit.) and Hampson’s Fauna of British India, Moths, i-iv, as regards

classification, modernising them with the aid of Talbot's Fauna of

British India, Butterflies, i (2nd edit.), Hampson’s Catalogue of the

Lepidoptera Phalaenae, Seitz’s Indo-Ausivalian Lepidoptera and Bell &

Scott’s Fauna of British India, Moths, v. The numbers before the

names correspond with Evans’s and Hampson’s Fauna numbers,

except that I have used the numbers of the Fauna, vol. v, for the

Sphingidae with the addition of the initial S.

A. AMRITSAR, JANUARY/NOVEMBER 1925, LYALLPORE,

NOVEMBER 1925/MARCH 1927.

RHOPALOCERA

PAPILIONIDAE

A 4-25 fapilio polytes L., rvomulus Cr.—Common in Amritsar, females

of allthree forms, stichius Hbn., cyrus F. and vomulus Cr.,

occurring, No Lyallpore specimens, but I am certain it existed

there,

A 4-27 Papilio demoleus L., demoleus—Common at both places.

PIERIDAE

B 4-10 Pieris canidia Sparr., indica Evans—Common at Amritsar before the

weather gets hot.

Baas Anapheis aurota F., aurota (Belenois mesentina Cr.)—Common at

both Amritsar and Lyallpore.

B ll-1 Catogsilia crocale Cr.—Commonat Amritsar, no Lyallpore

specimens but it almost certainly occurred there.

B ll- 2 Catopsilia pomona F.—Common at both places.

B ll-4 Catopsilia pyranthe L., minna Herbst—Common at Annritsar,

no Lyallpore examples but almost certainly occurred there.

B 11-5 Catopsilia florella F., gnoma F.—One Amritsar specimen.

B 15-2 Eurema (Terias) laeta Bsd., laeta.—Two from Amritsar.

B 15-5 Hurema (Tertias) hecabe L., fimbriata Wall.—Common at both

places.

B 16-9 Colias erate Esp., erate.—Common in Amritsar during the early

part of the year. Also forms gézcia Fruhs. and pallida Ste.

B 16-14 Colias electo L., fieldit Men.—Common at Amritsar in the early

part of the year.

B 18-1 Colotis amata F., amata—Common at Lyallpore.

B 18-2 Colotis protractus 8tlr.—One from Lyallpore.

B 18-3 Col/otis vestalis Btlr.—Common at Lyallpore.

B 18-5 Colotis etrida Bsd., etrvida.—Two from Amritsar and one from

Lyallpore.

DANAIDAE

C 2-9 Danaus limniace Cr., mutina Fruhs.—Uncommon at Amritsar.

C 2-15 Danaus chrysippus L.—No specimensfrom either place, but was

certainly common at Amritsar and, [ think, at Lyallpore also.

C 3-7 Euploea core Cr., corex—Common at Amritsar, also one example

of verymiculata Btlr. No Lyallpore specimens and I do not

remember it there.

SATYRIDAE

D 14-2 Ypthima inicaHew.—Common at Amritsar, all f. aviasba Moore,

the wet season form.

D 22-1 Melanitis leda L., tsmene Cr.—Fairly common at both places, all

the wet season form délerminata Btlr.

588 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

NYMPHALIDAE

I have no specimens at allof this family from Lyallpore, although I think it

probable that the Precis species found in Amritsar also occurred at Lyallpore.

IF 18-14 Huthalia garuda Moore, anzagama Fruhs.—Common at

Amritsar.

F 30-1 Aypolimnas misippus L.—Fairly common at Amritsar.

F 30-2 Hypolimnas bolina L.—Fairly common at Amritsar.

F 35-2 Precis orithya L., swinhoet Btlr.—Common at Amritsar.

F 35-3 Precis lemonias L., persicaria Fruhs.—Common at Amritsar.

F 35-4 Precis almana L., almana—Common at Amritsar.

F 36-1 Vanessa cardui L.—Common at Amritsar in the cold weather.

F 42-1 Atella phalanta Drury.—Fairly common at Amritsar.

LYCAENIDAE e

Ihave no specimens of this family from Lyallpore, but C. dcet7cus almost

certainly

occurred, even if nothing else did.

12-9 TZarucus nara Koll.—Anmritsar, fairly common,

H 24-4 Zizeeria lysimon Hbn.—One specimen from Amritsar.

H 25-1 LEuchrysops enejus F.—Fairly common at Amritsar.

H 28

Cosmolyce (Lampides) boeticus L.—Very common at Amritsar.

HESPERIIDAER

I 91+ 2 Astycus pythias Mab., bambusae Mcore.—Two Amritsar speci-

mens.

HETEROCERA

_ The rather better showing of moths at Amritsar in comparison with Lyallpore

is due, I think, to the fact that, whilst Amritsar had electric light, Lyallpore

had nothing but oil-lamps.

SYNTOMIDAE

412 Amata (Syntomis) cyssea Cr. ab. georgina RBtlr.—Three from

455.

1153

1155

1232

1235

1231

1279

982

Amritsar.

Evressa (Syntomis) confinis W\k.—Common at Amritsar.

ARCTIIDAE

Aganats (Hypsa) ficus F.—One from Amritsar.

Digama hearseyana Moore.—One from Amritsar.

Amsacta (Creatonotus) mocreit Btlr.—Two from Amritsar.

Amsacta (Creatonotus) lactinea Cr.—One from Annritsar.

Creatonotus gangis L. (interruptus Gmel.)—Fairly corn:mon at Amrit-

sar.

Utetheisa (Detopia) pulchella L.—One from Amritsar.

LYMANTRIIDAE

Laelia exclamationis Koll,—Three from Amritsar.

EUPTEROTID4E

Lupterote undata Blanch.—Common at Amritsar.

SPHINGIDAE

Acherontia sivx Westw.—One from Amritsar.

Flerse convolvuls L.—Common at Amritsar. A rather smaller and

paler form than that from Bengal.

Psilogramma menephron Cr., ab. vatées Btlr.—One from Amritsar,

Deilephita nerti L..—'Two bred from ova from Lyallpore.

Nephele didyma ¥.—Common at Amritsar. Also f. hespera F.

kRhopalopsyche nycteris Koll., nycteris.—Two from Amritsar. _

Celerio lineata F ., livornica Esp.—One from Lyallpore

flippotion celerio L.—Kairly comnion both at Amritsar and. Lyall

pore. . )

LOCAL LISTS OF LEPIDOPTERA FROM THE PUNJAB AND U.P. 589

NOCTUIDAE

2017. Tarache lucida Hufn.—Fairly common at Amritsar.

2630 Enimonodia shiva Guen.—One from Amritsar.

2629 Spetredonia retorta L.—Fairly common at Amritsar.

2507 Parallelia mirabilis Staud.—One from Amritsar.

2575 Chalciope hyppasia Cr.—One from Amritsar.

2664 Phylometra nigrisigna W\k.—'l'wo from Lyallpore.

2678 + Phytometra oricnaicea F.—Two from Lyallpore.

GEOMETRIDAE

3357 Buzura suppressaria Guen.—Fairly common at Amritsar.

MURREE, SEPTEMBER 1925 AND AUGUST 1928,

RHOPALOCERA

PAPILIONIDAE

A 4-29 Papilio machaon L., astatica Men.—Fairly common in 1925.

Although I now have no specimens of any FPolydorus from Murree I am

fairly confident that one species, probably P. phi/oxenus Gray, philoxenis,

was fairly common,

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PIERIDAE

Pieris napi L., ajaka Moore—Fairly common in 1928.

Pieris canidia Sparr., indica Evans—common on both visits.

Pieris brassicae L., nepalensis Dbl.—Common in 1925, no speci-

mens in 1928.

Gonepteryx rhamni L., nepalensis Dbl.—Common on both occa-

sions.

Gonepleryx mahaguru Gistel, wahaguru (aspasia Men., zaneéka

Moore’.—One in 1925.

Coltas eleclo 1.., fieldit Men.—Common on both visits.

SATYRIDAE

Pararge schakra Koll.— Common on both visits.

Aulocera swaha Koll., swaha—Common both times.

NYMPHALIDAE

FPantcporia opalina Koll., cbalina—Common on both occasions,

Neptis hylas \.., astola Moore—Common in 1925. One varmona

Moore in 1925.

Vanessa cardut L.—Common in 1925.

Vanessa canace L., himalaya Evans—'‘l'wo in 1925.

Vanessa cashmirensis Koll., cashmtrensis- Common on _ both

occasions.

Argynnis childreni Gray, sakontala Koll.—One in 1925.

Argynnis kamala Moore—One in 1925.

Argynnis iathonia L., issoea Db1.— Fairly common in 1925,

Ateila phalania Drury—Fairly common in 1928.

ERYCINIDAE

Libythea lepita Moore, lepita—Two in 1928.

Podona durga Koll.— Fairly commen in 1925,

Dodona cugenes Bates, ceugenes—Two in 1925.

LYCAENIDAE

Azanus uvanus Btlr.—One in 1928.

Lycaenopsis vardhana Moore—One in 1925,

Lycaenopsts huegelii Moore, huegelii—Fairly common in 1928.

Poltyemmatus eros O., pseuderos Moore—Fairly common both in

1925 and 1928.

Lycaena phlaeas L., indicus Evans—Fairly common in 1928.

Heliophorus sena Koll,—Fairly common in 1928,

590 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 47

H 83-1 Deudoryx epijzarbas Moore, ancus Fruhs.--Uncommon on both

visits.

H 85-20 fapala micans Brem., selira Moore—Not uncommon in 1928,

HETEROCERA

ZYGAENIDAE

473. Epizygaena cashmirensis Koli.--Common in 1925.

525 L£lerusia pulchella Koll.—Common in 1925, ¢ f. /eptalina Koll.,

602 Agalofe hyalina Koll.—One in 1928.

ARCTIIDAE

1179 Diacrisia castgneta Koli.—One in 1928.

11990 Diacrisia unifascia W\k.—One in 1928.

1218 Duracrisia leopardina Koll,—Qne in 1928, determination not absolutely

certain.

LYMANTRII DAE

1033. Lymantria concolor W\k., suberans Wik.—One in 1925,

1077 Huproctis guttuta Wik.—One in 1928.

DREPANIDAE

699 Macrocilix mysticata W\k.—One in 1928,

SATURNIIDAE

1 Actias selene Hbn.—One in 1925.

SPHINGIDAE

S 149 Pergesa elpenor L., rivularis Btlr.—One in 1928.

GEOMETRIDAE

3879 Scopula cleoraria W\k.—One in 1928.

C, CAWNPORE, NOVEMBER 1927 TO MARCH 1929

RHOPALOCERA

PAPILIONIDAE

I have no Cawnpore specimens of any f.zpzlz0, but it is almost certain that

both P. polytes and P. demoleus occurred,

PIERIDAE

Ber Lepbtosiu nina F., nina.—Not common.

B 6-1 Deltas eucharis Drury.—One only.

18} fe) Anaphets aurota F., aurota-—Fairly common.

B 9-2 Cepora (Huphina) nerissa F., phryne F.—Fairly common.

I have no Cawnpore specimens of either Catopsilia or Eurema, but it is

almost certain that at least C. crocale, C. pomona, C. pyranthe and K#. hecabe

occurred.

DANAIDAE

C 2-12 Danaus plexippus \..—One example.

C 2-15 Danaus chrysippus L.—Common.

C 3-7 Euploea core Cr., core.—Almost certainly occurred, but I have no

specimens.

SATYRIDAE

D 22-1 Melanitis leda L., ismene Cr,—Fairly common,

LOCAL LISTS OF LEPIDOPTERA FROM THE PUNJAB AND U.P. 59!

NYMPHALIDAE

F 30-1 fly polimnas misippus L.—Fairly common.

F 35-1 Precis hierta F., hterta.—Common.

F 35-2 Prects orithya L., swinhoei Bulr.—Common.

F 35-3 Precis lemonias L., vaisya Fruhs.—Common,

F 35-4 Precis almana L., almana.—Common.

/ERYCINIDAE

G 4-5 Abisara echerius Sto'l.,, suffusa Moore,—Uncommon,

LYCAENIDAE

12-9 Tarucus nara Koll.—Common.

13 Syntarucus plinius F.—Common,

24-1 Zizeeria trochilus Frr., putli Koll.—Common,

24~ 3 Zizeeria maha Koll., maka.—Common,

Zizeeria lysimon Hbn.—Common,

24-5 Zizeeria gaika Trim.—Common.

24-6 Zizeeria otis F., decreta Btlr.—Common,

28 Cosmolyce beeticus L,—Common,

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HESPERIIDAER

1 47-1 Swuastus gremius F., gremius.—Fairly common,

HETEROCERA

ARCTIIDAE

1155 Digama hearseyana Moore.—oOne.

1232 Amsacta mooret Btlr.—One.

1239 Amsacta lineola F. (Creatonotus emittens Wik.) —One.

1279 Utetheisa pulchella L.—One.

SPHINGIDAE

58109 Nephele didyma ¥.—Fairly common, also f. hespera F.

S151 Hippotion celerio \..—Fairly common,

LIMACOLIDAE

859 Parasa lepida Cr.—One.

NOCTUIDAE

1622 Huxoa spinitera HUbn. (Agrotis biconica Koll.)—Fairly common

1913 Stderidis unipuncta Haw.— Common

1601 Chloridea obsoleta F. (Heliothis armigera Hbn.)—One.

2516 Anua (Ophiusa) tirrhaca Cr.—One.

2505 FParallelia (Ophiusa) algira LL.—One.

2573 Mocis undata F. (Remigia archesia Cr.).—One.

2532 Serrodes campana Guen. (tnara Cr.).—One.

GEOMETRIDAE

3279 Hyperythra lutea Guen.—One.

YRALIDAE

4813. Eyrcta ornatalis Dup.—One in February 1934.

5073 Leucinodes orbonalis Guen.—One in February 1934.

5150 Nomophila noctuella Schiff.—One in February 1934,

592

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

2-16

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D. NAINI TAL, JUNE 1926.

RHOPALOCERA

PAPILIONIDAE

Polydorus dasavada Moore, ravana Mo ore.—One,

PIERIDAE

Pieris canidia Sparr., indica Evans.—Common,

A poria leucodice Ev., sara Evans.—Common.,

Aporia agathon Gray. ariaca Moore.—Common.

Gonepteryx rhamni L , nepalensis Dbl.—Fairly common.

DANAIDAE

Danaus aglea Cr., melanoides Moore.—Fairly common,

SATYRID'E

Lethe sidonis Hew., sidonts—Common,

Lethe verma Koll., verma—Common.

Lethe yama Moore, yama—T wo.

Pararge schakra Koll.—Common.

Erebia nirmala Moore, nirmala—Common.

Ypthima nareda Koll., zareda—Common.

Ypthima sakra Moore, nikoea Moore.—Common,

NYMPHALIDAE

Eviboea dolon Westw., dolon—Three, all drowned in the lake,

Sebhisa dichroa Koll.—Two.

Euthalia patala Koll., patalaa—Common.

Pantoporia opalina Koll., obalina—Fairly common,

Neptis yerburyt Bitr., yerburyi—Not uncommon,

Neptis hylas L., astola Moore.—Common.

Neptis navayana Moore, narayana—One.

Thyrestis thyodamas Bsd., ganescha Koll.—Commion.

Vanessa canace L., himalaya Evans.—Fairly common.

Argynnis childrent Gray, childrent.—Fairly common,

ERYCINIDAE

Dodona durga Koll.—Fairly common.

Dodona dipoeca Hew., nostia Fruhs.—Fairly common.

LYCAENIDAE

Lycaena phlaeas \.., indicus Evans.—Fairly common,

Lycaena pavana Koll.—T wo.

FHeliophorus sena Koll.—Common.

Arhopala (Amblypodia) ganesa Moore, ganesa.—Three,

HETEROCERA

ZYGAENIDAE

Campylotes histrionicus Westw.—One.

SYNTOMIDAE

Aimata (Syntomis) bicincta Koll.—Common,

ARCTIIDAE

Diacrisia casigneta Koll.—Fairly common,

Diacrisia leopardina Koll.—Two.

Listigene (Alphaea) imbuta W\k.—Two.

Estigene (Alphaea) quadris amosa Koll.—One.

Pericallia (Areas) imperialis Koll.—One.

LOCAL LISTS OF LEPIDOPTERA FROM THE PUNJAB AND U.P. 593

LYMANTRIIDAE

1011 Dasychira bhana Moore—Common.

EUPTEROTIDAE

69 Hupterote fabia Cr.—Fairly common,

BRAHMAEIDAE

Brahinaea willichit Gray—Fairly comniou.

SPHINGIDAE

Clanis deucalion W\k.—One.

Haemorrhagia savndersi Wik.—One.

Ampelophaga rubiginosa Brem., fasciosa Moore--One.

Macrogtossum bombylans Bsd.—One.

Theretra nessus Drary-—Fairly common,

Theretra oldenlandiae ¥.—One.

Rhagastis albomarginatus Roths.—Not uncommon.

NOTODONTIDAE

Gazalina chrysolopha Koll.—Fairly common. (N.B.—This species

is not a Lymantriid.)

NOCTUIDAE

Diphtherocome discibrunnea Moore—One.

Euplexia semitascia W\k., cuprea Moore—One.

Nyctipao glaucopis Wik.— Not uncommon.

Calpe ophideroides Guen —Common.

GEOMETRIDAE

Abraxas sylvata Scop.—One.

METHODS OF COLLECTION AND HATCHING OF CARP OVA IN

CHITTAGONG WITH SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR THEIR

IMPROVEMENT

Nazir AHMAD, M.Sc. (Hons.), Ph.D., F.R.S.,

Deputy Director of Fisheries, Hast Bengal

(With 5 text figures)

CONTENTS

Introduction

Main spawn collection centres

Description of collecting nets

Spawning grounds and “collection areas

Spawning season a0. a oh.

Artificial beds (Hapas), their arrangement and description

Methods of collection a Le

Condition of spawn at collection time

Methods of hatching

Xesults of some experiments :

Comparison with methods employed in other places

Suggestions for improvement

References

PAGE

593

594

595

597

598

599

600

601

594 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 47

INTRODUCTION

Bengal as a maritime province, rich in rivers, possesses an immense fisheries

potential merely waiting to be tapped by scientific methods. As is fairly well

known the major carps of this countzy, namely, Rohi (Labeo rohita), Catla (Catla

catla), and Mrigal (Cirrhina mrigala) as well as others breed prolifically in

rivers during the monsoon. But a fair quantity of the ova shed is carried down

to saline waters in such rivers as are subjected to tidal influence. In other

rivers, large quantities of spawn get blocked in nullahs, ditches and paddy

fields, etc., after floods. In either case ova, larvae and fry capable of providing

fish food to thousands of people perish owing to unfavourable physical conditions

or are devoured by animals. :

A start has already been made to save this food for the teeming millions as

ova and larvae in larger numbers are collected from rivers to stock the in-

numerable stretches of cultivable waters scattered all over the country.

The spawn collectors of Chittagong use crude methods for the collection

improving upon these crude methods. I conducted investigations at the suggestion

of Dr. S. L. Hora. The importance of the problem will be clear when it is

known that in 1945 alone, 138,040 handis containing approximately

30 ,00,00,000 (80 crores) fry were exported from this ‘area and about two

thousand persons were actually engaged in the collection of ova and very

many more in the hatching and transport of resultant fry. Hrom the

information now available it has been found that 10,160 handis of fry were

exported from this district in 1946 and 11,799 handis in 1947.

I am indebted to Dr. 8. L. Hora, Director of Zoological Survey of India

(formerly Director of Fisheries, Bengal), for inviting me to investigate this

important problem and for his guidance ungrudgingly given, whenever needed.

I am also thankful to Messrs. M. Huq and Zain-ul-Abedin, Fishery Overseers

of this Directorate, for their assistance during my investigations,

MAIN SPAWN COLLECTION CENTRES

In this province there is a fairly established and flourishing fish fry trade.

The important collecting centres of eggs, larvae and fry are numerous and far

apart but for convenience of consideration are grouped into the following

main zones by Rahman (p. 4):

(1) Rajshaht zone, comprising the left bank of the Padma (or the Ganges):

covering a distance of about 60 miles from Godagari Ghat to Sarda and small

pockets of rivers Jumna near Seraigani and the Padma near Raita.

(2) Murshidabad zone, comprising the right bank of the Padma, from

Dhulian to Lalgola Ghat, a distance of about 40 miles. and also the whole

length of the Bhagirathi which passes through Murshidabad and Nadia

districts : and

(3) Chittagong zone, comprising the zig-zag course of the river Halda, a

distance of about 16 miles within the Sadar subdivision. Unlike the first two

zones fertilized ova only are collected here.

The investigations made in the third zone, viz., the river Halda and the

information collected there form the subject matter of this short paper. The

work done at the river is far from complete and will be continued until fairly

complete success is achieved and the spawn collectors have learnt the improved

technique.

In the first two zones larvae and fry of varying sizes are collected while

in the third zone only fertilized ova are collected. Study of ova collected

from the Halda in April, 1946, revealed that they were in various stages of

development. ‘The age of the most highly developed embryos collected from

the stream, on comparison with the corresponding stages of some other fishes,

was found to be about 12-14 hours. It was clear from the study that spawning

had occurred about 12-14 hours earlier. ,

Here I wish to state that in the Halda maunds of eggs are shed

every year and with the limited food supply in the river, one can safely say

that if all the ova could be prevented from going to saline water or perishing

eee even then only a very small fraction of this number could be grown

o maturity.

COLLECTION & HATCHING OF CARP OVA IN CHITTAGONG . 595

DESCRIPTION <F COLLECTING NETS

The collecting net (Text-fig. 1) is a simple rectangular sheet of mosquito

curtain measuring from 86-39 feet in length and 9 feet in depth. The sheet is

laced with strong ropes all round. The shorter ends of the net are tied to

two vertical bamboo poles, each about 8 feet in length (Text-fig. 1). The

eats

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Text-fig. 1.

two poles are held by two spawn collectors sitting at the opposite ends of the

boat, to the sides of which the poles are fixed by the help of wooden hooks

for additional support. The net is then lowered into the water in such a

way that it remains behind the boat and does not get entangled. As soon

as the net is lowered, by the force of the current, it forms a: bag-like hollow

in which ova collect. The net is lfted when sufficient ova gather. This

process is repeated till a sufficient quantity of eggs are obtained.

SPAWNING GROUNDS AND COLLECTION AREAS

The major carps of the rivers breed at suitable places ‘in freshwater and

in the Halda at select places free from the influence of salinity. The favourite

localities (Text-fig. 2), where the fish are said to breed are Napitarghat,

Khalipharghona. Malingar tek and Bariaghonar tek. Mostly, the people of

Paschim Guvara, Urkirchar and Uttar Madarsa, living on and near the

banks of the Halda, collect the spawn. This area covers a distance of about

10 miles, extending from Napitarghat to Ramdas Munshirhat.

The spawn collectors fix their nets during the spawning season at suitable

spots in the river and examine them after short intervals. As soon as some

ova are spotted, it becomes clear that the fish are breeding or have alreadv

bred. The spawn is collected upto about 14 hours after spawning, after which

the quantity of spawn decreases and further attempt at collection is nof made.

SPAWNING SEASON

‘The spawning day generally falls within three days prior to or after

full-moon or new-moon during the months of April to July, but the time

for spawning is not fixed’ (Majumdar, 1940 p. 735). There may be as many

as four spawnings in the year, as for example, fish spawned on the 12th

April, 10th and 26th May and 10th June in the year 1945, on the Ist and

30th April, 17th May and from the 10th to 12th June in the year 1946 and

on the 28rd April and 23rd May during this year.

The belief that fish spawn only during night is not borne out by facts.

The spawning in the bund at Bankura took place at 7 a.m. on the 14th cf

July, 1946, in the Halda about 5 p.m. on the 30th April, 1946. Further,

Labeo gonius was seen spawning at 7.10 a.m. on the 20th July, 1933 (Ahmad,

BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

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COLLECTION & HATCHING OF CARP OVA IN CHITTAGONG 507

1944, p. 344), and Khan (1945, pp. 816-18) and several other workers have also

made similar observations. It is clear, therefore, that it is immaterial whether'

it is night or day, for fish shed ova as and when conditions become favourable.

It seems to be true, however, that bright sunlight does not favour spawning,

probably because it raises the temperature of the water and therefore the

eggs are not laid during bright sunny days.

It has also been noticed that the fish settle at the bottom and do not

show much sexual activity, when there is a heavy shower of rain. This may

be due to the fact that heavy rain greatly agitates the water, making

it unsuitable for the time being for shedding ova. After heavy rain,

which brings about flood and is responsible for inundating low lying areas

‘near the banks, the fish finding these and other favourable conditions migrate

to the proper places to spawn.

ARTIFICIAL BEDS (Hapas), THEIR ARRANGEMENT AND DESCRIPTION

Hapa (text-fig. 8) is the familiar vernacular term for beds scooped out

on the banks of a river. The hapas: referred to in this article are situated

on the banks of the river Halda and its tributaries. A number of hapas

are prepared at a place and are arranged according to the supply of water.

Text-fig. 8

In some places there are single rows of hapas, while im others there are

double rows, one row lying on the river side and the other away from it.

The front row of hapas is directly connected with the river either by a simple

cutting in the earth or by bamboo pipes or by other types of wooden drains

598 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HisT. SOCIETY, Vol. 4%

while the second row gets water through the front row of hapas (text-fig.

3). The drains are used to fill water into the hapas when the level of

water in the river is higher than in the hapas and for draining them, when

the level of water is lower in the stream. That is how occasionally aeration

of water in the hapas is maintained. Drainage system varies greatly in

different cases but mostly the arrangement of hapas and the drainage system

places is as shown in the figure.

The hapas can be used for one or more years depending upon the consis-

tency of the soil in which these are formed. In loose soil the hapas are

excavated annually but hapas in firm earth last several years. The hapas are

properly plastered with mud and dried before they are used. Proper operation

of the drainage is also ensured. Measurement of several hundred hapas

established that their average dimensions were 16x8 x14 feet.

METHODS OF COLLECTION

In the boat, the collectors crect two mud walls, enclosing a small area,

making something like a small hapa. This enclosure is filled with water.

In the enclosure thus formed eggs collected from the stream are transferred

for development, which is accompanied, however, by a great loss of eggs owing

to congestion and the want of proper aeration. ‘The number of eggs so lost

depends on the time factor. If eggs are collected in a short time and they

are transferred to proper hapas, the mortality will be less but if collection

takes a long time the result will be disastrous.

CONDITION OF SPAWN AT COLLECTION TIME

The ova at the time of collection are found to be in various stages of develop-

ment. Each looks like a bead with a big balloon-like covering, formed as

the result of suction of water into the space between the egg and its membrane.

As the egg is slightly heavier than water, it settles down when shed in

comparatively still water. The water absorbed serves as a medium for the

protection of the developing embryo from external injuries as well as respiration

before the larva hatches. After the embryo is almost fully formed this water

serves yet another important function. The embryo here takes to swimming

for the first time and there is no chance of its drowning. This is an important

provision for the safety of the little ones before they come in direct touch

with the external world. ‘Thus, Nature has furnished a lesson to the fish farmers

not to introduce the tiny, imexperienced and feeble larvae and fry straight-

away into the deep water and endanger their very existence.

METHODS OF HATCHING

After sufficient quantity of eggs are collected from the river, these are

transferred to the mud-enclosures in the boats and from the latter to the nets

covering hapas, which are previously filled with water. Ifor want of nets the

same curtains are used for the collection as well as for hatching ova. The net on

each hapa is allowed to sag about 6 inches below the surface of water while

the rope lacing its margins is fixed to pegs on the banks at short distances,

so that a bag-like hollow or depression is formed in the hapa. Below the bag

a few strong bamboos are placed parallel to each other, along the breadth of

the hapa. ‘These bamboos are carefully rolled from time to time with a view

to disturbing the eggs so that the ova may come to the surface. One

hapa accommodates from 4 to 10 buckets (a bucket=15 seers) of eggs,

numbering 9,00,000 to 22,00,000. These eggs lie in several layers so that

the lower layers are pressed hard. These ova are carefully and constantly

moved by twigs so that the ova may get equal chance of development. The

spawn when collected is a mixture of prawns, insect larvae, small fishes, ete.

These useless creatures are not separated from the fish ova before transferring the

latter to hapas. ‘These animals move about actively in this confinement and

injure the ova and some of them even devour them. Some of these also die

in captivity and by their decomposition fungus makes its appearance and attacks

the ova. ‘here is no regular aeration of water in the hapa.

The oya remain on the nets and the water of the hapas is not changed till

the larvae hatch out and pass through the meshes of the nets into the water of

COLLECTION & HATCHING OF CARP OVA IN CHITTAGONG — é0b

the hapas below as free individuals. This may take about 24 hours or more for

all the larvae to come out of the egg-membranes. When, however, most of the

larvae hatch out, ‘the nets with egg-shells; dead and decomposed eggs,

dead and alive insect larvae, prawns and fish are removed and washed in

the river. The fish larvae on the other hand remain in the water of the hapa

till the second day, when these are collected with the help of closely woven

sheet of cloth and introduced into another hapa containing fresh water. 'This

procedure is repeated for a week or so. If instead of transferring larvae

from one hapa to another a continuous current of water can be set up, the hatching

percentage can be increased manifold. At some of the places there was no

difficulty whatsoever in preparing such hapas.

During bright sunny days, the ova in the hapas are protected from the sun

by placing on the hapas bamboo, covered by matting.

There is another method, which is used for the embryonic development only.

Big bamboo baskets of various sizes and shapes are used for this purpose.

These are lined internally with fine cloth and in the containers thus formed

GOT, bel PY) oN a4

‘

moet

a ee

eWUoreCrelge

Cen (eee Co

Ca] (ee WG

Text-fig. 4

the ova collected from the stream are transferred. These baskets are locally

known as ‘Chang’ (text-fig. 4). These are moored in the stream.

The embryos are allowed to develop here for some hours but are transferred

to hapas before hatching takes place. The fry obtained by this process are

supposed to be more healthy than those obtained as a result of entire develop-

ment taking place in the hapas.

In the case of persons, who cannot afford to hire boats, ova are collected

in another way. One of the shorter ends of the net in this case is tied to a pole

fixed in the river while the opposite margin is held by a person standing

near the bank. Thus sufficient quantity of ova are collected by these persons.

RESULTS OF SOME EXPERIMENTS

Some experiments were conducted on a small scale to determine the best

method to get larger percentage of hatching. These experiments were not

conclusive but at least it has become clear that careless handling of ova,

crowding them on mosquito net, ete. and want of proper aeration are harmful

and destructive to the proper development of eggs and larvae. The experiments

are in progress, and the details will be published as soon as conclusive results

are obtained.

600 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 4%

CoMPARISONS WITH METHODS EMPLOYED IN OTHER PLACES

From the river Halda (sce map, text-fig. 2), and the bunds at Midnapore

(Mookerjee, Mazumdar and Dasgupta 1944) the ova are collected with the help of

mosquito curtain, which is bigger in Chittagong (from 36-39x9 feet) than in

Midnapore (74X38 feet). In the case of Bankura (Jamda Bundh), which was in-

spected in the month of July 1947, fine cloth 6x3 feet was used instead. The

mosquito net cloth, however, gives better results because only the ova remain in the

net while the water finds its way out, whereas in the case of fine cloth, it is

often difficult to get rid of water and even at the time of collection the cloth

interferes with the normal working. In a bundh at Chittagong (Majumdar,

1940 p. 787), the ova are not at all collected but are allowed to develop in

the bundh itself.

Like the collecting nets, the hapas also differ in dimensions. In Chittagong

the average dimensions were 16X8x1} feet, in Midnapore, these were

41x3x14 feet while the dimensions were found to be only 3x2}x1 feet in

Bankura. In none of these instances, however, there was any arrangement for

setting up current of water in the hapas.

In Chittageng th hapas are covered by the mosquito curtains, which sag

in water, and on this the ova are transferred. On the other hand, the ova are

transferred directly into the hapas in the districts of Midnapore and Bankura.

The first arrangement has some advantages over the second. Jirstly, the ova

can be orientated in such a way that most of them come to the surface.

Secondly, after hatching, the larvae pass through the meshes of the curtain

while the egg-membranes, dead eggs and other animals remain on the curtain

and can be removed.

The number of ova put in one hapa greatly differs in the three localities.

In Chittagong about 9 to 22 lakhs ova are put in one hapa whereas in Midnapore

about. 12,000 and in Bankura about 55,000 are treated in one hapa. If we

take 5 mm. as the average diameter of an egg, about 4} lakh ova can easily

be spread in a single layer in a hapa at Chittagong, about fifty thousand in

Midnapore and about twenty-seven thousand in Bankura.

Majumdar (1940) and Mookerjee, Mazumdar and Dasgupta (1944) have

stressed the necessity of aerating hapas for better results. The results of the

experiments conducted at Chittagong and Bankura support this view. ‘The

observations of Majumdar that ova are overcrowded in hapas in Chittagong

were mostly found to be correct but the suggestion of Mookerjee, Mazumdar and

Dasgupta that to avoid overcrowding only a cupful of eggs (about 1500) should

be kept in each hapa, does not seem practicable in view of the large number

of ova to be treated. Fifteen hundred ova will occupy only about 1/83 part

of the space, if ova arp arranged in one layer and so if their recommendation

is followed the rest of the space will remain unused. In trout hatcheries at

Katrain (Punjab), Harwan and Achhabal (Kashmir) and Avalanche (Madras),

the ova are arranged in a single layer and all the space in the trays is properly

utilised. The same practice can be followed in the present case with success.

Mookerjee, Mazumdar and Dasgupta have recommended the use of two sheets

of cloth to keep the eggs in the pits, one piece to be spread on the top of the

other, with a space in between the two. In order to keep the sheet of cloth

in place, they have recommended the use of weights in the centre.

This is a useful suggestion but can further be improved. In the present

case due to the weight in the centre, all ova will gather together in the bag-like

structure formed in the centre and this overcrowding is harmful for the develop-

ment of ova. The net can be made into a rectangular tank (text-fig. 5) like an

inverted mosquito curtain, and all the four corners of the inner tank can be

tied to the corresponding corners of the outer tank and the corners of the latter

can be fastened to four upright poles of bamboo fixed for the purpose, so that

both the tanks remain properly stretched and no bag-like structure is formed.

When the ova are transferred to such improvised tanks, these will mostly

remain in their proper positions and there will be no overcrowding at any

one spot.

Mookerjee, Mazumdar and Dasgupta have recommended the use of plants

such as Ceratophyllum and Ilydrilla for promoting natural aeration in hapas.

These plants will not be useful for two reasons :—

(1) In netting iarvae they cause obstruction; and

(2) At night and on cloudy days these will reduce oxygen through respiration.

COLLECTION & HATCHING OF CARP OVA IN CHITTAGONG 601

The principle followed in the case of trout hatcheries after suitable

modifications will probably be the best course to follow in the present case.

SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVEMENTS

(1) Handis or pucca earthen vessels should be used in place of mnd-enclosures

in the boats for usually a lot of mud dissolves in water, rendering the water

muddy and injurious for the development of ova and larvae.

(2) Ova collected from the stream should be transferred to hapas after

short intervals instead of piling them for a long time in mud-enclosures in

the boats. By this procedure more oxygenated water and space can be provided

for the development of the ova.

(3) The ova should be separated as far as possible, from debris and animals

before transferring them to hapas.

(4) The ova in the net should not be piled in heaps but should be arranged

in a layer. It was seen that in one of the hapas, where about 60 lakh ova

were placed, the owner could get only about 2 lakh larvae while from a hapa

of the same dimensions and under similar conditions containing about 8 lakh ova,

the larvae obtained were more than two lakhs.

(5) Continuous current of water from the river should be set up in the hapa,

wherever possible.

(6) Below the mosquito netting a sheet of fine cloth should be placed in

the hapa, as shown in figuye 5. By this method all the larvae can be collected

in the lower sheet and labour of collecting them from the hapa will be saved.

Moreover, the larvae which cannot ke gathered from the hapa and are lost to the

collector, will also be saved.

(7) After the collection of ova is over, attempts should be made to collect

larvae and fry from the stream. Tor the collection of larvae and fry the net

known at Rajshahi and Murshidabad as ‘Benchijal’ can be used. For the

figure of this net refeyence may be made to Rahman (1946).

REFERENCES

Ahmad, Nazir, 1944—'The spawning habits and early stages in the develop-

ment of the carp, Labeo gonius (Hamilton), with hints for distinguishing eggs,

embryos and larvae of Labeo gonius, Cirrhina mrigala and Wallagonia attu.

Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci., India, X, pp. 343-54.

Khan, Hamid, 1945—‘Symposium on the factors influencing the spawning of

Indian carps. Observations on the spawning behaviour of carp in the Punjab’.

Majumdar, C.H., 1940—‘Spawning grounds and hatcheries in the district

Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci., India, XI, pp. 315-820. 7

of Chittagong, Bengal’. Science and Culture, pp. 735-789,

602 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Mookerjee, H.K., Mazumdar, §8.R. and Dasgupta, B.N., 1944-~Observations

on the breeding ground and spawning habits of certain Indian Carps in the

Midnapore district, Bengal, with suggestions for their breeding, collection of

eggs and the rearing of fry’. Journ. Dept. Sci., Calcutta University, pp. 81-91.

Rahman, Q.M., 1946—A note on the fish fry trade in Bengal. Government

of Bengal, Calcutta, pp. 1-85.

EXPLANATION OF TEXT-FIGURES

Text-fig. 1. Mosquito-curtain used in the river Halda, Chittagong, for collection

of eggs.

Text-fig. 2. Sketch map of a portion of the Halda showing spawn collection area.

Text-fig. 8. <A typical arrangement of hapas in Chittagong.

Text-fig. 4. ‘Chang’, used for embryonic development.

Text-fig. 5. A double cloth tank, used for experiments in the Halda.

WILD LIFE PRESERVATION:

INDIA’S VANISHING ASSET

Lt.-CoL. R. W. BuRTON

This contribution to the Journal of the Society was in course of

preparation when there appeared in the‘ Madras Mail’ newspaper of

6th January 1948 an article by Mr. D. Dorai Rajan under the caption,

‘Preserve India’s Wild Life—an appeal for Government action.’

It is well that the first ventilation of this urgently important

subject in the public press since the 13th August 1947 should have

been put forward by a nationai of the new India.

Mr. Rajan’s plea deals with South India only, so a similar plea

with regard to both the dominions into which this sub-continent has

been recently divided is now placed before the members of the

Bombay Natural History Society—which has been for many years

in actual fact an All-India Society—and the readers of the Journal,

and through them to the public at large, the Governments of India

and of Pakistan ; all the Provincial Governments and rulers of States,

and all owners of land.

THE BomBay NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

For many years the Society, through the medium of its Journal

and other attractive publications, has endeavoured to create and

stimuiate in India an interest in the wild life of the country. During

the past sixty years there have appeared in the Journal upwards of

fifty longer and shorter articles and editorials on the subject. It was

to a great extent owing to the Society that Act XX of 1887, ‘An Act

for the Preservation of Wild Birds and Game’ (passed after neatly 30

years’ agitation in the matter), was replaced by ‘ The Wild Birds and

Animals Protection Act (VIII of 1912) which, together with the Indian

Forest Act (XIV of 1927) is the basis of all rules in force at the

present time. | xsork

WILD LIFE “PRESERVATION 693

PRINCIPLES

In all civilized countries there is a general recognition of the need

for concerted and practical measures to stop the forces of destruction

which threaten wild life in all parts of the world. The principle is

the <ame everywhere, the methods to be employed must vary in

every country, and will also vary in different parts of the same

country. That has special application to India as a whole, and is

the reason why legislation on wild life in this country has been

complex and difficult.

‘Until it is recognized that Wild Life is a valuable natural

resource, and the benefits derived from an unguarded resource are

wasting benefits, waste will continue until the resource has gone and

the benefits have vanished. No natural resource is more sensitive to

consetvation than Wild Life, and no natural resource has suffered more

from lack of conservation. During the last sixty years species have

been exterminated due to this deficiency.’ (Hubback).

At the present time the pace and extent of the waste is alarming.

In this country there is the gravest need for concerted action.

‘In its fauna and flora nature has endowed India with a

magnificent asset. A further interest attaches to our wild life from

its association with the folk-lore and legendary beliefs of the country.

It is an interest not confined to India alone, but which has spread

among men of culture everywhexe because of the esteem and admira-

tion in which her sacred books and writings are held.’ (Prater).

BIRDS

Although birds are not now persecuted to the same extent as

animals, yet an enormous amount of unnecessary and preventible

damage is going on. One bright spot in india, as Champion has re-

marked, is that non-game birds are not harried to the same extent as

used to be the case in some western countries, for the Indian boy does

not amuse himself by uselessly collecting vast numbers of birds’ eggs.

But India had the dreadful plumage trade, which was far worse.

The Great Indian Bustard is becoming increasingly scarce and has

gone from areas where it was common not many years ago. The

Monal Pheasant and the Tragopan of the Himalayas have been saved

only through prohibition of export of plumage. Other birds saved

from what would have practically become extermination through the

extremely lucrative plumage trade were peacocks and _ black

patridges, egrets, jungle-cocks, paddy-birds, kingfishers, jays and

rollers, orioles and a host of others. The governments controlling

Pondicherry, Goa and other ports on the coasts of India co-operated,

so the traffic was stopped. But there were many subsequent cases of

smuggling, and these will certainly recur if the plumage trade

measures are ever relaxed.

All interested in bird life should take warning through perusal of

Mr. Dodsworth’s illuminating article. (17)

Now that Burma is separated from India it behoves the govern-

ments through their Customs Departments to be increasingly vigilant,

not only at all the ports but through the post offices and along the

land frontiers also.

604. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

NomaApbic ‘TRIBES

In all tracts where the snaring and netting of ground game is the

hereditary occupation of various nomadic tribes partridges, quail,

florican, hares are fast disappearing. ‘These people, expert in their

calling for untold generations, sweep the country as a broom sweeps

the floor; nothing is passed over, nothing is spared.

The time has long past when snarers of indigenous game birds

should be allowed to continue to earn a livelihood in that way; in

any case all markets should be denied them, and public opinion

should recognize that flesh of such wild creatures is not in these days

at all necessary for human existence and should ban the killing of

them for food alone. Properly regulated sport may be allowed |

during the seasons prescribed by local governments in respect of

each species.

Within a considerable distante also of Calcutta, Bombay, Madras

and other large places markets are supplied in season and out of

season through other agencies and local ‘shikaris’ in spite of the

local government close season rules under Act VIII of 1912.

Even if legislation on lines suggested in this article is effected,

however much it can and may help in the endeavour to protect wild

life, anything like practical success is possible only if there is a

strong Public Opinion co-operating with the governments. That

cannot be too often reiterated.

Value of Birds.

In connexion with all that is written above the thought-provoking

article, ‘ Bird Protection in India: Why it is necessary and How it

should be controlled, by Salim A. Ali, M.B.O.U., contributed in

1933 to the U.P. Association should be read by all governing bodies.

Indeed it is most essential to national India that bird life should be

adequately conserved. For ‘Quite apart from a sentimental value,

birds render incalculable service to man. Without their protection

our crops, our orchards, our food supply would be devoured by

hordes of ravaging insects. Birds are the principal agency that

controls the bewildering multiplication of insect life which, if

unchecked, would overwhelm all life on this planet.’ (Prater).

SPECIES IN DANGER

Mammals: The Great One-horned Rhinoceros has only been saved

by special measures and these, if in any way relaxed, willinevitably lead

to its extinction. A close relative to the above the Lesser One-

horned Rhinoceros (sondaicus), which has been within the memory

of many an inhabitant of the Sunderbans jungles and other tracts,

has completely disappeared—none now exist on the soil of India.

The Asiatic Two-horned Rhinoceros which. occurred in parts of

Assam has gone from there for ever, and both these species are

approaching the vanishing point in Burma and-other countries where

they were formerly in fairnumber. In Burma the Thamin Deer is

probably doomed to extinction.

WILD LIFE PRESERVATION 605

In Western Pakistan and neighbouring mountains the Straight-

horned Markhor is rapidly disappearing; and if the Punjab Urial is

not carefully preserved that species will not long survive.

The Indian Antelope (Black Buck) is becoming increasingly

scarce and will eventually only be preserved through protection; to

a less extent the same can be said of the Indian Gazelle. The

Cheetah or Hunting Leopard, was not uncommon in the central parts

of the peninsula but is now practically extinct in a wild state. The

Wild Buffalo has almost gone from the areas east of the Godavari

river where it was common not long ago; and it needs continued

protection in Assam. ‘The Asiatic Lion in India has only survived in

its last stronghold through protection in the Gir Forest of the

Junagadh State in Kathiawar.

‘in many districts the larger animals have been totally wiped

out. In others, where they were once common, they are now

hopelessly depleted. There are a few parts of India where the

position of wild life isto some extent satisfactory, though insecure.

Equally there are extensive areas where conditions are so appalling

that, if left unchecked, they must lead to the complete destruction of

all the larger wild creatures which live in them.’ (Prater.)

Year in year out there is terrible destruction throughout the

enormous tract of mostly hilly and forested country comprising the

Eastern States, from the Godavari river as far as Bengal, some of

which are being now merged into India. The methods of the

aboriginal tribes inhabiting this huge area (and other parts of

India also) are those of extinction, for they net, snare, shoot all edible

living creatures at all possible seasons and particularly during the

hot weather months when water at the few pools is a necessity to all

and renders them an easy prey.

In the Himalayan mountains also where control is difficult wild

animals are definitely decreasing, and only to be found in any number

in the more inaccessible places.

TIME FOR DECISION

The Governments have to decide without delay if wild life is to

be effectually preserved or the present lamentable state of affairs

aliowed to continue. In the latter event there can be but one result—

the total and irreplaceable extinction of some forms of wild life, with

everywhere woeful reduction in number of all wild animals and many

species of birds.

There is no middle course. Half measures will be futile and

waste of time. Wild life is a national and natural asset which, if it

is ever lost, can never be replaced. It is necessary that governments

should give a lead, a strong and unambiguous lead.

India and Pakistan should be proud to stand side by side with

other civilized countries of the world in saving their fauna from

extinction.

In these days public opinion should recognize that flesh of wild

animals is not necessary to human existence ; but public opinion may

not eventuate for many along day. Meat-eaters want something for

nothing and care not how they getit. Posterity means nothing to

them, .

606 JOURNAL, BOMBAY’ NATURAL “HIST. “SOCIETY, Vol. 47

One instance. In November 1947 six shot carcasses of chital

hinds were found with a man in a country bazaar in a British district.

Police said prosecution doubtful because no evidence as to where the

animals were killed. But a so-called ‘ Sanctuary ’ was not far distant.

Burden of proof should be on the possessor. In any case Rules

under Act VIII of 1912 must have been contravened and conviction

could have been had.

Legislation, and that very speedily, should absolutely prohibit

offering for sale, possession for sale, or marketing in any way the

hides, horns, flesh or any other part of any indigenous wild animal

throughout the year. And, as was done by Notification in 1902 to

suppress the plumage trade, so also should the trade in products of

wild animals be stopped by prohibition of export by sea, and by

land now that Burma is independent of India.

It would appear that there is no possible objection on religious

ot other grounds to a general law throughout the whole country to the

above effect. Profits are large and really deterrent sentences would

be necessary.

Public Opinion

At the present time public opinion as to wild life preservation is

almost non-existent in this country. It is only through public opinion

that wild life can be saved and preserved through all the future

years.

Hear a great statesman of former days in another land :—

‘Jn proportion as the structure of a Government gives force to

public opinion, it is essential that public opinion should be enlighten-

ed.’ (George Washington)

In these days that is done through the many avenues o

propaganda.

Propaganda

Political parties in this country have been able to rapidly rouse

and educate public opinion in all kinds of political matters. Is it not

therefore possible that through like efforts the thoughts of the people

can be directed towards the necessity of the conservation of this

national asset of wild life? It caz be done. Great are the powers

of propaganda.

Let the secular and religious leaders of the people lend their

great influence and abundant powers of persuasion to furtherance of

this most pressing need. Where there are religious influences at

work wild life is sacrosanct. AJl of us know that. We see it every-

where: peafowl, parrots, pigeons, monkeys, nilgai and other species—

fish in sacred river pools. Even where some of these creatures cause

much loss and damage to growing crops and to gathered grain they

are protected through religion.

Where the rulers of States have made their wishes known and

enforced, wonderful are the results. Instances are known to those

having this subject at heart; a number are known t» the writer. —

WILD LIFE PRESERVATION 607

ENEMIES TO WILD LIFE PRESERVATION :

FORGETFULNESS—INDIFFERENCE—IGNORANCE—GREED FOR GAIN

Laws are enacted, rules are made and forgotten, for there 1s no

continuity of official enforcement and no public opinion to keep them

in mind,

India

ithin not many years Act VIII of 1912 was forgotten, the wide

scope of its provisions unknown. ‘The rules under the Act were

ignored and its provisions a dead letter.

1933. ‘The Governor in Council has reason to believe that there

has been little improvement in the administration of

this Act and that subordinate officials are, not in-

frequently, offenders against its provisions, Xx xX xX xX

it is believed that sheer ignorance of close seasons is

in many cases the cause of offences against the Act’....,

Ceylon

Notwithstanding a much interested and powerful Game and

Fauna Protection Society, the many difficulties of which are related

in Vol. 35. pp. 666 et seq, it has not been possible to effectually

preserve wild life. The Annual Report for the 54th Season states :—

‘ Poaching is undoubtedly on the increase, and in some areas whole-

sale destruction goes on.’ And that is after 54 years of endeavour

to save the fauna of the island for posterity !

How could it be otherwise ? In 1907 the reply of the Ceylon

Government to urgent representations of the Society for effective

action elicited the reply, ‘Our Game Laws are quite efficient, but

we regret we have not the power to enforce them.’ It would seem

that the same answer would have to be given to-day.

Up to now the position in India has been similar to that. ‘The

laws and rules are well framed but are not sufficiently enforced,’

(Editors). It cannot be too often asserted, ‘ Existing laws and

rules are excellent in themselves but it is in the efficient application

of them the trouble arises.’ (Editors)

Guns and Greed

Apart from genuine sportsmen, it is the possessors of guns and

rifles who do the greatest amount of harm. In many cases it is not

the actual licensee who does the damage, but the illegal habit of

lending or hiring out the weapon to others. Could the abuse of

license granted as a personal privilege be stopped much good would

result. But how is this to be done? Only through public opinion

could it be effectually curtailed. So what? Suggestions as to Arms

Act, if carried out, would do some good.

It is as a poacher that man is the great destroyer; and the main

incentive is profit by selling hides, horns, meat—to a less degree, is

it meat only. In some places local dealers finance the village shikari,

providing him with guns and ammunition in exchange for hides, ete.

Sambar and chital hides and heads are openly bought and sold in

many bazaars and there is nothing to prevent it. Sale of trophies is

-common in many large towns and cities. To deprive sellers of their

608 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

markets by effectively enforced legislation and through public

Opinion is the only way to remove temptation to kill for profit. If

there were no buyers there could be no sellers. Utopia!

Crop PROTECTION

It has always been pointed out, and is notorious, that crop

protection and other weapons are used for the slaughter of game

animals in adjacent and further forests regardless of all laws, rules,

age, sex, season, or any other consideration whatever than profit.

All this and other poaching is mostly carried on in Government

forests, for there are to be found more animals than outside them.

So far as crop protection goes the argument in the mind of the

cultivator is that if there are no animals the crops will not be eaten,

so he may as well hasten the coming of the welcome day and mean-

while make money for himself and provide meat to the community.

Guns:

The great increase over former years in the number of licenced

guns is producing its inevitable adverse effect; and there is the mass

of unlicenced weapons carefully concealed and constantly used.

While the reduction in the number of weapons is admittedly a difficult

matter—the withdrawal of crop protection guns during the seasons

when the crops are off the ground and the guns not needed for legiti-

mate use is a reasonable proposition. That would be of much benefit

as those are the months in whicn they do the most harm.

A suggestion from Assam was that crop protection guns now

owned by villagers (more especially those inside Government forests)

might be acquired by Government for temporary issue at the right

time and withdrawal when no crops, or for other reason.

It is not likely, however, that Provincial Governmenis would

adopt these gun withdrawal suggestions on account of practical

difficulties and extra work to District Magistrates and other officials.

A proposal advocated by many is that crop-protection weapons

should be licenced for cut-short barrels only. Cogent arguments

against such modified weapons are that they are more liable to be

loaded with buckshot, so causing many animals to be wounded and

lost; are dangerous in hands of such personsas ordinary cuitivators ;

and such restriction would cause an increase of concealed weapons

for poaching.

It has been demonstrated in South India by Colonel R. C. Morris

that bamboo-tube rocket-firing ‘ guns’ are both cheap and effective

for scaring crop-raiding wild elephants, so firearms need not be used

against them by cultivators.

Such ‘ guns’ could also be effectually used in many forest areas

against other crop-raiding animals and so enable a large reduction in

the number of guns now licenced for ostensible crop protection.

THE ARMS ACT

Some suggestions.

Firearms licences are issued for :—

(1) Sfort. These should be breech-loaders, and in case of

rifles may be magazine weapons. Automatic weapons and muzzle-

WILD LIFE PRESERVATION 609

loaders should not be licensed for sport. The former lead to

indiscriminate firing, the latter to cruelty through use of buckshot,

bits of iron, old nails &c.

(2) Crop and cattle protection. ‘These should be smoothbore

euns only; and being by law available at holder’s residence only,

due care on part of licensing officer can limit use of the weapon to

within village boundaries only. ‘These are surveyed and marked in

forest maps so above entry would have effect of a conviction where

otherwise a loophole might exist. Perusal of an annotated edition of

Arms Act and Rules is illuminating as to number of avenues for

escape of the wrong-doer under all categories.

(3) Personal protection. The only weapons allowed, unless the

license is for sport also, should be revolver or pistol. A rifle or

shotgun is easily robbed and just as easily turned against the

possessor.

(4) Display. This meaning ‘show with ostentation’ such

weapons only as are non-lethal should be licensed for this purpose,

In all cases license should be plainiy crossed with words ‘ Sport

only’ or ‘ Personal protection only’ etc., as the case may be.

Licenses for possession of smoothbore guns are ordinarily issued

on application and without previous enquiry. Other licenses are

issued to persons of approved character and status, this latter being

as may be prescribed by the Local Government.

Were the foregoing suggestions adopted there would be no real

hardship to anyone, and wild life might greatly benefit.

AGRICULTURE AND WILD LIFE

For purposes of wild life conservation lands may be classified in

five main categories :— Urban—A gricullural—Weaste—Private— Fo est,

Urban Lands.

In these, measures should be taken for the protection of all birds.

Areas actually under the control of municipalities or local boards

could with advantage be constituted bird sanctuaries where the

killing of, or taking the eggs of, any wild bird should be forbidden.

The necessary machinery is at hand in Act VIII of 1912, relevant

sections of which are here given for use with this and other parts of

this contribution.

Whereas it is expedient ‘

1. (1) This Act may be called the Wild Birds and Animals Pro-

tection Act 1912; and

(2) It extends to the whole of British India, including British

Baluchistan, the Sonthal Parganas and the Pargana of

Spiti.

2. (1) This Act applies, in the first instance, to the birds and

animals specified in the Schedule when in their wild

state.

(2) The Local Government may, by notification in the local

official Gazerte, apply the provisions of this Act to any

kind of wild bird or animal other than those specified in

the Schedule which, in its opinion, it is desirable to

protect or preserve.

bio JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Vol. 47

3. The Local Government may, by a notification in the local

official Gazette, declare the whole year or any part thereof to be a

close time throughout the whole or any part of its territories for any

kind of wild bird or animal to which this Act applies, or for female

or immature wild birds or animals of such kind; and subject to the

provisions hereinafter contained, during such close time, and within

the areas specifiea in such notification, it shall be unlawful

(a2) to capture any such bird or animal, or to kill any such

bird or animal which has not been captured before the

commencement of such close time;

(6) to sell or buy, or offer to sell or buy, or to possess any

such bird or animal which has been captured or killed

during such close time, or the flesh thereof ;

or killed during such close time, to sell or buy or to

offer to sell or buy, or to possess such plumage.

4, 5, 6, 7. Penal and other provisions,

8. Nothing in this Act shall be deemed to apply to the capture or

killing of a wild animal by any person in defence of himself or any

other person, or to the capture or killing of any wild bird or animal

in dona fide defence of property.

9, Repeals Act XX of 1887.

The Schedule

(1) Bustards, ducks, floricans, jungle fowl, partridges, peafowl,

pheasants, pigeons, quail, sandgrouse, painted snipe,

spurfowl, woodcock, herons, egrets, rollers and king-

fishers.

(2) Antelopes, asses, bison, buffaloes, deer, gazelles, goats,

hares, oxen, rhinoceros and sheep.

In 1915 (vol. 24 p. 382) it was pointed out that the practice of

taking the eggs of sitting pheasants and partridges is becoming

increasingly common and to this malpractice the Act provides no

safeguard. That suggestion has not been followed. ‘To the above

may now be added that it is a common practice to rob for food the

eggs of indigenous wildfowl—the Spot-bill Duck and the Cotton

Teal.

The suggested amendment to section 3 was addition of a clause

regarding eggs and nests. This suggestion is now again brought

to notice as desirable.

‘To take or possess, to sell or buy, or offer to sell or buy, an egg

or eggs or nest of any such bird’.

Agricultural Lands.

Here lies the clash between the interests of Man and Animal; for

which there are two main reasons.

Firstly, the population of the country is increasing by about five

millions yearly, so the areas under cultivation are extending, and

must continually extend to the utmost limit, which means the con-

tinual absorption of all cultivable waste lands and secondary forest

lands.

WILD LIFE PRESERVATION | 6i1

Secondly there is the imperative need of protecting present and

future cultivated lands from wild animals.

In some parts, where cultivation is contiguous to or near Reserved

forests the depredations of wild animals present one of the most

serious handicaps the cultivator has to face. The animals are not

only deer and pig and some species of birds, but nilgai, monkeys

and parrots which are protected by religious beliefs.

‘Human progress must continue, and in the clash of interests

between Man and the Animals human effort must not suffer. But

this problem has been faced by other countries. Cannot a reasonable

effort be made to face it in our own ? That an intensive development

of the agricultural resources of a country may accompany a sane and

adequate policy for the conservation of its wild life is shown by the

measures taken to this end by all progressive countries.’ (Prater)

But in those countries there is universal literacy, a people easily

educated to a proper public opinion, and where the masses do not

clamour for possession of guns and rifles and even for repeal of the

Arms Act.

Waste Lands.

These are beyond redemption as to wild life, and in any case all

that are at all cultivable will soon be merged with Agricultural lands.

Private Lands.

The general concensus of opinion is that in most ordinary tracts

the position is hopeless. The people have been educated to destroy,

and there is no agency to stop it. Only through the owners them-

selves and through propaganda can any change be wrought: and

before these operate the position is likely to be beyond any remedy.

Some private lands, however, have forests for which rules have

been framed to regulate hunting and shooting, while in others no rules

have been framed. ‘The wild life situation in all these depends on

the amount of control exercised by the landowners. Some United

Provinces landowners maintain renowned Swamp Deer preserves.

The Wild Birds and Animals Protection Act, 1912, deals with the

right of private owners only in so far as it prohibits the shooting of

the specified animals whether on private lands or elsewhere. ‘This

prohibits private owners killing females of deer, etc, and killing

during prescribed close seasons.

Government Forests.

These are of several kinds and mostly under the Forest Depart-

ment, but some are under Revenue Department; none of the latter

are Reserved Forests.

While it is essential that the cultivator should have reasonable

latitude to defend his property, it is equally essential that there should

be certain areas of Reserved Forests, where the laws and rules for

protection of wild life are, or should be, rigidly enforced.

State-owned Reserved Forests, similar forests in the Indian states

in the Terai tracts of the frontier states of Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan

and some private forests are now, and must continue in future to

remain the natural sanctuaries for wild life in this country.

612 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 47

That purpose they would adequately fulfil as regards most of the

species in the Schedule were they adequately guarded. That is the

crux of the whole problem. And with that is linked the proper

enforcement of the relevant laws and rules governing the possession

and use of firearms and the control of legitimate sport.

Legttimate Sport

Shooting rules and license conditions for Reserved Forests as at

present framed for the several provinces and districts, also for some

of the larger states, are good and well adapted to local conditions.

They provide against all conditions, all malpractices, including the

motor vehicle and use of torch against deer.

Licence fees are on the whole rather cheap; and where the

Shooting Block system does not obtain, and District or Forest Divi-

sion licenses are issued fora whole year on payment of a very smali

fee, the introduction of the Block System would cause a larger

number of sportsmen to visit the forests. This is productive of

much good, for when right-thinking sportsmen are in the forests,

poaching is held in check for the time being ; and the sportsman can

(or should) report such malpractices as come to his notice.

The short term license system also enables the controlling

officer to regulate the number of species, whether deer, etc. or

carnivora, for each block in his Division. Such control preserves the

balance of Nature and aids efficient protection.

Where a change is necessary is the adoption everywhere of the

Assam atrangement by which the sportsman has to pay a fixed royalty

for.each animal shot by him under his license. The system makes

sportsmen more careful as to animals they shoot at, and aids needed

funds for a Wild Life Department.

Wild Life and/or Game Associations

Where these exist they are, if well organized and conducted,

wholly productive of good. There is the Association for the

Preservation of Game in the United Provinces through which the

All-India Conference for the Protection of Wild Life was held at

Delhi in January 1935 and the Hailey National Park established in

the Kalagarh Forest Division. At the Conference it was declared

that, “Indian Wiid Life could only be saved by Public Opinion,

and that legislation, however efficient, could do little in matters

like these without the whole-hearted support of the Public.” How

true. Where isthe Public Opinion? Where is the support of the

public ? What is the state of wild life at this thirteen years later date ?

In Northern Bengal are three shooting and fishing associa-

tions :—

(1) Darjeeling Fishing and Shooting Association.

(2) Tista-Torsa Game and Fishing Association.

(3) Torsa-Sankor Game and Fishing Association.

In Madras is the 69 years old Nilgiri Game Association but for

which little wild life would now exist in that district. Continuity of

purpose, efficient control.

In 1933 an Association for the Preservation of Wild Life in

South India was inaugurated at Madras by the then Governor of the

WILD LIFE PRESERVATION 613

Presidency, but it came to nothing and has never been heard of since

then. Continuity of Purpose—Public Opinion these basic essentials

do not exist. Without them there can be no effectual preservation

of wild life for posterity.

NATURAL BNEMIES OF WILD LIFE

Tigers. Where in forest areas deer have been excessively reduced

in number through poaching the tiger turns increased attention to

cattle killing. The tiger needs the pursuit of deer to satisfy his

hunting instincts, and where the balance of nature in this respect is

not unduly disturbed he is of benefit, as also the panther, to the

cultivator of land within the forests and along its borders, for he

keeps the deer and wild pig population within natural limits. But

where the stock of deer is unduly reduced not only are all the deer

killed out but the tiger is forced to prey on cattle; and as these are

penned at night he is compelled to change his habits and hunt by day.

That is when he takes great toll of grazing cattle and sometimes

turns against the people also. Then the cultivators clamour for pro-

tection from the menace brought about by the unlawful poaching

done by themselves and others.

Panthers. ‘These are less destructive to village cattle as they

prey on sounders of pig anda variety of smaller animals ordinarily

ignored by the tiger; but they also kill cattle and other domestic stock

to a greater extent when the balance of nature has been disturbed.

In areas where panthers have been unduly reduced through rewards

for their destruction there kas resulted such an increase of wild pig

as to necessitate rewards to reduce their number.

ven predatory animals (not wild dogs) have a distinct value asa

controlling influence against over-population by species whose

unrestricted increase would adversely affect the interests of man.

The balance of nature cannot be unduly disturbed with impunity.

Wild Dogs. These are wholly destructive of game animals and

can be given no mercy. Rewards should not exceed Rs 15/- fora

larger sum induces frauds of several kinds. Disbursing officers

should have by them skins and skulls by which to check those pro-

duced ; and skins for reward must have tails and skulls attached and

these be effectively destroyed when reward paid.

Best methods for reducing wild dog population are through

digging out breeding lairs, and strychnine poisoning of carcasses by

instructed persons.

Crocodiles. Inthe jungles of India the crocodile is not the menace

to human life that he is in Borneo, Sumatra, etc., and Africa. But

where there are dry-season jungle pools in reserved and other forests

crocodiles do an enormous amount of damage to all creatures, deer

especially, which are forced to drink at those places.

Tt should be the duty of the Wild Life Department to destroy as

many of them as possible. Visiting sportsmen should also give help

in the matter.

UNNATURAL ENEMIES

Cattle diseases. A great cause of much periodical mortality to

buffalo and bison is through rinderpest. Against the introduction

of this by grazing cattle effective action has been found impossible.

6i4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. ,,

Crop ENEMIES

Elephants. Effective legislation was enacted in 1873 and 1879 to

protect the elephant. In these days of mechanical haulage the preser-

vation of these animals is not necessary in such large number as

formerly. In some areas it is now very definitely necessary that re-

gulated thinning out of herds and crop protection methods be

initiated to protect landowners and cultivators from the great damage

they suffer. This should be done by the suggested Wild Life

Department on systems to meet local conditions.

There is also the need to have proclaimed rogues speedily dealt

with. In most cases these animals have become dangerous because

cultivators wound them by use of inadequate weapons. Local

Sportsmen may or tnay not be available to quickly deal with these

beasts with consequence of further delay and more loss of life and

property.

Where elephants have to be thinned out or killed the Wild Life

Department's specially recruited and trained set of men—6 to 8 for

each Province needing them—armed with Government rifles and

controlled by the Provincial Warden can be directed to the area.

They would also deal with proclaimed carnivora.

It can be anticipated that the demand for elephants in India will

before long be reduced to the few needed for timber extraction in

difficult areas, for riding and transport duties by the Forest and Wild

Life Departments, for ceremonial purposes, for ivory, and for zoo-

logical purposes.

Therefore it can be reasonably said that elephant herds in some

areas—Southern Circle, Bombay, North Coimbatore, Kollegal and

the Wynaad for instance—could be reduced to a minimum: and

herds in parts of Bengal, Assam, Orissa, in places where they may be

greatly oppressing the cultivators could be also thinned out.

These suggested operations would not in any way endanger the

continuance of the species.

Wild Pigs. Deer and the like are crop raiders, but it is the wild

pig which is the principal crop destroyer both in the open country,

adjacent to the forests and within the forests. Where the balance of

nature has not been disturbed the larger carnivores take care of the

surplus pig population harbouring in the forests. It is not by the

_Jone-working cultivator with his gun that any impression is made on

the number of pig.

Some 25 vears ago it was realized by the Bombay Government

that damage to crops by wild pig amounted to crores of rupees.

Measures to deal with the trouble outside reserved forests included

clearance of cactus and thorn thickets and other such coverts

together with organization of inter-village pig drives. ‘Those

measures will have had good results if continued as a fixed policy,

but not otherwise.

At the time of writing (end of January 1948) the Government of

India have been asked by the Government of the Central Provinces to

supply arms and ammunition for use of cultivators against wild pig.

If the weapons are used against pig only, and at organized drives

only, good may result, but if not so controlled they will assuredly be

turned against the fast dwindling wild life.

WILD LIFE PRESERVATION Or

NATIONAL PARKS

‘Those who have knowledge of the subject are of opinion that

India is not yet ready for these. The Hailey National Park, the

situation of which conforms in most respects to conditions laid down

for a sanctuary (Smith) is specially situated and may be a success.

A full account of it would be welcomed by members of the Society.

The Banjar Valley Reserved Forests area in the Central Provinces

is perhaps suited for eventual status of a National Sanctuary

(not Park). The case for it is outlined by Dunbar Brander. Buffalo,

lost to it not many years ago could be re-introduced; otherwise it

contains all the wild animals of the plains except elephant, lion, and

gazelle. Elephants are not wanted as there are plenty in other

provinces.

Even fifteen years ago the area was admittedly tremendously

poached.

SANCTUARIES

All sportsmen are agreed that these are of little use unless

adequately guarded and, as that has not yet been found possible

in India, such areas merely become happy hunting grounds for

poachers from far and near. ‘The constant presence of sportsmen of

the right kind has been found the best guarantee for preservation

of wild life in Reserved Forests.

There are however, tracts and forests where wise forethought

and administration can, with the willing co-operation of the people if

that can be obtained, do much to preserve wild life for posterity.

Under the present re-organization of India a number of the

smaller States, and many lands privately owned, within which wild

life has had no regulated protection, will now be brought within the

laws of the rest of the country to the benefit of wild life in all its

aspects—-if the laws are properly enforced.

The notable contributions on the Problem of Wild Life Preser-

vation by Mr. S. H. Prater, the Society’s Curator, on the 10th August

1933, and by forest officers for India, and Smith and Hubback for

Burma are of the greatest value and recommended for careful study

by all governments in this country.

A WILD LIFE DEPARTMENT

Forest Officers of the regime now ending have been of opinion.

that animals inside reserved forests should not be removed from the

protection of the Forest Department and placed in the charge of a

separate department. Their argument has been that the present

system has worked well; such action would create resentment and.

alienate the all-important sympathy of the powerful Forest Depart-

ment; and that a Game Department would be in no better case

than the Forest Department for dealing with breaches of laws and

rules.

On the other hand sportsmen and others with many years of

experience are of opinion that under the present changed conditions

forest officers, while not relieved of all responsibility, should be

relieved of their present whole-time onus and share the burden of

616 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 4;

preservation of wild life with a specially organized Wild Life

Department.

Why should not the two departments work amicably in liaison ?

There need be no friction. The appointment of Honorary Wardens

has not always proved a success, not on account of any disagreements

but because the conservation of wild life is a whole time duty which

no man with other interests and work to do can efficiently perform.

There could be Honorary Wardens to assist the Government

Wardens and enthusiasts could be found for that work.

It has not been that all forest officers have been keen on the

preservation of the larger game animals; some sylviculturists have

expressed definite opinions against any deer being allowed in the

forests, but movable fencing has been found a sufficient protection

to special plantations.

In these days of intensive exploitation of timber and forest

produce the work of forest administration has become more and

more exacting and the officers find it exceedingly difficult to give

time in office and out of doors to work which brings in no revenue

and is considered of subsidiary importance.

Would not Forest Officers welcome the considerable measure of

relief which the formation of a Wild Life Department would afford

them? Surely they would. Neither their pay nor their prestige

would be in any way affected.

It has been experienced that an unbribable staff of Game Watchers

has been difficult to procure. That again is strong reason why there

should be whole time Wardens whose interest would be to prevent

malpractices.

A Wild Life Department means that continuity of purpose with-

out which all endeavour is of no avail.

Money and Funds. ‘The whole question is a matter of money.

Wild Life cannot be effectualiy conserved without spending

money on an organization for the purpose. It is necessary to recog-

nize the fact that there is an intimate connection between the

revenue derived from wild life resources and the amount of money

that can be spent on conservation.

This is the basis on which the financial policy should be built,

together with the recognition that w<ld life is a national asset and

it 7s the responsibility and duty of the State to preserve tt. ‘Therefore

the fund will need such State grants as may be necessary to make

the department effective, more especially in the commencing years.

It should not be possible for funds to be cut off, reduced or

abrogated by governments. The Wild Life Fund, as it might be

termed, should not be within the control of any Finance Department,

Central or Provincial. It should be established by law, kept apart

from General Revenues, earmarked for conservation of wild life and

protected from any possible raiding of it or interference by the

Legislatures.

STAFF

It ig useless to build uv a staff knowing that its position is

insecure and at the whim of some ephemeral office holder.

WILD LIFE PRESERVATION 617

It would be for the Central Government to decide on the method

of establishing the fund, its control, and other measures considered

yecessary in regard to it.

FUNDS

It is reasonably argued that the considerable revenue accruing

to the government, both directly and indirectly, through existence

of wild life in this country should be applied to the conservation of

the resource or as this contribution has endeavoured to demonstrate,

the resource will continue to dwindle and eventually vanish.

Suggested Receipts and Expenditure :—

Receipts.

1. Customs duties—import of sporting arms and ammunition.

2. Licence fees—dealing in sporting arms and ammunition,

3. Licence fees—inland transport of sporting arms and am-

munition.

4, Licence fees—possession of sporting arms and renewal

of same.

5. Licence fees—-Crop-protection weapons.

6. Licence fees—shooting in Government Forests.

7. Licence fees—elephant catching in Government Forests.

8. Royalties on animals shot or wounded in Government

Forests.

9. Fines for breaches of shooting rules in Government Forests.

10, Fines, costs, and sums received for compounding of offences

against shooting rules.

1l. Court fines for offences against wild life laws and/or rules.

12. Receipts on sales confiscated articles.

13. Sales of picked-up tusks, horns, and produce of animals des-

troyed by departmental Control Staff.

14. Sales of skins of carnivora on which rewards paid.

15. Sales of tusks not allowed to sportsmen in some cases.

16. Licence fees for fishing in Government Forest waters.

17, Any other items accruing, suchas donations and/or subscrip-

tions to Wild Life Fund, income on Films produced by the

Department and other miscellaneous items.

Expenditure.

1. Salaries and allowances of officers.

De Do. do. and clothing of staff,

3. Transport of officers and staff.

4. Building and maintenance of Offices.

Db Do. do. of living quarters officers and staff.

6. Purchase and maintenance of weapons and ammunition for

. animal control.

7. Rewards for destruction of carnivora and other pests.

8. Rewards to Forest Guards.

9. Payments to informers.

10. Court expenses.

11. Stationery and correspondence.

12, Contingencies.

618 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 47

13. Sinking Fund for leave, gratuities and pensions.

14. Improvement of scanty water supplies.

ORGANIZATION

Some suggestions.

The Central Game Fund to be maintained in the office of the

Ministry for Agriculture. The Wild Life Department to be linked

through the Ministry of Agriculture with the Provincial Agricultural

and Forest Departments.

~ Each Province to have a Provincial Warden, and as many Deputy

Wardens as found advisable or necessary. ‘These Wardens to rank

with Conservators and Deputy Conservators of Forests respectively,

and Game Rangers and Guards with corresponding Forest Depart-

ment ranks.

Should the idea of a Wild Life Department be considered a

suitable committee could work out all details, Recruitment of staff

would need to be through careful selection of applicants in all

grades; and there would have to be deputation of some of the Pro-

vincial Wardens to America and other countries to acquire knowledge

of principles, methods, and all useful details.

Propaganda. During the years 1932 to 1936 there wasa good

deal of wild life propaganda in the public press at the instance of the

U.P. Association, also in South India, but all that quickly died down.

Then came the war years and now the present difficult times. Wild

life has greatly suffered.

Educative propaganda needs constant reminders and exhortations

to the public. Only if the subject is frequently repeated will it gain

a hearing. |

It is commonly said that it will take years and years to arouse

public opinion as to wildlife. But we daily see what the present

leaders of public opinion in this country can do in many ways vitally

affecting the present and future lives of the masses, how speedily

laws are enacted and far-reaching measures put into motion. There

is, for instance, the vast organization for further education of the

literates and the initiation of universal literacy for the masses. There

seems to be no reason why wild life preservation could not also be

given the highest priority. Some of the reforms could wait, not that

they should, far from it, but the wild creatures cannot wait—and

SuUrVive.

Wild life preservation does not only mean the protection of

animals and birds, it means a fight against the destruction which is

coing on at an increasing pace—particuiarly against deer—and is not

of Nature’s ordering. It is simply asserting the right to live of the

undomesticated animals and indigenous birds.

An atmosphere of mistrust and suspicion is all too common among

uneducated people, so the beneficial intentions of measures towards

wild life preservation are apt to be misconstrued unless the objects

and reasons receive the widest publicity through Government

channels, and the newspapers.

The years are passing ; this great national asset is wasting away.

It is the duty of every government to preserve it for posterity. The

urge should come from the highest levels,

WILD LIFE. PRESERVATION 619

PROPAGANDA METHODS

The time is zow.

The Ministry of Information and Broadcasting could make it a

routine matter to keep this subject constantly before all classes of the

people. Special talks could be given on All-India Radio, and other

systems.

The Educational Department could cause all governing bodies

and educational institutions to issue pamphlets, organize lectures,

lantern slide talks, and issue of suitable leaflets to all colleges, schools

primary schools. All this could be worked out on the lines of the

anti-malarial campaign which was an India-wide effort. But it must

be a continued effort.

For the literate classes there are the newspapers and other

publications as media for propaganda; and for all classes there is the

cinema screen.

Suitable slogans could be devised and shown as a routine matter

-at commencement and during intervals of all cinema shows, accom-

panied twice a week by a short talk in regional languages,

In 1944 (14-1-44) the Natural History Society resolved that a

popular Nature Magazine be published by the Society, and in 1947

(5-6-47) it was decided that simple natural history booklets be issued

in the several languages. The magazine idea was held up during

the war years but measures to give effect to both resolutions are

now in progress.

Moral support of the Government is essential and financial aid a

necessity.

A BRIEF FOR ACTION

1. A decision by the Governments.

2. Issue of a general law to prohibit sale, possession, market-

ing of meat, hides, horns, etc., of indigenous animals

and of birds.

3. Enforcement of Arms Licence rules and conditions.

4. Enforcement of laws and rules under Act VIII of 1912 and

Act XIV of 1927.

5. Formation of a Wild Life Department.

6. Propaganda.

7. Generally all possible steps towards saving wild life.

Through the continued efforts of their leaders the peoples of

India were roused to political consciousness. Through their long

sustained efforts they attained political freedom. Will the leaders

and the people not now demonstrate to other civilized nations that

they are equally capable of preserving wild life for posterity ?

Surely they will. Because they should,and because it is demanded

for the prestige of India.

‘ * *

It was the intention of the Society and the writer to submit this

pamphlet to Mahatma Gandhi with appeal for his powerful advocacy.

Alas! it was not so ordained.

Yet, in view of the late Mahatma’s well known sympathy with all

things created, it may surely be hoped that the peoples of India and

of Pakistan will respond to this appeal in accordance with what

would without doubt have been his wishes and his guidance for the

preservation of wild life in this country,

620

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

REFERENCES

Hon. Secretary :—Correspondence with Ahmedabad Municipality as to

working of Act XX, 1887. J.B.N.A.S., Vol 3, p. 138 (1888).

Society Proceedings :—Protection of Game, C. P. Reserved Forests.

JBNLS., Vol. 4, pp. 74-82 (1888).

Correspondence with Government :—Protection for Insectivorous Birds

Bengal, also Bombay. J.B.N.A.S, Vol. 4, pp. 124-130 (1889).

Correspondence with Government :— Protection of Game Birds in C.P.

JBN. f1L.S., Vol. 6, pp. 87-100.

Society Proceedings :—Proposed introduction of non-indigenous birds

and animals into certain areas, Bombay Presidency. Also huge

decrease of antelope and many birds in past 10 or15 years. LB.N.AZ.S,.

Vol. 6, pp. 119-123 (1891).

Correspondence with Government :—Protection of wild birds and

animals. Rules under Forest Act. /.B.N.H.S. Vol. 6, p. 281 (1891).

Correspondence with Government :— Decrease of wiid birds in Sind, and

plumage traffic. J.B.N.H.S., Vol. 6, p. 282 (1891).

Correspondence with Government :—Wholesale destruction of game

birds, Sind. /.B.N.HZ.S., Vol. 6, p. 487 (1891).

Correspondence with Government :—Protection of birds and harmless

Wild animals, Mahableshwar. J/.B.N.E.S., Vol. 7, p. 550 (1892).

Correspondence with Government :—Thanks of Bombay Government

to Society. List of cantonments and municipalities for which Rules

framed by Government J.B.N.H.S., Vol. 7, p. 532 (1892).

Nilgiri Game Association Report :—/.B.N.H7.S., Vol. 8, p. 535 (1893).

Correspondence with Government :—Shooting in Bombay Presidency.

Rules under Indian Forest Act. /.B.N.f7.S., Vol. 16, pp. 522-525

(1805).

Correspondence with Government :—Protection of birds, Bombay

Presidency, list of municipalities to which Act XX _ applied.

SEB NAL SN Ole 1/5. col (LO0G)E

Railway Conference, Simla:—Action by Indian Railways to assist

Rules under Act XX. 1887. J.B.N.H.S., Vol. 18, p. 482 (1907).

Correspondence with Government :—Close time for Quail and Bustard,

Bombay Presidency. J/.B.N.A7.S., Vel. 18, p. 665 (1908).

Action by Government as to above Vol. 18, p. 894 (1908).

P.'T.L. Dodsworth. F.Z.S. :—Protection of wild birds in India. Review

of world situation regarding traffic in plumage &c. References to

Acts and Rules in force in India. Exhaustive article on the subject.

J.B.N.F1.S., Vol. 20, pp. 1103-1114 (1910).

J.E.C. Jukes, I.C.S.:—Criticism of close time for birds and animals

Bombay Presidency. /.2.N.H7.S. Vol. 19, pp. 216-219 (1909).

Correspondence with Government :—Draft Bill for protection and

preservation of game in India. /.B.N.A.S., Vol. 19, pp. 220-224,

(1908).

tear ios eee :—Note on preservation of game in C.P. Snaring of

Birds and need to preserve buffalo. /.A.N.H.S., Vol. 21, pp. 1343-

1347 (1912).

Commissioner in Sind:—Legislation enacted to prevent cruelty to wild-

fOWl: Cee Nila NOlEZ he piel ooOR (LOL)

New Wild Birds and Animals Protection Act VIII of 1912. Repeals

Act XX, 1887. The Act printed in fullin the Journal. J) B.N.A.S.,

Vol. 22, p. 205 (1912).

G, C. Howell, I. C. S. : —Suggested amendments to above. .B.N.A.S.,

Vol. 24, -p. 380 (1916).

Editors :—Wild Life Preservation. Important editorial JBA.A.S.,

Vol. 31, pp. 803-804 (1926).

F, Brayne, I.C.S. :—Proposal for a British and Indian All-India Sports-

men’s Game Syndicate to further the preservation of game.

J.B. FI.S., Vol. 31, p. 1020 (1927);

Editors :—Members asked to assist the Empire Fauna _ Society.

J.B.N.H1.S., Vol. 32, p. 199 (1927).

Lt. Col, E. G,. Phythian-Adams:—Game Preservation in Nilgiris.

JIBN.FLS,, Vol, 32, pp. 339-343, also Vol, 33, pp. 947-951 (1927

and 1929).

WILD LIFE PRESERVATION 621

28, Editors:—Game Preservation in India. Important editorial,

LEN dS, VO S2,, Pp. 359-800) (192.4),

29, Col. M. Logan Home :—Misc: Note. Game Preservation in India,

DeBniN glide Si, VOled2s PPs08 15820 (LOZ 7).

30. Lt. Col. C. H. Stockley :—Game Preservation in India. Sale of meat

etc. Elephant control necessary, J.B.N.H.S., Vol. 32, p. 783 (1928),

31. Editors :—New Game Laws, Mysore State. / B.N.AZ.S., Vol. 33, pp.

1872188 (1928).

32, Editors:—Control of trade in lizard skins. Bengal. J.B.N.A.S.,

Vol. 33, pp. 185-186 (1928). .

33. W. W.A. Phillips. F.Z.S.:—Present state of Wild Life and Game in

Ceylon. J.BN.H.S., Vol. 33, pp. 942-946 (1929).

33(a) W. W. A. Phillips. F.Z.S.:—Suggestion for fixed period close

season for all animals and birds in each year. Remarks on sawn-

off shot guns for cultivators. J.B.N.H/.S., Vol. 33, p. 987. ;

34. Honorary Secretary :—Report to Society’s Meeting. Game Preserva-

tion: growing importance of subject. J.B.N.A.S., Vol. 34, p. 605

1929).

ienkeee to the Meeting by H.E. Sir Frederick Sykes, Governor of

Bombay, on need and methods of Game Preservation. Vol. 34,

pp. 607-608 (1929).

35. Problems of Wild Life Preservation. Special series. Illustrated,

Foreword by Lord Willingdon, Viceroy of India.

(i) Introductiona! Survey of the Indian Empire and the Problem by

Mr. S. H. Prater, M.L.C., C.M.Z.S., Society’s Curator, at the

Jubilee Meeting of the Society, Bombay, 10th August, 1933,

ILI Jelgey, MONE, INCL AL es)

(ii) The Central Provinces. By A. A. Dunbar Brander. Conser-

vator of Forests. Vol. 36, No. 4. )

(iii) The Bombay Presidency. By G. Monteith, LC.S. Vol. 36,

No. 4.

(iv) Assam. By A.J. W. Milroy. Conservator of Forests. Vol. 37,

No. 1.

(v) The United Provinces. By F. W. Champion. Conservator of

Forests. Vol. 37, No. 1.

(vi) The Indian Lion. By Sir Patrick Cadell, Kt., C.S.L., C.LE.,

Vol. 37, No. 4.

(vii) Wild Life Protection in Burma. By H. C. Smith, Deputy

Conservator of Forests, Honorary Game Warden. Vol. 37,

No. 4.

(viii) The Madras Presidency. By R. D. Richmond, I.F.S. (veéd.)

WO sisi, Nay Zn

(ix) Comments on Mr. Richmond’s Note. By R. C. Morris.

Vol. 38, No. 2.

(x) Mysore. By Major E. G. Phythian-Adams, I.A., F.Z.S.,

Molte585 Now 2.

(xi) Hyderabad State. By Salim Ali ,Vol. 38, No. 2.

36. C. H. Tutein-Nolthenius:—Short History of Ceylon Game and Fauna

Association. Review by R. W.B. J.B.N.A.S., Vol. 35, p. 665

(1932).

BVi TC tel. reese sreincaies :—Exploitation of Wild Life in Ceylon,

AIM alg So, MONG Bi 1D Zale) (OISBE)))

38. Stanley Jepson :—Plea for Protection of Wild Life by Legislation,

JOBUN LDS. Vol. 37; py 748 (1934).

39. Lieut. Col. R. W. Burton :—A Game Sanctuary in Ceylon. /.B.N.A.S.,

Vol. 38, p. 19.

39(@) Society’s Proceedings. Report by Honorary Secretary. Comments

on Delhi Conference, 1935. Need for wild life agency within the

Forest Department. /.B.NV.A7.S., Vol. 38, p. 223.

40, NOI Burma Wild Life Protection Act. /.B.N.H.S., Vol. 39, p. 606

(CIS)

4], R. C. Morris:—General Close Season for Big Game not beneficial.

IE IN Pal Soy, OG TS); fos (OVAL (ASB).

42. Theodore Hubback :—Principles of Wild Life Preservation. /.B.N.A.S.,

Vol. 40, p. 100 (1938).

JOURNAL, BOMBAY “NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

43. Review by TT. H.:—Annual Game Report. Uganda. 1937.

J.B.N.H.S. Vol. 40, p. 317 (1938).

44. T, H. Livesey :—Systematic firing of forests on hill sides causes

erosion and much wild lifedamage. Burma. /.B.N.H.S., Vol. 40,

p. 569 (1938).

45. Theodore Hubback :—Rhinoceros exterminated by greed and supersti-

tion. Malaya, Burma, India. J/.B.N.A.S., Vol. 40, pp. 612-616

1938).

46, Dae eres :—Foreword by Theodore Hubback. ‘The Kahilu

Rhinoceros Sanctuary, Burma India. /.B.N.H.S., Vol. 41, p. 146

(1939).

47. Lt. CoB: G. Phythian~-Adams:—The Nilgiri Game Association, 1879-

1939. J.B.N.H.S., Vol. 41, pp. 384-396 (1939).

48. D’Arcy Weatherbe:—Burma’s decreasing Wild Life. J/.B.N.A.S.,

Vol. 42, pp. 150-160 (1939).

49. Humayun Abdulali:—Partridge snaring by wandering tribes.

J.B.N.H.S., Vol. 43, p. 659 (1942).

50. F. G. D. Ogden :—Partridge snaring by wandering tribes. J. B.N.A.S.,

Vol. 44, p. 299 (1942).

51. Salim Ali:—Birds of Mysore. Bustard, Florican, both scarce.

JIBN.H.S. Vol. 44, p. 211 (1942).

52. Major H. G. Rossell :—Note on Yala Sanctuary, Ceylon. J.B.N.A.S.,

Vol. 44, p. 311 (1943).

53. E. O. Shebbeare:—A. Malayan National Park. The King George V

Memorial Park. J.B.N.H/.S., Vol. 46, pp. 558-562 (1946).

54. Honorary Secretary, Ceylon Game and Fauna Protection Society,

Annual Report. 54th Season (1947).

55. Association for the Preservaticn of Game in U.P. Annual Report, 1933.

By Joint Honorary Secretaries, Major. J. Corbett and Hasan Abid

Jafry.

56. W. F. H. Ansel]. A Note on the position of Rhinoceros in Burma.

J.B.N.H.S., Vol. 47, pp. 249-276 (1947).

NOTES ON INDIAN BIRDS, I

THE RACES OF ANTHUS HODGSON

S. DILLON RIpLey, PH. D.

Yale University (U.S.A.)

In the course of studying Indian collections made by Walter Koelz recently

in the Central Provinces and United Provinces of India, and by myself in the

Mishmi Hills of North-east Assam, I came upon a number of perplexing speci-

mens of Hodgson’s ‘T'ree-pipit. In order to attempt to gain some understanding

of this difficult species I have assembled over one hundred specimens from the

collections of the U.S. National Museum, the American Museum of Natural

History, including Dr. Koelz’ material, the Academy of Natural Sciences, the

Museum of Comparative Zoology and the Peabody Museum of Yale University.

I am most grateful to the authorities concerned for the loan of this material and

to my friend Dr. Koelz for permission to examine his specimens.

HIstorRy OF THE SPECIES

In whatever continent, pipits seem to rank among the more difficult of the

species of birds for the systematist or student of distribution to understand.

‘his Asian species is more difficult than most because its breeding biology is

little understood, and the confusion attendant on the names assigned to the

races is so widespread that it is well-nigh impossible to depend on the existing

literature for guidance in identifying the breeding localities of the populations.

‘The migration of this species is also little known and what facts there are

NOTES ON INDIAN BIRDS 623

seem difficult to piece together. In general it is possible to summarize to this

extent :

(a) Breeding Cycle. Anthus hodgsoni appears to nest any time from late

May atleast until July. I have not been able to examine a single specimen from

a breeding locality which has had breeding data on the label. However, various

authors speak of nests and eggs during this period in areas ranging from the

Indian Himalayas above 8,000 feet to farthest Siberia. Birds are on the move

both shortly before and immediately after the nesting season.

(b) Migration. Available evidence seems to indicate that birds that breed

farthest north tend to migrate farthest south. ‘There is not the equal spread of

migration that there is in American pipits for example, in which the farther

north breeding forms tend to spend the winter near the breeding area of their

southern relatives who have meanwhile progressed still farther south for the cold

months. Birds that breed in Siberia are found in southernmost India, while

birds that apparently nestin the Himalayas do not wander much farther south

than the adjacent plains. In southern India birds have been recorded from

October 13 until April 19th, but lack of later records does not seem to mean

that the birds have gone straight to their breeding grounds. In the spring of

1947 I found the Siberian breeding race of Anthus hodgsoni dallying in the

foothills of Nepal between five and six thousand feet, into early May. ‘These

specimens showed no signs of breeding activity. Futhermore post-breeding

birds seem to have a sort of wandering period possibly following local food

sources, which takes them all over the eastern Asian mountains in an east or

west direction, long before they migrate south. It is this apparent random dis-

persal which has helped to confuse our knowledge of the species. Specimens of

one race may be found on the breeding grounds of another within a very short

period after the end of the nesting season.

In this connection it is impossible to do more than point out for future

travellers in upper Yunnan, Szechuan and Chinese ‘Tibet, the importance of

acquiring some data in regard to the breeding of these tree-pipits. How can

these populations retain their identity when their breeding territory is being

criss-crossed by birds of neighboring populations ‘en passage’ virtually during

the breeding season? Or does the very shortness of the breeding season act as a

safeguard ? Barriers to interbreeding such as distinctive visual or auditory

characters (postulated by Huxley in ‘Evolution’ Oxford 193g), would seem to

be lacking. ‘Territorial barriers are apparently easily overcome. Intergrading

among the populations must esist. Possibly then the barriers to complete

swamping of these recognizable races are physiological, correlated withan extremely

short period of gonadal activity.

almost any seasonof the year. In this series I have birds in fresh plumage

taken in August, October, November, December, February, March and April.

Similarly birds in worn plumage are taken at all seasons, although part of the

complication here is provided by young birds of the year. Briefly the moult may

be summarized as;

1. First winter plumage acquired by a partial post-juvenal moult in Jate

August-September, excluding the wings and tail. At this stage

young and adult become virtually indistinguishable.

2. First nuptial plumage acquired by a partial pre-nuptial moult in

April-May.

3. Adult winter plumage acquired by a complete post-nuptial moult

indistinguishable from the first winter plumage. Late summer.

4. Adult nuptial plumage acquired by a partial pge-nuptial moult.

Late Spring.

Of the three breeding populations which I have been able to distinguish it

would seem that the oldest population in time is the northernmost one which

breeds right across eastern Siberia, Mongolia and Manchuria to Kamschatka,

Sakhalin and northern Japan. ‘This population winters as far south as Travan-

core on the west and the Philippine Islands on the east, and may well be

composed of several breeding strains. However, phenotypically this population

appears as one.

A second population seems to be of rather recent origin. Its breeding area

runs along the southern Himalayas and up through Yunnan and Szechuan to

Kansu, and from there possibly over Korea and Japan (vide A Hand-list of the

624 JOURNAL, BOMBAY WNATURAD (HIST, VSOCGIETY, Vol, 147

Japanese Birds, 1942, p. 27). In winter it wanders down through the foothills

with apparently somewhat irregular appearances as far south as Mysore in India

or the Philippines. This population appears to be less numerous in museum

collections, and it would be interesting to know whether there is any correlation

between this and conditions in life. I term this population ‘recent’ because

its nesting locality in the Himalayas and its wintering range in the eastern

Indian plains are areas of more recent suitability, geologically speaking, for

its occurrence.

A third, and I believe the youngest population, can be recognized. This race

breeds in southeast Tibet and the adjacent parts of extreme western China. I

have found only four wintering specimens in India and northern ‘Tonkin.

La Touche (A Handbook of the Birds of Eastern China, 1925-30, I, p. 420)

speaks of a heavily-streaked bird witha very long billin his collection from

Formosa which may also be a specimen of this population. ‘This race occupies

the smallest range and would appear to be by far the smallest population nume-

rically. Its location, bounded by high mountains and the arid plateau of Tibet

would seem to have presented the required degree of isolation in which significant

characters could be allowed to develop. On the southwest, in the Himalayas,

south and south-east in Yunnan, and east and northeast in Szechuan, its range

is bounded, and the boundary remains io be exactly defined, by the tervitory of

the preceding, or second population.

Schafer, who has collected this race on its breeding grounds in north central

Sikang on the upper reaches of the Yangtze Kiang and Yalung Rivers in an

area from Jeykundo south and east to Batang and ‘Tatsienlu, (vide Schafer,J.F.O.,

86, Sonderheft, p. 204), calls this a rare breeding bird of the palaearctic mountain

forest zone from 2’709—3300 m. altitude. Its northern Jimits coincide with the

edge of the forest. It is found in clearings in scrub forest, and in open bushy

areas. He lists its breeding seasonas June, July and August (?), although his

specimens were non-breeding individuals taken in September and October. By

October it is leaving its mountain breeding range and moving south and east into

its subtropic winter environs.

DESCRIPTION OF THE RACES.

(a) The nothernmost race may be characterized as follows ; in fresh plumage

some seventeen out of forty-five specimens examined appear to be a rich tawny

brownish-olive above with very narrow shaft streaks on the feathers of the head

and upper back. ‘These shaft streaks run up to about 1.5 mm.in width. In worn

birds this measurement still does not become as great as 2mm. There is consider-

able vatiation in the prominence of these streaks on the upper surface, depending

on the ground color of the feathers. Some birds are colored so that the streaks

blend into their background. In general birds from the easternmost part of the

range (Kamschatka) are the dullest, most neutral with the most washed-out streak-

ing. ‘The wing coverts are edged with rich bright buff. On the underparts there

are short black streaks, sometimes really spots rather than streaks, on the feathers

of the lower throat and breast. ‘These markings are carried down into the upper

belly in some specimens, possibly depending on the make-up of the skins, and

also well down on the flanks and thighs. ‘he underparts are whitewashed with

buff on the sides of the throat, breast and flanks.

In worn plumage this race appears rather greyish-brown on the upper parts

and the pale edges to the wing coverts seem enlarged and paler. ‘The streaking on

the head and back seems little more pronounced. Below the birds tend to be

more whitish andthe black spots on the breast seem slightly less pronounced.

(b) ‘The middle race tound in the Himalayas and up to Kansu can be

described as follows : in fresh plumage this race appears tawny olive green above

with strongly pronounced shaft streaks on the head and back. ‘The superocular

streak in both this and the preceding form is pale and whitish. ‘The streaks on

the upper back measure from about 2-2.5 mm. in width. In worn birds this

measurement reaches 3mm. ‘The pale edging to the wing coverts seems narrow

and rather dull. Below fresh specimens have the throat tinted buffy and the

abdomen and belly rather whitish. ‘The shaft streaks are immaculate black ona

light buffy ground and are broad on the lower throat changing to streaklets on

abdomen.

In worn plumage the streaks on the upper parts are more pronounced, and

the base color has faded to greyish olive-brown, Only the wings and lower rump

NOTES ON INDIAN BIRDS 626

preserve a hint of the fresh greenish olive tone. ‘The pale edges to the wing

coverts have become more washed out. Below, worn specimens seem more pale

and lacking in the buffy tone of the fresh plumage.

examined from Southeast ‘Tibet,Molasche, Kham, and from Southwest Kansu,

India and ‘Tonkin. Only one specimen is in truly fresh plumage. This bird is

tawny bronzy-olive above with broad pale edges to the wing coverts. The feathers

of the upper back have broad central shaft streaks of rich brownish-black. In

this July specimen these are 4-4. 5mm. in width, while in a worn January bird

they measure up to 6mm. The super/ocular streak is pale citron and the shaft

streaks on the head are not prominent, indeed very much reduced. Below, this

bird is tawny except for the throat and lower belly, and with dark broad streaks

on the lower throat feathers changing to narrow streaklets on the abdomen.

In worn plumage this race appears almost uniform blackish on the back, so

prominent have the streaks become through wear. Only the wings and the rump

preserve a hint of the dark yellow-olive tone of the fresh plumage, the rest appear-

ing quite tawny. ‘The tips tothe wing coverts are faded and very pale buff in

color. ‘The underparts appear more whitish and the black streaking on the breast

and abdomen is more pronounced.

MEASUREMENTS

Race A. Wing Tail Culmen

45 dd and 29 81.5-90 (84.54) 57-64.5 (61.0) 12-14.5 (13.17)

Race B.

18 gd and 22 80.5-87.5 (84.4) 57-64.5 (61.9) 12-14 (13.14)

Race C.

12 jf and £2 84.5-93.5 (87) 60-69.5 (64.2) 12-15.5 (13.95)

As will be noted from the above the third population from Southeast Tibet

and Sikang has a tendency to larger size than the other two inall three dimen-

sions given. On the basis of size, the first two races are inseparable, but when

the standard deviations are worked out on the bill length alone for the third race

as compared to one of the others, the resulting value indicates that the probabi-

lity is very great that two distinct populations are represented.

NOMENCLATURE

Anthus hodgsoni has had a difficult nomenclatoral career. Richmond

(Blackwelder Res. in China, 1907, pt. II, p. 493.) renamed <Anthus maculatus

‘Hodgson’ of Jerdon (Birds of India, 1864, 3, p. 873.) as this name, derived

from Hodgson, was a nomen nudum and had already appeared in synonomy

under Anthus trivialis. Hartert (Zusatze und Berichtigungen, 1921-2, Band 1,

p. 2094) pointed out that Anihus maculatus Jerdon is preoccupied by Anihus

maculatus Vieillot, 1818 (ex Motacilla maculata Gmelin).

Hartert and Steinbacher (V6g. pal. Fauna, Ergainzungsband, 1933, p. 137.)

revised the species and restricted the name hodgsoni Richmond to the heavily

streaked form of tree-pipit more common in the western part of the summer

and winter ranges of the species in Asia. At the same time they named the

lightly streaked form found in eastern Siberia, Kamschatka and Sakhalin, Anthus

hodgsoni tnopinatus.

A year later Whistler and Kinnear (Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., 1934,

XxxVii, p. 96.) discussed this species anew. Unfortunately the authors

disagreed with Hartert and Steinbacher and attempted to fix the name hedgsoni

to the lightly streaked population maintaining that Jerdon’s discussion of

Hodgson’s maculatus involved both heavily and lightly streaked birds. At the

same time they agreed that the original maculatus Hodgson was intended primarily

for the more heavily streaked bird. ;

As the first revisers of the species Hartert and Steinbacher’s opinion should

undoubtedly stand as pointed out by Mayr (Ibis, 1938, p. 301.). Also, reading

over Jerdon’s description of this species (tom. cit., 1863, 2, p. 228.) I do not agree

with Whistler and Kinnear that this is a composite description. It seems to me

to be a rather accurate description of A”thus h. hodgsoni. Furthermore

Whistler and Kinnear’s range data are not entirely accurate. Actually both

light and dark streaked birds occur in about equal proportion in Bengal, an area

which they feel is more the wintering zone of the Siberian form.

626 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

I find that I also disagree with Stuart Baker (Fauna Brit. India, Birds, 1926,

ili, p. 281.) and ‘Ticehurst (Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., 1927, xxxii,

p. 351.) in regard to the ranges and names for these races. Anthus maculatus

yunnanensis Uchida and Kuroda (Annot. Zool. Japon. 1916, ix, p. 134.) was

described from Mengtz, Yunnan, and I should have been inclined to synonomize

it with hodgsoni if it had not been that Yamashina (Tori, 1939, x, No. 49,

p. 477.) discusses the type specimen of yunnanensis and says that it is a member

ofthe northern unstreaked pale form which migrates to Yunnan in the winter

‘en passage’. Thus A. A. inopinatus Hartert and Steinbacher becomes a

synonym of yunnanensis.

Anthus maculatus berezowsku Sarudny (Orn. Monatsb., 1909, xvii, p. 41.) was

described from a single specimen from Southwest Kansu out of a collection

of eight specimens. It was noted that this specimen has darker, wider streaks

than the other birds, more like those of A. trivialis, and as strongly black in

color. ‘his is a fairly accurate description of the most heavily streaked and

least common of the three faces from Southeast Tibet and Sikang. Among the

specimens in hand from Southwest Kansu there is a single summer bird

of this heavily streaked race (taken in July) which I should be inclined to

consider a topotype of berezowskii. All other Kansu birds examined belong

to the less heavily streaked population (hodgsoni), while none belong to the

most lightly streaked Siberian bird (yunnanensis).

There has recently (Ibis, 1948, p. 152.), been a discussion between

Mr. H. G. Deignan and Sir Walter Williamson as to the authority for the

name Anthus hodgsoni. ‘incline to Mr. Deignan’s conclusion that the author of

the name is Richmond (in Blackwelder), whether or not the description is in

talics or inverted commas, because the rules of nomenclature seem quite clear

that where an author publishes, as in edited matter, another author’s manuscript

name and description of a species or other group, formally stating such to be the

case, or where the context implies that such is the fact, the authority for the

name is the author of the manuscript so used.

As to making the species hodgsoni into a group of races Of Anthus trivialis

(also discussed in the same correspondence), I should prefer to let them stand

as species. ‘They are presumably allopatric (contra Stuart Baker, tom. cit.

p. 280.) members of a superspecies.

Consequently I would list these races as follows:

(a) Anthus hodgsoni yunnanensis Uchida and Kuroda.

Synonym : Anthus hodgsoni inopinatus Hartert and Steinbacher

Range.—breeds in Siberia east to Kamschatka, Sakhalin, Kuriles and

Hokkaido; winters in India in the southwest; Travancore above 4,o00 ft.,

Palni and Nelliampathy Hills, Nilgiris, the Wynaad, Madras Presidency west

in the Biligirirangan Hills and north to Jeypore, United Provinces, Bengal,

and in the Himalayan foothills at least from Nepal to Northeast Assam (Mishmi

Hills), Northern Burma, Yunnan (type locality), Siam, Indo-China east through

China, primarily in the coastal areas, Shaweishan I., Korea, Japan, the Riu-

kiu Is. and the Philippines.

(b) Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni Richmond.

Range.—presumably breeds along the higher Indian Himalayas from Garhwal

(at least) east* above 8,000 ft.,.2 Yunnan, Szechuan, Southwest Kansu and possibly

Korea and Japan where it may integrate with yunnanensis (vide A Handlist

of the Japanese Birds, 1942, p. 27.) ; winters in India as far south as Mysore and

Madras Presidency (spec. examined from the Bababudan and Biligirirangan

Hills), in Bengal, northeast Assam east through the Indo-Chinese sub-region to

China (Hupeh and along the coast), Formosa, Korea, the Riu-kius, Japan and

the Philippines.

Range.—probably breeds in Southeast Tibet and in Sikang Prov:, China, the

region of Kham and Molasche ; wanders to Southeast Kansu (post breeding)

' —:

? Whistler (Journ., Bomb. Nat.Hist.Soc., 1945, 45, p.284.) notes that there is no

substantiation for this pipit’s breeding in Afghanistan.

Z Anthus hodgsoni burzil Koelz (Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash., 1939, 52, p.75.) is a

synonym of A, trivialis.

NOTES ON POONA REPTILES 627

and the Lichiang Range of Northwest Yunnan; winters in India, United

Provinces (3 spec.), Indo-China, Chapa, Tonkin (1 spec.), and Formosa (?) vide

La ‘Touche (op. cit.).

KEY

A key for these races would be as follows :

A. Smaller.

a. with prominent streaks on head but nearly

obsolete streaks on back. never as great as 2mm. in width.. A./. yurnanensis

b, with narrow but prominent streaks on head, and

back reaching 3mm. in width in worn plumaged birds .. A.h. hodgsoni.

B. Larger.

c. with strong broad streaks on back reaching 6 mm.

in width in worn birds. Head streaks relatively reduced .. A.h. berezowskii.

NOTES ON POONA REPTILES

GARTH UNDERWOOD

The following notes are on reptiles collected during ten months stay in Poona

with the army in 1945. All the specimens described came from the area

bounded by the hills on eitherside of the road going to Pashan village, which

is to the west of Poona itself.

TESTUDINES

Lissemys punctata Bonaterre,

The only specimen was a recently hatched young from beside Pashan tank,

on 5-7-47. It measured 43 x 33 mm.; the umbilicus was large ca. 2x3 mm. ona

line joining the anterior edges of the posterior plastral flaps. There were 4

crescentic folds of horny skin on the wrist and 1 under the heel, the distinction

between coastal and extracoastal areas was not apparent, the whole surface was

ropy. Lhe carapace was brown with scattered black spots the plastron reddish

yellow with a pair of brown patches.

SQUAMATA

SAURIA.

GEKKONID#, (Marathi Pal, G[®)

Hemidactylus triedrus Daudin.

13 specimens were examined, 6/4, 72. The labials varied; upper 7-10,

lower 7 or 8 (6 and 9 unilaterally, 2 cases each) Internasals 3, except 1 case 2

and, 1 case 4 (2 median ones very small). Subdigital lamelle under Ist digit

6-8 (6 in 3 cases, 8 in 1 case), under 4th digit 7-9 (7 in 1 case) In the males,

femoral pores 12-14 (9 and 11 unilaterally one case each) separated by 1 or 2

median scales.

The largest specimen, ¢, was snout to vent 82 mm., tail broken. Mature

2° were about 10 mm. shorter than the ¢¢. Ground colour brown with 4 light

bands on back, whitish partly filled in with brown and edged with dark reddish

brown, tubercles in the bands white: one band across occiput, white anteriorly

dark brown posteriorly ; dark brown band from snout accross lower half of eye

to point above ear, edged with white; supraocular fringe yellowish ; light

greenish across top of head between eyes. ‘hose with complete tails had 7-9

dark bands the last several extending onto the underside.

Between 1-5-45 and 18-5-45 3 99, bodies 61,61 and 72 mm., were obtained

carrying 2 eggs each.

23-5-45 a 9, body 59 mm. laid 2 eggs 12} x 10} mm.

22-6-45 a 9, body 62mm. laid 2 eggs 11} x9! mm.

This gecko was found only at night time in fields or amongst rocks where

there was plenty of grass. 5 small specimens, bodies c. 30-40mm., were found

in termites’ nests, in July and August.

628 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Hemidactylus brooki Gray.

16 specimens were examined, 74,52, 4juv. The labials varied from 7-11

(12 unilaterally one case) upper and 8 or 9 (7 unilaterally, one case) lower.

2specimens had the small 3rd pair of postmentals mentioned by Smith

(Fauna of British India, 2nded.). Subdigita! lamellee:5 under-Ist digit, 7

under 4th, 12 cases (4 under Ist unilaterally, one case) ; 4 under Ist, 6 under

4th, 3 cases; 1 case under Ist, hands 4 feet 5, under 4th hands 6 feet 7.

Femoral pores 7-12 on each side, separated by one or none; one Specimen 6 on

each side separated by 7, ‘The colour ranged from just perceptible brown spots

on alight ground to dark spots on a brown ground. On 26-5-45 2 99 were

obtained carrying eggs but egg laying was not observed.

Nearly all the specimens were obtained from under or amongst rocks.

Hemidactylus gracilis Blanford.

2 specimens were examined, both ¢. Since Smith records only 4 specimens

of this gecko these two are described separately.

The first was obtained 1-5-45 at night in a water worn gulley on the hillside.

Labials, upper left 7 right 9, lower 7; rostral medianly divided; 12 rows

strongly keeled scales on back, tail 4 rows enlarged keeled scales dorsally trans-

versely enlarged row ventrally (on the half of the original tail which remained).

Subdigital lamellee under Ist digit hand 5, foot 4, under 4th digit, hand 7, foot 9,

otherwise as described by Smith. Colour; grey above, thin entire vertebral line

flanked by thick lines running from snout to base of tail which are broken into

rectangles on the body. Down each side ventrolaterally a thin broken line. On

the tail the three lines from the back form a network. Very fine spots on the

belly. Snout to vent 35, tail (half reproduced) 32, testes 7 mm. long.

‘he second was obtained 18-5-45 at night on a bank beneath a bush near a

pile of stones. Labials, upper 8, lower7; 12 rows keeled tubercles on back;

subdigital lamellee Ist, hand and foot 5, 4th hand 7, feet8 &9. Colour grey

above, thin vertebral line on anterior half of body only, forks on occiput between

eyes, row of rectangular spots each side, broken line ventrolaterally each side,

very small spots on belly, small spots on reproduced tail, snout to vent 37,

tail (reproduced) 28.

This one was kept alive for about 5 months during which time it fed spar-

ingly on termites ; at the end of this time, by accident a Mabuya trivittata got

at it and ate if.

Hemdactylus lescheaaulti Dum. & Bibr.

Only one specimen was examined. Many specimens (presumably leschen-

aulti and not flaviviridis) were observed in the country by night exclusively

on tree trunks and by day in shady buildings (but not human habitations)

on walls and posts. ‘There were many in Poona fish market.

Eublepharis macularius Blyth.

A single specimen was obtained 28-4-45 at about midnight crossing the road,

a. It had 4 internasals; labials, upper 8 lower 7; a projecting tubercular

ridge covering the anterior edge of the ear opening and a similar smaller

ridge above and behind the opening; in other respects as described by Smith;

snout to vent 117, tail 49.

The colouration resembles that described by Smith for a specimen from

Khandesh district. Top of head dark brown mosaic on brownish grey ground ;

light band on neck spotted brown; dark brown band across the thorax and

lumbar region with yellowish network; across both midbody and pelvis light

band with small brown spots; tail as head but larger scale mosaic; limbs

brownish grey with small brown spots mostly on distal parts. .

When disturbed it made an extraordinary noise like the running down of a

watch with no balance wheel, ‘he noise started and stopped suddenly

accompanied by sideways jerks of the head and opening of the mouth without,

however, any attempt to bite. In addition to insects a Hlemidactylus brooki was

eaten but /7, tyiedrus was not touched. It died 5-6-45. ‘The ovaries were very

small, rel 4

NOTES ON POONA REPTILES 629

Acamipa®. (Marathi Sargotaé, qw)2y)

Sitana ponticeriana Cuvier.

37 specimens were examined, 19 ¢ and 18 2. Only in one case was the hind

limb so short as to reach no further than the front of the eye; of the remainder

the hind leg reached between eye and snout 8 cases, approximately to end of

snout 11 cases, beyond snout 17 cases. ‘There appeared to be a positive correla-

tion between tail length and the length of the hind limb. For those specimens

tail length

Soap lenetn ved as follows : I case leg reaching forward

edge of eye 1:92, 4 cases leg reaching between eye and snout average 2°04; 6

cases leg reaching end of snout av. 2:20; 13 cases leg reaching beyond snout

2°33. 2 specimens (tail=1'9 x body) had no enlarged scales on the flank, snout to

vent 50 and 54, the second was a 2 with 12 developing eggs. They therefore

approached the larger form described by Smith.

Generally light sandy coloured band down back, dark brown laterally. 5 (29

cases) or 6 (11 cases) dark brown rhomboidal spots, a light vertebral line divid-

ing them, not always very distinct, in 7 cases expanding ineach rhombus. One

specimen had the 2 halves of the Sth srhombus longitudinally displaced. 20

specimens had light marks on the dark area outside the dorsal band opposite

the junctions of the rhombi; 3 specimens had the lst rhombus bluish, one had

cobalt blue nape and pale blue vertebral line, 2 had oval dark brown marks in

the triangular spaces between successive rhombi and the edge of the dorsal

band. ‘The head generally had some dark marks, 2 specimens had none... A

band between the eyes, 21 cases ora pair of parietal marks, 10 cases (both 1

case). A median bar before the eyes 11 cases, sometimes also one above snout

3 cases; a mark behind each eye 6 cases ; a band from below or behind the eye

onto side of neck, 6 cases; paired occipital marks, 5 cases; paired temporal

marks, 4 cases; median nuchal band, 3 cases.

With regard to breeding, habits the data given below were noted on various

dates. The larger $3 in breeding attire had the gular appendage bright blue

anteriorly, black in the middle and bright vermilion posteriorly onto the belly.

The smaller J were not so brilliantly coloured but some nonetheless appeared

to be in breeding condition.

with complete tails

Date Body Gonads Gular appendage

; length, mm.

8-4-45 to 47-67 Brilliantly coloured ¥¢'

27-6-45 were obtained.

4-5-45 43 Testes 5 mm. Moderately bright.

6-5-45 47 — 4mm. Brilliant.

15-6-45 42 — 43mm. Mcderately bright.

20-5-45 67 re Ona Brilliant.

Epididymis swollen.

§-5-45 38 Ova small.

25-5-45 46 ll eggs, c. 4mm. diam.

5-6-45 42,46&47 Bulging with eggs.

7-6-45 54 12eggs,c. 44mm.diam.

7-6-45 60 No eggs.

15-6-45 45 . Seggs,c. 5x8 mm.

20-6-45 of Bulging with eggs.

2-7-45 47 Jeges, 10x5 mm.

14-7-45 Ege laying

; observed.

-JIn an interval between showers of rain on 14-7-45 my attention was drawn

to the fact that a lizard was digging a hole in the camp area. When I arrived I

found a Sitana ponticeriana head first down a narrow hole to about the length

of its body. This was at 2°25 p.m. Shortly afterwards it came out of the hole

and rested by the side. At 2°31 egg-laying commenced. The hind legs were

astride the hole and the fore legs rested in a normal attitude on the pile of

excavated material, the tail was not used for support. ‘The expression of the

first eye appeared to require considerable effort. After that they came more

easily. The arrival of each egg was preceded by ripples of contraction on the

‘belly and usually by a forward movement of the body, without movement of

the feet. Before each egg dropped the lizard usually lowered the vent into the

630 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 47

hole. ‘The intervals between the eggs were variable. At 2°59 filling commenced.

First the lizard turned around and used its snout to tamp dowa the eggs.

Then it began scraping material back into the hole. Only the forelimbs were

used for scraping, the hind limbs being straddled so that the material scraped

passed between them. About half a dozen strokes were made with each fore-

limb alternately. After each short spell of scraping the lizard turned to tamp the

material, The action of tamping was very rapid and might fairly be described

as a vibratory movement. At first the material was scraped from a little

greater than a quadrant around the hole. As filling proceeded material was

scraped from an increasing distance from the hole uptoc.15cm. Some of

the material scraped failed to reach the hole and, the most rernarkable feature,

in one area the scraping was not even in the direction of the hole. During

another shower of rain the lizard departed.

Most of the specimens were cbtained by day in the fields and a smaller

number from the hillside ; a few were caught by night.

Calotes versicolor Daudin.

13 specimens were examined, 10 ¢ and 3 2. The labials were upper

10-14 mostly 12 (22 counts) and lower 9-15 mostly 13; the uppers ranged from

2 more than to 3 less than the lowers, mostly equal in number ; the midbody

scale rows ranged from 36-47.

With regard to breeding season the following observations were noted.

Date Body mm. Gonads

9-6-45 129 Testes 15 min. Epididymis not swollen.

19-6-45 96 — 133 — swollen.

2-7-45 136 — 113 — —

6-6-45 85 6 eggs in each oviduct, 14 x 7-8 mm.

12-6-45 97 Oviducts empty.

The markings characteristic of the young persisted in many adult ¢¢ as

well as in the 99. There were frequently dark bands on the tail and sometimes

a yellowish zone around the base inthe ¢@

They were commonly seen around buildings and in the countryside in bushes

the density of which gave them cover.

Calotes rouxi Dum. & Bibr.

A pair, presumably a breeding pair, were obtained under a tree at

Khandala, 17-6-45.

d labials, upper 9, lower 8; midbody rows 56; body 60 mm., tail 134 mm

— , — 8 — 7; — — 52; — 65 mm., — 129mm.

‘They were kept in captivity and the 9 laid 9 eggs buried in the sand on the

floor of the box on 8-7-45 ; they measured 11x6 mm. ¢¢ head dul! brown ;

middorsally brown ; from behind eye onto sides black speckled with yellow,

upper lip and sides of neck turn brick red. @ dull yellowish buff, nape and

knees russet, lips lighter.

Scrincipak. (Marathi Sapsuriilli alga eat)

)

Mabuya carinata Schnieder.

Only three specimens were examined, all ¢. One, body 100 mm., had testes

8mm. and the sides of the body vermilion 19-6-45. ‘They were commonest

among the dead leaves and grass at the base of bushes.

Mabnya trivittata Hardwicke & Gray.

One ¢ examined caught in a tent. Hind limb reached fingers; body 72 mm.

tail (half regenerated) 75 mm. ‘Testes 5 mm.; epididymis not swollen. Hind

limbs spotted yellow ; the pair of lateral stripes on each side showed a curious

abnormality.

Riopa guentheri Peters.

2 specimens were seen and examined. ‘They were obtained by a man dig-

ging agarden. 1 adult, body 110 mm., tail 95 mm. ; snout to axilla 22, axilla to

groin 90. The other was a juvenile obtained 14-6-45 body 42 mm., tail broken ;

snout to axilla 12 mm., axilla to groin 22 mm.; umbilical scar on belly. Dorso-

lateral stripe each side and smaller stripe between this and middorsal line; belly

pinkish, surviving half of tail bright red.

NOTES ON POONA REPTILES 631

LACKRTIDAE. (Marathi Tsopai, ANE)

Ophisops jerdoni Blyth.

9 specimens were exainined, 6 ¢,3 9. ‘Transeverse series of ventral plates

Jf 21-28, 2 26-29; scale rows at midbody 28-34; prefrontals separated by a small

scale 4 cases: 4th labial subocular 2 cases, right side only 1 case ; submaxillary

shields, 6 pairs 5 cases, 5 pairs 2 cases, 4 pairs 2 cases one of these having only

the first two pairs in contact; 1 specimen had a long narrow scale separating

the supraoculars from the supraciliaries.

With regard to breeding season the following were noted

Date Body Gonads.

24-5-45 40 Testes 4 mm. ; epididymis swollen.

6-6-45 40 — 43 —- —_—

4-5-45 36 Eggs not more than 1 mm. diam.

22-6-45 39 9 caught, in captivity laid 7 eggs 1-7-45.

63x4mm., pale yellow, stuck together,

Brown above, two dorsolateral stripes nearly white on each side, black spots

between them and (1 exception) along upper marginof upper stripe. Most of the

specimens had lemon yellow on the neck and greenish yellow down the flanks.

These lizards were extremely fleet and difficult to catch. They ran so rapidly

that at close quarters it was frequently impossible to follow the movement

with the eye. ‘They were found by day only on the stony hillside, taking refuge

under stones and in crevices,

VARANIDAE, (Marathi Ghorpad, aygz)

Vatanus monitor L.

This appeared to be fairly common in the district. Most of the specimens

obtained were juveniles. The largest in which the juvenile colouration persisted

was body 375 mm., tail530 mm.,a Q. ‘The end of the tail was light yellow. A

specimen of body 275 mm., tail 385 mm. was kept in captivity for sometime; If

would eat Calotes versicolor up to about 100 mm. body length. The end of the

tail protruding from the mouth of the Varanus after the lizard had been

swallowed was broken off by ‘dusting’ on the greund.

SERPENTES

Typhlops braminus Daudin.

3 specimens were obtained, they were quite black above.

Uropeltis phipsoni Mason.

1. specimen, 14-10-45

Eryx conicus Schneider.

1 specimen, 25-5-45

Elaphe helena Daudin.

2 specimens were obtained ; both had 6 infralabials in contact with the

atiterior genials and the 7th infralabial the largest, otherwise they conformed to

the description in the F.B.I. The coloration agreed quite well with the des-

cription in the F.B.I. ; the cross bands contained 2 white ocelli on each side and

the interstitial skin of the sides was light blue, without the festoon marklings ;

the neck pattern was type 1.

Oligodon arnensis Shaw.

1 specimen ; loreal separate ; fairly broad cross bands, 30 on body, 6 on tail,

Lycodon sp. (aulicus ?)

l specimen, 9, 588 mm. (6 475 ¢ 93) Anterior nasallarger than posterior;

oreal in extensive contact with internasals; temporals 2+3, 10 supralabials, 4,

5 & 6 touch eye. V 193, C 67. Coloration: considerably more cross bands than

¥.B.1. aulicus; light slightly purplish brown above, 31 cross bands on back,

anterior ones white edged and streaked with brown, white flecking on sides

forming vague expansions of bands, by 10th stripe brown edging faded, by 18th

white blotch only, by 25th white edging on 4 middorsal scales only, on tail 4 just

distinguishable marks; head colour of body, back of head light brown spotted

chevron,

632 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Natrix piscator Schneider.

Seen in Mutha-Mula river. 1 iuvenile caught at Khandala 17-6-45 ; 10

supralabials Sth and 6th meet eye, left side 6 infralabials meet anterior genial.

V 167, umbilical scar 147-149, C 77.

Macropisthodon plumbicolor Cantor.

Appears to be moderatelycommon. 1 9,787 mm. (body 692 tail 95 +) was

found on the hillside 5-6-45 during the dry weather. It contained 10 eggs. In

the mouth and throat were 4 nematodes 30 or 40 mm. long. Perhaps they upset

the snake and caused it to come out before the rain.

Bungarus caerlueus Schneider.

1 juvenile 30-6-45, length 320 mm. (body 277 tail 43). V 210 umbilical scar

190-193 C 48.

Naja naia L.

I specimen, 21-10-45.

Vipera russelii Shaw.

1 juvenile, 17-6-45, length 273 mm. (body 324 tail 39).

Echis carinatus Schneider.

1 specimen, 2, 21-6-45.

are

A FURTHER NOTE ON THE BEARDED PIG IN MALAYA

C. A. GrBSON-HILL, M.A.

(Raffles Museum, Singapore).

(With a text map)

The Bearded Pig, Sus barbatus Miill., was described from a

specimen taken in the Banjermasin district of south Borneo. It would

appear to be plentiful in suitable areas over at least the greater part

of the island, and, unless the much debated Sws gargantiza Mill. is

valid, is the only pig occurring there. Another Bearded Pig, Sus oz

Mill., at present regarded as a western race of the Borneo animal,

was described in 1902 from a single specimen taken on the Indragiri

River, in Sumatra. It is now known to be fairly plentiful in parts

of the country, particularly the north-eastern section. It has also

been recorded from several of the islands in the Rhio Archipelago

(Batam, Bintang, Durian, Galang, Kundur, Sauh and Ungar), imme-

diately to the south of the Malay Peninsula.?

There are a number of animals, of which the most conspicuous and

best-known is probably the Orang-Utan, Pougo pygmaeus (Linn.),

which occur in Sumatra and Borneo, but are absent from the Malay

Peninsula. In general the faunas of the two islands show a con-

siderable affinity, and to some extent they are distinct from that of

the tongue of mainland running down between them. On general

principles, it was therefore assumed that the Bearded Pig would not

1 Sus barbatus Miiller, Vijdsch. nat. geschied. physiol. v. (1 and 2), 1838,

p. 149 : Banjermasin, south Borneo,

Sus ot Miller, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash., xv, 1902, p. 51: Indragiri, east

Sumatra.

Sus gargantua Miller, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. xxx, 1906, p. 743 : south-east

Borneo.

Revisions, see : Jentink, Notes Leyden Museum, xxvi, 1905 : Miller.

Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. xxx, 1906, p. 737: Boden Kloss, Journal Straits Branch

Royal Asiat. Soc., No, 83, 1921, p. 147 ; Tucker, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1931, p. 491,

FURTHER NOTE ON BEARDED PIG IN MALAYA 633

be found naturally feraiin Malaya. When the first specimens came

to light various ingenious explanations were put forward to account

for their arrival from one of the islands. These are summarised

well by Mr. J. E. Kempe in a previous number of this Journal

(Kempe, 1946 ; 281-285), but unfortunately the author leaves the

impression that there may still be some doubt about the animal’s

Status in the Peninsula. Actually the official view was given in 1940,

when the late F. N. Chasen, then Director of the Raffles Museum,

wrote ‘there is .. now no need to assume an extra-limital crigin

for the few much discussed Malayan specimens recently shot in

Pahang and Johore’ (Chasen, 1940 : 192, footnote No. 2).

During the course of his paper Mr. Kempe quotes four of the

published records of the occurrence of Sus barbatus in the Malay

Peninsula. There are actually a further three references which he

overlooked, and a most important additional record has been esta-

blished recently by specimens taken in 1947. It would therefore

seem to be of interest to summarise the data now available, and to

show in total the evidence on which it can be taken that the Bearded

Pig is definitely indigenous to the Malay Peninsula, and still present

on both sides of the main mountain chain.

NEOLITHIC RECORDS

Two of the records (marked A and B on the accompanying

map) are based on the finding of tushes among other animal bones

&°e

SSS

A map of the Malay Peninsula south of the Isthmus of Kra, showing the areas

from which the Bearded Pig, Sus barbatus subsp., has been reported. Letters refer

to finds among deposits left by neolithic cave-dwellers, and figures to contempo-

rary records. For fuller explanation, see text pp. 633-5.

634 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

in material left by neolithic cave-dwellers. I have examined such of

the specimens as were brought back to the Raffles Museum. It is

not possible to assign them definitely to one or other of the two races

at present recognized, but there would seem to be no doubt that they

are froma Szs barbatus subsp. The sites from which they were

obtained are,

(A) Bukit Chuping, Perlis. Excavated by Mr. H. D. Collings

in March, 1936, (Collings, 1937 : p. 98).

(B) Gua Madu, Kelantan. Excavated by Mr. M. W. F. Tweedie

in July and August, 1939 (Tweedie, 1940: p. 7).

It will be seen that one of these caves is on the west side of the

Peninsula, and the other on the east. In both cases tushes of the

Bearded Pig were fairly numerous, and nearly as plentiful as those

of the Wild Pig, Sus crzstatus subsp. At the present time the former

is certainly the more formidable and wary of the two. There is no

reason for assuming that their physiques and temperaments were

markedly different 1,500 to 2,000 years ago, and on this evidence it

must be taken that a Sus darbatus subsp. was plentiful over northern

Malaya, at least, during this period.

CONTEMPORARY RECORDS

The contemporary records now available come from four areas

(marked 1 to 4 on the accompanying map), again covering both

coastal plains. At best the differences between the Bornean and

Sumatran races of living pigs are slight. If they are acceptable, the

material so far collected under the present category should be ascribed

to the Sumatran Szs barbatus ot Miller.

The four areas, listed in the chronological order in which the

records were first published, are,

(1) The Pekan District of Pahang. The first specimen obtained

from here was a sow killed by Dr. W.S. Leicester in 1918. Three

years later Mr. J. E. Kempe, m.c.s., obtained a skull of a boar taken

by a Chinese towkay in the same neighbourhood (Moulton and

Robinson, 1922 : pp. 202-203). There is now no trace of the former

in the Raffles Museum reference collection. It does, however, still

contain a fine boar’s skull labelled ‘ Pahang 1922’ which, from cor-

respondence with Mr. Kempe, would appear to be the example

obtained in 1921. Several other Bearded Pigs are said to have been

shot in this area subsequently, but unfortunately there is no formal

record of them. In 1926 Dr. W. Linehan, m.c.s., told Mr. Boden

Kloss ina letter that about ten had been killed the previous year,

and enclosed a photograph of one of the dead animals, but he left

the district befcre he could obtain any specimens (zvzde Kloss, B.

1931 : p. 104).

(2) The Kota Tinggi district of Johore. Several examples are

said to have been taken in this area in the nineteen-thirties, and on

one occasion a collector from the Raffles Museum was treed for more

than’an hour by an old boar. Unfortunately there is only one

formal record, a fine head presented to the Museum by Mr. G. B.

Reginato in 1934.

(3) Inaddition to the animals from the Kota Tinggi area, there

is also an unconfirmed record of the Bearded Pig from _ the

FURTHER NOTE ON BEARDED PIG IN MALAYA 635

neighbourhood of Genuang, nearSegamat, some 85 miles north-west

of Kota ‘Tinggi, on the west side of the Peninsula. In 1935 the late

F. N. Chasen was in correspondence with a planter, Mr. H. E.

Burgess, who described pig which had visited his estate about 191]

and 1913, which would seem to be of this species. Mr. Burgess’s

account of the animals was subsequently published in this Journal

(1936 : pp. 253-254).

(4) The Ulu Bernam district of Perak. More recently there

have been reports of a peculiar pig in this neighbourhood, and in

August, 1947, an old boarwas shot, and the skull sent to the Selangor

Museum. Four months later, in December, a much younger animal

was taken, and the skull and skin preserved. Through the courtesy

of Mr. H. T. Pagden, Acting Director of Museums, F. M., I have been

able to examine both the skulls. They undoubtedly belong to Szs

barbatus oz, though that of the older animal is peculiar in that it is

relatively shorter than the normal rvn. Pig skulls are, however,

subject to considerable variation, and it matches satisfactorily with

one of an old boar killed in Sumatra a number of years ago.

DISCUSSION

If, as would seem probable, the Bearded Pig was fairly plentiful

and widespread in the Malay Peninsula some 1,500 to 2,000 years

ago, one would like to know what has happened to it since then.

Before the cave tushes were found, when the animal was known only

from the few specimens taken and seen round Pekan, in Pahang, and

the unsupported record from Genuang, in Western Johore, it was

suggested that small numbers might occasionally be finding their

way across the water from Borneo or Sumatra, and even that the

reported examples might be the relics of a mythical herd liberated

for sporting purposes by a Mohammedan Sultan. It might, ofcourse,

still be argued that the pig died out in Malaya about a 1,000 to 500

years ago, and that the recent specimens are derived from stock re-

introduced by one of these channels. On the whole, however,

bearing in mind the diverse places from which it has now been

reported, it would seem most likely that it has lingered on in much

reduced numbers in a few, isolated spots.

In Borneo the Bearded Pig would appear to be found most

frequently in the immediate neighbourhood of rivers, on cultivated

ground, and in general open country, in that order of preference.

Further it would seem that though it frequently moves through

jungle, and may therefore often be seen there, it is actually doing the

greater part of its feeding in the open, either in natural clearings or on

cultivated ground. Recently I have had an opportunity of discus-

sing the matter with Mr. E. Banks, who was for many years Curator

of the Kuching Museum. From this conversation I gathered the

impression that it normally inhabits arather damper and less covered

terrain than the wild pig of Malaya.

There is further no doubt that in Sarawak at least the Bearded

Pig indulges in irregular migrations or eruptions (Shelford, 1916:

42-43. Banks, 1931: 22-23). A particular area may be invaded one

season, and then not troubled again fora number of years. Appar-

ently when moving the pigs do so discretely over a wide front, and

636 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 47

in the jungle one normaliy meets only two or three at a time. When

the migrating animals reach a river, they collect in groups ranging

from a score or more up to several hundred individuals, either feed-

ing or preparing to cross together. -

It is generally accepted that the thick jungle which clothed

almost the whole of the interior of the Malay Peninsula until recently,

when some of the areas were opened up for the planting of rubber,

is of considerable antiquity. But there are grounds for disputing

this. Certain of the animals, such as the Seladang, Bos gaurus

hubbacki Lydd., are much more likely to be relics from the fatina of a

more open terrain. It is also difficult to see how the apparently

large population of neolithic man can have existed under conditions

similar to those occurring a hundred years ago. It would, in fact,

seem more likely that the landscape was more open, and the climate

drier, at the beginning of the first millennium A.D. If that were so,

the spread of the jungle can be taken as the natural consequence of an

increase in the annual precipitation. In the intermediate period,

there must have been wide areas of fairly open, damp country. One

would suggest that then the Bearded Pig, which had found its way

into southern Malaya from Sumatra, flourished exceedingly. Cave-

dwelling man, on the other hand, may well have found the damp

conditions troublesome, and thus begtin a decline in numbers which

the gradual spread of the dense forests completed. As they extended

their range the Bearded Pig, too, was driven back into a few isolated

pockets.

In a short note supplied to the editor of the Malayan Nature

Journal in January, 1948, I suggested that the few specimens recorded

from Pekan and Kota Tinggi might represent small, irregular erup-

tions, comparable to the movements that have been recorded from

Borneo, arising from a pocket surviving in the Tasek Bera area of

southern Pahang. It is significant that Mr. B. W. Mumford (of the

Malayan Police Service), in a letter to Mr. Boden Kloss, said that the

Bearded Pig usually arrives in the neighbourhood of Pekan during

the monsoon period, from November to April (quoted in Kloss,

1931 polls):

The record from Genuang, in north-western Johore (of which I

was not then aware), and the specimens from the Ulu Bernam

district of Perak, would seem to extend this principle, without affect-

ing its validity as an explanation of the origin of the east coast

examples. It would, in fact, seem most likely that the Bearded Pig

has survived in Malaya from Neolithic times in a number of small

pockets in isolated areas, from which it is erupting at intervals into

more densely inhabited ones. It may well be that the attention drawn

to it by these recent papers will elicit further formal records. Large

numbers of pig's are shot in Malaya each year, but there can be no

doubt that very few of them are ever examined critically. A full-

erown boar of the Bearded Pig is an unmistakable beast. He is also

a most formidable and wary one, and individuals straying into a

hunted area might easily elude capture. On the other hand, younger

specimens, taken with the ordinary wild pig, though obvious to an

interested person, would certainly arouse little attention in a Chinese

sportsman shooting for meat, rather than for the benefit of the

readers of learned journals,

LIST OF BIRDS OBSERVED IN CHITTAGONG 637

REFERENCES

Banks, E.—1931. A Popular Account of the Mammals of Borneo, Jour.

Malay Branch Roy. Asiat. Soc., Vol. 9, pt. 2.

Burgess, H. E.—1936. Early Days in Malaya, Journal Bombay Nat. Hist.

Soc., Vol. 38, pt. 2, pp. 241-257. -

Chasen, F, N.—1940. A Handlist of Malaysian Mammals, Bull. Raff.

Mus., No. 15.

. Collings, H. D.—1937. An Excavation at Bukit Chuping, Perlis, Audl.

Raff. Mus., Series B. Vol. 1, pt. 2, pp. 94-119.

Gibson-Hill, C. A.—Appendix to a reprint of Kempe, 1946, WZalayan Nature

Journal, Vol. 3, pt. 1.

Kempe, J. E.—19146. The Riddle of the Bearded Pig, Journal Bombay

Nat. Flist. Soc., Vol. 46, pt. 2, pp. 281-2385.

Kloss, C. Boden,—1921. Malaysian Bearded Pigs, Journal Straits

Branch Royal Asiatic Soc., No. 83, pp. 147-159.

Kloss, C. Boden.—1931. The Bearded Pig (Sus éarbatus) in the Malay

States, Bull. Raff. Mus., No. 5, pp. 102-104.

Miller, G.S.—1902. Notes on Malayan Pigs Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,

Vol. 15, pp. 51-52.

Miller, G. S.—1905. Notes on Malayan Pigs, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus.,

Vol. 30, pp. 737-758, 36 plates.

Moulton, J. C., and Robinson, H. C. 1922. The Bearded Pig (Sus

barbatus) in the Malay Peninsula, Journal Straits Branch Royal Asiatic Soc.,

No. 85, pp. 202-203.

Shelford, R. W. C.—1916. ‘A Naturalist in Borneo’, London.

Tweedie, M. W. F.—19410. Report on Excavations in Kelantan, Journal

Malay Branch Royal Asiatic Soc., Vol. 18, pt. 2, pp. 1-22.

A LIST OF BIRDS OBSERVED IN CHITTAGONG,

i. BENGAL, DURING 1944 AND 1945

R. M. Simmons

(With a map)

Though this list is primarily one of birds observed in the immedi-

ate neighbourhood of Chittagong town some reference is made to

observations elsewhere in East Bengal.

The list is necessarily very incomplete due to the period during

which it was compiled being abnormal on account of the war and the

fact that access to many areas was difficult for a civilian. Secondly

only limited time could be devoted to the business of observation

In these circumstances the only territory where intensive observations

could be carried out was confined to that immediately round the com-

piler’s bungalow. Elsewhere it was only possible to make casual

observations in the course of the day’s work.

The period covered by these notes is from April 1944 till January

1945 and from April 1945 till the middle of August 1945.

Chittagong is situated a few miles inland from the sea at the head

of the Bay of Bengal on the north bank of the tidal estuary of the

river Karnaphuli, A lowrange of hills running parallel to the

coast peters out in a series of hillocks in the middle of the town.

Between these hills and the sea is a narrow coastal] belt of low-lying

638 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

ground, partly paddy-fields and partly close cultivation round ‘ bastis

fairly thickly planted with trees, areca palms and clumps of bamboo.

The hil] ranges north of Chittagong are thickly forested, except

in the immediate neighbourhood of the town where they have been

cleared of the primary growth and are covered with coarse grass

and scrub jungle; in the residential cantonment area they are well

planted with various shade and flowering trees and are set with

bungalows and the gardens surrounding them.

Unfortunately it was not possible to make any detailed study of

such specialized biotopes as the forest or the sea shore. Elsewhere

the area was chiefly remarkable for the absence of many of the

more familiar species of peninsular India rather than for the presence

of many unfamiliar ones. There was, however, evidence of a Bur-

mese influence.

Lastly it must be mentioned that the list is compiled entirely from

observations in the field and no bird was shot to establish its

identity.

Corvus macrorhynchos. Jungle Crow.

Common resident. Nesting in December and January. Less numerous

than the House Crow. A very large bird.

C. splendens. House Crow.

Perticularly numerous near habitation,

Dendroci.ta vagabunda. ‘T'ree-pie.

Resident and a common garden bird. Nesting in June and July. Newly

fledged young seen in July and August.

Parus major. The Indian Grey Tit.

Only seen on 3 occasions ; twice in April and oace in June. On all 3 occa-

sions a pair of birds was seen which suggests that they breed in the neigh-

bourhood.

Turdoides somervillei. Jungle Babbler

Not seen by me, but reported twice (on 9-5-45 and 15-5-45) by reliable

observers. Old residents of Chittagong told me that they were fairly common

garden birds before the war.

Timalia pileata. Red-capped Babbler.

Appeared to be fairly common on hillsides covered with secondary growth,

Aegithina tiphia. Common Iora.

Resident. Common garden bird. No male was observed to have any black

on the head during any season of the year.

Chioropsis aurifrons. Golden-fronted Chloropsis.

Fairly common in outskirts of forest and occasionally visiting gardens.

Molpastes cafer. Red-vented Bulbul.

The commonest bulbul. Nesting in April, May and June. Gathered into

large flocks in October.

Otocompsa jocosa Red-whiskered Bulbul.

Appeared to be a local migrant and was only observed about compounds

from November to January. At other times was only seen in forest areas.

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‘A LIST OF BIRDS OBSERVED IN CHITTAGONG 639

Q. flaviventris. Black-crested Yellow Bulbul. .

Appeared to be a local migrant and was only seen about compounds in

November and December.

Phoenicurus ochruros. -Black Redstart.

Only seen once in late March 1944. ‘Ihe actual date was not recorded as I

did not commence keeping systematic notes till April.

Copsychus saularis. Magpie-robin,

Resident and plentiful. Nests found in April and May. First newly

fledged young seen on 9-5-45.

Moaticola solitara. Blue Rock-thrush.

Wirter visitor. Two distinct varieties were observed. The more common

had no trace of chestnut on the under parts, the other had the lower breast and

belly chestnut. The habits of both were identical. First seen on 8-10-44 and

last on 16-4-45, Only..one hen was observed. The bird is very shy of being

watched, even from a distance, though it will sit quite close if it thinks it is

not observed, :

Siphia parva (albicilia). Eastern Red-breasted Flycatcher.

Winter visitor. First seen 2-10-44 and last 19-4-45. The only flycatcher

observed. They were fairly common but none of the red-breasted variety

were seen.

Lanius cristatus. Brown Shrike.

Winter visitor. The common shrike of Chittagong. First seen on 23-9-44

and last on 11-5-45, No other shrike was seen in the immediate neighbour-

hood of Chittagong, but another (possibly Z. zasutus.) was common in Tippera

towards the end of the monsoon, but was only observed perching on telegraph

wires from moving trains, so Iam not sure of its identity.

Pericrocotus peregrinus. Small Minivet.

Though not observed during the period when I kept notes, I am sure I saw

small parties once or twice in March 1944,

Artamus fuscus. Ashy Swallow-shrike.

Not seen in the immediate neighbourhood of Chittagong, but quite common

near the railway line 10-30 miles north.

Dicrurus macrocercus. King-crow.

Resident. One of the commonest birds. Newly fledged young seen in May,

June and July.

D. longicaudatus. Grey Drongo.

Appeared to be a non-breeding visitor only observed in cold weather. First

seen 24-12-44 and last 11-4-45.

Chibia hottentotta. Hair-crested Drongo.

Breeding. Newly fledged young seen on 8-6-45. After nesting it seemed to

disappear and was not seen after 4-7-45 until I left Chittagong on 23-8-45,

Acrocephalus dumetorum, Blyth’s Reed Warbler,

Winter visitor. Found in compound throughout the winter and last seen on

18-5-45, First heard singing on 19-4-45.

—

7 1Blue-headed Rock-Thrush (Monticola ctnchorhyncha) ?—EDS,

640 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Orthotomus sutorius. Tailor-bird.

Resident and common garden bird throughout the year.

Franklinia gracilis, Franklin’s Wren-warbler.

Not very common and seemed to be absent, at least from residential area

during June and July. :

Oriolus xanthornus. Black-headed Oriole.

The common oriole of E. Bengal.

Sturnia malabarica. Grey-headed Mynah.

Resident. Nesting in April and May. Gathering into large flocks at the end

of June when they seemed to move to the more thickly forested areas.

Acridotheres tristis. Common Mynah.

Resident and ubiquitous in the neighbourhood of habitation Newly fledged

young seen on 26-5-45.

A. ginginianus. Bank Mynah.

Never seen except at Bahadurabad (Mymensingh District),

AEthiopsar fuscus. Jungle Mynah.

Allhad yellow eyes. Common but not so numerous as A. ¢ris¢is with which

it often associated. Generally seen in pairs. Young birds seen on 24-7-45,

Sturnopastor conira. Pied Mynah.

Probably the commonest of all the Mynahs in Chittagong. Nestine was i

full swing by the middle of May. $ § Was In

Lamprocorax panayensis. Glossy Stare.

Not common. Seen in company of Grey-headed Mynahs, feeding on berri

of an evergreen tree on 17-4-1945 and 10-5-1945. 2 as

Uroloncha punctulata. Spotted Munia.

The only muvia seen by me. A pair started nesting in the porch of my

bungalow on 9-10-1944 but later deserted ; on 26-5-1945 it was noticed that a pair

were renovating the nest and fledglings ‘were first noticed at the nest on

20-7-1945. Other birds were seen nesting in July and August.

Passer domesticus. House Sparrow.

Common at the level of the ‘coastal belt, but seldom seen on hilly ground.

Most of the bungalows in the cantonment area are built on the tops of hillocks

and it was quite unusual to see sparrows in gardens and compounds so

situated.

Hirundo daurica. Ked-rumped or Striated Swallow.

This was the only swallow seen in Chittagong and only observed in

April 1945. Other swallows (probably A’. rustica) were seen on the Brahma-

putra river at Chandpur.

Motacilla alba. White Wagtail.

Common winter visitor. First seen 14-10-1944

M. cinerea. Grey Wagtail.

Winter visitor. A small party of these birds visited the static tank in my

garden between 12 and 20 April 1945 and so enabled me to be certain of their

identification, |

A LIST. OF BIRDS OBSERVED IN CHITTAGONG 64i

Anthus rufulus. Indian Pippit.

Fairly common on open grass maidans in July and August.

A. hodgsoni. Indian Tree Pipit.

Seen on 4 occasions in compound; twice in October 1944 and twice in

April 1945.

Mirafra assamica (?). Tne Bengal (?) Bush-lark.

Some form of bush-lark was common in more open country, but Icannot be

sure of the identification.

Zosterops palpebrosa. White-eye. )

A fairly common garden bird in every month of the year.

Cinnyris asiatica. Purple Sunbird.

Not very numerous though one or two birds visited the garden in every

month of the year. Young birds seen in latter half of April.

Dicaeum erythrorhynchos. ‘Tickell’s Flowerpecker.

Flower peckers are difficult to identify as they are generally seen silhouetted

against the sky as they feed on the berries of some parasite growth near the

tops of high trees. ‘This species however also fed on the berries of Duranta

hedges and so was easily identified.

I believe I also identified D. crwentatum, but cannot be absolutely certain.

Dryobates (?). Pied Woodpecker.

I cannot readily distinguish between DV. mahrattensis, and YO. mace in the

field. Common. Young bird with hen seen on 26-5-1945.

Brachypternus benghalensis. Golden-backed Woodpecker.

Common,

Megalaima lineatus, Lineated Barbet.

Common in well treed portions of cantonment area.

Megalaima haemacephala. Coppersmith.

Very common. Congregated into parties of a dozen or more in October and

November.

Cuculus canorus. Asiatic Cuckoo.

Heard on several occasions during end of April and beginning of May 1945.

C. micropterus. Indian Cuckoo.

The common cuckoo of Chittagong and very noisy from January till June,

often calling at night.

1 Actually differentiation should not be difficult:

Male mahratiensis has forecrown brownish-yellow, hind crown orange

crimson ; brown streaked yellowish-white breast and orange-crimson patch on

abdomen.

Female entire crown brownish-yellow.

Male macei has entire crown crimson, back much blacker ; chin, throat

and upper breast unstreaked fulvous, long black moustachial streaks and no red

abdominal patch.

Female entire crown black,—EDs,

642 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Clamator jaeobinus. Pied Crested Cuckoo,

Scarce and not-observed in the neighbourhood of Chittagong. First heard

22-5-45 near the railway line some 33 miles north of Chittagong.

Fudynamis scolopaceus, Koel.

Not as noisy as the Indian Cuckoo. Heard during the months April—July

and September and October.

Centropus sinensis. Crow-pheasant.

Seen round Foy reservoir.

Psittacula fasciatus. Red-breasted Parakeet.

Fairly common. It was the only Parakeet I saw. It’s distinctive call is

sufficient to identify it even when too far away to observe coloration.

Coracias b. affinis. ‘The Burmese Roller.

Not very common and only seen during months June—November. The only

birds I was able to identify were all of this species.

Merops orientalis. Green Bee-eater.

A common bird in and around compounds during the months October—June.

Nesting sites not found.

Me superciliosus, Blue-tailed Bee-edter.

Nested in large numbers in sides of sandy hillocks round my compound in

April. Disappeared after July till some time early in the year.

M. leschenaulti. Chestnut-headed Bee-eater.

Uncommon and only seen during April and May.

Ceryle rudis. Pied Kingfisher.

Fairly common and always seen on Foy reservoir.

Alcedo atthis. Common Kingfisher.

Fairly common.

Halcyon Smyrnensis. White-breasted Kingfisher.

A common garden and compound bird.

Ramphalcyon capensis. Stork-billed Kingfisher.

Comtnonly found where trees overhang water,

Upupa epops. Hoopoe. e ronaten

An occasional visitor to compounds and lawns., Seen in January, March,

April, November and December. |

Cypsiurtis patvus. Palm Swift.

A common nesting bird during the months April—July. -

Bubo coromandus. Dusky Eagle-Owl.

Apparently resident and inhabiting shady ravines behind bungalow. At

night would often perch in a Blue Gum tree in garden. ;

Athene braita. Spotted Owlet,

Common resident.

A LIST OF BIRDS OBSERVED IN CHITTAGONG 643

Sarcogyps calvus. King Vulture.

Fairly common. Nesting in November and December.

Gyps indicus. Long-billed Vulture.

Less common than the next species.

Pseudogyps bengalensis. White-backed Vulture.

The common vulture of Chittagong.

Haematornis cheela, Crested Serpent-Eagle.

A common resident. Young birds seen in September and October.

Ichthyophaga ichthyaétus. Large Grey-headed Fishing Eagle.

Fairly common in flooded areas during monsoon.

Haliastur indus. Brahminy Kite,

Common.

Milyus migrans, Pariah Kite,

Very Common.

Falco tinnunculus. Kestrel.

Seen once on 19-—5—45,

Crocopus phoenieopterus, Common Green Pigeon.

Fairly common, Seen in most months of the year feeding on various kinds

of Ficus,

Columba livia. Blue Rock Pigeon.

Fairly common.

Streptopelia chinensis. Spotted Dove.

Very common,

S. decaocto, Indian Ring Dove.

Not common, Seen in the months May—July and October and November.

Galius gallus, Red Junglefowl.

Heard crowing in forest round Foy reservoir,

Amaurornis phoenicurus. White-breasted Waterhen.

Seen once near the railway line some 40 miles North of Chittagong.

Metopidius indicus. Bronze-winged Jacana.

Found on pools in which water-lilies grew.

Larus brunnicephaius. Brown-headed Gull.

Flights of 20-30 passed over bungalow in April and May.

Sterna aurantia. Common River Tern.

Seen on rivers north of Chittagong, but have no record from Chittagong

itself,

Phalacrocorax niger, Little Cormorant.

Seen on Foy reservoir.

644. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Anhinga melanogaster. Indian Darter.

Seen on Foy reservoir,

Xenorhynchus asiaticus. Black-necked Stork.

Saw 2 large flocks travelling north, flying high, on 18-5-45 and on 1-6-45.

Leptoptitos (?). Adjutant Stork.

Only once seen on Foy reservoir.

Egretta (?). Egret.

Only saw these at a distance and generally from noting trains and am not

sure of identification, but am fairly certain the one which was very common in

paddy-fields was &. garzelta, the Little Egret.

Ardeola grayi. Paddy Bird.

Common.

Ixobrychus cianamomeus, Chestnut Bittern.

Seen once on Foy reservoir,

Podiceps ruficollis. Little Grebe.

Fairly common on the larger expanses of water.

BUTTERFLIES OF SOUTH BIHAR

Masor P. W. MorRISON—GODFREY, A.M.I.C.E.

(With a map)

Bihar is a Province that may be conveniently divided into two

distinct collecting subdivisions, North Bihar and South Bihar. The

Ganges River passing through Bihar, may be accepted as the border

between them.

This list covers South Bihar, and includes the districts of Patna,

Ranchi, Hazaribagh, and Manbhum.

In South Bihar, the localities are very much restricted, in fact,

the place where the largest number of species will be taken is in the

jungles surrounding Rajdaha Reservoir, in the district of Manbhum.

Rajdaha Reservoir is an artificial lake formed by the construction

of a dam, 950 feet long, across the mouth of a valley in the Parash-

nath Hills; the lake is 750 feet above sea level, and is 20 miles from

Dhanbad on the Grand Trunk Road. Rajdaha Reservoir is common-

ly referred to as ‘‘Topchanchi’ in the District. ‘TTopchanchi is, the

name of a village on the Grand Trunk Road, and the reservoir is

about a mile from this place.

It will be interesting to note that although the altitudes in South

Bihar range from approximately 200 feet to about 2000 feet, the

species listed here are all available at an altitude of approximately

750 feet above sea level.

I have also visited the remote areas up the Domodar, Gowri, and

Ijri Rivers, but the species to be found along the valleys are usually

of the commoner kinds, although I have come across Charaxes

polyxena tnina But. on several occasions in these valleys.

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BUTTERFLIES OF SOUTH BIHAR 645

Other localities that may be given a further trial are those in the

vicinity of the Johna and Hundru Falls, both of which are within

50 miles of Ranchi. Unfortunately I was not able to make frequent

visits to these falls, but they should prove to be good collecting

grounds. Of all the places I was able to visit in South Bihar, I found

Rajdaha Reservoir area to be the best, and I therefore decided to

concentrate on this locality.

Many different kinds of butterflies can be taken between Parash-

nath peak (4480 feet) and Rajdaha Reservoir. This list has been

prepared from the bulk of the species caught in this locality.

It is of interest to mention that Macaduba dana deN. Pantoporia

selenophora kanara Evans, and Halpe moorez mooret Watson, to my

knowledge have never been recorded in this part of India at all.

The area around Rajdaha Reservoir is surrounded by jungle. It

is humid, has open spaces combined with shrub jungle, watercourses

and streams. Practically every species of butterfly to be taken in

South Bihar is likely to be found in this locality.

The best season for collecting in South Bihar, at the localities I

have mentioned, is undoubtedly from the commencement of the rains

(mid-June) to November, the best month being September. I do not

necessarily mean that all the species will be taken in the month of

September when I say this is the best month, because Cyrestis does

not appear until the end of October, and Wepfzs in November, but the

majority of the species can be taken in September. February to

April are not good months for collecting in South Bihar.

For identification purposes, I have used Evans’s letters and figures

as from his book ‘ Identification of Indian Butterflies’.

I am indebted to my friend M. A. Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (Cantab).,

for the assistance he has given me in checking specimens with the

list I have prepared.

PAPILIONIDAE

J. (A2.9) Zyros hector L.

2. (A2.108) Zyros avistolochie aristolochia F.

Aristclochié may be taken in most places iu the province throughout the

year. Particularly common during the rainy season.

3. v. diphilus:Esp,

Cummon in the vicinity of the Domodar River.

4 (A2.100) Tyros aristolochiea sawi Nov.1

Fairly common.

5. (A3.58) Chilasa elytia clytia Li.

Nota common butterfly. I have only seen and caught it at Rajdaha

Reservoir in August.

6. v. adissimilis L.

Not common, appears in August.

7, (A4.18) Papilio polymnestor polymnestor Cr.

Not common, caught Rajdaha Reservoir 28-4-19 47.

8. (A4.25) Papilio polytes romutus Cr.

The 2 form with white bands UPF is distinctly rare.

+ As this is a local race peculiar to Car Nicobar, M. A. Wynter-Blyth con-

siders its occurrence here mos? improbable,—EbDs.

646 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

9, Ov. cyrus F.

10. Q v. stichins Hub.

Polytes is common and may be taken in jungle districts of the pro-

vince.

Cyrus is not common,

Stichius is distinctly rare. I have only seen and caught one, and that was

in the month of September.

11. (A4.27) Papilio demoleus demoleus Li.

Very common over the whole province and can be taken throughout

the year.

12. (A5.4) Pathysa nomius nomtius Esp.

Common during the months of June and July. Fond of settling on damp

patches of ground after a shower of rain, particularly on the waterbound

macadam road round Rajdaha Reservoir. On 3-8-47 at Rajdaha Reservoir I

only came across two and caught them both together, one was an aberration,

and almost identical to the aberration caught in the Nilgris by M. A. Wynter-

Blyth. (See vol. xliv, No. 4, August 1944, pp. 538 and 601.)

Description of mine.

‘Upperside of forewing, 4th band missing, small faint spot above sub-

costal vein in place of missing band. Band 2 in cell narrow and faint. Upper-

side hindwing two bands narrow. Rest markings similar to aberration describ-

ed by Wynter-Blyth. Expanse 66 mm.’

13. (A6.3B8) Zefides doson eleius Fr.

Not common, may be taken in jungle flying along narrow waterbound

macadam roads particular! y after a shower of rain. I have come across this

butterfly in the month of September.

14. (A 6.88) Zetides agemmemnnon agemmemnon L,

A distinctly rare species,

PIRFRIDAE.

15. (B 18) Ledlosia nina nina F.

Very common in thick jungle, but are rather inclined to be smaller than

usual. Available throughout most of the year.

16. (B2.2<) Huphina nerissa evagete Cr.

Common over the whole province.

(B10.68) <Appias albina darada Fd.

Very common most of the year.

18. Q v. semiflava Fr.

19. (Bll.1) Catopsilia crocale Cr.

20. (Bl1.2) Catopsilia pomona F.

Ze Dewncaiillawer

22, (Bl1.4) Catlopsilia pyranthe minna Herbst.

23, (B11.5) Catopsilia florella gnoma F.

All are common except v. catilla and florella. 'The commoner cnes

appear in abundance during the rains.

24, (BI5.1) Zerzas libythea F.

Abundant all over the province.

25. (B15.2.) TZevrias laeta laeta Bdv.

Very common particularly around Rajdaha Reservoir.

26. (Al5.4<) TZerias blanda silhetana Wall.

27. (B15.5%) TZerias hecabe simulata M.

28. (Bl5.5y) TZerias hecabe hecabe L.

29, (B20.3) Parenonia valeria hippia F.

‘This insect only appeared in late September, and was common; obviously

a new brood because all specimens were very fresh. ‘The male is rare.

BUTTERFLIES OF SOUTH BIHAR 647

30. (C2.9) Danas limniace mutina Fruh.

Common before and after the rains.

31. (C212) Danats plexippus LL.

Common before and after the rains,

32. (C2.15) Danais chrysippus L.

Common throughout the Province.

SATYRIDAE

33. (D2, 9X) Mycalesis perseus typhlus Fruh.

34, (D2.10X) AMycalesis minenus polydecta Cr.

35. (D2.12%) Mycalesis visala visala M.

These species are all common in jungle, I have a seen pervseus many

miles from jungle.

visala is not common.

36. (D3.21) Lethe europa vagalva Fruh.

Rajdaha Reservoir, 29-8-47.

37, (D3.22.) Lethe rohria nilgiviensis Guer.

Not common, difficult to find, habitat jungle.

38, (D14.10) YAthima ceylonica Hew.

Rajdaha Reservoir, 9-11-47. Fairly common,

39. (DI4.118, YAthina hubneri hubneri Kirby.

Muri, 31-10-47, Fairly common.

40, (D16.8) Orsotrioena medus medus F.

Not common.

41, (D22.1) Melantisleda ismene Cr.

Very common in thick jungle.

NYMEHALIDAE

42, (F1.28) Chavaxes polyxera tmna But,

Only to be seen in thick jungle, flies very fast and extremely difficult to

catch. I caught two in the jungles at Rajdaha Reservoir, one on 31-8-47 and one

on 21-9-47. They will be seen on the Ranchi Muri Ghat at lower elevations, in

June to September. ‘This butterfly is distinctly rare.

43, (F1.20) Charaxes polyxera hierax Fd.

I had difficulty in classifying the correct race of this butterfly, on account

of the area being on the border line between Peninsular India and the N.-E.

India area, I was also not able to send the specimen to my friend M. A. Wynter-

Blyth for checking. I have since discussed this insect with Brigadier Evans in

London, and he informs me that it is Aterax.

This butterfly is not rare at Rajdaha Reservoir, and I have seen it on

several occasions in jungle districts. It is tobe found mostly on damp sand.

Bear droppings are certain bait. I caught six within an hour on 27-6-47 at

Rajdaha Reservoir, another three on 3-8-47. Also seen on 22-8, 24-8, 14-9, 21-9,

12-10, 19-10, 9-11-1947. A very fast flier and unlikely to be taken in flight.

44, (F2. 27) LEviboea athamas athamas Db.

Not common, found on river beds anddamp sand. Rajdaha Reservoir,

28-9-47, Observed between June-September.

45. (F18. 14y) Zuthalia garuda anagama Fruh.

Very rare, first observed at Rajdaha Reservoir, on 9-11-47,

46. (F18. 28) Authalia nats Forst.

A very common butterfly in Bihar, found on the plains and in thick

jungle. Flies low, easy to catch.

47, (F24. 77) Limenitis procris procris Cr.

Fairly common, to be found along river beds and likes settling on damp

sand. Appears after the rains.

648 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

48. (F25.4a) Pantoporia selenophora kanara Evans.

Not common, appears in October.

49, (F25. 14) Pantoporia perius L.

Rajdaha Reservoir on 26-10-47. Rare.

50. (F26.18) Neptis columella ophiana M.

Caught on 5-10-47, 12-10-47, 26-10-47. Rare.

Sl. (F26. 28) Neptis jumbah jumbah M.

Rare, appears after the rains.

52. (F26.6a) Neptis hylas varmona M.

Common.

53. (F26.78) Neptis soma soma M.

Rajdaha Reservoir, 2-11-47. A common butterfly, may be taken in hilly

jungle districts on the lower altitudes.

54, (F26. 328) Neptis hordonia hordonia Stoll.

Rajdaha Reservoir, 19-10-47, 2-11-47. Not common.

55. (F27. 2a) Cyrestis cocles cocles F.

Not common ; appears in October.

56. (F27.4a) Cyvrestis thyodamas indica Evans.

Not common.

57. (F30.1) Aypolimnas misippus L.

common everywhere.

¢& not common.

58, (F30.2) AHypolimnas bolina &.

Both male and female common, particularly the female. Rajdaha Reser-

voir locality is best for this butterfly.

59. (F34.28) Kallima inachus inachus Bav.

I have only seen it at Rajdaha Reservoir during the months of September,

October and November, and it is then common. For information to the

collector ; it will he taken at a place in the jungle, north side of jungie track

between Rajdaha Reservoir and Bhikhnadih village, about a quarter of a mile

from the reservoir. Fond of settling on trunks of trees.

60. (F35.la) Precis hierta hierta F.

61. (F35.2a) Precis orithya swinhoei But.

62. (F35.3a) Precis lemonias vaisya Fruh.

63. (F35.4) Precis almana almana L.

64. (F35.5) Precis atlites L.

65. (F35.67) Precis iphita iphita Cr.

All are common except ‘iphita’. The best month being June. Rajdaha

Reservoir is a particularly good place for all the species.

66. (F36.1) Vanessa cardui, L.

Rare.

67. (F42.1) <Atella phalanta Drury.

Very common, may be taken in most places.

68. (F49.18) Hrgolis ariadne inidica M.

Common in September at Rajdaha Reservoir, is not common elsewhere

in the Province.

69. (F52) Telchinia violae Feb.

Very common, particularly on the plains after the monsoon. It was late

in appearing at Rajdaha Reservoir. Brood generally over by mid-October, a

few may be seen after October.

BUTTERFLIES OF SOUTH BIHAR 649

ERYCINIDAR

70. (G4.58) <Adisara echerius suffusa M.

_ _. The only Ersycinidae in Bihar, and is fairly common. ‘To be found only

in thick jungle, It is common at Johna Falls. July to September best months.

71. (H11.1) Castalius rosimon rosimon F.

Common at Rajdaha Reservoir,

72. (H11.28) Castalius caleta decidia Hew.

Rare, only appeared in October.

73. (H12.4) Tarucus callinara But.

A most difficult genus to identify, some of those caught were marked

like nigra above and callinara below.

74. (H12.5) TZarucus theophrastus indica Nov.

Not common, may be taken at Ranchi.

75. (H12.6) Tarucus extricatus But.

Appeared common on 3-8-47 at Rajdaha Reservoir.

76. (H12.8) Zarueus nigra BB.

Common at Rajdaha Reservoir in August.

77. (H12.9) TZarucus nara Koll.

See remark against callinara. Those resembling callinara, nara, extri-

catus and nigra are very common butterflies at Rajdaha Reservoir during the

months of July, August and September.

78. (H13) Syntarucus plinius B.

Difficult to find. May be taken in August.

79. (H21.28) Lycaenopsis puspa gisca Fruh.

A rare butterfly in this Province, onespecimen caught at Angara P.W.D,

Inspection Bungalow, Ranchi-Muri Road, on 19-8-47, One caught on the

following dates, 21-9-47 and 28-9-47, at Rajdaha Reservoir.

80. (H23.a) Chilades laius laius Cr.

Not common, available at Rajdaha Reservoir in August.

81. (H24.la) Zizeeria trochilus putli Koll.

Very common along the banks of the Domodar River away from trees ;

appears in abundance after the commencement of the rains. It is then to be

seen for about a month, but afterwards only occasionally.

82. (H24.3B) Zizeeria maha maha Koll.

83. (H244) Zizeeria lysimon Hub.

84. (H24.5) Zizeeria gaika Trimen.

All common, along the banks of the Domodar River, south of Dhanbad.

85. (H24.6a) Zzzeeria otis decreta But

Very common after the commencement of the rains; prefers to fly above

new grass.

86. (H25.1) Huchrysops cnejus F.

12th October, 1947.

87. (H25.3B\ Huchrysops pandava pandava Hors,

88. (H26.1a) Lycaenesies emolus emolus God.

89. (H26.2a) Lycaenesthes lycaenina lycaenina Fd.

Not common ; caught in August.

90. -(H27.1) Catachrysops strabo F.

Rather a rare butterfly, not easy to find.

YJ. (H28) Lampides boeticus L.

Uncommon, to be found at Rajdaha Reservoir.

92. (H29.58) Jawmzdes celeno celeno Cr.

93, (H29.98) Jamides alecto eurysaces. Fruh.

Available in hilly districts of South Bihar, flies in September,

650 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. *SOCIETY, Vol. 47

04, (H32.15) Nacaduba noranora Fd.

95. (H32.16a) Nacaduba dubiosa indica Evans.

96. (H32.19) Nacaduba dana deN.

Nacadubas are not common in South Bihar, ‘The best place where they

may be taken is at Rajdaha Reservoir.

97. (H44.6) Cuwuretis acuta dentata M.

Quite a common butterfly. It isto be found in most jungle districts of

South Bihar, and easily aroused when resting. I have both the male and

female ; the male is common and the female is rare. Best months, August and

September,

98. (H45.1.Y) Jraota timoleon timoleon Stoll.

99. (H46.18) AHorsfieldia anita dina. Fruh.

This butterfly is not rare, it will be taken at Rajdaha Reservoir from the

commencement of the monsoon to the end of September.

100. (H49.34) Amblypodia alemon deN.

I have a femalecatght on 31-8-47. I have not seen another since, but

should say not rare.

101. (H49.39a) <Amblypodia amantes amantes Hew.

Not rare, I have taken it at Rajdaha Reservoir and at Ranchi. I have

also seen it during the months of July, August and September. S2:ttles on

the leaves of trees—high up.

1(2. (H50.18) Surendra quercetorum biplagiata But.

Female very common from June to November. I have not seen the male.

103. (H53.Y) Loxura atymnus continentalis Fruh.

This species is very common; will be taken between June and November.

104. (H57.18) Spindasis vulcanus vulcanus F.

105. (H57.6B) Spindasis ictis ictis Hew.

106. (H57.7B) Spindasis elima elima M.

107. (H57.12) Spindasis syama peguanus M.

Vulcanus iscommon. Ihave taken it at Johna Falls, Rajdaha Reservoir

and on the Domodar River, south of Dhanbad. I have also seen it in the

Hazaribagh district. Syama is not common, 7c/zs is rare.

108. (H58) Zesius chrysomallus Hub.

Not common, available in October.

1¢9. (H60.18) TZajuria jehana M.

Rare.

110. (H60.198) TZajuria cippus cippus F.

Rare. Caught at Rajdaha Reservoir on 10-8-47,.

111. (76) Rathinda amor F.

Rare.

112. (H83.1la) Deudoryx epyarbas epijarbas M.

113. (H85.11<) Rapala varuna lazuliua M.

114. (85.12) Rapala schistacea M.

115. (H85.16) Rapala melampus Cr.

These insects are rare. ‘They may be takenin July and August. I have

not seen them at any other time. Rajdaha Reservoir is the best place,

HLESPERID

116. (1.5.) Badamia exclamationis Fab.

I caught a male on 22-8-47 and a female on 14-9-47,

117. (114.108) Zagiades litigiosa litigiosa Moschy

Not common, will be taken July-September.

BUTTERFLIES OF SOUTH BIHAR 651

118. (1.19.6a) Daztmio bhagava bhagava M.

Not common, available after August.

119. (120.28) Coladenia indrant indra Evans.

Not a common species,

120. (126.14) Caprona ransonnettit ransonnetti Fd.

Very common at Rajdaha Reservoir, appears in July, August, September

and October.

121. (126.1.Y) Caprona ransonnetti taylori deN.

Second dry season form, appears before July.

122, (126.2a) Caprona agama pelias Fruh.

I have only one specimen caught on 24-7-47, ‘This butterfly is rare.

123. (128.2) Syrichtus galba FP.

Not common.

124, (157.1) Udaspes fotus Cr.

Not commcn, available in September.

125. (164.1) Matapa aria M.

Not rare, available in September,

126. (183.31) Malpe moorei moorei Watson.

127, (187) Cupitha purreea purreea M,

Rare, only one specimen, July, 1947.

128. (191.28) Aslyeus pythias bambusae M.

Will be taken on the plains in July.

129. (197.18) SBaoris oceia farri M.

Common, best month September.

130. (J97.24a) Baoris conjuncta narooa M.

Rare—I have two, one caught on 24-8-47, and the other on 14-9-47, at

Rajdaha Reservoir.

131. (197.30a) Boaris sinensis subochracea M,

Not rare, to be taken in September.

132. (197.318) Boaris mathias mathias F.

Uncommon, September is the best month.

133. (197.328) Boaris guttatus bada M.

Rather rare, I have caught it on the Ghats between Ranchi and Muri in

August, and at Rajdaha Reservoir in September.

134. (197.338) Boaris zelleri cinnara Wallace.

I have caught this butterfly on the banks of the Domodar River, in

Manbhum District in July, and at Rajdaha Reservoir in September.

NOTES ON THE SOLANACEAE OF BOMBAY.

H. SANTAPAU, S.J., F.L.8.

The Solanaceae of India have been left practically unchanged

from the time Clarke published his Solanaceae in Hook. f. Flora of

British India in 1888; the authors of most of the local floras

published since that time have confined themselves to copying

Clarke’s notes and descriptions almost without any alteration.

Much work has been and is being done, especially in America, on

the more important commercial plants of the Family. I shall

try and introduce into these notes the results of my studies in the

library and herbarium at Kew Gardens with the hope that they

will be of help to other Indian botanists.

The most important changes in the Family concern the splitting

of the genus Solanum into Solanum and Lycianthes, the identity

of the Indian species of Datura, and a few other points in nomen-

clature. A comprehensive list of references is given at the end of

this paper embodying the more important contributions on the

Family; papers dealing exclusively with the cytology of the Family

or of some of the genera have been purposely omitted.

SOLANUM Linn.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF SOLANUM OF BOMBAY.

Unarmed plants:

An annual herb; flowers white, in umbellate, pedun-

culate cymes woe Sy NIGTUAN.

Shrubs or undershrubs or small trees:

Large shrub or small tree with white flowers in

corymbose cymes ... S. verbascifolium.

Small shrub with purple flowers in racemose cymes... S. pubescens,

Armed with prickles.

Herbs.

Leaves 15 cm. or more long; berry 2.5-4.5 em. diam.

clothed all over with long hairs 60

Leaves under 12 cm. long; berry glabrous, about

2 cm. diam., yellow or creamy or pale green with

deep green veins:

Prostrate or procumbent plant, densely stellate

hairy at least when young ... S. wanthocarpum,

Erect or suberect plant, glabrous or nearly so... S. McCannit.

Shrubs or undershrubs.

Leaves entire, not prickly, 15-25 cm. long, under

6 cm. broad .. S. giganteum.

Leaves irregularly toothed or lobed, prickly on the

main nerves, over 5 cm. long berry about 8 mm.

S. ferow.

diam.; erect shrub ... S&S. indicum.

Leaves under 5 cm. long; trailing or subscandent

shrub or undershrub ... S. trilobatum.

1. Solanum nigrum inn., Sp. Pl., 186, 17538; Dunal, in D. C. Prodr. 50;

Clarke, 229; Cooke, 263; Schultz, 160; Gamble, 9386; Merrill, 426.

NOTES ON THE SOLANACEAE OF BOMBAY 653

Solanum rubrum Mill., Gard. Dict. (ed. 8), No. 4, 1768; Wight,

Icon. t. 844.

Solanum incertum Dunal, Hist. Solan., 155; Graham. 187.

At first sight, this plant may be confused with Lyctanthes bigeminata (Nees)

Bitt. (Solanum bigeminatum Nees); but the type of inflorescence at once

distinguishes these two species: Solanwm nigrum has white flowers in umbellate,

eased tneleg cymes; whilst the other species has purple flowers in lateral

fascicles.

2. Solanum verbascifolium Tiinn., Sp. Pl., 184, 1753; Dun., 114; Wight,

Tcon. t. 1898; Clarke, 230; Cooke, 268; Schultz, 182; Gamble, 936; Merrill, 429.

Solanum pubescens Roxb., Fl. Ind., 2: 244, 1824 (non Willd.)

Solanum verbascifolium var. exstipulatum O. Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Pl.

2: 455, 1891.

A large shrub or small tree, remarkably similar to Callicarpa lanata Tiinn.

in general appearance: but it can be easily distinguished by its white flowers.

8. Solanum pubescens Willd., Phytogr., 5, 1794; Wight, Icon. t. 1402;

Clarke, 230; Cooke, 263; Gamble, 936 (non Roxb.)

In many respects this plant is somewhat similar to S. verbascifolium Linn.,

from which it may be distinguished by its purple flowers in racemose cymes.

4. Solanum ferox Tinn., Sp Pl. (ed. 2), 267, 1762; Graham, 139; Wight,

Teon. t. 1899; Clarke, 283; Cooke, 265; Gamble, 937; Merriil, 426.

One of the most typically distinct Solanums of Bombay; leaves about the

largest of the genus in Western India, reaching 85 cm. long and up to 30 cm.

broad; stems and branches densely velvety tomentose with erect or spreading

tomentum, armed with a few, very fine, sharp yellow prickles, which are

irregularly scattered among the tomentum. Most typical of this species however

is the densely hairy fruit; this is the only hairy or tomentose fruit for the

genus seen at Kew Herb. for the whole of India. It is also one of the

largest-fruited wild Solanums.

5. Solanum xanthocarpum Schrad. & Wendl., Sert. 1: 8, t. 2, 1795; Clarke,

236; Cooke, 265; Gamble, 988.

Solanum Jacqunt Willd., Sp. Pl. 1: 1041, 1798; Roxb., Fl. Ind. 1:

569, 1832; Graham, 139.

Solanum diffusum Roxb., loc. cit. p. 568.

About the most densely armed of the Bombay Sclanums; prostrate or

procumbent, or at times suberect, but I have not observed it creeping and

rooting at the nodes. Common everywhere in roadsides and waste places. At

times it is a somewhat gregarious plant, and when growing in overcrowded

conditions, it becomes erect or suberect.

6. Solanum giganteum Jacq., Collect. 4: 125, 1790; Graham, 1388: Wight,

Icon. t. 898; Dalz. & Gibs., 175; Clarke, 283; Cooke, 266; Gamble, 9387.

A large shrub, easily distinguished by its leaves which are long and

relatively narrow, dark green and glabrous above, white velvety tomentose

beneath. Spines or prickles are short, stout, yellowish or orange in colour and

hairy at the base. Jt is found only on the highest hills of the Province

of Bombay.

7. Solanum indicum Tuinn., Sp. Pl., 187, 1753 pro max. parte; Graham,

138; Wight, Icon. t. 346; Dalz. & Gibs., 174; Clarke, 234; Cooke, 266; Gamble,

938; Merrill, 426.

Examination of large numbers of sheets from all over India at Kew Herb.

has shown that this is one of the most variable of the Solanums of India.

Dry season plants when compared with others growing under better conditions

of moisture are almost unrecognizable as belonging to the same species. Prickles

vary from very numerous all over the plant to just a few on the upper and

younger parts; the degree of pubescence is also very variable. Probably some

good varieties could be made of this species, but in view of the great

variability of the plant, I have found it very difficult to set the limits between

neighbouring varieties, and in consequence have left the species as it has stood

up to the present.

654 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

8. Solanum trilobatum Tinn., Sp. Pl. 188, 1753; Graham. 138; Dunal,

287; Wight, Icon. t. 854; Dalz, & Gibs., 175; Clarke, 2386; Cooke, 267;

Gamble, 988.

Generally a scandent or subscandent plant; prickles hooked; leaves about

the smallest among the Bombay Solanums, often 3-lobed, petioles fairly long

and. slender,

9. Solanum McCannii Santapau sp. nov.

Specyes haec distincta satis videtur, proximeque ad Solanum xanthocarpum

Schrad. & Wendl. accedit, a quo tamen differt sequentibus notis: habitu erecto

vel suberecto, longis internodalibus spatiis; caulibus ramisque lignosis vel

sublignosis, non vero herbaceis; ramis acute quadrangularibus, haud_ striatis;

aculeis rarioribus, minoribusque; petiolis longioribus; corollis largioribus,

calycibus vero minoribus; pedicellis longioribus atque fortioribus; fructibus

eiusdem fere vel paulo maioris magnitudinis; pubescentia multo sparsiore. His

omnibus notis fit ut nova haec species primo intuitu diversa appareat a coeteris

speciebus quae ex occidentalibus partibus Indiae sunt hucusque descriptae.

This is a clearly distinct species approaching S. wxanthocarpum Schrad, &

Wendl., but differing mainly in the following particuiars: its erect or suberect

habit, with fairly long internodes; stem and branches woody or subwoody, not

herbaceous; branches sharply angular and either not at all or only very

faintly striate; prickles not so dense as and generally smaller than inS. zxantho-

carpum; petioles longer; corollas larger, calyx smaller; pedicels both in flower

and fruit longer and stouter; fruit of about the same size or slightly larger ;

the whole plant distinctly much less pubescent.

Erect or suberect, up to 40 cm. high, not prostrate nor procumbent, with

woody base, woody or subwoody branches and fairly long interncdes; young

branches with an occasional stellate hair, older ones glabrous or Dearly s0,

all more or less sharply angular, at times almost 4-winged; prickles compressed,

straight, yellow or straw coloured from a fairly broad base, erect or spreading,

and very sharp, more numerous and large in the upper than in the lower

parts of the plant.

Leaves up to 9X6 cm., ovate or elliptic in outline, sinuate or subpinnatifid,

acute or subacute, very sparsely hairy on both sides with an _ occasional

stellate hair, at length glabrous or nearly so, armed on the midrib and some

of the lateral nerves with sharp yellow prickles on both sides; prickles up to

9 mm. long; base of the leaf very unequal-sided, truncate or cuneate; petioles

up to 3.5 cm. long, glabrous or nearly so, armed with stouter prickles than the

rest of the leaf, and decurrent along the stems.

Flowers in extra-axillary racemose cymes, the axis of the cyme up to

7 cm. long’; pedicels in flower up to 10 mm. long, and erect, elongating to

15 mm. and becoming curved and at times reflexed and stouter upwards in

fruit; axis of the inflorescence and pedicels prickly. Calyx up to 7 mm. long,

tube about a quarter of the length of the whole calyx; lobes acute, deltoid,

sparsely stellately hairy in flower, glabrous in fruit, densely prickly outside

with prickles of 2-6 mm. in length. Corolla bluish purple, up to 2:7 cm. diam.,

lobes deltoid, up to 9 mm. long, densely stellately hairy outside, stellately

hairy but not so densely inside. Filaments very short, glabrous; anthers bright

yellow, glabrous, slightly curved, up to 9 mm. long, opening by small apical

pores facing upwards. Ovary and style glabrous; berry at first green, then

pale green with deeper green veins, at length yellow, up to 2 em. diam.

Seeds 3 mm. diam., compressed, glabrous.

The type of this plant, Santapau 2972-2973, was collected in Khandala on

the 18th October 1943. I wish to dedicate this species to my good friend

Charles McCann, Esq., F.U.8., Joint Curator, Bombay Natural History Society,

who has very often accompanied me in my excursions through Khandala.

10. Solanum torvum Swartz, Prodr., 47, 1788; id. in Flor. 1: 456; Dun.,

Hist. Solance. 203, t. 23; Wight, Icon. t. 345; Dalz. & Gibs., 175; Clarke,

234; Cooke, 269; Gamble, 987; Merrill, 426.

Solanum indicum Linn., Sp. Pl. 187, 1753, pro parte.

Solanum stramonifolium Roxb., Fl. Ind., 1: 572, 1832 (non Jacq.)

Among the many sheets of the species in Kew Herb., there is none from

Bombay; Dalz. & Gibs., loc. cit., are the only authorities for the inclusion of

this among the plants of Bombay.

NOTES ON THE SOLANACEAE OF BOMBAY. 655

stale Solanum tuberosum Tuinn., Sp. Pl. 185, 1753; Graham, 137, Dunal, 31:

Dalz. & Gibs. Suppl., 60; Clarke, 229: Cooke, 269; Schultz, 248; Gamble,

938; Merrill, 426.

The Potato plant, extensively cultivated in Western India. In some districts

the greatest enemies of the potato seem to be the village children who eat

the tubers raw and apparently with relish. In Khandala I heard some

Katkari children speaking of the ‘Sweets’ growing freely in the fields; they

showed me some of their ‘sweets’ which proved to he some potato tubers from

a neighbouring field.

12. Solanum melongetia Tiinn., Sp. Pl. 186, 1753: Nees in Trans. Linn.

Soe. 17: 48; Graham, 138; Dalz. & Gibs., Suppl., 61; Wettstein in Engler

& Prantl, Pflanzenfam. 4, (8B): 28, f. 11 N; Cooke, 269; Schultz, 213;

Gamble, 937; Merrill, 426.

Solanum esculentum Dunal, Hist. Solanac., 208.

The Brinjal or Egg-Plant, widely cultivated in fields and in Hower pots

in Western India.

LYCIANTHES (Dunn.) Hassl.

Lycianthes (Dun.) Hassl. in Ann. Cons. Jard. Bot. Geneve 20: 173-183,

1917, sesu ampl. Biti. in Abhandl. Naturw. Ver. Bremen, 24: 292, 1920.

Solanum sect. Pachystemonum, subs. Lycianthes Dun. in DC. Prodr. 13(1):

29, 156, 1852 pro max. parte. Solanum sect. Lycianthes (Dun.) Wettstein in

ling]. Prantl, Pflazenfam. 4, 3B: 22, 1891.

The following is the translation of the generic characters taken from

Bitter, loc. cit.: ‘Inflorescences sessile in the axils of the upper leaves (which

are falsely geminate), often few-flowered; calyx shortly campanulate, truncate,

mostly 10-toothed (lobes unequal alternatively subulate-linear), or rarely

5-toothed, the calyx often being cupulate or entirely destitute of teeth; corolla

rotate or stellate; filaments at times almost equal, at other times more or

less unequal in length, one or three being longer than the rest, all glabrous;

anthers mostly ellipsoid, at times abbreviated, more often fairly long, nearly

always opening inwards by apical oblique pores; style glabrous. Shrubs or

undershrubs, more rarely herbs creeping and rooting at the nodes or below

the nodes; leaves always simple, mostly entire, the higher ones falsely geminaie,

unequal.’

Bitter hased his description on that of Hassler; but whereas the latter

only recognized three South American species as belonging to the new genus,

Bitter so enlarged it that over 100 species are now contained under Lycianthes

Hassl. ampl. Bitt.

The type of fruit is the main foundation for the new genus according to

Hassler. ‘Mcst of the Solanums. pcssess or do not possess sclerotic nodules,

but in no case does one find seeds enveloped in a sclerotic coating. . .. The

discovery . . . of fruits with seeds surrounded by a sclerotic pericarpic coating

constitutes an jextremely interesting finding. . . ._ The sclerotic coating of the

seeds is made up of a very dense shell of sclereides. . . . Under the name of

subsect. Polymeris Dunal has collected numerous species of the genus Solanum

(sect. Pachystemonum), which have only the inflorescence in common. ... The

subsect. Polymeris (Dun) Bitt. ... contains those species with a 10 or more-lobed

calyx; the section Polymeris shows also in its floral structure the greatest

affinity with the small group of our three species which Dunal has placed -

under Hulycianthes. ...The Hulycianthes Dun. are the only species of Solanum

known up the present to be provided with a drupaceous fruit, and on account

of this character, clearly differentiated from the neighbouring species of the

sect. Polymeris (Dun.) Bitt. Among the latter the fruit is that of a typical

Solanum, that is to say, a berry.’ (Hassler, loc. cit. p. 174-180). The basis

then of the new genus according to Hassler is the character of the ovary and

fruit, ‘ovario 8-ovulato, fructu pyrenato’.

Bitter, on the other hand, seems to pay so little attention to the fruit,

that in his generic description he does not even mention it. More emphasis is

placed on the nature of the apical pores of the anthers, and on the 10-toothed

calyx. The genus thus enlarged by Bitter contains a great variety of types,

shrubs, undershrubs, and even creepers, most of them with simple, entire

leaves which at times appear fasciculate or subfasciculate on account of the

suppression or abortion of the leaf-bearing branches. In the following list of

656 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

species of Lycianthes (Dun) Hassl., sens. ampl. Bitter, I depart somewhat

of the original scope of my paper and shall include all the Indian species of

Lycianthes mentioned by Bitter in his monograph; it is my hope in this manner

to do a service to other Indian botanists who have not had access to Bitter’s

original paper.

1. Lycianthes bigeminata (Nees) Bitter, loc. cit. p. 480.

Solanum bigeminatum Nees, in Trans. Linn. Soc. 17: 42, 18387;

Dunal, 175; Clarke, 281; Cooke, 264.

Solanum Neesianum Dalz. & Gibs., 175; 1861 (non Wall.)

Solanum laeve Clarke, 231; Gamble, 9386 (non Dun.)

For the differences between this species and Solanum nigrum Tuinn. see

above under the latter species. The position of the pores on the anthers is

quite clear in all the specimens examined in Kew Herb. For the rest, in

the dry state it is not easy to determine plants belonging to this species ;

it may be even difficult at first sight to say whether they belong to the

Solanaceae, as they have very little which is typical except the anthers and

the fruit, and either of these structures or both may be absent from the

specimens.

2. Lycianthes bigeminata subsp. Kaitisis (Dun.) Bitt. loc. cit. p. 481.

Solanum Kaitisis Dun. in DC. Prodr., 18(1): 157, 1852.

Solanum denticulatum C. B. Clarke, 281; Cooke, 264 (non Blume).

3. lLycianthes lysimachioides (Wall.) Bitt., 491.

Solanum lysimachioides Wall. Cat. 2609; Wall. in Roxb. FI. Ind.

2: 257 (excl. syn. S. biflorum Tour.)

4, Lycianthes biflora) (Lour.) Bitt., p. 461.

Solanum biflorum Tour. Fl. Cochinch. 1: 129, 1790, 159, 1798; Dun.,

Hist Solanace W717i), DunJeains DCxalProdrsit 134)2) 178518521 Clarke, «232.-

Bitt. in Engl. Bot. Jahrb. 55: 90, 1917.

Solanum decemdentatum Roxb., Hort. Beng., 16, 1814; Fl. Ind., 2:

247, 1824. Dun. in DC. Prodr:; 13 (1): 179, 1852;

Solanum decemfidum Nees, in Trans. Linn. Soc. 17: 48, 1837.

5. Lycianthes macrodon (Wall.) Bitt., 468.

Solanum macrodon Wall., Cat. 2621, 1828; Nees, loc. cit., 48; Dun.,

180; Clarke, 232 ex parte (excl. var. lysimachioides).

§. Lycianthes pachypetala (Spreng.) Bitt., 475.

Solanum crassipetalum Spreng., Syst. 4(2): App., 72, 1827.

Solanum crassipetalum Wall. Cat. 2618, 1828; Wall. in Roxb., ¥Il.

Ind., 2: 256, 1824; Clarke, 232; Nees, loc. cit. 42.

Lycianthes denticulata (Blume) Bitt., and L. levis (Dun.) Bitt. do not

occur in India. The following key may help to distinguish Lycianthes from

Solanum and other allied genera:

Anthers ellipsoid; pores apical, but facing inwards

and often oblique; calyx 10-rarely 5-partite, not

seldom truncate without lobes ... Lycianthes.

Anthers elongated; apical pores facing upwards or

outwards; calyx teeth 5 ... Solanum & al.

PHYSALIS Jinn.

The following key has been adapted from Gamble, Flora of Madras, p. 989:

Corolla 18 mm. diam. or more, with 5 purple spots

near the base within; calyx more than 2.5 cms.

long, ovoid-conical; leaves ovate, sinuate or

angular, usually entire, pubescent, up to 7.5 cm.

long, 5 cm. broad; berry orange-yellow ..» PL peruviana.

Corolla under 7 mm. diam., sometimes spotted ;

calyx under 2.5 @m. long, ovoid or subglobose ;

leaves ovate, acute, sinuate or toothed, pubescent

or nearly glabrous, up to 6.5 em. long, 4 em.

broad, berry small, yellow .. PP, minima;

NOTES ON THE SOLANACEAE OF BOMBAY 657

1, Physalis minima’ Linn., Sp. Pl., 188, 1758; Graham, 140; Clarke, 288;

Cooke, 270; Merrill, 423.

Physalis parviflora R.Br., Prodr. 447, 1810.

Physalis pubesones Wight, Illustr. t. 166 b, fig. 6 (non Linn.)

There are two extreme forms of this plant: one is glabrous or nearly so,

the other fairly densely pubescent. Specifically it is impossible to separate

the two forms, on .the grounds of pubescence, as they are connected by a

number of intermediate stages. The same may be said of the sizes of the

fruit and of the plant itself.

2. Physalis peruvyiana Tiinn., Sp. Pl. (ed. 2) 1670, 1763; Graham, 140;

Dunal, 440; Dalz. & Gibs., Suppl., 61; Clarke, 288; Cooke, 270; Schultz, 149;

Merrill, 428.

Physalis edulis Sims., Bot. Mag. t. 1068, 1807.

Physalis pubescens R. Br., Prodr. 1: 447, 1810 (non Linn.)

In herbarium specimens this is very similar to the preceding species. ‘The

size of the fruit, however, is sufficient to distinguish the two species. P. peruvidna

has a fruit which together with the persistent, accrescent calyx reaches 4 cm.

or more in length, whilst P. minima has a fruit scarcely reaching 2.5 cm.

long; when observed in nature, there is no difficulty in distinguishing these

two species, as P. peruviana is a fairly large shrub reaching 2 metres in height,

P. minima is but a herb scarcely reaching and seldom passing 75 cm. in height.

WITHANIA Pauq.

Withania somnifera | (Linn.) Dunal in DC. Prodr. 13(1): 458, 1852; Clarke

239; Cooke, 271.

Physalis somnifera Linn., Sp. Pl. 182, 1753; Graham, 139; Dalz. & Gibs.,

175; Wight, Icon. t. 8553.

A typical xerophyte of dry situations; rare in the Province except in

Gujerat and in the drier parts of the Deccan. A fine greenish white bloom

covers the whole plant; for the rest in general appearance it is somewhat

like Physalis minima, but flowers and fruits are much more numerous at the

nodes and smaller than in Physalis minima.

DATURA Tinn.

The nomenclature and identity of some of the Daturas of India have been

fully discussed lately by Safford, whose main contributions on the subject have

been: listed in the bibliography at the end of this paper. It is a little surpris-

ing that authors of Indian floras published after Safford’s papers on the

Daturas seem to have taken no notice at all of his changes in nomenclature ;

Merrill on the other hand, in his Enum. Phil. FI. Pl., vol. 3, p. 480 accepts

Safford’s changes; from the synonymy given by Merrill, there is no doubt

that he is dealing with a plant identical with our Indian so-called D. fastuosa.

1. Datura Metel Linn., Sp. Pl. 179, 1753; Fleming in Asiat. Res., 11: 165,

1812 (Lond. edit.); Roxb. Fl. Ind. 1: 561, n 2, 1832; Safford, in Journ.

Wash. Acad. Sci. 11 (8); 178-179, 1921; id. in Journ. Hered. 12: 178-190, figs.

10 & 12 (1-2), 1921; id. in Ann. Rep. Smith. Instit. 1920, 541-548, figs. 1-3,

5, Pl. 1, 1922; Merrill, 480.

Datura fastuosa Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 2: 982, 1759; Graham,

141; Wight, Icon. t. 1896; Clarke, 242; Cooke 273; Gamble et omn. al. auct.

recent. Ind. passim.

Datura alba Nees in Trans. Linn. Soc. 17: 78, 1887; Dunal in

DC. Prodr., 18 (1): 541-544, 1852; Wight, Icon. t. 852; Graham, Cat., 141;

Dalz. & Gibs., 174.

| Datura fastuosa var. alba (Nees) Clarke, 248; Cooke et al. recent.

Dutra alba Rumph., Herb. Amb. 5: 242, tab. 87, 1755.

Flemming and Roxburgh, loc. cit., identify the Dhatura of India as the

Datura Metel Linn. Hardwicke in Asiat. Res. 6: 851 enumerated Datura

Stramonium among the plants found at Srinagar, but later he corrected his

identification to D. Metel, as stated by Flemming, loc. cit. From the time

of Nees the true Datura Metel Limn, seems to have mysteriously disappeared

658 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

from India. Without exception, all the local floras consulted give Datura Metel

Linn, as the name of an American plant, and call the Indian species by

one of these names: D. fastuosa, D. alba or D. fastuosa var. alba. 'The

following extracts are from Safford’s ‘Daturas of the Old World and New. . .’

in Ann. Rep. Smith. Instit., 1920, pp. 587-567, 1922:

‘Confusion of Specific Names.—It seems strange that botanists should have

abandoned the valid name Datura Metel for the Asiatic species, substituting for

it Datura fastuosa, which was first published as a specific name in the second

edition of Species Plantarum, and transferring the name Datura Metel to an

American plant specifically distinct from the true Datura Metel of Linnaeus.

Under the brief description in Hortus Cliffortianus . . . the first two

references lead to the identification of the Stramonia or Pomum spinosum

described and figured by Bauhin, with the Stramonia of Fuchsius (1542) in the

form and surface of the fruit, which bears very short and thick spmes not subulate

or needle-like prickles; indeed, his second illustration . . . is a reduced copy

of Fuchsius’s. It was not until after publication of the Hortus Cliffortianus

(1737) that Rumphius published his Herbarium Amboynense containing the

plate (fig. 3 in Safford’s paper). . . Linnaeus is careful to cite this plate,

both in the tenth edition of his Systema and the second edition of his Species

Plantarum, as an illustration of his Datura metel. In the former work he

publishes D. fastuosa as the name of the second figure on the plate, not as a

numbered species, but as a variety B; in the latter work he gives it specific

rank, making it differ from the typical D. metel in having tuberculate instead

of prickly pericarps. Fortunately the figures themselves show that these

differences are nominal, and one has only to examine the fruits of the

various forms of this East Indian Dhatura to be convinced of the variability

of their tubercles or prickles . . . That the white and purple forms of the

single or double flowered plants should all be referred to one species by

Linnaeus, is justified by the best modern authorities on East Indian botany ;

but that the name D. fastuosa should be adopted for the species and the

previously jestablished type (D. metel) reduced to a synonym, as in T'rimen’s

Handbook of the Flora of Ceylon, is inexcusable. Still more surprising is the

treatment of this species by Nees von Esenbeck, who re-baptized the species

D. alba, citing as its type the very plate of Rumphius which Iinnaeus cites

as the typical forms of his Datura metel; while C. B. Clarke in Hooker’s

Flora of British India, not only ignores Linnacus’s reference abcve mentioned

in connection with Datura metel but transfers this specific name from the

Asiatic metel-nut to a plant of American origin and cites as an illustration

of the species not the figures of Fuchsius, Bauhin, or Rumphius, which fix

Linnaeus’s species, but an illustration in Curtis’s Botanical Magazine .. . of

a plant grown in London from seed of American origin, clearly identical with

Miller’s Datura innoxia, which will be described below . . tac

Botanical Description of the Asiatic Datura Metel. Datura metel Ih. is

a spreading plant with dichotomous branches, usually herbaceous but some-

times becoming shrublike with the base of the stem and the lower branches

woody, and the root, which penetrates deeply into the soil, bearing several

large branches of similar size. The entire plant is apparently glabrous and

has the appearance of being covered with fine grayish dust or flour. 'The terete

glossy stems and older branches are marked with the scars of fallen leaves.

The leaves are triangular-ovate in general outline and unequal-sided at the

base, especially those of the upper branches acute at the apex, and with the

margins usually angulate but sometimes entire. The flowers . . . are large

and funnel-shaped, often double or triple, one corolla issuing from another;

in the type form pure white, but sometimes of a dirty whitish colour, violaceous

reddish-purple or purple on the outside and white within. The tubular calyx,

as seen under the lens, is minutely appressed-pubescent, with five triangular,

acuminate, marginal teeth, and is usually one third as long as the corolla. The

corolla limb when fully expanded ig almost circular, normally with 5 equidistant

radiating nerves terminating at the margin in a short acute tail, but often

6-toothed, and in the inner Corollas of double flowers from 5 to 10-toothed

The tubercled or muricate globose fruit . . . is borne on a short thick peduncle

which is never erect as. in D, stramonium.. . . but curved to one side, so

that the fruit is at length more or less inclined or nodding. The persistent

expanded base of the calyx is either reflexed or appressed to the pericarp, which

NOTES ON THE SOLANACEAE OF BOMBAY 659

is not valvate, as in D. stramoniwm, but cracks open irregularly, revealing a

mass of closely packed, light brown, flat seeds which nearly fill the interior.

Type localityn—As to the mother country of Datura metel Linnaeus states

in the first edition of his Species Plantarum (p. 179, 17538) ‘‘Habitat in Asia,

Africa’, In Hortus Cliffortianus, under his description of the plant which

formed the basis of the species he is more definite: ‘‘Crescit in Oriente, in

Malabaria, Aegypto, etc.’’; while in the second edition of Species Plantarum,

when he identifies his plant with Rumphius’s Dutra alba, he extends its range

to the Island of Amboyna. Nowhere does he mention its occurrence in the

Canary Islands, as cited by Nees von Hsenbeck, but it is very probable that

‘Canara’ (the district of Kanara, W. India) mentioned by Rumphius as one

of the localities of its occurrence, was mistaken for the Canary Islands by

Willdernow, who in the fourth edition of Species Plantarum (p. 1009, 1797)

adds this locality to Asia and Africa; and it is this edition of Species Plantarum

and not the first (where the species was originally established) that Nees cites,

when he rechristens the species and improperly transfers its valid name to

another. ’.

2. Datura innoxia Mill., Gard. Dict. (ed. 8) n. 5, 1768; Safford in Journ.

Wash vAcad. oScmy ily ¥(8)iy SL79-180) fies vide imttJourns: Hered: 12): fig.

12 (8-4); id. in Ann. Rep. Smith. Instit. 1920: 549-550, fig. 3 (2), 4, 5,

Ply 2) 1929:

Datura metel Sims in Curtis, Bot. Mag. t. 1440, 1812; Dun. 5438;

Clarke, 248; Cooke, 278, et al. recent. auct. Ind. (non Linn.)

This is the plant mentioned in modern Indian floras under the name

of Datura metel, but it is obvious from the extracts of Safford quoted above

that this plant has been wrongly named. ‘It is this plant that Dunal in

De Candolle’s Prodromus called Datura metel, in spite of the fact that its

stem, according to his own description, is densely pubescent or hairy ... ,

its leaves on both sides densely pubescent, and its calyx sparsely so; features

which separate it at once from the true Asiatic Datura metel i « » . 2”

(Safford, in Ann. Rep. Smith. Inst., leo. cit. p. 550). This pubescent or

hairy plant of American origin is the one I have found to be very abundant

in Khandala and other parts of the Province, but always in places near

the roads or railway lines. The long spines and pubescence of the fruit are

typical of this plant.

3. Datura arborea Linn., Sp. Pl. 179, 1753; Cooke, 274; Safford in Journ.

Wash. Acad. Sci., 183, f. 1 G; id. in Ann. Rep. Smith. Instit. Pl. 8-9.

A cultivated South American plant, often seen in gardens in various

parts of India. According to Cooke, it is very abundant at Mahableshwar

where it has been planted as a road-side tree.

The following is a key to the Bombay, wild or cultivated, Daturas:

Herbs or undershrubs:

Glabrous or subglabrous plants; fruit tuberculate or armed with short spines:

Corolla single, normally 5-toothed -. D. metel.

Corolla double or triple, outer 5-toothed, inner

ones 6-10-toothed ee» D. metel var.

fastuosa,

Pubescent plants; coralla single, 10-toothed; fruit armed |

with long, weak spines »» D. innoxia.

Large shrubs or small trees with very large white flowers

and unarmed fruits .. D. arborea.

LYCOPERSICON Mill.

‘The generic name Lycopersicon was first validly published by Miller (Gard.

Dict. Abr. ed. 1754) in 1754. In the same year, as well as the preceding,

Linnaeus treated the tomato species as a Solanwm species, a concept in which

he was followed subsequently by Miller (Gard. Dict., Posth. Edit., 1807)

and others ... . When the genus was finally recognized generally as being

distinct from Solanum, Miller’s name was used to designate it, but Hill’s

elroneous spelling (Veg. Syst. 9: 382, 1765), Lycopersicum, was adopted, and

it was not until Druce (Rep. Bot. Exch. Cl. Brit. Isl. 1918: 488, 1914) in 1914

660 JOURNAL, BOMBAY ‘NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 47

pointed out the error, that Miller’s original name was taken up again... ’

(Muller, Rev. Gen. Lycopers. 2, 1940).

Lycopersicon esculentum Mill., Gard. Dict. (ed. 8) n. 2, 1768; Graham,

139; Clarke, 287; Schultz, 249; Cooke, 275; Gamble, 941; Merrill, 429;

Muller, -loc., cit.. in’ U.S... Dept. Agric. Misc. Public. 882: 10, Pl. 2 A-F,

3 A-G, K, 1940; Luckwill, Gen. Lycop., 20, 1943.

Solanum lycopersicum Tuinn., Sp. Pl. 185; Bonati in Lecomte, FI.

Gen. Indoch., 4: 318, 1915.

Lycopersicum. pomum-amoris Moench, 515, 1794.

Lycopersicon lycopersicon Britt. & Brown, Tll. Flor. 3: 168, 1918.

The Love-Apple or Tomato is extensively cultivated in Bombay. Graham loc.

appearance, but worthless qualities as a fruit... ?° From various sources I

have heard many complaints against this plant. In Khandala, on the Western

Ghauts, it grows luxuriantly and produces plenty of flowers but scarcely any

fruit, unless fertilisation is effected by some artificial means. In Bombay it

produces fruit in abundance, but the seeds are useless for the following season ;

this may be the reason why this plant is not more extensively cultivated in

Western India, some gardeners assuring me that they have to import seeds

from Europe every time they wish to grow tomatoes in their gardens.

NICANDRA Adams

Nicandra physaloides (Linn.) Gaertn., Fruct. 2: 237, t. 141, f. 2, 1791;

Clarke, 240; Graham, 140; Dun. 434; Dalz. & Gibs., Suppl., 62; Bot. Mag.

t. 2458; Wettstein in Engl. & Prantl, Pflanzenfam. 4, (8B): 7, f. 4A; 11, f£.

5; AL HY: Cooke,! 276:

Atropa physaloides Tinn., Sp. Pl. 181, 1758.

A tall, shrubby annual, cultivated in gardens and run wild in some parts

of the Province. On Purandhar Hill this is one of the commonest plants.

It is an annual growing to a height of 1.5 m., with fairly thick stems and

branches. In the post-monsoon period, when there is plenty of moisture in

the ground, this plant has a fine appearance with plenty of large leaves and

flowers; but after the shedding of the leaves, when the fruits are the only thing -

left on the otherwise bare branches, the plant looks rank and wild and not

attractive; the fruits remain on the plant till the beginning of the rainy season.

With regard to the distribution of the plant in India, in addition to the

plants seen growing wild in Khandala and Purandhar (both places in Poona

Dt.), I have examined specimens from the following parts of the country in

Kew Herb.: a. Himalayan and subhimalayan region: ‘'Treutler 56, Sikkim;

Clarke 26944, Darjeeling; Gamble 2886, Sikkim; b. Simla, Punjab, etc.:

Gamble 2774A; Drummond 25599, 25600; Collett, 580; C. Assam: Bor 6808,

Kohima; d. Pulneys, Nilgherries: Hohenack. 10738; Wight, 2028; Sauliére 341;

Bourne 2811, 207, 3380R; e. Western India: Ritchie 518, Belgaum. It is,

therefore, correct, to say that Nicandra in cultivation or as an escape is found

on a number of the higher hill stations of the country.

NICOTIANA § L[yinn.

Nicotiana Tabacum Linn., Sp. Pl. 180, 1758; Clarke, 245; Graham, 140;

Dun., 557; Dalz. & Gibs., Suppl., 62; Wettstein in Engl. & Prantl, Pflanzenfam.

4, (8B): 88, f. 15 D-J: Comes, Mon. Gen. Nic. 7, 1899; Cooke, 276; Gamble,

941; Merrill, 430.

Cultivated extensively in, Gujerat and in some parts of the Deccan end

occasionally, though rarely, run wild. The quality of the tobacco produced

seems to be rather rough, and on this account not suitable for the better type

of cigarrettes; to some extent, this is said to-be due to the quality of the

soil on which Nicotiana is grown. Lately I have learnt of the very encouraging

results obtained from the cultivation of the finer types of tobacco in and

around Baroda. In some districts, especially Gujerat and Baroda; much harm

is done to Nicotiana by a parasite (one of the Orobanches) which grows attached

to the roots of the tobacco plant.

NOTES ON THE SOLANACEAE OF BOMBAY 661

PETUNIA Juss.

Petunia sp. (probably: P. nyctaginiflora Juss. in Ann. Mus. Par. 2:

216, t. 47, f. 2, 1808) is widely cultivated as a border plant in gardens in

Bombay and elsewhere. The bright colours and large size of the flowers end

the ease of cultivation render this plant a very suitable one for the purpose.

I have not seen it running wild.

CAPSICUM) § Juinn.

Capsicum annuum Tinn., var acuminata Hingerh., Mon. Gen. Caps. 18, t.2,

t. c, 1832; Irish, in Rep. Miss. Bot. Gard. 9: 69, t. 10, 1898; Cooke, 276.

C. frutescens Roxb., Fl. Ind. 1: 574, 18382; Graham, 139; Dalz. «&

Gibs., Suppl. 61; Clarke, 239 (non Jinn.)

The common Chilli, Mirchi or Lal Mirchi, extensively cultivated in Western

India. I have seen it growing in fields and in flower pots in and around

Bombay. It is widely used in chutneys when green, or in curries when ripe.

On several occasions I have noticed children in Khandala eating the ripe

fruit raw.

As for the other species and varieties of Capsicum mentioned by Cooke, I

have not seen them cultivated or wild in Western India; they seem, at any

rate, to be much less common than the ordinary, popular Chilli.

REFERENCES;

Bitter, G., ‘Die papuasischen Arten von Solanum’, Engler Bot. Jane. SD:

59-118, 1917.

Bitter, G., ‘Die Gattung Tycianthes. Voerarbeiten zu einer Gesamtschrift

von Georg Bitter’, Abhandl. Naturw. Ver. Bremen, 24 (2): 292-520, 1920.

Bonati, G., ‘Solanaceae’, Lecomte, Fl. Gen. Indoch., 4. 313-836, 1915;

337-341, 1927.

Britten, N. & A. Brown, An illustrated Flora of the Northern United States,

Canada, and the British Possessions . . . Solanaceae, vol. 3, ed. 2, 154-171,

1913.

Brown, R., Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae: van Diemen. 1810.

Clarke, C. B., ‘Solanaceae’, Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind., 4: 228-246, 1883.

Comes, O., Monographie du Genre Nicotiana comprenant le Classement

botanique des Tabacs industriels. 1899.

Cook, Th., The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay, Solanaceae, 2: 261-278,

1905.

Dalzel, N. A. & A. Gibson, The Bombay Flora, or Short Descriptions of all

the indigenous Plants hitherto discovered in or near the Bombay Presidency ;

together with a Supplement of Introduced and Naturalized Species. 1861.

Dunal, M. F.: 1. Histoire naturelle, médicale, et économique des Solanum.

—18138.

2. Solanorum. generumque affinium Synopsis. 1816.

3. Solanaceae, in DC. Prodr. 18(1): 1-690, 1852.

Fingerhuth, A., Monographia Generis Capsici Auctore A. Fingerhuth. Cum

tabulis X coloratis. 1832. a .

Fleming, J., “A Catalogue of Indian Medicinal Plants and Drugs, with their

names in the Hindustani and Sanscrit Languages’, Asiat. Research, 11:

153-196, 1810.

Gamble, J. S., The Flora of the Presidency of Madras, Solanaceae, in Vt.

v, 931-942, 1923. 4

Gaertner, J., De Fructibus et Seminibus Plantarum 2 oo Alffelemit//Sile

Graham, J., A Catalogue of the Plants growing in Bcembay and its

Dicinity, . . . LSo9: oes

Hassler, E., ‘Solanaceae Austro-Americanae imprimis Paraguarienses auctore

E. Hessler’, Ann. Cons. Jard. Bot. Geneve, 20: 173-189, 1917.

Irish, H. C., ‘A Revision of the Genus Capsicum with especial reference to

garden varieties’, Rep. Missouri Bot. Gard. 9: 58-110, pl. 8-28, 1898. .

Jacquin, N. J., Collectayea ad Botanicam . . . spectantia cum figuris.

1764-1771.

662 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Jussieu, A. L., ‘Sur Le Petunia, genre nouveau de la famille des plantes

solanses’ Ann. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris, 2: 214-216, 1808.

Kuntze, O., Revisio Generum Plantarum .. . 1891-1898.

Linnaeus, C., 1. Species Plantarum ... Ed. 1, 1753; ed. 2, 1762-1763; ed.

4 (Willdenow’s), 1797-1810.

2. Systema Naturae ... Hd. 10, 1758-1759.

Luckwill, L. C., The Genus Lycopersicon. An Historical, Biological, and

Taxonomic Survey of the Wild and Cultivated Tomatoes. Aberd. Univ. Stud.

No. 120, 1948.

Loureiro, J., Flora Cochinchinensis . . . 1790.

Merrill, E. ‘D., An Enumeration of the Philippine Flowering Plants.

Solanaceae in 3: 428-480, 1928.

Miller, P., The Gardener’s Dictionary ... Ed. 8, 1768; ed. 10, 1807;

Abridg. 4 ed. 1754.

staminum situ describendi, auctore Conrado Moench. 1794.

Muller, C. H., A Revision of the Genus Lycopersicon. U.S. Dept. Agric.

Misc. Publ. 382, 1940.

Nees vos Esenbeck, C. G., Monograph of the East Indian Solanaceae. In

Trans. Linn. Soc. 17; 37-82, 1837.

Roxburgh, W., 1. Hortus Beygalenis . . . 1814.

2. Flora Indica... by the late William Roxburgh . . . Edited by

William Carey, D.D. To which are added descriptions of plants more recently

discovered by Nathaniel Wallich . . . 1820-1824.

3. Flora Indica, or Descriptions of Indian Plants by the iate

Wiliam Roxburgh, M.D... . 1882.

Rumphius, G. H., Georgu HEverhardi Rumphi . . . Herbarium Amboinese

... Nune primo in lucem editum.. . cura et studio Joannis Burmanni . . . 1750.

Safford, W. H., 1. ‘Synopsis of the Genus Datura’, Journ. Wash. Acad.

Scr., 11(8): 173-189, f. 1-8, 1921.

2. Datura—an inviting genus for the study of Heredity. In Journ.

Hered. 12: 178-190, figs. 10-16, 1921.

3. Daturas of the Old World and New: an Account of their Narcotic

Properties and their Use in Oracular and Initiatory Ceremonies. Ann. Rep.

Smith. Instit. 1920: 587-567, figs. 1-18, Pl. 1-18, 1922,

Schultz, O. E., ‘Solanacearum Genera Nonnulla’, Symb.. Antill. 6: 140

279, 1909.

Sprengel, C., Caroli Linnaei . . . Systema Vegetabilium, editio decima

sexta . . . 1825-1828.

Wettstein, R. V., Solanaceae, in Engler & Prantl, Die Naturlichen

Pflanzenfamilien ... 4, (8b): 4-88, 1895.

Willdenow, K. L., i. Phytographia, sew Descriptio Rariorum minus

Cognitarum Plantarum. 1794.

2. Caroli a Linné Species Plantarum ... Editio quarta . . . curante

Carolo Ludovico Willdenow, 1798-1810.

BREEDING AND FEEDING HABITS OF MULLETS

(MUG/L) IN ENNORE CREEK.*

P. K. JACOB, B.A‘, M:SC.,

Assistant Director of Fisheries (Marine Biology),

AND

B. KRISHNAMURTHI, B.Sc. (HONS.)

Research Assistant, Fisheries Biological Station, Ennore.

Studies on mullets in Europe and America show that they usually live

and breed in shallow waters and bays where the water is generally brackish.

(2) and (3).

The actual spot where the mullet breeds in Indian waters is still a

mystery. ‘The location of spawning grounds of mullets, amongst other

aspects of bionomics, is of considerab!e importance in protecting breeders

and preserving the fishery both in estuarine and inland waters. Efforts were

provers made during the past year to study mullets in the backwaters at

nnore,

The breeding season of mullets of Enmore.

The following species of mullets occurring at Ennore were identided :—(2).

Mugil oeur Forsk.

Mugil troschelli Bleeker.

Mugil dussumierit Cuv. and Val.

Mugit waigiensis Q. and G.

Mugil oligolepis Bleeker.

Mugil tade Forsk.

Mugil buchanani Bleeker,

8. Mugil spleigert Bleeker.

NOOR OME

Of the above, 7. oeur, MW. troschellt, M. dussumiert and MW. waigiensis

grow to afootand more. J. oligolepis, M. dussumieri and M1. troschelli are

usually caught far up from the sea, while the other species are found both in

the channels, in the backwaters proper and the adjacent part of the sea.

Periodical examination of gonads of A/ugil has confirmed the findings

(5) that the mullets of Madras Coast breed soon after the commence-

ment of the monsoon. We observed that at Ennore, the gonads of M7. oeur,

M. buchanani, M. oligolepis and M. dussumieri were ripe from October to May.

Even though eggs and larvae of Mugil spp., Auchoviella spp., Ambassis spp.,

Leiognathus spp.» Gerres tilamentosus, Belone sp., Scatophagus argus, Chanos

chanos, Polynemus tetradactylus and Tetradon sp. were available, those of mullets

predominated in the plankton collections. These were surface collections made

both at the bar and in the centre of the backwater, the duration of haul being

30 minutes in all, 15 minuteseach way. Plankton thus collected in the month

of December contained mullet larvae and fry. The peak of abundance of these

larvae were reached by the middie of December, when thousands, each 1 to

1:2 cms. in length, probably two weeks old, swarmed in the plankton.

* Published with the kind permission of the Director of Industries and

Commerce, Madras.

664 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol: 47

Fecundity of mullets.

From the fact that millions of fry swarm the estuaries and creeks on the

Madras Coast just after the North-East monsoon, one may infer that mullets

are prolific breeders. Little attempt has been made to determine the rate of

production of these valuable fish. In October 1946 the total number of eggs in

a ripe female was estimated as follows. The ripe ovaries were completely

removed from a mullet and boiled in water when they turned hard and opaque.

In this condition the eggs can easily be separated. ‘The ovaries were weighed

in a chemical balance. Then, a small portion of the ovary was removed and

reweighed. The number of eggs in this portion was counted and from this, the

total numter of eggs in a ripe female were estimated.

Length Weightof Number of

— Length Weight of gonads eggs

gonads in Ozs. e

Mugil oeur ws 20:6” 4 lbs. TOK 15 1,32,00,000

Mugil buchanani... 8:°6” llb. Boo a2 70,000

Probable breeding spot of mullets.

Twenty-four collections of surface plankton were taken in the months of

November and December at the bar proper. These collections showed a large

number of larvae measuring from 4mm. to 12 mm. and fry measuring from

15 mm. to 23 mm. Simultaneous collections taken from the backwater, four

furlongs inside the bar showed lesser number of fry and Jarvae. This tends to

prove that the mullets actually breed in the sea near the estuary.

Post larvae and fry of mullets.

In life, the mullet post larvae and fry are silvery white in colour. The fins

are free from chromatophores except at the basis of the anals and caudals. These

pigment cells are uniformly spread on the dorsal half of the body, head and

opercles and crowd near the lateral line, making it conspicuous.

Feeding habits of mullets.

Chacko and Venkataraman (1) have recorded the occurrence of a number of

phytoplanktonic organisms in the elementary tracts of four out of the eight

species dealt with here. ‘To those recorded by them in the guts of these species,

may be added the following :—(see pp. 665-7.)

The analysis of the gut contents of these mullets seems to confirm the plankton

feeding habits, described by Chacko and Venkataraman (1). The phytoplank-

ton predominates the food. The occurrence of algal filaments, larval melluces

polychaetes, crustacean and shell fragments in their gut indicates the browsing

habits. These habits are shared by the fry. In small aquaria they can be fed

on moss and algal filaments, attached to smail stones. Jordon (3) cites Sterns

who compares a school of mullets to barnyard fowls feeding together.

NUTRITIVE VALUE OF MULLETS

The predominance of phytoplankton in the food of mullets has a direct

bearing on the very high fat content, reaching as high as 7.38% in the case of

Mugil oeur. Calcium, phosphorus and iron also occur in more than average

proportions, Chari (6). Due to their good flavour and high nutritive value,

mullets form one of the best table fishes in India.

605

EDING AND FEEDING HABITS OF MULLETS

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668 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Our thanks are dtte to Dr. H. Srinivasa Rao, D.Sc., for going through the

manuscript and for his constructive criticisms.

REFERENCES

1. Chacko, P. I. and Venkataraman, R. S., 1944—Current Science—

Vol. xiv, pp. 79- P

2. Day, F., 1889—The Fauna of British India Fishes, Vol. ii. London,

pp. 340-342.

3. Jordon, D.S., 1925—Fishes, pp. 486- ?

4. Meek Alexander, 1946—Migration of Fish, pp. 205- ?

5. Chari, S. T.—Nutritive value of some of the West Coast food fishes of

the Madras Presidency (under publication).

6. Progress Report, 1945. Part If. Research scheme of the Imperial Council

of Agricultural Research on the fish eggs and larvae of the Madras plankton.

DESCRIPTIONS OF PLANT GALLS FROM TRAVANCORE

K. KARUNAKARAN NAYAR, M.A., Ph.D.,

Lecturer in Zoology, University College, Trivandrum,

(With a plate)

For the last three years, the author has been making a study of the gall-

midges (Itonididae: Diptera) and plant galls. He made extensive collections

in different localities in Travancore and he published short descriptions of

some interesting plant galls earlier (Nayar, 1944, 1945). This paper gives

descriptions of the galls he collected from ‘Travancore during his study, and

formed the second part of the thesis approved for the Ph.D. degree of the

University of Travancore. The specimens are deposited in the Entomological

Laboratory of the University of Travancore, ‘Trivandrum.

The author takes this opportunity to acknowledge his indebtedness to Prof.

M. S. Mani, St. John’s College, Agra, for his guidance in his work. He

wishes to thank Messrs. G. Renga Ayyar of the Entomology Department of

the University of Travancore, and P. Kunjukrishna Pillai of the Department

of Botany, University College, Trivandrum, for help rendered in the collection

of specimens of galls and the identification of the species of the plants res-

pectively.

Eletteria cardamomi Maton (Nat. Ord: Zingiberaceae.).

Root gall: Slightly raised, ridge-lke structures, 2 to 8 mm. long, 1 to

2 mm. across, succulent, enclosing a stout maggot.

The gall is produced by Hallomyia cardamomi sp. nov. (Itonididae: Diptera).

The maggot is fairly large, orange-brown. Jones (1944) mentioned the gall and

considered the gall-maker a minor pest of cardamom in ‘'ravancore. This is

the first description of the gall on cardamom.

Locality: Pampadamparai Hills in the High Ranges of Travancore.

Momordica charantia Linn. (Nat. Ord: Cucurbitaceae.)

Stem gall: A very common gall, distributed throughout South India. Vine-

stem galls, elongated, often spindle-shaped, extending along the length of the

stem at intervals. Young galls green, older galls slightly brownish, showing

exit-holes of the midges.

The galls are produced by Lasioptera falcata Felt (Itonididae: Diptera).

Docters Van Leeuwen-Reijnvaan (1926) record it from Java. The same insect

was bred by Mani (1948) from vine-stem galls on Moniordica diocca Roxb.

The gall anatomy has been studied by Saksena (1942),

Locality: Trivandrum.

DESCRIPTIONS OF PLANT GALLS FROM TRAVANCORE 669

Piper nigrum Linn. (Nat. Ord: Piperaceae.)

Stem gall: Irregular growths on the stem, chiefly the terminal regions

often grouped together, 0.5 to 2.5 mm. long and 0.5 to 1 mm. across, soft,

succulent, with blackish larval chambers containing large, scarlet-red maggots.

Galls green, with indistinct yellow patches.

This is the first record of a stem gall on Piper nigrum Linn., from India.

A stem gall from Piper miniatum B1., has been recorded from Java by Van

Leeuwen (1926).

Galls produced by an unknown Itonidid.

Leaf galls: Type 1. 0.5 to 8 mm. in diameter, blackish-grey or greyish-

brown, globose structures, hypophyllous, hard, rough, with a single chamber in

each gall containing an yellowish-orange maggot. Usually single, rarely five or

six very near, but not agglomerate.

Kieffer (1918) records Trichoperrisia pipericola Wieff., (Itonididae: Diptera)

from leaf galls on Piper nigrum Linn., from Peradeniya, Ceylon. This gall

may also be produced by the same midge.

Locality: Both the galls from Kottarakarai in Central Travancore.

Leaf galls: Type 2. The leaf edges are folded underneath forming small,

tubular galls on the lateral margins. The thickened edges show a pitted ap-

pearance, and are fleshy, green with slight whitish colouration on the inner

side of the lateral canals.

Inside the gall are eggs, nymphs and adults of Gynaikothrips sp., (Thysa-

noptera).

Gynaikothrips karnyii Bagnall are recorded from similar galls on Piper

nigrum Tuinn., from India (Ramakrishna Aiyar and Margabandhu 1940).

Similar galls have been recorded from Java by Van Leeuwen-Reijnvaan (1926).

Locality: Trivandrum. I am indebted to my teacher and colleague Mr.

A. P. Mathew, University College, Trivandrum, for the donation of the galls

and isolated preparations of the thrips.

Leea species (Nat. Ord: Ampelidae).

Stem, leaf stalk and midrib galls: 4 to 23 mm. long, 3 to 14 mm. broad,

irregular, where the midrib is affected the galls hypophyllous, soft, succulent

growths on the stem, petiole or midrib, in some cases enclosing all these regions

and forming an extensive growth, reddish-brown, brownish-green or reddish-

green, rarely with a scattered violet tinge. Seven or eight maggots in each

gall, occasionally stem galls moniliform. Grey or white spots scattered on the

outer side in certain cases.

This is the first record of a gall on Leea from India.

Locality: Trivandrum. The gall is produced by an unknown midge.

Tinospora cordifolia Miers. (Nat. Ord: Menispermaceae.)

Stem gall: Irregular growths on stem, 5 to 15 mm. long, 10 to 20 mm.

across, greenish-brown in preserved condition, soft, succulent, multilocular, show-

ing number of exit holes of the parasites on the midge.

The gall is produced by an unknown midge (Itonididae: Diptera).

Van Leeuwen-Reijnvaan (1926) describe an inflorescence gall on Tinospora

crispa Diel., from Java.

Locality: Trivandrum.

Mangifera indica Linn. (Nat. Ord: Anacardiaceae.)

Leaf galls: Type 1. The author described this gall (Nayar, 1945) from

specimens collected from Trivandrum.

The gall is produced by Allasomyia tenuispatha (Kieffer), (Itonididae:

Diptera). The first description of the adult midge was given by the author

(Nayar 1944). .

Locality: ‘Trivandrum and Cape Comorin.

Leaf gall: Type 2. Small, ranging from 0.5 to 38 mm. in diameter,

coloured violettish-brown or brownish-red in the center, the thickening appear-

ing on either side of the leaf, the whole gall very much compressed. Single,

somewhat hard, sometimes more conspicuous on the upper side of the leaf.

Reported to be very heavy in the ‘paitri’ variety of mango grown in the

gardens.

670 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

This gall is probably caused by Procontarinia matteiana Kieff. & Cece.

(Itonididae: Diptera).

Locality: Cape Comorin.

Leaf gall: Type 3. Shiny black or violettish-black, pellet-like galls,

globose, single, 1 to 2 mm. across, hypophyllous, hard, fleshy, with one

chamber for the maggot. Mature and growing specimens brown.

This gall is produced by an unknown midge (Itonididae: Diptera).

Locality: Trivandrum.

Sundar Raman (1924) described six galls from mango, and Mani (1935)

described an echinate gall on mango leaf. Van Leeuwen-Reijnvaan (1926)

describe a leaf gall on Mangifera timorensis Bl., similar to that described

under Type 1 gall. A gall similar to that described under Type 2 has been

recorded from Java and Malacca on Mangifera indica Linn. (Van Leeuwen-

Reijnvaan 1926).

Ficus dalhousiae Miq (2?) (Nat. Ord: Moraceae.)

Leaf galls: Common on the tender leaves, 4 to 1O mm. across, globose

or roughly so, single, rarely collective, soft, succulent, yellow or yellowish-

brown in contrast to the light green or greyish-green of the leaf, hypophyllous,

with a single larval chamber for the maggot in each.

The gall is produced by an unknown Dipterid.

Locality: Kottarakarai in Central Travancore.

Ficus talboti King (?)

Leaf galls: Nayar (1944) described the gall for the first time from India.

The galls are usually globose, depressed, epiphyllous erowths. The older galls

show stony structures inside. ;

The gall is produced by Dyanopsylla grandis Crawford (Psyllidae: Hemi-

ptera). Van Leeuwen-Reijnvaan (1926) describe a similar gall on Ficus spp.

Locality: Pampadamparai Hills in the High Ranges of Travancore.

Ficus glomerata Roxb.

Stem galls: The author (Nayar 1944) described this gall for the first time

from Travancore. They are irregular growths, coloured brown, on the stem

or the petioles, with a rough or tuberculated surface.

The gall is produced by Pauropsylla depressa Crawf. (Psyllidae : Hemiptera).

The gall was first described incompletely by Sundar Raman (1924); Mani

(1935a) gave a complete description of the gall. The gall is recorded from

Java also (Van Leeuwen-Reijnvaan, 1926).

Locality: Pampadamparai Hills in the High Ranges of Travancore.

Mesua Ferrea Linn. (Nat. Ord: Guttiferae.) (Pl: I., Fig. 1).

Stem and leaf gall: 3 to 50 mm. long, 2 to 12 mm. thick, sometimes

globose, often irregularly spherical, especially those of the midrib, enclosing

the distal end of the petiole also, reniform in the specimen collected, epiphyllous,

soft, succulent, greenish-brown with many chambers containing stout, yellowish-

brown maggots.

This gall is probably produced by Oligotrophus quadrilobatus Kieffer

(Itonididae: Diptera). This is the first record of a gall on Mesua from India ;

the specimen was collected from the interior of a forest. Bagnall (1929) records

a midrib gall on leaf of iron-wood (Mesua ferrea Linn.) produced by thrips.

He obtained the gall from Malaya, and described it as a spirally twisted

structure,

Locality: Pampadamparai Hills in the High Ranges of Travancore.

Memecylon edule Roxb. (Nat. Ord: Melastomaceae.).

Leaf galls: 2 to 6 mm. across, yellowish-green or brownish-green, rounded

or hemispherical, single, sometimes collective, hypophyllous, soft, succulent,

with one larval chamber in each for a singe maggot. Older galls often

blistered showing greyish-black openings covered with fungous growth, the rest

of the gall coloured green.

The gall is produced by one of the Diptera.

Locality: Koothattukulam in North Travancore.

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DESCRIPTIONS OF PLANT GALLS FROM TRAVANCORE 671

Memecylon Amplexicaule Roxb.

Leaf galls: Dark green, pustule-like, hypophyllous pouches greatly

distorting the base of the amplexicaule leaves, each pouch 0.5 to 8 mm, across,

the upper side of the leaf with depressions of the same, the whole forming an

overgrown but crumpled mass.

Gall produced by a species of thrips belonging to the genus Brachythrips

(Thysanoptera).

Ramakrishna Aiyer (1927) described Brachythrips dentahastha Rmk., from

leaf galls on Memecylon sp., collected from Mangalore, South India.

Locality: Thirumala near Trivandrum.

Eugenia Corymbosa Limk. (Nat. Ord: Myrtaceae.)

Leaf galls: Roundish, irregular, succulent, fleshy, usually single, often

agglomerate, hypophyllous, 5 to 15 mm. across, reddish-brown in preserved

condition, with a number (two to six) of larval chambers in an average sized

gall.

Gall produced by an unknown Dipterid.

Locality: Trivandrum.

Leaf stalk gall: 20 to 27 mm. long, 5 to 12 mm. in diameter, shaped like

a thick but small spindle, coloured violettish-brown, smooth, hard, fleshy,

with one large, blackish-brown canal-like chamber for the caterpillar. Advanced

galls show circular emergence holes and are coloured brownish-black.

The gall is produced by an unknown moth. Stem and petiole galls by a

lepidopteron on diverse species of Hugenia are recorded by Van Leeuwen-

Reijnvaan from Java (1926).

Locality: Pampadamparai Hills in the High Range of Travancore.

Glycosmis Pentaphylla Corr. (Nat. Ord: Rutaceae.)

Leaf galls: Small swellings, 1 to 3 mm. long, and 1 to 2 mm. across,

hypophyllous, irregular, on the side of the midrib. The gall is coloured green

like the leaf.

The gall is produced by an unknown midge (Itonididae: Diptera). The

maggot is small, greenish-yellow. Van Leeuwen-Reijnvaan (1926) describe a

midge gall on Glycosmis cochinchinensis Pier., (Glycosmis pentaphylla Corr.

var. simplicifolia) and another midge gall on Glycosmis sp. (probably Glycosmis

cyanocarpus Spreng.), but both these are differe ent, from the gall described above.

Bassia Latifolia Roxb. (Nat. Ord: Sapotaceae.)

Leaf gall: Disc-like, circular, 3 to 6 mm. across, very much depressed

galls, grden with slight tinge of yellow or grey. Single, more prominent on

the upper side of the leaf, soft, succulent, each enclosing a small, yellowish

maggot.

The gall is produced by a midge (Itonididae: Diptera). Prof. Mani,

Agra, informs me (in litt.) that he collected the same galls from Hewitt

Park, Agra.

Locality: Mallar Bridge Area in South ‘Travancore.

Cinnamomum Zeylanicum Breyn. (Nat. Ord: Laurineae).

Inflorescence stalk gall: Oval, rounded or rarely irregular growths on

the stalks of inflorescences, each growth enclosing a greyish slit-like larval

chamber, 1 to 5 mm. across, bright green, soft and succulent.

This is the first record of an inflorescence gall on Cinrnamomum zeylanicum

Breyn., from India. A midge-gall.

Locality: Kottarakarai in Central Travancore.

Achyranthus Aspera Linn. (Nat. Ord: Amarantaceae.).

Leaf galls: Beautiful scarlet red leaf galls in patches, irregular, 1 to 4 mm.

long and 1 to 3 mm. aeress, smooth, hypophyllous, like slight swellings with

a pitted surface. Usually in the center of the patch-like gall is’ @ Sleared area

in which rests the nymph of the aleurodid.

672 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Gall produced by Bemisia tabacci Gen. (Aleurodidae: Hemiptera). Mani

(ms. paper with the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal dealing with Indian

Zoocecidia) described the same gall earlier.

Locality: Trivandrum. This gall was collected and sent to me by Mr.

K. Narayana Aiyer, Department of Botany, University College, Trivandrum.

Trewia nudiflora Linn. (Nat. Ord: Euphorbiaceae.)

Leaf galls: Greenish or pale yellow-green, hypophyllous, pouch-shaped

galls, 5 to 10 mm. across. Older galls with dark brown or black blister-like

patches.

The gall is produged by Trioza fletcheri Crawf. (Psyllidae: Hemiptera).

Sundar Raman (1924) recorded this gall. Mani (1935 a) collected the

same galls from Coimbatore, Vellore and Calcutta. It is also known from

Java (Van Leeuwen-Reijnvaan, 1926).

Locality: Konni forests in Central Travancore. The author wishes to

thank Mr. '’. N. Somasekharan Nair, of the ‘Travancore Forest Service, for

the gift of specimens of this gall.

Phylianthus emblica Linn. (Nat. Ord: Euphorbiaceae.)

Stem gall: 15 to 25 mm. long, 10 to 20 mm. across, irregular, roughly

spindle-shaped, slightly compressed, hard, woody, with a large, single chamber

enclosing the small, black caterpillar

The gall is produced by Betousa stylophora Swinh. (Lepidoptera). Bose

(1935) published some notes on the life history of this species. The gall has

been recorded from Java (Van Leeuwen-Reijnvaan 1926); Hong Kong, Burma

(Bose 1985) and in India from Tanjore, Pusa and Calcutta (Mani, ms. paper

on Indian Zoocecidia).

Locality: Trivandrum, and Pampakuda in North Travancore.

Aporosa Lindleyana Baill. (Nat. Ord: Euphorbiaceae.)

Stem gall: Brown, hard, woody, irregular growths on the stem with a

smooth but granulated interior.

The gall maker is not known.

Van Lieeuwen-Reijnvaan (1926) record a lepidopteron gall on the stem of

Aporosa microcalyx Hask., from the East Indies.

Locality: Naduvathumuzhi forests in Central Travancore.

Calophylium Wightianum Wal. (Nat. Ord: Guttiferae.)

Stem and petiole gall: Galls found as enlJargements of the petiole and

axillary joints, rarely on the stem. Rounded, reniform or irregular formations,

from 10 mm, to 25 mm. long, and 10 to 17 mm. thick, the veniform growth

apparently arising from the stem. Where the petiole is affected the gall formed

on the under side of the leaf stalk. One gall was found on the stem. Rough,

hard and slightly fleshy, brown, usually single. Young galls with the chamber

coloured white lodging the nymph of the psyllid.

Gall is produced by an unknown Psyllid (Hemiptera).

A similar gall is recorded from Java on’ Calophyllum inophyllum by Van

Leeuwen-Reijnvaan (1926).

Locality: Kallar Bridge Area in South Travancore.

Alstonia scholaris Brown. (Nat. Ord: Apocyanaceae).

Leaf galls: Vhis gall is distributed throughout India. Lefroy (1909)

collected it from Pusa. Sundar Raman (1924) quotes the collections of the

same from Java by Van Leeuwen-Reijnvaan, from Bismarck Archepelago by

Rubsaamen, Phillipine Islands by Uichanco and South India by Ramakrishna

Aiyer.

These monothalamous, commonly hypophyllous galls are produced by

Pauropsylla tuberculata Crawford (Psyllidae: Hemiptera). Mani (1985a)

refers to the small, ‘barrel shaped, hard, sublignose galls’ collected by him

from different localities in India. Saksena (1944) describes and figures the

gall anatomy. i

Locality: Trivandrum,

DESCRIPTIONS OF PLANT GALLS FROM TRAVANCORE — 673

Strychnos nuxvomica Linn. (Nat. Ord: Loganiaceae.)

Leaf gall: Small, pouch-shaped galls, distributed throughout the leaf,

green, 0.5 to 3 mm. across.

The gall is produced by Diaphorina truncata Crawford (Psyllidae:

Hemiptera.).

Locality: Kundamkadavu near Trivandrum.

Terminalia paniculata Roth. (Nat. Ord: Combretaceae.)

Leaf gall: Sundar Raman (1924) records the gall produced by Megatrioza

hirsuta Crawford (Psyllidae: Hemiptera) on Terminalia tomentosa Bed.

Detailed descriptions of the galls occurring ou the branch, leaf, flower and

fruits of Terminalia spp., are given by Mani (1935a), and he figures the

tubercular gall on Terminalia arjuna Bedd. Saksena (1944) gives an account

of the gall anatomy of the leaf gall on Terminalia arjuna Bedd., caused by

Trioza fletcheri minor Crawf.

Locality: Pampakuda near Moovattupuzha in North Travancore, and Konni

forest tracts in Central Travancore.

Calycopteris floribunda Imk. (Nat. Ord: Combretaceae.).

Leaf bud gall: Ramachandra Rao (1928) first recorded this gall produced

by Austrothrips cochinchinensis IKarny (Thysanoptera). He collected it from

Taliparamba Pepper Farm in Malabar. Galls are axillary, hollow, crumpled

and very malformed structures, green when young and brownish- black or black

when old. They look like hanging fruits.

Ramakrishna Atyar collected the same galls from ‘Tenmalai hills in

Travancore and Muliyil collected the same from South Kanara (Ramachandra

Rao 1923). Ramachandra Rao (1923) adds ‘these galls were called ‘‘fruits’’

by the people about Taliparamba and are known to have medicinal properties

being used in preparations for skin diseases by local physicians’.

Locality: Kallar Bridge area in South Travancore. Also from Trivandrum.

Loranthus elasticus Desr. (Nat. Ord: Loranthaceae).

Leaf galls: eaves very malformed, reduced in size, the edges rolled

inwards towards midrib, exposing the under surface; extreme cases appearing

like compact, cylindrical scrolls, 25 to 385 mm. in length and 5 to 8 mm.

across, the outer surface of leaf taking a greyish colour, the side of the gall

dark red, containing the red nymphs of the thrips, the red colour of the gall

appearing in irregular patches on the outer side of the scroll of the leaf algo.

Adult thrips black. p

Galls produced by an unidentified thrips. Similar galls on leaves of

Loranthus pentandrus l., produced by Hothrips crassicornis Karny has been

recorded from Java by Van Leeuwen- Reijnvaan (1926). An inquiline Hothrips

annulicornis Karny is also mentioned from Jaya. A similar gall on Loranthus

lepidotus Bl. is also noted.

Locality: Trivandrum.

Desmodium species (Nat. Ord: Leguminosae).

Stem gall: Rounded or egg-shaped galls, 4 to 16 mm. long and 4 to 10 mm.

broad, green, smooth, succulent, single, with one large chamber for the

caterpillar. Older galls with slightly rough exterior, with rounded, black-rimmed

exit holes of the adult.

The gall is produced by an unknown lepidopteron. The same gall has been

obtained by Mani (ms. on Indian Zoocecidia) on Desmodium pulchellum.

Locality : Cape Comorin.

‘Phaseolus species (Nat. Ord: Leguminosae).

Stem gall: Bases of branches and stem dilated, fusiform, about 5 to 7 mm.

long and 1 to 8 mn. thick. Larval chamber lengthwise.

Gall maker not known. A stem gall on Phaseolus radiatus ., caused

by Agromyza sp. (Diptera) has been recorded from Java (Van Jeeuwen-

Reijnvaan, 1926)

674. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Tephrosia purpurea Pers. (Nat. Ord: Papilionaceae.).

Stem gall: Brown, greenish-brown, or yellowish-brown when young, hard,

NE rough formations, often fusiform, 5 to 20 mm. long. A very common

gall.

Gall produced by Dactylethra candida Meyr. (Lepidoptera). The gall is

probably widely distributed in South India. Mani (ms. on Indian Zoocecidia)

described and figured the gall.

Locality: Trivandrum.

Hibiscus esculentus Linn. (Nat. Ord: Malvaceae.).

Leaf gall: The leaves very much malformed and crumpled, their colour

turned yellow, in extreme cages the entire plant is killed off.

Galls produced by Aphis gossypii Glov. (Aphidae: Hemiptera).

Locality: Trivandrum, Kottarakarai, Quilon and _ several other places.

Probably distributed throughout 8. India.

Root galls: Ridges, pustules, and extensive thickenings on the lateral

roots and sometimes the tap roots, coloured greyish-brown, ranging from

0.5 to 10 mm. in length, in many regions appearing like nodules. Fleshy,

sometimes single, often the galls of various branches of the roots united.

The gall is produced by AHeterodera radicicola Greef, the root-knot

nematode. Body of the nematode roughly pyriform and glistening. Krishna

Iyer (1933) gives a list of the host plants in South India, numbering fifty.

Goodey (1933) mentions about six hundred and fifteen host plants for the

species. Common among the host plants in India are Hibiscus esculentus Linn.,

Piper nigrum Linn., Cucurbita spp., Curcuma spp., and Amarantus spp.

Saksena (1944) has described the anatomy of the gall.

Locality: Trivandrum.

Jasminum grandiflorum Linn. (Nat. Ord: Oleaceae.).

Stem, petiole and leaf gall: Rounded and more often elongated patches

of grey or brown irrorated with black, ned or brownish-violet, ranging from

spot-like thickenings measuring 0.2 mm. across to patches 30 mm. long, and

4 mm. across. Succulent, with reticulated surfaces, the reticulations marked

by faint grooves coloured black or brown patches and spots. Common cn

leaves, present on both sides, usually hypophyllous. Patches on stem and leaf

stalk distort the whole vegetative parts of the plant into a twisted mass. An

Itonidid maggot (Octodiplosis fungivora sp. nov.,) feeds on the spores.

The gall is produced by fungus. Mani (1933) refers to a similar gall on

shoots of Jasminum trichotomum Heyn., collected from Tanjore. These galls

are described as ‘cupiform, yellow or yellowish-orange tumescence of the leaves

and cortical swellings of the branches’.

Locality: Venganoor near Trivandrum. A very serious attack was reported

in 1945.

Hydnocarpus Wightiana Bl. (Nat. Ord: Bixineae.).

Leaf gall: Pouch galls, 2 to 20 mm. long, 2 to 12 mm. broad, irregular,

epipbyllous, single, often collected and sometimes forming a twisted mass,

green, smooth, occasionally with a pitted surface. On the under surface of

the leaf the gall oppns out by a very wide orifice being nearly as big as the

gall. The interior of the gall is filled with milk-white erineum when young,

older galls with the interior yellowish or reddish-brown. Later the interior turns

blackish-brown.

The gall is probably produced by a mite (Acarina: Arachnida).

Locality: Trivandrum.

Holigarna Arnottiana Hk. (Nat. Ord: Anacardiaceae.) (PI. I., Fig. 2)

Leaf gall: Karly stages alone were obtained.” 8 to 7 mm. across, circular,

compressed, with warty outer surface, dark brown or brownish-black contrasting

with the dark green leaf, hypophyllous, hard, with granulated interior showing

no cavity. In one instance an injured maggot was obtained.

Gall maker not known; it is probably an Itonidid (Diptera).

Locality: Pampadampara Hills in the High Range of Travancore.

DESCRIPTIONS OF PLANT GALLS FROM TRAVANCORE 675

Genus not identified (Nat. Ord: Convolvulaceae.) (PI. I., Fig. 3)

Stem and leaf galls: Irregular galls on branches, leaves and petioles, 1 to

4 mm. across, green, soft and succulent. Inside the galls are soft, yellowish-

white hairs.

Galls produced by a mite (Acarina).

Locality: Bhagavathipuram near Shenkottah in Travancore.

REFERENCES.

Bose, B. B.—‘Notes on life history of Betousa stylophora’, Indian J. Agric.

Sci., V, pp. 738-739 (1935).

Goodey, T’.—Plant parasitic Nematodes, London. pp. 159-191 (1938).

Jones, S.—'Insect pests of cardamom’, Proc. Indian Sci. Congr. Assn.,

pt. ui (1944).

Imieffer, J. J.—' Description de Quelques nouvelles Cecidomyies des Indies’,

vec. Indian Mus., IX, pp. 199-200 (1918).

Kkvishna Iyer, P. N.— Some experiments on the control of the root gall

nematode in South India’, Madras Agri. J., XXI, pp. 1-11 (1983).

‘Further Experiments on the root gall nematode in South India’,

Indian J. Agric. Sci., III, pp. 1064-1071 (1988).

Lefroy, H. M.—Indian Insect Life, Calcuttta. pp. 580-583 (1909).

Mani, M. 8.—'Three curious galls from South India’, Proc. Month. Meet.

Roy. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, April, Pt. 11 (1988).

‘Studies on Indian Itonididae II’, Rec. Indian Mus., XXXVII,

pp. 427-454 (1935).

——'Notes on some Indian gall forming Psyllidae’, J. Roy. Asiatic Soc.

Bengal, I, pp. 99-108 (1935a).

——'Studies on Indian Itonididae VI’, Indian J. Ent., V, pp. 151-164

(1943).

Nayar, K. K.—‘Descriptions of some new and littleknown Cecidozoa and

zoocecidia from Travancore’, Indian J. Ent., VI, pp. 69-73 (1944).

‘Descriptions of some new and little known midge galls from

Travancore’, J. Roy. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, Sc. XI, pp. 17-20 (1945).

Ramachandra Rao, Y.—A note on gall-forming thrips on Calycopteris

floribunda Lmk.’, Agric. J. India, XIX, pp. 436-437 (1923).

Ramakrishna Aiyer, T. V.—'A contribution to the knowledge of Thysanoptera

of India’, Mem. Dept. Agric. India Ent. Ser., V, pp. 217-816 (1927).

Margabandhu, V.—Catalogue of Indian .Insects—Vhysanoptera (1940).

Sundar Raman, A. H.— A contribution to the study of Indian zoocecidia’,

J. Indian Bot. Soc., IV, pp. 1-17; 35-49 (1924).

Van Leeuwen Mrs & Dr.—Zoocecidia of Netherlands Hast Indies,

Buitenzorg, Java. pp. 48-601 (1926).

A CENSUS OF NESTS IN A PRIVATE ‘BIRD-SANCTUARY’

C. G. WeEBB-PEPLOE

(With a text figure).

A compound of about forty acres, in which over six hundred

people, mostly boys and girls, live all the year round, may not

seem very ideal for a bird sanctuary. But the grounds are well

planted with trees, and many nesting-boxes invite those species

of birds that like holes in which to nest. The children are brought

up to observe and protect all wild-life; so it is not surprising that

one hundred and thirty-one nests belonging to twenty-nine species

were found, mostly in the months of March, April and May 1947.

This represents more than this number of nesting pairs of birds,

because each colony of Blue Rock-Pigeons is only counted as

one, for it was impossible to find out how many pairs were actually

nesting. Although many birds built second nests and laid second

clutches of eggs, as far as is known, these are not included in

the account given below. Many in the family of. six hundred

contributed to the notes from which this account is compiled, and

without their observations and reports I could not have made

this survey as complete as it is.

I shall take the species one by one in the order in which

they are found in Baker and Inglis’s Birds of Southern India.

The compound in which this study was made is surrounded

by comparatively barren palmyra-land on three sides, with a

stretch of paddy land very near to the north. Three small

villages adjoin three corners of the land.

1. Corvus macrorhynchos. Jungle Crow. Two nests.

(1) Neem tree (Azadirachta Indica). About 25 feet above the ground.

It was interesting to watch the parent bird which had been out foraging.

As it came near the nest it cawed loudly and made its wings vibrate in 4

peculiar way as it volplaned down to the nest.

(2) Albizzia Lebbek. At least 40 feet.

2. Corvus splendens, Common Indian House Crow. Four nests.

25 feet.

(1) Ceiba pentandra: near the extremity of the branch

(2) About 15 feet up in a Neem tree.

(3) Palmyra palm (Borassus flabellifer), 80 feet up.

(4) Palmyra palm, 25 feet.

We do not encourage either of these two kinds of crow for they do a

good deal of damage to other birds’ eggs and young. There is not even honour

among these thieves, for one day we watched a Jungle Crow fly to a Common

Crow’s nest and crack and drink the eggs in spite of much opposition from

the owner and its companions. The Jungle Crow finally flew off with the

last egg in its beak to enjoy it elsewhere in quiet.

3. Turdoides griseus. White-headed Babbler. One nest.

Cork tree (Millingtonia hortensis) 6 or 7 feet only from the ground in a

thick group of suckers which had grown up from the roots of a large tree.

This nest was not discovered for a long time although many boys passed

close to it daily.

A €ENSUS OF NESTS IN A ‘PRIVATE “BIRD-SANCTUARY’ 67%

4. Atgithina tiphia. Common Jora. Hight nests.

(1) Portia tree (Thespesia populnea), 6 feet, close to a road much frequented

by cattle, and bullock bandies. But it was cleverly hidden by the large leaves —

of the tree. -

(2) Cassia fistula, 10 feet, beside a house in which many boys live. This

was only discovered after one of the young birds in learning to fly had fallen

to the ground. It was kept in a cage for a day or so where its parents trustingly

came to feed it, and finally flew away safely.

(8) Bassia longifolia, 10 feet, in the centre of a courtyard, often full of

boys and noise. ‘This was also pretty well camouflaged by the leaves of the tree.

(4) Delonix regia, 15 feet, in the fork of a horizontal branch beside a road.

This may possibly have been built by the same pair of birds as No. 3.

(5) Casuarina equisetifolia, fairly high up in a very tall tree in a courtyard

surrounded by buildings.

(6) Tabebuia rosea, 34 feet, and 10 feet from a house beside a main path.

(7) Delonix regia, 15 feet, similar position to No. 4, but in another part

of the compound.

(8) Hibiscus sp., 4 feet, and only 7 feet from a house in which some

children live.

The position of these nests. suggests that this species may have a defined

territory, but this needs more study. The nests are so beautifully built and

so easily escape detection that there may be more than we found within the area.

5. Melpastes cafer. Ceylon Red-vented Bulbul. Three nests.

(1) Hibiscus, about 6 feet, in a bush growing beside a house.

(2) Neem tree (Azadirachta indica), in an open space in which many trees

are growing.

(3) Plantain tree (Musa paradisiaca), 6 feet, in the hanging bunch of un-

ripe fruit, in one of our market gardens adjoining the residential area. This

is a very popular place for this bird to nest. It is surprising that only three

nests of this species were found, but it is possible that it prefers plantain

groves and such more secluded places, of which there are many not too far

away.

6. Saxicoloides fulicata. Black-backed Indian Robin. One nest.

A hole. in a wall about 6 feet high on the outer fringe of the inhabited

area. This same pair built again later at the top of a verandah pillar a

hundred yards away in the last house in our compound. Though these birds

do not shun human beings they never build their nests within a built up

area but are often found on the edge of a compound. When the bungalow I

occupy was first built it was the furthest out-building near the then limit

of our compound; and a pair of these birds reared three broods in succession

in one year in the same nest built on the wall-plate that hes along the top

of the verandah pillars.

7. Copsychus salauris. Indian Magpie Robin. Eleven nests.

(1) Albizzia lebbek, a natural hole, 15 feet. ‘This tree has many holes in

which Rose-ringed Paroquet, Brahminy Myna, and Yellow-throated Sparrow

also have nested within recent years.

(2) Caryota urens, in the hollow where the leaf-sheath clasps the trunk,

10 feet, beside my house. This palm was planted many years ago and has

to be watered as it does not usually grow on the plains. This pair had a

second brood in an old hollow log, twenty-five yards away, which we had

tied up on a tree as a nesting-box. This log has an interesting history.

Many years ago it came as a piece of firewood from the foothills. One of

our men heard a peculiar noise coming from the pile of firewood, and, after

investigation, found a nearly-fledged Ceylon Green Barbet, still alive after

the tree had been cut down and cut up and carted to our compound. It was

reared and tamed and lived with us for many months. This log has formed

a nesting ‘place for several generations of Magpie-Robins.

(8) Custard-Apple tree (Annona squamosa), 10 feet, in an old earthen-

ware pot tied up to attract bees, beside a house.

(4) Roof of a house, where the main roof overhangs and joins a lean-to,

7 feet, at the end of a school building where boys come and go all day.

678 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

(5) In a ‘rose’ watering-can which was hanging in a bush, beside a well.

(6) Verandah roof of a bungalow at the corner where the cross beams and

roof timbers form an enclosed hollow. This site has been used for several

years, 7 feet.

(7) Thevetia nerufolia, 4 feet. The tree is beside a much-frequented path

on one side, and about 5 feet from the verandah of a house on the other

side. This is the second year this hole has been used. It is more a hollow

than a proper hole, and the eggs can easily be seen.

(8) Bamboo-section nesting-box, 7 feet, in Lawsonia inermis, behind and

close to a bungalow. This was used for two broods this year.

(9) Rain-tree (Samanea saman), a natural hole, 10 feet. In another hole

in the same tree a Coppersmith was building.

(10) Neem tree (Azadirachta indica), a natural hole, 12 feet. This is

apparently looked upon as a very desirable building-site, for during past years

it has been the scene of fierce and prolonged fights between Yellow-throated

Sparrow and Common Myna, Magpie-Robin and Golden-backed Woodpecker.

The two latter have several times nested there to my knowledge, and at least

twice a swarm of bees (Apis tmdica) has occupied it in the off-season.

(11) Verandah roof of a bungalow in exactly similar position to No. 6,

about three hundred yards away from it. Magpie Robins have increased

MAGPIE-ROBIN TERRITORIES,

greatly in numbers during the twenty years I have been here. From one

or two pairs they now number at least fifteen pairs, for I knew of other

nests this year just outside the area under consideration. The interesting

thing is that when I go for ‘bird-walks’ in the surrounding countryside, more

often than not we never see a single Magpie-Robin. It seems as_ if they

A CENSUS OF NESTS IN A PRIVATE ‘BIRD-SANCTUARY’ 679

definitely look upon our compound as a protected area. But they have very

clear ideas concerning territory. About sixty yards is the nearest any two

nests were found; and within their kingdom each male bird has one or two

high points, usually the topmost branch of a tree, from which he sings,

especially in the morning (often beginning before dawn), and in the evening,

during the nesting period. We have several times seen trespassers being

punished.

The two crossps in the diagram indicate two other pairs of birds whose

range was in each case a vegetable and fruit garden, but their nests were

not found. In view of Mr. Kingdon Ward’s letter on page 549 of Volume

46, No. 3 of the Journal, I should like to draw attention to Nos. 4, 6 and

11 above, which show that it is not at all uncommon with us for Magpie-

Robins to build their nests in occupied human dwellings. Our birds are very

tame and quite unafraid of us.

8. Dicrurus macrocercus. King-Crow. One nest.

Albizzia lebbek, 25 feet, cleverly built in a bunch of leaves growing where

the tree had been pollarded. This bird does not suffer marauders gladly, and

it will attack any kites or crows however innocent they may appear if they

fly at all near the nesting-tree. I have known smaller birds nest in the same

tree. Is it because of the safety this affords to them?

9. Orthotomus sutorius. Indian Tailor-bird. Nine nests.

(1) Guava (Psidium guajava), under 6 feet, close to a house. Nearly all the

nests are very close to inhabited buildings.

(2) Hibiscus sp., 5 feet, under the eaves of a bathroom so that no amount

of heavy rain touched it.

(3) Indian Almond (Terminalia catavpa), 7 feet up.

(4) Bougainvillea sp., 3 feet, beside the porch of a house.

(5) Porana volubilis, 6 feet.

(6) Butea frondosa, 6 feet. This was bmit by a foolish pair, for when the

wind blew the nest tilted up so that the young fell out.

(7) Citrus sp.

(8) Indian Almond.

(9) Bignonia magnifica near to a verandah.

One of these pairs for its second attempt built three nests, one about 8 feet

high in a Cannon-ball tree, one only 2 feet from the ground in the leaves of

a yam, and the third less than 2 feet off the ground in a Bryophyllum pinnatum

plant. The last was not completed and I think the first was finally used.

I often saw it trying to separate threads from some rough string used to tie

up a creeper. It would take hold of a loose end and try to fly away, but usually

the string was too strong and it failed.

10. Temenuchus pagodarum. Brahminy Myna. One nest.

A nesting-box of the ordinary square box-like type 15 feet up in a Tamarind

tree (Tamarindus indica). Two broods were hatched out successively in this

box.

11. Acridotheres tristis, Common Myna. Three nests.

(1) Palmyra palm, 80 feet, two trees were growing close together, and two

leaves, one from each tree, supported each other. In the hollow of one

opened leaf this nest was visible through the leaf to any one standing below.

(2) Palmyra palm, 40 feet, in the crown, This has been used as a nesting-

site for many years.

(3) Coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) about 25 feet, in a garden on the edge of

the compound.

These mynas are bullies. I have seen them sitting and shouting beside

a Yellow-throated Sparrow’s nesting hole which was far too small for them

to use. The sparrow was frantically flying round, but they stayed for a long

time, sometimes looking in, sometimes just sitting beside it. They have nested

in natural holes in neem and paimyra trees, and also in our square nesting-

boxes in other years.

680 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

12. Gymnohris xanthocollis. Yellow-throatel Sparrow. Twenty-four nests.

(1) Bamboo nesting-box in tamarind tree, 20 feet.

(2) Square nesting-box in tamarind tree, 20 feet.

(3) Albizzia lebbek, natural hole, 15 feet.

(4) Hole in a wall, 8 feet, previously used by a hoopoe. As soon as the

hoopoe’s young were fledged a pair of sparrows moved in.

(5) Albizzia lebbek, natural hole where a branch had died and rot set

in, 20 feet.

(6) Bamboo nesting-box, in neem tree, 20 feet, occupied as soon as put up.

(7) Log nesting box in neem tree, 20 feet.

(8) Bamboo pole stored in the roof of a carpentry-shed, about 8 feet high.

(9) Neem tree, natural hole, 10 feet. As this tree is beside one of our

tame pigeon-cotes it has a plentiful supply of feathers for lining the nest.

(10) Bamboo nesting-box in neem tree, 15 feet.

(11) Bamboo nesting-box in tamarind tree, 15 feet.

(12) Albizza lebbek, natural hole, 15 feet.

(13) Bamboo nesting-box in neem tree, 10 feet.

(14) Albizzia lebbek, natural hole, 30 feet.

(15) Bamboo roof pole in a garden lean-to, 8 feet.

(16) One of a pile of stored bamboos, 3 feet.

(17) Albizzia lebbek, natural hole, 25 feet.

(18) Hole in corner of roof of church tower, about 50 feet high. ‘his was

used in previous years by a pair of hoopoes.

(19) Hole in corner of main roof of church, 15 feet.

(20) Rain-tree (Samanea saman), natural hole, 15 feet.

(21) Square nesting-box in a tamarind tree, 15 feet.

(22) Hole made by a misplaced tile in bungalow verandah roof, 7 feet. When

the young were being taught to fly, one fell to the ground among some plants

at the edge of a path. A pariah dog passed by, and the mother, constantly

calling, flew low over its back to distract it. Fortunately the young bird

remained quiet. We later retrieved it and put it back into the nest.

(23) Bamboo nesting-box in neem tree, 20 feet.

(24) Neem tree, natural hole, 15 feet.

These birds are exceedingly common. They seem to have no_ territorial

jealousies, for some of the nests were only about fifteen yards apart. There

were many other nests in the lands round about our compound. Any fresh

bamboo box put up during the nesting season was very soon cccupied by a

pair of these sparrows. ‘They are iauch more dapper and generally better

behaved than their cousins the House-Sparrows, though when a_ cold-weather

flock of them descends on a field of grain they can do considerable damage.

13. Passer domesticua. House-Sparrow. Four nests.

(1) Hole in well-wall, 10-12 feet down.

(2) Hole in well-wall, 10-12 feet down.

(8) Hole in well-wall, 10-12 feet down. Owing to heavy rain this season

the holes were under water in some wells, so there were fewer nests of this

species this year.

(4) Hole in roof of an old building.

In one of the villages outside our compound is an old church, with a

large tower built more than a hundred years ago. Here there are many

more nests of this species.

14. Motacilla maderaspatensis. Targe Pied Wagtail. One est.

Hole in a well-wall. This well has been disused for some years. It is

just outside our boundary on a piece of waste-land. This pair nested twice

in 1946 in the roof of a new building then unoccupied, in our compound.

15. Misafra assamica. Madras Bush-Lark. One nest.

On a bare piece of land directly adjoining our most easterly building.

mith Oe i { 5 y g

We have reared these birds as pets, and they are most attractive.

A CENSUS OF NESTS ‘IN A PRIVATE ‘BIRD-SANCTUARY’ 681

16. Eremopterix grisea Ashy-crowned Finch-Lark. One nest.

On the samp piece of land, used for dry crops only in the N.-E. Monsoon

season.

17. Cinnyris zeylonica. Purple-rumped Sunbird (198). Sixteen nests.

(1) Bougainvillea sp.

(2) Pongamia glabra, 6 feet.

(3) Cassia fistula, 7 feet.

(4) Pomegranate (Punica granatum), 5 feet.

(5) Tamarindus indica, 10 feet.

(6) Cassia siamea, 8 feet.

(7) Cassia fistula.

(8) Phyllanthus acidus.

(9) Hibiscus sp.

(10) Butea frondosa.

(11) Tamarindus indica.

(12) Rangoon Creeper.

(13) Tecoma.

(14) Lawsonia inermis (Henna).

(15) Pomegranate (Punica granatum).

(16) Neem tree, 4 feet.

All these nests were under 10 feet from the ground and many as low as

4 or 5 feet. Many times they build their nests on creepers growing over our

houses, and on several occasions they have attached their nests to sprays

hanging inside the porch entrance to bungalow rooms where our children live,

so that it has been possible to watch them at very close quarters during the

whole nesting period.

18. Brachypternus benghaleusis. Southern Golden-backed Woodpecker. One

nest,

Albizzia lebbek, natural hole, 20 feet.

This is common in our compound, and in previous years pairs have nested

in various places within and just outside our boundaries.

19. Megalaima haemacephala. Indian Crimson-breasted Barbet. One nest.

This pair had one nest in a hole in a Thevetia nertifolia and a second in

a hole in a Rain-tree. We have known them often to nest in holes in Albizzia.

We have never yet been able to entice this or No. 18 to occupy a nesting-box.

20. Centropus sinensis. Southern Crow-Pheasant. One nest.

In a cactus hedge on the boundary of an outlying garden. We do not

encourage this bird for it has an uncanny way of finding other birds’ nests

and destroying the contents.

21. Psittacula krameri. Rose-ringed Paroquet. One nest.

Albizzia lebbek, natural hole. This also nests in the church tower in the

village outside our gates.

22. Halcyon smyrnensis, Indian White-breasted Kingfisher. Two nests.

Hole in a well-wall about 12 feet down.

Hole in a pit dug in the ground, only a foot or two under the ground level.

These birds often build in holes dug out in the mud walls of our rubbish

pits. We have brought them up as pets. It was beautiful to see one we

had fly down out of a nearby tree to take a small fish from a boy’s outstretched

hand. Then it would fly back up into the tree.

682 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

23, Upupa epops. Ceylon Hoopoe. Two nests.

(1) Hole in a wall, about 8 feet, at the back of a shed.

(2) Square nesting-box in a neem tree, 15 feet.

This box was really put up to attract, if possible, a homeless swarm of

bees (Apis indica). The hole was only about an inch in diameter. One day

in April a hoopoe found this, and began to enlarge the hole. It took two

days’ hard work to make it large enough for the bird to enter. Within less

than a hundred yards were two other sites used during the past three years by

a pair of hoopoes, but it did not use them, preferring to carve out a new

home for itself.

24. Athene brama. Southern Spotted Owlet. Two nests.

(1) An old earthenware pot, in a Portia tree, put up for bees, 10 feet.

(2) A hole in a well-wall, 12 feet. The two young fell into the well

before they were fledged but were rescued. This has built in our square nesting-

boxes, from which also the young often fall out.

25. Astur badius. Indian Shikra. Two nests.

(1) Cork tree (Millingtonia hortensis), 80 feet.

This nest we destroyed as it had three young and the parent birds to

feed them were causing great havoc among the smailer birds nesting nearby.

(2) Albizzia lebbek.

26, Columba livia. Indian Blue Rock-Pigeon. Three colonies.

(1) In the roof of our clock-tower, 60 feet high. Very soon after this.

was built the birds occupied it.

(2) An old brick dove-cote, 10-15 feet high, used for domestic doves, but

later left empty, has also now been taken over by a colony of the Blue

Rock-Pigeons. They are semi-domesticated, but never become quite . tame.

(3) A granary roof. Perhaps they were led there by the hopes of spilt

grain, but in these days of shortage they do not get much.

Another colony is in the old village church tower mentioned before.

We also have four separate dove-cotes for tame pigeons which our boys

rear, and these undoubtedly help to attract birds to our ccmpound.

27. Streptopelia chinensis. Indian Spotted Dove. Ten nests.

(1) Albizzia amara, 4 feet.

(2) Verandah roof, 7 feet.

(3) Morinda citrifolia, 10 feet.

(4) Citrus sp., 5 feet.

(5) Tristellatia australasia, a creeper on a_ house.

(6) Verandah roof, 7 feet.

(7) Verandah roof, 7 feet.

(8) Verandah roof, 7 feet.

(9) Jasminum sp., a hedge, 4 feet.

(10) Petrea volubilis, climbing over a gate, 7 feet.

The casualty rate among the eggs and young of doves seems immense,

and yet they remain common. Those that build on the wall plate above

verandah pillars try to put their sticks in many places before

\ lah they sueceed

in building a whole nest.

st. One bird was seen adding sticks-to the nest while

the other bird was sitting on it. Sometimes when the sitting bird gets

up to fly away the whole nest slides off. -

28. Streptopelia senegalensis. Indian Little Brown Dove.

(1) Verandah roof, 7 feet.

(2) Verandah roof, 7 feet. T

selves to be touched on the nest

Six nests.

hese are very tame and almost allow them-

A CENSUS OF NESTS IN A PRIVATE ‘BIRD-SANCTUARY’ 683

(3) Porana paniculata, a thick hedge, 4 feet.

(4) Petrea volubilis, a scandent against a wall, 10 feet.

(5) Cycas rumphii, in the crown, 4 feet.

(6) Two eggs were found among ferns under a .pergola, from which the

nest must have blown down.

29. Ardola grayi. Paddy-bird. Nine nests.

(1) Tamarindus indica, 20 feet. (February)

(2) & (8) Tamarindus indica, 20 feet. (April)

(4) Cork tree (Millingtonia hortensis), 15 feet. (April)

(5) Peltophorum inerme, 15 feet. (April)

(6) & (7) Tamarindus indica, 20 feet. (July)

(8) & (9) Neem tree, 25 feet. (July)

These birds were nesting in April and at intervals right on through August.

They make the plants and ground beneath their nests very unclean, so are

rather a nuisance,

In other years the following birds have also nested within this area:—

Dendrocitta vagabunda. Indian T'ree-Pie.

Tephrodornis pondiceriana. Indian Common Woodshrike.

In neem, tamarind and banyan (Iicus bengalensis) trees.

Uroloncha malabarica, White-throated Munia.

In a cactus hedge.

Eudynamis scolopaceus. Indian Koel.

Eggs have been often found in Common Crow’s nests.

Merops orientalis. Common Indian Bee-eater.

In furrows of ploughed field, and in a bank of earth which had been

excavated when digging a well.

Alcedo atthis. Common Ceylon Kingfisher,

In the side of a small pit.

Milyus migrans. Common Pariah Kite.

In a tamarind tree.

Nycticorax nycticorax. Night Heron.

A colony in tamarind trees.

SPORTSMANSHIP AND ETIQUETTE IN SHOOTING

Lt.-CoL. E. G. PHYTHIAN-ADAMS, O.B.E., F.Z.8., I.A. (RETD.)

The importance of taking steps for preserving the wild life of

India before it is too late is stressed in a brochure on the subject by

Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, which has recently been circulated to members

of the Society and which appears in this issue of the Journal.

Poaching, the greatest problem of all, can only be countered by

effective legislation drastically enforced, but much unnecessary

destruction of wild life is caused by sportsmen through ignorance of

sportsmanship, and it is felt that the present is a suitable time to

re-publish the following article, which first appeared in ‘ Indian Wild

Life’ in 1936, and was later re-printed in the ‘ Forester’. Some

alterations and additions to the original text have been made, but in

general the principles advocated by me 12 years ago seem as appli-

cable to-day as then. ‘The following is the amended reprint :—

Considering the large number of books on shikar and

Sporting reminiscences in India which have appeared during the

past 80 years, a curious omission will strike the thoughtful reader in

the almost entire absence of any reference to sporting ethics. The

budding big game shikari who in 9 cases out of 10 has not even

handled a shot-gun before, is anxious to do the right thing, but

when he endeavours to ascertain exactly what may be done

and what emphatically may not, he is generally referred to the

‘Unwritten Laws’ of Sport, or worse, follows the example of

aman older than himself but quite as ignorant. But why should

these ‘Laws’ remain unwritten? We have a Highway Code, then

why not a Shooting one also? Shooting ethics have changed

enormously in the last 80 years. ‘The senseless and indiscriminate

slaughter of Col. Pollock’s time terminated about the 80’s with a

series of well-defined game laws and shooting rules in most parts of

India, aud sportsmanship in shooting had certainly reached a very

high standard at the time of the outbreak of the First Great War. Since

then, however, there has been a marked deterioration due in part to

such factors as improved weapons, increase of motor transport, and

lack of senior officers interested in shooting and capable of passing

on the sound ideas of the previous generation. But whatever the

cause, it exists ; and it is in the hope of arousing interest and discus-

sion, and also of giving a helping hand tothe young shikari that

these notes are penned. ‘lhe writer who has spent 44 years in India,

served in North, West, Central and South India, in Upper and Lower

Burma, and in Ceylon, and spent all available leave on shikar, so he

can claim a fairly extensive knowledge of the varying kinds of sport

and conditions in different parts of the country. What he would

most emphatically disclaim is any idea of posing as an authority.

‘Quot homines, tot sententiae’, and in the following pages he

has endeavoured to hold a fair balance between divergent views.

SPORTSMANSHIP AND ETIQUETTE IN SHOOTING 685

Before proceeding further let us try to define ‘Sport’ as

applied to big game shooting. It is suggested that a reasonable

definition would include some element of risk (even if only the risk

of being found out), a certain amount of physical exertion, and the

exercise of some skill in jungle-craft and with the rifle; while the

object should be to kill as painlessly as possible, and not to fire at

dangerous game unless prepared to face the risks involved in a

possible follow-up.

The shooting rules in force in practically every part of India

rightly prohibit the shooting of females, of stags in velvet or with-

out horns, and of undersized heads; and as regards these the tyro

can have no doubt, while we will give him the credit of realising the

heinousness of appropriating another man’s kill. But there are

other problems. which are bound to arise sooner or later, and which

are not definitely legislated for. It is proposed to deal with the

more impottant of these seriatim.

(1) First and probably most controversial of all is the question of

first blood. Ina beat A fires at and wounds a tiger which goes on

and is then killed by &. To whom does the skin belong? JIn the

old days there was a well-recognised rule that whoever drew first

blood even though the wound was a Slight superficial one was

entitled to the trophy; but in more recent times the more reasonable

standard adopted has been the infliction of the first disabling but not

necessarily mortal wound. This, however, is not always too easy to

decide, so it would be as well to settle beforehand exactly which

procedure is to be adopted. If this is not done, in case of doubt

toss for it.

(2) Following-up a wounded animal next day. Is the man who

wounded it in the first place entitled to the trophy or the man who

finally kills it? ‘This case appears to be on all fours with the

preceding one and the criterion should be the infliction of the first

disabling wound. Butifthe pursuit has been definitely abandoned,

then the trophy decidedly belongs to the gun who may finish off the

wounded animal, having encountered it either by chance or design,

and possibly after an interval of severai days.

lt need scarcely be added that it is the duty of a// members

of a party to assist in following up a wounded tiger, and equally that

beaters should zever be used to drive out an animal under such

conditions.

(3) Ls zt unsporting to sttup tor a tiger? Certainly not. There

are many jungles in India and Burma where beating is impossible—

then again the sportsman may not be able to afford the expense of

beaters. In such cases sitting up is perfectly justified, and the

discomforts and general lack of success attending this form of shikar

are a sufficient contradiction to the idea that it is easy and taking an

unfair advantage. Sitting up for panther over a goat is widely

practised. What objection then can there be to sitting up for tiger ?

A mug’s game many consider it, but it is certainly not unsporting.

The writer would add that the majority of his meagre score of

tigers have been shot on foot and none by sitting up, so he may

claim to be impartial as regards the ethics of the latter.

(4) Should arttfictal light be used when sitting up? Were we are

entering on very controversial ground, for some shikaris assert that

686 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

it is taking an unfair advantage, and so strongly is this view held in

some quarters that certain shooting rules definitely prohibit its use.

But is this justified ? The whole object of big game shikar should

be to kill as cleanly as possible, and any reasonable artificial aid

which will help should surely be used. Objections to it appear

to the writer both selfish and unjustified.

(5) Should one sit up over water or a salt lick? This is generally

prohibited in the shooting rules except in the case of carnivora, but

is 1t justified even in the case of the latter? As regards water at

any rate, that prime necessity of life, the idea rather offends one’s

sense of fairplay and it should be avoided as far as possible, though

obvious exceptions may be made in the case of a man-eater or a

persistent cattle killer which cannot be brought to book otherwise,

or in the case of that pest of the jungle—the wild dog.

(6) Ls the use of a telescopic sight justified? Certainly, as it

provides increased accuracy of aim and thereby fulfils the object

already referred to. For sportsmen with defective eyesight or in

the case oi crocodile shooting where extreme accuracy is needed it

is a most efficient aid, but it should of course not be used to increase

range and to take shots beyond sporting distances.

(7) What are sporting distances? Inthe jungle visibility generally

limits the range to under 109 yards. In the hills or on open plains

shots should not as a rule be taken over 200 and never beyond 300

yards. Atatiger or other dangerous game the distance is limited

by the necessity for inflicting a mortal wound with the first shot.

Long shots are therefore inadvisable, as they will almost certainly

involve a follow-up with all its inherent risks.

(8) What radius of acticn should be reserved (o a party already in

camp? Inthis connection The Hon’ble J. W. Best writes in ‘ Indian

Shikar Notes’:—‘ Outside the forest laws there are some general

principles of etiquette which are observed among shikaris. If

shooting outside regularly allotted blocks, provided his position is

legally sound, the first comer has prior claim and should in no way

be molested’. ‘This is admirable so far as it goes, but something

more definite seems needed to prevent a jealous sportsman from

claiming more than his fair share of country. To meet the case it is

suggested that no other party should shoot within 2 miles of the

first comer’s camp and that this should be extended to 5 miles if

members of the latter are tying up for tiger.

(9) Ls shooting trom motor cars justified 2 Most emphatically not:

it is pure slaughter and offends two maxims of our definition, viz.

absence of risk and absence of physical exertion. What satisfaction

can anyone derive from a trophy obtained inthis way ? Unfortunately

this pernicious practice is on the increase and steps require to be

taken to put a stop to it throughout India as has already been done

in E. Africa. Shooting in this way by day is bad enough but it is

far worse at night as many wounded animals escape to die a

lingering Ceath or in the case of carnivora to be a menace to some

unfortunate villager. Europeans and wealthy Indians who indulge

in this unsporting practice should know better and not set sucha

bad example to their humbler fellow sportsmen. ‘Mere killing’,

says F. W.F. Fletcher in Sport on the Nilgiris, ‘is not sport: the real

charm lies in the feeling that you have pitted your reason against

SPORTSMANSHIP AND ETIQUETTE IN SHOOTING 687

the quarry’s instinct and won the equal fight, that your trophy is the

reward of your own skill. This feeling is the very essence of sport

and it makes success doubly sweet’.

(10) Js shooting from elephants sporting ? For tiger in high grass

it is a well recognised procedure; for other animals it approximates

too closely to motor car shooting to justify its being called sporting,

though it will doubtless be practised for all time by ‘princes and

rich men’.

(11) What limits should one make to shooling one particular

species? One has read in shikar books that the ideal should be to

shoot the largest head possible and having obtained it not to shoot

smaller, but the Jatter view appears very altruistic, and there seems

no valid reason why the sportsman should not continue shooting this

species if he wants to and provided that he never lets it degenerate

into shcoting for shooting’s sake. After all trackers and servants

are only human and a camp will not Le a very cheerful or successtul

one if master never fires a shot because he can find no head larger

than what he had already bagged possibly many years before.

(12) Zs zt sporting to shoot a tigress with cubs? Provided the

cubs are big enough to forage for themselves, say the size of

panthers, no reasonable objection can be raised. In some shooting

rules a limit of 8 feet is prescribed which seems unnecessarily large

and would be extremely difficult to estimate. No real sportsman

would deliberately fire at a tigress with small cubs, and the same

applied to panthers and bears with young.

(13) What ts the best shot to take? At an animal standing

broadside on, with a high velocity rifle fire a¢ the shoulder so that

the bullet may carry pieces of bone through the heart. The old idea

of firing dehind the shoulder may result in the bullet being placed

too far back; it dates back to the old days of black power rifles

firing in many cases a very light bullet which might flatten out a

bone and fail to penetrate. At an animal facing, place your bullet

where the neck joins the chest. Head shots should be avoided as

far as possible owing to the risk of the bullet glancing off the skull.

When you do shoot remember not to fire into the brown but pick a

vital spot, and never press the trigger unless you are certain that

your target is really what you think, and not an unfortunate villager

draped in a blanket or hiding behind a bush.

(14) What ts the best rifle touse? For jungle work and dangerous

game a double-barrelled high velocity rifle of 470 bore will meet the

case, and for hill shooting or on the plains a small bcre magazine

rifle. But it is not everyone who can afford a double-barrelled rifle,

and as an all-round weapon the 423 (10:75 m/m) Mauser can be

recommended. It is cheap and will deal with anything from a

barking-deer to an eleprant. The writer has used one for many

years and has seldom found a second shot to be necessary.

For dangerous game it is zo/ advisable to use a small bore rifle

firing a light bullet. This is not to say that a tiger cannot be killed

with a °303; it can, and so for that matter can an elephant, and it

would also be possible to kill a tiger with a -22, though no one in

his senses would try it. The whole point lies in the punch given

by the bullet, if the aim is not absolutely correct, due to haste or an

unexpected movement. With a ‘423 bullet there is a knock-down

688 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,: Vol. 47

blow which simplifies the follow-up, whereas unless the +303 bullet is

placed in exactly the right spot either the sportsman is going to

strike trouble or the animal will get away to die a lingering death.

Those interested in the subject are advised to study Major Gerald

Burrard’s * Notes on Sporting Rifles’.

(15) Take every opportunity to des'roy vermin, more especially

wild dogs, which do so much damage and for which incidentally a

good reward is paid by Government in most Provinces.

To sum up; remember our definition and the object; play fair

and be considerate of others, and do not take refuze in that old

faliacy ‘Why shouldn’t I? It’s not in the shooting rules’?

Before however he gets a chance at big game our tyro is almost

certain to have the opportunity of some small game shooting.

Here the problems are less complex for we are concerned more with

behaviour in the field than with any question of ethics. If our tyro

has not been taught how to carry a gu and the maxim of ‘ Safety

first,’ then let him study and memorise the following rujes, for he

may rest assured that non-observance of them will certainly result in

few if any invitations to join a party. Nor is ‘t oaly the tyro who

would benefit by correct behaviour, for many men who have been

shooting in India for years and who should know better are appal-

lingly ignorant in this respect and some indeed can only be classed

as criminally careless.

(1) Always carry your gun so that it points to the ground or to

the sky. Never hold it so that it points at anyone else even though

you kxow that it is unloaded. Many accidents have happened in this

way in the past and continue to do so annually because the gun was

loaded.

(2) Always unload before crossing an obstacle or before getting

into a car or boat or before handing your gun to a shikari or before

entering a house.

(3) Do not fire unless you can see where you are shooting.

There may be a man ploughing behind that hedge or an old woman

crouching beyond that bush.

(4) Do not shoot over your shikari when he bobsdown. He may

rise as you fire the left barrel and receive the contents in his

head.

(5) When shooting in company do not be selfish nor fire at

another man’s birds.

(6) Do not fire long shots. You will waste cartridges, make your-

self unsteady and only wound game. 40 yards is the average

extreme killing range of a 12-bore, and most birds are shot at under

30 yards.

(7) Do not worry about your daily cartridge average but take all

fair shots that offer.

(8) Do not shoot more than you can dispose of. The man who

has to bury or throw away game is no Sportsman.

(9) Do not fire into the brown but pick your birds. Besides

being more sporting it is more profitable !

(10) Do not let wounded birds be carried on the game stick.

(11) Do not send a man to retrieve a bird from a weedy tank.

(12) Don’t grouse if most of the shooting has gone to the other

suns. Your chance will come sooner or later.

SPORTSMANSHIP AND ETIQUETTE IN SHOOTING 689

(13) Shoot for sport and don’t worry about the size of the bag or

getting your money’s worth.

Briefly then the good sportsman will be keen, careful, eonmeiderate

and humane.

A few other points remain to be mentioned :—

(1) It seems hardly necessary to say that it is not sporting to

shoot a hare inits form or birds on the ground or in a tree, though a

a first barrel into duck on the water is not considered unfair.

(2) The man first on the ground has prior claim and a shikari

cannot reserve a ground for his master: the latter must be present

in person.

(3) When two parties are shooting from the same rest-house,

they should come to some mutual agreement as to direction from

day to day, to avoid spoiling one another’s sport; the party which

arrived first having of course prior choice.

(4) Misses are mostly behind, so swing your gun to your bird

and keep on swinging till after you have pressed the trig ger.

In conclusion the budding sportsman is advised to read and

digest all the shikar books he can get hold of, among which can be

specially recommended Col. A. I. Stewart’s ‘Tiger And Other

Game’, A. A. Dunbar Brander’s ‘ Wild Animals in Central India’,

and The Hon’ble J. W. Best’s ‘ Indian Shikar Notes’.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

690

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BIRD MIGRATION IN INDIA

069

A COMPLETE LIST OF RINGED BIRDS RECOVERED UP TO DATE (INCLUDING THOSE NOTIFIED IN THE Journal FROM TIME TO TIME)

4 Joa ‘AZAIQOS “LSIH TYYALVN Avawod “TVNANOL

Remarks

.. <. a ybe:

eit Date Name of bird pacer eae Name of ringer meee Reported by Binceiwbete Remarks

| |

Dhar 14 Feb, | Common Teal Purnia Tank, Dhar) (Young) | Ahmad Nur 16 Jan. | Major King Champanir, Baro-| Reported as wid-

71 1929 State 1931 da State geon,

*(Series 2)

Dhar 14 Feb. | Common Teal Do. | ‘Young’ Do. 31 Mar. | Central Bureau for| Village of Novo, — .....

82 1929. | (Nettion crecca) (?) 1935 Bird Ringing. Prokovskoe ; Re-|

(Series 2) | Rostokinsky Pro-| gion of Kantovski|

yezd,13,Moscow,| 14 km. off town

| 14. Frunse (formerly

| Peshpek oc,

42°26'N., 74°

| 15’E.)

Dhar 23 Feb. | Common ‘Teal Do, Do. Do. Autumn | M. P. Golairu Vasugana__ River) Identity of species

116 1929 1929 near North) not given by re-

(Series 2) | | Machutaivs, coverer-

| | Tomsk.

29 Pochard (NV, 1926 Dhar. north of Fateh-| Gimson, R. A.

(Series 1) rufa). bad, near Ujjain,

Gwalior State

| (c. 23°33’N., 75°

| 70’E).

Dhar | Feb, 1925] Widgeon (Anas Do. Do. Early Do. JandStation N.W.,| Shot by local shi-

94 | penelope) | May 1926 Rly. (near Camp-| kari.

(Series 2) | bellpur__c. 32°

78’ N., 72° 25’E.)

Dha: Feb. 1

, r el 926 Not recorded. Dhar State | H. H. Mataraja S April | Private Secretary,)Jalwal village) Shot by Poli

eee | 1926 | Dbar. (Attock district) stable, Jhind

ee 5 | ck district). constable, Jhind

ae ‘eb. 1926 Panes (XN. ferina Do. Male | Do. 30 May Do. Nr, Ssusslowo Rear

R 2 S eport ci i-

(Series 1) | 1926 village 20 km., cated by Prof,

| from Barnaul] Hermann Joban-

| Town, Siberia. sen of Tomsk

| | University. Pub-

j lished in‘ Uragus’,

Dhar | Feb. 1926 | Wia i

b geon (Anas Do. | pone

ot | eee a. lo Female | Do. | 1 Aug. | Prof. B, N. Shit-| Nbosch Lake near| Reueeea accom-

(Series 1) | 1928 kov of Univ.) Kargat Rly. Sta- panied by young.

| Zool. Mus., Mos-' lion, Omsk- Published in {

| cow. Tomsk Railway,| ‘ Uragus’by J.M.

| | west of Novo} Salesski.

Scrolls aed| UN Nikolajewsk (55°

Feb. 192 intail (4, | =~ aay

: ? aaa nas acuta’ Do, Do. Do. 29 May | W. Troizky, Cura- yee aE left} Captured by

(Series 1) | 1927 | tor, Zool Dept.,) branch of Tiga,| native. Report

| Novo Sibirsko tributary ofChat-) also published,

| Museum ,in anga (Middle| Vol.XXXVI,No.

me, | ie | Uragus p. 26,, Tunguska). 3, May 1929

eeoeae re ee 5 .B.M. Shitkov, ‘est Siberia, Ss

(Series 1) | ) (ca 23°N x 76°E) 1928" Univ. Zool. mouth ae rive! Resale wou

Museum, Moscow Tara, affluent of ing and unable

ee (letter 22-1-1929),| the Irtysh (c, 56°| to fly.

ar | Feb, 1926 |Pochard (Nyroca Dhar State. | Pri Ea

? renin 2 Al tee Do. 28 Dec. | Private Secretary,|A tank in Dhar| Shot by Col

(Series 1) 1928 H. H. Dhar State. Davenport ;

| (letter No. 55 :

| dated 20-1-1929).

hs . nee eS ect eee Ee

* Series 1 = Mabaraja Dhar.

Series 2 = Maharani Dhar,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 4

692

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RECOVERIES OF RINGED BIRDS—(contd)

—_———

here t

| Gaui ae i Date of | Reported b pIncenw Remarks

i Blaceiwhere (adult or | Name of ringer recovery eported by ronavered

Nowof Date Name of bird ringed eae ; |

i i i kK iles NNW of

| i Shi-| 6 -3-'29 | D. Sviatski, Scien-| A lake near R, 580 mil

; ‘ ii ETE AN Cas ific Secy., Cen-| Amu Daria (37°) Bahawalpur.

peek Ph "chard (Weta vm “pat Sat \pkavsicer ta Berend "Ei 21’N 66°20’) | ‘Theduckhad an

ti), | Regional Survey,| Russian Turkes-| old healed wound

USSR, Lenin-| tan. on the lower part

| rad. of the beak’,

| grad.

| =" . M. Zalessk .| Bolschie Tockty,| According to Te-

11-12-'28 | Pochard or Dun Do. do adult Do. 25 -5-'30 |J y eae Se RES aed

2128 ani Bird (Nyroca f. | | She Gaeae'N

ferina) 2 76° 04.)

4 Near Station Vol-

2 12-12-'28 | Mallard (Anas Do. od adult Do. ? May '29 chikhia || Dist

4 : platyrmyncha) of Slavgorod (52

| 20’ N x 79°20'E,)

< iv i Recovered after 71

- 2 -2-'29| G.S. Khan On river Tochi or i

: res Do- gp aault me Gambila, near| days, ca. 26!

2182 | 12-12-’28 eR) (Nettion Gam ; i ae

| Prov., (ca. 32°N

x71°E.)

r itral] Shot by local.

-3-’30 | Lt.-Stockley Mastus, Chitral S)

| 1212-128 | Mallara (aes Des $iacult a soe Roper, State (36° 15’N x| Recovery after

aa AES) 72° 30'E.) 369 days.

i i i | d after 64

-329 | D. Sviatski, Len-| Near tiver Syr Recovere

neveloee) eee real Turkestan, 3 miles due N.

Sind (ca 20°40 N | 10°N 265" 15'E.)

» 67°60’E.)

3384 { 23 -1-'29]' Do. Do. Q adult

plalyrhyncha)

2784 | 26 -1-'29 | Gadwal (Anas Do. 2 adult

Streperus)

2763 25 -1-'29 | Wigeon (Anas| Do. of adult

penelope)

720 12 -2-'29 | Coot (Fidica| Indore State adult

aira)

1803 9 -2-29 | Pintail (4nas| Sujawal, Karachi f adult

acuta) Dist, Sind. ;

1820 9 -2-'29 | White-eyed Po-| Do, adult

chard (Nyroca

rufa)

2952 17- 1-'29 | Mallard (Anas| Kashgar, Chinese d adult

‘ blatyrhyncha) ‘Turkestan (39°

20'N x 76°),

Do,

Conservator of

Forests, Indore

Meherally Shah...

Do.

Capt. G. Sherriff

25 -4-'29

10 -7-'30

8 -5-’29

2 -3-'29

25 -

23 -2-.29

24 -1-'29

20 -9-'29 | Director,

Banding Station

USSR—Moscow

al Survey, Len

ingrad,

Central Bureau o!

Bird Banding,

Moscow,

Do.

Bird Banding!

Bureau, Moscow,

M. G. Mirza

G. R. Stein

Capt, Sherriff

Bird

Bureau of Region-

.| Thain

.| Near

.| Near Kashgar

Village Nishny-| Recovered after

Aremzyane ; 246 days, ca.

Dist., ‘Tobolsk,| 2,300 miles due

(58° 12’N x 66° N.

11’E.)

Ishimsk Dist.,

-| Ural, near vil-

lage Okunjevo,

35’N x 67° 20’E.)

t] Siberia. Village,

| Novovoznessens-

kaya, 18 km.

from _‘Tartarsk

town. (c.55°20’N

x 75° 50’E.)

Village Yarylino,

Circuit ‘Tomsk,

W. Siberia, Re-

gion Kolpache-

vsky, (58° 20’N x

82° 57’E.)

Near Station Vel-

lo-Alexeevskaya,|

Province ‘Tash-

kent, Trans-Sibe-

rian Rly.

Dhund,

Sujawal Taluka,|

Sind.

Sujawal,

Sind.

W. Siberia, (56°

-| Killed by trained

falcon.

db yo ‘A LAIOOS “LSIH TVYAQLVN AVGWOd “TV,

£69

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RECOVERIES OF RINGED BIRDS—(contd.)

ee Tirnrnnn net nase ene nnn EI OnEREE RETIREE ESOT . =

No. of = 2 Place where Name of | Date of Place where |

ring Date Name of bird ringed Remarks ringer | recovery Reported by recoverctl Remarks S

2972 27-1-'29 | Mallard ( Anas’ Kashgar, Chinese} adult | Capt. G. Sherriff 1-2-'29 | Capt. Sherriff 3 or 4 miles from} Shot by a member 2

platyrhyncha) ‘Turkestan (ca, Kashgar, of theSoviet Con- =

39° 20’N x 76° #), | sulate-General, >

2973 27-1-'29 Do. Do. dg adult Do. 1-5-'31 | Bird Banding} Village Lukovka, fa

| Bureau, Moscow | Region Pankru- 3}

shicha — Cireuit| SI

Kamensky, West S

Siberia (55°51’N =

| x 80°18’E). 5

2992 30-1-'29 Do. Do. @ adult Do, A few Capt. Sherriff Near Kashgar Killed by trained =

days after! falcon, 5

tinging S|

3005 1-2-’29 Do. Do. ¢ adult Do. Do. Do. Do | Do, iS

3110 8-3-'29 | Wigeon (Anas| Manchar Lake, adult | Haji Rab Rakhio 7-1-'30 |Game _ Fisheries} Anchar Lake, Reported by re- &

penelope) Sind Lakho Officer, Kashmir} between Gandar-| coverer as gad- _

| State bal & Srinagar} wal ¢ adult (4. 5

| (Kashmir). Streperus). a

469 1-429 | Garganey (Quer-| Rajghat, Bettiah,| ¢ adult} A.C, Harman 11-4-'29 | W. McGregor Jhandola, _ Dist.) 80-100 miles S. E. ~~

guedula — quer-| Champaran, Bihar, Mozaffarpur (Bi-| of ringing place.

guedula) | har & Orissa) =)

cly peata) Patiala State ing Bureau, Mos-| Kzyl-Orda, mouth 3

| cow of river Tara) =

| affluent of Irtysh, ;

strepera) Kashmir | State Rukhs 1930 Kashmir State). =

platyrhyncha) Sind (ca. 24° Regional Survey,| tinskoye, Omsk) >

1 50’N x 67°00’E) Leningrad Proy., W. Sibe-

Tia, (ca. 55°Nx

} 74° 40°E.)

3953 \] 19-1-'30 ana (Nyroca gos Lake Sue, adult | Meherally Shah | end Aprilj Central Bird Band-) Village Solo-Tubs Cg

wa ma , Kara- 1933 ing Bureau, Mos-| Kazak Autono-

D cow (vide letter) mous Republic,

dated 25-4-’35). (former Syr-

Daria Region 44°

1 34’N x 66°7’E.)

3 9-12-29 | Mallard (Anas| Kashgar, Chines | 3. Sherri a i

DLaapPAVEMG es ese! 2 adult | Capt. G. Sherriff 14-1-'30 | Capt. Sherriff Kashgar Shot by a Turki.

1524 || 11-122

9 Do, Do, 2 adult | Do. 22-12-129 Do. Kizil Su River, Shot by ringer.

ie Kashgar

19-12-'29

Do. Do, ¢ adult Do, 26-12-'29 Do, 3 or 4 m. fromj Snared. Too weak

where released) to release again

51 -12-"

1517 | 14-12-29 Do. Do. g adult Do. 14-1-'30 Do. foots H

117 -12-)

31-12-29 Do, Do, ¢ adult Do 13-1-'30 Do. D) Shot by a Turki

121 | 31-12-29 | .

s, Do, Do. 2 adult Do. ca 1-1-'30 Do, Near Kashgar | Shot by a Turki

29-12-'2%

| 9 Do. Do, o adult Do, 9-130 Do, Kashgar Caught by hand,

Weak & emaciat-

ed owing to

severe cold spell.

1442 | 30-12-’29

; Do. Do. ¢ adult Do. ca 1-1-'30 Do. Near Kashgar Shot by a Turki.

382 | 26-12-29 Do. Do. ¢ adult Do, 27-12-29 Do. Shot on river close!

to where caught

but 3 or 4 m,

| from where re-

1m leased,

14-1-’30

Do. Do. od adult Do, 14-1-’30 Do. Kashgar SRE iS

$69

Vol.

AWE, IEUISE, SOCMEZIN,

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RECOVERIES OF RINGED BIRDS—(contd.)

— ———— Ss

4 Place where k, Name of Date of - Place where

nee Date Name of bird tinged Remarks ringer recovery Reported by cenavered Remarks. 2

1001 14-1-’30 | Mallard (Anas-| Kashgar, Chinese] adult | Capt. G. Sherriff 15-1-’30 | Capt. Sherriff Kashgar Shot by a Turki g

platyrhyncha) ‘Turkestan =

3ol2 | 14-1-30 Do. Do. # adult Do. 15-1-730 Do, Do. | Fe

| is)

cly peata) Sehwan Taluka- nowka, Barabinsk| ks)

Sind Dist., __ Siberia,| io

(54°42'N x 76° | ‘

04’E.) =

789 11-2-31 Do. Manchar Lake,| Q adult | R.B, MacLachlan) 5-1-'32 | U. M. Ansari Suigam, North (eI

Sind Gujerat (via Ra- re)

dhanpur). b

3126 10-3-'29 | Gadwal( Anas stre- Do. | edult | Haji Rab Rakhio 11-3-’30 | Anton Liesmewil-/ Uzbekistan, near, =

pera) sch. the station Kagan, cs

New Bokhara, (ca|

40°N x 64°E.) | n

hard (Nella ing Bureau, Mos-|_ ria. |

rutina) cow 4

acuta) Dist. Tobolsk _ Dist.,| =

Confluence of ax

tivers Ob and) 3

Irtysh (ca. 60°N}

x 70°E.)

335: 23-1-'2: 3 7 -] r ¢

; ee es (dnas/Manchar Lake] Qadult | R.B, MacLachlan) 9-831) Central Bird Ban-| Western Siberia ;

Sind en? ding Bureau,| north of Ust-|

2 Moscow. Vissk Region (54°

5’N x 64°20’E. )

2673 21-’29 i 5 i is

3 25-1-'29 Spe raan (daas| Manchar Lake adult | R.B. MacLachlan] 7-5-129 Central Bird Ban-| Village Yaryline

ding Bureau,| Region Kalpach.

Moscow, Evysk Circuit

Tomsk, W. Si-|

3929 D 9-7-'31 | Glossy Ibis (Ple-| * Damtchik? | F 7, a ; beria.

(Moskwa) ieaiiee fa ee ree ik ee Juvenile Central Bird Ban-| 14-3-’34 Capt. Wright Deolali Distance flown

nellus) Preserve Volga Mone ae roughly 2,800

Delta. (ca. 45° wee miles.

55’N = 47°45’ B.)

4172 17-2-'39 | Common Teal] Ghana Keoladeo

3 ‘ 3 a , Bharatpur Durbar] 11-3-39 | Prof. B.A.Chohan,| 3 miles from Kabul

(Neltion crecca) Bharatpur State, Habibia College, Afghanisian

Kabul.

65765 D | July ’38 | Coot (uli k kc id 5 é

(Moacwah ly 3 ‘oot (Hulica atra) Take <Alekul, Ka Central Bird Ban- Game Warden,| Hokra Lake near

Tae Balakh h 4 ding Bureau, Kashmir (Letter Srinagar, Kash-

as: Moscow. No. 1101 dated} mir.

21-3-'39).

54244 F.| 26 -7-’37 | Garganey Teal] North Kazakhsta: =

(Moskwa) (Querquedulagu-| on Lake "Peter ? es Do, Drig, Larkhana|

erguedula) (54°10’N x 769 District, Sind.

05’E.)

13753 B| 28-7-'38 | Spoonbill (Plata-| Astrakh: i

(Moskwa)| ek Teas Erseae vain Nestling Do. 26-10-38 Do. Kolhapur State

major) Delta,

4200 23-2~39 | Common Teal] Gh ,

| (Netlion Cay pe aaal Bharatpur Durbar| 30-140 Do. 3 miles from Cbh-|

é hatari, U.P.

269

Vol.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

698

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RECOVERIES OF RINGED BIRDS—(contd.)

Records not previously published in the Journal Se

<3 _——

| | Date of Pl 3

. of . Place where i ' a late o. lace where _ To)

reee Date Name of bird ringed Remarks | Name of ringer recovery Reported by recovered’ Remarks S$

b a ms - L z

1940 (Nettion crecca) | Bharatpur. Tazadin, ca, 12 —

miles from Pesha-| S)

| war. =

4148 | 26-12-'39 | Wigeon (A/areca Do. adult Do. 6-4-’40 | Director of Game] Near Station Pro-| a

benelope) | Preserves, Mos-| letarskaja, Tash- .

| ; z

| | cow. kent Railway, =

| Tadzikistan 3

81029 Glossy Ibis (Ple-} we co | aoxed ca |L. R. Faweus, |}On a __ marsh,| Ringing data 2

(Mosk wa) | gadis falcinellus) 15-4-'42| Calcutta, Malda_District,) awaited «from 4

| | | Bengal. Moscow. =

i | 3

60276 D | | Pintail (Anas oe 21-2-'40 | F. Ludlow, Sri-| Pampur, near Sri- Do. rey

(Moskwa) acuta) nagar. nagar, Kashmir. | (Shot by Col. -

| B. T. Phillips). %

| 2

(Moskwa) acuta) Reserve (Volga Banding Bureau, trict, Punjab. Shah. Data &

| Delta, Russia), Moscow. awaited from =

| Moscow. 5

54294 E Garganey Teal Hh Ge |) eet | 26-139 | Capt. L. D. W.)Khajua Tal, Bhur} —.... =

(Moskwa) | (Querquedula Hearsey, Kanaeri,| Estate, Kteri =

| querquedula) | On District, U. P. s

4202 24-2-’39 | Common Teal| Ghana Keoladeo,) adult Bharatpur Durbar | 24-9-'40 | Central Bird Band-] Environs of Ash-

| (Nettion crecca) Bharatpur. ing Bureau, Mos-| khabad.

cow.

4209 23-2-'39 Do. Do. adult

10005 F | June 29 | Green Sandpiper| Environs of city of

(Moskwa) (Tringa ochro-| Kazan,

pus)

32713 D | 16-8-°37 | Gadwal (Anas) N. Kazakhstan, 20} Juvenile

(Moskwa) strepera) km. from

Ak-Suat _ Lake,

| | on Syur-Karassu}

Lake,

206701 | 11-6-’30 White Stork (Cico-| Nr. Braunsch-} Juvenile

(Helgo- nia ciconia | weig, Germany (nestling)

land) ciconia) | (ce. 52°16’N x 10°

30’E).

27381 | 30-6-'25 | Rosy Pastor (Pas-| Village Novaj,} Nestlin:

(Buda- tor roseus) N. E. eee °

pest) (47° 55’N x 209

30’E.)

14, Apollo Street,

Bombay,

31 July, 1948,

Do.

Central Bird

Banding Burezu,

Moscow,

Central Bird

Ringing Bureau,

Moscow,

Heligoland — Bio-

logical Station.

Royal Hungarian

Ornithological

Institute.

18-2-'40 | Janglat Officer,

1326 of 1940).

30-12-37 |

Noy. '30 | Bikaner Durbar.

28-4-'26 | M. J, Sheikh,

Bharatpur (letter)

Bharatpur

Nr. Kottayam

(Travancore).

South of Hadero,

Sind Lower

Indus.

Bikaner, Raj-

putana (78° N x

73° 15’E).

Lahore, Punjab,

| One year later, in

same locality,

Found dead and

ina dried up con-

dition by edge of

small lake,

Epirors

669

ABNORMAL BANANAS OF TRAVANCORE

II. A BANANA PLANT (MUSA PARADISIACA L.)

WITH FOUR-BUNCHED INFLORESCENCE

‘TRUPAPUR A. - Davis

(With 2 plates)

INTRODUCTION

The banana is one of the oldest and most popular fruits of the world which

is said to have originated from our own country. As an evidence of this we are

still having some wild (seeded) banana varieties in the evergreen forests of South

India and ‘ these might prove to be the ancestors of the innumerable popular

varieties of the present day’. ‘The banana is the cheapest and most common

fruit in India probably next to the mango.

Next to coconut palms, every house in Travancore possesses a few banana

plants in the fertile lands around it, since Travancore houses are unique in

having enough backyard to produce most of the necessities of human life in. In

a compound of one such house at Kannakurichy near Rajakkamangalam, South

‘Travancore, the author came across a very interesting and extremely rare banana

plant (Musa paradisiaca Linn.) which had given out a massive branched

inflorescence.

Regarding variations and abnormalities in bananas the following peculiari-

ties have been noted by different workers. Chandrasekaran and Sundararaj (r)

have observed in one sapientum variety, Ney Mannan, three well developed

styles instead of only one as in all banana plants. Variations in number and

shapes of perianth parts have been recorded by Jacob (2). Dr. Mendiola (3)

describes an interesting case of premature appearance of the inflorescence in a

Latundal variety banana. An accident caused the premature appearance of the

inflorescence. Mercado and Capinpin (4) report another case of the premature

appearance of inflorescence in a Latundal variety in the Philippine Agricultural

College banana plantations in 1927. The present author has also observed a

similar plant at Alagappapuram, South ‘Travancore. ‘T'winning of the ‘ fingers ’

in the ‘ hands’ is a hereditary character in the variety Musa sapientum var.

flabellata. Undeveloped ‘hands’ in the bunch, formation of ‘hands’ at the

staminate region, presence of differently coloured fruits in a bunch are also

recorded by different authors,

The presence of a double sucker was observed by Jacob (5). A stalk with two

flower buds was observed by Kander (6). Jacob (7) has found in a banana,

variety Kali, the axis of which after normal bunching fasciated and produced a

dozen different ‘hearts’ of pistillate flowers developing into innumerable

dimunitive fruits while the original staminate ‘ heart’ remained as_ such.

recently there was a report in The Hindu, a South Indian daily, about an

abnormal banana from Tanjore district, giving rise to two inflorescences. It will

not be out of place to mention here the author’s report of a five bunched

inflorescence in a Mondan variety’ (8). Mercado and Capinpin (4) who were

working on the asexual inheritance of twin character of banana bunches, record

one banana with twin ‘hearts’, four bananas with double stalks and one with

triple stalk. ‘The banana which is now being described is highly interesting in

that it gives rise to four different inflorescences each bearing plenty of fruits.

PARTICULARS REGARDING THE PLANT =

The abnormal banana plant belonged to one Rathnasami Nadar of Kanna-

kurichy. It stood near the owner’s house amidst a very thick coconut

thope (plantation). When the plant was examined by the author in January

1947, it had reached the maximum growth and the four bunches had developed

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLaTE I

Photo by T. A. Davis

A Musa with four-bunched inflorescence.

Kannakurichy, S. Travancore.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Pirate IF

Photo by T. A. Davis

A closer view of the abnormal inflorescence with four bunches.

ABNORMAL BANANAS OF TRAVANCORE : 70k

fully. ‘The plant was nearly ten feet high from the ground level to the shot blade

region. ‘There were only ten healthy and normal leaves present at the time of

observation. Only three daughter shoots were springing from the mother

rhizome. As is the custom, the young shoots were cut away to inhibit their

growth so that the mother plant might fruit well.

The variety of the plant was the common Peyan, a table variety. This abnormal

plant as a young sucker was removed along with another sister sucker from the

rhizome of a normally fruited Peyan mother from the same locality, The two

young plants were transplanted in different compounds in the same village on the

same day. ‘This abnormal plant had started flower emergence at the fifteenth

month, that is, towards the end of November 1946. But the sister banana had

flowered four months earlier, that is, at the eleventh month of planting and the

matured fruits were removed at the time when this plant had just emerged the

‘hearts’ (cone-like inflorescence). ‘The inflorescence and the flowers of the

sister plant were quite normal, typical of Peyan. Before the emergence of the

‘heart’ the plant under description resembled a normal one in all respects

except the long delay in flowering.

DESCRIPTION OF THE BUNCHES

A careful examination of the abnormal plant showed that: ‘The peduncle of

the plant arising from the under-ground rhizome and covered by the pseudo

stem of leaf-sheaths, is somewhat oval in cross section with a constriction in

the middle of each flat surface making it clear that it is a combination of two

peduncles. At the place of emergence of the inflorescence the constriction is

seen very clearly since the grooves are deeper (vide Plates I & II). Another

evidence to show that the peduncle is a combination of two, is the presence of

two shot blades at the junction from where the peduncle emerges out of the crown

of leaves. Both the shot blades are seen to arise from the same region each

covering half the main peduncle, and each meeting the other at the grooves.

From this junction the constriction is very prominent and the fusional stage is

continued for a length of nearly thirty inches at the end of which they separate

into two distinct branches as seen from Plate I. ‘Two large. bracts are seen to

arise from this junction one on each branch. Plate II shows only one bract in

a dried up condition, the other having already fallen away. From this junction

the left branch (vide Plate IJ) continues its growth quite normally giving rise

to nearly two hundred fruits. The first seven ‘hands’ in this bunch are

quite normal with long enough internodes, ‘ and the fruits look that of normal

Peyan. The remaining ‘hands’ are so compactly packed and the size of fruit

so much reduced that for ordinary people they look a different variety of

banana. The peduncle on the right gives off very healthy fruits numbering

about eighty in eight ‘hands’ with normal space between the ‘hands’ as

in ordinary Peyan bunch. At the ninth ‘hand’ the peduncle forks into two.

branches and both of them bear plenty of closely-set fruits. Of the two

secondary branches the left one bears about two hundred fruits and its ‘ heart ’

goes on developing only male flowers. ‘The other secondary branch on the right

bears nearly one hundred and fifty fruits. Towards the end, this last branch forks

into two branches again, each having a well-developed ‘heart’. The final

division is not so prominent and not visible in Plate II. ‘The floral arrangement,

shape and floral parts of this abnormal plant are quite norma]. ‘Though the four

‘hearts’ cut off numerous male flowers after producing the female ones, the

barren stalks remain very short due to the failure of proper development of the

internodal region of the peduncles. In short, the plant which appears normal

except for the inflorescence, starts producing an almost double peduncle from the

rhizome, which on emergence gives rise to two distinct peduncles in the begin-

ning, one of which ends with the production of three bunches, altogether forming

a four bunched inflorescence with four distinct “hearts ’ producing the enormous

number of nearly seven hundred fruits on the whole.

PROBABLE EXPLANATION OF THE FREAK

Normally a single sucker towards the end of the vegetative period after estab-

lishing a pseudo stem of leaf-sheaths, produces a peduncle which emerges outside

and forms the inflorescence with a vigorously growing ‘ heart’ which develops

into a bunch of fruits. In the double sucker observed by Jacob (5) two small

adjoining sprouts had started growth simultaneously from the under-ground stem.

702 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.) SOCIETY, Vol. 47

The two shoots were enclosed by common leaf-sheaths so much so that they

looked like a single plant till they began to separate. In the banana which Davis

(8) recorded four different peduncles had originated from the under-ground

stem. ‘This may be due to the simultaneous development of four closeby shoots

covered by common leaf-sheaths like the double sucker. However this also

may be due to the early division of the single peduncle in the meristematic stage

as a result of some external injury. Capinpin (9) who records a banana, a

Bongolan variety with two fruit bunches, dissected the plant longitudinally and

after observations reports that ‘the two flower stalks (central fleshy regions) are

placed side by side and may be traced in this fashion downwards to the corm

(root-stalk). Itis probable that the appearance of two distinct vegetative buds

which are somewhat fused in the parent corm are developed into two separate

stalks and then enveloped by the leaf-sheaths of the stem, gives rise to this case

of teratological twinning ’. Parallel to the preceding cases it will appear as though

the present banana is a combination of two shoots. ‘This is not likely the case

here because (1) there is only one peduncle, visible inside the pseudo stem,

though somewhat flattened: (2) even taking for granted that the peduncle is

a combination of two shoots no such explanation is applicable for the further

twice forking of the inflorescence. Probably due to the external stimulations or

disturbances the meristematic tissue of the peduncle in the very young stage

might have been hurt, and as the result of which it might have continued growth

with different bits of growing points (apical meristem). ‘Till the inflorescence has

emerged, the growth in different directions was not possible as the compact

leaf-sheaths do not give room for such lateral growth. As the main peduncle

has emerged it has grown in two directions in the beginning, and one of them

again repeated the phenomenon in three directions according to the position of

the bits of the ruptured meristematic tissue. ‘Thus the single peduncle has

resulted in the formation of four different bunches with four distinct ‘ hearts’.

Local enquiry shows that the plant has received at a certain period severe

shocks due to the falling of coconut fruits and leaves on it during harvest from

the palms which surround the banana plant on all sides, which might have

ruptured the meristematic tissue in the young stage. It may also be reasonble for

one to surmise that the branching of the peduncle may be due to the earlier attack

of certain insect pests, especially the borers. But not even a small trace of such

insect attack is seen in any part of the entire inflorescence or on the plant itself.

Moreover, the branching of the peduncle is so regular (a case of dichotomy, a

phenomenon common among cryptogamic plants) that one can mistake it for the

after-developments due to insect attack. In the case of the fasciated inflores-

cence repoited by Jacob (7) the single peduncle after producing the fruits has

come across with some external injury asa result of which and with the help

of the excess nutrition available it has produced a very irregular and highly

complicated structure with numerous small fruits and a dozen different ‘ hearts’.

The present banana 1s far different from these complications by having a regular

and true dichotomous branching of the first, second and third order.

A peculiarity with the fruits of this abnormal bunch was that all of them

did not look alike. ‘Though they had not matured when the plant was examined,

still the difference was clearly seen from the contrast in sizes. ‘The first nearly

8o fruits of the right peduncle (the one with three branches) and the first seven

‘hands’ of the left peduncle, Plate II, were very big and looked exactly like the

normal Peyan fruits. In between the ‘ hands’ of these regions, normal internodal

spaces were maintained for the proper maturity of the fruits. All the other

fruits from the different bunches remained small (shorter and narrower) and

were very closely packed. More careful examination of the fruits and the young

flowers confirmed that even the smaller fruits were identical with normal Peyan,

though at a casual glance they looked a different variety—Rasthali. Another

peculiarity about this inflorescence was the presence of very short internodes except

between the first few ‘hands’ as mentioned already. ‘This is rather inexplicable.

McWhorter (10) gives an explanation of this dwarfing of the peduncle about

Dr. Mendiola’s banana which had a premature exposure of the inflorescence

caused by an accident. He says that ‘the early exposure to light may be largely

responsible for the changes produced. It is well known that light produces a

marked formative effect on any plant or plant-organ. In general it may be

stated that the longer the exposure to light of a developing organ the shorter the

internodes... . Early exposure of the inflorescence necessitates increased

exposure to light at a time when the organ is in a critical period o1 formation.’

ABNORMAL BANANAS OF TRAVANCORE 703

This can hardly be the possible explanation in the present case, because (1) ins

tead of premature exposure this plant had a very late emergence of inflorescence

(by three to four months) : (2) the plant was unable to get even normal light

since it was growing under a thick coconut plantation: (3) there is inequality

regarding the internodes in the same infloresence. |

Is THE MULTI-BUNCHING CHARACTER A HERITABLE ONE ?

It is pertinent for one to ask whether the daughters of this plant will imitate

the benevolent mother or not. In this connection it is very interesting to see

Mercado and Capinpin’s (4) work. ‘They record the degree of asexual inheri-

tance of the twin character of Cambal Banana. The plant was from Panitan,

Capiz, which had given out a double bunch in a stalk. The clon was then spiit and

ine subelons planted. ‘The following table gives the details of the four matured

subclons.

Production of single, double and triple bunches of ‘Cambal Banana’

No. of Single bunch Double bunch Triple | Total pro-

Clon fruiting bunch | duction

stalks. SHElSS, SUIS, stalks | bunches.

Original clon 2 | I | I ° 3

Sub-clon I 3 air 3

3 2| I i I | ‘ 2

3) 3 2 I I [1 en 3

53 4| 3 I | t | I 6

Total alt II | 6 4 I 17

Since the four subclons from the original plant possessing twin bunch char-

acter, produced triple, double, and single bunches in the following asexual

generations, there is therefore an indication that the twin-character of the

original plant is inherited vegetatively. Neither Jacob (5) and (7), nor Kandar

(6) make any mention about the inheritance of double branching in their obser-

vations. A careful enquiry made about the flowering of the subclons of

the five-bunched banana reported by Davis (8) gives any confirmable results

with that of the Cambal Banana described above. Regarding the present banana,

the author regrets to say that the banana was not available for further personal

studies as it was refused for price. Still instructions were given to the owner to

transplant the subclons carefully and to report the results in due course.

The superstitious people around the locality who find the manifestations of

God everywhere hold this plant in veneration and make offerings for its blessings.

It was a source of attraction for many nature lovers.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The author expresses his sincere thanks to Mr. K. Cherian Jacob, L. Ag.

F.L.S., who was kind enough to go through the manuscript.

REFERENCES

1. Chandrasekaran, S.N. and Sundara Raj, D. Daniel.—1947. ‘ Flowers

with three styles in Musa sapientum. Linn.’ Curr. Sci. 16: 29-30.

2. Cherian Jacob, K.—Monograph on Madras Bananas. (unpublished)

3. Mendiola, N. B.—‘ Effect on banana fruit of premature appearance of

the inflorescence.’ Phillipine Agriculturist, x, 299-300.

4, Mercado, T. and Capinpin, J. M.—1929-30. ‘ Asexual inheritance of

twin. character of banana bunches.’ Phillipine Agriculturist, xvii: 465-73.

* One of the bunches had twin ‘ hearts’.

704 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL. “HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. a7

5. Cherian Jacob, K.—‘ Double Sucker in a Banana.’ (unpublished)

6. Subramania Kander.—1923. ‘Abnormalities in Plantains.’ Mad. Agrl.

Students’ Union: xi: 220.

7. Cherian Jacob, K.—‘A Fasciated Inflorescence in a Banana.’ ourn.,

Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. Decr., 1928.

8. Davis, Trupapur A.—‘ A Five-bunched Inflorescence on a Banana’

Journ., Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. Novr. 1946.

g. Capinpin, J. M.—1926-27. ‘A case of teratological twinning in banana’

Philippine Agriculturist, xv: 167.

10. McWhorter, Frank P.—‘ Note on Effect on Banana fruit of premature

appearance of the inflorescence.’ Phillipine Agriculturist.

ABNORMAL PALMS OF TRAVANCORE

IV. POLYCARPY IN A COCONUT (COCOS NUCIFERA L.)

TRUPAPUR A. Davis

(With 2 plates)

INTRODUCTION

The existence of coconut palms has been recognised from prehistoric times.

India seems to be the original home of the coconut and it has the largest area

under coconuts followed by the Philippine Islands and Ceylon. Nearly ninety

per cent of the coconut area in India is concentrated in South India, and Travan-

core shares a very large percentage in it. In Travancore the area under coco-

nut cultivation and the income derived from it surpass any other crop plant. It is

the pride and wealth of the people. Extensive uses of this distinguished member

of the palm family have been recognised from very early days, and it is no wonder

that in Sanskrit the coconut is called the “ Kalpavriksha ”, the tree which

provides all the necessities of life. As Patel (1) puts it ‘in the domestic

economy of the inhabitants of the tropical countries, every part of the coconut

tree is utilized in some manner or other’. In the following paragraphs the

author describes a coconut fruit with the original three carpels well developed,

each giving rise to a healthy and quite normal-looking seedling which he has

observed in a village near Rajakkamangalam, South Travancore.

DESCRIPTION OF THE ‘‘ SEEDLING ”’

The following detatls regarding coconut fruit as given by Hooker (2),

Gamble (3) and Furtado (4) will be helpful in explaining this following

abnormality.

The female flower of Cocos mucifera L.is usually much larger than the male.

It is ovoid and the perianths are greatly accrescent; sepals imbricate, petals short,

convolute with imbricate tips. The ovary is three-celled, two of which usually

become abortive at an early stage of development, only one attaining maturity.

The fruit consists of a thin outer skin or epicarp, below which is the thick fibrous

mesocarp surrounding the hard shell or the stony layer of the nut. This

shell is formed mainly of endocarp, but the outer integument of the

seed is also represented in it as a lignified inner lining of the shell, (Juliano) (5).

Inside this stony layer is the solid endosperm which is commonly called the

kernel or the ‘meat’. It is lined outside by a thick blackish coating. This

coating which we call testa is derived from the inner integument of the ovule

according to the theory of Juliano. ‘Then comes the cavity partially filled with

water or ‘milk’ in ripe coconuts. Corresponding to the three carpels of the

ovary there are three markings or ‘eyes’ on the endocarp, two of

which become hard, after the degeneration of the two cells of the ovary, while

the third ‘eye’ of the devloped cell remains soft. Just beneath this ‘ eye’ is

the embryo. When the germination sets in, a suctorial organ, haustorium or

PuatE FE

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

. A. Davis

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POLYCARPY IN A COCONUT. 795

‘foot’ develops into the cavity at the end of the cotyledon of the embryo,

which supplies nutriment to the young growing plant by absorbing it from the

endosperm.

Plate I shows an interesting coconut fruit giving rise to three shoots. When

the plant was examined and the photograph taken in January 1947, the plant

was nearly sixteen months old. Along with hundreds of ripe nuts this fruit was

also planted for germination. Assoonas it sprouted, the owner, Sri Vairavanatha

Nadar of Kannakurichi was able to observe the peculiarity of three healthy and

normal looking shoots coming from one and the same fruit. After nearly ten

months, this seedling was transplanted near the owner’s house on an open

area supplying all the requirements for the tender plant. Enquiry reveals that

all the sprouts of this nut emerged almost simultaneously. The three shoots

appear to stand almost ina line, Plate I]. But this is strictly not the case at the

place from where they start growt th. In order to verify whether each shoot

arises from a separate ‘eye ’ or all from one ‘ eye’ or whether the shoots are due

to a very early branching as in suckering palms, the fruit was partly de-husked.

Since the husk at that time was in a rotting condition it was possible to remove

some portions of the fibrous layer with the hand up to the ‘eye’. Plate Il

shows one such cavity made just at the very foot of one sprout. From the same

plate we can see one ‘eye’ and the shoot coming from it since the whole husk

above that ‘eye’ is removed. Similarly, the other two ‘eyes’ were examined

and it was found that all the three ‘eyes’ were quite fertile each giving rise

toa shoot. The shoots formed a triangle between them towards the she!l though

they stand almost in a straight line after emerging from the husk. Unfortunately

the coconut was refused for price or favour and hence the inner details of the

fruit could not be studied. When the plant was examined, five leaves were

seen on each seedJing and they showed a uniform height of nearly five feet.

The growth of the sprouts from the young stage and the size and appearance

of the individual seedlings are identical with a normal seedling. The plaited

condition of the leaves was just beginning to disappear, since they began

producing free leaflets. Periodical observations can be had from the particular

palm since it is planted well to see the later developments.

The ovary of the Cocos nucifera is three celled, two of which usually become

abortive, at an early stage of development, only one attaining maturity. Thus

a normal nut is having only one chamber and only one embryo situated just

beneath the soft ‘eye’. The other two blind ‘eyes’ which represent the two

aborted carpels, are very hard and do not possess any embryo. In rare cases

two ‘eyes’ remain fertile, each representing a developed carpel. Jacob (6)

describes a bi-cellular coconut thus “In this there are within the single outer

covering two chambers separated by a thick septum of endocarp. Each of these

chambers has its own endosperm and embryo. Of the three ‘eyes’ on the

endocarp, the two corresponding to the fully developed cells are large and soft,

while the third corresponding to the undeveloped cell is small and hard. If this

coconut had been planted, two seedlings would have been produced.”’ At the

Agricultural Research Station, Kasargod, there are two trees developed from a

single nut. ‘Uhese are about thirty years ‘old and are bearing normally. Furtado

(4) mentions about a coconut palm which, has three distinct individual stems

from the base. It is said that the three stems have originated from one coconut

fruit planted in 1901. Only two stems were bearing while the third remained

barren. ‘There was another similar palm with three stems in the Botanical

Gardens, Cooly Lines, Penang, which have also originated from one coconut

fruit. Ina private compound at Burma Road, Pulan 'Tikus, Penang, there is an

old tree which has two stems, distinct from base. Both are fruiting. Quisumbing

(7) has seen in the Carnival held in Manila in 1926 two seedlings of coconut

exhibited by the Province of Palwan. ‘The first seedling had two shoots and the

second three shoots. [The author hesitates to assign all these cases to polycarpy

since they may also be due to (1) polyembryony and (2) premature branching of

the single shoot.

POLYEMBRYONY AND POLYCARPY IN COCONUT FRUITS

Polyembryony is the development of more than one embryo from one ovule.

It does occur in coconuts beyond doubt. Furtado (4) describes a few cases of

poly embryony. ‘There was exhibited in 1925 at the Taiping Agricultural Show

a germinating coconut from Pampong Jelutong, North Perak, which had put forth

three shoots. The coconut was carefully husked to find the three shoots as

706: JOURNAL, BOMBAVAINATU RAE Hisd ss" SO Clb dl Vou aVolaaay,

distinct individuals as faras the soft ‘eye’ through which they had extruded

from the endocarp. ‘The two other ‘ eyes’ were closed and as hard as in ordi-

nary nut where two carpels are abortive. On breaking the nut open it was

observed that each shoot had its origin in a separate embryo, each having a

cotyledon and a haustorium ofits own. ‘There was only one cavity in the endo-

sperm into which these three haustoria had developed, and there were neither

hard nor leathery dissepiments in it which are said to be present in a poly-

cellular nut. ‘Che kernel inside also showed no signs of any special connection

with the closed ‘ eyes’ as it showed with the soft ‘eye’. This is a genuine

case of polyembryony in coconuts. Furtado has also examined such specimens

having two or three embryos from Singapore, Pennang and Malacca which go to

prove that polyembryony does frequently occur. ‘These shoots may emerge out

of the husk in all directions and often in such wise as to mislead one to think

that these extra shoots are due to the functioning of more than one ovule.

Costerus and Smith, quoted by Furtado, describe a case of polyembryony

thus—‘‘ The coconut is one which had given rise to three sprouts and which, on

being carefully opened had not shown any dissepiment whatsoever. Only one

germinating plant forcing its way through one of the black spots was to be seen,

but the stem of this young plant showed a separation into three.” However,

the present ‘‘seedling’’ which is being described is neither a case of polyembryony

nor of premature branching, since the three shoots develop, one from each

of the ‘ eyes’ which are fertile (Soft & broad). It is expected to have three

cells inside the nut each representing a developed carpel which must be the

natural condition. ‘Thus it is a case of polycarpy and not polyembryony. In

this connection it is interesting to know that some abnormal coconuts with more

than three cells are recorded, the exact cause of which is not known. Forbes,

quoted by Furtado (8) has seen nuts with cells ranging from four to eight and

ten. He made a sketch of a tree which had come up from a nut of fourteen cells,

all of which had germinated, producing a tree with fourteen stems united at

the base. If Forbes’s conclusions as to the occurrence of more than three cells

in a nut are correct, then the phenomenon concerned might be a case of vegeta-

tive multiplication of carpels. If, on the other hand, his conclusions were based

merely on the number of shoots that appeared on germination of a nut, then three

alternatives are possible :—(1) that the numerous shoots are due either to the

occurrence of polyembryony : or (2) to the fasciation of the plumule, or (3) to

the monopodial branching with very much abbreviated axis.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The author’s thanks are due to Mr. C. M. John, B.a., the Oil-seeds Spe-

cialist, Agricultural College and Research Institute, Coimbatore, for his valuable

suggestions in the preparation of this note.

REFERENCES

1.. Patel, J. Si.—The Coconut, a Monograph. 1938.

2. Hooker.—Flora of British India, Vol. V, p. 482.

3. Gamble, J. S.—Flora of the Presidency of Madras, Part ix, p. 1556.

4. Furtado, C. X.—‘“‘ Abnormalities in Coconut Palms.’ Gdas. Bull. iv,

pp. 78-84; 1926-29.

Juliano, Jose B.—“ Origin, development and nature of the stony layer of

the coconut (Cocos nucifera Linn.).” Phil. Agri., Vol. 30; pp. 187-200: 1926.

6. Cherian Jacob, K.—‘‘A Bi-cellular Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.)’’ Fourn.,

Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., August, 1940.

7. Quisumbing, E.—‘‘ Branching in coconut.” Phil. Agri. xv, pp. 3-113

1926-27.

8. Furtado, C. X.-—‘“‘ Branched coconut palms and their fertility.” Gdns.

Bull, Vol. III, pp. 274-76.

THE USE OF THE BARK OF STRYCHNOS NUXVOMICA ;

LINN., IN POISONING A CROCODILE

A. R. K. ZoBAIRI

(Communicated by Lt. Col. E. G. Phythian-Adams, I. A. (Retd.) )

There is no gainsaying the fact that the extermination of enemies

of fish especially from fish sanctuaries should be the chief concern of

those interested in fish and fish culture. Of all the several animals

that prey upon fish the crocodile is indisputably the largest and the

most difficult to reckon with.

The crocodile though not entirely a piscivorous creature appears

to show a predilection towards this diet when it is available in suffi-

cient quantity and therefore it becomes a permanent resident in stret-

ches of water where fish abound causing incredible damage to the

fisheries. In the Cauvery River, for instance, large congregations of

fish occur below the Hogainkal Falls about 30 miles up from the

Mettur Dam, which happens to be an insurmountable barrier for the

migrating fish during most of the year excepting when the river isin

spate. Fishconservancy laws are enforced here prohibiting all types

of fishing for about 2 miles down the river. This region has unhappily

become the abode of the Mugger. Large numbers of these beasts

are seen here anytime of the day lazily swimming in the river or

basking on rocks or banks with appalling unconcern. ‘The periodic

hunting expeditions of shikaris interested in crocodile shooting to

this place do not appear to have helped much in eradicating this

leviathan pest from one of our most important fish sanctuaries.

These crocodiles seem to subsist mainly on fish like large catla,

cat fish and other carp which swarm in this region in countless

numbers. ‘They frequently migrate down as far as the Mettur Dam,

so much so, that the entire Stanley Reservoir could be said to be

infested with these reptiles. Even below the dam one Is apt to see

them anywhere in the river, predating on fish which migrate

upstream in dense shoals only to stagnate in the face of the dam.

People of these neighbourhoods are therefore encouraged by the

Department of Fisheries to annihilate the monsters by offering

rewards for every crocodile killed.

There are two popular ways by which the crocodile is generally

done away with in the Stanley Reservoir and in the Cauvery River

below the Mettur Dam. ‘These are: (i) hooking and (ii) poisoning.

Shooting is of course indulged in as sport by an interested few. In

the present article the material and method employed in poisoning

Mugger is discussed, which being the most effective and easy way

of decimating this enemy of fish it is felt may be of interest to those

faced with this problem elsewhere.

MATERIAL EMPLOYED

The material that is used as poison is the bark of Strychnos

Nuxvomica Linn. (Tamil: Yett7, Yettimaram or Yettikottat; Telugu:

=o8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Mushti, Musidi, Induppu; Kanarese: Kasaraka, Kujarra, Khasca,

Kasaragadde, Mushti; Hindi: kuchla, Kajra, Nirrual, Chilibinge,

Bailwa.)

This is a tree found throughout tropical India upto an altitude of

about 4,000 feet, common in Madras Presidency, attaining a height

from 35 to 50 feet. It can easily be identified by its ovate, five-

nerved, glabrous leaves (3$” x 2”), yellow berries 14” in diameter

with one or more seeds, 7/8th inch to one inch diameter and 1”

thick. Seeds are flatish concavo-convex, rounded at the margin,

marked on one side by a central scar whence a projecting line

passes to the margin ending in aslight prominence. Externally

they are of an ash-gray colour glistening with satiny hairs,

internaliy horny somewhat transluscent without any odour but with

an extremely bitter taste.

The Nuxvomica tree is of great economic value mainly for its

seeds which are put to diverse medicinal uses all over the world.

They are exported from India to the United Kingdom in large

quantities annually for the manufacture of strychnia chiefly used for

the preparation of nervine tonics.

In India itself the seeds in different combinations are used as a

medicine for dyspepsia and diseases of the nervous system. On the

Malabar coast the root is given in cases of snake bite. In Konkan small

doses of the seeds are given in colic combined with aromatics, and

the juice of the fresh wood is given in doses of a fewdrons in cholera

and acute dysentery. The oil trom fresh seeds is used as an external

application in chronic rheumatism. Nuxvomica seeds produce a sort

of intoxication for which they are habitually taken by some as an

aphrodisiac. ‘The seeds of Nuxvomica which contain 0:2 to 0:5 per

cent strychnine and 0-12 to 1 per cent brucine are commonly used as

fish poison. These are pounded and thrown in water when all the

fish come up to the surface in a state of intoxication. ‘The leaves of

the plant broadcast in water produce the same effect on fish life.

In European medicine it was first known about the middle of the

16th century when the chief use of its seeds was for poisoning cats,

dogs, crows and ravens.

METHOD OF POISONING A CROCODILE

Advantage is taken of the fact that a crocodile as a rule prefers

decomposed meat, specially fish, to fresh. It is known to be

attracted from long distances by tne stench of putrified fish.

Chippings of the bark of Nuxvomica are pulverised by pounding,

care being taken to tie a piece of cloth round the mouth and nose

to prevent the dust from getting in as it is supposed to be very

poisonous even if inhaled. About 8 ounces of this powder are

stuffed into a fish, preferably a carp weighing about 14 to 2 pounds

which has been gutted by making a small incision in its belly. The

slit is sutured up and the fish kept on the bank or on some rock

above water in such a way that the poison does not trickle out and

foul the water. ‘This is done some time after dusk to prevent

other animals from devouring it and coming to grief. The crocodile

attracted by the taint of the dead fish, which does not take long

to putrefy makes straight for it and swallows it. It dies during

POISONING CROCODILE WITH NUXVOMICA BARK 709

the course of the same night and its carcase is usually found floating

somewhere near about the next morning.

Seven crocodiles were bagged in this fashion during the course

of three months in the Stanley Reservoir. All these had died so

instantaneously, that the fish stuffed with the poison was found

intact inside their stomachs; the little amount of the Nuxvomica bark

powder that may have oozed out in solution through the stitches

having done its work.

The advantages of this method of killing a crocodile over either

hooking or shooting it are: (i) the animal dies and floats up quickly

so that the carcase is available for skinning before any decomposition

has set in, (il) the method involves practically no expense save the

cost of one fish which is low enough, (iii) it needs no elaborate

arrangements and no labour, (iv) it is infallible. A crocodile dives

deep down the first thing it is shot and expires under water if the

shot has been well aimed. Usually it will be days, perhaps weeks

before its carcase comes up, by which time decomposition wili have

affected even its hide and ruined it as a trophy. It is a different

matter if the crocodile has been shot when it is well up on land or the

shot so lethal that it anchors the animal to tie spot and gives it no

chance to get away into distant depths. Such opportunities are of

course always rare.

If a crocodile is to be baited and hooked, apart from this method

involving the element of chance, the bait has often to be replenished

more than once before the animal actually gets hooked, for, it generally

manages to make off with the bait without touching the hook. The

bait which is either a large dead fowl, a lamb or the entrails of

shieep, becomes a comparatively expensive proposition if it has to be

repeated a number of times for the same crocodile.

There is only one precaution that has to be taken if the crocodile

has been killed by poisoning ; its meat should be buried deep down

or destroyed in some other way and people should not be allowed to

consume it in any form. Usually when the news goes round thata

crocodile has been killed peopie flock immediately and virtually pick

the bones oi all flesh which they preserve by converting it into fillets

and sun drying. ‘This dried meat is used as a.remedy for whooping

cough in children. A small bit of it is made into athin soup and

administered. Some people soak this dried meat in brandy and

drink the liquor in cases of asthma.- The meat of a poisoned crocodile

appears to be dangerous to all life. A healthy pariah dog that was

‘inadvertantly allowed to eat a small bit died within four hours of

taking it with pitiable convulsions and in excruciating agony.

KEFERENCES

1.—Watt George—Dictionary of Economic Products of India, Vol. VI, Part

IIL (1893).

2,—Bailey, L. H.—Standard Cyclopaedia of Horticulture (1919).

REVIEWS

1. THE MAN-EATING LEOPARD OF RUDRAPRAYAG. By Jim Cor-

bett. Pp. 157, Frontispiece+1o black and white photo illustrations. Front and

a OR Seas maps. Size 9”xX6”. Oxford University Press (Indian Branch),

rice Rs. 6.

This account of hunting the dreaded Man-eating Leopard of Rudraprayag

to a finish is a real-life thriller which will be eagerly read by a wide public in

many countries. Especially will it be valued by those who possess the ‘Man-

eaters of Kumaon’ which was reviewed in Vol. 45 of the Society’s Journal.

It is a shikar thriller which invites the reader to a full exercise of his

imagination. He can picture to himself the wildly beautiful mountain and

forest scenery; the pleasing, hardy hill folk; the rushing ice-cold waters of

the two famous rivers; the long years of nightly terror brooding over the

land; the stark realities of the many killings and the lamentations of the

bereaved people. And those who know the rugged, mountainous country of

Garhwal will vividly appreciate the difficulties of terrain with which Jim Corbett

had to contend,

The reader is given an interesting description of the famous pilgrim route

from Hardwar to Badrinath, which winds through the wayside hamlet of

Golabrai to pass beneath the mango tree (shown in the photograph at page 145)

where the final scene was enacted on the night of 1st May 1926.

The end map indicates’ the country comprising some 500 square miles in

which more than 125 killings took place during the years 1918 to 1926. ‘When

night came an ominous silence brooded over the whole area—no movement and

no sound anywhere. No curfew has ever been more strictly enforced, and

more implicitly obeyed than the curfew impossed by the Man-eating Leopard

of Rudraprayag.’

The author first had news of this leopard in April 1925 and went to

Rudraprayag. All methods known to him, and others devised during the first

ten weeks of his first hunt for the animal, were tried by himself when alone,

and jointly with his friend Mr. Ibbotson (the then Deputy Commissioner) when

they were together. There were failures due to various causes, and_ bitter

disappointments. In the years 1925/26, the author mentions, that the use

of the electric torch for night shooting had not become very widely known.

But some shikari readers will recall that good torches were available early

in 1925 and be thinking that Corbett could have given more thought to the

imperative need for aid to night shooting for his purpose, and devised, as

some did about that time, the use of a cycle lamp with 3.8 watt bulb, operated

by a push button on his rifle, or in some other handy position. The incident

at the walnut tree at pages 36/39 isan instance of when the use of such a

lamp fixed high up in the tree would have insured success.

Poisoning of kills with cyanide, also with strychnine, was tried without:

success. In 1923 the well known and authoritative book, Wild Animals in Central

India by Dunbar Brander, was published and reviewed in the Society’s Journal

the following year (Vol. 29). At pages 41 and 42 of that book correct methods

for the successful use of strychnine for poisoning ‘kills’ are described. The

strength of the emulsion is not there given but it is important. Eleven grains

to the pint of water is the correct dilution. It is a pity this formula was

not known to the District Officers issuing poison to the village officials at

that time, nor to the author. Many lives would have been saved. All sports-

men will be of one mind with Corbett at page 28, ‘Truth to tell I hated the

very thought of using poison then, and I hate it no less now.’ All recognise

that: but its use in such cases is justified when other methods fail.

The use of a powerful steel gin-trap almost succeeded. The happening re-

iated at page 52 confirms the invariable habit of your reviewer never on any

account to have a companion on such vigils. One knows one’s own capacity

but not that of another, whoever he may be.

REVIEWS UI

A\t page 27 is described a method used by many villagers to kill leopards

for profit. It is the insertion of a small’ and very highly explosive bomb in the

flesh of an animal killed by a leopard. ‘Many villagers have learnt how to

make these bombs, and when one of them comes in contact with the leopard’s

teeth, it explodes and blows the leopard’s jaws off’, but it is not necessarily fatal

at the time. Needless to say that Jim Corbett did not for a moment consider

this way of dealing with the man-eater, and it is to be hoped it will not become

known in other parts of this country. It has never before been heard of by

your reviewer. Doubtless the Society will report this malpractice to the proper

quarters.

After ten exhausting weeks a rest was necessary, so the author left the

scene in the autumn to return in the spring of 1926. The ‘Fishing Interlude’

will be enjoyed by readers, and those who are keen anglers will be interested

to know that the Gohna Lake is now one of the best trout fishing areas in

India.

At one time when convinced that the leopard was south of the Alaknanda,

it occurred to Corbett that it might be advisable to close the two bridges and

so very greatly narrow down the field of its operations. That very sound move

was the cause of eventual success when the scales of fortune were so evenly

balanced on the night of rst May that it was a mere fraction of time after the

fatal bullet had sped that the bulb gave out!

Some of the author’s observations are useful to sportsmen. He rightly

stresses the many failures which happen through wrong estimation of the

intelligence of the larger carnivora and their superhuman senses of sight and

hearing. The aid of birds and lesser beasts in affording valuable information

is also demonstrated. In the Society’s Journal is an excellent article by

Colonel Loogood (Vol. 38, p. 814) on sound listening for the purpose of locating

a tiger.

The author stresses several times that the leopard ‘has no sense of smell’.

That is a rather dogmatic assertion. All cats have a sense of smell which

is more developed in some than in others. The domestic cat has a good nose,

and the civet cat can run a trail as well as a dog (Stuart Baker, Vol. 27,

p- 117). A panther climbed to an empty machan where the body of a dog

it had killed had been removed to be out of his ken (Vol. 28, p. 789.). Your

reviewer has seen a panther come trotting through the open teak forest having

evidently scented the tiger’s kill of which he could have had no _ previous

knowledge, and has made other observations which show that panthers can,

and on occasion, do use their noses. Dunbar Brander writes on p, 135 of his

book, ‘The leopard’s sense of smell is poor, but better than the tiger’s, and

I have seen them using their noses.” It was probably due to his sense of

smell that the leopard selected the Garhwal woman thought to be protected by

the store-room at her back and several rows of plains pilgrims sleeping between

her and the front of the shed (p. 142).

‘When a leopard or tiger (p. 139). is walking at its normal pace only the

imprints of the hind feet are seen. ...’ ‘This is not altogether correct. Such

generalities or positive statements are not safe. It is a proved fact that some-

times a tiger will leave a single track and sometimes a double track. As to

leopards, these animals like the tiger usually leave a double track with the

hind foot leading. So says F. W. Champion in his carefully tabulated article

at pages 284/287. Vol. 33, with which are clear photographic plates showing

double track of tiger, single track of tiger, and typical double track of leopard.

At page 972 of Vol. 33 Dunbar Brander writes with reference to Champion’s

article. ‘In my opinion, the normal action of a tiger walking is exactly as

Mr. Champion describes . . . . the hind foot oversteps the position of the

forefoot.’ Readers interested should see the references here quoted.

The tale is clearly and simply related. The book is well bound and printed,

Some readers would have liked the numbering of the chapters to be in Roman

numerals, or in words, and not in ordinary numbers as for the pages.

The author has once again earned the gratitude of the hill people, and of

the public for this thrilling tale. His closing paragraph praises the ‘big-hearted

sons of the soil, no matter what their caste or creed, who will one day weld

the contending factions into a composite whole, and make of India a great

nation. ’-

R. W. B.

712 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL, HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. a7

2. TREES, OF INDIA. By Charles McCann. Pp. 141, 78 coloured

plates, 17 text figures. Size 5”°x7”. Bombay 1947: D. B. Taraporevala

Sons, .& @o.. Price; Rs. 13.

This book has been a real pleasure to read particularly because the author

is a very thorough and born naturalist and zoologist in addition to his specialised

work in the field of Botany. I have had the pleasure of ‘Charles’s’ company

on many of my entomological collecting expeditions in the past when his amaz-

ing knowledge and sure sense of direction in the jungles have proved of the great-

est assistance and contributed in no small measure to the success of those ettorts.

It is therefore small wonder that he chose to set out in his usual exemplary

manner his beloved trees and 1 suggest that the book will be of the greatest

help to the student particularly because of the specialised, yet simplified arrange-

ment of the wealth of information contained.

The preface is interesting and I hope any future translations will follow

the author’s request for nomenclature; however I feel that the colour repro-

ductions fall short of the author’s personal handiwork which I had the pleasure

of viewing on several occasions before the book approached publication, possibly

as a result of shortage of correct materials due to post-war conditions.

Pages 11 to 54 contain very useful information of a general character and

of decided value to the student.

I consider the arrangement and information. given of each tree described

typical of the author’s high standard of work making a most useful reference

book and worthy of a place in everyone’s library.

Verde aX

The following beoks have been added to the Society’s Library *:—

1. TREES OF CALCUTTA AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD. By A.

P. Benthall (Thacker Spink & Co. Ltd., Calcutta, 1946).

2. INSECTS AND HUMAN WELFARE. By Charles T. Brues (Harvard

University Press, 1947).

3. THE COMMON BIRDS OF INDIA. By Eha (Thacker & Co. Ltd.,

——3rd edition, 1947).

4. INSECT NATURAL HISTORY. BygyAseeDaielmms yA, BSc:

F.R.S., (Collins, St. James’s Place, London, 1947).

5. BRITISH SEA BIRDS. By C. A, Gibson-Hill (H.F.& G. Witherby

Ltd., 5, Warwick Court, London, W.C. 1).

6. THE BOOK OF INDIAN ANIMALS—iInDIAN NATURAL HISTORY SERIES

voL. u. By S. H. Prater (Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay,

1948).

7. PRE-HISTORIC LIFE. By Percy E. Raymond (Harvard University

Press, Cambridge, 1947).

8.( A: HISTORY),OF |, FISHES. , By.,J.. R.. Norman; F.L.S., .F.Z.5.,

(Ernest Benn Ltd., London, 1947).

9. ECOLOGICAL CROP GEOGRAPHY. By }K., How opWlagess (ihe

Macmillan Company, 1942).

10. FOUNDATIONS OF PLANT GEOGRAPHY. By Stanley A. Cain

(Harper & Brothers, New York and London, 1944).

11. LIVING LIGHT. By E. Newton Harvey (Oxford University Press,

1940).

12, THE OCEANS. By H. W. Sverdrup, Martin W. Johnson and Richard

H. Fleming (Prentice Hall, Inc., New York, 1942).

13. MITOSIS. By Franz Schrader (Columbia University Press, Morning-

side Heights, New York, 1946).

1% THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY—sompay CITIZENSHIP SERIES. By Salim

Ali (National Information & Publications Ltd., Bombay, 1948).

15. THE BIRDS OF BURMA—surMA PAMPHLETS No. 11. By B. E.

Smythies (Longmans, Green & Co,, 1948).

16. THE BIRDS OF NORTHERN THAILAND. "By H. G. Deignan

(Smithsonian Institution, United States National Museum, 1945).

17 THE MAN-EATING LEOPARD OF IRRUDRAPRAYAG. By Jim

Corbett (Oxford University Press, 1948).

A Ot A CCC CCGA E EY et TC A nnn ppm eeeee

9 a er

* No. 5 by courtesy of the author, Nos. 9-13 inclusive that of the American

Library Association, and No. 16, of the Seriieomen Institution, Washington.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.

1.—A MAN-EATING TIGER OF THE KOLLEGAL DISTRICT,

SOUTH INDIA.

On this occasion—August 1947—I failed to kill the tiger, but

can say with certainty that his dentition is much the same as that

of the Nelliampathies animal over two hundred miles further south

(Vol. 47, p.148). There was every expectation that the S.W.

Monsoon would as usual give little rain to the Minniam valley, which

is protected by the Biligirirangan Hills as is the Bhavani valley by

the Nilgiris. Most unfortunately this was an unusually heavy mon-

soon and that saved the tiger.

There are five or more tigers in the valley and the surrounding

hills but there was no useful information, sex or anything else, as

to identity of the beast which had killed two herdsmen in January

1946, another man in April and a woman on 3rd July.

_ Having pitched camp near Minniam village and _ obtained

two cows (people in South India raise no objection to use of cattle

as ‘baits’ and readily supply old and useless dry cows—at a price !)

one was picketted 2 miles south and the other 4 miles east. Tigers

and panthers of the area seem to slay about four animals a week—

they did during my stay, and as the herdsmen at once raise a

tremendous uproar to drive the beast away, and the chamars and

other harijans—there are 30 houses of these in Minniam village—

skin the slain cattle and cut up the carcases, the tigers know there

will be nothing left and have acquired the habit of not returning to

such ‘kills’.

This I discovered after a fruitless all-night vigil over a lovely

young snow-white cow slain about mid-day on the 2nd August. On

the night of 3rd the east bait was taken by a panther which I failed

to slay owing mostly to a great thunderstorm early in the evening—

the precursor of a number of such, which soaked me through and

through. Fortunately the weather was warm (valley elevation

1900 ft.) and all of my clothing, also the blanket draped over me

was of wool. Why I did not get the shot I should have had would

take too much space. We must get to the tiger.

The place for the south cow was selected after arrival in camp

on 30th July because of fresh tracks of a tiger and tigress in bed of

the ravine, a good approach to tree selected for machan chair, and

a convenient root for the tethering wire rope: also there was water

for the poor cow. Having got out of wet clothes on the morning

of 5th August a visit to the ancient cow showed that a male tiger

had passed up the ravine early in the day within twelve feet of the

bait without molesting it. Experience taught the tiger would re-

turn that night or the next and take the offered dinner. He was

evidently a wary animal, similar to a number of others like him

which I have defeated from time to time, and some others which

have defeated me.

714 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

That night I could not be in the machan, which had been fully

prepared since 30th July, as all my kit had to be dried. Next

morning it was found the tiger had not returned. Now it was cer-

tain he would return this night—the night of the 6th.

It was not known if he was the wanted animal, and as an

immense storm gathered at the head of the valley and | felt certain

of a shot on the following night should he kill the cow, I didnot

occupy the machan. Apher over-confidence and the seeming cer-

tainty of a tremendous delupe saved the tiger. Alas! the storm

miraculously worked away to the west and gave but little rain

to. that valley and ravine. In the morning—7th—it was found

that the tiger had attacked the poor cow and neon unable to kill

it. Marks on the neck showed want of effective canine teeth, and

claws were evidently none too good. The cow’s off stifle had been

munched and the skin broken, but the flesh only gnawed and _ not

eaten. Return of the tiger seemed a certainty ; hope was high and

there would be no rain.

Before 3.45 p.m. all was quiet. At 5 o’clock a tremendous roar

a long hundred yards down the ravine was followed at intervals by

other similar loud, angry demonstrations five or six times repeated

up to six o’clock ahaa a last one of less volume from a slightly altered

direction; and then complete silence. I have known tigers return-

ing to ‘kills’ growl and grumble, but never experienced such a

noisy animal as this. It was suspected in the morning that he was

not far away and maybe knew that men had looked at the cow,

also, perhaps he may have heard me getting up the rope ladder and

settling into the machan; and he may have got my wind as the

slight air movement down the ravine was in his favour. Anyhow

he was not behaving in a normal way: perhaps he was following

his experience with timid herdsmen. The one unavoidable defect

of this selected place was that it was possible for the tiger to be

within hearing distance of it.

All previous tracks had been along the other, the right side

of the ravine bed. Now, just after dark, I thought 1 heard a slight

click. of a stone on my side. Nothing further dtersines the night at

no approach to the cow.

In the morning it was found the tiger had come up the left

side and had actually stood almost beneath my machan on a small

patch of sand. Why he did not go the further thirty feet to the

cow will never be known. May be he saw the cow to be alive and

knew he could not kill it; previously he had not shied off taint of

men in the nala; the machan was well screened and high up; I

was quite silent and had not eaten for fear of any slight sounds

reaching microphone ears. Padded chair arms, padded foot rest

and shooting bar, all clothes of wool; he could not have detected

my presence, and had he done so would not have ventured beneath

me.

I entirely removed the machan and placed it in a more distant

tree but on nights of 8th and oth he did not return. The cow was

still alive. On the roth news came of a cow in grazing herd killed

two miles further up the ravine. This was the work “Of a normal

tiger and I had another fruitless vigil. Two days later severe

conjunctivitis in the right eye and increasingly bad weather decided

MISCELLANEOUS: NOTES 715

me to break camp and own defeat on this occasion both as to the

tiger and a rogue elephant 12 miles to the west. Just as well,

for the infection passed with doubled force to the other eye and

heavy rain storms were almost incessant.

It was a great disappointment as I had hoped to view this

beast’s skull on my then closely approaching 7oth birthday. Per-

haps I may have him during the next few months if he still lives.

Tigers take to killing of human beings for several reasons or

causes, one of which is approaching old age and defective teeth.

But it is curious that in both these instances the killings were so

few and so widely spaced. And why should teeth of only one

tiger in the area be so defective? Want of calcium? If that was

the cause, it would affect other tigers also. Perhaps it does, but

the animals killing cattle showed no sign of bad teeth.

It is a great pity the skull of the Nelliampathies tiger was

lost in transit to Bombay at the end of March as expert exami-

nation of the skull would have afforded interesting information.

BANGALORE. R. W. BURTON,

December 24, 1947. Lt.-Col., Indian Army (Retd.).

2.—ABNORMAL CLAVICLE BONES IN TIGERS

(With text figures)

I enclose exact size sketches of a pair of clavicles removed

froma o/-2" tiger shot by myself here on April 22nd. Note the

(Actual size)

malformed one, which bears obvious signs of a previous fracture

at the point marked with a dotted line.

HONNAMETTI ESTATE,

ATTIKAN P.O., R. C. MORRIS

vid Mysore (S. INp1A).

May 4, 1948.

716 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

pMre @: Hinchcliffe of Cachar has also just written us that he

shot an old tigress on 25 May 1947 near Kukicherra Tea Estate

(Kukichara P.O.) which had four clavicle bones—two in each

shoulder. The exact size of the clavicles in each shoulder is seen

(Actual size)

i his sketch. As far as we know this is a unique occurrence.

Certainly there has been no instance reported in the Journal during

the 65 years of its existence.

In some of the Carnivora such as the Seals (Pinnipedia) the

clavicles or collar-bones are absent. They are also absent in most

of the Bears. Where present they vary considerably in their de-

velopment; in the Felidae they are slender and curved, being longer

than in any other members of the Order. Whatever. their shape

or size they are always rudimentary and suspended in the muscles.

Thus they do not, as in Man, function as a connection between the

shoulder-blade and the breast-bone forming an integral part of the

skeletal frame. Not being subjected to the normal strains and

stresses of physical activity it seems difficult to understand how a

fracture could have been caused as suggested by Mr. Morris.

Possibly the malformation was congenital?

For a previous note on ‘Abnormal clavicle bones of a tiger’

(exceptionally massive and curved) and photo, see vol. xxx,

p. 910.—Eps. |

3.--ON THE ‘THORN’ OR ‘CLAW’ IN PANTHERS’ TAILS

(With a photo)

I am posting to you a ‘claw’ I found at the end of the tail of

a large panther (7’ 2”—male) shot by a lady, not far from Khandala,

last night.

I send it because I have read of it existing in only, seemingly,

the tail of the lion. I have noticed this ‘claw’—though in a much

smaller and modified form—in several, if not all, of the few

panthers I have shot in far apart places in India (hills and plains).

In these it was palpable on the outside as the tip of a blunt ‘thorn,’

and visible as a bare, horny, protuberance, about the size of a

pellet of No. 2 shot. At the end of the skinned tail it looked like

a short spicule of bone; but, as far as I can remember, had not

the curvature of a claw—in fact, I think that in some of the pan-

thers I did not bother to dissect it out with the rest of the

tail, owing to the smallness of this bone.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 717

Of the three other persons watching the skinning of. this

particular panther, two had shot a very large number during the

past 25 years and the third had shot many, but none of them

had ever noticed any peculiarity in the tip of any panther’s tail.

Indeed, though the skinned tail had lain exposed under their eyes

for a long time, none had observed its conspicuous ‘claw’ and

were surprised to see it when indicated—I had assumed that thev

had seen it, so only casually commented on its size.

X-ray photograph of “thorns ”’

You will observe that, excluding the kinked portion, the ‘claw’

is about $ inch long; also that the whole has almost a right-angled

kink—I don’t know whether this is unusual, but to me it is.

Another heavy male panther (not measured, but probably 7 ft.

between pegs) was shot a few days ago and I have removed the

‘claw’. This, however, has not the double kink of the specimen I

previously sent you; and the terminal bone has only a very slight

curvature, though about the same length as the other—that is,

it is similar in form to those I had found in panthers shot by myself.

If this specimen is likely to be of any interest, for comparison,

I shall be glad to post it to you.

Incidentally, I remember that my attention was first drawn,

many years ago, to this feature by the slight bottle-brush ap-

pearance it gave to the arrangement of the hairs at the tip of the

tail. I thus found that a small horny point (I used then to call it a

‘thorn’) projecting from the tip was responsible for the hairs not

growing together there to form a taper, as they do in a dog’s tail

for instance.

IoNA VILLA,

KHanpDALa (Poona Drtst.). K. BOSWELL

January 13, 1948.

718 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 47

| There appears to be no reference to a ‘thorn’ at the end of a

panther’s tail in the literature available to us. Col. R. W. Burton

to whom Capt. Boswell’s original specimen was sent commented

as follows: ‘I have personally shot and skinned about 48 panthers

in many parts of India and have often noticed kinks at end of tails

which were evidently dislocations, probably occasioned in early

life when the bones were soft. “The specimen now before me shows

similar dislocation—the right angle bend, and the second bend

where the ‘thorn’ commences: two dislocations. I think the ‘thorn’

consists of 2 vertebrae, the pointed one having for some reason

assumed the point we see. If the specimen were to be X-rayed

perhaps the ‘thorn’ would be shown to be in two parts as I con-

jECtuinemenise.

Following up Col. Burton’s suggestion we had the specimens

X-rayed in London through the good offices of Mr. N. B. Kinnear,

the Director of the British Museum (Natural History). Dr. Fraser

in charge of the Museum’s osteological collections who took the

X-ray photograph remarks: ‘The photograph shows that the simi-

larity to a hook is caused by the dislocation of the terminal verte-

bral elements. In the larger specimen there is a double dislocation

and in the smaller a single one. It is easy to see how with joints

suitably dislocated the simulacrum of a hook could be produced’.

It therefore seems established that the curious ‘thorn’ is the

result of dislocations of the terminal vertebrae. There now remains

to account for the why and how, since the mutilation seems to be

by no means uncommon. It may be the outcome of the playfulness

cf panther cubs biting each other’s tails. But are panther cubs

more addicted to this sort of horseplay than tiger cubs? This con-

dition has apparently not been observed in the tiger.—Eps. |

4.—INTERESTING SHIKAR TROPHIES: HUNTING

CHEETAH jACINONYX, JUBATUS (SCHREBER).

(With a photo)

The Private. Secretary: to,H.H, the Ruler, Koréa State, E.S.A,,

writes us:—

All these three cheetahs were shot by the Durbar in our

State (INorea—E.S.A.). He was driving at night and they were all

seen sitting close to each other. They were all males and the

measurements were as follows :—

1. 6 ft. 5 ins, between peg's

2. 6 {t. 44 ins. sts -

8.06 fie amns: By 5

The first bullet killed one and the second the remaining two.

the second bullet after having gone through one struck the other,

which was behind it, and killed it also. It is not known whether

‘hey were born in the State or had migrated from somewhere else.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 719

They were all of the same size, as you would see from the mea-

surements and it is believed that they were all from the same litter.

There is no trace of their parents. They were in perfect condition.

A photograph of these cheetahs will be sent to you shortly and

vou can use the photographs as well with the account,

It would be very kind of you .to have a record of this shoot

published in the Bombay Natural History Journal and the Field.’

Mysore, S. INpIA. VAN INGEN & VAN INGEN

January 9, 1948. Artists in Taxidermy

[The Cheetah is a timid creature and never known to attack

man unprovoked. It is harmless to domestic animals; at any rate

its numbers within recent years have been far too small for any

charge of destructiveness to be justified.

According to Dunbar Brander (Wild Animals in Central India,

p. 273-1927) the Cheetah had almost completely disappeared from

the Central Provinces. He knew of only three animals having been

procured in the 20 years previous to 1927. But rumours of their

existence in parts of Berar, the Seoni Plateau and Saugar were

still current in his day and he thought it was possible that one or

two animals may have persisted. Writing 12 years later, Pocock

(F.B.1., Mammals, 2nd. ed., vol. i, p. 328—1939) says, ‘It formerly

had a wide distribution in Western and Central India south of the

720 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. m7,

Ganges and extended through the Deccan at least as far south

as Coimbatore (R. C. Morris) its range agreeing tolerably closely

with that of the Blackbuck. But it is now to all intents and pur-

poses a thing of the past so far as the fauna of India is concern-

edna

The editors were so nauseated by the account of this slaughter

that their first impulse was to consign it to the waste-paper basket.

Its publication here is intended in the nature of an impeachment

rather than any desire on their part to condone or extol the deed.

That anybody with the slightest claim to sportsmanship

-~and the general run of Indian princes justly prided themselves

on that—should be so grossly ignorant of the present status

of the Cheetah in India, or knowingly so wanton as to destroy such

a rare and harmless animal when he has the phenomenal good

fortune to run into not one but three together—probably the very

last remnants of a dying race—is too depressing to contemplate.

Further comment is needless.

What adds to the heinousness of the episode is that the

slaughter was done while motoring through the forest at night,

presumably with the aid of powerful headlights or a_ spotlight.

This, it will be recognised, is not only against all ethics of sport

but it 1s a statutory offence deserving of drastic action by those

whose business it should be to enforce the law.—EDs. |

5.—REACTIONS OF DOGS TO NOISES

Mr. Roonwal’s note on the behaviour of a dog to the sounding

of a siren gives a quite common reaction by dogs to certain sounds.

i have known dogs howl in the same manner as described on the

gramophone being played.

There are here in this hotel a couple of dachshunds, who,

every day without fail, when the nearby R. C. Church rings the

Angelus at mid-day, sit up and how! together until the bell stops.

The bell rings early each morning and in the evenings but the dog's

do not take any notice at these times. A number of sirens sound

early mornings and also at mid-day but to these the dogs do not

react.

I think that it is a well established fact that some dogs will

react to music, singing and other sounds in this manner, why a

few do so and others do not is perhaps a matter of temperament.

It is, however, lucky that all dogs do not, as the noise in any Indian

town would be unbearable! They are bad enough as it is at nights

when the jackals start up.

Hitn GROVE HOTEL,

Coonoor, Niteiris (S.1.). R. N. CHAMPION-JONES

April 30, 1938.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 721

6.—JACKALS

I wonder how many of our members will look at the title with

a commisserating smile and decline to read further? Jackals, in-

dleed, what can anyone have to say about such dirty, skulking

scavengers that is not already well known to every resident of

India, or worth recording. Well, let us see? I have been asked

to write a popular article on shikar, or nature study and I choose

the latter, and a subject which I have found of enthralling interest,

but the Editor is quite at liberty to tear it into shreds for his w.p.b.,

should he think the poor harijan of the wilds not fit to write about,

or everything I say of him already well known.

I have kept four at different times which roamed the hills with

-me and my dogs, came into the house when they felt inclined, knew

tea time as well as the dogs did and waited with them in the

drawing-room when it was laid for master and missus to come and

minister to their wants. To all intents and purposes they were

just ‘dogs’ as far as we were concerned. I shall not attempt to

write of the ways and vagaries of each individual, as I should need

the whole Journal for that purpose, but Jackie, Julia, Jane, Jimmy

and Josey will all be lumped into one canine whole, except where

it becomes necessary to separate the vagaries of the male from the

temale for any particular reason.

Our first one, Jackie, was a mistake, as he was not wanted but

circumstances ordained otherwise, and he came into our keeping

when 6 days old and with crinkly eyes tight shut. When out for

a walk in the jungle my Labrador bitch, Dual Ch. Rosalind of

Dagon, to give her her full name and title, commonly known as

Rosie, appeared to be definitely inviting me to follow her. Twice

{ ignored her invitation but she was not to be put off so easily,

so eventually I followed. She led me to a big rock, stood under

it and almost spoke the words—‘Come, look what I have found?’

I went up to find a tiny mass of jackal—four wee cubs cuddling

together at the mouth of a cave, where the mother had brought

them to get the last of the setting sun. Almost without thinking,

I picked up the top one to show to my wife, put it in my pocket

and we continued our walk, and the result was that Jackie came

to stay. What a worry he proved and the most difficult thing to

feed I have ever struck, and I have had experience with tiny babies

of all kinds, such as wolf, hyaena, bears, panther, foxes all of

which were simple to feed, but Jackie was the very devil. Any-

way, like Topsy he ‘growed up’ through a stage of ricketts which

cod-liver oil and Virol cured. He slept in a fruit basket filled with

straw, in our bed-room, and was about a month old when he first

declared himself and his instincts. J had shot a panther the night

before and had put him in the verandah of an adjoining cottage.

When the dogs were let out in the morning they discovered the

panther and started barking. Now panthers were no novelty in

our garden and our dogs frequently announced their last night’s

scent by a succession of barks, in which we could notice no difte-

rence, but to our amazement a succession of sharp pheows from

the basket informed us that little Jackie knew what the dogs were

422 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ATST:*SOCIETY, Vol. 47

barking at. Could it have been scent or was there some slight

difference in the bark of the dogs which his sensitive ears had pick-

ed up?

Quite early in his career I discovered that Jackie (they will all

be Jackies, hereafter) was very partial to beetles, craneflies and

their grubs, grasshoppers and the larvae of beetles, so we used to

saunter out ‘beetling’ and it took the little chap only an hour or

two to discover that if I bent down and smote the ground with

my open palm, or with a fly-flap, it meant a titbit for him and he

would come rushing over to me to discover what I had got. If

1 had missed, he almost told me what he thought of me! Time

went on and the monsoons broke and brought in their train a horde

of beetles to devour my roses. In the evenings Jackie sat in the

middle of the lawn and I very soon discovered that the coordination

between eye and ear were marvellously developed in a jackal. If

I heard the drone of a beetle it merely conveyed to me the general

direction it came from, but possibly several yards wide of the actual

spot. Not so with Jackie. He looked, and probably had been,

half asleep on the lawn, but the drone not only woke him but he

was up and off, straight at the rose bush whereon was circling the

beetle. Next instant there was a jump and Jackie was munching

through the elytra of the beetle! Not once nor a dozen times, but

hundreds of times I saw him jump up from a quiet snooze into life

and without the smallest hesitation to let his eyes confirm what

his ears had heard, he would be under the exact bush where flew

ihe beetle. Later on in the evening when the destroyers of our

roses came in by the hundred, the jackal was in his element for

Jong after he had eaten all he wanted he just amused himself

crunching them up.

Just about this time toads began to make their appearance

and I noticed that Jackie had a very special way with them. He

would get behind the most repulsive looking one he could find and

with a forepaw stroke its back, very gently. After about the

third stroke the toad would deflate slightly and say kon kon kon

in a by no means unmusical tone. Jackie would turn his head to

one side, listen very intently, and repeat the performance several

times. On one occasion I had put him into his pen for some reason

or other and Jackie, to my surprise, seemed most indignant at

being thus treated, though normally he quite liked his pen and was

quite content to be in it. He climbed 5 ft. up the wire netting, he

bit at it and seemed determined to get out, so I let him go and he

dashed off as hard as he could go to the other end of the lawn and

disappeared behind a deodar. Wondering what important business

had taken him there I followed and discovered he had got a. parti-

ecularly repulsive toad with dirty green protruberances atid carbun-

cles all over his back, and soon found he was most tuneful and

Jackie was going into ecstasies over him. In a few minutes either

Jackie got tired of the amusement or the toad got tired of amusing

him, but he just trotted away and left the toad to its nightly wan-

deringss. | ;

Towards the end of the rains we had some frightfully heavy

showers and Jackie gave me an instance of his many uses as a

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 723

friend of man. After it had been pouring for an hour or two Jackie

would go and sit down in the middle of the lawn for a few minutes,

then get up and use his nose to scrape up fids of earth much as a

pig does, and I noticed each time he did so he ate something. I

got an umbrella and went off to see what he was eating and to my

joy discovered he was devouring leather-jackets by the dozen, nay,

by the hundred. Heavy rain saan to bring them to the surface,

or near it, and as soon as Jackie’s nose told him they had come

up he pushed his nose below them, turned over the turf and got

his titbit.

As this happened every day towards the end of the monsoons,

I was more than delighted to find that the bare patches which had

been getting larger on my lawn, suddenly began to disappear

thanks to Jackie’s ministrations.

Crane-flies and their grubs, and beetles and their grubs disap-

pearing at the rate of umpteen a day made a distinct difference to

the garden and saved the mali much time and labour.

All the above were most useful but quite comprehensible, and

whether instinct was at the bottom of it or intelligent watching and

the connection of cause and effect, does not materially matter, but

the next incident in Jackie’s life defeated me entirely. As I have

said panthers are no novelty in Dharmsala and whether in my gar-

den or along one of our many walks, it was a common thing for

the dogs and Jack to get the scent of one along the road, and show

their respect in the furtive glances they threw this way and that

with tails at half mast. On this occasion I was coming down a

mountain path with all the dogs and the jackal nosing about ahead,

none showing any sign of the presence of a feline, till I came into

a tiny clearing where Jackie showed extreme alarm and kept on

looking down the hill. A very strong breeze blew down from above,

so very obviously if danger threatened it must come from above,

but Jackie climbed cautiously on to every rock and every promi-

nence to gaze down the hill, so sure was he that danger lurked

below. The dogs went on quite happily unaffected by breezes or

Jackie’s manoeuvres, and I was quite at a loss to know what to

think. Knowing Jackie’s nose of old I was prepared to trust him

more than my dogs, but his tactics against the wind left me guess-

ing. Some 50 yards ahead, and below us, was a water channel

and alongside it ran a small and little used path. I followed Jackie

on to a flat rock and looked over and on the path beside the water

channel. crouched a large panther.

One of my dog's was approaching the channel and a loud ‘heel’

brought her back and sent the panther off into the adjoining jungle.

Now what was that sixth sense that warned Jackie of the danger

which conveyed nothing to the dogs? Had the feline been above

us at any time, or on the clearing the dogs would have got his

scent at once, and how. did Jackie get the or whatever he did get,

with the wind directly against him?

The jacks got their food at the same time as the dogs, i.e.

just as we petunned from our. evening walk, but in different parts

of the house and we soon made another discovery.

724 JOURNAL, BOMBAY, NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

If their noses, or that sixth sense told the jacks there was

danger and his Spotted Highness was about, nothing would induce

them to come inside and have their dinner till the danger was past.

Our house was the highest in the station and bordered a jungle so

was always the first to be visited by the panthers who were on the

prowl for dogs, and on their way to the Gurkha Lines and Canton-

ments generally. The jacks would sit on the lawn with their backs

to the house and their heads going from side to side the whole time.

Shortly after dusk we would hear the well-known pheow, either

in spasmodic jerks and barks (showing the feline was very near) or

in measured tones. A few minutes later the jack would come in

and announce that the feline had gone down and the coast was

clear.

While we were learning jungle lore from the jacks } tried my

hand teaching Jackie tricks, and found him almost as easy to teach

as my Labradors.

He sat on command; would not touch food till told to eat it;

retrieved balls on land and from water, though I cannot say he

could be depended on to do so every time, but three times out of

five he would deliver to hand, provided no stranger showed him-

self. On one occasion Jackie arrived on the lawn with a full-

grown Leghorn cockrel in his mouth. I yelled to him to ‘drop it’,

when he was some 20 yards away, and he did, and to my amaze-

ment the cockrel did record time up the hill and had all my com-

pound out to catch him. I cursed our sweeper for letting our fowls

go and he assured me it was not one of ours! Two days later I

discovered Jackie had brought it up from a village almost { miles

away, and yet that bird had not got a tooth mark when we exa-

mined it, and was none the worse for its adventure.

I wondered how many Labradors could carry some 4 lbs. of

cockrel up a very steep hill for # of a mile without so much as

pinching it?

Here was material for a high class gundog. A magnificent

nose, an excellent mouth and plenty of intelligence to learn the

requisites of a good gundog. But, and a very big but, an essen-

tial that was the hardest to inculcate, viz:—his natural fear of, and

aversion to, man in a strange form. How was this to be taught.

It is not possible in one generation but if two or three litters could

be born in captivity and the mother induced very very gradually

to bring the cubs out of her box to master or missus for food, the

battle would be won, but not otherwise.

Cub-drill in jackaldom is a high class art and learnt in a hard

school where mistakes are not tolerated. I have spent hours and

hours sitting over their dens watching and listening, when the cubs

are three to five weeks old and normally follow mummy out to the

mouth of the cave after their meal. Rosie, the Labrador already

mentioned, was a motherly old soul and trusted by both Julia and

Josey when they had cubs. If she was at the mouth of the cave

with me, the mother would come out with the cubs following and

scramble about Rosie’s legs and even allow me to touch them,

but if another dog showed up, or I made a false move, all you

would hear was a soft chook chook through closed lips and the cubs

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 28

were gone in a second, and nothing would bring them out again

until mummy or daddy called them.

Mummy does not believe in molly-coddling methods. Her type

of play with her cubs would send a human mother shrieking into

a lunatic asylum.

| She goes off a few yards from the cave and squeaks at them

to come out and they obey with alacrity, but as each reaches the

old lady, she gets it by the scruff of the neck and literally throws

it down the khud and the poor wee thing having rolled two or three

yards after its fall starts very slowly climbing up again, only to

meet a brother or sister coming down headlong to meet the first,

till all have had a bit of this horse-play.

The natural intelligence, not necessarily the cunning’ engen-

dered by centuries of life preservation, but the intelligence which

denotes a high grade of thinking, is greater in a jackal than in

a dog. Here are but a couple of instances :—You give a dog its

food on the ground in a dish and long before he has finished his

dinner the dish is waltzing round the room with the dog in. hot

pursuit. Not so a jackal. He might do it once or twice, and

after that he will put his foot into the middle of it and eat round it.

I have kept dogs of all kinds for 50 years and more and never

once have I seen a dog so much as look up at a picture in a room.

Jackie often came in for chota-hazri and took up a conimanding

position on my wife’s bed. One morning I noticed him look up at

the wall and turn his head round from one picture to another. |

called my wife’s attention to him and there could be no possible

doubt about it, he was deliberately looking at all the pictures in

the room. Why or wherefore I do not pretend to know, but can

merely state the fact. |

Now as this account of my jackals is getting too long I will

bring it to an end with a couple of observations which hardly seem

worth mentioning, but it is simply amazing how many people one

meets who say—‘fancy keeping a jackal as a pet, are you not

afraid of rabies?’ It is no use trying to convince them that jackals

are just about as sane as they are, normally, and can only give you

rabies when they are bitten by a mad dog or other mad animal,

and develop it themselves. ‘They are carriers, the gerin lies la-

tent in them and may come to life any moment? a9, the wiseacres

and so on ad lib.

Enquiries made some years ago from Kasauli brought back

the assurance that out of all cases reported at the various institutes

in India some 89% were dog bites and the remaining 11 caused by

mongooses, jackals, foxes, wolves etc. etc. which goes to prove

that the poor old jack is not nearly as bad as he is made out to be!

I wonder how many people who have known Jjackais for many

years could be induced to believe that there is a spark of pluck in

their anatomy?

Yet, I venture to assure my readers that they would be sur-

prised to see what a jack is capable of. A dog has no terrors for

a jack who has been brought up among them and will take on one

twice his size and often beat it.

Of course, normally, he will run from the first dog that chases

him. That instinct has been inherited through aeons of time, just

=26 fOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Hist. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

as his natural fear of man, and however much he may live with

people, be a pet among them and quite happy with those he knows,

a stranger will send him sneaking off as fast as he can go. Here

is a story which can be vouched for by a whole company of Gur-

khas who were parading at the time not far off. I was exercising

my dogs with balls, and Jackie was sitting under a tree quite

near, when a great big sheep dog made a dash at one of my

bitches as she picked up the ball. Before that sheep dog knew

what was happening he had a little fiend with needle like teeth

fix itself on to his side. He jumped about two feet into the air

but as he landed again the jackal had him on the other side, and

the last we saw of him was a shrieking dog dashing up the hill

at full speed and a jackal, one-third his size, in full pursuit to

the accompaniment of a full-throated roar from the Gurkhas who

were much amused.

The period of gestation of a jackal is much the same as that

of a dog, viz:—6o to 63 days and unlike the dog they are mono-

gamous and wonderfully faithful to each other. The mating sea-

son is February and the cubs are born in April, usually five to the

litter. The father keeps guard over the den much more than does

the mother and both parents regurgitate food for the benefit of

the cubs from the time they are about three weeks old besides the

mother’s milk which she supplies till the cubs are about 6 weeks

old. :

The jackal being a true canidae mixes freely with the dog

and the pups of the union are also fertile.

There is just one incident which is, I think, worth recording

of a wild jackal coming into captivity of its own accord. Jane

had been destroyed by mistake and Jimmy was left disconsolate.

One evening, during our usual walk, I noticed a wild jackal follow-

ing some 50 yards behind. As soon as I looked back it bolted

down the khud but two hundred yards further on I saw it again.

Next morning the same thing happened. My dogs also spotted

it and I had to stop them giving chase. That jackal got nearer

and nearer and within 1o days was walking behind me with four

or five yards. A month later she was coming into my office and

even into the drawing-room. Finally she had cubs by Jimmy in

my compound and all went well till I did a very silly thing. She

did not mind my standing 10 yards away while she brought out

the cubs, but on this occasion, though 30 to 4o yards away I hid

behind a bush without thinking. That was too much for her and

I had become an object of suspicion. She dashed forward, picked

up a cub and rushed down the hill with it followed by Jimmy with

another and by morning all the cubs had gone.

C. H. DONALD

7.—-MORE ABOUT JACKALS

In the article I sent for the Journal about jackals, there is

One point I forgot to make in respect of the jackal’s intelligence,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES \ Om 34

ahd since sending it, I have aie asked two fresh questions which

TL will now endeavour to answer

Se eee NGG SALGS iMcinnences ri dog, should he think of steal.

ing from a table laden with good things, will generally put his

‘paws up, stand on his hind legs and choose what he wants and risk

master coming in and catching him at it. My jackal, the only two

occasions on which he so far forgot himself, or perhaps never thought

about it at all; as I was sitting next to the table at, the time,

selected a low round table on which reposed the cakes and other

good things, just caught the end of the tea-cloth and backed away

one trae OfeCOUESE? Cousens was on the floor, but_ luckily, the

carpet was a very fee one, with thick pile and no damage was

done. This happened once again a month or two later, and jackie

was flung from the room with ignominy and got no tea at_all, so

never repeated the experiment again, and could be trusted to. sit

with the dogs, in the drawing room, with the tea things laid and

not a human in the room, without attempting to steal.

B. Are the dog and jackal closer to each other than, say, the

horse and the ass? Why, otherwise are their offspring fertile when

mules are sterile?

C. i. Do the sexes .in the jackal also get ‘hitched up’ ce

copulation as the dog does? What is the significance and purpose

of this ‘hitching up’? and how can it be of use to a wild animal

that has always to keep on the alert?

ii.. Have you any information as to pine ten this Rappers

also in other members of the Canidae? Is it known, for exanipl

in wild dog and wolf?

B. I would definitely say the jackal and dog are much closer

‘to: each other than the horse and ass. I have always understood

‘that the jackal and wolf are the progenitors of the domestic ‘dog.

In the aeons of time through which they have existed; the jackal

and wolf have remained true to type, whereas the dog, in_ his

association with man, throughout the centuries, has‘ been experi-

mented with, hybridized, subjected to selective breeding, till it is

impossible to say what the original was like, but whatever it was

like it was a dog, and the millions of generations handed down are

still. degs, whether they are Sydney Silkies: or Great Danes and

they could produce fertile pups provided the great difference in size

did not. destroy the smaller, in the act.

A few years ago two cubs or pups—whatever they were—of

selenite leatian cross were presented to the Lahore Zoo. I begged

the Curator to try and breed from’ them. The two, I may say,

were about half way in size between an Alsatian and a jackal,

ginger in colour with a black, broad stripe down the back, jackal

‘eyes and head, but the latter a trifle bigger than a jackal’s. Both

exhibited the jackal’s innate fear of man. i

‘In course of time their ‘cub-pups’ arrived, four of them. Two

were very like the parents and one with brownish markings and

erect tail; the fourth was almost entirely yack with long smooth

hair and cunly tail.

72% JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 4

All sold well and made a profit for the Zoo.

In the following year five youngsters arrived. Two still up-

held the characteristics of the parents—sort of ginger jackals. Two

were nondescripts—neither bad jackal nor good dog and need no

particular mention. The fifth was a law unto himself and jet black

above from snout to tip of tail, and pure white beneath from tip

of chin to end of tail, including the inside of the legs. At about 2

months old, when I last saw him, he had a very ‘gay carriage’ to

his tail, which meant that it would be a complete circle later on.

The only part of him which showed his jackal origin was the very

definite jackal eye, already turning from baby blue to yellow, en-

circling a small black pupil.

My conclusion (right or wrong, I leave you to say), was that

the Alsatian mother was not too good a specimen and was throw-

ing back to past sins in her progeny. One cannot conceive a

perfectly good jackal producing conundrums of this nature!

In his habits post-copulation, the jackal is exactly the same

as a dog, remaining ‘hitched-up’ for about the same period. One

difference between the dog and jackal is the period of heat, which

normally comes twice a year in the dog, but only once in the

jackal, about the middle of February. Three of my jackals had

cubs, in different years, on roth April in each case.

I cannot pretend to know what the significance of this ‘hitching-

up’ procedure is, but it must be extremely disadvantageous to a

wild animal, where leopards and other marauding felines are about.

As regards C u. I have no knowledge, but would suggest

the Superintendent of the Victoria Gardens being asked, as he

successfully mated his Alsatian to a wolf in the Gardens, and had

five pup-cubs as a result.

I should, however, hazard a guess that there is no difference

between the dog, the wolf and the jackal in this respect, thougn

it might easily not apply to the wild dog or dhol.

January 8, 1948. C. H. DONALD.

[Col. R. W. Burton comments on the above note as follows :

‘Without doubt the domestic dog and the jackal are closely

related, much closer than the horse and the ass; and the wild dog

of India must also be not far away from the jackal and the comestic

dog for there are reported observed instances of hybrid wild dog

and jackal, and of domestic dog and Jackal.

In regard to post-copulation ‘knotting’ Mr. Charles Theobald,

r.z.S. writes that when his wild dog pair mated (see article on

Wild Dog in Vol, xli, p. 698) they became ‘knotted’ in the same

manner as the domestic species and in regard to actual breeding

were exactly the same as domestic animals—no difference what-

ever.

Instances of the English Fox interbreeding with the domestic

dog have been recorded in the ‘Field’ newspaper. The offspring

of these unions were fertile with domestic dogs. It has also been

reported in the ‘Field’ that ‘knotting’ takes place in both pure

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 729

fox and fox unions, and in fox and domestic bitch unions. Re-

ferences: ‘Field’ of roth January 1942, page 443; 7th February 1942,

page 149; 7th March 1942, page 261.

In reference to 7th February 1942 above, it is stated that

‘knotting’ is not essential for whelp production in all canine unions,

and that experienced dog-breeders are aware that ‘non-knotted’

unions are often productive when both parents are dogs.

It is however probable that in case of practically all wild dog

unions and fox unions, and jackal unions ‘knotting’ takes place,

so Nature has not found that ‘knotting’ is a disadvantage or it

would not occur.

It is common knowledge that when a number of male dog's

pursue a domestic bitch (such assemblies are often seen in India)

the successful suitor is not molested by others of the pack while

the mated pair are in a ‘knotted’ state. That is likely also to be

the case with wild dog, and fox, and jackal unions in a wild

state’.—Eps. |

8.—SAMBAR GNAWING BARK OF

WENDLANDIA NOTONIANA

I have always noticed that sambar were partial to the bark

of the Wendlandia notoniana; but not to the extent as they appear

to be on the Biligirirangans this year. It may possibly have

been due to the scarcity of grazing, as it has been a very dry

season, with all grass burnt by forest fires; but a very large

number of trees of this species have been debarked from ground

level up to a height of 6 or 7 feet, and even more, with the bark

even removed off the lower branches. I wonder if the bark is

known to possess any medicinal properties ?

HONNAMETTI ESTATE,

ATTIKAN P.O., RANDOLPH C. MORRIS,

via Mysore (S.I.). Colonel.

June 3, 1948.

[In reply to our query Mr. M. B. Raizada, Asst. Forest Bo-

tanist, Dehra Dun, writes that as far as he is aware the bark

of Wendlandia notoniana is not known to possess any medicinal

properties. This view is confirmed by officials of the Minor Forest

Products section of the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun.—

Eps. |

9.—SAMBAR NECK SORE

I shot a 36” stag today (late for a stag to be in hard horn).

Besides having a most pronounced sore the stag’s neck was bare

except for a ridge of hair on the nape. There was ample evidence

that irritation had spread to the sides of the neck causing continual

rubbing.

730 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

(2) I believe that there is a definite relation between the new-

grass feeding and the shedding of sambar horns. I have noticed

that when aie March- April- -May thunder storms (‘Mango showers’)

are late; sambar remain in. hard horn later. ie tk

“ HONNAMETTI ESTATE, i [seri . eas

~ Artixan P.O., | R. C. MORRIS,

via. Mysore (S.1.). Colonel.

May 23, 1948. | 3

10.—WILD DEER IN MAURITIUS

In the Journal of our Society, Vol. vll, pp. 440 to 446, is an

account contributed by Rear Admiral W. R. Kennedy of a visit

in the year 1892 to the islands of Rodriguez, Mauritius and Re-

union, With it is a lithographed drawing of the head of a Rodriguez

stag, shot by the Admiral, having horns of 34 in. in length with

upper tines and brow antlers of 14 in. The gralloched weight was

229 lbs.

At that time the herds of deer roamed in the old forests of

Rodriguez unmolested except by siaval officers during their rare

visits to the island. The deer were introduced, the Admiral re-

lated, some thirty years previously when a pair were landed from

Borneo and subsequently another pair from. Mauritius. ‘These

have done well, and at the present day(1892) possibly from 1,500 to

2,000 deer exist on the island, some. ofthe stags being .as much

as 20 stone in weight and carrying fine heads.’ That was a good

‘stock of deer for an area only ten miles long by four broad. -The

climate is- similar to that. of. Mauritius, BEG. the Dighest Pan an

the island is’ 1,300-:feets 01 2

- Regarding Mauritius the Admiral remanent ‘During our stay

several of the wealthy proprietors organized chasses uu our honour,

on which occasions many deer were killed . . .’

With reference to the above it is pleasing to read in the com-

prehensive present day account contributed to the ‘Field’? of. 31st

May 1941 by P.H.G., ‘It is estimated that there are at, present

some 20,000 to 25,000 head of deer on the island (Mauritius).

La Chasse accounts normally for about 2,000 every season... .

full grown stag weighs about 20 stone, ... The head.is remark-

able for the beautiful grain of horn and the long, Shane tines of

ivory whiteness.’

“These deer’, writes, P. ee G., ‘are Cervus rusa the species being

said to have been originally introduced by the Dutch, who were the

original colonists, from Java in 1639.’ Admiral Rennedy believed the

Mauritius deer to be identical with the Sambar, having been

introduced from Ceylon. ‘It will be noticed’, says P.H.G., “by

readers of Mr. Rowland Ward’s standard work ‘‘Records of Big

Game’’, that the parent stock of Cervus rusa in Java exhibit greater

length, while their acclimatized descendants in Mauritius excel in

span.’ A notable head exhibited at the present time. in the Port-

Louis. Museum has outside curve of 344” with remarkable tip to

,up span of 33” which is possibly a world record for this vanely of

deer. A photograph of this head is given.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 731

P.H.G. gives the dimensions of good present day heads as

averaging 28 to 35 inches outside curve with tip to tip span of 18

to. 26 inches, so it is evident the stock has not deteriorated in horn

growth or in number of the animals on the island of Mauritius.

In his monograph ‘The Larger Deer of British India’, part iii,

published in Society’s Journal, Vol. xliv, pp. 27 et seq., R. I.

Pocock gives the type of the Genus Rusa H. Smith to be Cervus

unicolor the distribution of which is from Ceylon and India east-

wards to the Philippines and beyond, and admits three species of

Sambar.

1. Rusa unicolor unicolor Kerr.

Locality of the type Ceylon, as restricted by Ha-

milton Smith. Distribution :—Ceylon.

2, Rusa unicolor nigra Blainville.

Loeality of the type not stated but probably some-

where in north India. Distribution:—India apart

from the western desert and semi-desert areas, but

not perhaps crossing the Brahmaputra in the north-

east, the Assamese Sambar helonging apparently

to thes next race:

Distinguished from the Ceylonese race by its po-

tentially larger antlers and apparently larger skull,

3. Rusa unicolor equina Cuvier.

Locality of the type Sumatra. Distribution: —

from Sumatra, through Malaya to Burma and Assam,

Siam, Cambodia, Cochin, China, Annam, Yunnan,

Szechwan, Hainan.

Distinguished from the Ceylonese and Indian

races by the terminal tines of the antlers being much

less variable in their respective lengths, the front

outer always definitely continuing the line of the

beam and being longer and thicker than the back-

inner which projects inwards, backwards and up-

wards from its inner side; the antlers also are much

shorter on the average than inthe Indian race,

with the brow tine longer compared with the beam,

and there is some evidence that the skulls are a

little shorter on the average.

It 1s certain therefore that the Sambar of Mauritius are des-

cended from either 1 or 3 of the sub-species described by Pocock ;

and from which of the two could only be decided by expert exami-

nation of a series of skulls and horns.

BANGALORE. R. W. BURTON,

December 20, 1947. Lt.-Col., Indian Army {Retd.).

[Mr. W. W. A. Phillips, author of ‘Manual of the Mammals of

Ceylon’ comments on the above as follows: |

‘Colonel Burton’s note, on the occurrence of Wild Deer in

Mauritius is of considerable historical and general interest. To

‘learn that the descendants of the Sambar, liberated on Mauritius,

are still so plentiful, is most pleasing in these days of the rapid

732 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

decrease and extermination of wild life, all over the world. and

especially in the East.

Until a series of specimens of the Mauritius Deer has been

submitted to the British Natural History Museum authorities, for

critical examination, an element of doubt must remain as to which

race of the Sambar they are referrable. Personally I am inclined

to the belief that they will be found to belong to the typical race

unicolor from Celyon. The description of the three-tined antlers

of the Mauritius Stag, approximates closely to that of the typical

head of the Ceylonese race, with the exception that the average

stag in Mauritius would seem to have developed a slightly longer

main beam. The record antlers of the Ceylon Sambar stag (Rusa

unicolor unicolor) measure 33% inches with a spread of 21? inches

and any head measuring over 30 inches is considered an exception-

ally good one for the typical race. Colonel Burton states that

‘P.H.G.’ gives the dimensions of good present-day heads in

Mauritius, as averaging 28 to 35 inches, outside curve, with a tip

to tip. span of 18 to 26 inches.

The possibility that the Dutch liberated sambar from both

Java {or Borneo) and Ceylon, cannot be overlooked—the present day

Mauritius Sambar may be of mixed descent. This is quite likely

as during, the Dutch occupation, ships from both Ceylon and Dutch

East India must have been continually calling at Mauritius and, as

the young sambar is easily tamed and does well in captivity, there

would be little more difficulty in bringing sambar to the Island, than

domestic animals.

The Dutch appear to have been much interested in the experi-

mental introduction of certain wild animals into their possessions.

Not only have we this instance of the introduction of sambar into

Mauritius and the neighbouring islands, but they are believed to have

been responsible for the introduction of the Hog-deer (Hyelaphus

porcinus) into Ceylon, during their occupation. The Ceylonese race

of the Hog-deer has now been separated by Pocock, under the

subspecific name orysus (see ‘The Larger Deer of British India’,

part. iv, Journal, Bombay Natural History Sociely, Vol. xliv,

p- 177). Unfortunately, unlike the Mauritius sambar, the Ceylon

Hog-deer is a fast dying race, having been brought to the verge

of extinction through night shooting, in season ‘and out.

Rear-Admiral W. R. Kennedy, who contributed the original

account of the sambar in Mauritius, was evidently, like so many

naval officers, a keen sportsman. It was he who was one of the

prime movers in the formation of the Ceylon Game Protection So-

ciety, which still continues as the Ceylon Game and Fauna Protec-

tion Society. Rear-Admiral Kennedy, who was then commanding

the East India Squadron, took the chair at the inauguration meet-

ing, held in Colombo on the 28th May, 1894.’—Ebs. |

11.—STRANDING OF A WHALE (MEGAPTERA NODOSA) ON

THE TRAVANCORE COAST IN 1943.

I was surprised to find that there is no reference to the strand-

ing of a specimen of Megaptera on the Anjengo Coast near Quilon

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 733

in Travancore, in the list prepared by Mr. S. T. Moses and published

in your Journal of Dec. 1947, p. 377. I had prepared a note on

this then, but somehow it was not sent up for record. | Therefore

no reason for surprise.—Eps. |

The whale was reported to have accidentally got entangled in

a seine net. To save the net from destruction, the fishermen tried

to scare away the creature, when it broke away and made a bid

for liberty, which took it, however, towards the shore, where it

was stranded. This accident occurred on January 23, 1943. On

the following day, I visited the place and saw the whale with the

greater portion of the body under water. It was alive and was

gradually getting exhausted. It measured 49 feet 4 inches in

length. Girth around the shoulders 38 feet 10 inches. Each

flipper was 17 feet long.

The blubber of this specimen, was taken by the Marine Biology

Department of the State. I am informed that the maximum ice

ness of it was only 4 inches and about 350 gallons of oil were

extracted. The skull and parts of the skeleton are preserved in the

laboratory of the Marine Biology and Fisheries Department,

Trivandrum.

It is interesting that this species has not so far been recorded

stranded on the Indian coasts—the only record being one off

Baluchistan coast in July 1873.

TRIVANDRUM. AP. MATHEW,

May 15, 1948. Dept. of Zoology, University College.

12:—ON THE OCCURRENCE OF SITTA FRONTALIS SWAINS.

& SITTA CASTANEA LESS. IN KHULNA SUNDERBANS.

Sitta frontalis Swains. was one among the few species collected

by me during my short and hurried trip in August, 1944 to the

Sunderbans (Khulna). Thanks to the courtesy of the then D.F.O.,

who kindly accommodated me in his launch ‘Harrier’, I had the

opportunity of a halt for three consecutive days (Aug. 4 to Aug. 6)

at Nilkamal, almost at the sea face. I observed Sitta frontalis

Swains..occurring there as a common and abundant species and

affecting forests not only along the sea face, but sometimes a little

distance away. It is interesting to record how while taking re-

course to a jolly boat I approached the sea and there got down to

an island, whose surface level is generally above that of high tide,

I encountered parties of Sitta frontalis Swains., affecting many a

tall tree, mostly bare and devoid of branches, as well as fallen logs

or overturned stumps lying on the sandy ground. They were com-

mon enough and were often noticed together with Dryobates macet

(Vieill.), Parus major cinereus (Vieill.), and Pericrocotus peregrinus

(Linn.). The surface level of the islands at a little distance from

the sea face, however, is more often than not low and constantly

being subjected to tidal waves. Access to them is only possible

-by means of a small boat along narrow channels and cross-channels,

‘intersecting the stream or khal where our launch was lying at an-

~Chorage. I. ventured into one such island on the morning of 6th

August, but the slimy and slippery nature of the soil, invariably

734 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTY SOCIETY, Vol. 47

wet and water-logged, studded all over with spiky roots, or rather

aerial root-suckers, jutting out from the subterranean roots of the

forest trees, made it impossible for me to make any headway to get

a closer view of the nuthatches abounding there. The trees along

the comparatively higher bank of the khal—notably Keora (Sonne-

vatia apetala Ham.) which is characteristic of Sunderban river

banks—were noticed to harbour quite a large flock of these birds,

and from the boat I did actually shoot some specimens, but the

tides stood in the way of my retrieving any except one. Its mea-

surements are: wing 70, tail 43, tarsus 17, culmen 13 mm.

It is worthy of note that nowhere in this area was Sitta castanea

Less. noticed, though it is quite a common and numerous species,

which I often encountered, in the evergreen forests consi-

derably inland. Regard being had to its known period of breeding,

its occurrence in these parts of the Sunderbans in the beginning

of August might indicate its status as a resident species. While

its favourite haunts appear to be the inland tree forests the distri-

bution of S. frontalis Swains. is evidently related to the forests at

the sea face or those in the neighbourhood. Wherever during this

trip the species came under my ken, it appeared to have a prefe-

rence for keora trees, whether of stunted size as are general along

the sea face, or of medium height as are found a little away from

it. In its haunts in inland swamp forests $. castanea Less. seems

to be partial to mature keora trees, : |

50 Kai_aAs Bose STREET,

CALCUTTA. S83 Cy LAW. 3 Ay,) Php, VAN. 1.

April’ 21, 1948.

132,.—ON SPHE” OCCURRENCE! OF S7ULHE BLACK-HEADED

CUCKOO-SHRIKE (LALAGE SYKESIT) AT AHMEDABAD,

ABU ROAD AND AJMER.

According to Hugh Whistler the north-western limit of the

Black-headed Cuckoo-Shrike is a line drawn from Kangra through

Sambhar to Mt. Abu. This being the case any record of observa-

tions of the bird at places situated Aone this line, however in-

complete, may be of some value.

The Black-headed Cuckoo-Shrike is not, in my experience, a

bird whose movements can easily be studied and worked out. It

is shy of close observation and is most readily detected by its loud

and distinctive call note uttered as it moves about inside the foliage

of large leafy trees. In these circumstances it might easily be

overlooked during the silent phase. I have always presumed it to

be absent when its call-note is not to be heard and have certainly

never seen it at any other time except the vocal season.

I saw the bird first at Abu Road during the monsoon of 1928

and wrote a description of it to the B.N.H. 'S. for identification on

wth August 1928. A single pair inhabited the railway officers’

cantonment throughout that monsoon and were seen about until some

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 735

time in September, but were not seen thereafter until the time of

my transfer to Ajmer in March 1929. The bird was nof seen in

Ajmer throughout the summer and monsoon of 1929, although I

was watching for it. :

In 1931 I was stationed in Ahmedabad and on a visit to Abu

Road saw a bird there on 6th July. On roth and 12th July res-

pectively a hen and a cock bird were seen in my compound at

Shahibag, Ahmedabad.

On roth July Mr. Symes, Executive Engineer, Abu Road,

wrote that he had seen a pair of birds moving about in the com-

pound next to his own and that they seemed to be taking an interest

in a particular nim tree. He did not, however, find any nest that

year. )

In. the spring of 1932 I was myself transferred to Abu Road

and heard a Black-headed Cuckoo-Shrike calling on 13th May and

again on 16th May. Thereafter it was seen and heard frequently

until 22nd September, but no nest was found,

In April 1933.1 was again posted to Ajmer, but the bird was

not seen nor heard there throughout the summer and monsoon.

I was stationed in Ahmedabad from November 1934 until March

1938, but did little bird watching for the first two years and have

no records at all for 1936. On 3rd July 1935 I heard a Black-

headed Cuckoo-Shrike calling in my compound in Shahibag and

suw the cock bird on the ath July.

On 21st May 1937 I heard and saw a cock bird in my com-

pound. Mr. Symes writing to me from Abu Road reported hearing

one on the same date but not since (letter dated 25th May). I

continued to-hear the bird in my-compound until 28th May, but

thereafter did not hear it again until 13th June. )~

On 2oth June Mr. Symes wrote to me again that he had found

-a-nest'in his compound at Abu Road and that the bird was sitting.

“On 8th July he found the nest deserted and the birds building again.

During the monsoon of that year I heard and saw Black-headed

Cuckoo: Shrikes’ frequently in and around Ahmedabad. My last

record of seeing a bird that cee’ was in Ahmedabad on 23rd

August 1937.-

' * In 1939, on a visit to Aj mer, I was surprised to hear the well

Rhowf’ call of a Black- nade Cuckoo- Shrike on 24th June, but did

not actually see the bird. However, on a subsequent visit on 8th

August I saw a cock bird. This was a famine year and the total

rainfall in Ajmer was only about 4 inches.

In 1940: I was stationed in Ajmer and naturally kept a very

‘sharp look-out for a reappearance of the bird. I heard it calling

first on 20th ‘May and again on 13th June, but did not see it on

either occasion.

To saw the bird first on 20th June 1940 in my compound and

thereafter heard and saw birds of both sexes on numerous occasions

tand my: last record for that year was on 16th August. So far as

Lewas able to make out there were at least two pairs in the rail-

way contonments.

Early in May 1941 I was posted to Ahmedabad. I heard a

bird calling in my compound on 25th May and heard and saw it at

intervals until the end of June. Thereafter I had no time for bird

730 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Volk a;

watching on account of floods and breaches which kept me fully

occupied.

These records are scanty enough and the only definite conclu-

sion which can be drawn from them is that the Black-headed Cuckoo-

Shrike seems to have extended its range to Ajmer some time be-

tween 1933 and 1939. In both 1929 and 1933 I had the opportunity

to devote a great deal of time to bird watching and could scarcely

have missed a bird with which I had become so familiar in Abu

Road, especially as I was posted from Abu Road to Ajmer on both

occasions. There was famine in Rajputana from 1938-1940 and

it is possible that the bird was forced to extend its range locally

on this account.

I do not know on what evidence Hugh Whistler has defined

the N.W. limits of this bird. Throughout a hot weather and mon-

soon spent in Fatehgarh, U.P., I never encountered the bird, nor

have I found it at Kotah, Rajputana. Round Baroda it is quite

<ommon; far more so, it seemed to me, than round Ahmedabad.

It is possibly only a breeding migrant to Rajputana and if this is

the case it is probable that it moves up the Aravalli Hills from the

south rather than in from the west or north,

1/B, IMPERIAL MANSIONS,

CuFFE PARADE, COLABA, Bompay, 5. R. M. SIMMONS

January 17, 1948,

14.—THE STATUS OF THE DUSKY WILLOW-WARBLER

[| PHYLLOSCOPUS FUSCATUS (BLYTH)]| IN INDIA

In his ‘Systematic Review of the Genus Phylloscopus’, published

in 1938, the late C. B. Ticehurst gives the winter range of Phyllos-

copus fuscatus as ‘Nepal and Sikkim at low elevations; N. Bengal;

‘Buxa and Bhutan Duars; Assam; Manipur; Burma; Shan States,

ete. The rest of the winter range is further east. It is the purpose

of this note to give evidence for my belief that Ph. fuscatus has

a much wider winter range in north and central India, and that it

has presumably hitherto not been separated from Phylloscopus colly-

bita tristis, from which it only differs very slightly in general colour,

though the colour of the soft parts and the call-note are quite dis-

tinct.

My evidence is based entirely on field observation, and the various

species of Phylloscopus are so difficult to distinguish in the field

that it may be thought that such identification is unsatisfactory. I

would point out, however, that the two species here under considera-

tion, namely Ph. c. tritis and Ph. fuscatus, are both species which

habitually feed on or near the ground, so that one may often watch

them hopping about at only a few yards distance, when every point

of plumage is almost as easy to note as if the bird were in the hand.

It will be best, however, if I give my evidence in full, and I must

then leave it to the reader to Heoie whether it is convincing.

The first records are really much too meagre in detail to be

satisfactory, and I should not trouble to give them were they not

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 239

supported by the much fuller details of later observations. It will

be noted that most of the observations have been made in the Ho-

shangabad district of the Central Provinces, but I have notes also

from Poona and Allahabad. These observations have in each case

been made during short visits to the areas concerned.

My first record is from the Hoshangabad district, C.P., in

December, 1942. On Dec. 21st, at Itarsi, 1 saw a small Phyllos-

copus in a hedge within a few feet of me which, much to my sur-

prise, uttered a weak ‘tak, tak’ note, totally unlike the shrill note

of Phylloscopus c. tristis. Three days later, at a village twelve

miles away, Makoriya, I saw another, not at quite such close range,

uttering the same call-note. On reference to Ticehurst’s mono-

graph, I concluded that they must have been Ph. fuscatus, but I had

failed to record the colour of the softparts or any other details of

plumage which might have separated them from Ph. c. tristis.

Next, at Poona, on March 18th, 1946, I saw one, or possibly

two, of these birds in a hedge, and watched them with my glasses

at +7. This bird also uttered the ‘tak’ call-note. I noted that ‘a

brown Hippolais was in the same hedge and was larger, with longer,

compressed bill and looked leggier; also rounder in tail’. But,

once again, I carelessly failed to note the colour of the soft-parts.

The first really full note is of a bird seen by the Jumna at

Allahabad on Dec. 16th, 1946. It will be best to quote my note

written at the time.

‘By the Jumna, in the gardens adjoining where I was staying,

there were numbers of Siberian Chiffchaffs (Ph. c. tristis). They

kept to low bushes on the edge of the Jumna river bank, and some-

times flew down and fed among the grass, where they were quickly

lost to view. All were silent. In the quarter mile or more that I

walked, I may have seen twenty of them. I also saw Lesser White-

throats and an Ashy Wren-Warbler. Then I found a seeming

Phylloscopus uttering a rather feeble Lesser-Whitethroat-like

‘chack’, occasionally. I had very near views of it. It was darker,

rather warmer brown than the Chiffchaffs. Eye-stripe fairly

conspicuous. Beak as a Phylloscopus. But, I thought tail gra-

duated suggesting a Hippolais; so perhaps it was H. rama. A

few yards further on Chiffchaffs kept flying down from a tree onto

the marsh. Two were hopping about some plants, when a third

bird appeared from off the ground and chased a little. Then it sat

in full view. It, too, was a warmer, rather darker brown, definitely

buffy on the sides, tail a trifle longer than the Chiffchaff’s—and not

graduated, the outer feathers being at least as long as the rest. I

think it too made the chack note, but I am not certain of this. In

any case, it seems to me that this bird must have been Ph. fuscatus.’

My next notes are from Rasulia, Hoshangabad, from 8th to

1oth Jan. 1947. At midday on the 8th I saw what appeared to be both

Ph. c. tristis and Ph. fuscatus, and later in the day I saw another

of the latter. The following are my notes of the latter observation.

‘Ph. c. tristis. Several were flitting about among some green

crops, and flying up to a hedge and tree. Seen at very close range.

General colour of upper-parts something like vandyke-brown,

slightly . olivaceous. Superciliary stripe less distinct than in

Ph. trochiloides viridanus, an example of which was also in the trees,

738 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

but extending well behind the eye. | Underparts dirty white. — Edge

of wing yellowish. Bill’ dark (but variable). Legs black. ~ Silent.

Ph. fuscatus. Only one seen. Hopping on ground and flying to

low branch of tree. Seen at five yards distance, in excellént light.

Upper parts warmer brown’ than Ph. c.' tristis, but Jess dark or

rufous than in Acrocephali. FEye-stripe distinct near bill, but not

extending much behind eye. Under-parts dull buffy- white, belly

slightly streaked with grey.. Bill horn-brown, legs’ pale ‘brown,

Tail definitely square, not round. Actions exactly like other

Phylloscopi, including ‘flicking’ action. Note, a low but. fairly

penetrating ‘tscheck, tscheck’, uttered fairly frequently. In the éase

of those (2 or 3) seen at midday I did my utmost to persuade my-

self that they. were really Acrocephali: but size, shape of bill and of

legs, action, shape, everything made this idea absurd. And I was

further fortified by the ease with which I instantly recognised a

Blyth’s Reed Warbler a few days ago as not a Phylloscopus.’

‘r1o-1-1947. I have had further views of the Phylloscopi on the

compound yesterday and today. This morning Mrs. Barnes and I

watched two without wingbars hopping on the ground,’ within’ five

yards. A Lesser Whitethroat was near them. The two on the

ground were plainly of different species. In size they were identical,

but the following differences were noted. Let (1) be Ph. c. tristis,

(2) the supposed Ph. fuscatus. (1) was grayer above, whiter below,

(2). a warmer, somewhat olivaceous brown above, slightly buff

below, though distinctly paler on the throat and upper breast than

on the rest of the under-parts . The lower under-parts were faintly

streaked with grey. (1) has dark lores (2) has pale brown lores,

same as colour of face. (1) has a longish, whitish ‘eyestripe. (2)

a buff eyestripe, hardly extending behind the ‘eye. (1) has black

bill and legs, (2) has brown bill, lower mandible pale, and quite pale

horn-brown legs. Both have dark eyes. Later I found (2) again

and heard its ‘tscheck’ note once or twice. ° Shape of tail and~ac-

tions of (2) typically phylloscopine’.

yi I. again spent a few days. in. the ‘Biwslhervcetad | Digiatey in

January 1948, At Hoshangabad itself I did not, certainly see any

Ph. fuscatus this time, but I saw Ph. c. tristis as usual, ,and also

identified at least one Hippolais and one Acrocephalus. However,

spending. a few days on the edge of the jungle at Makoriya, the

place of the earlier observation in December,. 1942, I found several,

and had particularly satisfactory views of them on Jan. 23rd.. I

transcribe my notes as follows.

‘First, one seen with several Ph. c. tristis,. The pale legs very

noticeable. Plumage in general slightly warmer. Later: three hop-

ping on the ground together. Colour of legs seems to vary, but

all are pale. These three uttered the note, a slight ‘tack, tack’,

fairly frequently. Once or twice one slightly raised ‘its _head-

feathers, and for a moment I began to think of an Acrocephalus.

Nor do they flick their wings as much as some Phylloscopi do. But

their shape, size, general behaviour, etc. is thoroughly phylloscopine.

They are much more sprightly than any Acrocephalus or Hippolais

known to me. The beak, too, is. typically phylloscopine’. . I also

saw birds identical in appearance with the above, and uttering the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 739

same rather weak ‘tack’ or ‘tscheck’ call-note, in the Noakhali Dis-

trict of East Bengal, in late January and early February, 1947.

There is my evidence. No doubt it would be more satisfactory

if one or two specimens were available for museum comparison.

But I think I have shown that there are birds of the Phylloscopus

genus which winter in the Central Provinces, apparently also in the

United Provinces and possibly even as far west as Poona, whose

details of plumage and call-note exactly fit Phylloscopus fuscatus and

do not fit any species known to winter in those areas.

FRIENDS’ SERVICE UNIT,

February 7, 1948.

[In the ‘Distribution’ of Ph. fuscatus fuscatus, the Fauna (2nd.

ed. Vol. ii, p. 462) has overlooked B. B. Osmaston’s statement

(J.B.N.H.S. Vol. xvii, p. 157) that it is common in and around

Port Blair (Andamans) in the winter till about end April.

Many of the Phylloscopi are notoriously difficult to identify even

in the hand, and wellnigh impossible in the field. Ordinarily it is

seldom safe to accept sight records without corroborating evidence

in the shape of skins. In the present case, however, the editors

have little hesitation in accepting the record, not only because of

the diagnostic nature of the details observed, but also because of

their personal experience of the ornithological wizardry of Mr.

Alexander and his field glasses and the uncanny way he has with

this very puzzling group of birds.—Eps. |

15.—THE ROSY PASTOR [PASTOR ROSEUS (LINN.)] ’

IN CEYLON

I write to record the presence of a flock of some 30 Rosy

Pastors at a place just north of Pottuvil, on the east coast of

Ceylon, on the 29th December, 1947.

These birds were observed ‘by Mr. L. S. Boys of Colombo who

writes as follows :—

‘The land was dry pasture with short grass and clumps of

trees. I noticed the birds on the ground as I passed 20 yards

away. Their pinkish hue attracted me and I tried to approach.

This they resented and they took to a nearby tree. As they flew

I noticed 5 mynas were with them though not intermingled. The

clans kept tgether, a yard or so apart. I went to the car and got my

glasses, watched from 60 yards and when they returned to feed,

managed to approach to 25 yards from where I had no trouble in

watching them for to minutes.’

‘They were feeding on grasshoppers. The characteristic low

crest on the nape was present and I am sure there is no mistake in

identification. They are typical starlings.’

I have never previously heard of Rosy Pastors being seen on

the east coast of Ceylon, but during the winter of 1942/43 a large

flock haunted the scrub and plains a few miles from Hambantota,

740 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 44

in the extreme south. Usually, however, the Rosy Pastors, on

their irregular visits to Ceylon, remain in the Jaffna Peninsula and

the dry north westerly coastal districts. They appear never to

penetrate the hills or the wet zone.

GALAPITAKANDE ESTATE,

NAMUNUKULA, CEYLON. W. W. A. PHILLIPS

January 12, 1948.

| Regarding the status of the Rosy Pastor in Ceylon, Whistler

in “The Avifaunal Survey of Ceylon’ (Spolia Zeylonica, Vol. xxiii,

parts 3 & 4) writes: ‘Occasional winter visitor, odd flocks frequent-

ing the north, south and east of the Island’ _—Eps. |

16.—OCCURRENCE OF THE INDIAN CLIFF-SWALLOW

(HIRUNDO FLUVICOLA) IN CEYLON

At 4-30 p.m. on the afternoon of February 8th 1948, while we

were having a picnic tea on the Sita Eliya patanas (alt. 5500 ft.)

between Nuwara Eliya and Hakgalia in the central hill cluster of

Ceylon, 1 noticed a strange looking swallow sitting, together with

a pair of Nilgiri House-swallows (Hirundo javanica domicola) on

one of the telegraph wires which skirt the Badulla road.

It was a bright sunny afternoon with very little wind and the

strange swallow was sitting resting and preening its feathers; it

was quite tame and allowed a close approach, so I was able to

examine it from all angles, at my leisure, through a pair of x6 field

glasses.

Without any doubt, it was an Indian Cliff-swallow (Hirundo

fluvicola) in immature plumage. Most probably, it would be a strag-

gler that had come over from India {possibly from Himalayas)

with a party of Eastern Swallows (Hirundo rustica gutturalis)—

this species being a migrant that visits Ceylon annually in large

numbers during the winter months.

The present bird had the whole head and nape light earthy

brown; the back and shoulders glossy steel-blue, with a greenish

tinge in some lights; breast and lower parts warm, pisbisn buff

to white; tail and wings blackish-brown.

I was able to examine it for some ten minutes before it flew

off, low over the grassy hill-sides, westwards, and commenced to

hawk for insects in a nearby ravine.

As far as I have been able to ascertain, the occurrence of the

Cliff-swallow has not previously been recorded from Ceylon ; the

present record is, therefore, of much interest.

GALAPITAKANDE ESTATE,

NAMUNUKULA, CEYLON, Ws, Ws. A. PHICEIPRS

February 13, 1948. F.L.S. M.B.O.U.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Bai

17.—ARRIVAL OF WAGTAILS IN ASSAM

For some years now the first wagtail seen on this garden has

been recorded in our rainfall book. The following dates may

therefore be of interest :—

1933 Z21e Sept.

LOB 25 d)

LORS, 12 xf

193621 .

NOS aus 20 2a),

1938 4 yy

1939 i 4,

1940 19 ,,

1941 1g

1942 TAWAGS 5)

1943 18 ,,

1944 19 4

1945 1S mat si

1946 nies

DUKLINGIA TEA ESTATE,

Mariani P.O., ASSAM. H.). Py OLE. ROBEY

February 20, 1948.

[In Vol. 47 (p. 160) we have a similar note on the arrival

dates of the first wagtail (species?) in Upper Assam, and of a

ringed individual of the Grey Wagtail near Bombay.—Ebs. |

18.—ON THE BREEDING OF THE BLUE-TAILED

BEE-EATER (MEROPS SUPERCILIOSUS JAVANICUS)

IN RAJAHMUNDRI, EAST GODAVARI DISTRICT.

Mr. Humayun Abdulali writes as follows in his ‘Birds of the

Vizagapatam District’ (Vol. 45, No. 3 of the Journal, p. 342)

on the breeding of the Blue-tailed Bee-eater: ‘Nesting in a very

scattered colony ... Waltair... These appear to be the southern-

most breeding records unless Rhodes Morgan’s records (Ibis 1870,

p- 314) of large numbers breeding in the banks of the Kistna and

theCauvery sare scorect.. ....”

In April 1947 I came across a very small colony of these birds

in Rajahmundri. At least three pairs were breeding there on the

steep bank of an island formed by the cutting of a canal near the

Innispeta cemetery. There were some 11 nest-tunnels of which

three definitely belonged to the bee-eaters. The others were pro-

bably nests of Pied Kingfishers and seemed to be out of use.

In April 1948 also Blue-tailed Bee-eaters were found always near

this island but they were not nesting there. Owing to low water

the canal separating the island from the main bank had dried up

and a constantly used foot-path ran right through the old nesting

742 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 49

place. We searched all likely spots in the neighbourhood but did

not find any nests of the bee-eaters.

Blue-tailed Bee-eaters were found in the breeding season farther

south, for instance, in Lake Kollair, Bint I could not discover whether

they were breeding there.

It is a pity I did not. know in April 1947 that Blue-tailed Bee-

eaters were not supposed to breed south of Waltair, for I would

have taken greater interest in that colony and made attempts to

find out whether there were others in those places where Blue-tailed

Bee-eaters were seen in March and April.

K. K. NEELAKANTAN

ADS

When I wrote my note ((/ (BON SESo Viols047, ua PeeLOe,) mal

had overlooked the fact that nightjars were only known to take

their food on the wing and the editorial note rightly drew attention

to this.

Subsequently I saw an interesting article on the American bird,

the Pacific Night Hawk (Chordeiles minor hesperis) by H. J. Rust

in the Condor Vol. xlix, pp. 177-188 in which he referred to the

birds taking their food on the ground if they had not obtained enough

in the air. I wrote to Mr. Rust for further details and he has very

kindly informed me that apart from gravel being found in their

stomachs (as originally suggested by Stanford) he has noted them

jumping short distances and taking insects from low-growing shrubs

and herbaceous plants. He adds ‘when stomach contents showed

heavy feeding on grasshoppers in the summer or early fall, this was

direct evidence of ground feeding, as well as contents of wingless

ants’. :

The Handbook of British Birds also refers to several species of

nightjars catching insects on the ground and it is therefore possible

that Indian nightjars may also pick up dung-beetles from dung lying

on the road.

The editorial comments on my last note state ‘it is difficult to

agree that the darker road surface has anything to do with the

visibility of a bird of such completely crepuscular and nocturnal

habits’. |

In spite of their very specialized eyes it is difficult to imagine

that a nightjar would see a dark patch of dung just as easily on

black asphalt as on a paler soil. This is however now only of

academic interest as I cannot recall having seen nightjars on pale-

coloured cemented roads in suitable localities where dung shows up

better than on the adjoining’ fields.

Motor traffic on asphalted and cemented roads is probably much

heavier than elsewhere and, like the American pedestrian, the night-

jar must be of two kinds, the quick and the dead. Let us Hone

the quick ones are not far away. And this raises another question.

Does the village chicken still cross our roads? I cannot recall hav-

ing seen one run over for many years and I wonder if they have now

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 743

become sufficiently accustomed to motor cars to prevent their rushing

about when one is approaching, or if there are fewer chickens. It

is unlikely that an acquired characteristic has been inherited and it is

-more likely that the more excitable chicken has been eliminated.

Motor cars also make less noise nowadays.

c/o Faiz & Co.,

75, ABDUL REHMAN Sr., HUMAYUN ABDULALI

BOMBAY.

[On the face of it, it may seem absurd to suggest that the

chickens which survived became sufficiently sophisticated in time

to avoid being run over by motor cars, and were able to pass on

this useful accomplishment to their descendants. But that there

may perhaps be something more in it than meets the eye is suggested

by a communication we have lately received from Dr. Robert Cush-

man Murphy of the American Museum of Natural History, New

York. This was in reply to a request for information concerning

a newsitem, which our papers recently published, of large numbers

of migrating birds meeting with disaster by dashing into the Empire

State Building at night. Dr. Murphy writes that such accidents

are not uncommon, but that the curious thing about them is the

mysterious way in which birds learn to avoid towering obstacles in

time. For instance, in the early years after the Statue of Liberty

was erected in New York harbour, catastrophies of this nature were

far more frequent than now. And so it is with lofty skyscrapers.—

Eps. |

20.—‘OCCURRENCE OF THE EAGGAR FALCON (FALCO

JUGGER GRAY) AT MT. ABU’—A CORRECTION—AND

NESTING OF THE SHAHIN FALCON (FALCO PEREGRINUS

PEREGRINATOR SUNDEVALL) AT MT. ABU.

With reference to Major R. K. M. Battye’s note in the Decem-

ber 1947 issue of the Journal (Vol. 47, No. 2, pp. 383/4), our

attention was drawn by K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji of Bhavnagar to

certain features in the description of the young birds in the nest

which suggested that they were not Laggar but more likely Shahin

{Falco peregrinus peregrinator). These discrepancies had inadver-

tantly been overlooked by us. K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji who has

considerable experience with falcons in the wild state as well as

rearing and training them from young, said that while he had seen

a few immature examples with reddish-brown underparts and brown

upper plumage, he considered it rare or exceptional to find two

young Laggar in a nest both of which had bright reddish-brown

lower parts with black streaks, and black upper parts as described

by Major Battye. He rightly pointed out that most Laggar fledge-

lings are dark brown to blackish-brown above, and almost blackish-

brown below. Another and more significant point to which he drew

attention was that the legs of the young birds were described as

z44 fOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 4%

bright yellow, whereas in young Laggar they are invariably slaty-

blue, bluish-grey or sometimes greyish-white.

In reply to a further reference Major Battye writes that as the

young birds were in a recess in the cliff, he may possibly have

made some mistake concerning their plumage colouration but con-

firms that their legs were bright yellow. This, in our opinion,

settles the point that the birds in question were not Laggar.

Although nesting has not been specifically recorded from

Mt. Abu for the Laggar Falcon or the Shahin, there would seem

nothing unusual in either species being found to do so. With the

corroborative evidence brought out in this correspondence, the pre-

sent may well be accepted as a reasonably authentic instance of the

Shahin nesting at Mt. Abu.

114 APOLLO STREET, Fort, Bomsay.

June 7, 1948. EDITORS

21.—SNIPE ON THE NILGIRIS

The common snipe of the Nilgiris plateau is the Pintail, but

other species are occasionally met with, and the following table of

birds shot by Mr. R. F. Stoney and myself shows the comparative

frequency of the different varieties :—

Rees E.G.P.A.

Fantails 19— 1-40 19-10-25

23— 1-42 222s

4— 3-48 Total 5

Jacks wad 5— 3-33 ( seen but

not shot | 31-12-23

WS 222 526 aleotal 4

Wood Li SOARS Bro NESX6)

15=32—35 29- 1-27 (2)

6— 2-37 PE W2I

16— 2-38 165.2229

DEUS E39 29-10-29

17-12-40 10= 2=36

7-12-45 16— 2-37 Total’: 15

Swinhoe ia 17-11-33 Nil

13—10--35 (2) Total 3

Pintails was 973 696 Total 1£69

Mr. Stoney’s records are from the season 1931-32 and mine

from 1923-24, but I shot very little on the plateau after 1930. There

has been a considerable diminution in snipe in recent years. Since

1941 Mr. Stoney has shot only 53 in 7 years, as compared with 150

in 1937 and 134 in 1938. My own experience has been similar. As

regards dates of arrival and departure, a few birds come in each

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 745

year at the end of August, but the first regular flight does not arrive

till about the middle of September. Practically all are gone by

mid-April, though a few odd birds may be found as late as 4th May.

KALHATTI, NILGIRIS. Be GePAYRHITANGAD AMS:

April 26, 1948. [bt.-Col., Er An (Retd?)

22,.—SNIPE IN SOUTH INDIA.

The following table of snipe shot between 1923 and 1948 is

compiled from my game book and shows the comparative frequency

of the different species. The majority were bagged in Malabar, but a

fair number in the Mysore and Bangalore districts, and a few on the

Nilgiris and in the Wynaad—all being adjacent areas. The best

day’s bag in Malabar was 102 and in Mysore 71—both in 19309.

Round Bangalore a bag of 20 couple to 2 guns was considered good,

but at Cannanore 30 couple were frequently obtained by a single

gun in a day; on the Nilgiris a bag of to couple is unusual.

( | |

Season | Pintail Fan ail | Jack |Swinhoe| Wood Total

1923-24 ae 173 26 1 ae a 2C0

1924-25 ake 124 29 a aa ae A 153

1925-26 a 173 oi 3 2 1 230

1926-27 re 405 83 3 1 2 494

1927-28 ae 317 42 3 2 1 365

1928-29 oe 569 99 15 eee 1 684

1929-30 aB0 397 232 1 1 1 632

1930-31 s 562 155 4 3 on 724

1931-32 eS 754 205 30 2 991

1932-33 nae 974 149 10 2 3 1,135

1933=34 ae 527 93 5 iI ] 627

1934-35 aa 468 138 13 3 sos 622

1935-36 a 626 184 4 eae 1 815

1936-37 =e 452 257 23 900 1 733

1937-38 ane 708 260 19 ] ra 988

1938-39 set 8:0 279 19 6 sere 1,144

1939- 40 bd 442 103 2 500 os 547

1940-41 ae 387 121 H 2 08 51]

194} =42 Say 420 IZA 13 1 iste 605

1942—43 a0 286 WGY/ 7 0 ves 450

1943-~44 Ho 287 125 12 1 ASG 425

1944-45 600 319 36 Ber ADO 1 386

1945-46 atte 204 43 4 1 es 252

1946-47 ee, 228 4] i “ Se 270

1947-48 a 110 11 ] are oe 122

Mota LOP7Sz2 3,090 194 29 10 14,105

From the table it appears that Pintails are approximately 3

{imes as numerous as Fantails in South India, and that some years

are noticeably better than others for Jack Snipe.

Of the Swinhoes, 22 were shot in Malabar and 7 in Mysore,

and I would add that all were carefully identified and do not include

any of the abnormally large Pintails which one meets from time to

time. Of the Woodsnipe two only were shot in Malabar and the

rest on the Nilgiris plateau.

740 JOURNAL, BOMBAY) NATURAL TESTE \SOCIELY, Vol. 47,

. I have only one record of a semi-albino snipe: a Fantail with

white wings shot in Malabar.

‘Kavuattri, NILGirRIs. E. G. PHYTHIAN ADAMS,

April 26, 1948. Et Colle Arun (sctcla)

23.--FISHING WITH THE INDIAN DARTER (ANHINGA

MELANOGASTER) IN ASSAM.

(With a photo)

In February 1948 I met a party of about twelve men journeying

along the main Assam trunk road, and carrying with them six

Darters (Anhinga melanogaster). The birds were completely tame,

and were quite oblivious of passing traffic. They were carried on

long bamboo yokes across their owners’ shoulders, as the accom-

panying photograph shows.

SS MLA

I was informed that the party came from the district of Dhubri

in north-west Assam, where they use their Darters as a regular

means of catching fish in the swamps and small lakes adjacent to

the Brahmaputra. Since they were some sixty miles from their

village when I met them I enquired why they were travelling with

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 747

their birds. They told me that during the dry season they often

leave home and ‘vagabond’ through the country, catching fish as

they go and trading it in on the spot for rice and other goods. The

party was quite self-contained when I met them, and those who

were not carrying birds had bedding, cooking utensils etc. I have

since been informed by Mr. W. Shaw M.B.£., A.c.s. (Retd.) that

when he was district officer at Dhubri some years ago he often saw

the local villagers using their Darters; first putting a ring round

their neck, and then launching the bird. On returning with a fish

it was at once given a small piece before sending it out again.

The men I met were Hindus, but Mr. Shaw tells me that he

has most often seen Muslims fishing in this way: so that there

seems to be no question of a special ‘Darter-fishing’ caste.

Two reliable informants have also told me that either Darters

or Cormorants are used in Manipur State on the Burma border for

catching fish in the great Logtak Lake.

March 7, 1948. C. R. STONOR

| Fishing with trained cormorants is still commonly practised in

China, and to a limited extent also in Japan. We were not aware

of Darters being employed for the purpose or that this ‘biological’

method of fishing was in vogue anywhere within our limits. Why

Darters should here be used in preference to cormorants is not clear,

since the former’s narrow head and slender neck naturally makes it

possible for it to tackle only much smaller fish than the cormorant

can.—Eps. |

24.—THE DWARF OR LESSER WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE

[ANSER ERYTHROPUS (L.)] IN INDIA: AN AUTHENTIC

RECORD?

(With a text figure)

Mr. J. L. Hay of 3/2A Auckland Street, Calcutta, recently

intimated having shot on 15 February 1948 a couple of Dwarf

or Lesser White-fronted Geese at Karahgola on the Ganges, near

Sahibganj, Santal Parganas—Bihar. |

His attention was first drawn to a batch of 8 geese which struck

him in the field as different from Grey Lags and Bar-heads. They

were smaller and of a darker plumage. Their alarm call, after the

birds were fired at and were flying away, was ‘an abrupt, mellow,

musical whistling honk, rather soft though not wholly unlike a

goose’.

The most outstanding markings in the 2 examples shot were a

splash of white on the forehead commencing from the top of the

beak up to a point approximately between the eyes. The lower

breast and belly were marked with heavy sooty black blotches. The

soft parts were noted as follows: ‘Bill 13” and of a pale flesh pink.

Eyes dark brown. Edges of eyelids fringed with thin lemon yellow

skin (the most distinctive feature in my opinion). Legs bright

orange yellow’.

748 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 47

The differences between the White-fronted Goose [Anser

albifrons (Scop.)| and the Dwarf or Lesser White-fronted Goose

[Anser erythropus (L.)] are slight, and can be easily overlooked.

It needs critical examination to differentiate the two species and

there is no doubt that records are often confused and undependable.

1. White-fronted Goose. 2. Dwarf Goose.

According, to Stuart Baker (Fauna, Vol@svi,sp- 9400) seen een

India it only occurs in very small numbers but has been recorded

from Sind, Cashmere, North-West Provinces, United Provinces

(more frequently), Calcutta and Assam’. It may be recalled that

on this statement Dr. C. B. Ticehurst commented (J.B.N.H.S.,

Vol. 34, 489) ‘I should accept no records of this bird in India at

all, unless a specimen or head was forthcoming as it has so frequently

been mixed up with albifrons’.

Were it therefore not for the fact that Mr. Hay makes special

reference to the yellow eyelids, which is really the most significant

diagnostic character of the Dwarf Goose, we would have been

inclined to follow Dr. Ticehurst’s advice. In the present case,

moreover, Mr. Hay’s description of his birds is confirmed by his

fellow-sportsman Mr. S. E. Robertson of Sahibganj, Bihar, who

claims over 40 years’ experience of shooting duck and Bese in

that locality and of vetting bags. ;

114 APOLLO STREET, Fort, Bomay.

July 15, 1948. EDITORS

25.—THE WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE [ANSER ALBIFRONS

(SCOP.)| IN MANIPUR, ASSAM.

With reference to the letter of Colonel Hurrell of January 1oth,

1947, on page 168 of Vol. 47, No. 1 of. the Journal, may I

point out that the White-fronted goose (Anser albifrons) has been

recorded in Manipur on at least four occasions between 1916 and

1931, vide my note, ‘Game Birds and Animals of Manipur’, page

414, Vol. 36, No. 2 of the Journal.

ALFORD, LINCOLNSHIRE. J. C. HIGGINS,

February 14, 1948. I. C SaltRetds);

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 749

26.—W HITE-WINGED WOOD-DUCK. |[ASARCORNIS

SCUPULATUS (MUELER)] "ON THE’ PADMA’ RIVER;

RAST BENGAL.

On February 2nd, 1947, I was on the steamer travelling from

Chandpur to Goalundo, up the Padma river, when I noticed a flock

of large ducks on the river in front of the boat. Before they flew

towards the side of the river, we had come within perhaps, a

hundred yards of them, so I had good views through my binoculars.

The general plumage was black, the head grey and there was a

conspicuous patch of white in the wings. The birds were in two

parties, and I estimated that altogether there were some

thirty individuals. With one party was a smaller duck, which

appeared to be a Grey Duck (Anas poecilorhyncha). |The larger

birds can, I think,» only have been White-winged Wood-Duck

(Asarcornis scutulatus). At the time I supposed it might be not

unusual for them to come out of their normal woodland habitat

onto open rivers in the winter. But it appears that there is

little or no previous evidence of any such seasonal movement.

FRIENDS’ SERVICE UNIT,

1 UpPpER Woop STREET, CALCUTTA. He, .G. ALEXANDER

February 7, 1948.

27,—BRONZE-CAPPED TEAL [EUNETTA FALCATA

(GEORGI)] IN ASSAM.

Shooting on 24-25 January last over ‘bheels’ in the Sibsagar

district one of the guns killed a g Bronze-capped Teal. The bird

was in beautiful condition with the faleated feathers well developed.

I have the skin—unfortunately this first effort at skinning a

bird was not very successful and I had to sever the head from the

body. |

DUKLINGIA TEA ESTATE,

MariANI P.O., ASSAM, Hote. OF ROBEY

February 20, 1948.

[Moore obtained three young females at Dibrugarh, Lakhim-

pur Dist., Assam, (J/.B.N.H.S., xv, p. 141). Inglis procured a

specimen at Tirhut in Bihar, and keeping a lookout for it got seven

more in the next season, xiil, pp. 180 and 378). Other published

records are from Samastipur, Bengal (xxxvili, p. 195), Patna,

Bihar (xl, p. 332) and farther west from Jhelum, Punjab, and

Roorkee, U.P. (xxxv, p. 459), Sind (xiv, p. 149) and Kutch (xxxv,

p. 899).—Eps. |

28:—GEESE, DUCK AND TEAL IN SOUTH INDIA.

The following tables of geese, duck and teal shot between 1925

and 1948 are compiled from my game book to show the. comparative

frequency of the various species. The great majority were bagged

“50 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

in the Mysore district, a few round Bangalore and odd birds picked

up while on tour in the Northern Circars and Ceded Districts.

The following notes are added in amplification of my article on

‘Small Game Shooting in Mysore’ published in Journal No. 3 c&

Vol. xli in April 1940:—

(1) All the geese are Bar-headed; I have never heard of the

Grey-lag in South India. |

_ (2) Under the head of Pochards are included one Red-crested

shot at Cumbum in the Kurnool district’, three White-eyed, and 9

Tufted.

Wity, (ath dl Wilke st ida

| | | = im (<> on

Pe | gil ih Sole Jost) et ps Veule a| ads le.

Season v Le 3 Sen & B ales a3 Re aaa ssh

Be eee cee I AE Ie 3°

| | | oO |

1925-26 | — | 4 | 35 | — 4}—),—j]—.|— 3 33 | — 10

1926-27 | 4| 8 69} 4] 5 Jee 13 50s a

1927-28 iy Ss Sy aL | Ig) —j|—|1 39S 2

1928220012186 7) Gs BD || Hy iL 3dr eeeol cea A

1929-30 6 | 10 38 2 | 14 1 1 8 122013 )

1930231 (iso Pele) ale edna eerste eee 4} 69! 5| 35

1931-32 | 1 | 10 30 | — 8};—}—|]—-]— 2 61 4 75

1932-33 Sales3 —,{ 3/—;];—/|—!~j—|1 43 | 7 26

1933-34. | —.| 4 29} —}— | -}|-—-}|—}]—|— | es 4

1934-35 | —= | 7-;> 3£)— |] 13 | 5] —| —~}—) 27) 14) — 64

1935-36 | — | 20 32 }—~|/13}—]—] 1]—]14] 166; 2] 168

1936-37 | 1 | 12 37; 2} §| 3}—}|]—{|—1]13 87 | 19 | 153

1937-38 | — | 36 89} — } 22) 7|—}|—|— {19 | 152) 12] 285

1938-39 | 2) 10 6) | 2 | 44 | 26)— | -—| — | 20 | 29L | lo |. 531

1929-40 | — | 15 Son 21 io at i elt 200) elvan Sz

1910-41 | —}| 4) 14] —}-4)/—]—]—]—]— 9/1] 110

1911-42 | — | 17 20;}— 11} 2}/—]—] 1] 5] 172) 19) 200

1949243 0 -— G Sh) Lillie Se ola lal LAR 208 eee 58

1 O4g=A4e |) 0 17 I 6 1|-—-|— A Mer | SO)" ES 25

1944-45 | —| 4 26!}—}—}—}]—-}]—-}]—-| — 37 Sil 7

1945-16 7; 6} 11;—]19)} 1 —|—| 2] 224; 61 189

1946-47 | — | 12 32} —}|11/—] — lien A 45} 1 13

1947-48 | —) 6 | 117 | — | 32] 7 _ 4 | 292 | 4] 250

Tutals | 38 |289 | 959 | 30 (292 63 | oy 2 | 4 208 raha | 3,095

| | ee

Grand Total ... 5,893

(3) The single Gadwall recorded was shot near Gundlupet in

the Mysore district.

ee ne ee

[* This was published (/.4.N.77.S., 44, p. 130) as the records from sotthern

Madras Province appeared to be so scanty. Inthe same number of the Journal

Aubrey Buxton recorded seeing big flocks of Red-crested Pochard in the Salem

Dist. (p. 120). Curiously enough it would seem to be one of the commonest duck

in the Vizagapatam Dist. (xii, 575) where Stephen Cox recorded as many as 223

during a single season, the most numerous species in the bag being Gadwall

(260). More recently H. G. Lumsden shot 4 Red-crested Pochard and saw about

200 on Tyravallur tank about 30 miles from Madras (46, p. 549).—Ens.]

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES “51

(4) Brahminy—one shot in Mysore and the other near Canna-

nore in Malabar.

(5) Comb ducks—3 shot near Bangalore, and one neax

Gundlupet.

(6) Whistling teal include one of the large variety shot on the

Cubbany river at Nanjangud, (Mysore) and five of the lesser shot

near Masulipatam—the latter proved excellent eating in contrast to

a few Pintails and Garganey bagged near Ellore {W. Godavari)

which were so fishy as to be uneatable.

(7) So far as I know the Mallard has never been recorded in

South India. A note published in the Jowrnal some years ago that

they were not uncommon in Coimbatore appears to have been due

to confusion with the male Shoveller, which in breeding plumage

to some extent resembles the Mallard. Variations in bags are

largely due to the strength or weakness of the N.E. monsoon.

If the latter is strong, all the tanks are full and the birds scattered.

On the other hand if it fails, as happened in 1947, the birds are

concentrated on the few tanks which hold water. In an averaye

season I think that anything over too head in a day may be con-

sidered satisfactory. Only twice in the past 23 years have we

passed the second century, with 202 to 3 guns on 5th April 1942.

and 205 to 4 guns on 27th March 1948—both of these bags included

some snipe and pigeons. Our best bag of duck was 68 Spotbills

and 1 Shoveller to 4 guns on the 28th March 1948 the total for the

day being 114, and for 2 consecutive days 319. But it is very

seldom indeed that 30 duck are obtained in one day, and one relies

chiefly on garganey and cotton teal to fill the bag.

KALHATTI, NILGIRIS. E. G. PHYTHIAN-ADAMS,

April 26, 1948. ; lip Cols,, Toa. (Retd))

29.—'THE BIRDS OF DELHI AND DISTRICT?

- Since the above paper (Journal, B.N.H.S., Vol. 47, No. 2,

p. 277), was written additional information has been collected chiefly

by H. A. C. Gill and-C. R. Cooke, extending the periods in which

winter visitors have been recorded, and adding other data,

as follows :—

Stone-chat—April (27th).

Pied Wheatear—Noted from October to February (16th).

Bluethroat—May (2nd).

Black-throated Thrush—December {1r6th).

Blue Rock-Thrush—December (8th).

Hume’s Willow-Warbler—Noted from December — to

February.

Streaked Wren-Warbler—December (24th).

White-capped Bunting—Noted from January to March,

Common Swallow—December (26th).

Brown Rock Pipit—December (8th).

Crested Lark—May (2oth).

752 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL -HIST.\ SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Blossom-headed Parakeet—Noted from September to end

of March.

Blue-cheeked Bee-eater—Summer visitor.

Numbers seen near the River Jumna in May (18th

and 2oth). [race needs confirmation.—EDs. |

Common Indian Nightjar—Chiefly summer visitor with

some residents.

Lugger Faleon—April (27th).

Kestrel—March (ist).

Long-legged Buzzard—-Noted in March. [species ?—

Eps. |

Common Green Pigeon—Fairly common but very locally

distributed.

The Little Button Quail |[Turnix dussumieri (Temm. &

Laug.)| Status not known. Uncommon. <A pair

seen once only in cultivation near River Jumna in

April (20th).

Little Tern—Resident. Pairs nesting on sandbanks of

River Jumna in April and May. |[race?—Ebs. |

Sociable Ployver—December (tst).

Avocet—Small parties on River Jumna in April (6th and

14th).

Black-tailed Godwit.—Definitely identified on River

Jumna in April (17th and 2oth).

Greenshank—August (18th).

Pelican—March (23rd).

Spoonbill—May (2nd).

Glossy Ibis—Party of 6 seen near River iuoina. in April

(20th).

Cotton Teal—Shikar records from September (16th) to

November (3rd).

Grey-Lag Goose—Noted in November.

Ruddy Sheldrake—Noted to end of April and a few

stragglers in May (2nd).

Spotbill—November (10th and 17th) and March (roth).

Gadwall—Seen in September and October and shot from

November (5th) to March (23rd).

Wigeon—From November (3rd) to March (26th).

Common Teal—August (24th).

Blue-winged Teal—From October (8th) to April (27th).

Red-crested Pochard—Pair seen in November (17th).

Common Pochard—Occurs infrequently in recent shikar

records,—November (5th), December (roth). Small

party on River Jumna at Okhla, December (5th).

White-eyed Pochard—Reported in recent shikar records

as common from October (8th) to March (11th).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 753

Tufted Pochard—Not at all common. Occurs occa-

sionally in recent shikar records from November

(5th) to March (11th). Small parties.

Great Crested Grebe—Winter visitor. Uncommon.

Seen on River Jumna in December (roth) and noted

in shikar records as occasionally occurring on large

jheels during the cold weather.

N. F. FROME

30.—MORTALITY WITHIN NESTS OF TROPICAL BIRDS

In his article on Bird Life in an Assam Jungle, Betts

(J.B.N.H.S. 46:669) states that ‘the casualties . . . were positively

catastrophic and must surely have been’ exceptional.’ He

speculates that giant squirrels and monkeys on the area could have

been responsible. The losses, it must be admitted, are catas-

trophic, as in the case of all six nests of Otocompsa emerta which

were destroyed. The writer has had similar discouraging results

at Barro Colorado Island in the Panama Canal Zone where nests

of passerine species or of hummingbirds were more often than

not, robbed before hatching. Betts’s findings sound remarkably

analogous to the fate of nests of a species like Thamnophilus

punctatus, an ubiquitous bird of the Panama rain forest. In both

cases the percentage of failure is relatively enormous, although the

species concerned probably are not in danger of diminution. Thus,

it would appear that, beset by numerous predators, the breeding

adults lose many eges and nestlings but are as adults relatively

free. My point is that the high loss of nests in the tropics may

likely be found, not exceptional, but quite normal.

There has been so little work on life histories of birds of the

lowland tropical rain forests that bird watchers find it difficult to

accept the tremendous losses as a normal situation. Still, our

colleague in India may compare notes with no less an authority

than Dr. Alexander Skutch who writes (Sci. Monthly 51: 506)

that in lowland rain forests in Panama six out of every seven

nests studied were prematurely destroyed, but that on the other

hand, in the high mountains of Guatemala 55% of the nests

produced at least one fledgling! Losses in the lowlands are due

to monkeys, Swainson’s Toucans but mostly to snakes. To ascer-

tain quantitatively the causes of high nest predation is a challenging

field of study for those ornithologists who reside in lowland tropics.

EASTERN OREGON COLLEGE,

La GRANDE, Orz., U.S.A. CHARLES W. QUAINTANCE

March 8, 1948.

31.—_MY EXPERIENCE WITH PHEASANT BREEDING

IN DHARMSALA CANTONMENT.

In my capacity as Honorary Secretary of the N.I. Association

for the Protection of Wild Life, I felt it incumbent on me to work

7s4 jOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.

out ways and means for increasing ‘game’ which bid fair to be

very fast depleted.

I very soon realised that whereas protection through Game

Laws, and the resultant punitive measures, was the normal way

to stop the excessive slaughter of game, it was only effective in

so far as it dealt with the protection of birds during the breeding

season. For the rest, the taking out of licences to shoot merely

had the effect of putting money which accrued from the sale of

licences, into Government coffers but was completely useless from

the point of view of protection. It only meant that if the vigilance

of forest guards and game inspectors was sufficient to make poach-

ing a very risky proceeding, combined with the co-operation of

magistrates who were prepared to give deterrent sentences, then

the erstwhile poacher became an honest man, paid his fees and

became a licensee.

If on the contrary guards and inspectors were not difficult to

get round, or the magistracy was very much of the mehrbani type

and thought a nominal fine of Rs. 2 covered a venial offence, then

very obviously the poacher remained a poacher, and saw no reason

why he should pay Rs. 5 or Rs. 8 for a shooting lcence, when

he could shoot more or less with impunity for nothing, or at

most, run a very small risk of being challaned and fined Rs. 2.

However, whether a poacher remained a poacher, or became a

licensee, made only a small difference to Government coffers, but

not one iota of difference to the unfortunate game, as in either

case the poacher and the licensee were ‘killers’ under different

names.

There you have the whole crux of Game Preservation in India,

so a department of Government using punitive measures to protect

game is only out to alienate the sympathies and confidence of the

public, for however carefully run, abuse of power is certain to

follow in its wake and one such abuse will counteract the effect

of many benefits in the public mind.

What then is the remedy?—Breeding birds to increase their

numbers.

If this is done on a large scale the effect is two fold, or even

three fold, viz:—(a) You ean keep your licence fees low and still

eive the licensee his heart’s desire in the large increase of game

to shoot. (b) You can breed game separately for hotels and

hostels which are, now, the largest source of destruction, paying,

as they do, high prices for game and thus inducing netting and

noosing on a very large scale. (c) You are winning the confidence

of the “public as a Government that is really out to do something,

to hand over to posterity as good or better conditions than it

inherited from the last Government.

Finally, if Government could see their way to give to the

zemindar the right to the game found on his own property, an

interest would be established which would do more for birds and

beasts than anything else.

If then we accept the axiom that breeding is the only way of

really increasing game it is necessary, in the first place to see how

we should go about it. began with Kali pheasants as these were

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES EG

the common pheasants of the district and best suited to the

height at which I wished to try my experiment. I propounded my

scheme to the Committee of the N.I.A.P.W.L. and the Association

met me half way and agreed to pay for the pen I proposed to

put up. Very fortunately I had exactly the type of land I wanted

in my own grounds, viz.:—fairly well drained ‘terraces covered

with oak trees and oak scrub. Since pheasants perch on trees

at night, it was obvious that perching branches, some 12 to 15

feet above ground, must be fenced in. I selected a site about

100 ft. by 80 ft., on which even the monsoon rains could not lie,

and erected a wired-in pen to take in the whole area selected.

Right round the whole area the wire netting was of 4 inch diameter

to keep out possible snakes and rats. This extended some 6 inches

inward, along the ground and 2 ft. 6 in. upward, above the ground.

The next layer of 38 ft. width was interwoven on to the top of the

original small mesh wire, and was itself of 14 in. mesh, you thus

had the sides of the pen 5 ft. 6 in. in height, to enable a man to

walk about inside, when necessary, with comfort. Just where

the roosting perches are to be, the sides must be raised considerably

so that the top netting will cover them with nearly 2 ft. to spare,

and for the rest the netting on top will remain 5 ft. 6 in. from

the ground, and running up to possibly 12 to 15 feet over an

area of say 10 ft. x 8 ft. where the birds perch.

It is not sufficient to merely have the perching branches in

evidence at 12 ft. or so above the ground, but young scrub and

lower branches coming down almost to the ground, so that later

on the chicks can hop up from branch to branch and roost with

their parents. Having satisfied yourself that your pen is just

what is needed to keep your birds in, and at the same time to

keep out rats, mongooses and snakes, you look well over the in-

side of the pen. If you have an old terraced field where the pen

has been erected, then on the upper side you will have the

remnants of an old wall and if no such thing exists, then you

must build up an earthen butt say 3 ft. high and 6 ft. long with

the upper side built up with earth and stones and covered with

slate to keep out the rain. Into the face of this butt insert two

or three hatching boxes, made of wood a foot long and the same

in height and breadth, but with the front side cut away to within

2 in. of the bottom to give free passage to the sitting hen. If

this box is plastered with greyish or brown colouring to represent a

hollow in a boulder so much the better. A little earth at the bottom

and on it a few blades of grass will constitute a sufficient nest for

the eggs to be placed. It is essential that these boxes should be

let in deep into the butt so that they are dark inside and not

subject to a glare, and just high enough from the ground to be

above any water that may lie. A couple of large projecting

boulders within the pen would supply natural nests for the birds,

the only condition necessary being they are well. covered from the

rain, i.e. the nest below them would be rain proof and the sur-

rounding ground below the level of the nest,

A cock and four or five hens would produce by the end of June

or early July, an average of 12 to 18 eggs per bird. Do not let

750 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 4%

curiosity kill the cat. You will soon know that eggs have been

laid by the birds not being keen to come out for their food when

thrown in for the first day or so. Thereafter the eggs will not

hatch out on the 21st day as in a fowl but on the 25th day, and

thereafter the pen will be alive with the most active little chickens

you have ever seen. The parents will look after them and you

need not worry yourself in the least bit, except to give them

their food regularly.

Feeding and cleaning the pens.—The man who is to look after

the birds must be a person with a little common sense, and it

must be dinned into his head that he is dealing with very shy

and nervous birds, hence his every action must be slow and

deliberate so as not to frighten the birds. He should begin to

sweep out the pen on the side opposite to where the pheasants

have collected on his arrival, then work very slowly round and

the birds will run on ahead of him. If this is done daily the

birds will get quite used to him in a week ox so, especially if he

feeds them as soon as he has finished sweeping. The grain, wheat,

bajra, mukki, barley and rice should all be tried mixed together.

You will soon see which, if any, they discard and which they like

best and act accordingly, A handful per bird in the morning and

the same in the evening, with a feed of choker (bran) mixed with

raw meat, or better still, worms, at midday.

Pheasants, both grown up and chicks enjoy all kinds of worms

and insects and if you have any water channels that are very

often dry you may find under the surface, some 2 to 3 inches

down in the mud, the grub of the crane fly or as the fly is commonly

called daddy-long-legs, which they will devour greedily, also the

erubs of all beetles. By giving them this diet you help your

pheasants as well as your garden, as the crane fly grub is most

destructive. I used to give a couple of chokras, the sons of my

servants, for every cigarette-tin full they brought me As, 2, every

second day. Accustom them to this diet eradually and do not

give too many to start with.

If wild pheasants are to be found in the vicinity it may become

necessary to erect a wire fence a couple of feet away but all round

your pen as the wild cock is certain to come round and challenge

your bird and the fight is a very serious one, even with wire

between and I have had my pheasants eyes put out, on one

occasion, and was able to catch the wild one, whose head was

cut to pieces and he was too exhausted to fly away when I

approached.

The above pens can be improved upon and enlarged a hundred-

fold if required. The only desideratuwm is that two cocks do not

get together so there should alw ays be a partition in between the

pens. <A cock can accommodate half a dozen hens.

If it is intended to breed pheasants on a very large scale then

the above method is uneconomic. In that case you ‘have a large

enclosure, preferably with a stone or mud wall all round and

covered by wire netting above, to keep the pheasants from getting

out and kites and other predatory birds from getting tl The

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES rey)

pheasants should not be allowed to build nests but encouraged to

lay their eggs_on the ground. Every evening these should be

picked up and ultimately, when you have enough, put into an

incubator to hatch out. In this way each pheasant will lay up

to 20 or more eggs, instead of the usual 12 or 13. When the

chickens are hatched they should be handed over to a brooding

fowl which has been introduced into a separate pen and kept in

a coop with bars in front through which the chicks can run in

and out but the fowl cannot.

Thus the chicks will soon learn to run to the foster mother

hen when she calls them and she will keep them warm at night.

PARTRIDGES.

For grey partridges the procedure would be somewhat similar

but the pens need not be so high, and 5 ft. should be ample.

The ground should be covered with brushwood under which the

birds can not only get plenty of shade but cover from birds of

prey. In fact it would be wise to place grass over the upper

Jayer of wire netting. A number of partridges in a pen might very

easily panic should a hawk attack from above, and a panic among

them might very easily mean the death of several, as they are

very strong fliers and one going into the wire netting at full speed

would easily break its neck. |

Choose a place where there are white-ant nests. These will

provide the young with that very desirable food—white-ant ova.

Be very careful from observation of a day or two previous to

building your pens that the white-ant castles do not harbour a

cobra or two, or your partridges will be devoured before they get

going, and the eggs will disappear as soon as they are laid. Also

make sure the place is not infested with rats. If there is water

on it, or flowing through it so much the better.

It might be worth your while planting a little wheat or other

grain on one side of the pen to ensure green food which is very

necessary for both partridges and pheasants.

Hang a lantern near the middle of the pen. This will attract

insects at night and give the birds a small supply of live food.

For the rest a little experience will provide more material than

20 pages of writing from me. Always remember that the birds,

both partridges and pheasants should not be frightened unnecessarily

and the tamer they become the better mothers and layers they

will make. Always approach cautiously, throw in their grain or

whatever food they are jgetting and walk slowly away. In a

short time they will get over their fear of man and look forward

to the keepers approach as it means food and drink. Use your

common sense in all matters.

25th February, 1948. C. H. DONALD

32.—PARAKEETS ATTACKING A SNAKE

At 11 a.m. on 15th December 1947, while walking along a

road in Poona Cantonment, the vociferous screeching of parakeets

(Psittacula krameri Scopoli) attracted attention. The cacophony of

358 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST... SOCIETY, Vol. 4?

these birds emanated from a nearby pipal tree (Tic us religiosa).

The tree in question—an old and tall one and in “tual fact a

composite of three trees fused together—stood in the compound

of a bungalow not more than thirty yards from the low wall

bounding and adjacent to the public ‘road. At about a height of

forty feet from eround level there was a_ visibly shallow and

slightly sloping hollow formed by the tree’s thick branches curving

upwards. This hollow was bathed in sunshine and in it a snake—

a subadult, about four and half feet long—was clearly discernible.

Having made a study of the Ophidia, I am in a position to say

that it was a specimen of the Rat Snake. (Ptyas nucosus Linn.)

Six parakeets—the main actors in the play—were ageressively

attacking the snake. At first, two mynas (Acridotheres tristis

Linn.) and later more additions of this species had gathered around

as spectators,—joining in with their raucous calls to swell the

bedlam of parakeet screeches.

The modus operandi of the parakeets—all of them unafraid

and screeching more in rage than terror—appeared in the melee,

as a rough and tumble attack carried out in relays of green, sun-

lit, feathered bundles of two, three, and sometimes four birds

crash-landing on the snake in two separate lengths of its body.

The upper portion of the victim was extended along one of the

thick branches of the tree with the head lifted clear and swaying,

and turning in all directions in a frantic endeavour to find

some way of escape. The middle and major portion of the body

showed as a heaped-up mass filling the hollow. The lower and

shorter tail-end section appeared glued in a grip on a bend in one of

the branches below the hollow.

It should be noted that the screams of the birds commenced

at a time when the writer was abreast of the spot. So that the

whole incident was witnessed from start to finish—a period timed

by the watch of eight minutes and a few seconds over. Fortunately

the sun in lighting up the scene made the details of the proceedings

quite clear. At no time during this period did the snake attempt

to defend itself or strike out at the birds. On the other hand it

seemed, that in the clamp of fear, it had lost all retaliatory initiative.

The only manifestations on its part were ineffectual endeavours to

escape somehow,

Thus the tussle continued in a series of birds, viciously biting

with their red beaks and clawing in a dance, while their wings

kept beating to maintain balance. All of those birds in the

attack, rismg and falling on the heaped mass of a convulsively

tossing and wrigeling snake painfully reacting to the bites inflicted

—all of which, no doubt, must have been deeply penetrating.

But alas! there was no evidence of ophidian aggression in defence

to warrant this unusual affair in Nature being called a Battle Royal.

The climax as a prelude to a disappointing finish became centred

and confined to one bird only. It may have been that owing to

physical exhaustion, this hero or heroine—no rose ring around “the

neck was i aiBleeee ‘hanged the tactics on its own sean ative by

descending the branch in an ungainly ‘Cake Walk’ —uassisting the

body balance by gripping with its beak the rough excrescences on

the branch. H: aving approached the victim it cored in its beak the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES nag

part of the snake’s body nearest to it. It did all this, while its

comrades continued with the former method of attack. It then

took to wing through a gap in between two of the three thick

branches, forming the hollow. In doing this, and while maintaining

its beak-hold, it dragged the major length of the snake’s body with

it. The pull by the bird, the weight of the snake, and the

force of gravity, resulted in the whole length of the snake being

freed from the hollow and hanging pendant momentarily—just

for a split-second—in which the spectacle was presented, on

the one hand of a writhing frenzied serpent in the grip of a parrot’s

beak and on the other, a fluttering bird acting as a ‘helicopter’

and being partially parachuted to the ground by the weight

borne. In this crisis release was inevitable and the serpent

fell precipitately to the ground some thirty feet. Except for the

injuries sustained and presumably much the wiser for the experience

the snake made off in haste and disappeared into a hole in the

garden wall. The tired birds desisted from any further attacks.

The screeches subsided to a cackle of satisfaction. The parrots

commenced preening themselves. A hush then descended upon

the world: a silence, which gave to the parrots a partial victory

and fortuitously enough to the wounded snake its unexpected

freedom.

Some important facts of biological significance very clearly

emerge from this incident. Except for the singular diversion from

the concerted and patterned form of attack, effected by one of the

birds, all the participants in the general plan of aggression appeared

to be completely without fear. All of them manifested equally

an obsessional rage of intense degree. The equal enmity borne by

all towards the snake precluded singling out any one pair as being

more intensely concerned to guard and protect the interest of any

possible fledglings, or eggs in a nest in the tree. Salim Albi in his ‘Book

of Indian Birds’ (page 92 records that the nesting season over the

ereater part of its range is between April and May. He states

that: ‘when the nest is threatened, the owners summon assistance

and the neighbourhood is soon seething with a noisy rabble of

parakeets intent on shouting aggression down—if nothing else!’

In the case in point, and so far as the cacophony alone is concerned,

the behaviour of all the birds correspond to the description given

by Salim Ali. Since the nesting season is from April to May,

the possibility of a nest, eggs, or fledglings can be ruled out.

The next important feature is referable to the sudden change

in the tactics of attack on the part of one of the birds. Can it be

said, that physical exhaustion caused this bird to devise the new

method of aggression? It is obvious that the display of cunning

exhibited by the change cannot be solely attributed to physical

stress, since there is about the act a reasoned process. By that

performance the snake was gotten rid off. That bird alone

exercised initiative and was able and showed physical prowess

enough to drag away the enemy from the tree’s hollow. This

action does show that parakeets can at times and in a crisis of

the kind described resort—perhaps in a limited way—to a process

of reasoning. It is well known that these birds, apart from the

faculty they possess for imitating and reproducing any sound

760 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL -HiST. SOCIETY, Vol. 4

even that of articulated speech, can be trained to carry out many

acts of different kinds and as Salim Ali notes ‘to ei tricks

such as firing off a toy cannon’.

If the snake had been a cobra and. the “anes aes in thelr attack

behaved in the reckless manner they did with the rat-snake, the

consequences to the birds can, at a guess, be assessed at possibly

a cent per cent mortality. In the evolutionary scale, the defensive

provision in the cobra is of a quality which these foolhardy birds

could never have circumvented, unless the cobra had been a young

specimen with small operative fangs. In young cobras the biting

apparatus is of course perfect. But the effectiveness of a bite

is greatly reduced by feather or fur covering in the victim, or

in the case of a man by a loosely falling pair of cotton or woollen

slacks. Colonel Lamb, I.M.S8., more than half a century ago

arrived at the conviction, that thirty per cent of cobra bitten

victims escape, because of sublethal doses of venom having been

injected. Here then a biological issue arises. Are parakeets

instinctively capable of discriminating between the poisonous and

non-poisonous species of snakes?. There is indirect evidence that

they are, without the finality of proof, because of the part played

by their other avian supporters, the mynas, who it should be

noted, sounded alarm calls without participation in the affray.

This difference in the attitude of the two species of birds demon-

strates the inherent psychological and temperamental courage and

apartness of the parakeets. It has yet to be proved whether the

behaviour of parakeets is subject to a fear complex when faced with

a hissing and venomous cobra.

As regards the behaviour of the snake the absence of any

attempt to defend itself is noteworthy. But apart from the aspect

of fear evinced, the fact that it had attained a height. of about

forty feet on that tree is evidence of its scansorial powers. ‘The

rat-snake is terrestrial more than arboreal. The case in point

suggests the evolutionary tendency in this species toward an

arboreal habit due possibly to the difficulty of finding food in areas

when there is seasonal scarcity.

21, Naprer Ro.,

Poona, A. G, L. FRASER;

20th January, 1948. Capt, I.M.D. (Retired).

33.—A KING-COBRA’S SPEED

In 1933, while trekking along the Sajek Valley, on my way

to the Lushai villages, I was walking down a very narrow hill-

track. This was a game-track, as there was no human. habitation

within fifteen or sixteen miles, and all this area was dense jungle,.

at the foot of the Lushai Hills, the home. of. elephants,

tiger, bison (as vast areas were covered with bamboo, and the

valley itself had sunn grass) and snakes of all varieties. I had

met king cobras here in previous years and had found that they

were just as easily killed with a stout walking cane, as any

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 701

other snake, and it spoilt the skin if one used a gun. Zig-zageine

down a hill-side, I looked over the side to see the river-bed about

a thousand feet below, when I found a fair-sized hamadryad

coming up the same path, just below me. We were bound to

meet, and the hill made it impossible for either to avoid the other.

I managed to scramble five or six feet up the side of the cliff, and

clung on like a spider, and waited for him to appear. I had my

cane climbing stick and my -82 calibre revolver, and with shorts

and shirt and rubber shoes was well equiped for a fast sprint.

In a minute or two the snake appeared, winding along leisurely,

with his skin shining in the morning sun (prcebably he had

lately cast his skin and was going to hole up, as this was

the beginning of October). He did not notice me ‘frozen’ to the

cliff, and after he had’ passed me completely, I stepped down

on the path and switched his tail with my cane lightly to annoy

him, and ran down the path fairly fast but not at my_ best

speed. I saw him erect his head and turn, as I ran, and it very

nearly panicked me into running hard and off the cliff side and

into the river-bed below! About thirty yards further down, as

the path turned, I saw he had not gained on me, and about another

forty yards on, the path widened enough for me to use my cane

with effect, allowing me space to move and manoeuvre myself.

I stopped here and watched him come on. He came right on,

and about nine or ten feet away he stopped and put up his hood.

He must have come up as high as my chest (I stand about five

feet seven inches) as he did this a hard cut with my rather heavy

cane, broke his neck, and he was soon put out of pain. My

experience appeared to show that the King Cobra is hardly faster

than the average good-sized rat snake. I doubt very much whether

an average man going all out would have any great difficulty,

panic apart, in getting away from any snake, even a King Cobra,

which is believed to be the fastest snake in India. Perhaps other

members might be able to shed further light on this.

62, Svep Amir ALI AVENUE,

BALLYGUNGE, CALCUTTA, S. K, GHOSH

lst March, 1948.

84.—MIRROR CARP

With reference to the introduction of the Mirror Carp (Cyprinus

carpio var. specularis) by the Madras Fisheries Department into

suitable freshwater lakes and tanks of India—Journal Vol. 45, p.

244—it is interesting to read in ‘The Field’ newspaper of 8th

November 1947 an account by ‘BB’ of successful angiing for Mirror

Carp in an acre size weedly pond of Hertfordshire, England. There

was previous ground-baiting, and the after-dark or very early

morning fishing was by a crust of bread as bait after the fish had

been attracted to the surface by crusts thrown in at the selected

place. The average size of fish taken was 9 Ibs. but there were

larger specimens than that, may be up to 25 lbs. or more. On

762 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL) HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

account of the heavy weed, strong tackle and drastic methods

were necessary.

Owing to the failure of the monsoon the bed of the Ulsoor

Lake at Bangalore was almost entirely dry during the first six

months of 1947 and there was a great opportunity to have the

floor levelled by bulldozers then available, aud the inud and small

puddles of remaining water removed. Had this been done the

aestivating murrel and any other predaceous species would have

been eliminated—a first requisite to successful stocking of lakes

etc., with assured results to the introduced species. The

opportunity was lost and may not recur for very many years.

Fingerlings of Mirror Carp also cutla (Cutla buchanani) were

introduced into the lake on 16th October 1946 and as wolves and

sheep in the same fold are not good ‘mixers’ it is likely that the

murrel much appreciated the fare provided and _ attained

aldermanic proportions. At present the lake has a dense blanket

of weed over most of its surface so it is not known what success

has been attained.

In August 1947 a consignment of Mirror Carp fingerlings was

flown to the Kumaun lakes in Naini Tal district. Those deep

lakes are never dry so the fish have to take their chance. The

large trout of the Seven Lakes will doubtless have gained

in bulk, but the acclimatization is likely to succeed.

BANGALORE, R. W. BURTON,

ord January, 1948. Lieut.-Colonel, Indian Army (Retd.).

85.—OUTSIZE WHALE-SHARK IN BOMBAY WATERS

Whale-sharks are a rarity in our waters as is evident from the

fact that but ten specimens were landed on the west coast of

India between 1900 and 1941, the authority for the record being

Prater (1941)'. Interest attaches, therefore, to the landing of a

whale-shark of almost leviathan proportions at Navapur (Uchelli),

a fishing village about 65 miles north of Bombay.

Fishermen from this village were out fishing about 15 miles

away from the shore on February 21, 1948, when the shark got

entangled in their nets. The fishermen battled with the monster

for several hours before it was overpowered. It was then hauled

ashore by two fishing boats late that evening.

The shark was a female Rhineodon typus Smith and measured

22 ft. 9 in. in total length, The upper lobe of the caudal fin alone

was six feet long, while the spade-shaped mouth was three feet

wide. The lateral aspect of the body and the tail bore three

characteristic keels, while the body was marked by the usual

spotted colouration,

* Prater, S. W., “The Whale-Shark (Rhineodon typus Smith) in Indian coastal

Waters’, J\B.NVH.S., 42; No. 2) 1941.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 763

The 22 ft. 9 in. size of the whale-shark is a record for our

province and is second only to that of the gigantic specimen of

29 feet landed on the coast of Travancore nearly half a century

ago. The specimen landed at Navapur appears to be the first

recorded occurrence of a female Rhineodon typus on our coast.

Expectations of copious yield of oil from the liver of the

monster were belied, for when the body was slit open the liver

ras found to be of rather diminutive proportions to the size of

the carcass. The liver yielded about 20 gallons of neat oil of

pale yellow colour, almost deficient in Vitamin A content. It

is a well recognised fact that Rhingodon typus is poor both in

respect of oil content of its liver as well as its vitamin potency.

Yield of oil from the liver of a cominon shark of iike size would

easily have been 50 gallons worth about Rs. 1,000,

The landing of a whale-shark on our coast in February lends

additional support to Prater’s inference (op. cit.) that the visits

of these monsters to the coastal waters of India between January

and April are attributable to the abundance of zcoplankton in

these waters during this period.

Bombay, C. V. KULKARNI,

28th March, 1948 Superintendent of Fisheries (Inland).

386.—UTILISATION OF FIRE SERVICE TANKS FOR

FISH REARING!

Several concrete static tanks have been recently constructed

in our cities and towns for fire-fighting purposes. In the Madras

Province, these tanks are being used for storing and distributing

fish-seed, for maintaining stocks of larvicides, and for fish product on

and marketing.

The following are the details of the working of a static tank

attached to the Government House Fish Farm in Madras City.

The tank is concrete-built with a capacity of 150,000 gallons. The

depth of Waters varies from 3 to 10 feet. In July and August 1946,

it was. stocked with 75 fry of Labeo rohita, 8,500 Catla catla,

10 Gourami, 100 Etroplus suratensis and 500 Gambusia affinis.

Earthen pots containing live clusters of lotus and Vallisneria were

submerged in the tank. Clumps of weeds such as Hydrilla and Chara

were introduced; and four manure baskets were also suspended

in the tank. The water was greenish yellow in colour and

contained the following planktonic organisms: Anabaenopsis,

Aphanocapsa, Ceratoceros, Closterium, Cyclops, — Cyclotella,

Cypridopsis, Diaptomus, Daphnia, Huglena, Lyngbia, Melosira,

Microcystis, Nauplius larvae, Navicula, Oscillatoria, Pandorina,

Paramoecium, Phacus, Rotifers, Spirogyra, Spirulina, Synedra,

Suriella, Volvox and Vorticellids.

By the end of November 1946, the Catla fry attained a size of

10 inches; and 8,000 of them were therefore removed for stocking

1 Communicated with the permission of the Director of Industries and

Commerce, Madras.

764 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

other waters. In January 1947, 20 Labeo rohita, measuring 12 to

15 inches in length, were removed for stocking another tank. In

June 1947, another lot of 84 Rohu, 14 to 18 inches in length and

2 to 3 lbs. in weight, were netted and marketed. Other fishes such

as Gourami and EHtroplus, which had grown to 12 and 6 inches

respectively, were removed to another breeding pond. In July 1947

the tank was emptied with the assistance of the Fire Service

personnel to remove the accumulation of decomposed leaves and

debris which had fallen in from the adjoining trees. After cleaning

and drying for a week, the tank was refilled and stocked with a

fresh consignment of fish fry. During the process of cleaning,

a. freshwater turtle (Geoemyda trijuga) and a female eel (Anguilla

bengalensis—386 inches and 3 lbs.) were found in the tank. Exami-

nation of the stomach-contents of the eel revealed the presence of

fish-remains and algal matter. As the tank has concrete wall

4 feet high all round, it is not known how these fish enemies entered

it. It is clear that the innumerable static tanks could with

little attention be utilised for fish rearing in collaboration with the

staff of the Fire Service Department.

8, OrMES Roan,

KinpAuK, Mapras, P. I. CHACKO

37.—FISH PRODUCTION IN RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONAL

WATERS!

The large number of ponds and tanks under the control of

religious institutions like temples and mosques are unexploited for

fish production in view of religious restrictions. These waters

could serve as excellent fish sanctuaries since the fish population

would be protected and allowed to grow and breed freely. It was

Thomas (1870) who first suggested the utilisation of religious

institutional waters for breeding of Gourami and other species.

Under the Grow More Food campaign, the Madras Fisheries were

able to persuade the authorities to allow pisciculture in their tanks

with due consideration to the prevailing religious sentiments. And

many of the trustees have since taken to fish-rearing and market-

ing for themselves, besides placing certain waters at the disposal

of the department for demonstration purposes. Others have

permitted. fish-breeding only for removal of the offsprings for re-

distribution to other waters. Thus the religious institutional

waters serve as breeding and nursery areas and also as fish pro-

duction centres.

The ecological conditions of these waters are favourable for

fish-life. The optimum conditions such as heat, light and nutrient

substances and algal growth are found in these waters (Ganapati,

1940). The macrovegetation usually occurring in them are:

“ Communicated with the permission of the Director of Industries and

Commerce, Madras,

}

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 705

Nymphaea lotus, N.rubra, N.stellata, Nelumbium speciosum,

Jussiaea repens, Ipomea aquatica, Ceratophyllum demersum,

Aydrilla verticillata, Vallisneria spiralis, Ottelia alismoides,

Hichornia speciosa, Typha elephantina, Pistia stratiotes, Lemna

polyrrhiza, Potomogeton pectinlatus, Najas indica and N.minor.

The following organisms are usually met with in these waters:

Amphora, Anabaena, Aphanocapsa, Caridina sp, Chaetoceros,

Closterium, Copepods, Corixa, Coscinodiscus, Cosmarium, Cyclops,

Cyclotella, Daphnids, Dipteran larvae, Ephemerid larvae, Hudorina,

Eunotia, Eudorina, Euglena, fish egea and larvae, Fragilaria,

Gloecapsa, Gyrosigma, Halosphaera, Heliozoa, Lyngbia, Mastoglova,

Melosira, Micronecta, Microcystis, Nauplius larvae, Navicula,

Nitzschia, Notonecta, Oedogonium, Oscillatoria, | Pandorina,

Pediastrum, Phacus, Pithophora, Pleurosiqgma, Spirogyra, Spirulina,

Staurastrum, Suriella, Synedra, Rotifers (Hydatina and Philodina),

veliger larvae and Volwox,

Details of growth in the first year of some of the species

recently grown in these waters are as follows:—

Size in inches, Weight Location of the

Name of fish attained in the in lbs. religious water.

first vear.

Catla catla 27 a Madura.

Osphronemus goramy 10 14 Coimbatore.

Chanos chanos 25 2 Rameswaram.

Barbus hexagonolepis 7 1 Coimbatore.

Etroplus suratensis 9 + Chittoor,

Gourami and Etroplus have bred in the religious waters in

Calicut, Coimbatore, Coondapur, Karkal, Madras and Tenkasi.

These waters have thus formed valuable seed sources. Catla has

erown to 38 feet and 35 pounds in three years in the Sri Meenakshi

temple tank in Madura. In the Sri Gangadheswarar temple tank,

Madras, about 1 acre in area, about 500 pounds of fish were

harvested within a period of 10 months in 1947.

Apart from fish-food production, rearing of fishes in these

waters is useful from the point of view of public health. Many of

these waters are breeding places of mosquitoes, and many emit

a foul odour, especially when having a bloom of the blue-green

alea, Microcystis (Ganapati, 1940). Rearing of fishes reduces both

mosquito larval incidence and microcystis bloom, and thus makes

the waters cleaner. It is observed that the carp-minnow, Rasbora

daniconius (Hamilton) is the best suited species for reducing water

blooms.

Tt is of interest to note here that certain sections of the river are

protected from fishing by the priests of the temples nearby. Thus

* the: Mahseer. and other large carps find a peaceful sanctuary in

river. stretches near. Todikana, Cicily and Bantwal in South

Kanara district, and near Courtallam and Papanasam in Tinnevelly

district." The fish in these areas are considered sacred and are fed

76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY ‘NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

by the priests and worshippers. These fishes thus breed and give

rise to the annual fisheries in other sections of the rivers.

8, OrmMES Roan, P. I. CHACKO.

Kinpauk, Mapras.

REFERMNCES.

Ganapati, S. V. (1940)—The Ecology of a Temple Tank containing a

permanent bloom of Microcystis aeruginosa (Kutz) Henfr. Jour. Bom. Nat. fist.

Society, Vol. 42, No. 1, pp., 65-77. .

Thomas, H. S. (1780)—Report on Pisciculture in South Kanara, London.

88:—PURSE-SEINER OPERATING IN BOMBAY:

NEW EXPERIMENT TO CATCH FISH

(With a text figure)

Amid the thousands of vessels that dot Bombay’s harbour is

one that stands out distinctively. Brought out specially from

Shot)

Si 4

Perse cee

oe atin

a x Se

Set tee

Ss se a

eens cer teen teense nt

An artist’s impression of what the purse-seine looks like when a shoal of

fish is encircled and the purse-line passing through the rings along the bottom

edge of the net is being pursed as the operation is technically known. In this

operation the purse-line is pulled in by the winch on the parent vessel.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 707

America, the vessel is technically known as Purse-Seiner, the proto-

type of which was used first in 1826 by three Rhode Island

fishermen to catch fish that moved in big shoals. Their net, a

purse-seine, from which the vessel takes its name was 65 fathoms

long and 284 meshes deep and was used from a rowing boat.

Both the net and the vessel have undergone vast transformation

in the 120 years that have elapsed since the pioneer enterprise

of the three Rhode Islanders.

The purse-seiner now operating in Bombay incorporates all

the most up-to-date features of such vessels, which are extensively

used off the Pacific coast of the U.S.A. She carries one net which

alone costs Rs. 60,000. Its most distinguishing feature is its

versatility as it is capable of being used for alpnont every type of

the more important commercial marine fisheries

Outstanding Features

The vessel is noteworthy for the location of the deck-house,

which is set well forward. <A single mast, carrying the heavy

boom, rises at the after end of the deck-house, while a purse

winch is set up on the deck between the mast and the hatch

opening. Occupying the entire after-quarter of the boat is the

turn-table which is perhaps the outstanding single characteristic

of the purse-seiner.

Apart from fishing, purse-seiners proved invaluable during the

last war, when it was found that they could be quickly and

economically adpated to naval uses. They were employed to patrol

the coast of the U.S.A. and were also employed on mine-sweeping

work. Viewed through the eyes of the Navy, their hull arrange-

ment was found to be ideal. The clearing aft-deck permits of

easy handling of the gear for sweeping mines. The mast and

derricks fitted to handle fish can just as easily handle mine-

sweeping gear, while the crow’s nest at the masthead, where

the look-out is posted to watch for fish, serves just as readily

a look-out position for mines, or to report the approach of enemy

vessels and aircraft. On the deck are situated the wheel-house,

look-out, bridge, gully and crew’s quarters, while below the deck

are the engine-room, fuel, lubricating oil and water tanks, chain

lockers and miscellaneous storage space

Device to detect Fish

Fishing in our waters is now done in a primitive manner, the

fishermen. going out to sea and casting their nets heedless whether

fish are there or not. The fishermen just wait on the blind chance

for fish to get entangled in the nets. These methods of fishing

will be completely revolutionised by one of the instruments the

purse-seiner carries. This instrument, a Fathometer, is a device

akin in some respects to submarine detecting apparatus or

radar. It enables the skipper to track fish almost down to their

lair, for shoals appear as shades on the screen of the Fathometer.

All the present indiscriminate waste of energy and effort in catch-

ing fish will be eliminated, as the crew will pave out the purse-

768 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL..HIST.. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

seine only when and where the presence of schools of fish is

indicated,

Wireless Telephone

_ The vessel is also equipped with a wireless telephone which

will enable it to keep in constant touch with the office of its

owners in Bombay. This office has a receiving set and will be

able to know the exact location of the vessel at any moment.

The purse-seine itself consists of a long stretch of tarred

cotton webbing hung between a cork line and a lead line. Cork

floats are strung on the cork line to support the net in water,

while the lead line is weighted so that the net hangs vertically.

From the lead line hang rings along the entire lower edge of the

net, a heavy line running through the rings.

Some idea of the size and power of the vessel is furnished by

the fact that not only has it come to India under its own power

all the way from America but also that it carries another small

power vessel which is used exclusively as a pivot to hold one end

of the net while the parent ship encircles the shoal. This small

vessel or skiff is carried by every purse-seiner on the top of the

net on its turn-table. When a school of fish is sighted this skiff

is dropped overboard from the stern of the purse-seiner which rung

ahead while the men in the skiff move in the opposite direction,

with the result that the net is drawn off the turn-table into the

water as the vessel encircles the school. The two boats complete

the circle,

The winch on the deck to which the purse-line is attached

then starts working. As the line is drawn the lower end of the

net closes completely in the form of a purse surrounding the

fish. The transfer of the fish from the net to the boat is

accomplished by brailing which consists of plunging a huge dip

net into the seine net, raising it by power and moving it over the

hatch through which the fish are discharged into the hold.

The vessel, which has been brought out for experimental

purposes by one of the numerous new concerns in the fish trade

with the active encouragement of the Government of India, at a

cost of over Rs. 5,50,000, has a length of 82 feet, while its breadth

is 19 feet. It is equipped with a high-powered diesel engine

and has comfortable living accommodation for a crew of 14, the

number of Americans and Cubans who have brought it out to

India. The ship is equipped with refrigeration plant, the cold

storage capacity being 60 tons.

The value of many more such vessels being introduced in

the fish trade is obvious, specially in view of our adverse climatic

conditions and the comparatively great distance from Bombay at

which shoaling fish occur. The refrigerating facilities are, for this

reason, a special boon. Apart from the value of such vessels to

the fish trade, their importance from the naval aspect cannot be

overlooked.

Bombay, | S. B. SETNA, pH. p.

April, 1948, Director of Fisheries

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES “69

39.—THE BIOLOGY OF DANAUS CHRYSIPPUS L.

I have been rearing this species in very considerable numbers

during the last few years in the course of experiments designed to

determine whether the pupating laryae showed any colour * prefer-

ence in the selection of their pupating sites and whether there was

any relation between the colour of the pupa and its surroundings.

There are, therefore, a few additions that I would like to make “to

Messrs. Mukerji and Behura’s very comprehensive paper under this

title in this journal (Vol. 47, 111:1947).

The experiments were comparatively simple: a lidless box,

some eight inches long by six wide by two deep, was fixed with

the open side against a well lighted window that escaped direct

sunshine. The top of the box was fitted with a cardboard strip

eight inches long by two wide enamelled in inch wide stripes of

various colours and a similar strip was fitted to the back of the

box, continuing the colours down the back for two inches. Hight

colours were used—pink, red, brown, black, green, blue, white and

cream—and a series of strips were prepared so that all possible

sequences of colour were employed. As soon ag a larva started its

prepupational wandering, it was placed in this apparatus and a note

was kept of the colour of the stripe from which it suspended itself

and the colour of the resulting pupa. These records have, un-

fortunately, been mislaid so that I can give no actual figures, but

the experiments, in which several hundred larvae were used,

showed that there was no colour preference in the selection of the

pupating site but that there was a very decided preference for a

site towards the angle formed by the top and side of the box,

very many more pupae being suspended from the two outermost

stripes at each end, irrespective of their colour, than from the

four middle stripes of each enamelled strip. I could trace no

relationship between the colour of the pupa and its surroundings.

As regards my record of the food-plant of this species as

Calotropis procera, it is quite possible that, so far as Calcutta is

concerned, this is incorrect. The food+plant was identified for me

in 1925 in the Punjab and, being no botanist, the Calcutta food-

plant appeared to me to be the same species. On the evidence

now brought forward it seems likely that the food-plant in

Caleutta is C. gigantea, although C. procera is undoubtedly a food-

plant where it occurs.

The ovum is usually laid singly on a leaf of the food- plant,

more often on the lower than the upper surface, but there is no

exposed portion of the plant that does not carry its quota of ova

I have found them on the flower-buds, flowers and unripe fraits,

as well as on their stalks, and also on the main stem, both green

and brown. I have even found ova on. the leaves of a hibiscus

that was growing intermingled with a plant of Calotropis.

In Caleutta the species is continuously brooded, but it is

probably at its peak at the end of the cold and early in the hot

weather.

The non-recording of the fact that the larva will feed on the

flowers is, surely, due to this being in no way remarkable. There

are few, if any, leaf-feeding larvae which will not also feed on the

“0 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 4%

flowers of their food-plant, although the converse is not always

true, many flower-feeding larvae will not eat, or at any rate not

thrive on, leaves. The difference in the colour of the frass is, of

course, due to the absence of chlorophyll from the flowers; this

chlorophyll producing the green colour of the frass from leaf-feeding

larvae.

I have not noticed any difference in colour between leaf—and

flower-feeding larvae, but there is a very pronounced difference

between most wild larvae and those reared in captivity. In wild

larvae the transverse black lines are usually very fine, but in cage-

reared examples they are much broader and, in extreme examples,

the lines bounding the subdorsal yellow spots may widen so much

that they meet, forming a solid black band enclosing the vellow

spots. This increase in the width of the black lines appears to be

due to lack of light. (Sevastopulo, 1945, Hntomologist, 78: 117).

Before leaving the larva, it may be interesting to record here

that I have one very extraordinary teratological aberration. This

has, in addition to the usual tentaculae on the 2nd, 5th and 11th

somites, extra tentaculae on the left side only on the 8rd, 6th,

7th, 8th, 9th, 10th and 12th somites. The right side shows no

trace of any additional tentacula. JI have bred this species in

hundreds, as well as Danaus limniace Cr. and Huploea core Cr.,

but I have never seen another larva like this. (Sevastopulo, 1946,

Entomologist, 79: 90).

As regards the colour of the pupa, surely it should be termed

polychroic, since no fewer than five colour forms are enumerated,

I myself have never bred anything but green and pinks forms in my

mass rearing and I have not noticed any separation into a dark

and pale shade in normal, full-sized pupae. I have, however,

noticed that undersized pupae, presumably from underfed larvae,

are often paler in colour than full-sized ones. It is worth mention-

ing that the colour of the pupa can usually be detected an hour or

so before the final moult takes place, and also that the yellow

spots of the larva are present on the newly formed pupa, gradually

disappearing as the pupa hardens. So far as I can make out, the

colour of the pupa is not due to environmental factors and. is

probably genetic,

So far as I know, there are no records of any dipteron

parasitising a lepidopterous host in the ege stage, nor do [I think

it possible that a newly hatched lepidopterous larva could Su Os

the parasite’s ovum undamaged along with its own egg-shell,

jaws would be far too minute. That certain tachinids | infe i

their hosts by laying their eggs on the food-plant and their subse-

quent swallowing, is, of course, well known, but strangely enough

I have never reared a tachinid from any chrysippus larva or pupa

that I have reared ab ovo, although I have had them in numbers

when half grown larvae were collected and reared. The tricho-

crammid egg parasite is often very common and must be one of

the chief controlling factors for the species. The other hymenop-

terous parasite that IT bred pupated inside the host pupa and

emerged through a hole gnawed in the centre of the wing case!

It seems to be more common outside Calcutta.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 7

Turning to the imago, | have never found either f. alcippus Cr.

or dorippus Klug in Calcutta, but a fair proportion of Calcutta

specimens have a lew white scales along the veins on the disc of

the hind wings, and a small percentage have a more or less

pronounced tawny suffusion in the black of the apex of the fore-

wing. There is also an unnamed variety which has the black of

the thorax replaced by very dark coffee brown. I have bred one

example of ab. amplifascia Talbot from a Calcutta larva, in this

form the white sub-apical spots are extended inwards to the disco-

cellular vein. Ab. bowringi Moore, with an extra white sub-

marginal spot in interspace 2, is not uncommon.

I can also record a few more instances where this species has

been accepted or refused by birds and lizards. All these records

were originally published elsewhere.

A gecko, species unknown, seized a larva without hesitation

but threw it away immediately and refused a second. one.

(Sevastopulo, 1942, Hntomologist, 75: 206).

A tame Racket-tailed ‘Drongo (Dissemurus paradiseus) picked

up and pecked at a full-grown larva but dropped it immediately and

did everything possible to remove the juice from its beak. The

same bird ate a pupa and also an imago, (Sevastopulo, 1942,

Entomologist, 75: 281). The same bird swallowed and then

regurgitated a pupa of the species and ignored a second one.

(Sevastopulo, 1948, Hntomologist, 76: 148).

A tame Red-whiskered Bulbul (Otocompsa jocosa) took a half

inch long larva after some hesitation and then dropped it. A

second larva was refused. (Sevastopulo, 1946, Hntomologist,

G2s (5),

Lonpon,

8th November, 1948. D. Ga SEVASTOPRULO- Berane:

40.—A HONEY-BEE IN THE NEST OF A, MASON-WASP.

I should much appreciate it if you would be kind enough to

tell me something about the habits of the mason wasp. Hitherto

I have been rather vague as to whether there might be more

than one species. Until I left Khandala a few days ago, I had

believed there were but two which built the clay nests and which

most people are familiar with—the one slightly larger wasp,

with maroon and yellow bands around its abdomen and which

inserted a grub or caterpillar after completing the building; the

other smaller of a steel-blue colour and which I had _ observed

carrying insects but whose nests I had never bothered to differen-

tiate from the former’s. That both would readily sting if interfered

with I had had good reason to remember. But that the occupant

of any such nest might be a living honey bee, surprised me recently

and rather painfully.

It was while unrolling my tent that I discovered half-a-dozen

of these clay nests in a group on the canvas, and about ‘an

inch in length and approximately the shape and thickness of a

cigarette. I detached some of them by a sweep of my hand;

972 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST:.SOCIETY, Vol. a3

nearly all thus broke open or were damaged. A few remained

adherent to the canvas and in picking up one of these, with an

open end, I received a sting on the finger. On opening the nest

I found a single and perfectly healthy honey-bee. The contents

of the other nests were a few living small spiders and fragments

or skeletons of more, but not a single grub or caterpillar. I

assumed that these nests had been built by the smaller, steel-blue

wasp simply because I had observed one in my bedroom during

the previous couple of days and had seen it dragging a dead

cricket across my dressing table. The only honey-bees I am

familiar with are the very small in size, the medium and _ the

lange (the latter known in some parts of India as the ‘bora’ bee

and fully an inch in length). The one I found in one of these

clay nests and which stung me was of the medium size. That

nest contained nothing besides this living bee. Whether one end

of the nest had always been open I cannot say, for I supposed

I had damaged it at the time. I have since been wondering

whether the wasp had captured this bee (larger than itself) and

sealed it within the nest, or whether the bee had found it open

and empty and, for reasons of its own, entered and remained

in it. The tent (80 lb., double fly) had been loosely rolled up

when leaving the jungle in the middle of February and I had

not taken it out on my subsequent trips thither, so I have no idea

as to when those clay nests were being built—the outside of the

folded and rolled-up tent had been flitted with 5° D.D.T, on

each occasion that I returned to Khandala.

‘HIAWATHA’

LOVEDALE, K. BOSWELL,

NILGIRIS, Capt.

10th April, 1948.

Asked to comment on the above, Lt.-Col. R. W. G. Hingston,

author of the excellent contributions on Mason and Potter Wasps

(vols. xxxi & xxxii) and several other memorable papers in the

Journal, wrote: ‘It is now so long—well over 20 years—since I

have had an opportunity of observing mason wasps that I feel too

rusty on the subject to send you anything for publication in the

Journal, But the following points come to my mind on reading

Capt. Boswell’s letter, and you may care to pass them on to him.

There are far more than one species of mason wasp. Possibly

there are more than 100 species in India alone. The one he

refers to with maroon and yellow abdominal bands is probably

Eumenes. The steely blue one is probably ihynchium. The

clay nests, shaped like a cigarette and stored with spiders, which

he found in the folds of his tent, may have been made by a

species of Sceliphron. That one of these cells should have

contained a healthy honey-bee is an occurrence I cannot explain.

No mason wasp, so far as I am aware, stores or attracts honey-

bees; and a mud nest is not a place where one would expect a

honey-bee to go of its own accord. I wonder could there be any

mistake in identification? Some mason wasps—such as Rhhynch-

ium—have the habit of resting in their cells, and will sting if they

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES... TEE

ire interfered with; and there are some which might be said to

have a faint resemblance to a honey-bee. If Capt.. Boswell

picked one of these out of its cell, it would sting him, and he

might in the confusion mistake it for a honey-bee. This may

not seem a likely explanation; and there may well be a better

one; but it is the only one I can offer, for if there has been no

mistake in identification, then the event is to me a mystery.’

Col. Hingston’s comments were passed on to Capt. Boswell, and

here is what he says: “As to the possibility of my having been

mistaken in the identification of that which stung me being a

honey-bee: This point is interesting to me; for, even without a

full knowledge of the habits of mason wasps, it would surprise

me to learn that a honey-bee had been actually captured by a

mason wasp for storing in its nest. Of course, at the time in

question, and by associating the spider contents of the other nests

with the presence of this bee alone in a similar one amongst them,

I had assumed that it had been similarly captured. and for the

same purpose. but, if I did not mention it before, I would like

to add now that this nest, from which I received a sting, was

open at one end. As it had remained intact and adherent to the

tent after I had brushed. off, or thus partly destroyed, the other

nests, I made to pluck it off by seizing it-at either end between

finger and thumb and then was stung from the open end.

Snatching away my hand, I saw the end of the abdomen of this

‘“‘bee’”’ protruding from the opening—moving concertina-wise—in the

manner of such insects during respiration. This open end must

suggest that the inmate was not a captive; or, if a captive, that

the wasp had not sealed that end for some reason. But whether

the prey had been partially incapacitated by a sting from the

wasp, I could not have judged then; for, in destroying the

containing nest, my servant had also struck at the exposed occupant

with his hand as it struggled in the debris. This blow did not

kill it and it began to walk confusedly about the canvas. So, it

had retained at least its powers of locomotion. To me—as well

as to my servant—it was a honey-bee; and, until I am shown a

wasp with a similar resemblance to it, I am obliged to repeat my

belief that this was a honey-bee. However, in the light of Col.

Hingston’s experienced observations on the matter, the presence

of a living bee in an open wasp’s nest seems to be an interesting

mystery at present.’ —Eps.

4J.—ON A VARIETY OF ACANTHOLEPIS FRAUENFELDI

MAYR. (FORMICIDAE) NEW TO INDIA.

Not less than fifteen varieties and a number of sub-species of

the ant Acantholepis frauenfeldi Mayr. have so far been recorded

throughout the world besides three varieties from India.

The new variety of A, frauenfeldi collected by us was found

attending on the common yellow plant-lice Aphis neru (Fonsc.)

on the common Calotropis giganta Br., (Bengali: Akanda) in our

college garden at Ballygunge, Calcutta and near about its locality

in the months of September, 1945 to December, 1945.

“74 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

This new variety of ant differs from that of the species

A. frauenfeldi in the maximum limit of size. The former is 3 to

4 mm. (av. 3.815 mm.) whereas the latter’s maximum length

recorded is 8 mm. The general colour is piceous-brown. The

pronotum is constricted behind. The tooth of the mesonotum is

more distinct. The legs and antennae are yellowish brown.

Pubescence is fair on the head and abdomen.

ENTOMOLOGICAL LABORATORY,

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

35, BALLYGUNGE CIRCULAR Roan, DURGADAS MUKERJI,

CALCUTTA. BASANTA KUMAR BEHURA |

REFERENCES.

1. Bingham, C. T. (1903). Fauna of British India, Hymenoptera (2): 316.

2. Mukerji, D. and Behura, B. K. (1947). ‘Observations on the Biology of

Aphis nerii (Fonsc.)’, Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 46 (4): 684-686.

42.—REMARKS ON APHIDS ON NERIUM ODORUM. SOL.

AND CALOTROPIS GIGANTEHA BR.

The European and American forms of the aphid Aphis neri

(Fonsc.) are known to infest plants belonging to the natural orders

Apocynaceae and Asclepiadaceae. In India, it is reported that this

species is restricted only to Asclepiads. In this note, we record

for the first time that this species in India occurs on the plant

Nerium odorum Sol., popularly called the Oleander and belonging

to the natural order Apocynaceae. It is remarkable to note that

the species of aphid occurring on the Apocynaceae is regarded by

Theobald (1915) as different from the one occurring on Asclepi-

adaceae. But ‘Das and van der Goot (1918) and Swain (1919) from

California were of the opinion that these two species of Aphis are

one and the same though occurring on the host-plants of two

different natural orders. We find in Calcutta that the aphid

occurring on the Asclepiad Calotropis gigantea Br. closely

resembles the species on Oleander of the natural order Apocynaceae.

But there is a remarkable difference between them with regard

to the number and distribution of the secondary sensoria on the

IIT antennal segment. In the species A. nerii occurring on the

Asclepiad C. gigantea, the number of sensoria varies from 9 to 12 in

the alate viviparous parthenogenetic females, whereas in the species

similar to A. neri but occurring on Oleander, the sensoria

number varies from 6 to 7 in the alate viviparous parthenogenetic

forms. The authors substantiate the views of Theobald that they

are two species and propose that the name Aphis asclepiadis of

Passerni be retained for the one inhabiting the plant Calotropis and

the other Asclepiads and Aphis nerti Fonse., for the one found

on Oleander, on the understanding that Aphis nerii of Fons-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 775

colombe is not synonymous with Aphis asclepiadis of Passerni

though these. two were shown to be one and the same by Das

(1918) and put as synonyms by George (1927).!

ENTOMOLOGICAL LABORATORY,

DEPARTMENT OF Zoouoay, DURGADAS MUKERJI.

CaLcurta UNIVERSITY, BASANTA KUMAR BEHURA

30, BALLYGUNGE CrrcuLAR Roap,

CALCUTTA.

REFERENCES.

_ Das, B., “The Aphididae of Lahore’. Mem. Ind. Mus. 6 (4): 204-206 (1918).

George, C. J., ‘South Indian Aphididae’. Journ., Asiatic Soc. Bengal N.S.,

23: 5-6 (1927).

Swain, A. F., ‘A Synopsis of the Aphididae of California’. Univ. California

Pub. Technical Bull. Entom. 3 (1): 117-118 (1919),

.43.—THE GENUS CHROPHGIA

In a recent note published in the Journal (46: 742-8, 1947),

the writer remarks: ‘It is incumbent on every systematist to

strictly follow the International Rules of Botanical Nomenclature

while dealing with taxonomical problems.’ May I bring out a few

points in connection with McCann’s altering C. odorata to C.

blatteri. The writer of the note seems to imply that McCann has

not followed the rules: it is mainly from.a thorough study of such

Rules that I have come to the conclusion that McCann is justified

in creating a new name.

Grabam’s Catalogue, p. 118, no. 896 runs: ‘CU. odorata N.

Flowers yellow, fragrant; so unusual in the genus.’ That is all

the description given by Nimmo. Now, according to the Rules

this short description was effectively published when it appeared

in Graham’s Catalogue in 1839. But Art. 37 states that ‘a name

of a taxonomic group is not validly published unless it is both

(1) effectively published (see Art. 36), and (2) accompanied by a

description of the group or by a reference to a previously and

effectively published description of it’. Art. 44 further adds:

‘The name of a species or of a subdivision of a species is not validly

published unless it is accompanied (1) by a description of the group;

or (2) by the citation of a previously and effectively published

description of the group under another name; or (3) by a plate

or figure with analyses showing essential characters; but this

applies only to plates or figures published before January 1, 1908.’

OC. odorata Nimmo was effectively published by its insertion in

Graham’s Catalogue, but none of the conditions for a valid publi-

FURTHER COMMENTS

1 This piece of research work was carried out in the Loology Department

of the Caleutta University when the junior author was a post-graduate student.

776 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL..HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 4%

cation were fulfilled; Nimmo’s description is not sufficiently explicit

for the identification of the plant and there are neither references

nor plates accompanying Nimmo’s scanty description. From my

discussions with McCann himself before both of us left India, I

know this to be the idea he had in his mind, although unfortunately

the wording of his note in the Journal (45: 210-11, 1945) is

somewhat vague.

Nimmo’s remark ‘so unusual in the genus’ may refer to the

colour of the flowers, to their fragrance, or to both colour and

fragrance taken together. As to the colour: there are actually

two yellow Ceropegia spp. in the Konkan: one is the plant in

question, the second is the unnamed plant mentioned by Nimmo

after No. 898. The latter plant is the only common species of

Ceropegia in Khandala; its flowers are yellow, except that when

old and decaying they turn dingy white. McCann has named this

plant C. evansi. As to the fragrance of the flowers: I have

examined several species of Ceropegia in the field and found that

they possess but the faintest traces of scent; fragrance in my

opinion cannot be used for the identification of the Bombay

Ceropegias. My conclusions are the same as McCann’s, that is to

say, that the plant named C. odorata by Nimmo cannot be identi-

fied with certainty either from its colour or its fragrance.

It is somewhat astonishing, then, that Hooker was able to

identify his own plant as being the C. odorata of Nimmo; this

could only be done from actual specimens identified by Nimmo

himself. There are no specimens in the Hooker Herbarium pre-

served at Kew which have been identified by Nimmo. Strictly

speaking, then, what Hooker actually did was to describe a new

plant of his own, which he could have named as he pleased, but

which he named CU. odorata Nimmo on the assumption that both

plants were identical. Hooker, however, has not proved such an

identity.

The following are the steps by which McCann came to the

conclusion that a new name was needed for Hooker’s plant:

1. Nimmo’s description is too vague, and cannot be accepted

as sufficient for the identification of the plant.

2. Hooker assumed the identity of his plant with that of

Nimmo, but had no means of proving the two plants were identical.

In view of Nimmo’s scanty description and in the absence of

Nimmo’s type specimens, the specific identity of the two plants

cannot be determined with certainty. .

8. Hooker’s plant has been sufficiently described in Fl. Brit.

Ind. 4: 75, 1888, and its inclusion in the Flora is enough for its

valid publication,

4. Hooker’s plant cannot be called C. odorata Nimmo, for the

reasons just given; it cannot be called C. odorata Hooker, for the

specific epithet is preoccupied by Nimmo’s older one; this is

according to Art. 61 of the Rules.

5, Hooker’s plant, therefore, has to be given a new name, and

this: has been done. by McCann,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 777

6. McCann, however, should have written Ceropegia Blatteri

McCann, nom. nov.; such a name is obviously not a new

combination, but an entirely new name.

My own conclusions are the same as McCann’s, or to put them

more Clearly, they may be summarized thus:

1. Ceropegia odorata Nimmo stands, but merely as the name

of an uncertain species.

2. Hooker’s plant cannot be called C. odorata.

3. McCann is perfectly justified in giving a new name. to

Hooker’s plant, :

4. The name and synonymy of Hooker’s plant is as follows:

Ceropegia Blatteri McCann, nom. nov. in Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist.

Soc. 45: 210-11, 1945. Syn.: C. odorata Hooker f., in Fl. Brit.

Ind. 4: 75, 1883 (non C. odorata Nimmo, 1839, nomen dubium).

These conclusions are based on my interpretation of Art. 44 of

the Intern. Rules of Bot. Nomencl. During a recent discussion

with several of the Kew specialists on the Ceropegia odorata

question, my interpretation of Art. 44 was accepted as correct.

THe Herparium & Lisrary,

Royat Boranic GARDENS, H, SANTAPAU, ‘8.3,

Kew, Surrey, ENGuANpD,

12th January, 1948,

44,—CAVE FAUNA

I would like to correct an error in my note on Cave Fauna

(Journ., Bom. Nat. Hist, Soc., Vol. 46, No. 4, April 1947), On

p. 090 I said that the large cave campodea from caves in the

Simla Hills is much larger than the campodea of the Mammoth

Caves of America.

This is a mistake due to the use of a wrong scale factor when

taking measurements from an enlarged photograph. Re-measur-

ing from a photograph taken at exactly natural size with a Leica

1/1 extension shows that it would be correct to say that this

Indian campodea is at least as large as the huge cave campodea

of America. My measurements make the length with antennae

and cercopods about 8 mm. as against about 64 mm. for

Campodea cookei Packard. |

The specimens which I obtained are undetermined, un-

described and destroyed. The insect awaits rediscovery. The

most promising area is Baghat State in the Simla Hills and in

particular the cave near the village of Kotla where it may be

common. I saw three during a very brief search.

One specimen, possibly a different species, was found in a

small mine above the Simla-Naldera road at 11 miles 5 furlongs

from Simla,

No others were seen inspite of repeated visits.

STEEPWAYS, K. A. GLENNIE,

Cross Oak Roan, Brigadier

BERKHAMSTED, Herts.

78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

i |

45.—'SHAMMING DEATH’: SNAKES

In reference to Mr. Macdonald’s note on this subject—Vol.

47, page 173—those interested may like to know that of the three

snakes of Great Britain: the Grass Snake, the Smooth Snake,

and the Adder (the last only being poisonous to man), the Grass

Snake frequently shams dead, and in a very realistic manner as

shown by a photograph published some years ago in the ‘Field’

newspaper.

LANGFORD GARDENS, R. W. BURTON,

Ricumonp Town, Lt.-Col. I.A. (Retd.).

BANGALORE,

Lith March, 1948.

46.—‘SHAMMING DEATH’

It is of interest to note that in the book ‘African Notes and

Reminiscences’ by F. C. Selous (1908), it is recorded that a pack

of 15 to 20 wild dogs (The Cape Hunting Dog—Lycaon pictus)

were chased by the author and his companions on horseback

accompanied by a number of large, powerful mongrels: The

hounds mobbed and pulled down two of the wild dogs and Selous

shot one other.

‘As each of the two wild dogs anen had been caught had

been worried for some minutes by five or six assailants, we

thought they were dead and beat off our dogs .. .. we dragged

these two, together with the one I had shot, to a tree near. a

small stream where we intended to skin them, —

We had just commenced to skin the wild dog I had AND

when, on looking round, I caught the eye of one of the other two

that was lying dead, as Wwe thought, at the foot of the tree, and

instantly saw it was alive. It must have been shamming dead

all the time in order to recover its strength, as immediately it

caught my eye it sprang to its feet and dashed off. Two shots

were fired at it as it ran, but it got clean away apparently none

the worse for the worrying it had endured.’

“BANGALORE, | R. W. BURTON.

17th May, 1948. . Lt.-Col, [.A. (Retd.).

-47.—WILD LIFE PRESERVATION: BIRDS

In the Madras Presidency, as far as I have been able to ascer-

tain, there has been only one Local Government Notification under

Section 8 of the Wild Birds and Animals- Protection Act VIIT

of 1912, namely, Notification No, 574, published at pages 1564-

1566 of Part I of Fort St. George Gazette, dated 8rd November

1914 as amended by Notifications No. 412 of 29th August 1916

and No, 295 of 25th June 1917,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 779

Under the above Notifications specified species of Orioles and

Woodpeckers are protected all the year round; the Indian Roller

Grey and Red Jungle-Fowl and Red and Painted Spur-Fowl, also

four species of Kingfisher, are provided with close season from

Ist February to 30th June.

Peafowl, Bustard, Florican, and indigenous duck and teal have

a close season from 1st June to 80th September.

Four species of Egret are protected from 1st June to end of

February, and the Common Heron from the 1st December to end

of February.

Of the species listed in the Schedule to Act VIII of 1912 the

following are given no protection—no close season :—

Partridge, Pigeon, Quails, Sandgrouse.

The Notifications provide protection, etc., for certain birds in

the Shevaroy Hills, and nothing in them affect the Nilgiri Hills.

Tt is difficult to understand why the Indian Roller and the

bright-plumaged Kingfishers should be refused all the year round

protection, also the Eerets.

The Indian Roller does great service to agriculture and should

undoubtedly be wholly protected.

- Eerets are birds of much use to the cultivator, the Cattle Egret

in particular being especially useful to the cultivator of paddy

(rice), as it is, ‘—chiefly, if not entirely, insectivorous in its diet

and passes its life in the service of Man, clearing his fields of

harmful insect pests and his cattle of their noxious parasites.

Grasshoppers, locusts, bugs, beetles, ticks and blood-sucking and

biting. flies form their ordinary diet.’ (W. W. A. Phillips in the

Ceylon Fauna Society’s ‘Loris’ for June 1948.)

_ Throughout the world, where the snecies exists, the egret is

renowned for its usefulness and should be protected throughout

the year. In Ceylon, notwithstanding complete protection under

the laws, great slaughter of fledgling egrets and destruction of

their eggs takes place, so it is likely that similar destruction

occurs in many parts of India also, especially in these days of meat

hunger and shortage of food. |

Partridges. In the Mysore State close season for partridge is

1st May to 1st September in spite of which the birds are netted

in large number—20 dozen sold to hotel caterers on the 24th July

1948 in the Bangalore Civil Area Municipal Market. 27 dozen

were similarly sold in the month of February 1948—the open

season. If such sale can take place where there is a prescribed

close season, what is likely to be the state of affairs in Madras

Province where these birds are given no legal protection ? .

At the present time (breeding season), and for years past,

partridge and quail are quoted in the Madras Municipal. Corporation

Moore Market price lists as available to purchasers at stated

prices. It is probable that in parts of Madras Province within

reach of Jarge markets partridges are yearly becoming more. and

more scarce. et

¥ tS

780 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Thirty-five years ago the railway companies passed. orders

prohibiting acceptance of wild birds and game for rail transit

during prescribed close seasons. In these days it is necessary that

similar orders be issued as well to all bus owners.

Under the Mysore State laws Junglefowl, Spurfowl,

Partridge, Sandgrouse, Quail, Pigeon, Bustard, Florican, Duck,

Teal, Goose, Snipe, Demoiselle Crane, Plover, Golden Plover are

provided with specified close seasons. No birds other than those

mentioned above except birds of prey may be shot.

Omitting Bustard and Florican as having become increasingly

scarce, and Demoiselle Crane, Plover, Golden Plover as better

protected, while inserting Woodcock, Pheasants, Houbara and

deleting the reference to birds of prey, that is a very simple

and practical law understandable by all and a guide for adoption

by all Provinces when the welcome day arrives for the whole

urgent question of the Preservation of Wild Life to be considered

by the Central and Provincial Governments for final legislation.

BANGALORE, RR. We eBURLON:

8rd August, 1948. Lieut.-Col,

48.—WILD LIFE PRESERVATION: ANIMALS

In my contribution entitled ‘Preservation of Wild Tife—India’s

Vanishing Asset’, in this issue of the Journal, it is stated that

existing game laws and rules are quite efficient, the difficulty

being their enforcement.

That statement has now to be considerably modified in

respect to the Southern Circle of the Bombay Forest Adminis-

tration as will be realized on perusal of the recent Resolution of

the Government of Bombay in the Revenue Department excerpted

below :—

“GR. R.D. No. 8042/45 dated 7th April 1948.

Any bona-fide resident of Kanara who has been eranted a

gun licence for possessing a gun for protection of crops and cattle

by the District Magistrate will be entitled to hunting and shoot-

ing in all kinds of forests within a radius of three miles from the

village in which he resides or in which his lands le and he will

also be entitled to a free licence to hunt and shoot in reserved

forests.

This licence will be issued to him by the Conservator of

Forests, Southern Circle, on application. The licence will be issued

in the form already in use for the issue of circle licences in the

Southern Circle and the licensee will abide by the rules laid down

in the licence.

Restrictions specified in the rules regarding shooting and

hunting wild animals irrespective of their sex and species that

destroy crops and cattle will be waived out and shooting will be

allowed throughout the year provided no game is shot by anyone

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 7oi

during the close season. Trapping by nets will also be allowed in

all kinds of forests within a radius of three miles of the village.

The District Magistrate of Kanara will issue licences for guns

in such a way that refusal or delay shall not be on flimsy grounds.

The following rewards will be given for killing the wild

animals shown against them :—

Tiger and panther... each ,., Rs. 25-0-0

EN 5 5 Cnxella .., Ls, 2-0-0

Monkey ... each « IO. Ie0-0,~

- As to the provision against shooting.in the close season, it has

to be remarked that the shooting rules do not provide any close

season—only a horn limit for deer. So the licensee has a free

hand to do as he likes—slay any wild creature he wishes.

No rewards are offered for wild dogs which are numerous in

the area, The carnivora, aided by the guns (28 gun clubs with

524 guns in one of the five Forest 'Divisions) will soon exterminate

all the deer and some of the bison also. As the tiger and panther

become more and more reduced in number the wild pig will

ereatly increase, also the monkeys, so that the larger wild life of

the Southern Circle forests is doomed to extinction within quite

a few years.

In my opinion this G.R. of 7th April 1948 is a complete negation

of recognized methods of Conservation of Wild Life and a very

strong argument indeed for the formation of a Wild Life Depart-

ment in all Provinces.

BANGALORE, R. W, BURTON,

3rd August, 1948, Lieut.-Col,

President

H.E. The Rt. Hon’ble Sir JOHN COLVILLE, G.C.I.E.,

Vice-Presidents

Lt.-Col.

Mr. W. S. Millard, F.z.s.

Executive Committee

Humayun Abdulali

Farrokh E. Bharucha

A. Forrington

Mr. R. E. Hawkins

Mr. H. B. Hayes

Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, s.J.

Dr. S. B. Setna, php.

Mr.

Di My Shani; aipssce Phan, FNL.

Lt.-Col. Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, 1.M.s.

Mr. Salim Ali (Hon. Secretary)

Mr. J. I. Alfrey (Hon. Treasurer)

Advisory Committee

ie -Cole REW. Burton Ae a Retds)

Diz bo N Chopra, . D.Sc: Bee

MratG. Hee Donaldiern: zis"

Rev. Fr. Dr. J. B. Freeman, MARIE lee ph.p., D.D.

Dives. lesa OrayeDsSc: ian : :

C. M. Inglis, B.E.M.B.O.U.,

Mr. F.Z.S.

Mize Ro Ce VIOrnis, BEGR*GES eZ. Ss:

Dr Ss: «Ke Mikerjee,jp-se: 15 wr

Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian-Adams, O.B.E., I.A.

(Retd.) < .% wy,

Dr. Baini Pisce, D.SC.

Staff

S. bl. Braten. OsB ibs ae al Aan ob nmiCaeZasn

C. McCann, F.L.S.

Vile (Chianinebeser ered

A, F. Fernandes

Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, I.M.s

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR ENDING 31st DECEMBER 1047.

T.D.

en \ Bombay.

... Bangalore

Benares

Cantt.

. Dharmsala

, Mysore

.. Calcutta

. Darjeeling

Coimbatore

a Calcutta

. Nilgiris

New Delhi

.. Curator

py Pam CuraLor,

... ASst. Curator

.. Head Clerk

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS, 10947 283

List of members of the Executive and Advisory Committees

elected for the year 1948.

Vice-Presidents

Maj-Gen. Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, 1.m-s.

Mr. W. S. Millard, F.z.s.

Executive Committee

Mr. Humayun Abdulali

Mr. R. E. Hawkins Yer 68 os on

Vig Viele. rekins 7”. fiat dah eA

Sir Chintaman D. Deshmukh, CALET, (AChS eee

Mr. H. B. Hayes te at tts bh pe

Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, s.J. ..« ee Ase ...) Bombay

Dison os sciuna, Php, ee ae ioe ee |

Din Vie Sharia D.SC., Ph.D., F.N.I. zy

Maj-Gen. Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, I.M.s. .

Mr. Salim Ali (Hon. Secretary) * rs

Vinge wire. (Elon. lreasuret) = .: ane fed

Advisory Committee

Lt.-Col. .R. W. Burton, 1.4. (Retd.) pa .... Bangalore

Dr. B.. N. Chopra, D.sc.. ... se ond. os. New Delhi

Mr. C..:H.,,Donald, F.Z.s...... he ae ... London

Rev. Fr. Dr. J. B. Freeman, M.a.; L.T., Ph.p., D.D. Mysore

DirS. hte Horajan.Se: ey ae ~~ .... Benares

Gantt

Mr. C; M. Inglis, B.E.M.B.0.W}-F.Z.S. srs ... Darjeeling

Col.; Rs €.,. Morris, .F:R.G.S., F.Z.S.%.. ath ... Attikan

FIDE Se IEG Mukerjee, DeSCuspat- ae 4x :..1) Calcutta

Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian- -Adams, O:B: Bagge BsZaSis

Ne Abe (ixetd.,) 1. he a 5 i, .. Nilgiris

Dh Baini Prashad, D.Sc. ar me he ... New Delhi

THE HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT FOR THE

YEAR 1947

THE SOCIETY’s JOURNAL

Volume 46 No. 4 and Volume 47 Nos. 1 and 2 were published

during the year. The last was held up owing to labour troubles in

the press and actually came into members’ hands considerably later.

MAMMALS

Among the more noteworthy contributions published, the follow-

ing may be mentioned:

‘A Note on the Position of Rhinoceros in Burma’ by W. F. H.

Ansell. A comprehensive summary of records of rhinoceros in

recent years to enable the present position to be compared with the

pre-war period. From an analysis of the recent data concerning

the Sumatran Two-horned Rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) the

784. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

author concludes that at present there are existing in all Burma

not less than 21 rhinoceros and possibly as many as 45, though

some might consider the latter figure too optimistic. He considers

that Rhinoceros sondaicus is virtually extinct in Burma, and con-

cludes his paper with a strong and well-reasoned plea for the ap-

pointment of a game warden and an efficient staff to take charge

of Wild Life Conservation and for the improvement of existing

sanctuaries and the establishment of new ones, and of National

Parks. Many of Mr. Ansell’s arguments and recommendations

would apply with equal force to India as well.

A short but important taxonomic paper on ‘Two new local races

of the Asiatic Wild Ass’ by the late R. I. Pocock is published in

Volume 47, No. 1 (p. 143). The basis for this paper was provided

by the fresh specimens collected in Kutch through the good offices

of the late Maharao Shri Vijayarajji early in 1946. This paper

incidentally is the last of the series of scientific papers we have

been privileged to publish in the Journal over a period exceeding 4o

years from the pen of this distinguished mammalogist.

Mr. C. G. Webb-Peploe, who is the head of the educational com-

munity of boys and girls centred in Dohnavur, contributed some

interesting field notes on the mammals of his district, South Tinne-

velly—the southernmost in Madras Province (Vol. 46, No. 4, p. 629),

In the compilation of the notes he was aided by the observations

of his pupils, many of whom are said to have become keen students

of natural history. This is refreshing evidence, if any were needed,

that Indian children under competent guidance can become quite

as enthusiastic about nature study as their counterparts in the west.

Mr, Webb-peploe’s efforts deserve to be widely emulated.

BIRDS

‘The Movements of the Rosy Pastor (Pastor roseus) in India’ by

Humayun Abdulali. An up to date summary of all available data

as published at various times and in various journals, and from

answers received to the questionnaire issued through the Journal

(Vol. 45, p. 228) and in the military news sheet ‘Contact’. A map

with all the records of movements plotted on it gives a graphic idea

of our knowledge and the gaps that remain to be filled.

‘Birds of the Simla and Adjacent Hills’ by A. E. Jones. A re-

cord of over 30 years painstaking collection and observation by a

resident of Simla who had acquired more intimate knowledge ot!

the lives and habits of the birds of this area than perhaps any other

ornithologist living or dead. The first two parts of this paper were

published during the year (Vol. 46, No. 1, p. 117 and No. 2, p. 219).

It is not merely a bare enumeration of species, but gives terse

points for field identification to assist visitors to the Simla Hills in

recognising the birds they meet. It is greatly to be regretted that

Mr. Jones died after completing the MS of the third part, which

is due to appear in the first issue of 1948 (April). The fate of the

remaining parts of this serial has become uncertain.

‘The Birds of Delhi and District’? by N. F. Frome (Vol. 47,

No. 2, p. 277). A comprehensive account of bird life within a

radius of 30 miles of Delhi compiled from notes kept by a band of

enthusiastic and knowledgeable observers. This paper expands

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS, 104% 785

and brings up to date S. Basil-Edwardes’s ‘A Contribution to the

Ornithology of Delhi’ published in Vol. 31 of the Journal in 1926.

It is of particular interest in providing a satisfactory basis for com-

parison with conditions prevailing before New Delhi became the

full-fledged and populous metropolis it is today, and before all the

irrigation and gardens and newly introduced roadside shade and

fiowering trees had altered the complexion of the city and its sur-

roundings.

Other ornithological papers of especial interest include ‘Ab-Istaden,

a breeding place of the Flamingo in Afghanistan’ by S. A.

Akhtar (Vol. 47, No. 2, p. 308). The author has been able, by

means of personal investigation, to confirm that the statement made

by the Emperor Babur in his Memoirs, in the 16th century, of

flamingoes breeding at the Ab-Istadeh lake in Afghanistan, some

40 miles distant from Ghazni, still holds good. He visited the place

accompanied by a party of biology students of Kabul University and

brought back tangible proof in the shape of eggs and a specimen of

the birds that laid them—the Common Flamingo (Phoenitcopterus

ruber voseus). Some useful ecological notes on the breeding ground

are given.

‘The ornithological Diary of a Voyage of S. S. Samluzon’ (across

the North Atlantic from St. John N. B., and on to Karachi) by

Major W. W. A. Fhillips. In spite of the fact that this voyage

was done in June and July when the vast majority of northern hemis-

phere sea birds are breeding and therefore confined to the neighbour-

hood of land, the author’s record of the species encountered on the

high seas is impressive and will form a welcome and useful guide

to future voyagers on this route.

F. N. Betts’s ‘Bird Life in an Assam Jungle’ (Vol. 46, No. 4,

p. 667) is an attempt to compare the conditions and bird life of a

small stretch of country in Assam with a parallel biotope in South

{ndia with which the author was previously familiar. The compari-

son is instructive in bringing home the importance of the role that

ecology plays in the distribution of especially adapted forms, and

how parallel ecological conditions foster the occurrence of closely

allied or parallel forms of life, representing each other or filling well

defined respective niches.

REPTILES AND FISHES

‘The Reptiles of Cocanada’ by Garth Underwood (Vol. 46, No. 4,

p. 613) deals chiefly with the lizards and snakes of the coastal strip

and furnishes some useful notes.

Among the more important papers on Fishes and Fisheries pub-

lished during the year, are the following :—

‘Fishing Contrivances used in H.E.H. the Nizam’s Dominions’

by S. Mahmood and M. Rahimullah (Vol. 46, No. 4, p. 649).

‘Fish Survey of Hyderabad State’ Part iv, by S. Mahmood and

M. Rahimullah (Vol. 47, No. 1, p. 102).

‘A Note on the collecting, conditioning and transport of finger-

lings of Catla catla in the Madras Presidency’ by N. fagannadhan

(Wolk 47 Nion2; p.° 315):

‘Note on Freshwater Fishes of Bombay and Salsette Islands’ by

6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.-SOCIETY, Vol. a7

“I

INSECTS

Parts xvii, xvili and xix of D. G. Sevastopulo’s painstaking. in-

vestigations on ‘The Early Stages of Indian Lepidoptera’ were pub-.

lished during the year. Other contributions in the entomological

section were “On the Biology of the Butterfly Danaus chrysippus and

its Parasites’ by Durgadas Mukerji and Basanta Kumar Behura,

‘Notes on some butterflies from Penang and Wellesley Province,

Malaya’ by J. W. Rawlins and “The Lac Insects of the West Coast

of India’ by S. Mahdihassan. On the economic side, of great use-

fulness will be found ‘Studies on the Spotted Bollworms of Cotton—

Earias fabia S. and E. insulana B.’ by M. C. Cherian and M. S,

Kvlasam and ‘Extent of Damage by the moth Dichocrocis puncti-

feralis Fb. to three strains of the Castor Plant’ by A. C. Basu.

BOTANY

Three further parts of the serial on ‘Some Beautiful Indian

Climbers and Shrubs’ were published during the year. It is hoped

to conclude this series in 1948 after which it will be possible to

proceed with our plan of publishing it in book form. This should

prove an attractive publication and form a fitting companion to

‘Some Beautiful Indian Trees’ by Blatter and Millard.

Of systematic interest is a paper on ‘Some new species of Sonth

Indian Plants’ by K. Cherian Jacob. Abdul Hameed’s ‘Notes on

the Fern and Fern Allies on Murree Hill’ illustrated with 12 pages

of beautiful black and white drawings should prove of considerable

interest especially to readers residing or holidaying in the Western

Ifimalayas. Fr. Santapau’s ‘Notes on the Convolvulaceae . of

Bombay’ is a revision of the family as it concerns Bombay Province.

The paper is based on a comparative study of the author’s collec-

tions from Khandala together with the types and material at Kew

Herbarium and of the literature on the family there available. - It

is a thorough piece of work and brings up to date, and replaces,

Cooke’s account of the family in ‘Flora of the Bombay Presidency’.

Botanists will be glad to learn that Fr. Santapau is following up

this paper with a revision of the Solanaceae of Bombay which we

hope to publish during 1948.

The systematic position of the family Moringaceae based on a

study of the common Drumstick tree (Moringa pterygosperma) has

been discussed by Messrs. Robindra Mohon Datta and Jatindra

Nath Mitra. In a short statistical paper G. A. Kapadia lists 15

different types of hitheto unrecorded abnormalities in the flowers of

Quisqualis indica.

On the side of popular natural history a paper on Cave Fauna

by E. A, Glennie (Vol. 46, No. 4, p. 587) deserves particular men-

tion as it opens up a fascinating and practically untouched field for

investigation by naturalists in this country. The author discusses

the modern theory of the formation and development of caves and

the sorts of creatures capable of colonizing the deeper parts of caves

including land animals and water animals, and the adaptations they

undergo when they take to a troglophil existence. The author

says ‘A cave is a natural laboratory where some of the variable

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS, 1947 287

factors in the outside world are under control. Some creatures

live on in them though they are no longer to be found outside’ and

draws attention to the significant fact that at the limits of the region

of dispersal of certain groups of animals the living forms are only

to be found in caves. He suggests careful collection and recording

of cave faunas as likely to shed much light on the course of evolu-

tion and on the centres of origin of genera and their channels of

distribution.

In ‘The Islet? W. W. A. Phillips takes us to a delightful bird

sanctuary in the North Central Province of Ceylon, a tank set in

the midst of jungle surrounded by swamp where terns, stilts, great

stone-plovers and many other birds nest. It is illustrated with

some excellent bird photographs of the sort that one has come to

associate with this versatile naturalist.

A namesake of the above, Col. B. T. Phillips of Kashmir, who

is also familiar to readers as an ardent bird lover and photographer,

tollows up his previous Musings with ‘Birds of a Srinagar Garden’.

His series of articles, illustrated as they are with some of Col.

Phillips best camara studies, form a pleasing addition to the bird

literature concerning this erstwhile haven of peace.

The angler and the fisherman is well catered for by A. St. J.

Macdonald whose name is to the modern fishing fraternity what

Thomas’s was to the devotees of the Rod on a bygone day. His

experience of the sea-fishing to be had about Karwar and Malvan

will be found somewhat depressing by enthusiasts fed on accounts

of the sport previously to be had in these waters. But it must be

remembered that Major Macdonald’s trip was undertaken in October /

November. There is apparently a steady falling off from year to

year of the visits of the larger mackerel in whose wake the game

fishes follow, and of recent years it seems that fishing for Bahmin

is worthwhile only in August and September. As usual with this

author some very useful information is appended for the benefit of

prospective visitors in regard to accommodation, methods, time and

tide, baits and costs.

To one obsessed with the wanderlust and to the seeker after

birds in distant places P. I. R. Maclaren’s ‘Notes on the Birds of

the Gyantse Road’ have a special charm and appeal. This is the

account of an ornithological trek in May 1946 to the high elevation

lakes of Hram Tso and Kala Tso in Tibet, lying along the main

treaty road to Lhassa. The ornithology of this neighbourhood was

well chronicled by F. Ludlow in the Ibis of 1927 and 1928 and

although the present article adds little materially to the above, it

gives some useful and tantalising information concerning the area,

and what the interested trekker should find there in the way of

birds.

The Miscellaneous Notes section has always been popular with

readers, and those published during the year present the usual

diversity of interest and content. Our thanks are due to all those

who contributed to sustaining the interest of the Journal and adding

to its usefulness, and we trust that members will continue to: co-

operate with the editors in the helpful and practical way they have

done.

788 JOURNAL, BOMBAY’ NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 47,

An apology is again due to members for the delays that continue

in the publication of the Journal. This is a matter in which our

printers are apparently helpless to improve in spite of their regrets

which are repeated and profuse, as also their promises. But some

slight consolation, such as it is, may be derived from the fact that

the printing trade is in more or less the same sorry plight all over

the world.

The Committee again wish to express their thanks to the Council

of the National Institute of Sciences of India for the grant of

Rs. 750 made to the Society towards the cost of publishing the

Journal during the year.

PUBLICATIONS

The Society put out no new publications during the year. Mr.

Prater’s Book of Indian Animals which was expected to be out in

October was held up owing to labour troubles in the press and

through other causes. The new edition of Some Beautiiul Indian

Trees for which print order has been placed with Messrs. Oliver and

Boyd of Edinburgh for some considerable time has not materialised

in spite of Mr. Millard’s personal goading at the other end. The

manuscript of the ‘Book of Indian Butterflies’ by Mr. Wynter-Blyth

and most of the coloured and black and white plates are ready and

should have gone to the press but for the anxiety of the Committee to

lighten some of our financial burdens before we ventured to assume

more. This caution is fully justified in view of the retardation in

the sales of our existing publications that has set in since the end

of the war, as reflected in the Revenue Account below. Satisfactory

progress was made with the production in book form of Major

Macdonald’s serial on ‘Circumventing the Mahseer’, which was re-

cently concluded in the Journal, and an edition of 1,000 copies is

in the course of being printed. The book will make a valuable

addition to the literature on Indian sporting fishes and angling and

should prove of the greatest interest and usefulness to the argling

fraternity. It contains practically all the information to be found

in Thomas’s Rod in India brought thoroughly up to date, plus a

lot more such as the particulars relating to fishing localities. There

are other popular natural history publications which the Society

plans to produce in the near future. One of these is a series of

small and elementary well illustrated and well produced booklets on

various branches of Indian animal life, each carrying 16 coloured

plates and about 3,500 words of text. These booklets will be

translated into a number of Indian languages—Hindustani, Mahratti,

Gujarati, Kannada and Bengali, to start with. They should help

to supply a long felt and serious want, and become very popular

provided we get the right sort of co-operation from the educational

department.

REVENUE ACCOUNT

Actual receipts amounted to Rs. 33,820-12-0 as compared with

Rs. 41,389-12-3 during the year 1946. The decrease in revenue of

Rs. 7,569 was due mainly to decrease in sales of publications -éte.,

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS, 1947 789

as detained below. The revenue derived from sale of publications

in 1947 was only Rs. 6,322-2-8 as against Rs. 9,280-1-o in 1946.

. ell

—= eaveaue AV Kee Bl Dit ference

RS yy Ay. P RS A P RSY WAL =P

1, Publications ... os ie) 280ne len0 6,322 2 8 2,957 14 4

2. Interest on Investments...; 6,577 15 0 4,460 6 6 27, <8eIG6

3. Outside works to5 | 22k0857 72718 444 12 8 1,610 11 0

4. Profit on sale of Invest-

ments tor Ley 893 14 0 eek 893 14 0

Otalne .coulip lo, OU07e oF 18 LE 227, mel) 7,979 15 10

Life Members. During the year 1947, 5 Life Members died and

Iq joined increasing the total number from 201 to 210.

In 1947, 114 new members (including above) joined, 64 resigned

and ro died. The total number of members on 31st December 1947

was 1,329, an increase of 4o over 10946.

EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES

The popularization of nature study among school children and

the general public has been seriously engaging the attention of the

Society’s Committee for a considerable time. It has been felt that

to make the fullest benefit of the facilities offered by our excellent

natural history section available to the public, a well thought-out

educational programme was essential. The Government of Bombay

have been approached with a view to their reviving the nature

study and guide lecturing scheme that worked so successfully from

1926 to 1928 but which had to be discontinued thereafter owing to

the then Government’s financial stringency. Government's reaction

seems to be favourable, and it is hoped that we shall soon be able

to conduct a suitable scheme on a permanent basis. The Committee

considered this matter of sufficient importance to go ahead with

their plans even pending Government’s sanction of the required

funds since a man with the necessary qualifications happened to be

immediately available. A Nature Education Organizer has been

appointed to work under the direction of a special sub-committee

of the Society, whose business it will be to prepare and carry out

schemes for instructing local schoo] teachers in the most profitable

methods of conducting nature study classes with the help ot the

facilities the museum can offer, and of guide-lecturing the public in

the natural history galleries. For the time being the salary of the

Nature Study Organizer is met by an arrangement which happily

‘throws no extra burden on the Society. But this is only a make-

shift, and it is hoped that Government will take over the entire

financial responsibility before long. The Education Department 1s

eager to co-operate in our work, and we hope to put a part of the

scheme (i.e. the training of secondary school teachers) into opera-

tion at an early date.

bo) JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 4%

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The Committee wished to record its appreciation and grateful-

ness to Mr. Millard for his continued help in looking after the

Society’s interests in London.

STAFF

Mr. S. H. Prater who was the Society’s Curator for over 25

years retired from service on 30th October. He had been preceded

by Mr. C. McCann the Joint Curator in August. The almost

sunultaneous exit of both these experienced officials has put great

handicaps in the efficient administration of the Society.

Until a suitable man can be found for the Curator’s post, Mr.

Salim Ali the Honorary Secretary has been persuaded by the Com-

mittee to take on the additional responsibility of looking after the

affairs of the Natural History Section of the Prince of Wales

Museum. Efforts are being made to recruit a candidate of the re-

quired qualifications, but it seems that we shall have to continue

to make the best of it for some considerable time to come, and it

may ultimately be possible to overcome the difficulty only by send-

ing a promising candidate abroad for training in some of the

American or European Museums.

APPENDIX TO HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT

COVERING THE PERIOD JANUARY-JULY 1048

(read out at the Annual General Meeting, 11 August 1948)

PUBLICATIONS

1. The second volume of the Society’s Indian Natural History

Series “The Book of Indian Animals’ by Mr. S. H.. Prater’ was

released by the press in April. Of an edition of 3,000 copies about

700 copies have so far been sold.

2. In July we published 1,000 sets of coloured picture post cards

of Indian Birds from plates specially painted for the 4th edition of

‘The Book of Indian Birds’ by D. V. Cowen.

3. ‘Circumventing the Mahseer and other Sporting Fish in India

and Burma’ by Major Macdonald—Print order has been placed. for

an edition of 1,000 copies. The book is expected to be out by the

end of August.

In May this year an application had been addressed to the

Secretary of the National Institute of Sciences for a grant of

Rs. 1,88,000 from the Govenment of India for the Society’s pro-

gramme of popular natural history publications during the next two

years. This included:

(i) the first two volumes of a comprehensive, fully illustrated

handbook of Indian birds in 5 volumes under the joint authorship

of Sdlim Ali and Dr. Dillon Ripley of Yale University.

(ui) ‘The Book of Indian Butterflies’ by M. A. Wynter Blyth

which is to be Volume III of the Society’s Indian Natural History

Series, and B

(iii) two of the colour illustrated popular and simply written

booklets in English and various Indian languages dealing with a

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS, i947 791

number of natural history subjects, such as birds, wild animals,

domestic animals, poisonous creatures, flowering trees, insects and

others, which it was resolved to publish at one of the meetings of

the Society’s Executive Committee.

It is gratifying to report that the application was approv-

ed by the Council of the National Institute of Sciences and

ratified by the general body. They have recommended to the Gov-

ernment of India that 50 per cent of the required grant should be

made to the Society. It is customary with the Government of

India’s grants for scientific research and publications that the re-

maining 50 per cent must be found by the applicant.

When the Government of India has accepted this recommenda-

tion and sanctioned the grant, we shall have to cast about for ways

and means of raising the balance.

MEMBERSHIP

A special appeal to all members to assist in increasing member-

ship was made after the last General Meeting by circular letter and

by a leaflet inserted in the Journal. The result has been fairly

satisfactory, but there is need for incessant effort on the part of

members to enable us to keep abreast of resignations which under

the circumstances it is feared are bound to come in increasing,

numbers from European members who have left the country. Since

the commencement of the year 89 new members joined and 41 re-

signed leaving us 48 to the good.

NATURE EDUCATION

A Nature Study Organiser was appointed in February. He has

been busy preparing guides to the Natural History galleries in

English and the local languages, and translating the more important

labels into Marathi and Gujarati. He has been in close touch with

the Education Department with a view to securing their co-operation

which we are glad to find readily forthcoming. Arrangements were

completed for nature study teachers of local secondary schools to

be put through a course of 3 lectures on various branches and_

aspects of animal life followed by guided tours through the galleries.

‘The object of these activities being to instruct the teachers in the

methods of getting their pupils interested in natural history, to

acquaint them with the facilities the Museum has to offer in the

shape of exhibits displayed in the galleries. 150 local schocis ex-

pressed their desire to take advantage of the scheme. Lectures

began on 2gth June 1948 and by 1st week October it is expected that

over 300 teachers will have been through the course. These teachers

will be suitably assisted when they subsequently bring their pupils

to the Museum, and it is hoped that our efforts will result in a

more intelligent use being made of the Natural History Section.

JOURNAL

While every effort is being made to keep up the membership

strength of the Society, yet it was felt to be essential that an un-

broken publication of the Journal should be assured regardless of

792, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 4%

the vicissitudes of membership. It was therefore decided to appeal

to Government for an annual grant-in-aid of Rs. 12,000 towards

its publication for 5 years, by which time it is hoped that the Society’s

finances will have improved and _ stabilized. Rs. 8,000 of this

amount was asked for from the Central Government and Rs. 4,000

from the Government of Bombay. It is hoped that our representa-

tions will receive sympathetic consideration.

CONSERVATION OF WILD LIFE

In view of the political and administrative changes that have

taken place in India since the last Annual General Meeting and from

the reports received by the Society from various parts of the coun-

iry, about the slackening in the observance of laws governing the

killing of wild animals, it became obvious that if wild animals in

general were to be saved from extinction it was imperative that

steps should be taken without delay to arouse and educate public

opinion to a realization of the important place wild life occupies in

our national economy.

The first step essential towards this goal was the immediate

tightening up of existing laws regarding killing of animals and

close seasons. It also seemed imperative that adequate measures,

both legislative and practical be taken before it is too late. There-

fore Lt:-Col. R. W. Burton, a member of our Advisory Committee

and a veteran sportsman and naturalist with over 60 years ex-

perience of conditions of wild life in India took the initiative of

writing a comprehensive pamphlet stressing the urgent need for

immediate steps towards its conservation. 400 copies of this pam-

phlet were printed, part of the cost being generously borne by

Col. Burton himself.

Copies of the pamphlet together with suitable covering letters

from the Society were sent out to the Governors-General of India

and Pakistan, to the Prime Ministers and members of the Cabinets

of the two dominions and also to all ministers of Provincial Gov-

ernments, Secretaries and departmental heads, Chief Conservators

and Conservators of Forests and prominent members of the

Constituent Assemblies of India and Pakistan and of all Provincial

Legislatures. 500 copies of a Special Appeal relating to Reserved

Forests, also prepared by Col. Burton have been distributed among

a wide circle of divisional and other forest officers throughout the

country. A precis of the pamphlet was widely circulated through

the newspapers and press services all over the country and it 1s

hoped that by this means, sufficient publicity has been given to

this important question by way of introduction to the further mea-

sures that we propose to take.

We are fortunate in having been able to secure through the

kindness of our member, His Highness the Maharao of Kotah, the

excellent wild life movie films made by him in the Kotah jungles

which you will presently see. This is a living instance of how sports-

men can share their joy and opportunities of a close acquaintance with

wild life with others less fortunately placed. The films also em-

phasize that wild animals can be enjoyed far more as living crea-

tures than as musty trophies adorning ancient walls.

793

1947

AND ACCOUNTS,

PROCEEDINGS

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ALHIDO S$ AYOLSIN TVYNLVN AVENOP

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY. SOCIETY HELD IN THE

LECTURE ROOMS OF THE B.E.S.& T. COMPANY, ELEC-

TRIC HOUSE, ORMISTON ROAD, BOMBAY, ON WEDNES-

DAY THE 1rth AUGUST 1948, AT 6 P.M.

1. Managing Committee’s report for the year ended 31st De-

cember 1947, copies of which were placed in the hands of members,

was considered as read.

2. The Honorary Secretary read out some additional notes

dealing with the Society’s activities and membership position during:

the 8 months of 1948. He referred to the efforts being made to

increase membership and to the various applications for subsidies

made to the Governments of India and Bombay for the publication

programme of the Society for the next 2 years, for the Nature Study

programme at the Museum and towards the publication of the

Society’s Journal. He also gave particulars of the Society’s efforts

in the cause of wild life conservation in India (see page 792).

3. The Honorary Treasurer explained various points in con-

rection with the Balance Sheet and Statement of accounts and

pointed out that the large excess of expenditure over income (about

Rs. 19,000) was of a non-recurring nature and due chiefly to the

gratuities that were being paid to 4 members of the staff who had

retired last year after long service.

Mr. A. A. A. Fyzee suggested that it might be an advantage

for the Society to invest some part of its Reserve Fund in sound

industrial shares rather than entirely in Government securities. He

suggested that in that way we could improve the returns we were

getting from our investments. The Chairman said that this matter

would be looked into by the Honorary Secretary and Honorary

Treasurer who would report their views and recommendations to

the Committee.

4. The Executive and Advisory Committees for 1948 as pro-

posed in the circular to members were duly elected, there being no

fresh nominations received.

The election of Sir Chintaman Deshmukh in place of Mr. Farrokh

E. Bharucha (deceased) which had previously been done by the

Executive Committee by circular was ratified.

5. The Chairman explained why it had become necessary to

increase the membership fees as specified in the Agenda. When

the costs of printing, wages, dearness allowances and other items

of expenditure had gone up so considerably it was not reasonable

to expect the Society to continue to provide the same benefits to its

members at a rate of subscription that was fixed many years ago

in normal times. He asked the meeting to ratify the decision of

the Executive Committee which had been reached after a great deal

of discussion and deliberation.

No objection was raised by any of the members present and the

resolution stands confirmed.

From tst January 1949 the ordinary membership fee will be

Rs. 30 per annum instead of Rs. 25, the entrance fee Rs. 25 instead

of Rs. ro and the life membership fee Rs. 500 instead of Rs. 350,

796 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

The Chairman announced with regret the death of the following

members :— .

rt. His Highness Maharao Shri Vijayarajji of Kutch, a Vice

Patron of the Society and one of its most sympathetic friends and

benefactors, always ready and eager to help in all its activities, both

in the way of facilities and financial support.

2. Mr. Farrokh E. Bharucha who was a valued member of

the Executive Committee for over 10 years, and

3. Mr. T. R. Bell, the well-known entomologist who was

actively associated with the Society from its inception and was one

of its moving spirits in its earlier days.

On the conclusion of the formal meeting, a series of wild life

and shikar movies made by His Highness the Maharao Sahib

Bahadur of Kotah in the forests of his State, and kindly lent by him

for the occasion of the Annual General Meeting, were shown to

members and their friends. These films were excellent and were

greatly appreciated and enjoyed by a large gathering.

CATALOGUE OF BOOKS IN THE BOMBAY

NATURAL

HISTORY SOCIETY’S LIBRARY

Part I—MamMMaALs

M = Mammals—General.

Ms = Mammals—Shikar & Sport.

MFR=Fauna of British India—Mammals—Reference

not lent out.

Serial} Accession

No.

pf WwW

| Author

29| Anderson, John

218

do. do,

Anderson, Knud

Andrews, Roy Chapman

and Andrews, Yvette

Borup

Baillie, Mrs. W. W.

Baker, E. C. Stuart

Baker, S. W.

do.

Ball, V. d

Barclay, Edgar N.

Barrett-Hamilton

G, E. H

6 | Beddard, F. E.

Best, James W.

do. do.

0. do.

Bewick

Blaine Gilbert

Blanford, W. T.

do.

Blyth, E.

volume ;

Title of Book

CATALOGUE OF Mammattia, Part I

(In the Indian Museum), 1902.

ZOOLOGY OF EGyptT—MammMa.ta,

1902.

CHIROPTERA, Vol. I, 1912.

Camps & TRAILS IN CHINA, 1919.

Days AND NIGHTS OF SHIKAR.

MIsHI THE MAN-EATER, and OTHER

TALES OF BiG GAME, 1928.

WiLp Beasts AND THEIR Ways

1891.

EIGHT YEARS IN CEYLON, 1891.

THe NILE TRIBUTARIES OF ABYS-

SINIA, 1886.

JUNGLE Lire IN INDIA, 1880.

Bic GAME SHOOTING RECORDS,

1932.

A History oF British MAMMALS,

in 3 Vols.

MAMMALIA, 1902

Ticer Days, 1931.

INDIAN SHIKAR NOTES WITH REgE-

FERENCE TO C.P., 1931.

Forest Lir& tN INpIA, 1935.

A GENERAL HISTORY OF QuapD-

RUPEDS.

(See Lydekker and Blaine, Jt.

Authors.)

Fauna OF BritisH INpDIA—Mam-

MALS, Vol. I, 1888-1891.

FauNA OF BRITISH INDIA—Mam-

MALS, Vol. II, 1888-1891.

Fauna OF British INDIA—MAm-

MALS, Vols. land IJ, 1888-1891.

FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA—Mam-

MALS, Vol. I, 1888-1891.

FAUNA OF BritTIsH INDIA—Mam-

MALS, Vol. IJ, 1888-189r.

Fauna oF British INDIA—Mam-

MALS, Vols. Land II, 1888-1891.

CATALOGUE OF MAMMALIA IN THE

MuseEvuM, ASIATIC SOCIETY, 1863.

798 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

ST EL ET I I RIL

rial} Accession i

Se a eee Title of Book

25 1/M 43 | Blyth, E. CATALOGUE OF MAMMALS AND

Birps oF Burma, 1875.

26 1/M 23 | Bonhote, L. MAMMAL Papers, 1898-1906.

27 1/Ms_ 168} Boulenger, E. G. SEARCHLIGHT ON ANIMALS.

28 1/Ms 93 | Brander, Dunbar A. A. WiLp ANIMALS IN CENTRAL INDIA,

1927.

29 1/Ms 85 | Brown, J. Moray IN THE DayS WHEN WE WENT

HoG-HUNTING,

30 1/Ms_ tat do. do. Stray Sport Vol. I, 1893.

31 Tea AS eee do. do. do, Volo eso.

32 1/M 72| Broom, R., & Schepers, |’ THE SourH AFRICAN FossiL APE-

G: Ws Ei. MEN, 1946.

Buck, Walter J. (See Chapman, Abel, & Buck, W. J.)

33 1/Ms_ 161] Burke, W. S. THE INDIAN FIELD SHIKAR Book,

1904.

34 |1/Ms_ 161 da, THE INDIAN FIELD SHIKAR Book,

1906.

Burlace, J, B. (See Lysebker, R., & Burlace,

J. B.—Joint authors.)

do, Se Dalles J. P., & Burlace

a Toe B.—Joint authors.)

33 |1/Ms 124] Burrard, Major J, Bie GaME. HUNTING IN THE

HIMALAYAS AND TIBET, 1925.

36 1/M 51] Burrel, Harry ' | THE PLaTYPus, 1927.

37 |1/M __ 60] Burton, R. G. ‘Tur Book oF THE TIGER, 1933.

38 1/Ms.. 94 do. A HAND-BOOK OF MAN-EATERS.

39 ifMsT 127) ereass . Sports AND WILD LIFE IN THE

DECCAN, 1928.

40 1/Ms_ 140] Casserly, Lt.-Col. Gordon} IN THE GREEN JUNGLE, 1927.

41 1/Ms_ 146 do, do. DWELLERS IN THE JUNGLE, 1925.

42 |1/Ms_ 110|Champion, F. W. WitH A CAMERA IN ‘TIGER-LAND,

1927.

43 1/Ms_ 198} Chapman, Abel, & Buck, | UNEXPLORED SPAIN.

Walter

44 |1/Ms_ 173] Christensen, Lars My Last ExPEDITION TO ANTARC-

TIC, 1936-1937.

45 1/Ms_ 104] Christopher, Sydney A. | Bic GAME SHOOTING IN LOWER

BurMA, 1916.

46 1/Ms = 99| Corbett, Jim MAN-EATERS OF KUMAON, 1944.

47 |1/Ms_ 109|Cumming, Gordon R. |A Hounrer’s LiFe IN S. AFRICA,

Vol. I, 1850.

48 1/M 54| Darling, Fraser F. A Herp oF Rep DEER, 1937.

49 1/Ms_ 169| Darwin, Charles A NaturaList’s VoyaGE RouND

THE WORLD, 1890.

50 1/M = 200 | Dewar, Douglas BEASTS OF AN INDIAN VILLAGE, 1923.

51 1/Ms_ 115| Digby, Bassett THE MAMMOTH AND MaMMoTH

HUNTING IN NortH East SIBE-

RIA, 1926.

52 1/M 40| Dobson, G. E. CATALOGUE OF ASIATIC CHIROP-

TERA, (Indian Museum, Cal-

cutta), 1876.

53 1/M 41|Dollman, J. G. B. M. CaTaLoGuE OF SELOUS

COLLECTION OF BIG GAME, 1921.

54 1/Ms 82} Dollman, J. G. & Burlace | RowLAND Warp’s’ RECORDS OF

VB, Bic GaME, 9th Edition, 1928.

(See Lydekkar, R. & Bur-| RowLaNnpD Warpb’s RECORDS OF

lace, J. B.) Bic GaME, 7th Edition, 1914.

55 1/M 9| Drake-Brockman, R. E. | THE MAMMALS OF SOMALILAND,

1910,

BOOKS. IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY’S: LIBRARY

799

——

Serial

No.

Accession |

Author

Title of Book

56°

1/Ms

1/M

134

IQI

208

157

79°

193

195

171

172 |

Duft}t Hark:

Dugmore, Radcliffe A.

Edwin, Maribel

Ellerman, J. R.

do.

Elliot, Walter

Ellison, Bernard C.

Evans, G. H,

Evans, G..P.

Fletcher, F. W. P.

| Flower, William Henry

'| Forbes,’ Henry O. |

do. do,

do. do.

Forsyth, Capt. J.

Hranciss Capt: F. C.

Frank, Finn

Frick, Childs

Gara, L.

do.

Gardiner, Stanley J.

do. do.

Gervais, M. Paul

Gosse, Philip

Gouldsbury, C.E.

Guillemard, F. H. H.

do.

NYASALAND (UNDER THE FOREIGN

OFFICE), 1903.

CAMERA ADVENTURES IN THE AFRI-

CAN WILDS, 1913.

Witp LIFE STORIES.

THE FAMILIES AND GENERA OF

LiviNG Ropents, VoL. I, 1940.

THE FAMILIES AND GENERA OF

LivinG Ropents, Vol. II, 1941.

THE FAMILIES AND GENERA OF

LivinG RopeEnts, VoL. I, 1940.

THE FAMILIES AND GENERA OF

LiviNG RopEnts, Vol. II, 1941.

CATALOGUE OF MAMMALIA IN THE

SOUTHERN MAHRATTA COUNTRY.

H. R. H, THE PRINCE oF WALES’s

SPORT IN INDIA, 1925.

ELEPHANTS AND THEIR DISEASES,

IQIo.

Bic GAME SHOOTING IN

BURMA, IQII.

SPORT ON THE NILGIRIS AND IN

_WYNAAD.

OsTEOLOGY OF THE MamMALIa,

1885.

Monkeys, Vol. I, 1894.

do. Vol. II, 1894.

A NarTURALIST’S WANDERINGS IN

THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO, 1885,

THE HIGHLANDS OF CENTRAL

INDIA, 1889.

THREE MONTHS’ LEAVE IN SOMALI-

LAND, 1895.

STERNDALE’S MAMMALIA OF INpIA,

1884,

HORNED RUMINANTS OF N. AMERI-

CA, 1937

CHASSE ET CAPTURE DU _ GROS

GIBIER DANS UL’EST AFRICAN,

1933.

CHASSE ET CAPTURE DU _ GROS

GIBIER DANS L’EST AFRICAN,

1933.

THE FAUNA AND GEOGRAPHY OF

THE MALDIVE AND LACCADIVE

ARCHIPELAGOES, Vol. I, 1903.

THe FAUNA AND GEOGRAPHY OF

THE MALDIVE AND LACCADIVE

ARCHIPELAGOES, Vol. IJ, 1906

(with Supplements 1-ii).

HISTOIRE NATURELLE DES MAmmMI-

FERES.

Memoirs OF A CAMP FOLLOWER,

1934:

'TIGER-SLAYER BY ORDER, 1916.

THE CRUISE OF THE Marcuesa,

Volos ier ooOns

THe CRUISE OF THE Marcuesa,

Vol. II, 1886,

UPPER

800 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

Serial} Accession |

No.

No. |

85 |1/M

86 |1/Ms

87 |1/Ms

88 |1/Ms

89 |1/Ms

go |1/Ms

grt |1/M

92 |1/Ms

93 |1/Ms

94 |1/Ms

95 |1/Ms

96 |1/Ms

97 |1/Ms

98 |1/Ms

99 |1/M

100 |1/M

ror |1/Ms

102. |1/M

103 |1/Ms

104 | 1/M

7o5 |1/M

106 |1/Ms

107 |1/Ms

108 {1/Ms

109 |1/M

110 |1/M

rrr |1/M

Pia = Vi

113 |1/M

114 |1/M

115 |1/M

116 |1/Ms

117 |5/Ms

118 |1/Ms

119 |1/Ms

100

150

III

I1i2

Author

Guy, Babault

Haig-Brown, Allan R.

Hale Carpenter, G. D.

Hamilton, Genl. Douglas

Hamilton, Stevenson

Handley, Leonard M. H.

Harmer, S. F.

Harrison, Archibald

Hartmann, Robert

Hartwig, G.

Heuglin, M. Sh. V.

Hicks, F, C.

Hingston, R. W. G.

do.

Hinton, A. C. Martin

Hodgson, B. H.

Hornaday, William T.

Horsefield, ‘Thomas

Hose, Charles

Hossack, Wm. C.

Hovell, Mark

Ilin, M. & Segal, E.

6| Ivanoff, Serge, & Mack,

Gertrude

Jennison, George

Jerdon, T. C.

do.

Johns, Rowland

Kauffman Oskar

do.

Kearton, Cherry

do.

Kent, W. Saville

Kinloch, Alexander A. A.

Kloss, Boden C.

Liscomb, Herscha

Title of Book

RECHERCHES ZOOLOGIQUES(French).

My Game Book, 1913.

A NATURALIST IN East AFRICA,

1925.

RECORDS OF SPoRT IN S. INDIA,

ETC., 1892.

Our SouTH AFRICAN NATIONAL

PARKS, 1940.

HUNTER’S MOON, 1933.

REPORT ON CETACEA, I9QI4.

INDO-CHINA—A SPORTSMAN’S Op-

PORTUNITY, 1933.

ANTHROPOID APES, 1885.

THE TRopicaL WorLD, 1892.

REISE IN NorbDost AFRIKA, 1877.

Forty YEARS AMONG THE WILD

ANIMALS OF INDIA FROM Mysore

Tro Himarayas, Vol. I.

A NaTURALIST IN HIMALAYA, 1920.

A NATURALIST IN HINDUSTAN, 1923.

MONOGRAPH OF VOLES AND LEM-

MINGS, Vol. I, 1926.

CATALOGUE OF MAMMALS, REP-

TILES AND FISH OF NEPAL AND

TIBET, 1863.

Two YEARS IN THE JUNGLE, 1885.

CATALOGUE OF THE MAMMALS IN

THE MUSEUM OF THE EAST

InNp1a Co., 1851.

THE FIELD BOOK OF A JUNGLE

WALLAH, 1929.

AN ACCOUNT OF THE RATS OF

CALCUTTA, AND OTHER PAPERS,

1907-1909.

Rats AND How To _ DESTROY

THEM, 1924. -

How Man BECAME A GIANT, 1942.

Bic GaME HUNTING IN MaAn-

CHURIA, 1936.

Noauw’s CarGo, 1928.

THe Mammats oF INpia, 1867.

do. 1874.

do. 1867.

do. 1874.

Our FRIEND THE PEKINGESE, 1932.

Aus INDIENS DSCHUNGELN, Vol. I,

IQII.

do. Vol. II, rort.

WiLp Lire Across THE WORLD.

THE ANIMALS CAME TO DRINK,

1932.

THE NATURALIST IN AUSTRALIA,

1897.

LARGE GAME SHOOTING, (TIBET,

Hrmarayas, N. &. C. Inpra) 1892.

IN THE ANDAMANS AND NICOBARS,

1903.

Astor—A Journal of Sport and

Travel.

VETTES PITT TERS ES TZ BY TPT TRE PDE BIE SV SE

BOOKS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY'S LIBRARY 801

Serial; Accession

No.

136

137

138

139

140

141

142

143

144

145

146

147

148

149

150

No.

Author

33) Lydekker, R.

36 do.

37 do.

57 do.

63 do.

89 do.

132 do.

206 do.

207 do.

216 do.

34| Lydekker, R. & Blaine,

Gilbert

35 | Lydekker, R. & Blaine,

Gilbert

80| Lydekker, R. & Burlace

We ules

81 | Lydekker, R. & Burlace

J. B. (See Dollman,

J. G. & Burlace J. B.

Lyon

147 | Macintyre, Donald, Maj.-

Gen.

Mack, Gertrude

131 | Maharaja of Cooch Bihar

84.| Maxwell, Marcuswell

65 | Maxwell, Marius

20|McClelland, John &

Others

16| McMaster, A. C.

77 | Members of the Mesopo-

tamia Expeditionary

Force ‘ D’ 1915-1919

777A do do.

77B do. do.

209 | Milroy, A. J. W.

38 | Miller, G. S.

21 | Miller, Gerrit S., Lyon,

& Marcus Ward

133 | Mitchell, K. W. S.

221 | Mivart, George

125} Mosse, A. H. E.

CF ET TS

Title of Book

B. M. CaTaLoGuE oF UNGULATE

Mammnats, Vol. I, 1913.

B. M. CatTaLoGuE oF UNGULATE

MammMats, Vol. IV, 1915.

B. M. CaTaLoGuE OF UNGULATE

MammMats, Vol. V, 1916.

"THE SHEEP AND ITS COUSINS, 1912.

THE GREAT AND SMALL GAME OF

Inp1ia, BuRMA AND _ TIBET,

1900.

B. M. CATALOGUE oF INDIAN BIG

GaME Heaps aND Horns (A.O.

Hume’s Bequest), 1913.

THE GAME ANIMALS oF INDIA,

BurRMA, MALAYA AND TIBET,

1907.

THE Ox AND Its KINDRED, Ig1I.

CaTs, ETC., 1894.

THE GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF

MAMMALS, 1896.

B. M. CaTALOGuUE OF UNGULATE

MamMa ts, Vol. II, 1914.

B. M. CATALOGUE OF UNGULATE

MammMats, Vol. III, 1914.

ROWLAND Warpb’s’ RECORDS OF

Bic GaME, 7th Edn., 1914.

ROWLAND WarbD’s’ RECORDS OF

Bic GAME oth Edn., 1928.

(See Miller and Lyon, Jt

authors.)

Hinpu-KoH: WANDERINGS AND

WILD SPORT ON AND BEYOND

THE HIMALAYAS.

(See Ivanoff, Serge,

Gertrude.)

SHOOTING IN CoocH Binar, 1908.

Bic GAME PHOTOGRAPHS.

STALKING BiG GAME WITH A

CAMERA IN EQUATORIAL AFRICA,

1925.

PAPERS ON INDIAN MAMMALS, 1840.

and Mack

NOTES ON JERDON’S MAMMALIA

oF INDIA, 1870.

SURVEY OF THE IRAQ. Fauna,

IQI5-1919.

do. do.

A SHortT TREATISE ON THE MAN-

AGEMENT OF ELEPHANTS, 1922.

B. M. CaTALOGUE OF MAMMALS OF

West EUROPE, 1912.

MAMMAL PaPERS, 1896-1911.

TALES FROM SOME EasTERN JUNG-

LES, 1928.

THE Car, 1881.

My Soma.i Book, 1913.

802

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol: 47

Serial

No.

183

184

Accession

No.

1/M = 210

1/M 50

1/Ms 88

1/M 59

1/Ms 66

1/M 214

1/Mst 212

1/M 61

1/M 62

1/Ms_ 117

1/M 7

1/M 8

1/Ms a11

1/Ms 212

1/Ms_ 78

MFR _ 182

MFR 183

MFR 184

MFR 185

MFR _ 186

MFR 187

1/Ms_ 187

1/Ms 224

T/ Vie 205

1/M 58

1/Ms_ 158

1/Ms_ 197

1/Ms_ 106

1/Ms_ 107

1/Nisy 177,

1/Ms_ 178

1/M 49

W/L 78)

Author

Murray, Andrew

Murray, James A.

do. do.

Nelson, Edward W.

Nesbit, William

Nott, Fortune J.

Okedon, W. P.

Osborn, Henry Fairfield

do. do.

Peacock, E. H.

Phillips, W. W. A.

do.

Phillips, Wooley & Other

Writers

do. do.

Pigot, R.

Bocock, R&I.

do.

Prater, iSecH.:

do.

Pycraftew,. Pt

do.

Recamier, Dr. Joseph

Rice, William

do.

Rowland Ward

do.

Rundall, L. B.

Ryley, Kathleen V.

Title of Book

‘THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

OF MAMMALS, 1866.

THE VERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY OF

SIND, 1884.

THE MAMMALIAN GAME OF BRIT-

IsH INpIa, 1891.

WILD ANIMALS OF N. AMERICA,

1918.

How to HUNT WITH THE CAMERA.

WiLtp ANIMALS PHOTOGRAPHED

AND DESCRIBED, 1886.

SPORTING JOURNAL, 1821-1841.

PROBOSCIDEA (A MonoGrapH) Vol.

I, 1936. .

PROBOSCIDEA (A MonocrapH), Vol.

II, 1942.

A GamMeE Book FOR BURMA AND

ADJOINING TERRITORIES, 1933. »

A MANUAL OF THE MAMMALS OF

CEYLON, 1935.

A MANUAL OF THE MAMMALS OF

CEYLON, 1935.

Bic GAME SHOOTING, Vol. I, 1894.

do. do. Vol. II, 1894

"TWENTY-FIVE YEARS OF BiG GaME

HUNTING, 1915.

THE FauNA OF BriTISH INDIA,

MAMMALS, Vol. I, 1939.

do. dos) VOlje Lie romnte

do. do.).: Vol. I, ‘ 1939.

do. do. Vol. II, 1941.

do. do. Vol. I, 1939.

~ do do. Vol. II,i1941.

THE MAMMALS, BIRDS AND REpP-

TILES OF NEPAL.

THe WILD ANIMALS OF THE

INDIAN EMPIRE AND THE PRo-

BLEM OF THEIR PRESERVATION.

THE Book oF INDIAN ANIMALS,

1948. :

Tue Livinc ANIMALS OF THE

Wor_p, Vol. I.

THe Livinc ANIMALS OF

Wor p, Vol. II.

De L’ours At LION, 1933 (French).

INDIAN GAME.

TIGER SHOOTING IN

1857.

HorN MEASUREMENTS OF THE

GREAT GAME OF THE WORLD,

1892.

do. do. do.

‘THE SPORTSMAN’S HAND-BOOK TO

PRACTICAL COLLECTING AND PRE-

SERVING ‘TROPHIES, 1906.

THE IBEx OF SHA PING, 1915.

PAPERS ON BuRMA MAMMAL SuUR-

VEY, 1914-1931.

THE

INDIA,

BOOKS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY’S LIBRARY 803

Serial

No.

Accession

Author

Title of Book

185

1/Ms

1/M

1/Ms

1/M

145

174

217

Sanderson, G. P.

Schepers, G. W. H.

Sclater, W: L.

do.

Sclater, W. L. & Sclater,

Ley Ey

Sclater, Pale:

Segal, E.

Selous, F. C.

Shakespear, H.

Shortridge, G. C.

do.

Smith, Donaldson A.

Sowerby, A. De. C.

Stanford, J. K.

Sterndale, R. A.

Stewart, A. E.

Stockley, C. H., Lt.-Col.

do. do.

‘ Sundowner ’

Swayne, H. G. C., Capt.

do. do.

Thomas, Oldfield

do.

Trouessart, E. L.

aol

Tutein Nolthenius, A.

Various Authors

do.

Wallace, Alfred Russel

Wallace, Harold Frank

Ward, A. E.

—$—$—$—————————_— “ ae or

‘THIRTEEN YEARS AMONG THE WILD

Beasts oF INDIA, 1907.

(See Broom, R., & Schepers,

G. W. H.)

CATALOGUE OF Mamma lia, Part II

(in the Indian Museum), 1891.

Notes ON INDIAN HORNED GAME.

‘THE GEOGRAPHY OF MAMMALS,

1899.

(See Sclater, W. L. & Sclater,

POie;)

(See Ilin, M., & Segal, E.)

A HUNTER’S WANDERINGS IN

AFRICA, 1893.

WILD Sports oF INpIA, 1859.

THE MaMMatLs OF SoutH-WEsT

Arrica, Vol. I, 1934.

do. dow aVols Ii erose

THROUGH UNKNOWN AFRICAN

COUNTRIES, 1897.

THE MAMMALS OF THE JAPANESE

ISLANDS, 1943.

Far RIDGES, 1938-1939.

THe Mammatia oF INpia, 1884.

do. do.

DENIZENS OF THE JUNGLE.

SEONEE OR CAMP LIFE ON THE

SATPURA RANGE.

TIGER AND OTHER GAME,

Bic GAME SHOOTING IN

INDIAN EMPIRE, 1928.

SHIKAR, 1928.

STALKING IN THE HIMALAYAS AND

NORTHERN INDIA, 1936.

RAMBLES IN POLYNESIA, 1897.

SEVENTEEN ‘TRIPS ‘THROUGH So-

MALILAND, 1895.

1927.

THE

do. do. do.

MAMMAL PAPERS, 1908-1911.

do. 1881-1907.

do.

IQI2-1915.

CaTaLocus MammMat.ium Tom. I,

1898-1899.

do. do. II, 1898-1899.

do. Supplement, 1898-1899.

"THIRTY-SEVEN YEARS OF GAME

PROTECTION IN CEYLON, 1894-

1931.

VaRIoUuS PAPERS ON Mamma tia,

1871.

PAPERS ON MAMMALS.

MAMMALIA (A _ Collection of

Papers).

IsLAND LIFE, 1880.

‘THE BiG GAME OF CENTRAL AND

WESTERN CHINA, 1913.

THE SPORTSMAN’S GUIDE TO

KASHMIR, Qic, eral

LADAK,

Edn., 1883.

804 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47

wall .

ie ac a Author Title of Book

220 |1/Ms_ go0| Wardrop, A. E. Days AND NIGHTS wiTH INDIAN

Bic GAME, 1923.

221 |1/Ms_ 196| Whistler, Hugh THE High HIMALAyas, 1924.

222 |1/Ms_ 170] Wilmot, S. Eardley, Sir | LEavEs FROM INDIAN FORESTS,

1930.

223 |1/Ms_ 192] Wilson, Lt.-Col. Alban | SPORTS AND SERVICE IN ASSAM AND

ELSEWHERE, 1924.

224 |1/M 215] Wood, J. G. ILLUSTRATED NaTuRAL History,

Vol. I, Mammalia.

225 |1/M 24| Wroughton, R. C. MAMMAL PaPERS, 1899-I9QI1I.

226 |1/Ms_ 191 do. SUMMARY OF THE RESULTS FROM

THE INDIAN MAMMAL SURVEY.

227 |1/M 19 | Wroughton, R. C., |PApERS ON INDIAN MAMmMaALs,

Thomas, O., & others 1908-1911.

228 |1/M_ 203] Zuckerman, S. THe SocraL LIFE OF MONKEYS

AND APES, 1932.

—

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