THE

P

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society

INDEX AND TITLE PAGE

VOL. 48

NOS. I & 2

349259

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Title page

Contents of Nos. 1 & 2 of Vol. 48

List of contributors

List of plates

Index to illustrations

1

Errata

Index to species

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the two numbers.

THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society

EDITED BY

SALIM ALI, S. B. SETHNA, Ph.D.. and H. SANTAPAU, s.J.

VOL. 48

Nos. I & 2

Containing i coloured plate, 39 black and white plates

37 text-figures and 2 photographs

Details of Publication

Part 1. (Pages 1 to 200) ... December, 1948

„ 2. ( „ 201 to 398) ... April, 1949

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CONTENTS OF VOLUME 48

No. 1

Page

The Birds of the Mishmi Hills. By Salim Ali and S.

Dillon Ripley. ( With a map> 1 coloured and 4 black and

white plates') , 1

Astanmarg. By Lt.-Col. R. S. P. Bates, m.b.o.u„ i.a. (Retd.).

( With lour plates) 38

Marine Fisheries of Kodinar in Kathiawar. By

T. V. R. Pillay, b.sc. (With a map , 1 sketch and 2 photo-

graphs) 47

More Butterflies of the Arakan Coast. By Major

A. M. Emmet, m.a., m.b.e. ... ... ... 62

Some Suggestions for Entomological Work in India.

By D. G. Sevastopulo, f.r.e.s 75

The Birds of the Punjab Salt Range (Pakistan). By

H. W. Waite, c.i.e., m.b.o.u. (With a map and two

plates) 93

Sciaenids of the West Coast of Madras Province. By

P. K. Jacob, b.a., m.sc. (With 1 plate and 1 text-

iigure) 118

Jungle Memories, Part I — Tiger. By Lt.-Col. E. G.

Phythian-Adams, o.b.e., f.z.s., i.a. (Retd.). ( With two

plates) . 125

A Note on the Food Habits of Three Kingfishers

occurring on Singapore Island. By C. A. Gibson-

Hill, M.A., m.b.o.u. (With two text-figures) 146

Some Observations on the Habits of Hippocampus guttu-

latus Cuvier, reared in the Marine Biological

Station, West Hill. By P. K. Jacob, b.a., m.sc. and

A. D. Isaac Rajendran, b.sc. (Hons.). (With a text-

figure) 153

rrichogvammatoidea nana Zehnt. (Hym. Chalcidoidea) —

An Egg Parasite of the Sugar-cane Borer Argyria

stidicraspis Hampson : A New Record from South

India. By M C. Cherian and V. Margabandhu.,,,. 157

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 4$

i v

Page

Natural History of the Gizzard-Shad Anodontostoma

chacunda (Ham. Buch.) and its Fishery on? the West

Coast of Madras Province. By P. K. Jacob, b.a.}

m.sc 159

An Abnormal Form of Lac Cell and its earliest

Illustration. By S. Mahdihassan. {With a plate) 161

Reviews : —

L Proceedings of the Zoological Society of Bengal,

Vol. I, No. 1, March, 1948 164

2. Bibliography of Homoptera auchenorhyncha.

(S. Mahdihassan) 164

3. Circumventing the Mahseer and other Sporting

Fish in India and Burma (R.W.B.) 165

Obituary Notices : —

T. R. D. Bell... 167

Capt. G. C. Shortridge 171

Miscellaneous Notes : —

1. Black Leopard Cubs. {With a photo.) By E. P.

Gee....... 173

2. A Tale of Many Tigers. By Editors 175

3. * Death Cry ’ of Tiger. By Lt.-Col. R. W.

Burton 176

4. Mammals of South Tinnevelly — Madras Province.

By C. G. Webb-Peploe 180

5. Death Cry in Animals. By A. St. J. Macdonald. 181

6. Funeral of a Weasel. By H. B. McCann 182

7. Dog-Fox Crosses. By Lt.-Col, R. W. Burton... 183

8. Occurrence of the Large Himalayan Malkoha

[ Rhopodytes t. tristis (Less.)] in Khulna Sun-

derbans. By Satya Churn Law, m.a., ph.D.,

F.N.1 183

9. Green Pigeon in a Swamp. By A. St. J.

Macdonald 184

10. Arrival of Wagtails in Madura District, South

India. By A. F. Hutton 185

11. Morning and Evening Song of Birds. By Samsar

Chand Koul 185

12. Some Interesting Birds of the Gir and Girnar,

Kathiawar. By K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji... 187

13. Remarks on * Aggressive Demonstration by

Russell’s Viper \ By V. M. Vasu '..... 190

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 48 v

Page

14. Development of Fisheries of the Periyar Lake.

By P. I. Chacko 191

15. ‘Termite Fungi’. By Editors 192

16. Introduction of Foreign Insects with Imported

Grains, By K. N. Trehan and S. V. Pingle. 192

1 7. On the Occurrence of White Rust on Amaranihus

polygamies Linn. By Asok Kumar Kar 197

18. Freak Shots. By Humayun Abdulali 198

Appeal : —

International Depot of Microscopic Preparations of

Cytology. By Profs. P. Martens and P. Vayssiere...... 200

No. 2

Jungle Memories, Part II — Elephants. By Lt.-Col.

E. G. Phythian-Adams, o.b.e., f.z.s., i.a. (Retd.). ( With

2 plates) 201

Notes on the Nesting Habits of Seven Representative

Tropical Sea Birds. By C. A. Gibson-Hill, m.a.,

m.b.o.u. (With 5 plates ) 214

The Indian Caddis Flies ( Trichoptera ). Part IX. By the

late Martin E. Mosely, f.r.e.s., f.z.s. ( With 14 plates')... 236

The Nilgiris Revisited. By M. A. Wynter-Blyth, m.a.,

f.r.e.s. ( With a map and 2 plates) 246

The Bionomics of Ribbon Fishes ( Trichiurus spp.) and

their Fishery on the West Coast of Madras Province. By

P. K. Jacob, b.a., m.sc. ( With a text-figure) 261

A Supplementary List of the Food-Plants of the

Indian Bombycidae, Agaristidae and Noctuidae.

By D. G. Sevastopulo, f.r.e.s 265

Artificial Key to the Papilionaceae of Bombay

Province. By H. Santapau, s.j 277

Wild Life Reserves in India : Bihar Province. By

Jamal Ara. ( With a map and 2 tables) 283

Preservation of Wild Life in India : By Lt.-Col. R. W.

Burton, i.a. (Retd.) 290

Microcos blattaefolia (Corner) Seshagiri Rao, Nov. Comb.

By R. Seshagiri Rao 300

The Study of Indian Molluscs, Part 1. By James

Hornell, f.l.s., f.r.a.i. (With 28 text-figures') 303

VI

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 48

Page

Identity of Microbracon brevicovnis Wesm. and Microbvacon

hebetor Say. By M. C. Cherian and V. Margabandhu 335

Sweet Flag (. Acorus calamus)— A Potential Source of

Valuable Insecticide. By T. V. Subramaniam, b.a.... 338

Reviews : —

1. Journal of the Zoological Society of India, Vol. I,

No. 1. (S.M.) 342

2. Wildlife for America: The Story of Wildlife Conser-

vation. (S.A.)..... 343

3. Adventures with a Naturalist. (H.A.) 344

4. The Parasitic Cuckoos of Africa. (S.A.) 344

5. Animal Encyclopaedia (Mammals). (H.A.) 316

Obituary Notices:—

C. G. Webb-Peploe.. 347

F. E. Bharucha 347

James Hornell 348

Prof. J. F. R. D’Almeida 351

Miscellaneous Notes : —

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

Tiger eating Panther ? By Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian-

Adams

Charge by unwounded Bison. By Lt.-Col. E. G.

Phythian-Adams

‘ Death Cry ’ of Tiger. By Lt.-Col. E. G.

Phy thian- Adams

Feeding habits of the Nilgiri Marten [Charronia

gwatkinsi (Horsfield)]. By A. F. Hutton...

4 An Elephant 170 years old.’ By N. G. Pillai...

A Whale near Bombay. By N. G. Pillai

Unrecorded nesting sites of the Grey-headed

Flycatcher \Culicicapa ceylonensis ceylo?iensis

(Swainson)]. By Chas. M. Inglis, f.z.s.,

Nightjars. By W. W. A. Phillips

Luminiscent Owls. By Humayun Abdulali

Wilson’s Storm-Petrel ( Oceanites oceanicus) in the

Gulf of Aden. By A. G. S. Bryson

Occurrence of the Bar-headed Goose Anser

indicus (Latham) in Bombay. By Mrs. Kay

Nixon Blundell...,...,, ......

353

354

355

356

358

359

35S

361

362

364

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 48 vii

Page

12. Occurrence of the White-fronted Goose Anser

albitrons Scop, in Orissa. By L. A. Craven... 365

13. The Bronze-capped Teal in Assam. By J. C.

Higgins 366

14. The Tufted Duck [Ay thy a iuligula (Linn.)] :

An interesting addition to the avifauna of

Ceylon. By W. W. A, Phillips...... 367

15. The Great Crested Grebe [Podiceps cris talus

(Linn.)] in Orissa. By H. G. Alexander 367

16. ‘ The Birds of Delhi and District. ’ By E. C.

Benthall and H. G. Alexander 368

17. The Dawn Chorus in India. By P. I. R. Maclaren,

m.b.o.u 372

18. Bird notes from Kutch. By Maharao Madansinhji. 373

19. Herpetological observations in Assam and Bengal

(1944). By J. D. Romer, f.z.s 374

20. Extension of Range of the Earth Snake Uropeltis

rubrolineatus (Gunther). By Salim Ali 376

21. Freshwater Shark (Wallagonia attu) swallowing

a Coot. By R. S. Cooper 377

22. Accidental asphyxiation of a Fringe-lipped Carp

( Labeo fimbriatus). By K. H. Alikunhi 377

23. The butterfly genus Delias . By D. G. Sevasto-

pulo, f.r.e.s 378

24. Additional notes on Arakan butterflies. By John

C. Gladman, b.sc 379

25. The butterfly Danans chrysippus in Calcutta.

By S. Percy -Lancaster...... 381

26. Chironomid midges in Southern Tibet. {With

a photograph ). By P. I. R. Maclaren 381

27. Bee vs. Scorpion. By Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian-

Adams........ 382

Catalogue of Books in the Society’s Library, Part II, Birds... 383

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

VOLUME 48

Nos, 1

Page

Abdul. ali, Humayun, Freak

Shots ... 198

— — Luminiscent Owls... 361

Alexander, H. G., The Great

Crested Grebe [ Podiceps cris -

talus (Linn.)] in Orissa ... 367

— see Benthall, E. C.

Ali, SAlim and Ripley,

S. Dillon, The Birds of the

Mishmi Hills. (With a map ,

1 coloured and 4 black and

white plates) 1

Ali, SAlim, Extension of Range

of the Earth Snake Uropeltis

rubrolineatus (Gunther) ... 376

Alikunhi, K. H., Accidental

asphyxiation of a Fringe-lipp-

ed Carp (Labeo fimbriatus) ... 377

Ara, Jamal, Wild Life Reserves

in India : Bihar Province.

( With a map and two tables ) . 283

Bates, Lt.-Col. R. S. P.,

m.b.o.u., i. A« (Retd.), Astan-

marg. ( With 4 plates) ... 38

Benthall, E. C., k.c.s.i. and

Alexander, H. G., ‘The

Birds of Delhi and District.’ 358

Blundell, (Mrs.) Kay Nixon,

Occurrence of the Bar-headed

Goose Anser indicus (Latham)

in Bombay 364

Bryson, A. G. S., Wilson’s

Storm-Petrel (Oceanites ocea-

nicus) in the Gulf of Aden ... 362

Burton, Lt.-Col. R. W., i.a.

(Retd.), * Death Cry ’ of Tiger 176

Dog-Fox Crosses. 183

Preservation of

Wild Life in India: Supple-

ment to the article published

in Vol. 47, pp. 602-622 of this

journal ... 290

and 2

Page

Chacko, P. I., Development of

Fisheries of the PeriyarLake. 191

Cherian, M. C. and Marga-

bandhu, V,, Trichogrammat-

oidea nana Zehnt. (Hym.

Chalcidoidea) — An Egg Para-

site of the Sugar-cane Borer

Argyria sticticraspis Hamp-

son : A New Record from

South India 157

Identity of Micro -

bracon brevicornis Wesm.

and Microbracon hebetor

Say 335

Cooper, R. S., Freshwater Shark

(Wallagonia attu) swallowing

a Coot 377

Craven, L. A., Occurrence of

the White-fronted Goose

Anser albifrons Scop. in

Orissa 365

Dharmakumarsinhji, K. S.,

Some Interesting Birds of the

Gir and Girnar, Kathiawar ... 187

Editor.s, A Tale of Many

Tigers 175

‘Termite Fungi ’ ... 192

Emmet, Major A. M., m.a.

m.b.e., More Butterflies of the

Arakan Coast 62

Gee, E. P., Black Leopard Cubs

( With a photo) 173

Gibson-Hill, C. A., m.a., m.b.

o.u., A Note on the Food

Habits of Three Kingfishers

Occurring on Singapore

Island. {With 2 text- figures) 146

Notes on the

Nesting Habits of Seven

Representative Tropical Sea

Birds. (With 5 plates) ... 214

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

ix

Page |

Gladman, John C., b.sc., Ad-

ditional notes on Arakan

Butterflies 379

Higgins, J. C., The Bronze-cap-

ped Teal in Assam 366

Hornell, James, f.l.s., f.r.

a. i. (Deceased), The Study

of Indian Molluscs, Part I.

( With 28 text -figures) ... 303

Hutton, A. F., Feeding habits

of the Nilgiri Marten \Charro-

nia gwatkinsi (Horsfield)] ... 355

Arrival of Wag-

tails in Madura District, South

India 185

1NGLIS, CHAS. M., F.Z.S., B.E.M.

b. o.u., Unrecorded nesting

sites of the Grey-headed Fly-

catcher \Culicicapa ceylonen-

sis ceylonensis (Swainson)] ... 359

Jacob, P. K., b.a., m.sc., Sciae-

nids of the West Coast of

Madras Province. ( With one

plate and one text-figure) ... 118

Natural History of

the Gizzard-Shad Anodontos-

toma chacunda (Ham. Buch.)

and its Fishery on the West

Coast of Madras Province ... 159

The Bionomics of

Ribbon Fishes ( Trichiurus)

and their Fishery on the West

Coast of Madras Province.

( With a text- figure) ... 261

— and Rajendran,

A. D. Isaac, b.sc. (Hons.),

Some Observations on the

Habits of Hippocampus

guttulatus Cuvier, reared in

the Marine Biological Station,

West Hill. ( With a text-

figure) 153

Kar, Asok Kumar, On the

Occurrence of White Rust on

Amar ant hus poly gamus Linn. 197

Koul, Samsar Chand, Morn-

ing and Evening Song of

Birds 185

Law, Satya Churn, m.a.,

ph.D., f.n.i., Occurrence of the

Large Himalayan Malkoha

Page

[. Rhopodytes t. tristis (Less.)]

in Khulna Sunderbans ... 183

Macdonald, A. St. J., Death-

Cry in Animals 181

* Green Pigeon

in a Swamp 184

Maclaren, P. I. R., m. B.O.U.,

The Dawn Chorus in India... 372

Chironomid

Midges in Southern Tibet.

( With a photograph) 381

Madansinhji, Maharao, Bird

Notes from Kutch 373

Mahdihassan, S., An Abnormal

Form of Lac Cell and its earl-

iest illustration. ( With a

Plate) 161

Margabandhu, V.,see Cheri-

an, M. C.

McCann, H. B., Funeral of a

Weasel 133

Mosely, The late Martin E.,

f.r.e.s., f.z.s., The Indian

Caddis Flies {Trichopetra) ,

Part IX. {With 14 plates) ... 236

Percy- Lancaster, S.,The but-

terfly Danaus chrysippus in

Calcutta 38I

Phillips, W.W.A., Nightjars... 359

The Tufted

Duck [ Ay thy a fuligula

(Linn.)]: An interesting addi-

tion to the avifauna of Ceylon . 367

Pillay, T. V. R., B.SC., Marine

Fisheries of Kodinar in

Kathiawar ( With a map , one

sketch and two photographs) . 47

Pillai, N. G. , ‘An Elephant

170 years old ’ 356

A Whale

near Bombay 358

Pingle, S. V., see Trehan, K.N.

Phythian-A d a ms, Lt.-Col.

E.G., o.b.e., f.z.s. , i.a. (Re-

tired), Jungle Memories,

Part I— Tiger {With two

plates) 125

Jungle Memories,

Part II — Elephants. {With 2

plates) 201

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

x

Page

Rajendran, A. D. Isaac, b.sc.

(Hons.), see Jacob, P. K.,

b.a., m.sc.

Rao, R. Seshagiri, Microcos

blattaefolia (Corner) Seshagiri

Rao, Nov. Comb. ( With a

text-figure )

Ripley, S. Dillon, see Ali,

SXlim.

Romer, J. D., f.z.s., Herpeto-

logical Observations in Assam

and Bengal (1944)

Santafau, H., s.j., Artificial

Key to the Papilionaceae of

Bombay Province

Sevastopulo, D. G., f.r.e.s.

Some Suggestions for Ento-

mological Work in India

Sevastopulo, D. G., f.r.e.s.,

A Supplementary List of the

Food-Plants of the Indian

Bombycidae, Agaristidae and

Noctuidae

— — The butterfly

genus Delias

Subram aniam, T. V., b.a.,

Sweet Flag (Acorus calamus ) —

A Potential Source of Valua-

ble Insecticide

Trehan, K. N. and Pingle,

S. V., Introduction of Foreign

Insects with imported Grains.

! Vasu, V. M., Remarks on

300 ! ‘Aggressive Demonstration

! by Russell’s Viper ’

Waite, H. W., c.i.e., m.b.o.u.,

The Birds of The Punjab

Salt Range, (Pakistan) . ( With

; a map and two plates )

j Webb- Peploe, C.G., Mammals

of South Tinnevelly, Madras

j Province

277 | Wynter-Blyth, M. A., m.a.

(Cantab.), f.r.e.s., The Nil-

giris Revisited. ( With a map

75 I and two plates )

Page

265

378

338

192

190

93

180

246

LIST OF PLATES

VOLUME 48

Nos. 1 and 2

Page

The Birds of Mishmi Hills.

Coloured Plate. A New Wren from the Mishmi Hills, Assam.

Spelaeornis badeigularis Ripley

Plate I. Dry river bed in forest, Tezu |

The Lohlt river at Tezu 1

Plate II. Undergrowth of brackens and tree ferns on steep hill-1

side, Dening

The troublesome nettle — Laportia crenulata /

Plate III. Secondary shrub jungle on overgrown cultivation j

clearing, Dening (Dr. Ripley in centre)

Dense evergreen undergrowth, Tezu j

Plate IV. Makeshift bamboo bridge on the trail to Dreyi j

Astanmarg.

Plate I.

Plate II.

The expedition’s camp in a river bed

A male Blue-fronted Redstart about to feed a young

Asiatic Cuckoo

A Hume’s Willow-Warbler, well above its normal \

altitude, had built amongst juniper roots >

A Hodgson’s Pipit leaving its nest 1

Plate III. Cortusa matthioli , a striking cerise flower burdened with

a particularly ugly English name, Bear’s-ear Sanicle.

Plate IV. Androsace of two kinds grew cheek by jowl on the same

rock, the tall A. sarmentosa, shown here, and the

small-lea ved A. microphylla

Marine Fisheries of Kodinar in Kathiawar.

Plate I. Muldwarka ‘ hodi ’ used by kharvas for fishing in')

Kodinar coastal waters. I

Vanakbara ‘ hodi ’ used for hilsa and pomfret fishing f

by Machhiaras. j

The Birds of the Punjab Salt Range, (Pakistan) .

Plate I. Sakesar from Uchhali )

Kallar Kahar Lake )

Plate II. Near Nurpur )

Between Nurpur and Lilia J

Sciaenids of the West Coast of Madras Province.

Plate. Ololithus ruber (Bl. and Schn.) ...

Jungle Memories. Part 1 — Tiger.

Plate I. A tigress changing covert

Plate II. The Dodakatte tigress. * She was a full grown tigress')

but rather lanky ’ I

In the Kundahs. “Rolling grassy downs interrupted j

by wooded ravines locally known as ‘sholas ’.”

An abnormal form of Lac Cell and its earliest illustration.

Plate. Fig. 1. Stick lac illustrated by Garcia-Clusius in 1567 1.

Encrustation of L. commufiis on Z. jujuba

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 4.

Fresh stick lac of L, communis on Ficus mysorenis J

1

4

5

6

7

40

41

44

45

50

94

95

118

128

129

162

LIST OF PLATES

xii

Obituary.

The late T. R. D. Bell, c.i.e., i.f.s. (Retd.)

Jungle Memories. Part II — Elephants.

Plate I. Tusker and Family

Plate II. The Cradle Tusker \

A Tusker scents danger J

Notes on the Nesting Habits of Seven Representative Tropical Sea Birds.

Plate I. Chick of the Common Noddy, aged about 23 days

with adult bird.

Chick of the White Tern, aged about 35 days.

Plate II. Chick of the Brown Booby, aged about 4 days •)

Chick of the Brown Booby, aged about 65 days J

Plate III. Chick of the Red- footed Booby, aged about 42 days

Chick of the Least Frigate-bird, aged about 20 days

with an adult male.

Plate IV. Chick of the Christmas Island Frigate-bird, aged about

55 days.

Male Least Frigate-bird, with pouch distended.

Plate V. Young chick of the Red-tailed Tropic-bird, aged about

15 days with an adult bird.

Chick of the Red-tailed Tropic-bird, aged about 60 days

The Indian Caddis Flies ( Trichoptera ),

Page

168

206

207

216

217

226

227

232

Plate I. Figs. 1-7. Adinar thrum iamb a sp. n. 1. $ head from

side. 2. £ wings. 3. £ genitalia, lateral.

4. £ genitalia, dorsal. 5. ninth segment

and inferior appendages, ventral. 6. 2

wings. 7. £ genitalia, ventral ... 236

Plate II. Figs. 8-13. Adinarthrum kursenm sp. n. 8. head

from side. 9. anterior tibia of type.

10. wings. 11. genitalia, lateral. 12. geni-

talia, dorsal. 13. penis and sheaths,

dorsal ... ... ... 237

Plate III. Figs. 14-19. Adinarthrum moulmina sp. n. <$. 14. base

of antenna from side. 15. maxillary

palpus, lateral. 16. wings. 17. genitalia,

lateral. 18. genitalia, dorsal. 19. penis

and sheaths dorsal ... ... 238

Plate IV. Figs. 20-24. Adinarthrum taunggya sp. n. rf. 20. base

of antenna from side. 21. anterior wing.

22. genitalia, lateral. 23. genitalia,

dorsal. 24. penis and sheaths, dorsal... Bet. 238/9

Plate V. Figs. 25-31. Agoerodes convolution sp. n. 25. winged.

26. base of antenna from side. 27. maxil-

lary and labial palpi, lateral. 28. geni-

talia, lateral. 29. genitalia, dorsal.

30. penis and sheaths, lateral. 31. penis

and sheaths, dorsal Bet. 238/9

Plate VI. Figs. 32-35. Agoerodes differens sp. n. J. 32. wings.

33. genitalia, lateral. 34. genitalia, dorsal.

35. penis and sheaths, dorsal

239

LIST OF PLATES

xiii

Page

Plate VII. Figs. 36-42. Agoerodes fusca sp. n. 36. wings.

37. base of antenna from above. 38.

maxillary palpus from in front. 39. labial

palpus, lateral. 40. genitalia, lateral.

41. genitalia, dorsal. 42. penis and

sheaths, dorsal ... 240

Plate VIII. Figs. 43-47. Agoerodes malaisei $ p. n. 43. base of

antenna from side. 44. maxillary and

labial palpi, lateral. 45. wings. 46. geni-

talia, lateral. 47. genitalia, dorsal ... 24

Plate IX. Figs. 48-53. Agoerodes margula sp. n. 48. head,

lateral. 49. wings. 50. genitalia, lateral.

51. ninth segment and dorsal plate,

dorsal. 52. ninth segment, inferior

appendages, penis and sheaths, ventral.

53. apex of penis from behind ... 242

Plate X. Figs. 54-59. Agoerodes orient dlis sp. n. <$. 54. wings.

55. maxillary and labial palpi, lateral.

56. base of antenna from side. 57. geni-

talia, lateral. 58. genitalia, dorsal.

59. genitalia, ventral, dorsal plate

omitted ... ... Bet. 242/3

Plate XI. Figs. 60-65. Agoerodes sika sp. n. 60. base of

antenna, lateral. 61. maxillary and labial

palpi, lateral. 62. wings. 63. genitalia,

lateral. 64. genitalia, dorsal. 65. ninth

segment and inferior appendages,

ventral ... ... Bet. 242/3

Plate XII. Figs. 66-71. Agoerodes simnlans sp. n. <$. 66. wings.

67. base of antenna, lateral. 68. maxil-

lary palpus, from in front. 69. labial

palpus, lateral. 70. genitalia, lateral.

71. ninth tergite and dorsal plate, dorsal 243

Plate XIII. Figs. 72-78. Agoerodes squamosa sp. n. <$, 72. wings.

73. base of antenna, lateral. 74. maxil-

lary palpus from in front. 75. labial

palpus, lateral. 76. genitalia, lateral.

77. genitalia, dorsal. 78. penis and

sheaths, dorsal ... ... 244

Plate XIV. Figs. 79-84. Agoerodes volutum sp. n. 79. wings.

80. base of antenna, lateral. 81. maxil-

lary and labial palpi, lateral. 82. geni-

talia, lateral. 83. genitalia, dorsal.

84. penis sheaths, dorsal ... 245

The Nilgiris Revisited.

Plate I. The old Calicut Road near Bangi Tappal ... 250

Plate II. Hodgson’s Hut j

Typical Shola formation J. 251

The Green Keelback

Hatpin flowers ( Eriocaulon ) J

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

VOLUME 48

1 & 2

Pags

Bell, The lateT. R. D., c.i.e.,

i.f.s. (RetdJ

Plate ... ... 168

Bihar, Map showing Wild

Life Reserves ... ... 284

The Birds of the Mishmi Hills.

Coloured Plate ... 1

Map ... ... 2

Diagram : Geogra-

phical Influence on

Mishmi Fauna ... 4

Plate I ... 4

Plate II ... 5

Plate III ... 6

Plate IV ... 7

The Birds of the Punjab Salt

Range, (Pakistan). Map... 93

Sakesar from Uchhali.

Kallar Kahar Lake.

Plate I ... ... 94

Near Nurpur. Between

Nurpur and Lilia.

Plate II 95

Calicut Road near Bangi

Tappal, The old

Plate I ... ... 250

Cellana (A common Indian

Limpet).

Text fig. 1 ... 305

Chironomid Midges in Southern

Tibet.

Photograph ... 382

Cortusa matthioli

Plate III ... 44

Anous stolidus pileatus

(Chick aged about 23 days

with adult bird).

Plate I ... 216

Anthus roseatus

Plate II ... 41

Babylonia spirata (1. Crawl-

ing over sand. 2. Oral

view of shell of).

Text figs. 22 & 23 ...

Cypraea annulus

Text fig. 17 ... 322

Entomological Work, Sugges-

tions for

Mating between a Homozy-

gote and a Heterozygote.

Text figs. 1 & 2 ... 84

Epitonium (A Wentle-trap

Shell)

330

Text fig. 16

321

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

xv

Page

Eriocaulon (Hatpin flowers)

Plate II ... 251

Fasciolaria , Shell of a typical

Text fig. 21 ... 329

Fregata andrewsi (Chick

aged about 55 days)

Plate IV 227

Fregata ariel

Plate III. Chick aged

about 20 days with

an adult male ... 226

Plate IV. Male with

pouch distended ... 227

Gygis alba monte ( Chick aged

about 35 days)

Plate I ... ... 216

Halcyon chloris humii

Text fig. 2 ...150 & 151

Halcyon smyrnensis fuse a

Text fig. 3 ••• 150&151

Hippocampus gutiulatus

Text fig. ... ^53

Hodgson’s Hut

Plate II ... ... 251

lanthina with its frothy float

attached to the foot, Living

appearance

Text fig. 15 ... 321

lanthina roseola

Text fig. 14 ... 320

Jew Fish on the West Coast

(1925-45), Chart showing

the landings of

Text fig. ... 320

Jungle Memories, Part I—

Tiger.

Plate I 128

Platell ... ... 12S

Jungle Memories, Part II—

Elephants.

Plate I 206

Platell ... ... 207

Keelback, The Green

Plate II 251

Lakshadia communis on

Ficus mysorensis

Plate, fig. 4 .. 162

Lakshadia communis on

Z. jujuba

Plate, figs. 2 & 3 ... 162

Lambis chiragra, Growth

changes in the shell of

Text fig.9,A,B,C,D

Lambis lambis

Text fig. 8

Laportia crenulata

Plate II ...

Leopard Cubs, Black

Photo

Magilus , showing the larval

form of the shell (B), and

the abnormal form assumed

when adult (A)

Text fig. 28

Marine Fisheries of Kodinar

in Kathiwar

Map

A ‘ Gholu Jal ’in operation

Text fig.

Muldwarka ‘ hodi ’ and

Vana-kbara ‘ hodi ’

Plate I

Microcos blattae folia (Corner)

Seshagiri Rao, Nov. Comb.

Text fig. ...

Murexy Egg capsule of a

Text fig. 25

Mur ex palma-rosae

Text fig. 24

Murex tenuispina

Text fig. 24

Natica (1) Showing the Shell

sunk within the lobes of the

foot. (2) seen crawling,

View from above

Text figs. 11 & 12 ...

(3) Egg-ribbon of

Text fig. 13

Nilgiri Plateau

Sketch map

Otolithus ruber

Plate

Phaethon rubricauda westralis

(Young chick aged about

15 days with an adult bird

and chick aged about 60

days)

Plate V ...

Phoenicians frontalis about

to feed a young Cuculus

canorous telephonus

Plate I

Page

316

315

5

172

334

48

49

50

300

332

322

319

320

246

118

232

40

XVI

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

Page

Phylloscopus inornatus humei

Plate II ...

Pila globosa

Text figs. 3 & 4

Potamid.es cingulalus

Text fig. 5, A

Pot amides pal ustris

Text fig. 5, B

Pyrula ficus

Text fig. 19

Rap ana bulbosa

Text fig. 27

Ribbon Fish, (1925-45), Chart

showing landings of

Text fig. 1

Shola formation, Typical

Plate II

Spelaeornis badeigularis Ripley

Coloured Plate

Stick lac illustrated by Garcia-

Clusius in 1567

Plate, fig. 1

41

311

312

323

333

263

251

1

162

Strom bus canarium

Text fig. 7

Sula leucogaster plotus

(Chicks aged about 4 and

65 days)

Plate II

Sula sula rubripes (Chick

aged about 42 days )

Plate III

Telescopium tetescopium

Text fig. 5, C

Thais bufo

Text fig. 26, B

Tibia curta

Text fig. 10

Tonna dolium

Text fig. 18

Turbo argyrostomus

Text fig. 2

Vermetus (The Worm Shell)

Text fig. 6

Xancus pyrum , with its egg

capsule

Text fig. 20

Page

314

217

226

312

333

317

322

308

313

324

INDEX OF SPECIES

abadiei

abalone ...

Abisara echerius angulata

Abroscopus albogularjs albogularis. .

.. , davogularis

superciliaris drasticus ...

277

267,

268, 274

257

Abrus

precatorius

Abutilon avicennae

bidentatum

indicum

Acacia

arabica ...

. catechu ...

dealbata

decurrens

farnesiana

• melanoxylon

modesta ...

Acanthis cannabina fringillirostris

Acartia spp.

Accipiter nisus melanoschistus

Aceros nipalensis

Acetes ... '

Achaea janata

achetes

Acontia intersepta

— malvae

transversa

Acorus

- — — calam us

Acridotheres ( crista tellus) fuscus ...

Jginginianus

. t. tristis

tristis tristis 35, 102,

... 338, 339, 340

icrobasis obliqua

Lcrocephalus agricola

dumetorum

stentoreus brunnescens

100,

icronicta indica

pruinosa

rubiginosa

,ctias selene

ictinodura

Page

32

307

66

31

1, 3

31

, 280

276

275

274

273

275

268

, 275

, 266

246

274

260

95

103

160

111

15

52

274

82

274

, 341

338

35

102

188

186

335

370

371

186

271

269

29

Actinodura egertoni lewisi

Actitis hypoleueos

Adhatoda vasica

Adinarthrum

iamba

kurseum

moulmina

taunggya

Adisura atkinsoni

Adolias khasiana intermedia ...

Adollas dirtea jadeltina

Adonis chrysocyathus

Adris tyrannus

Aegithaliscus sp.

Aegithina tiphia humei

. tiphia

Aegocera venulia

aegyptica, (S.)

aequabilis, (C. macrurus)

Aeromachus py gmaeus

Aeschynomene

Aesculus indica

Aethiopsar fuscus

Aethopyga nipalensis koelzi ...

saturata saturata ...

affinis, (M.)

Aglais urticae

Agoerodes

convolutum

differens

— fusca

— malaisei

margula

orientalis

sika ...

simulans

squamosa

— volutum

Agrobates galactotes familiaris

Alaemon alaudipes

Alauda arvensis

— cinerascens ...

- — — gulgula australis

Page

28

12, 115

95

236

237

238

239

273

69

66

39

275

33

188

20

271

360

67

278

267

188

4, 34

34

14

108

77, 91

239

240

241

242

243

244

100

169

371

105

259

xviii

INDEX OF SPECIES

Albara argenticeps

albicollis

albi ventre

Albizzia procera ...

stipulata

albosuperciliaris

Albugo sp.

alcanor ...

Alcedo atthis

147, 151,

bengalensis. 15, 108, 146,

pallasii

Alectoris graeca koriakovi

Alcippe castaneicepscastaneiceps

cinerea

collaris

- — - — ■ — nipalensis commoda

poiocephala ...

— — — - rufogularis rufogularis

alcippoides

alcippus

alexis, (H. alexis)

Alhagi

Allotinus horsfieldii continentalis

Alnus nitidus

Alseodaphne owdenii

— semicarpifolia

Alseonax ruficaudus

Alsocomus pun ice us

Altha melanopsis

nivea

Alysicarpus

Amandava amandava ...

amantes

Amaranthus

— - polygamus

Amaryllidaceae

Amata cyssea

— — passalis

• superbius

Amathina

tricostata

Amatissa cuprea

moorei

Amathusia phidippus friderici

Amaurornis

Ambassis spp

Ambly podia agaba agaba

alea alea

amantes amantes

- ...... — centaurus centaurus

— — -diardi

Page j

269 j

88

23 I

273

275

31

198

67

152, 189

150, 151

186

... 122

29

... 7, 29

2

30

88

87, 381

67

... 280

70

... 267

... 268

33

... 285

... 270

277, 281

... 372

66

... 197

197, 198

... 271

... 266

... 265

... 318

... 270

69

18

... 263

66

71

66

71

PAGk

INDEX OF SPECIES

Anthus roseatus

rufulus

waitei

similis decaptus

spinoletta blakistoni ...

trivialis

haringtoni

trivialis

Antidesma diandrum ...

Antigastra catalaunalis

Anua coronata

— - — tirhaca

triphaenoides

apicauda, (S.)

Aplocheilus lineatus

Appias albina darada ...

indra shiva

libythea olferna

paulina adamsoni

Aquila rapax vindhiana

Aquilegia jucunda

arabica, (C.)

Arachnothera magna magna ...

Arborophila

rufogularis rufogularis

torqueola

Architectonica

Arcularia australis

Ardea cinerea

Ardeola grayii

Argemone mexicana

argentauris

Argina cribraria

Arguda bheroba

Argya caudata

— caudata

Argynnis euphrosyne

hyperbius hybrida ...

— paphia...

Argyria sticticraspis

arion, (M.)

Arius

caelatus ...

thalassinus

arja

(E.)

Armillaria mellea

Artocapus integrifolia

Artona discivitta

trisignata

arulius, (B.)

53, 58, 59,

Page

19, 40

19

... 105

19

40

... 105

... 269

335, 336

88

... 274

12

... 192

... 259

... 260

67

65

.. 110

42

... 322

34

7

11

2

... 325

.. 331

... 115

9, 116

... 272

28

. 266

268

107

96

79

259

83

157

81

55

60, 61

122

69

380

361

267

265

157

191

88

Asarcornis scutulata

Asio flammeus ...

Asota alciphron ...

caricae

Astrape dipterygia

Astur badius dussumier

Astycus augias augias

Atella phalanta ...

Atelomycterus marmoratum

athamas

Athene brama

ultra

Attatha ino

regalis ...

atthis, (A.)

Attractomorpha sp.

Atylosia

aurelia, (A.agaba)

auris-dianae, (S.)

austeni

, (P.O.) ...

Autoba olivacea ...

silicula

Aythya ferina

fuligula ...

marila marila

rufa

— rufa ...

Azazia rubricans ...

Azygophles scalarisp

Babylonia

spirata

Bacillaria spp.

badra

baileyi

bakeri

, (B.)

Balaenoptera sp. ...

Baoris

assamensis...

bevani bevani

brunnea

cahira carna

conjuncta javana

— conti gua

cormasa moolata

guttatus bada

mathias mathias

— — oceia farri ...

— « * — » sinensis aubochracea

111,

xix

Page

,10

109

266

" 88

53

. 190

67

79

53

69, 380

. 189

. 109

14

. 274

. 152

. 164

279

66

. 315

24, 27

... 24

... 272

... 117

117, 367, 370

... 117

... 370

... 117

... 275

... 271

... 330

... 160

... 66

... 29

11, 19, 28

... 191

... 358

... 74

... 73

... 67

... 74

... 73

... 74

INDEX OF SPECIES

Barasa alopha

Barbus amphibius

Bariligs bendelisis

Baris nilgiriensis

Barringtonia acutangula...

Batrachedra amydraula ...

Bauhinia purpurea

variegata

Begonia

belisama

, (D. belisama) ...

bengalensis

, (A. a.)

21,

Page

... 274

... 191

... 260

... 265

... 335

... 269

... 95

7

... 380

147, 148

... 147

Berenicornis comatus

Berresa natalis

bevani

Bhima undulosa ...

Bibasis sena sena ...

bicalcaratum

bicolor, (A.)

, (S.c.) ...

Biddulphia sp

Bidens pilosa

bidotata

Bignonia venusta

Bindahara phocides p'nocides

Bischofia javanica

Bivalves ...

blattaefolia, (G.) ...

— - (Microcos) ...

119,

... 15

... 273

... 74

... 268

... 72

... 11

... 191

... 97

122, 160

Blumea balasmifera

blythii

, (S.c.) ...

Blythipicus pyrrhotis pyrrhotis

Boccula hypenoides

Boehmeria platyphylla ...

sp

Boerhavia

Bombax

Bombotelia delatrix

Bomolocha occata

triangularis ...

bowringi

boyleae, (D. berinda)

Brachyptemus benghalensis

benghalensis dilutus

brama, (A. b.)

brevicornis

(M.)

Bridelia retusa

Brithys crini

335

... 272

... 87

... 352

... 66

265, 269

... 303

... 300

... 268

... 35

... 101

... 17

... 275

... 276

... 271

6, 28, 36

... 273

... 276

... 87

... 397

... 189

... 106

... 14

336, 337

335, 336

... 269

... 271

Brontispa froggaiti

Broussonetia paprifera

Brunella vulgaris

Bubo bubo bengalensis ...

coromandus coromandus

Bubulcus ibis coromandus

Bucanetes githaginea crassirostris

Buccinidae

Buccinum

Buceros bicornis ...

Buddleia

Bufo melanostictus

bufonia, (B.)

Burhinus oedicnemus

Burmae

burmanicus

Bursa

foliata

Bursera serrata

Butastur teesa

Butea

— frondosa

Buteo ferox

rufinus rufinus

butlerianus

Butorides striatus

cafer, (P.)

Calamus

Calandrella brachydactyla longipennis

Callichrous bimaculatus

Callimorpha plagiata

Calliope pectoralis pectoralis ...

— — tschebaiewi

Page

. is;

. 26ejl

. 25C

10£

, 10£

9!

. 103

... 330

... 326]

... 15

254, 2651

... 375;

... 32

... 369

... 16

... 21

... 323

... 324

... 273

... 110

278, 280

268, 270, 275

... Ill

Calotes cristatellus

— — — mystaceus

Calyptraea

Calyptraeidae

cambaiensis, (S. s.)

Camel ia

Campephaga fimbriata melaschista

Campylotes histrionicus ...

Canavallia

canaliculata, (C.) ...

canarium, (S.)

Canidae

Capella gallinago gallinago

Capparis

Caprimulgus asiaticus minor

— europaeus unwini

111

67

9

21

6, 7

105

191

266

41

22

148

374

318

190

265

20

265

278, 280, 282

325

314

183

115

259

95

267

360

108

INDEX OF SPECIES

xxii

INDEX OF SPECIES

Coccidiphaga scitala

Coccothraustes coccothraustes

humii

Cocculus laurifolia

Coenobita rugosa

Coereba

Coilia dussumierii

Coladenia dan dhyana

— indrani indra

Colias

erate nilgiriensis

collaris, (H. chloris)

collinum, (E )

collybita, (P.) ...

Colocasia

coltarti

Cclumba elphinstonii

livia neglecta...

palumbus casiotis ...

punicea

columella

communis, (L.)

Condica indistans

Conservula indica

continentalis

convolutum, (A.)

Convolvulacese ...

Copsychus saularis

saularis ...

Coracias benghalensis...

benghalensis

garrula semenowi ...

Coracina novaehollandiae nipalensis

Coralliophilidae

Coralliophila madreporarum ...

corax

Corcyra

Corcyra cephalaonica ... 157, 158,

Cordia myxa

subcordat

core, (£.)

Coreopsis

Corgatha zonalis

cornuta, (C.)

coro, (E. core)

Cortusa Matthioli

Corvus corax laurencei...

macrorhynchos...

macrorhynchus

tibetosinensis

Page

272

102

275

309

175

53, 59

72

89

259

149

260

370

272

25

260

111

13

309

163

272

15

239

266

188

23, 98

189

107

20

334

69

158

194, 195,

335, 336

... 272

... 218

380

... 272

... 273

... 325

... 380

46

96

... 187

4,36

INDEX OF SPECIES

xxiii

Corvus monedula

s. splendens

splendens

zugmeyeri

Corydalis cashmeriana ...

crassifolia

Coscinodiscus spp.

Cosmophila erosa

fulvida

indica

— — mesogona '...

sabulifera ...

Cosmotriche laeta

— pyriform is

Cossus cadambae .

Coturnix coromandelicus

coturnix coturnix

cranbrooki

craticulatus, (L.)

Creatonotus transiens ...

Cremanthodium Decainse

Cremnoconchus

Crepidula

fornicata

Criniger flaveolus

crino, (P.)

crocale

Crocopus phoenicopterus

Cromileptes altivelis

Crotalaria

Page r

... 186

... 187

37

96

41

... 160

... 275

... 268

... 271

... 369

... 112

27

... 329

... 266

46

... 312

... 318

20

87

... 65, 80

190, 368

53, 58, 60

157, 266, 278,

279, 281

Crypsirina formosae hima-

layensis

cryptanthus

Cuculus canorus

— canorus

— telephonus

optatus

poliocephalus polio-

cephalus

sumatranus

Cucurbitaceae

Culicicapa ceylonensis

ceylonensis

Cupitha purreea purreea

Curculigo orchioides

curcuma, (B.)

Curetis saronis gloriosa

thetis

Cursorius coromandelicus

Cyamopsis ... ... ...

37

24

186, 189

... 107

43

... 184

... 266

32, 250

... 359 j

73

... 260

... 191

71

66

... 113

.,. 281

xxiv

INDEX OF SPECIES

278,

Demigretta s. sacra

sacra sacra

demoleus

malayanus ,.w

Dendrocalamus hamiltonii

Dendrocitta rufa pallida

vagabunda

Dendrocopus macei macei

Dendrocygna javanica

Derris

descombesi

, (D.)

Desmodium ... 277,

— — gangeticum

Deudoryx

Diacrisia

* casigneta

■ obliqua

Diagramma sp.

diardi, (M.)

Diatraea striatalis

zeacolella

Dicaeum concolor olivaceum

cruentatum

ignipectus ignipectus

minullum

Dichromia orosia

quadralis

— trigonalis ...

Dicrurus aenea aenea

*— * hottentotus crishna

leucophaeus hopwoodi

— longicaudatus

macrocercus

albirictus

remifer tectirostris ...

Dictyoploca Simla

Digama hearseyana

Diodora

Dioryctia abietella

Diospyros montana

Diparopsis castanea

Dipterocarpus aporosa - ...

diphilus

Discophora tullia zal

Dissemurus

paradiseus

grand is

Dissoura episcopus

Dodonoea

burmanniana

Page

235

214, 221

... 380

64

... 269

96

... 187

17

... 369

278, 280

... 380

... 379

279, 280, 281

... 276

66

88

157, 266

53

... 184

... 157

... 335

34

... 183

34

... 250

... 276

36

... 188

102, 188

... 100

36

... 269

... 266

... 306

... 335

... 275

... 335

... 265

87

69

36

... 370

36

... 190

... 108

95

INDEX OF SPECIES

XXy

eupatria...

Euploea

alcathoe doubledayi ...

core

layardi

— - — vermiculata

deione deione

— harrisi hopei

klugii klugii

Euproctis bipartita

bipunctapex

dana

digrarama

— divisa

flavin ata

fraterna

guttata

icilia

inconcisa

lunata

subfasciata

sulphurescens

Eupterote

geminata

— undata

Eurema (Terias) hecabe

— lacteola sarinoides ...

laetasikkima

libythea

Euremae

europeaus (C.)

Euterpina spp

Euthalia evelina derna

— jama verena

julii sedeva

lepidea sthavara

phemius

teuta teuta

Euthalia jahnu jahnu

Evadne spp.

Everes parrhasius assamica ...

Excoecaria agallocha

Falco chicquera

chiquera chiquera

— — jugger

peregrinus

peregrinoides

severus severus

subbuteo subbuteo

— - — t. alaudarius

tinnunculus ... ...

Page

107

87

65

78

380

68, 380

65

68

380

268

267

268

267

268

88

268

77

65

379

109

160

69

65

69

66

160

70

183

372

110

109

190

10

no

2

no

xxvi

INDEX OF SPECIES

Galerida cristata chendoola

Galleria

mellonella

Gallinula chloropus indicus

parvifrons

Galloperdix spadicea ssp

Gallus gallus spadiceus

— sonneratii

Gammarus sp

Gampsorhynchus

rufulus

Gangara thyrsis thyisis

Gargetta costigera

curvaria

ingens

Garra lamta

Garrulax erythrocephalus imprudens

— — leucolopfeus leucolophus

moniliger badius

— — pectoralis nropygialis

ruficollis

squamatus

— striatus austeni

subunieolor (?) subunicolor

Garrulus bispecularis

lanceoiatus

garuda, (E. garuda)

Garuga pinnata

Gastropoda

gatensis, (B.)

Gecinulus grantia grantia

Geissaspis

Gelochelidon nilotica

— nilotica

Gennaeus horsfieldii horsfieldii

Gentiana quadrifolia

Geranium

Gerres lucidus

Gerydus

longeana

Giaura sceptica

Girardinia heterophylla

Glareola maldivarum

Glaucidium brodiei

brodiei

cuculoides austerum

Glossogobius giuris

Glottis nebularia

Glycine

Glycosmis pentaphylla

Glyptothorax madraspatanum

Page

105

336

335

112

186

260

11

260

121

24

28

67

269

191

27

26

27

2

17

65

.. 273

303, 305

.. 192

17

.. 279

.. 371

... 113

11

.. 260

275

53

80

70

273

276

369

21

14

192

115

282

272

191

267

12,

INDEX OF SPECIES

xxvii

335

Helpe zema zema

Harpodon

nehereus

Hasora badra badra

taminatus bhavara

vitta indica

hebetor, (M,)

hecabe, (E. hecabe)

Helicteres isora

Heliopais personata

Heliothis armigera

obsoleta

Heliotropium indicum

Hemipus picatus capitalis

Hemiprocne coronata

Hemiramphus sp.

Hemirhamphus far

limbatus

Hemitragus hylocrius

jemlahicus

Heritiera minor

Herse convolvuli

hespera

Hestia lynceus arracana

Heterocera

Heterophasia picaoides

pulchella coeruleotincta

Heteropneustes fossilis

Heterophragma

heudeei

Heylandia

Hibiscus esculentus

mutabilis

Hiccoda dosaroides

Hieraetus fasciatus

Page

73

52

53, 59, 61

66

67

72

336

379

272

10

335

157

266

19

14, 189

121

fasciatus

pennatus

Hierococcyx (varius) ...

Hierodula venosa

Hilsa ilisha

himalayensis

Himantopus himantopus

pus ..

himavantus, (H. erylus)

Hipalia machaeralis

Hippocampus

brevirostris

guttulatus.

Hippolais caligata

ram a

53

260

183

88

68

265

30

191

6

18

279

267, 272, 274, 275

273

274

273

368

110, 190

40

... 389

... 148

58, 60, 61

... ... 37

himanto-

... 114

66

... 157

156

... 154

153, 155, 156

... 371

100

53,

xxviii

INDEX OF SPECIES

Indigofera pulchella

innominatus

insulana, (E.)

intermedia, (E.)

intermedius

intextus

Iraota timoleon timoleon

Irena puella sikkimensis

isarcha

Ismene mahintha

Isometrus maculatus

Issoria sinha sinha

Ithaginis cruentus kuseri

I ton semamora barea . . .

Ixias pyrene

Ixobrychus cinnamomeus

minutus minutus

Ixulus flavicollis baiieyi

lynx torquilla torquilla

jacobinus, (C.)

(C.j.)

jadeitina, (A. dlrtea) ...

Jamides bochus bochus

jamun

janus

jarbas

jasminum bignoniaceum

javanica, (C.)

javanicus

,(L.)

jocosa, (P.)

Johnius semiluctosa

juglandis

jujuba, (Z.)

jumbah, (N.)

Jussiaea suffritucosa

Kasi johnii

kelaarti, (C. indicus) ...

Kerana nigrita

Ketnpa z. leschenaulti ...

khasiana

khudree, [B. (Tor)]

kitchneri

Kitta chinensis chinensis

Kleinhovia hospita

Koloula pulchra

Koruthaialos butleri butleri

Kowala thoracata

krameri

kuhniella, (E.) .,.

Page

... 276

17

... 335

9

37

25

71

36

82

67

... 148

66

2

73

87

369, 372

... 116

2

... 107

... 345

69

... 260

... 178

67

71

... 260

... 269

... 108

9

21

119, 122

... 335

162, 163

76

... 352

... 260

... 360

72

189

28

... 191

... 335

37

... 267

... 375

72

159, 160,

262, 264

... 107

... 335

INDEX OF SPECIES

Page

layardi, (E.c.) 68

, (E. core) 380

lefroyi 335

Legurainosae 274, 275

Leiognathus spp. 121, 263, 264

Leiothrix argentauris gertrudis ... 28

lentiginosus, (S.) 335

Leopa newara 92

lepcha, (M.) 248

Lepidocephalus thermalis 191

Lepidonotus sp 122

Lepidopygopsis typus 191

Leptoptilos dubius 9, 369

Lethe europa niladana 68

kansa ... 68

makara zuchara 68

rohria rohria 55

vindhya ... ... 68

leucacantha, (D. descombesi) 379

Leucania zeae 335

Leucifer hansenii 154

— sp 121

leucolophus 27

Leucoma ... 76

submarginata 267

Leucopolius alexandrinus

alexandri-

nus ,..

Liliaceae

limbata spp.

Limnanthemum

Limnocryptes minima ...

Limosa lapponica lapponica ... .,.

limosa

Linckia

Liocichla phuenicea phoenicea

Liphyra

Litchi

litbargyria

Litsaea polyantha

Littorinidae

Lobipes lobatus

Lobipluvia malabarica

Lobivanellus indicus

indicus ...

i. indicus

Locusta migratoides

Loemopholoeus minutus

Loepa katinka

Lollium spp.

Lonchura f. rubronigra

ferruginosa rubronigra

114

.. 271

267

.. 352

115

369, 372

.. 318

27

80

273, 276

66

267, 268

.. 311

.. 363

.. 190

11

.. 114

.. 190

.. 222

.. 194

269

.. 195

35

XXX

INDEX OF SPECIES

manyar, (P.)

Marmaronetta angustirostris

Mastacerabelus armatus

Manatapa sasivarna

shal grama

Maurilia iconica ...

mauritiana, (C.) ...

Megalaema h. lutea

Megalaima asiatica asiatica ...

franklin ii franklinii

haemacephala lutea

virens

marsnallorum

17,

mayri

zeylanica hodgsoni

zeylanicus

Megalops cyprinoides

Megalornis grus

Megaluris palustris

Megisba malaya sikkima

Melacosoma indica

melanaamphyx, (B )

Melanitis

* leda

zitenius anletes

Melanochlora sultanea sultanea

melanoides, (D. aglea)

melanostigma, (B.)

melanotus

melanura, (D.)

Melastoma normale ... 265,267,

Mellilotus

Melongena

Melongena vespertilio

memnon, (P.)

, (P. memnon)

Menispermaceae sp

merganser

Mergus albellus

merganser merganser

Metanastria hyrtaca

latipennis

lidderdalii

Metapenaeus monoceros

Merops apiaster

orientaiis orientalis ...

superciliosus javanicus

persic ns

Microbracon

Microbracon brevicornis

Page

371

. 369

192

73

274

322

189

16

107

7

107

16

368

53

113

6, 30

70

268

191

88

68

33

65

191

26

275

268, 271,

274 .

278, 279

... 326

... 329

79, 81

... 380

271, 275

10

... 117

10

... 268

54

... 107

107, 189

... 108

... 336

... 335

index of species

Microbracon hebetor

Microcos

blattaefolia

— latifolia

Page

... 335

300, 301

... 300

Micropternus brachyurus phaioceps...

Micropus affinis affinis

melba melba

Microscelis fiavala flavala

madagascariensis nigre-

scens

racclellandi

Milletia

Milvus m. govinda

migfans govinda

minor, (F.)

. (F.m.)

Mirafra erythroptera sindiana

javanica cantillans

Miresa albipuncta

Mitra episcopalis

Mitridae

Mocis frugalis ...

undata

Modiolasp.

Moliobatis nieuhofiii

Mol pastes cafer pal lid us

h.pallidus]

leucogenys humii ...

leucogenys

Molulu diabolus

kuhlii

Moma champa

monile, (N.)

moniliger;...

moniliger, (G.)

Monotocardia

montanus

Monticola cinclorhyncha

saxatilis

— — « — solitaria pandoo

monticolus, (C.)

— , (P.)

Morina coulteriana

Moringa pterygosperma

Motacilla alba dukhunensis

personata

alboides

cinerea

— caspica

citreola calcarata

— — feldegg

17

108

21

20

21

278, 279

.. 190

.. 110

.. 228

.. 105

270

.. 330

.. 329

.. 274

.. 122

53

96

.. 188

97

.. 186

53

.. 271

.. 331

.. 26, 27

27

.. 310

87

98

23, 98

.. 108

96

42

272

.. 104

19, 104

19

.. 185

42, 104

42, 105

.. 371

Page

Motacilla flava beema 104

thunbergi ... ... 105

— maderaspatensis 104

moulmina, (A.) 239

Mucuna 279, 280, 282

Mugil oligolepis 54

seheli ... 54

waigaiensis ... 54

spp. 51

mullya, (G.) 191

multifasciata, (M.) 148

Mulleripicus pulverulentus 17

Mundulea 280

Munia malacca 368

— sp. 148

Muraenosox ... 55

cinereus 53, 59

tala bon 53, 59

■ talabonoides ... 58, 60, 61

Murex 332

anguliferus 332, 333

haustellum 332

tenuispina

Muricidae

Muscicapa hyperythra hyperythra ..

melanoleuca melanoleuca.

parva

ssp

solitaris leucops ...

striata neumanni ...

strophiata strophiata

thalassina thalassina

unicolor unicolor

368,

Muscicapula tickelliae ...

Mustilia falcipennis

Mycalesis

— adolphei

anaxias aemate

khasia khasia

mineus

visala neovisala

Myiomela leucura

Myiophoneus coeruleus temminckii

Myipohoneus caeruleus eugenei

Mylothris ...

myriocarpa, (T.)

Mystus vittatus

Nacaduda berenice plumbeomicans ...

dana

-dubiosa sivoka

332

331

33

. 371

99

33

99

33

... 188

... 269

77, 78, 88

... 259

68

78

65

22

98

23

.. 379

267, 268

.. 377

70

71

xxxii

INDEX OF SPECIES

index of species

xxxiii

3

Paraquilegia grandiflora

Pararge megera

Parasa lepida

Parastromateus niger ... 51,54,59,

Pareronia Valeria hippia

Parthenos sylvia gambrisius

Parus m. stupae

major caschmiriensis ...

nipalensis

monticolus monticolus

spilonotus

Pasipeda haemorrhoa

Passer domesticus indicus

parkini

griseogularis

hispaniolensis transcapicus

montanus hepaticus ...

Pastor roseus

Patellidae

Pathysa nomius swinhoe

patia

Pavo cristatus

Pectinibrancbia

Pectinophora (Gelechia) gossypiella ...

pectoralis

Peganum harmala

Pelargopsis capensis

Pelecypoda

Pellona filigera

Pellorneum albiventre

ignotum

palustre

Page

46

88

270

60, 61

67

65

188

96

33

96

33

276

103

183

103

34

102

305

64

30

112

310

335

26

108

15

303

53

6

23

2

6

xxxiv

INDEX OF SPECIES

Pericrocotus peregrinus peregrious .

Pericyma umbrina

Perina nuda

Periopthalraus sp.

schlosseri

periostracum

periyarensis, (B. raicropogon)

Pernis apivorus ruficollis

ptilorhynchus ruficollis

persicus

petholatus, (T.)

Phaethon americanus ...

rubricauda westralis

spp. ...

phaioceps

Phalacra vidhisara

Phalacrocorax carbo

javan icus

niger

nigrogularis

Phalera sangana stigmifera

Phaseolus

Phasianella

Phauda flammans

pheretimus

philautus (Ixalus) vittatus

Philomachus pugnax ...

Philomela

Phocoderma velutina ...

Phoebe lanceolata

phoenicea

Phoenicopterus ruber antiquorum

Phoenicurus auroreus leucopterus

erythronotus

frontalis

— frontalis

Page

99

274

267

149

147

309

191

10

190

108

308

234

214, 231

152, 2 34, 235

17

... 269

... 117

9

... 363

... 269

2 79, 281

... 309

115,

hodgsoni

ochruros phoenicuroides. 43, 97

Phoenix sylvestris

Phthorimaea operculella

Phycita infusella

Phyllanthus emblica

Phyllergates coronatus coronatus

Phylloscopus

— : affinis

•— collybita tristis ...

griseolus

— humii

inornatus humei

maculipennis

... 265

71

... 375

369, 372

67, 87

... 270

267

28

116

22

97

43

22

.. 269

.. 335

335

... 274

32

30, 41

101

101, 371

... 371

41, 101

Phylloscopus magtiirostris

— — — - — - — neglectus

occipitalis occipitalis

proregulus

chloronotus

i?AGE <

31 I

370 |

101

— reguloides assamensis

— subviridis

■ — trochiloides

31,

nitidus

viridanus

Physalis

Phytometra chalcytes

daubei

enosoma

limbi rena

- — ni ...

nignsigna.

orichalcea

signata

tarassota

pica

, (C. j.) ...

, (T.)

Picumnus innominatus malay

Picus canus gyldenstolpei

chlorolophus burmae

flavinucha flavinucha

— — squamatus squamatus

xanthopygaeus

Pieris canidia canis

candidia indica ...

ovalifolia

Pila

globosa

pileatus, (A. s.)

pilicornis, (C.)

Pilidae

Pinus longifolia

pinnauratus, (B.)

Pistacia integerrima

Pitta brachyura

nepalensis nepalensis

Placenta placenta

Plantago sp

Platalea leucorodia major

Platycephalus carbunculus

sp

30

Platyedra gossypiella

Plecoptera reflexa

Pleurosigma spp.

Ploceus bengalensis

um

31

101

. 371

... 101

... 157

... 275

.. 275

... 275

.. 275

... 275

.. 345

... 333

17

16

... 106

... 260

... 259

64

... 265

311, 312

... 311

189,

217

382

310

95

191

95

370

18

.. 318

... 271

... 115

54

... 120

... 335

... 275

122, 160

... 317

INDEX OF SPEC/ES

Potamides

— cingulatus

palustris

Pratapa

vidura penicilligera ...

prater i

Precis orit'nya ocyale

Primovula frumentum

Prinia gracilis

inornata terricolor

polychroa

sylvatica...

Prionailurus rubiginosus

Pristipoma furcatum

Pristis zysron

Prodenia litura

Propasser rhodochlamys grandis

Prosopis spicigera

Prospalta capensis

pallidipennis

protoconch

Prunella atrogularis huttoni ...

strophiata jerdoni

Prunus communis

Psarisomus dalhousiae dalhousiae

Psettodes erumei

Pseudarthria

Pseudelydna rufoflava

Pseudibispapillosns

Pseudogyps bengalensis

— bengbalensis

Pseudorhombus arsius

Psidium guava

Psittacula alexandri

. cyanocephala

bengalensis...

eupatria nepalensis

— krameri borealis

188,

Page

31?

312, 313

... 312

78

71

33

.. 379

... 322

30

.. 102

6

370

180

53

272

103

267

272

327

98

271

18

58, 60

... 281

... 274

... 115

... 109

... 189

54. 58, 60

... 266

90,

54

Psoralea

Pterocarpus

Pterocles exustus ellioti

indicus

orientalis

Pteroma plagiophleps

Pteroplatea poecilura

Pteruthius erythropterus

melanotis melanotis

Ptyctotaemus gularis

Pueraria

Puffiinus assimilis

pacificus

13

189

107

.. 107

279, 286

.. 278

... 112

112, 190

.. Ill

... 270

53

28

.. 375

.. 280

.. 363

... 363

XXXVI

INDEX OF SPECIES

minima

Ricinus communis

Rinobatus granulatus

Riparia concolor

paludicola

- — riparia diluta

rupestris

•- — macilentus

sp.

265, 266, 268, 269

274

266, 267, 269, 370, 274

53

188

18

104

28

274

272

103

266

113

npponi

Risoba basalis .

obstructa

Rivea sp.

roseatus

Roeselia fola

lignifera

Rostratula benghalensis benghalensis.

Rothia 279, 281

rubeta, (B.) 324

rubri cauda, (P. r.) 233, 234

rubrolineatus, (U.) 376

Rubus 7

— lasiocarpus

rudolphi, (T.)

m fa, (C.)

275

265

275

333

325

INDEX OF SPECIES

XXXVll

Sitta castanea cinnamoventris ... 33

index of species

sxxviii

INDEX OF SPECIES

XX XIX

xl

INDEX OF SPECIES

Treron pompadora phayrei

Trianthema

Tribolium castaneum ...

confusum

Trichimus haumela

— : muticus

savala

— spp. ...

Trichogramma

Trichogrammatidae

Trichogrammatoidea nan a

Trigonella

Tringa erythropus

glareola ...

— nebularia

ocrophus

totanus

eurhinus

tristis

, (Ph.;

, (R.t.)

Page

12

271

... 194, 195, 196

193, 195

261, 262

54, 58, 59, 61, 261

54, 59, 61, 261, 262

261

158, 336

157, 158

... 157

... 280

... 115

115

... 369

.. 115

12

... 115

13, 184

... 184

Trochalopteron cachinnans

cachinnans

Trochidae

Trochus

niloticus

Trogoderma granaria

Troides helena carberus

Trollius acaulis

Tros hector

Trypanophora semihyalina

tuberculata, (T.)

tuberculatus, (D.)

turbata

Turbinella

— ■ pyrum

Turbinidae

Turbinellidae

Turbo

argyrostomus

marmoratus

Turdinus

brevicaudatus striatus

williamsoni

Turdoides somervillei

— terricolor

sindiaims

Turdus atrogularis

atrogularis

— merula maximus ...

— simillimus

308,

260

307

. 317

... 308

... 193

64

39

64

... 265

... 313

... 265

88

325, 328

... 329

... 307

... 325

308, 333

... 308

6

25

1

... 188

20

96

98

23

39

... 260

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS— 26-9-1951

C3032

*0 v, ■ ■ v

- f£

- i '

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0) ,

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-.'Zl 'V

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J/k .kyr, pJ ,

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-~:.l An.:K,}< i

V©1. 48, No. 1.

DECEMBER, 1948

Price Rs. 15 net «

THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society

EDITED BY

s/lIM ALI, S. B. SETNA, PH.D. 8c H. SANTAPAU. S.Ji

THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

114 Apollo Street, Bombay.

London Agents :

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CONTENTS OF VOLUME 48, No. 1

The Birds of the Mishmi Hills. By Salim Ali and S. Dillon

Ripley. ( With a map , 1 coloured and 4 black and white plates )

Astanmarg. By Lieut.-Colonel R. S. P. Bates, m.b.o.u., i.a. (Retd.).

{With 4 plates)

Marine Fisheries of Kodinar in Kathiawar. By T. V. R. Pillay,

b. sc. ( With a map, 1 sketch and 2 photographs )

More Butterflies of the Arakan Coast. By Major A. M. Emmet,

M.A., M.B.E.

Some Suggestions for Entomological Work in India. By D. G.

Sevastopulo, f.r.e.s. ...

The Birds of the Punjab Salt Range (Pakistan). By H. W.

Waite, c.i.e., m.b.o.u. ( With a map and 2 plates')

SCIAENIDS OF THE WEST COAST OF MADRAS PROVINCE. By P. K.

Jacob, b. a., m. sc. {With 1 plate and 1 text-figure)

Jungle Memories, Part I. By Lt. -Col. E. G. Phythian- Adams, o.b.e.,

f.z.S., i.a. (Retd.) {With! plates)

A Note on the Food Habits of Three Kingfishers occurring

on Singapore Island. By C. A. Gibson-Hill, m.a., m.b.o.u.

{With 2 text-figures) ...

Some Observations on the Habits of Hippocampus guttulatus

Cuvier, reared in the Marine Biological Station, West Hill.

By P. K. Jacob, b.a., m.sc. and A. D. Isaac Rajendran, b.sc, ( With a

text-figure)

Trichogrammatoidea nana Zehnt. (Hym. Chalcidoidea) — an egg

parasite of the Sugarcane Borer Argyria sticticraspis

Hampson : A new record from South India. By M. C. Cherian

and V. Margabandhu ...

Natural History of the Gizzard-Shad Anodontostoma chacunda

(Ham. Buch.) and its Fishery on the West Coast of Madras

Province. By P. K. Jacob, b.a., m.sc.

An Abnormal Form of Lac Cell and its earliest Illustration.

By S. Mahdihassan. ( With a plate)

Reviews : —

1. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of Bengal, Vol. I, No. 1 ...

2. Bibliography of Homoptera auchenorhyncha. (S. M.)

3. Circumventing the Mahseer and other Sporting Fish in India and

Burma (R.W.B.)

OBITUARY NOTICES

T. R. D. Bell

Capt. G. C. Shortridge ...

Page:

i

38

47

62

75

93

118

125

146

153

157

159

161

164

165

167

171

ii

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 48, No. 4

Page

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. Black Leopard Cubs. {With a photo.) By E. P. Gee (p. 173). 2. A

Tale of Many Tiger. By Editors (p. 175). 3. ‘Death Cry’ of Tiger. By

Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton (p. 176). 4. Mammals of South Tinnevelly — Madras

Province. By C. G. Webb-Peploe (p. 180). 5. Death Cry in Animals. By

A. St. J. Macdonald (p. 181). 6. Funeral of a Weasel. By H. B. McCann

(p. 182). 7. Dog-Fox Crosses. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton (p. 183). 8.

Occurrence of the Large Himalayan Malkoha ( Rhopodytes t . trisiis Less.) in

Khulna; Sunderbans. By Satya Churn Law (p. 183). 9. Green Pigeon in a

vSwamp. By A. St. J. Macdonald (p. 184). 10. Arrival of Wagtails in Madura

District, South India. By A. F. Hutton (p. 185). 11. Morning and Evening

Song of Birds. By Samsar Chand Koul (p. 185) . 12. Some Interesting Birds

of the Gir and Girnar, Kathiawar. By K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji (p.187).

13. Remarks on ‘Aggressive Demonstration by Russell’s Viper’. By

V. M. Vasu (p. 190). 14. Development of Fisheries of the Periyar Lake. By

P. I. Chacko (p. 191). 15. ‘ Termite Fungi ’. By Editors (p. 192). 16. Intro-

duction of Foreign Insects with Imported Grains. By K. N. Trehan and

S. V. Pingle (p. 192) . 17. On the Occurrence of White Rust on Amaranthus

polygamus Linn. By Asok Kumar Kar (p. 197). 18. Freak Shots. By

Humayun Abdulali (p. 198).

APPEAL—

International Depot of Microscopic Preparations of Cytology. By Prof.

P. Martens (p. 200).

*

;

Jour., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

A NEW WREN FROM THE MISHMI HILLS, Assam.

Slrtpln POfni c n rl 1 tTijI-C!**-' C P ' _ . . . - : -

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society

1948 Vol. 48 No. 1

THE BIRDS OF THE MISHMI HILLS

BY

Salim Ali and S. Dillon Ripley

(With a map, 1 coloured and 4 black and white plates)

The Mishmi Hills form the extreme northeast border of Assam.

Bounded on the south by the Lohit River and on the west by

the Dihang as the upper Brahmaputra here is called, these hills

rise from the alluvial plains about Sadiya at an altitude of not

more than 500 ft. to heights of over 20,000 ft. on the Sikang or

S.E. Tibet border. To the east over far lesser heights lies extreme

northern Burma and the Irrawady watershed.

Faunistic Exploration.

Relatively little faunistic work has been performed in the Mishmi

Hills. The first collecting in the plains and foothills about Sadiya

and along the Lohit River towards Brahmakund which lies a few

miles to the east of Tezu, was done by Mr. M* T. Ogle, a

member of the Topographical Survey of India. Specimens

collected by him were written up by Lt.-Col. EL _H. Godwin- Austen

in various numbers of the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,

culminating in a combined list published in 1878. From these

collections Godwin-Austen described the following from the Sadiya

area:

Suthora ruficeps atrosuperciliaris

Turdinus williamsoni ( = T.b.striatus )

Pellpmeum ruficeps pectorale

Pomatorhinus stenorhynchus

* Stachyris oglei

* Abroscopus flavogularis (probably unidentifiable, see Ticehurst,

Ibis, 1941, p. 178)

* Staphidea plumbeiceps ( — Siva castaneiceps rufigenis)

* Species not collected by us.

jp & 0

i Journal , Bombay natural hist . society, Voi

Other forms described from the Mishmi Hills are:

Pellorneum ignotum Hume;

Alcippe collans Walden (collected by Surgeon-Major F. Day

at Sadiya, December 12, 1874) which has been placed in synonymy

under A.r.rufogularis.

Lophophorus sclateri Jerdon.

Stuart Baker published a paper entitled ‘On a small collection

of Birds from 4he Mishmi Hills, N.E. Frontier of India’ ( Rec . Ind.

Mus., ix, pt. v, No. 17. 1913, pp. 251-4), based on some speci-

mens .collected by Gapt. R. S. Kennedy, I.M.S. No forms are

described as new, but the following were not secured by us :

Garrulus bispecularis.

Nucifraga hemispila .

Yuhina g. gularis.

Oreo cine l a m o Ills sim a.

Falco t. alaudarius.

Ithaginis cruentus kuseri.

Arborophila torqueola.

\ Lt.-Col. F. M. Bailey has collected a considerable amount of

material in the Mishmi Hills, but his specimens which are in the

British Museum have never been written up as a whole. Most of

these birds consist, however, of high altitude species taken over

the border in Chinese Tibet. Notations on his travels and lists of

the specimens have appeared occasionally in the Journal of the

Bombay Natural History Society (notably, Vol. xxii, 1913, pp.

366-369). Among these specimens, one, Ixulus flavicollis baileyi ,

collected at 7,000 ft., has been described by Stuart Baker

(Bull. B.O.C., xxxv, 1914, p. 17).

Herbert Stevens published a fa.unistic paper in the Journal of the

Bombay Natural History Society xxiii, Nos. 2, 3 and 4, 1914-1915,

pp. 234-268, 547-570, 721-736 (with map and plates) entitled ‘On

the Birds of Upper Assam’ in which he deals with the Balipara

area for the most part with occasional references to observations

and collections made near Dibrugarh and Margherita. He

apparently never actually collected across the Lohit River.

Geological Position.

The Mishmi Hills lie at about the end of the main west-east

Himalayan geosyncline and to the east again the main tectonic

strike undergoes a sharp bend towards the south into the Patkoi

and Arakan Yomas. Recently de Terra ( The Geographical Review ,

xxiv, 1934, etc.), Hora ( Current , Science, vi, 1938) and others

have discussed the pre-glacial topography of the great rivers of the

Himalayas. Present studies, from the physiographic point of view

suggest that the former drainage of the upper Brahmaputra, the

Tsang Po, may have been part of an early drainage to the east

(Recent uplift and Post-Pleistocene) through the meridional valleys

of eastern Tibet and Szechuan. An earlier suggestion (Pascoe,

Quart . Jourri. Geol. Soc., 75, 1919), has been that the Tsang Po

formerly drained westward into the headwaters of the Indus parallel

to the Tertiary Tndobrahm’. In any case, Hora’s and others’

work on the fish faunas of the Himalayan chain have certainly

f

jonrn., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

geologically recent northward capturings of the Tibetean drainage system by the Brahmaputra.

THE BIRDS OF THE MISHMI HILLS

demonstrated the separation of the two faunas as between the north

and south faces of the mountains. This important fact is sub-

stantiated, at least in this case, by the relationships of the avian

fauna. The sedentary, lower-altitude birds of the Mishmi Hills,

separated by the gorges of the Brahmaputra from the Himalayas

to the west, and with relatively easy access to the upper Irrawady

drainage to the east, show a striking degree of relationship to the

birds of the more western Himalayas of' Sikkim and Bhutan. The

present gorges of the Brahmaputra, while they could easily prove

a barrier of great magnitude to some of the ground-loving skulking

passerine birds, have in fact only served to develop speciation

trends in apparently formerly continuous populations. The Mishmi

Hills in this sense represent a recent ‘island’ separated by a channel

from formerly united land areas.

Speciation Trends

Analysing the present known avian fauna of the Mishmi Hills

points up the conclusion of the preceding paragraph as follows:

(a) the Mishmi Hills contain three endemic species, one of

which is shared with the Margherita area. Two of these species,

Spelaeornis badeigularis and Abroscopus flavogularis are closely

allied with wrestem species found in Nepal, Sikkim or Bhutan.

One, Stachyris oglei is related to S. striolata from Bhamo, Penin-

sular Burma and Siam to the east.

Of the twelve endemic subspecies found in the Mishmi Hills,

five are shared with the Margherita area. Of this total, eight

forms are closest to forms to the west along the Himalayan chain,

two are strictly intermediate, and two are simply strikingly

different.

Listed by order of their relationship with immediately contiguous

geographic areas, one arrives at the following: — «

Number

Wfist or Eastern derivation

3 forms in common with Yunnan

& Ch. Tibet

4 forms in common with northern

Burma

1 form in common with Cachar,

N. Assam and Burma

2 forms in common with Cachar &

N. Assam

1 form in common with Chin

Hills & N. Burma

5 forms in common with Sikkim

2 forms in common with Dafla &

Miri Hills

E.

W. primarily

W.

E.

W.

w.

6 forms in common with Mar-

gherita 4W. IE. 1 Intermediate

9 endemic Mishmi . Hills forms 6W. 1 Intermediate

2 different

83 Total

20 9

2 2

4

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vot 48

Eliminating the intermediate and different forms, 20 out of the

corrected total of 29 forms or 68.9% show closest affinities to the

avian fauna to the w7est. A second and minor point which is also

important is that only three of these distinctive forms are closely

identified with central Assam in the Cachar Hills of the Shillong

plateau. This small percentage (15%) indicates what in fact from

the physiographic evidence is true, namely that the more southerly

channel of the Brahmaputra through central Assam with its

feeders, the Dihing and the Lohit is old and has, therefore, formed

an effective barrier to contacts from the north.

Combining species and subspecies endemic to the general area,

the influences on the Mishmi fauna from the east and west may

be expressed diagrammatically as follows:.

West Mishmi Hills East

^ ~ | Forms derived from the east.

Forms derived from either, intermediates.

Forms derived from the west.

Of the endemic forms which bear comparison with related sub-

species or species to east or west, it is interesting to list the

characters which separate them from their closest relatives. As

might be expected where altitude factors remain constant, size

plays virtually no part. However, in almost all forms critically

examined, slight overlapping size differences tend to exist. In

every case birds from the Mishmi Hills and immediately related

areas such as north Burma tend to be somewhat larger than related

populations from such areas in the west as Nepal or Sikkim. One

form, JEthopyga nipalensis koelzi may be distinguished by larger

bill size alone. Another, Corvus macrorhynchus tibetosinensis, is

apparently represented in the Mishmi Hills by its southernmost

population which shows a cline in wing and bill size.

The principal speciation trend is in color, and in fourteen out of

seventeen cases the trend is towards darker, more heavily saturated,

richer plumage. Melanins and phaeomelanins predominate. This

is an overwhelming 79%. Of the remaining cases, two forms are

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate i

SiUim Ali

Photo

Dry river bed in forest, Tezu.

Photo

S, D. Ripley

The Lohit river at Tezu.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate ii

Photo by

The troublesome nettle — Lapovlia crenulata

Salim Ali

THE BIRDS OF THE MISHMI HILLS s

paler than their relatives to the west: Pomatorhinus ochraceiceps

stenorhynchus and Xiphirhynchus superciliaris intextus . Both

forms are paler and tend to be smaller than subspecies to the

west, but are intermediate in these characters between the western

forms and somewhat larger and darker forms to the east. This

is an interesting reversal of the trend found even in congeners of

one of the species, ( Pomatorhinus ), and might tend to indicate a

parallel evolution of these two closely related species of neighbouring

genera.

Itinerary

One of us (SA) arrived in Sadiya on November 20, 1946

and stayed in the Hills until January 2, 1947. The other arrived

at Sadiya on December 23 and stayed until January 15. Our

second group consisted of three other Americans, Mr. and Mrs.

Sidney Legendre and Mr. Edward Migdalski. Sdlim All stayed in

Sadiya some weeks awaiting the rest of the party and then moved

on to Tezu, a few miles farther up the Lohit at an altitude of

648' above sea level. Tezu marks the cross roads. Farther to

the east the dirt road continues to Brahmakund along the Lohit,

or alternatively one may turn north at Tezu and proceed by

motorable road to Dening in the foothills at 2290h Here the road

ends and a trail continues on up to Dreyi (5140r), the Tidding

Bidge or Saddle (6000'), and on down to Theronliang, again on the

Lohit, which marks the border of Administered Territory. Beyond

this it is about 12 marches to the actual frontier of India itself.

As our interest was the lower altitude fauna we concerned ourselves

only with the Sadiya-Tezu-Dening-Dreyi area, where it is possible

to sample three different altitudinal and life zones.

Ecological Zones

The area of the Mishmi Hills consisting of the lower slopes and

adjacent alluvial plains covered by the present trip, falls under

Champion’s Group IB (C2) — * Upper Assam Tropical Evergreen

Forest’1 (p. 46). The locality factors of this forest type are given

as: Annual rainfall 90 to 150" or more, well distributed with

only 3 months (November to January) relatively dry; even then

with heavy dews nightly. Monthly maximum temperature not

exceeding 90°F., the mean minimum for January being close to

50 °F., the absolute minimum being but little over 40°.

‘From the point of view of temperature, the climate is thus

definitely subtropical but the favourable moisture distribution and

the complete absence of frost permits of the development of a

forest indistinguishable from that of more southern latitudes.

The soils are largely of recent alluvial formation over Tertiary

sandstones and shales but the latter and crystalline rocks outcrop

on the hills and carry a similar type of forest’.

The distribution of this forest type also includes the Abor,

Dafla and Aka Hills of Assam north of the Brahmaputra.

2 Champion, H. G., The Forest Types of India and Burma, Indian Forest

Records (New Series) — Silviculture, Vol. I, No. 1 — 1936.

6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 48

It is possible to characterize a number of typical zones where

collecting was carried out:

(a) Lowland, alluvial zone. This area around Sadiya and

Tezu is characterized by open country, either of an artificial

nature, such as cut-over agricultural land or openings about

houses, or tracts of endemic grass-covered land interspersed with

scattered trees of Bombax, Heterophragma etc., and patches of shrub

growth of fire hardy species such as Zizyphus jujuba, especially

along the edges. This is the savannah stage of ecological succession

to the climax ( b ) and (c) (tom. cit., p. 126). It is known here

as ‘chopras’, ‘cagri’, ‘ekra’ etc. and is the characteristic habitat for

such distinctive forms as Pellomeum palustre, Pellomeum

albiventre, Megaluris palustris and Timalia pileata. Saxicola

torquata also favours this biotope and Prina polychroa should be

looked for in the area.

The artificially created areas play host to obviously recent in-

vaders such as the commoner bulbuls, starlings and mynahs, king

crows, dhyal thrushes and house sparrows. In addition rap tores

dependent either on man or on open areas, work gradually into

such areas.

(b) Lowland jungle. About Tezu there are very large areas

of original forest of the well-developed primary rainfall type. These

forests probably reach their climax in the alluvial areas immediately

adjacent to the foothills. This was one of the richest areas for

birds principally small passerine forms, babblers, bulbuls and

warblers. Here also were found Horsfield’s Kaleege, junglefowl

and hombills, and in the nearby stagnant stream or lagoon areas

occurs the White-winged Wood Duck. A tremendous concentration

of rattans or canes made movement in this jungle extremely

limited, and probably accounts for the scarcity of large carnivores.

(c) Mid-montane jungle. Dening is a splendid transitional

area between the lowland and montane jungle types. It

comprises of steep precipitous hill-sides under, lofty dense

evergreen jungle. Wild bananas and tree-ferns (up to 20 ft. high)

are a feature of the landscape, while rattan brakes ( Calamus ) and

bamboos predominate in patches. The enormous forest trees are

heavily draped with lianas and creepers, and their trunks and

branches covered with mosses. Strobilanthes abound on the

opener hill-sides. Goat-weed ( Eupatorium ) which here seems to

replace Lantana completely, overruns disused cultivation clearings

in wild profusion, being intermixed with luxuriant bracken growth

at the forest’s edge. The spiny Smilax creeper loops and twines

through the lower storey as if to mollify the enthusiasm of the

too-eager collector, while that extremely vicious nettle Laportia

crenulata , with harmless-looking clusters of white berries, holds

a place in the undergrowth wrhich cannot be ignored by anyone

who has once had the misfortune to come in contact with it. A

cleared area about the village and post of the Assam Rifles has

brought in migrants and introduced species, but in the surrounding

bamboo and rainfall facies there is a great concentration of low

altitude Himalayan forms. Here were found Pomatorhinus

montanvs , a great variety of flycatchers, traces of the Peacock

Pheasant, Turdinus, Pnoepyga and Tesia olivea .

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate iii

Secondary shrub jungle on overgrown cultivation clearing, Dening.

(Dr. Ripley in centre).

Photos by

Sdlim Ali

Dense evergreen undergrowth, Tezu.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate iv

Makeshift bamboo bridge on the trail

to

SMim AH

Dreyi.

THE BIRDS OF THE MISHMI HILLS

7,

( d ) Montane jungle. About 4000' there seemed to be a signi-

ficant change in the avian fauna beginning with such characteristic

forms as Mcgalaima virens and Arborophila, and later showing us

the characteristic higher altitude babblers such as Tesia castaneo-

coronata, Siva strigulay and Alcippe cinerea. In the neighbourhood

of Dreyi, which has an annual rainfall of over 200", the luxuriance

of the forest reaches its climax. The almost vertical hill-sides are

clothed with lofty trees and impenetrable shrub growth. Only

torrential streams and waterfalls, which are abundant, break the

continuity of the unending green. Wild banana trees of phenomenal

height (18 to 25 ft.) and over-sized tree-ferns, with Fishtail palms

and another species with leaves like the cocoanut are abundant

and form a feature of the floristics. Dominant in the undergrowth,

especially along the edge of forest trails, are species of Polygonum

(?), Saxifraga, Begonia and Rubus ail come into prominence above

an elevation of about 3500 ft. Here also, at 55007 Sitta formosa was

found, and at 60007 Harpactes wardi. The ridge at 6000' is just

in the beginning of the zone of heavy bamboos, but as no higher

altitude was attained we did not collect the fauna of the oak-

rhododendron facies, one to two thousand feet higher.

Bird Collecting in the Mishmis

Bird collecting in such terrain is fraught with difficulties and

disappointments, and even frustration; it needs the devising and

application of special techniques. The undergrowth is so dense and

usually so full of lurking nettles, sprawling spiky Calamus * whip-

lashes’ and spiny Smilax twiners, and the ground so thickly littered

with a welter of criss-crossing rotten bamboo stems that penetration

of the forest to any depth except along well-used game paths is

often impossible. . Any birds that present themselves here are

usually at such close range that they get blown to smithereens

when shot, and are useless as specimens. And it is seldom possible

to increase the range sufficiently by backing into the tangled under

bushes.

As a pendant to this difficulty other birds may be right up in

the canopy of trees clinging on a vertical hill-side and towering

200 ft. or more above a forest trail. At this range, birds, even

the size of green pigeons, look minute and are apt to escape un-

scathed through the pattern of shot. Smaller species do. so in

quite 9 cases out of 10. Even should a bird drop like a plummet

it frequently gets partially buried in the thick bed of soft humus

on the forest floor where, further obscured by the undergrowth, it

defies search in an amazing way. The chances of recovery are

further lessened when, as happens usually, the wounded bird glides

away at an angle to fall, and then perhaps flutter along, in a

conjectural spot hidden by forest a hundred feet or more down a

60 degree slope. Finding the proverbial needle in a haystack is

easy work compared to retrieving such a wounded bird, and many

interesting and tantalizing specimens are lost. On the whole,

one < is lucky if he can recover even 50% of the specimens

he shoots. Occasions can be recalled, especially when un-

accompanied by a local Mishmi, when 8 out of 10 birds eluded

s JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL IIIST . SOCIETY, Vol 48

recovery. One particularly unlucky morning stands out when

every one of the 8 birds shot was lost!

Successful collecting in terrain of this nature has to be a combi-

nation of stalking and still-hunting. The hunter must try and

induce the bird to come up to him rather than attempt to approach

it. Birds seem to prefer the vicinity of rather opener glades and

edges of trails to the gloomy forest interior. The art lies, there-

fore, in selecting a promising opening and keeping a careful look-

out for any movement in the surrounding or overhanging jungle.

With patience satisfactory results may be obtained in this way.

The movement of a shy bird skulking in a thicket is often betrayed

by no more than its shadow flitting across a gleam of sunlight.

But this fleeting shadow may sometimes merely mean a falling

leaf. Out of the comer of one’s eye the gentle swaying of a

fragment of bamboo-leaf caught in a spider’s web, or even just a

gossamer strand dancing lightly in the breeze with a shaft of

sunlight playing on it, is apt to simulate the movement of a

creeping bird and deceive the hunter momentarily.

Frequently a series of intriguing calls from within the forest

tempts one to crash through in that direction, but one soon learns

the futility of such procedure. The din of your progress usually

sends the bird off long before you can reach within visual distance.

When, stumbling and panting, you finally do manage to reach

the spot it is, as often as not, only to discover that a mimicking

Backet-tailed Drongo has been playing a practical joke on you!

Under conditions such as obtain in the Mishmis, netting birds

seems to be a more satisfactory, and in many cases the only

practicable proposition. Vertical running nets of the Italian and

Japanese pattern were employed with considerable success by

one of us (B). Stretched across openings in the shrubbery at spots

likely to or observed to be used by birds crossing over from one

part of the forest to another, and inspected and emptied of their

captives morning and evening, these nets provided us with welcome

specimens of a number of secretive species of whose very existence

in the locality we should otherwise have been left in ignorance.

Acknowledgements

To the museums who were generous with the loan of specimens

and of study space, we owe a considerable debt of gratitude. In

particular the authorities of American Museum of Natural History

have been most gracious and we especially wish to thank Dr. Ernst

Mayr, Curator of the Whitney and Bothschild Collections. The

Bombay Natural History Society loaned us the services of one of

their field collectors, provided all available museum facilities and

help in numerous other ways. In addition we must thank Mr.

N. B. Kinnear, Director of the British Museum (Natural History)

for his help and continual kindness. Dr. Herbert Friedmann of

the U. S. National Museum has kindly assisted with the specimens

in his care on frequent occasions. Yale University graciously

sanctioned the leave of absence during the academic year for one

of us, and Dr. Carl 0. Dunbar, Director of the Peabody Museum,

has been helpfulness itself at all times.

THE BIRDS OF THE MISHMI HILLS

9

To Dr. Alexander Wetmore, Secretary of the Smithsonian Insti-

tution, grateful thanks are due for his stimulation of this trip on

the part of one of us, through a grant from the W. L. Abbot Fund,

and for his continual help and consideration. On the part of the

other of us grateful thanks are due to Mr. Wan Tho Loke of

Singapore, who though prevented by circumstances at the last minute

from participating personally in this long-planned expedition, never-

theless contributed generously towards its financing. Mr. Wilmarth

Lewis has generously helped the Smithsonian- Yale Expedition, and

Mr. and Mrs. Sidney Legendre have helped and worked in the

field also to the pleasure and gratification of the authors.

Finally many thanks are due to various officials in the area

who were most helpful. Mr. B. H. Routledge and Major G. Allen,

Political Officer and Deputy Political Officer of the Sadiya Frontier

Tract were kindness itself. Considerable help was tendered part of

the party by the authorities of the Government of India Disposals

Hq. at Chabua and Mr. Puri of the local branch of Allen Berry Ltd.

LIST OF THE BIRDS

New forms listed below have been described by Ripley in the Proceedings

of the Biological Society of Washington. [Vol. 61, 1948 (June 16), pp. 99-110].

Podicepidae

Podiceps ruficollis : Little Grebe.

Noted at Dibrugarh, and probably fouud along the Lohit River.

Phalacrocoracidae

Pbalacrocorax niger : Little Cormorant and

P. faseicollis : Indian Shag were both seen at Dibrugarh and probably work

up the Lohit.

Ardeidae

Egretta alba : Large White Egret and

E. Intermedia : Lesser Egret were seen at Dibrugarh and up along the Lohit

River as far as Tezu.

Egretta garzetta garzetta (Linnaeus) : Little Egret.

Two males taken at Chabua and Tezu measure; wing 266, 272; culmen

84, 88. Soft parts; iris yellow; ocular skin pale bluish green; bill, upper

mandible black, lower, whitish ; legs black, feet yellowish green. The plumes

and crest in these winter egrets are much reduced or lacking.

Bubulcus ibis coromandus (Boddaert) : Cattle Egret.

Males and females were taken at Chat ua and the form was seen at Dibru-

garh. It undoubtedly occurs in the Lohit Valley.

Ardeola grayii : Pond Heron.

Seen throughout the area.

Butorides striatus : Little Green Bittern.

Seen at Tezu.

Ciconiidae

Ciconia nigra Black Stork, C. episcopa White-necked Stork, Leptoptilos dubius

Adjutant Stork and L. javanicus Lesser Adjutant Stork were noted in the low

country between Sadiya and Dibrugarh,

IO

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

Anatidae

Asarcornis scutulata : White-winged Wood Duck.

A pair were seen at Tezu and near Brahmakund in January. They haunt

the jungle-grown streams and do not usually come out onto the broad gravel

banks of the Lohit.

Casarca ferruginea : Ruddy Sheldrake.

The Brahminy duck was seen in pairs along the Lohit River.

Mergus merganser merganser Linnaeus : Goosander.

A pair were collected at Tezu January 10. They measure: wing 296, £

259. Soft parts: £ iris black ; bill; upper mandible, culmen black, sides scar-

let, lower mandible black ; legs reddish orange iris dark brown ; bill, upper

mandible brownish red, culmen black, lower mandible reddish orange ; legs

reddish orange, webs light brown.

Stuart Baker (F.B.I., Birds, vi, 192?, p. 471) notes that all specimens of

merganser taken in the Himalayas appear to belong to the race orientalis , but

these birds are typical merganser.

A flock of 40-50 of these mergansers was present on the Lohit.

H ELIORNITHIDAE

Heliopais per sonata : Masked Fin foot.

This species was seen by one of us (SA) at Dibrugarh, and is noted by

God win- Austen as having been seen near Sadiya by Ogle (1. c., 1878).

Accipitridae

Pernis apivorus ruficollis Lesson: Indian Crested Honey Buzzard.

A female taken at Sadiya in November was very fat and had a wing measure-

ment of 398.

Haliastur indus : Brahminy Kite.

Seen along the upper Brahmaputra.

Spizaetus sp. : Hawk-Eagle.

A hawk-eagle was seen on the Tidding Saddle on January 5.

Ictioaetus malayensis : Black Eagle.

This species was noted by R. on the Tidding Saddle on January 4.

Haliaeetus leucoryphus : Ring tailed Fishing Eagle.

Seen at Tezu.

Icthyophaga ichthyaetus : Grey-headed fishing-eagle.

Noted by SA. at Dibrugarh and probably occurs up the Lohit.

Circus aeruginosus : Marsh of Harrier.

Seen by SA. at Sadiya.

Spilornls cheela : Crested Serpent-Eagle.

Noted at Tezu and Dening.

Falconidae

Falco severus severus Horsfield : Burmese Hobby.

Three females were taken at Tezu. They measure: wing 221, 244, 245.5

tail 95, 111, 119, culmen 14, 15, 16. Soft parts : iris brown; cere and ocular area

yellow ; bill, upper mandible black, lower, greenish yellow basally, black distally •

legs orange-yellow, nails black. ’

These birds were found in open scrub near the Lohit. One female was noted

with another bird standing close together on a branch and flapping its wings

either in a begging stance or possibly simulating copulation. The birds were

noticed by their shrill squealing calls. The ovaries were undeveloped.

THE RIRDS OF THE MISHMI HILLS n

Phasianidae

Arborophila rufogularls rufogularis (Blyth) : Rufous-throated Hill-Partridge.

A female collected on the trail between Denning and Dreyi on December 31

at 40C0’ measures: wing 142, tail 53, culmen 17.5. Soft parts: iris brown;

ocular skin red ; back of tarsus yellowish-white; tarsal scutes and feet pinkish

red.

This species seems to like thick original forest between 4 and 6,000 feet and is

most difficult to see. They have a mournful descending whistle, commonly

uttered in the late afternoon. Occasionally this whistle is given at close

intervals, gradually increasing in frequency, working up the scale until a sort of

climax is reached. This seems to be a threatening or territorial call, for two

birds will gradually work through the forest towards each other calling normally,

and then when they are quite close, will give the climax call, apparently on the

margins of their respective territories.

Lophophorus sclateri Jerdon : Sclater’s Monal Pheasant.

Several fans were purchased from Mishmis. They were made from the tail

feathers of this species. Normally the handles were of bamboo or musk deer

fur, but one fan handle was made from the head, neck and breast of a cock

Impeyan in addition to the upper tail coverts and tail used for the blade. The

culmen of this specimen measures 34mm and the white tips on the central tail

feathers in two cases measure 19.5 and 22,5mm. respectively. It is perhaps

worth noting that these examples and a complete male collected in the same

area (A.M.N.H. coll.) have rather clear and unstreaked white upper tail

coverts whereas Yunnan birds appear to have more black streaks along the

centers of these feathers. The plate by Wolf of the type specimen, however,

shows heavy black streaking.

(In one of the fans are inserted several flank feathers of a Blood Pheasant.)

Gennaeus horsfieldii horsfieldii (G. R. Gray) : Black -breasted Kalij Pheasant.

This species is common in the lowland climax forest at Tezu. However, the

wild canes are so thick in the substage that the forest is virtually impenetrable

except where paths have been cut or elephant have recently been moving. I

saw both males and females and was able to observe the characteristic adult male

plumage of this form, but my only shot was a snap one with small shot which

failed to reach the quarry (R).

Gallus gallus spadiceus Bonnaterre : Red Junglefowl.

A male was taken at Tezu on January 10, by a Mishmi hunter, the only

bird of the trip secured by this means! The wing measurement is 236 mm.

Soft parts : iris yellowish brown ; bill, upper mandible brown, lower pale horn ;

legs dark slate; wattles pinkish red. This bird as might be supposed is some-

what intermediate and approaches murghi but the color of the small ear

lappets, the general darker tone of the plumage, and the reduced dark central

streaks on the golden-yellow mck hackles place it nearer the Burmese race.

Polyplectron bicalcaratum subsp. : Peacock -Pheasant.

This bird evidently occurs in the vicinity of Dening, but efforts to trap or

collect it were unavailing. Several Mishmi fans were bought from the hill

people. The tail and scapular feathers represented are of bicalcaratum but

darker than any specimen of bakeri seen by me. Two specimens from Marghe-

rita and one from Tura in Assam in the A.M.N.H. coll, approach this colour,

but are lighter. In addition there is a tendency to reduced spotting on these

feathers. The spots ! themselves seem somewhat elongate. The margins

around the ‘ eyes * on the tail feathers are also reduced. The outer tail

feathers have only black shading arouni the eyes, lacking the buffy ring

altogether.

Charadriidae

LobivaneUus indicus : Red-wattled Lapwing.

Hoplopterus Indicus: Spur-winged Plover.

Charadrius dubius: Little Ring Plover

Seen at Sadiya and Tezu.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

12

SCOLOPACIDAE

Tringa totanus: Redshank.

T. ochropus : Green Sandpiper.

Actitis hypoleucos : Common Sandpiper.

Erolia sp. Stint.

All seen along the Lohit or Upper Brahmaputra.

Recurvirostridae

Ibidorhyncha struthersii Vigors: Ibis-bill.

Two females were shot on the Lohit River near Tezu on January 9. They

measure: wing 240, 246. Soft parts are noted as: iris red; bill dull reddish

brown; legs pinkish gray.

Stevens’s description ( LB.N.H S. , xxxiii, 1915, p. 727.) of the behaviour

of these wintering Ibis-bills is quite as we saw them in January. They were

fairly shy and were taken only when they decided to double back from up

stream, flying high over the river, and apparently avoiding flying over the

heavy forest.

Glareolidae

Glareola maldivarum : Large Pratincole or Swallow Plover.

Noted at Tezu ; larger than lactea .

Columbidae

Sphenurus apicauda apicauda (Blyth) : pin-tailed Green Pigeon.

Three males and two females were collected at Dening and Tezu. They

measure: wing J 167-173, £ 165, 168 ; tail £ 170-184, $ 144, 161 ; culmen $ 20-

23, $ 21,22. Soft parts: iris brownish red ; ocular area blue; bill, basally

blue, distal half of maxilla green; feet red.

In common with other green pigeons and the Falconidae has habit of sitting

fluffed out on topmost bare twigs of towering trees on cold mornings to catch

first rays of sun. Feeding commences later.

Sphenurus sphenurus sphenurus (Vigors) : Wedge-tailed Green Pigeon.

A female was taken at Dreyi on January 1. It measures : wing 169, culmen

18. Soft parts : iris, inner ring blue-gray, outer ring reddish-orange; bill

bluish-slate ; feet pinkish red.

Messrs. Peters and Greenway have kindly compared this single specimen

with the series of yunnanensis at Harvard and agree that it represents sphenurus

although approaching the former subspecies in the darker green of the upper

surface of the tail.

Treron pom pad ora phayrei (Blyth) : Ashy-headed Green Pigeon.

Two males and a female were taken at Tezu. They measure: wing,

159, 163, $ 155 ; tail 85-5, 97, $ 81 : culmen 20, 20-5, $ 18*5.

Soft parts : iris orange-brown : bill french gray ; feet pinkish-red. In larger

flocks and more alert than 5. apicauda.

Ducula aenea sylvatica (Tickell) : Indian Green Imperial Pigeon.

A male taken at Tezu has a wing measurement of 237 mm. Seen solo, or in

twos and threes or small parties.

Ducula badia insignis Hodgson : Hodgson’s Imperial Pigeon.

A pair were collected at Dening and Dreyi. They measure : wing £ 236.5,

$ 253 ; culmen 26, $ 27. Soft parts; iris whitish ; bill cerise, tip plumbeus-

brown ; feet dull cherry red.

These fresh skins are so different in tone to old specimens that it is difficult

at first glance to assign them to the same race. The oxidation process inherent

in foxing has turned old skins into brown and copper colored birds on the upper

parts, taking away the grayish bloom of the fresh skin.

THE BIRDS OF THE MlSHMl HILLS

*3

Birds from upper Assam (especially Margherita) have a tendency towards

the gray head of Burmes e griseicapilla.

The flight silhouette in the distance is crow-like — slow, deliberate wing

beats.

There is a time in the late afternoon before the sun leaves the trees when

these pigeons sit silently on the very tops of the largest trees, preferably on

some dead or exposed branch. A moment or so after the sun has cast them

into shadow they are off quickly and silently to their roosts.

Chalcophaps indica : Emerald Dove

Seen at Tezu.

Columba punicea Blyth : Purple Wood-Pigeon.

A female was obtained December 26 at Dening and another female Decem-

ber 15 at Tezu. They measure: wing 216.5, 2il ; culraen 17. Soft parts : iris

yellowish-red, deep orange ; cere, base of bill and eyerim magenta ; tip old

ivory, flesh ; legs and feet pinkish-red ; claws ivory.

Streptopella orientalis agricola (Tickell) : Rufous Turtle Dove.

A pair taken by S.A. at Sadiya have wing measurements of; £ 185, 0 197.

In the g the testes were enlarged to 20 x 8 mm. (2 December) !

Streptopella chinensis edwardi Ripley: Assam Spotted Dove.

Ten specimens were taken at Chabua, Panitola, Sadiya and Tezu. They

measure :

Wing Tail Culmen

146,148 145,146 17,20

£ £ 141-150.5 (145.4) 139-145 (141.7) 16. 5-19 (17.5)

Soft parts : iris pinkish purple, dull brownish orange ; orbital skin magenta •

feet pinkish purple.

This race differs from suratensis by being conspicuously darker in tone of

plumage on the back, rump, upper tail coverts and upper surface of the

rectrices. The terminal bars on the feathers of the back and median wing

coverts are darker buff in tone than in suratensis and much reduced in

extent. There is a tendency towards larger size in this race although it is

slight.

From tigrina of Burma this race differs by being darker on the upper parts

and by having more distinct dark margins to the back feathers. Stuart Baker

(F.B.I., Birds, v. 1^28, p. 243) remarks that Cachar and xManipur birds are

intermediate between suratensis and tigrina. In tr.e case of these North-east

Assam birds, this is only true as far as the reduction in the terminal barring on

the back is concerned, in addition these birds are darker than either of the

other races.

Call noticeably different from suratensis of peninsular India. Ends abruptly

with kriik in place of the prolonged kroo. ^ y

PSITTACIDAE

Psittacula alexandri : Red-breasted Parakeet.

P. cyanocephala : Blossom-headed Parakeet.

Noted at Sadiya and Tezu but not secured.

CUCDL1DAE

Rhopodytes Iristis tristis ^ saliens: Large Green-billed Malkoha.

Two females were taken at Sadiya and Dening. They measure : wing 164

167, tail 330, 372, culmen 34, 37. Soft parts : iris brown, red; ocular skin crimson

magenta, red; bill green, horny-green, legs and feet bluish gray, greenish slate.

These birds have longer bill measurements than any specimens in the

American Museum of Natural History coll. The wing measurement agrees

with iristis but the tail rreasurement with saliens. The upper parts appear

darker than typical tristis. The white tips on the four tail feathers of one

specimen measure only 11 and 11.5 mm. along the shaft.

i4 journal, Bombay natural hist, society, v*. 4a

Ceiitropus sinensis: Crow-Pheasant.

Noted at Tezu in December.

Strigidae

Olaucidium brodiei brodiei (Burton) : Western Collared Pigmy Owlet.

Two males and a female were collected at Dening and Dreyi. They

measure: wing 86.5 , 89, £ 93.5 ; tail ^ 54,57, £ 61; culmen (from cere)

d 10.5, 12, $ 11.5. Soft parts : iris yellow ; bill and feet yellowish-green.

One male at Dreyi was caught in a bird net, evidently attracted by a speci-

men of Stachyris chrysaea already caught. The other two birds were each seen in

the day time as they were being mobbed, in one case by White-throated Bulbuls,

again by sunbirds (Aethofiyga sp.).

Olaucidium cuculoides austerum Ripley1 : Mishmi Barred Owlet.

Seven specimens of this, the most common diurnal owlet, were collected from

Sadiya up to Dening. These birds measure ; wing 151.5-154, £ 156-160 ; tail

^ 82-88, £87-90 ; culmen (from cere) g 16.5-18.5, £ 16.5, 17. Soft parts : iris

yellow ; bill and legs yellowish- green ; cere greenish-yellow.

In colour these birds are very rufous-brown. The range of this race is from

Sikkim east through Bhutan and northern Assam in Lakhimpur and the

Mishmi Hills to the upper Hukawng Valley of Burma.

Call: Woioioioi keeek.

Athene brama ultra Ripley: North Assam Spotted Owlet.

This bird was seen at Sadi} a but not actually collected north of Chabua.

The race differs from indie a by somewhat larger size and darker coloration.

Call : distinctly harsher and more high-pitched than in A. b. brama or indica

of peninsular India.

Hemiprocnidae

Hemiprocoe coronata : Crested Tree- Swift.

Crested swifts, presumably of this species, were noted above the high forest

trees at Tezu.

Trogonidae

Hafpactes erythfocephalus erythrocephalus (Gould) : Red-headed Trogon.

Specimens taken at Tezu and Dening measure: wing g 157, 159, £ 149;

tail ^ 187, 192, £ 180 ; culmen 21, 22, £ 19. Soft parts were noted as : iris g

red, £ pale reddish brown ; ocular area £ bluish purple, £ pale bluish purple ;

bill $ blue, purplish at base, £ blue, tip black ; feet fleshy brown.

The vermiculation on the wings of these specimens is very fine and close.

Harpactes wardl Kinnear: Kingdon-Ward’s Trogon.

Two females of this little known species were collected on the Tidding

Saddle on January 3. They measure : wing 170.5, 175.5 ; tail 228, 219 ; culmen

19, 19.5. They do not seem to differ from typical wardi in color as represented

in plate xxlv (Delacour and Jabouille, ‘ Les Oiseaux del ’ Indochine Francaise’,

ii, 1931, p. 264) except that the feathers about the eyes and lores are actually

a rich black in tone. Female specimens from Burma and Indo-China are so

faded that no colour comparison is possible.

Soft parts : iris reddish brown ; ocular skin pale blue ; bill basally pink,

distally yellow with black culmen and two black patches on lower mandible;

feet whitish, nails dark brown.

These birds were tame and unsuspicious when collected. One female

appears to be a young bird in post-juvenal plumage which does not differ from

the adult except in the comparatively narrower tail feathers.

Alcedinidae

Ceryle lugubrls guttulata Stejneger: Himalayan Pied Kingfisher.

A male and female were shot at Tezu and Dening. They measure : wing

189, £ 187 ; tail 114, £ 109 ; culmen 80, £ 71.

1 Described in Zoologica , 33, pt» iv, Dec. 31, 1948.

‘Tttti BikDS ok the kistiki mils

These birds are shy and difficult to observe. They have a peculiar rather

jerky flight and give the impression of enormous size in the narrow valleys

which they frequent. Soft parts ; iris brown ; bill basally gray, distally black

with a horny tip ; feet grayish brown.

Birds from Sikkim, Nepal and the Himalayan Punjab are paler and slightly'

smaller than eastern Himalayan birds. The back and upper wing coverts are

less blackish and the white spots on the feathers of these areas are larger, more

like bars, less like spots. There seems to be a slight increase also in the amount

of white on the outer feathers of the crest.

For these more western birds the name continenlalis Hartert is available.

This Kingfisher also seems to keep to an accustomed route on a punctual

daily schedule, at least when going to roost. The Tezu specimen was timed by

S A on three consecutive evenings as it coursed up a thickly wooded forest

stream soon after sunset. The bird was observed to pass under a certain

wooden bridge (where not more than about 30 yards of the stream was visible)

each day between 17.5 and 17.10 o’clock. On the fourth evening SAtook up his

position at the bridge betimes. He slipped the safety catch at 17.5 and shot the

bird at exactly 7 minutes past five, just as it had crossed under !

Ceryle rudis : Pied Kingfisher.

This species was seen by SA. at Tezu along the same stretch of river as

guttulata .

Alcedo atthis bengalensis Gmelin : Common Indian Kingfisher.

A male taken at Tezu has a wing measurement of 74.

Pelargopsfs capensis : Stork-billed Kingfisher.

Noted at Tezu but not collected.

Meropidae

Nyctyornls athertoni : Blue-beared Bee-eater.

This species was seen at Tezu and Dening.

Bucerotidae

Aceros nipalensis : Rufous -necked Hornbill.

A single bird was seen on the Tidding Saddle. This species has an extra-

ordinary habit of diving with closed wings for some distance to make long

swooping dips in its flight, like a woodpecker. The noise of its outstreched

pinions when it resumes normal flight is a loud ‘ whirr ’ which can be heard

at a great distance.

Anthracoceros malabaricus mala baric us (Gmelin) : Large Indian Pied Hornbill.

A male taken at Tezu December 5, measures : wing 336, tail 318, bill (from

gape) 159, tarsus 64. This is very large although it can be matched by other

specimens from northern Bengal.

. [Bereuicornis comatus (Raffles) : Long-crested Hornbill.

Identity doubtful, but the colour scheme, size and other particulars receded

of a bird seen by SA at Tezu fit no other species.]

Buceros bicornis : Great Pied Hornbill.

A number of these birds flew over the road between Tezu and Dening in the

late afternoon between four-thirty and five-thirty. In every case the flight

seemed to be a routine one, performed at the same time each evening. Unfor-

tunately I was unable to secure any specimens due to lack of carrying

ammunition.

This keeping to a fixed route on a daily schedule was noted also in the case

of 3 other pairs or parties. SA further notes that the rasping noise made by the

steady cumbrous wing beats could be perfectly reproduced by scraping a finger-

tip on the canvas pork-pie hat while on his head 1

i6 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Voi. 48

Capitonid^:

Megalaima virens mayii Ripley: Mishmi Great Barbet.

A male, the type of the race, taken on the Tidding Saddle above Dreyi

measures : wing 147, tail 102, culmen 45. This race is as dark as clamator from

North Burma, but has a yellow nape as in magnifica.

This species is wary and hard to observe. We noted it from about 3,500 ft.

up to the crest of the Tidding Saddle at 6,000 ft The ringing call, kee-owy

kee-ow, kee-ow, repeated over and over can be heard for over half a mile.

Interspersed with this is a soft single took which does not carry more than a

few yards.

Normally one sees these birds perched very still on extremely high trees, usu-

ally on bare branches at the top. When they fly they leave their perch

with a distinct spring or hop. They have a habit of closing their wings and

swooping in great d5ps across a valley, like a woodpecker. Opened, the wings

are held stiffly and produce a whirring sound like a hornbill in miniature.

On the lidding Saddle in December/ January these birds were gathered in

large flocks and were feeding on various species of Ficus and flowering rhodo-

dendron. They were difficult to. approach and although observed in numbers

only one specimen was secured.

Megalaima zeylanica hodgsoni Bonaparte : Assam Green Barbet.

A male taken at Sadiya has a wing measurement of 135 ’5.

Megalaima asiatica asiatica (Latham) : Blue-throated Barbet.

Eleven specimens of this barbet were collected at Sadiya, Tezu, Dening and

Dreyi. A male and a female are moulting on December 24 and January 3.

These birds have a wing measurement of: ^ 103-5-11T5 (106*2), $ 104*5-10S*5

(106-5). Soft parts are noted as: iris brown to red- brown (d?) ; bill, upper

mandible basally greenish yellow, culmen and tip black, lower mandible green-

ish yellow, tip black ; eyelids orange, legs grayish yellow.

In a series, these birds appear slightly duller and darker than thirteen birds

from Bengal, U. P. and Nepal.

Call : Kutroo , Kulroo etc., almost indistingu'shable from that of

M. zeylonicus , but in a higher key.

Megalaima franklin!! franklinii (Blyth) : Golden-throated Barbet.

A pair taken at Dreyi, January 6, measure : wing ^ 112, $ 98 ; tail ^69, $ 62 ;

culmen^ 25, $24. Soft parts : iris brown; bill black, grayish at base; legs

greenish slate, pads dull yellow.

Picid.®

Pictis canus gyldenstolpei Stuart Baker : Assam Black-naped Woodpecker. 1

A single male was collected at Sadiya. It measures : wing 141, tail 101,

culmen 37. Ii is dark crimson.

Picus chlorolophus burmae Meinertzhagen : Burmese Small Yellow-Naped

Woodpecker.

A male from Dreyi and a female from Dening measure : wing^ 132, $ 128 ;

tail 95-5, $ 87 ; culmen 27-5, $ 27.

Burmae ( Bull . B.O.C. , 44, 1924, p. 54.), seems a poorly characterized race

in size, but birds from this area do have more of a suffusion of golden on the

back, and orange on the nuchal feathers. Soft parts are noted as : iris red,

bill, upper mandible black, basally yellowish green, lower mandible yellowish

green ; legs green.

Picus flavinucha flavinucha Gould : Large Yellow-naped Woodpecker.

A male taken by SA at Tezu measures : wing 177, tail 125, culmen 46.

Soft parts : bill pale gray, slightly darker at base of lower mandible ; orbital

skin yellowish-green ; legs and feet greenish-gray, claws plumbeous.

THE BIRDS OF THE MIS H MI HILLS

Gecinulus grantia grantia (McClelland) : Pale-headed Woodpecker.

Three specimens were taken at Dening and the species was also noted at

Dreyi. They measure : wing U 124.4, 126.5, $ 125. Soft parts: iris reddish

brown, black ; bill bluish-ivory* bluish-white, whitish, basally bluish ; legs and

feet olive ; claws homy brown, gray.

The two males are quite greenish on the underparts although in this they are

matched by a male from Margherita in the A.M.N.H. coll. One of the males

is quite blackish below, darker than any specimens examined, and the golden

nuchal feathers are tinged with olive-green.

Noisy pairs in mixed bamboo forest. Utters nasal Chaik-chaik-chaik-chaik-

chaik-chaik commencing loud and slow, increasing in tempo but becoming

less loud and fading off towards end. Also makes a loud, harsh, quick-repeated

Chereker-chereker- chereker very reminiscent of the Black- throated Jay ( Garru -

lus lanceolatus) of W. Himalayas.

Blythiplcus pyrrhotis pyrrhotis (Hodgson) : Red-eared Bay Woodpecker.

A female taken at Tezu on January 13 was the only one secured. In colour

this specimen appears slightly darker than topotypical material from Nepal. It

measures : wing 150*5, tail 91, culmen 46*5. Soft parts : iris brown, bill yellow,

greenish- yellow at base of lower mandible ; legs blackish brown.

This woodpecker was on a low stump only two feet off the ground when

secured. It was making a loud harsh characteristic call, frequently repeated.

Micropterdus brachyurus phaioceps Blyth: Northern Rufous Woodpecker.

A female from Dening measures : wing 124*5 ; tail 67 ; culmen 25. This

race as distinguished by Stuart Baker (tom. cit., 1927, p. 63) seems to contain

two poorly defined phenotypic populations. Birds from Sikkim and Darjeeling

are somewhat small (wing 120422, tail 57-64) and have lighter, less distinct

patterns of transverse bars on the back and wing coverts. This tendency

reaches its culmination in the larger humei to the west. This colour effect

spreads to N. Cachar and Margherita in Upper Assam where three out of a

total of six specimens exhibit this difference. Below there is little to choose

between the two populations although the throats of Sikkim and Darjeeling

birds seem more uniformly marked, less streaked. One of two specimens from

the Arakan (type locus of phaioceps ) exhibits the same paling out. Otherwise

birds from the Mishmi Hills, Patkoi Hills, and the rest of this race’s range in

Burma (Pegu Yomas, Myitkina area etc.), are all more strongly marked on the

upper parts and tend to be larger (wing U? 122*5-131*5, tail 60*5-73*5).

Dendrocopus macei macei (Vieillot): Fulvous -breasted Pied Woodpecker.

Three females were taken at Sadiya, Tezu and Dening. They measure :

wing 107-108 ; tail 63-55.5 ; culmen 23-24.5. Soft parts : iris brown ; bill

brownish-grey; feet dark grey.

Although western Himalayan birds are larger (wing up to 113) the race

westermani does not seem worthy of recognition.

Mulleripicus pulverulentus : Great Slaty Woodpecker.

Both authors saw this species at Tezu in December and January. R.

stalked a party of five which were together in the top of an immensely tall tree

on the edge of a dry riverbed in dense jungle. No specimens were secured.

The birds have a variety of loud calls which SA describes as something

astoundingly between the bleat of a goat and the bark of a dog !

Picumnus innominatus malayorum Hartert: Malay Speckled Piculet,

A female from Dening in fresh plumage collected January 8 seems to

belong to this race. When compared with other specimens taken at similar

periods the differences between innominatus and malayorum seem slight indeed.

This female and a female from Laukkaung, E. Burma in the A. M. N. H. coll,

taken in November both have a rather purer olive greenish tint on the crown

than birds from either Sikkim {innominatus) or Annam ( malayorum ). The

tone of the underparts also seems richer, more yellowish.

2

iS

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 4 3?

Sasia ochracea ochracea Hodgson: Indian Rufous Piculet.

A male and female were shot at Sadiya and Dening. They measure : wing £

5T5, $54 ; tail 23, $ 21 ; culmen 14, $ 13. Soft parts: iris and ocular

skin crimson red, pale magenta ; bill, upper mandible black, lower light gray ;

legs yellowish brown.

The above male and another from Pyepat, E. Burma in the A.M.N.H coll,

seem slightly darker on the crown and nape than typical ochracea. The

material is too small, however, to see whether this tendency is upheld. I fail to

see characters which distinguish the rac e, qiierulivox. Southern Burma speci-

mens {reichenowi) seem inseparable from Cachar birds.

Restless habits. Flits about in dense secondary growth, clinging momentarily

to looping and twining creeper stems and tapping with bill. Sometimes hops

amongst debris of decaying twigs close to the ground with the absurd stub tail

cocked-up like a wren’s.

Euryi.aimid^e

Psarisomus dalhousiae dalhousiae (Jameson) : Long-tailed Broadbill.

Specimens of this Broadbill, collected at Tezu and Dening in December and

January, measure: wing 101-104*5. Soft parts: iris brown, inner ring pale

brown ; eyelid chartreuse green ; bill, upper mandible greenish, lower mandible

greenish with orange areas on the base and a pale bluish green tip ; legs yellow-

ish olive-green.

These birds were flocking in bamboo clumps, flitting from tree to tree in

disorderly ‘follow-ray-leader ’ style, rather like minivets. The perching stance

is also upright like a minivet’s. An occasional single note sizveet, of the timbre

of that of Saxicoloides fulicata was heard. Stomachs of 4 examined contained

large blackish-brown ants, bugs and spiders exclusively.

Serilophus Junatus rubropygius (Hodgson) ; Hodgson’s Broadbill.

Eleven males and females collected at Tezu measure: wing 82*5-88, tail

65*5-71; culmen 15-16*5. Soft parts: iris brown; ocular skin yellow; bill

bluish-slate, external nares and patch on lower mandible yellowish-green. Or :

sub-orbital skin bright yellow ; upper mandible blue with pale edges and tip ;

lower mandible blue at base, yellowish-green on gonys ; legs and feet bright

yellowish-green ; claws plumbeous.

Nine of these birds were caught one night in a bird net. They made a loud

mouse like squeaking when disturbed or alarmed.

PlTTIDAE

Pitta ttepalensis nepaleosis (Hodgson) : Blue-naped Pitta.

Males were taken at Tezu and Dening. They measure : wing 120-122 ; tail

55*5, 65 ; culmen 30, 31. Soft parts : iris brown ; eyerim pale salmon ; bill

horny-brown, paler at tip ; legs and feet brownish-flesh, claws paler.

The Dening specimen is darker on the breast and in the tone of the upper-

parts than any specimen of this variable race examined. Above, it is similar

to heudeei but it is even darker than specimens of this race, on the breast.

At Dening we came upon one of these birds feeding on cow manure, that is,

picking it apart evidently looking for insect life. Progresses on ground by long

hops, like thrush but more exaggerated. Silhouette in low cross flight from one

thicket to another, very like waterhen ( Amaurornis ).

Hirundinidae

Hiruodo daurica t Red-rUihped Swallow*

Seen at Sadiya.

Delichon nipalensas Hodgson & Moore : Hodgson’s House-Martin.

A specimen taken above Dening (ca 3500’) has a wing measurement of 98.

One of about 50 birds hawking insects over a ridge.

Riparia paludlcola (?) : Sand-Martin.

Noted at Sadiya.

THE BIRDS OF THE MISHMI HILLS 19

Motacillidae

Motacilla alboldes Hodgson : Hodgson’s Pied Wagtail.

Specimens were taken at Sadiya and Tezu. Two black-backed males have

wing measurements of 95, 105.

Motacilla alba personata Gould ; Masked Wagtail.

A female taken at Sadiya has a wing measurement of 90.

Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni Richmond : Indian Tree- Pipit.

A number of specimens of this Tree Pipit were taken at Sadiya, Tezu,

Dening and Dreyi, in November, December and January. All are in mode-

rately worn plumage but which retains the olive tone of the feathers to a

considerable degree. The perfection of the postnuptial moult is retained for

only a short time. Soft parts : iris brown ; bill, upper mandible brown, lower

grayish brown ; legs flesh, whitish flesh.

Anthus hodgsoni yunnanensis Uchida & Kuroda : Yunnan Tree-Pipit.

Three specimens of this very lightly streaked race were taken at Dening and

Dreyi. All are in moderately worn plumage. [For details on the nomenclature

of this species see Ripley, J.B 47 (4) pp. 622-7].

Anthus trivialis : Tree-Pipit.

Noted at Sadiya.

Anthus rufulus : Indian Pipit.

Seen but not collected at Sadiya by SA.

Anthus roseatus Hodgson : Hodgson’s Pipit.

Two males were taken at Tezu. Their wing measurements are 91, 96.

Campephagidae

Hemipus picatus capitalls (McClelland) : Brown-backed Pied Shrike.

Two males and a female were collected by SA at Sadiya. They measure: wing

63, 65 ; $ 62. These brown-backed males are extremely dark brown in

tone, not infused with black.

Pericrocotus flammeus speciosus (Latham) : Indian Scarlet MiniveL

Four males and a female were collected at Tezu and Dening. They

measure : wing $ 95'5-104*5 (101), £ 99; tail £ 96-102, $ 96*5 ; culmen £

19-20, ? 20‘5.

Deignan ( Auk , 63, 1946, p 511), has recently discussed the taces of the

Scarlet Minivet, and puts the Assam birds in elegans (McClelland). Compared

With a fresh series from Nepal these birds are inseparable in size or of course

colour. Our birds differ from his diagnosis in having small red tips on one

rectrix each, and measuring larger. Furthermore Mr. Peters (in litt.) tells me

that female specimens from the Chin Hills and the female co-type of bakeri

(put into elegans by Deignan) have spots on the second primary and that male

specimens in the collection at Harvard from the Chin Hills have entirely red

outer webs on the central rectrices, thereby disagreeing with Deignan’s discus-

sion and description. All these smali points of course would change Deignan’s

percentages for his racial characters.

Another point in reference to Deignan’s paper is that he fixes the type

locality of McClelland’s elegans at Sadiya. Mr. Kinnear writes me (R) that

McClelland’s birds were collected in the Khasia Hills or in the plains to the

south of the Hills. This is a fairly important point as the Khasia Hills are

nearly two hundred and fifty miles southwest of Sadiya and across the Lohit

River, the eastern fork of the Brahmaputra. Therefore, I believe that it would

be preferable to refix the type locality of elegans (McClelland) to Shillong. By

doing this it still seems possible to recognize the race and to emend its range

as listed (l.c., p.524) to ‘Assam, except northeastern part and north of

the Brahmaputra,’ and to include that area in the range of speciosus.

Small parties of mixed sexes occasional. Not common.

zo JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 48

Campephaga fimbriata melaschista (Hodgson) : Dark Grey Cuckoo-Shrike.

A male with a wing measurement of 121 was taken by SA at Tezu.

Coracina novaehollandiae nipalensis (Hodgson) : Large Himalayan Cuckdo-

Shrike.

A male taken at Sadiya has a wing measurement of 183.

Utters harsh parrot-like cries from tree-top accompanied by a comical

alternate -jerking of wings — once right once left — for several minutes at a time.

Laniidae

Lanius schach nigriceps (Franklin) : Indian Black-headed Shrike.

Collected at Sadiya and Tezu. Three males measure: wing 98, 98, 100.

Soft parts: iris dark brown; bill black, base of bill light gray. This species

was also seen as high as Dreyi.

Lanius tephronotus (Vigors) : Grey-backed Shrike.

Four males and a female were taken at Sadiya, Tezu, Dening and Dreyi.

They measure : wing g 98-101, $ 102*5.

I prefer to follow the treatment of Dunajewski [Jour. f. Ornith 1939, 87,

p. 28) as cited by Mayr ( J.B.N.H.S. , 1947, 47, p. 125), and retain the name

tephronotus for the gray-backed breeding bird of Tibet as Stuart Baker originally

did (tom. cit., 1924, p. 297), probably by inadvertence (R).

Pycnonotidae

Aegithina tiphia tipliia (Linnaeus): lora.

A female takeu at Tezu measures : wing 65, tail 59, culmen 17. Soft parts ;

iris whitish gray ; bill slate gray, culmen black ; legs slate gray. This

bird seems slightly more saturated with greenish on the breast than three females

from Bengal.

Chforopsis hardwlckii Jardine & Selby: Orange-bellied Chloropsis.

Ten specimens were taken at Tezu, Dening and Dreyi. They measure : wing

93—98 (95*5), £ 89*5-92 (9P1) ; culmen 21-24-5 (22*3), $ 22-25 (23*5).

Birds to the east of Sikkim seem somewhat richer green in the colour of the

upper parts, particularly the back.

Inseparable from parasitic Loranthus clumps infesting forest trees. Springs

open buds and probes the flower tubes for nectar. Evidently an important agent

in cross-pollination.

Criniger flaveolus (Gould) : White-throated Bulbul.

Four males, two females and one sex indet. were taken at Sadiya, Tezu

and Dening. The species was also noted at Dreyi. These birds measure;

wing $ 101-106, £ 100, 101; culmen 20-2S-5 (22), 21, 23. Soft parts : iris

brown ; bill whitish gray, grayish slate; legs yellowish white (1) , fleshy brown,

yellowish brown, greyish brown.

One male has the appearance of a very old cage bird although it was shot in

heavy jungle at Tezu. The feet are scaly and the bill, particularly the upper

mandible, is greatly proliferated. There is a tendency for birds from N.E.

Assam, particularly the Mishmi Hills, to be slightly darker on the crown than

Indian Himalayan birds. Two of the Mishmi series are very dark rusty brown

on the back.

Noisy parties feeding on wild Fici and berries. Call notes: harsh, loud

Kak-kak\ etc. between call of Turdoides terricolor and cries of a frog caught

by snake.

Microscclis madagascariensis nigrescens (Stuart Baker) : Assam Black

Bulbul.

Two males were taken at Dening and the species was observed from Tezu

up to 6,0C0 ft. These specimens measure : wing 121*5, 125-5; tail 102*5, 111 ;

culmen 27, 28.

This species is abundant in characteristic noisy flocks from 2,300 ft.

up, but a preference for the tops of tall trees makes it a difficult bird to

collect.

THE BIRDS OF THE MJSHM l HILLS 21

Microscdis flavala flavala (Hodgson) : Himalayan Brown-eared Bulbul.

Nine males and seven females were collected at Tezu and Dening where it

was most abundant. They measure :

wing tail culmen

J 94-105 (100.8) 84.5-94 19-5-22

$ 94-5-98 (97.2) 82.5-88 * 18 5-20

It will be noted that dimorphism in size evidently exis's, although it is not

usually mentioned in discussions of bulbul species.

These birds average a more smoky gray on the underpants than typical

flavala. Soft parts : iris reddish, reddish-brown ; bill and legs black. It was a

noisy flock of these birds which first attracted me to Glaucidium brodiei.

Microscelis mcclellandi : Rufous- bellied Bulbul.

Three individuals of this species were seen in a tall tree on the road below

Dreyi, but we failed to collect them. The brown underparts, white throat with

projecting feathers and the slight crest were all apparent.

Pycnonotus striatus arclus Ripley : Eastern Striated Green Bulbul.

Eight males and five females were taken at Dreyi. These birds measure:

wing ^ 110=118, $109-114; culmen ^ 19-21*5, $18*5-20. A fresh series of

Nepal birds measures; wing 107-114, $ 104-5-107 ; culmen 17-18-5,

$17-17-5. Soft parts: iris reddish brown ; bill black; legs blackish brown.

A juvenal males was taken January 2.

Compared to topotypical Nepal birds, these specimens not only are slightly

larger, but also have darker, more pronounced tips to the feathers of the crown

and darker shading on the crest feathers. The white shaft streaks tend to be

somewhat narrowed on the back, and margined with darker olive green. The

blackish shading on the tail is more intense. Below, the blackish shading on

the breast feathers is darker and heavier and is carried farther down onto the

abdomen.

Quite common from about 3500 ft, elevation up. Flocks of 6-15 birds

1 follow-my-leader ’ from tree to tree. Typical bulbul call-notes, but easily

distinguished from those of P. jocosa or P. cafer.

Pycnonotus dispar flaviventris (Tickell) : Black-crested Yellow Bulbul.

A male was taken at Tezu and the species was noted at Sadiya. The wing

measurement is 94 and the iris is listed as creamy-yellow.

Pycnonotus jocosus monticolus (McClelland) : Assam Red- whiskered Bulbul.

Six males and one female were collected at Sadiya, Tezu and Dening, They

measure : wing 89-95, $ 91.

Birds from northern Assam (Ma.rgherita and the Mishmi Hills), tend to be

darker, more saturated on the upper parts than typical emeria. This species is

very common in the Mishmis in suitable areas of clearings near villages. Flocks

of over one hundred were seen associated with P. cafer. Absent at elevation of

Dreyi (5,000 ft.)

Pycnonotus cafer bengalensis ^ burmanicus, Red-vented Bulbul.

Birds from Tura, Assam, the Patkoi Range and the Mishmi Hills seem

intermediate between bengalensis and burmanicus. They have black descending

onto the back of the neck and breast as in bengalensis , but broad pale edges

to the feathers as in burmanicus. On the underparts the blackish shading

seems to be more extensive, as in bengalensis. This species has not been re-

corded before from north of the Brahmaputra.

Equally common and abundant with P. jocosus at lower elevations. Absent

at Dreyi (5,000 ft.)

ClNCLIDAE

Cinclus paliasi dorjei Kinnear : Bhutan Brown Dipper.

A single Dipper was procured along the banks of the Tebang, a branch of

the Lohit River below Dening about 1400 ft. altitude. There was what seemed

to be a family group on this stream. Elsewhere the species was not seen.

This specimen which measures: wing 97"5, culmen 22*5,- seems to agree

well with Bhutan specimens in the British Museum collection.

33 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 48

Musicapidae

Subfamily Turdinae

Saxicola torquata przewalskii (Pleske) : Turkestan Bush-Chat.

A male taken at Sadiya by SA Nov. 26 belongs to this race. It measures ;

wing 71, culmen 15.

This is apparently an uncommon species, found in high grass and paddy

crops, seen occasionally as single birds. This subspecies has also been obtained

in the Abor Hills (Baker: Rec. Ind. Mus., VIII, pt. Ill, No. 19, 1913,

p. 276.)

Saxicola ferrea G. R. Gray : Dark-grey Bush-Chat.

Specimens were taken at Sadiya, Dening and Dreyi. Like the preceding

species these birds are uncommon but were usually noted in pairs, and SA notes

they tend to keep always in the same area day after day.

Enicurus schistaceus Hodgson: Slaty-backed Forktail.

Seen on every rocky torrential stream above 500 ft. Specimens were taken

at Tezu and Dening. They measure : wing 100, $ 96, 97. Soft parts : iris

brown ; bill black ; legs white, whitish gray.

Enicurus scouleri scouleri Vigors : Little Forktail.

The Little Forktail was found on the Tebang River and noted repeatedly on

small rocky streams near Dreyi. A female and one sex indet. have wing measure-

ment of 72'5, 76*5. This species may occur on much smaller streams than its

larger relatives, provided the forest overmantel is sparse and open.

Phoenicurus frontalis frontalis Vigors : Blue-fronted Redstart.

A male and a female taken at Dreyi measure: wing $ 88- 5, $ 84' 5. They

were found near open pasture in a damp swale.

Pnoenicurus auroreus leucopterus Blyth : Daurian Redstart.

Specimens were taken by SA at Sadiya and Tezu. The Daurian Redstart

was not a common bird and was seen very locally, haunting the same spot day

after day, in pairs.

Phoenicurus hodgsoni (Moore) : Hodgson’s Redstart.

A male and female of this Redstart were taken at Tezu. The female in the

field is much paler than the Blue-fronted Redstart.

Chaimarrhornis leucocephala (Vigors) : White-capped Redstart.

Three males of this striking species were taken at Paya, between Sadiya

and Tezu, and on the Tebang River below Dening. Their wing measurements

are 91, 97-5, 99. Birds were observed singly on the edges of large swift-

running rocky streams.

Rhyacornis fuliginosus fuliginosus (Vigors): Plumbeous Redstart.

The Plumbeous Redstart was taken at Tezu and on the Tebang River where

it was the most common of the Forktails or Redstarts. A male and two

females measure wing $ 74, $71 (2).

Calliope tschebaiewi Przewalski : Tibet Rubythroat.

A male with a wing measurement of 69 was taken by SA at Sadiya, Novem-

ber 27.

Tarsiger cyanurus rufilatus (Hodgson) : Red-flanked Bush-Robin.

A female with a wing measurement of 81 was taken at Dreyi on January 2.

This is a forest bird and this particular example was taken in a net.

Myiomela leucura (Hodgson). White-tailed Blue Robin.

Three males were collected at Dening and a female at Tezu. The males

measure : wing 89, 93 , 95, the female 89. Soft parts : male, iris brown, bill and

legs black ; female, iris brown, bill horn, legs brown.

Feeds on ground in undergrowth. Hops onto stems and branches when

disturbed.

THE BIRDS OF THE MISHMI HILLS

23

Copsychus satilaris saalaris (Linnaeus). Magpie-Robin.

A male was taken at Sadiya and the species was seen at Tezu. This is an

uncommon species in the area. Wing 97, bill (from forehead) 23.

Turdus afrogularis atrogularis Temminck : Black-throated Thrush.

The female was collected out on the open meadow at Dreyi oa January 3.

It measures : wing 136*5.

Zoothera dauma : Mountain-Thrush.

Seen at Dreyi on an open track in the forest.

Monticola solitaria pandoo (Sykes) : Indian Blue Rock-Thrush.

A male taken at Dening (December 26) measures : wing 111*5.

Myipohoneus caeruleus eugeuei Hume : Burmese Whistling-Thrush.

A male Whistling-Thrush taken at Dening on December 29 has no white tips

to the wing coverts. This is the first record for this Burmese race in Assam

although Mayr (Ibis, 1938, p. 294) notes that upper Chindwin specimens of

temminckii are approaching eugenei. Curiously, an Abor specimen, (Baker,

tom, cit., 1913, p. 2/8) is listed as characteristic temminckii. This bird mea-

sures : wing 172*5, tail 125, culmen 3T5.

This species, which was also seen at Dreyi, was very shy as always, keeping

to the forested scrub and only coming into the open along water-courses and

roadside clearings in the evening. It was not heard singing.

Subfamily Timaliinae

(For the order followed see Delacour, L’Oiseau, XV 1 , 1947, p. 22.).

Pellorneum ruficeps pectorale Godwin-Austen : Mishmi Spotted Babbler.

Three males and a female were collected at Tezu in December and January.

They measure : wing $ 74, 75, 76, $ 71 ; culmen $ 19, 20 (2), $ 18. Soft parts :

iris brown ; upper mandible horny brown, lower, yellow* at base, pale horn at

tip ; legs flesh. Deignan (Smith. Misc. Coll., 1947, 107, No. 14), has reviewed

the races of this species and made a number of nomenclatoral changes. This

subspecies is by all odds the darkest and most distinctive of the entire species

and nighlights the interesting tendency of the avian fauna in the Mishmi area

to be darker, more saturated in color than its adjacent relatives.

In early morning and at dusk this species was heard calling the plaintive

beat-you in its characteristic familiar way. Pairs were met in small clear-

ings on either side of the road north to Dening, in the dense evergreen forest,

hunting among the weeds and ground cover.

Pellorneum albiventre ignotum Hume : Assam Babbler.

Taken at Tezu. Two males have wing measurements of 59, 60, and one

culmen measurement of 15. This race has now been collected as far west as

Bhutan (see Ludlow and Kinnear, Ibis, 1937, p. 36), but the Chin Hills specimen

mentioned is probably true albiventre.

A skulker, the Assam Babbler behaves exactly like the Spotted Babbler, and

is found in much the same facies. It utters a sharp chick from time to time,

which betrays its presence in dense thickets of weeds , etc.

Malacocincla tickelli assamensis (Sharpe) : Austen’s Babbler.

A male taken at Dening (December 26) measures : wing 62, tail 51*5, culmen

16. Soft parts : iris reddish brown ; bill, upper mandible dark brown ; legs

brownish-gray.

This single specimen is slightly darker above and paler, less buffy below than

five specimens taken on the upper Chindwin.

Pomatorhinus montauus salimalii Ripley : Mishmi Slaty-headed Scimitar

Babbler.

Two males were taken at Sadiya and Tezu. They measure : wing 94, 97 ;

tail 95, 99*5 ; culmen 31, 33. Soft parts: iris pale red ; bill, upper mandible

black at base, yellow distally, lower yellow; legs brown, feet gray.

24

JOURNAL , BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY , Vol. 48

This race has a darker more blackish cap and rich dark black ear coverts

compared to schisticeps , and is darker rufescent and with darker wing coverts

and edges of the feathers of the wing than cryptanthus. In size this race is

roughly intermediate between schisticeps and cryptanthus.

The bird from Tezu was taken in a thick patch of underbrush on the edge of

a dry river bank. It was one of a flock of mixed Pomatorhinus and Gampsorhyn-

chus. The birds were silent but made an audible rustling noise as they worked

through the bushes. Only when I fired at one bird, did the whole flock, one

after another dart across the river into some thick bamboo scrub, making their

characteristic hollow rolling notes as they went. Their calls are almost identi-

cal with those of Pomatorhinus horsfieldi of peninsular India.

Pomatorhinus erythrogenys macclellandi Jerdcn : McClelland’s Scimitar Babbler.

A female collected at Sadiya measures: wing 87, tail 60, culmen 33' 5. Soft

parts: iris pale straw; bill horny-brown, darker at base ; legs and feet brown-

ish-flesh.

This bird called with squeaky alarm notes indistinguishable from those of

other Scimitar Babblers.

Pomatorhinus ochraceiceps stenorhynchus Blyth : Austen’s Scimitar Babbler.

Two males and a female taken at Dening belong to this race. They

measure : wing $ 90, 94, £ 85 ; culmen 37, £ 3T5. Soft parts : iris brownish-

gray (biscuit colour) ; bill orange, nares brown ; legs and feet yellowish-brown,

greenish-brown or olive.

The type locality of this subspecies is Sadiya, and as Dening is also north of

the river (the Lohit) and only forty miles east and slightly north of Sadiya I

presume that these specimens belong to the race stenorhynchus. If this be true

it is necessary to realign the ranges of this race and austeni. The race

stenorhynchus is paler below than austeni, more whitish on the breast and center

of the abdomen. It also tends to be smaller. Two from the upper

Chindwin agree with the Dening £ in size and color. They measure : wing

84, 86, culmen 31.5, 35. They are the birds discussed by Mayr (Ibis, 1938,

p. 287). The race austeni from Manipur, also occurs in the Naga Hills,

Margherita, and North Cachar1. These birds besides being darker below are

larger. A series from these localities measure: wing 84-92, (89' 1) culmen

31-36*5 (34*2). Five females from Myitkyina agree in color perfectly with the

specimens examined of stenorhynchiis but are larger: wing 88-91.5, culmen

34-38. As stenorhynchus was described on the basis of color not size, the

Myitkyina birds should be included in that paler race bearing in mind that they

probably represent an emergent separate population. The races of ochra-

ceiceps should be listed as follows :

Pomatorhinus ochraceiceps stenorhynchus

Range : Assam, Mishmi Hills ; Burma, Upper Chindwin, and Myitkyina.

P.o. austeni

Range: Assam, N. Cachar, Margherita, Naga Hills, Manipur ; probably

lower Chindwin area of Burma.

P.o. ochraceiceps

Range: Burma, Shan States, Karen Hills, Karenni ; Mountains of Tenas-

serim.

Frequent. In parties of 6 or 7 probing into flowers of forest trees for

nectar. In the distance this species presents a very slim and long-tailed profile.

Xiphirhynchus superciliaris intextus Ripley : Assam Slender-billed Scimitar

Babbler.

A single female, the type of this race, was taken January 6 at Dreyi in

low but very thick secondary scrub. It was caught alive in a bird net and

1 Stan ford and Ticehurst (Ibis, 1938, p. 100) were writing about two popula-

tions of the same race ( = austeni), apparently not realizing that the type locality

of stenorhynchus is far removed from the Naga Hills.

THE BIRDS OF THE MISHMI HILLS 25

no other specimens were seen. It measures: wing 77, tail 84; culmen 55.

Soft parts : iris red ; bill black ; legs slaty-brown ; feet bluish-gray, pads

yellow. The stomach contained a slightly viscous milky-white liquid. In

coloration, intextus from the Mishmi Hills and Manipur is paler than super-

ciliaris and darker, more richly colored than forresti.

Turdinus brevicaudatus striatus Blyth: Streaked Wren-Babbler.

A male was collected in a bamboo clump at Dening December 29. It

represents the first record of this species north of the Lohit arm of the

Brahmaputra. It measures : wing 59*5, culmen 16. Soft parts: iris brown;

bill dark brownish horn ; legs brownish flesh. Alarm note, a loud tsik.

This specimen agrees with birds from Margherita except that the dark

edges to the feathers are blackish rather than dark rufous-brown, and below

the flanks and spots on the breast are dark olive-brown rather than ochraceous

tawny. It would be difficult to say how much such changes are due to foxing,

Pnoepyga pusilla pusilla Hodgson: Brown Wren.

A female taken at Dening measures : wing 49, culmen 10*5. Soft parts: iris

dark brown ; bill, upper mandible blackish, lower grayish horn ; legs dark

brown.

This specimen was shot by SA in thick undergrowth. It has the same

restless acrobatic habits as Tesia. It flicks its wings frequently and nervously

like a willow- warbler, and makes a feeble tsik , tsik noise.

Spelaeornis badeigularis Ripley: Mishmi Wren.

A single adult female, the type, was collected at Dreyi in a bird net on

January 5. It measures: wing 48, tail 31, culmen 11*5. Soft parts: iris

brown, bill black, legs brown.

This is a shy skulking bird which probably occurs throughout the Hills

in a much larger area than at present known. Its nearest relative is Spelaeornis

caudatus from Darjeeling, Sikkim and Bhutan, from which it differs in having a

white chin, dark chestnut throat and widely barred breast, abdomen and under

paTts. In size it is about the same, but has noticeably shorter tail coverts. (See

coloured plate.)

Stachyris rufifrons ambigua (Harington) : Haringtoms Red-fronted Babbler.

Three males were collected at Sadiya and Dreyi. They measure : wing

54-56. Soft parts : iris brown, bill bluish horn; legs greenish yellow. Old

specimens fox and fade so rapidly that old material in collections is valueless

for comparison.

Common in small mixed flocks of babblers, creeping through undergrowth.

Stachyris chrysaea chrysaea Blyth : Nepal Golden headed Babbler.

Three males and a female taken at Dreyi measure : wing $ 51-56, $ 5l. This

was quite a common species in the mixed flocks of babblers, flycatchers and

warblers which swept at times through the substage in the dense forest about

Dreyi.

Stachyris pyrrhops : Red-billed Babbler.

Observed at Sadiya. Some of its whistling calls are reminiscent of an

iora’s.

Stachyris nigriceps nigriceps ^ spadix : Black-throated Babbler.

Three males and five females collected at Sadiya, Tezu, Dening and Dreyi

measure: wing 59-62. 5, £ 58-62. Soft parts: iris brown; bill, upper

mandible black, lower grayish horn ; legs dull greenish yellow.

Birds from the Mishmi Hiils are somewhat intermediate Letween nigriceps

which ranges from Nepal to the Miri Hills, and spadix from Cachar and the

Chin Hills (Mt. Victoria). In this case, the Mishmi Hills population does not

seem as close to birds from Margherita as happens in so many other species.

The ear coverts of these birds are brownish-fuscous, more brownish than

nigriceps , less pure brown than spadix and not rufous-brown as in coltarti.

Specimens of coltarti have been examined from Margherita (type locality),

Naga Hills (Mokokchung), and North Burma south to Bhamo.

26

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 43

These birds appeared at all altitudes in mixed hunting parties in dense

undergrowth. We found them associated with Stachyris rufifrons and Schoeni -

par us rufigularis.

Macronus gularis rubricapilla (Tickell) Yellow-breasted Babbler.

Two males and one sex indet. were taken at Sadiya and Dening. They

measure : wing <^55, 57, 0?55. These are richly colored examples.

The Yellow-breasted Babbler was not uncommon in flocks among the

canopy of foliage. Its habits are similar to Stachyris and other small babblers.

Timalia pileata bengalensis Godwin- Austen : Bengal Red-capped Babbler.

A male was collected at Sadiya November 27. It measures : wing 62

culmen 19. It is moulting wing and tail feathers.

Paradoxornis poliotis poliotis (Blyth) : Blyth’s Suthora.

A male, two females and one sex indet. were taken at Tezu and Dreyi.

This is an extension of range for this race which has not been previously

recorded from the Mishmi Hills north of the Brahmaputra.

Flocks of about thirty or more were seen fleetingly working through bamboo

clumps high up, with great rapidity. The birds literally flow after each other

in a constant undulating procession. Sometimes they may be seen, perched

together side by side on a branch, looking rather like miniature Munias at a

distance.

Paradoxornis ruficeps airosuperciliaris (Godwin-Austen) : Black-browed

Suthora.

A single male was collected at Dening. It has a wing measurement of 74.

Soft parts : iris reddish-brown ; bill pinkish-flesh ; legs and feet plumbeous.

Small parties of six to eight were seen hunting vigorously in bamboos

behaving rather like tits or Yellow-eyed Babblers.

Garrulax moniiiger badius Ripley : Mishmi Necklaced Laughing-Thrush.

A male, the type of the race, was taken at Tezu on January 11, and two

other males at Sadiya and Tezu. They measure : wing, 120, 123, 124*5, Soft

parts ; iris whitish-orange, orange-yellow ; bill biack, tip light gray ; legs light

gray.

These birds go about in flocks in exactly the same way as the next species.

They are somewhat shy, and usually silent and secretive if people are about.

However, once they fancy danger has passed, they utter a noisy chorus of

hollow-sounding musical whistles.

Garrulax pectoralis uropygialis Bonaparte : Mishmi Black-gorgetted Laughing-

Thrush.

Three males and two females were procured at Sadiya and Dening.

They measure : wing J 140 (2), 147 ; £ 140, 148 ; culmen 32, 34, 35*5,

£35, 35. Soft parts: iris reddish-brown ; bill, upper mandible' blackish-brown;

lower basally gray, distally brown ; legs slate gray ; ocular area yellowish*flesh.

Birds from Sikkim, Darjeeling, Bengal, Assam and North Burma tend as a

whole to be darker and richer on the upper and lower surfaces than do typical

Nepal birds. In most areas of this range the darker color shows an olive tint,

but in Margherita, the Patkoi Range and nearby North Burma on the Upper

Chindwin, and in one of the two specimens from the Mishmis there is a strong

dark rufous suffusion on the upper and lower parts. In such a variable species

in which individuals may have blackish or whitish ear coverts, and may vary

considerably in the width of the breast band and the depth of buff to rufous

color on the lower parts, I should hesitate to describe this rufous population

especially as there are individual variants among the Mishmi birds and among

the three Margherita specimens. Ticehurst points out (Ibis, 1938, p. 93), that

moniiiger and pectoralis tend to breakup into races in the same areas. In this

case pectoralis certainly shows exactly the same tendency as the preceeding

species.

The name uropygialis Bonaparte (1850) is available for this race, as Arakan

birds, called I melanotus Blyth (1843), are light colored and belong with

pectoralis pectoralis.

THE BIRDS OF THE MIS# Ml HILLS

27

Like moniliger , this Laughing- Thrush goes about in troops, now silent at

the approach of humans, now cackling and calling. They sit quite quietly in a

bush so that they cannot be seen, aad then if they must cross an open space,

they have a way of flowing, the whole flock gliding one after another in a

continuous streaming motion.

Garrulax striatus austeni (Oates) : Austen’s Striated Laughing-Thrush.

Birds from Dreyi and the Tidding Saddle measure : wing 143-148. Soft

parts: iris reddish brown; bill blackish brown; legs grayish brown. These

specimens were collected high up in original forest, and do not seem normally

to come down as low to or on the ground as other laughing-thrushes.

I would put these specimens in with austeni although the crown and back

are a bit darker, the coronal bands somewhat more prominent, and the bill

seems a bit larger. They approach cranbrooki in these respects and in fact

seem somewhat intermediate between the two.

Garrulax Ieucolophus Ieucolophus (Hardwicke) : Himalayan White-crested

Laughing- Thrush.

A single male was taken at Tezu. It measures: wing 132, culmen 28*5.

Soft parts : iris reddish-brown ,• bill black ; legs, feet and claws plumbeous.

Stuart Baker (1. c. 1913, is, p. 252), remarks that Mishmi birds exactly

resemble typical Ieucolophus.

The White-crested Laughing-Thrush was taken from a flock of about twelve

in dense bamboo jungle in company with G moniliger.

Garrulax ruficoills (Jardine and Selby) : Rufous-necked Laughing-Thrush.

Males and females taken near Sadiya measure: wing 98-100, Soft parts :

iris crimson, brown; eyelids yellow ; bill and legs dark brown. Flocks were

seen in rather open growth near clearings. This does not seem to be a bird of

dense forest.

Garrulax squamalus (Gould) : Blue-winged Laughing-Thrush.

A female taken at Dreyi measures: wing 98. Soft parts : iris white ; bill

dark brown ; legs brownish flesh. This is a real skulker, keeping close to the

ground in dense undergrowth. It has a thrush-like chuck call.

Garrulax subunicolor (?) subunicolor (Blyth) : Plain-coloured Laughing-

Thrush.

A single male of this laughing thrush was collected at Dreyi on Christmas

Day. It measures : wing 99, tail 120, culmen 20. Soft parts: iris straw; bill

blackish-brown; legs horny brown.

One of us (SA) found flocks of up to 20 quite common at the elevation of

Dreyi. A week later the other party could not find the species !

The question of whether to recognize the race griseata Rothschild is still an

open one. This specimen is darker more slaty on the crown, than Sikkim

or even Burma birds, but as Mayr (Ibis, 1941, p. 62) points out, these differences

could vary with age. I can find no significant difference in size between east

and west populations.

Garrulnx erythrocephalus Imprudens Ripley : Ripley’s Red-headed Laughing-

Thrush.

A single specimen of this race was taken near the Tidding Saddle above

Dreyi on January 6. It was in the open on a heap of freshly cut brush besides

the trail, presumably attracted there and away from its usual dense and thicketed

haunts by the small swarm of insects that had been drawn to the sap of the cut

brush stems. It has a wing measurement of 101*5. The soft parts were noted

as: iris brown, bill black ; legs brown.

This race is very close to nigrimentum , but considerably darker, more olive-

colored with a more orange-golden wash on the tail and wings. It is found in

the Miri, Dafla and Mishmi Hills.

Liocichla phoenicea pboeoicea (Gould) : Assam Crimson-winged Laughing-

Thrush.

A single male secured at Dreyi measures: wing 89, tail 92, culmen 18*5.

Soft parts: iris brown ; bill black; legs brown. The bird was skulking in a

28

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL JUST, SOCIETY, Vol. 48

dense thicket of secondary growth with another, possibly a mate, and was

flushed out and driven into a net by my Naga porters. It fluttered over the

ground and low roots and branches swiftly, half running, half flying, so that I

(R) had no chance to shoot at it. A second drive the next day trapped the

other bird in the same way, but she escaped from the net before I could grasp

her.

This specimen and others from theMiri and Dafla Hills in the British Museum

collection seem somewhat intermediate between phoenicea and bakeri , but are

closer to the former. Taken together they seem very slightly paler than the typical

race. The race bakeri has slightly different proportions than phoenicea. The tail

is longer. It approaches ripponi in this and in its paler colours and I do not,

therefore, agree with Delacour (l.c. p. 29) that the latter should be maintained

as a separate species.

Leiotbrix argentauris gertrudis Ripley; Mrs. Legendre’s Silver-eared Mesia.

Two males and a female of the Silver-eared Mesia were taken at Tezu and

Dening. They measure : wing g 75,79, $ 74*5 ; culmen $ 15 (2), £ .14-5. Soft

parts : bill, legs and feet yellow.

This race was named as being more yellowish on the nape and olive-greenish

on the back, less reddish on the throat and more olive on the flanks

than typical argentauris. It is a larger form than vernayi. The range

of this race appears to be the Mishmi Hills and northern Burma in the Myitkina

area and east across the Irrawaddy in the Triangle.

Pure flocks of 30 and more searching actively for insects amongst the

foliage of shrubs as well as up in forest canopy. Makes occasional flycatching

sallies in the air, but behaviour mostly tit-like. Clinging to sprigs in acrobatic

positions and peering under leaves. Hastily moving on from tree to tree. Very

shy: the troop diving into bushes or ‘flowing’ across to another tree in

disorderly folio w-my-leader fashion even when the observer is still a considerable

way off.

Pleruthius erythropterus (Vigors) : Red-winged Shrike-Babbler.

Two male shrike-babblers were collected at Tezu. They measure : wing 83,

84. Both these birds are more vinaceous on the flanks than western Hima-

layan birds and they also tend to be darker gray on the upper surface. Soft

parts : iris bluish gray, deep blue; bill, upper mandible black, lower plumbeous,

or grayish-blue; legs dark flesh, brownish-flesh.

Pteruthius melanotis melanotis Hodgson . Chestnut-throated Shrike-Babbler.

Two females of the little Chestnut-throated Shrike-Babbler were collected at

Tezu. They were in a large mixed flock of small birds high up in mixed trees,

partly Bombax sp. They measure : wing 56, 58, culmen 10*5, 11. Soft parts:

iris brown ; bill upper mandible dark slate, slaty ; lower gray, pale flesh ; legs

whitish-brown, pale fleshy-brown.

These two specimens have the moustachial streak dark cinnamon instead of

chestnut, and the lesser wing coverts cinnamon instead of buff. They are also

slightly darker above than specimens from Nepal and Sikkim.

Gampsorhynchus rutulus Blyth : White-headed Shrike-Babbler.

Two females were taken at Tezu and Dening and we saw several and shot

another unfortunately decapitating it. They always seemed to be associated

with Scimitar-babblers, usually in thick clumps often of bamboo. General

appearance, flight and behaviour reminiscent of the bulbuls. These specimens

have wing measurements of 97, 98. Soft parts : iris orange-straw ; bill

plumbeous, paler or lower mandible ; legs, feet and claws flesh.

Actinodura egertoni lewisi Ripley : Lewis’s Barwinged-Babbler.

A large series of this race was secured at Dreyi and on the Tidding Saddle.

In size they equal typical egertoni , but are darker than that race with pro-

nounced edging to the crest feathers, and without the barring on the tail found

in khasiana. Soft parts : iris slaty-gray to brownish-gray; bill upper mandible

horny-brown with a flesh colored tip, lower yellowish horn; legs brownish-flesh.

This species was one of the commonest seen above five thousand feet. It

hunts in flocks not associating with other species as other babblers do. General

habits very like laughing-thrushes. Call : a feeble cheep ,

THE BIRDS OF THE MISIIMl HILLS

* 9

Siva strigula yunnanensis Rothschild: Yunnan Stripe-throated Siva.

Five males and a female taken at Dreyi have wing measurements of 64-

63, $ 66. Soft parts : iris dark brown, bill dark brown, legs brownish -gray .

Securing these six specimens of the Stripe-throated Siva on the Tidding

Saddle above Dreyi, marks a considerable westward extension of range for this

subspecies which has only been recorded hitherto from Yunnan, the hills east of

Myitkina and the Chin Hills in Burma. For notes on this race see Mayr (Ibis,

1941, p. 86).

These birds were in mixed flocks of babblers working through thick bambod

clumps and bushes with great rapidity.

Siva cyanuroptera cyanuroptera Hodgson : Hodgson’s Blue-winged Siva.

One specimen (o?) with a wing measurement of 64 was taken at Deniiig.

The Blue-winged Siva was not otherwise observed, except this one flock

which was hunting ’through evergreen forest much like Mesias.

Yuhina flavicollis baileyi (Stuart Baker) : Mishmi Ixulus.

A pair of the Mishmi Ixulus was taken at Dreyi. They measure : wing

3 6’ 25, $ 63. Soft parts ; iris brown ; bill £ grayish-brown, 2 brown ; legs ^

yellowish-brown, $ brownish-yellow.

As these specimens differ considerably from the original description

C B.B.O.C. , 1914, xxxv, p. 17), it is worthwhile noting their appearance.

Stuart Baker describes baileyi as having the crown and upper parts ‘ paler ’

than flavicollis. In fact these birds have pronounced dark chocolaty-brown

crowns and crests. The back is tinted with dark olive and the nuchal collar is

rich orange-rufous. All of this makes these birds darker than flavicollis. In

addition I can see no significant differences in the color of the ear coverts of

specimens of this and the nominate race. Below, these birds are washed (exclu-

sive of the chin and throat) with rich creamy-buff.

Yuhina bakeri Rothschild : Baker’s Chestnut-headed Ixulus.

A male and four females taken on the Tidding Saddle above Dreyi

measure: wing 705, $67-69*5. Soft parts : iris brown, reddish-brown ; bill

black ; legs brown, pads yellow.

Compared with Darjeeling birds, these specimens seem somewhat more olive

colored on the back and with darker crowns. For comments on the species see

Mayr. (Ibis, 1941, p. 91).

These Chestnut-headed Ixulus were in flocks together and reminded one of

tits. They have a sharp single note.

Yuhina nigrimentum nigrimentum Blyth ; Black-chinned Yuhina.

A single female taken by SA at Dening measures : wing 59, tail 39*5,

culmen 14. Soft parts: iris hazel brown ; bill, upper mandible horny-brown,

lower and gape orange- red ; legs and feet orange- flesh.

This specimen was taken from a mixed flock of babblers. It hunts in the

canopy of trees as well as in the lower shrubs.

Yuhina xantholeuca xantholeuca (Hodgson) : White-bellied Herpornis.

A male taken at Dening measures : wing 66*5, culmen 15. Soft parts : iris

brown ; bill, upper mandible brown, lower whitish-gray ; legs whitish-grey.

This specimen was taken from a mixed flock of babblers in heavy jungle.

Alcippe cinerea (Blyth; : Dusky-green Tit- Babbler.

A large series was collected from Dreyi up to the Saddle. With Actinodura

this was the commonest of the babblers. This species formed the core of large

flocks of mixed babblers, Stachyris being the next most common. Fantail

flycatchers and sunbirds were also attracted into these associations.

Soft parts : iris brown ; bill, upper mandible horn, lower bluish-white ; legs

pale yellowish horn. In size these birds seem similar to Sikkim and the Darjeel-

ing specimens. Due to rapid fading, color is impossible to compare.

Alcippe castaoeiceps castaneiceps (Hodgson): Chestnut-headed Babbler.

A female from Tezu has a wing measurement of 55. Soft parts : iris brown ;

bill hcrny-brown, yellow at gonys; legs and feet brownish-yellow.

30

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol 48

Large restless flocks of this species were seen in bamboos and low thickets.

It behaves similarly to Suthora, hunting feverisly in the foliage the flocks,

moving quickly from tree to tree. It does not appear to be a mixer like many

other babblers.

Alcippe rufogularis rufogularis (Mandelli) : Red-throated Tit-Babbler.

Two males and two females were taken atjTezu and Sadiya in thick under-

brush, close to the ground. They are great skulkers creeping about through

the tangle of stems and betrayed only by their chipping call chree-chree .

Measurements : wing ^ 55*5, 57*5, £ 56, 57*7; tail $ 46, 49, £46, 47; culmen

c? 13, 13-5 £ 13, 14. Soft parts; iris brown; bill black; legs yellow.

Alcippe nipalensis cotnmoda Ripley : Mishrni Quaker Babbler.

Two males, two females and one sex indet. were taken at Tezu and Dening.

They measure: wing 57-61, tail 55-59, culmen 12-13*5. Soft parts; iris brown;

bill, upper mandible basally brown, distally gray, lower mandible light gray;

legs yellowish-brown.

These birds have shorter tails in proportion to the length of the wing than

true nipalensis , and they are darker in plumage also.

Heterophasia pulchella coeruleotincta (Rothschild) : Beautiful Blue-gray Sibia.

Four males and a female of this lovely Sibia were collected at Dreyi and

on the Tidding Saddle. They measure : w ing 110-115, £.100; tail 113-118, £

108. Soft parts : iris brown; bill black;' legs [brown.

These birds were high up in the canopy of the original tforest 'trees. No

songs were heard, but they were noted feeding, moving about slowly on the

outer branches. This is the first record for this Yunnan and north Burma

subspecies in India.

Heterophasia picaoides : Long-tailed Sibia.

Flocks of these distinctive birds were noted at Dreyi and Dening and on the

trail, but resisted efforts at collection. They have a rich whistling call of thrush

quality, six notes ending in ivheet-whee reminiscent in cadence of Alappe

poiocephala , but much louder.

Subfamily Sylviinae

Orthotomus sutorius luteus Ripley: Mishrni Tailor-bird.

Specimens taken at Sadiya, Tezu and Dening have wing measurements from

43-48*5. Soft parts iris pale brown; bill dark brown; legs flesh-colored.

This race is somewhat more rufous-buff below than patia and the crown and

nape are darker, the forehead richer rufous, than that subspecies.

These birds occurred wherever there were suitable patches of scrub near

habitations. SA noted their voice and calls to be strikingly different from that

of the Indian race guzerata from, say,]the Bombay neighbourhood.

Prinia gracilis: Franklin’s Wren- Warbler.

Seen at Sadiya,

Megalurus palustris Horsfield : Marsh Warbler.

A pair of these warblers {£%) were collected at Sadiya. Wing 85-95 ; culmen

19-21 .

Common in tall grass and scrub on overgrown cultivation clearings in forest.

Solitary and parochial habits. Usually shy and wild. Call : a drawn-out rather

subdued whistleending in aloud, percussive wheeeChoo.

Phylloscopus affinis (Tickell) : Tickell’s Willowy-Warbler.

This species was collected at Sadiya. Wing of one specimen, sex undeter-

mined. measures 60.

Phylloscopus maculipennis maculipennis (Blyth) : Gray-faced Willow- Warbier.

A male and two females taken at Dening in late December, measure: wing

j 50, £ 49, 49*5. Soft parts ; iris brown: bill black ; legs $ brownish-yellow,

£ brownish-gray.

THE BIRDS OF THE MISHMI HILLS

3i

Phylloscopus magnirostris Blyth : Large-billed Willow-Warbler.

The diagnostic Whee-chi ? call was frequently heard atTezu between 10 and

18 December.

Phylloscopus proregulus chloronotus (Gray): Himalayan Yellow-r limped Willow-

Warbler.

A male and female were collected at Tezu and Dening in late December and

January. They measure : wing <^59, ^51'5. Soft parts: iris brown ; bill

£ dark brown. $ black ; legs $ dark brown, $ greenish-yellow.

Phylloscopus trochiloides : Green (or Greenish ?) Willow-Warbler.

The characteristic chi-voee call of either nitidus or viridanus was heard

at Sadiya between November 19 and December 2.

Phylloscopus reguloides assamensis Hartert : White-tailed Willow-Warbler.

A male was taken at Sadiya on December 2. It has a wing measurement

of 56.

Seicercus xanthoschistos pulla Ripley : Mishmi Gray-headed Flycatcher

Warbler.

Two females and one sex indet. with wing measurement of 50, 50, 51 were

taken of this darker, more slaty-colored race at Sadiya and Dening. Soft

parts : bill, upper mandible dark brown, lower orange-yellow, yellow-ochre ;

legs grayish-brown, yellowish-gray. SA noted the call to be easily distinguish-

able from that of the West Himalayan albosuperciliaris.

In the original description of this form (Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash., 61, 1948,

p. 106), the subspecies tephrodiras Sick (Orn. Monat. 47, 1939, p. 78), was

not mentioned. This form was described from Mt. Victoria, Chin Hills. This

was an oversight and it should be explained that pulla from the Mishmi Hills is

darker than a series of topotypical tephrodiras , not only in the upper parts, but

also in the presence on the flanks and thighs of a dark olive wash, 'ihe range

of pulla as given in the original description should thus be emended to exclude

the Chin Hills, as well as the Khasia Hills and Cachar which fit in better with

tephrodiras . The range of pulla is hereby restricted to the Mishmi Hills,

Lakhimpur and northern Burma.

Seicercus poliogenys Blyth : Grey-cheeked Flycatcher-Warbler.

Three males were collected at Dening and Dreyi. They measure : wing

51,55. Soft parts: iris brown ; bill, upper mandible black, lower horn ; legs

yellow, feet brownish-yellow.

Abroscopus superciliaris drasticus Deignan : Margherita Yellow-bellied Fly-

catcher-Warbler.

Specimens were collected at Sadiya, Tezu and Dening. Soft parts : iris

brown, bill black, lower mandible dark gray ; legs whitish flesh, yellowish flesh.

These specimens are slightly darker than birds from Margherita (type locality

of drasticus) following the dominant speciation trend of the area.

Abroscopus albogularis albogularis (Moore) : White-throated Flycatcher-

Warbler.

A single specimen, sex undetermined, was taken at Dening on Christmas

Day. It has a wing measurement of 44'\5. Soft parts : iris brown ; bill, upper

mandible brown, lower light grayish-flesh ; legs yellowish-brown.

Cettia pallidipes pallidipes (Blanford) : Blanford’s or Sikkim Bush-Warbler.

One specimen, sex undetermined was collected at Tezu. It has a wing

measurement of 47 mm. Skulks in dense evergreen undergrowth.

Tesia olivla (McClelland) : Slaty- ellied Wren.

A male and female taken at Dening on the 29th and 30th of December,

measure : wing g 50*5, $ 47, culmen 13, $ 13. Soft parts : iris brown ; bill,

upper mandible blackish, lower orange, yellowish towards tip ; legs and feet

brown, pads olive-yellow. This male is darker below than any other specimen

examined.

32

JOURNAL , BOMBA Y NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 4S

Ludlow and Kinnear (Ibis, 1937, p. 25 1) have discussed this species and

cyaniventer comprehensively. The above specimens belong to the dark, lower

altitude species, and were taken in underbrush at the edge of thick forest at

about 2,000 feet altitude.

These little birds keep near the ground and are extremely restless*

never still. They have an amusing habit of jumping back and forth

along the same branch looking like a clockwork toy. Like other small wren-like

birds, Pnoepyga for instance, they have a habit of clapping their wings up over

their back. They have a most distinctive call, tchirik-tchirik apparently

not an a^rm note.

Tesia castaneocoronata (Burton) ; Chestnut-headed Wren.

A single female taken at Dreyi in thick forest measures : wing 50, culrrten

12*5. Soft parts : iris brown ; bill, upper mandible black, lower yellowish-

horn at tip legs greenish-yellow.

Kinnear (Ibis, 1937, p. 261) gives measurements for Yunnan birds (wing

51-55 mm.) and Shan States birds (wing 52-56 mm.). A male from Yunnan in

the American Museum collection has a wing measurement of 57. Tonkin birds

measure from 47-56. In contrast to this 24 specimens from Rampur through

Nepal to Assam, the Chin Hills and North Burma measure from 45-50‘5 (48*2).

Based on average size alcne, I (R) would recognize abadiei Delacour and

Jabouille and include the Shan States and S.W. Yunnan in its range.

Delacour (Ibis, 1942, p. 515), has proposed tbe new genus, Chorolesia for

this species based on the characters of longer rectrices, narrower, less flattened

bill, and conspicuously different color pattern. Following that author’s later

arrangements of other families or subfamilies, Estrildinae and Pycnonotidae ,

(Zoologica, 28, 1943), and JNectariniidae (Zoologica, 29, 1944) in which he sets

up large aggregates of species grouped in subgenera, and considering the rela-

tive value of the characters involved, I should be inclined to make Chorotesia

a subgenus, in Delacour’s sense of the term, using it to describe an aggregate

(in this case monotypic) differing from another aggregate at a level somewhat

higher than the specific one.

These birds are shy and elusive but not quite as difficult to see as the

preceding species. They have a chattering squirrel-or wren-like call.

Phyllefgates coronatus eoronatus (Jerdon) : Golden-headed Warbler.

A male taken at Denir.g has a wing measurement of 48. Culmen 165.

General appearance and behaviour very like Orthotomus sutorius.

Subfamily Muscicapinae

Chelidofynx hypoxanthum (Blyth) : Yellow-bellied Flycatcher.

Nine specimens were collected at Sadiya, Tezu, Dening and Dreyi. They

measure : wing 54-58. Soft parts : iris dark brown ; bill, upper mandible dark

brown, lower yellowish-brown ; legs brown.

Fans and cocks tail and pirouets like miniature Rhipidura. Utters feeble

tsi tsi note like PhylloscoPus. Flycatches at all heights from low brushwood

to canopy of tall trees, 100 ft. or more from ground.

Rhipidura albicollis albicollis (Vieillot) : White-throated Fantail Flycatcher.

Seven specimens of this dark fantail flycatcher were taken at Tezu and

Dening. They measure: wing 79, 80. Five of the birds are of the year and

have not entirely lost their juvenal wing feathers, although the rest of the

plumage seems to be adult in character.

The species was also n ted at Sadiya and Dreyi.

Culicicapa ceylonensis : Grey-headed Flycatcher.

Seen at Sadiya but not collected.

Niltava grandis grandis (Blyth) : Large Niltava.

Two males and a female were collected at Dreyi in bird nets. These

Niltavas apparently fly and skulk along close to the ground. They measure:

wing 107*5, 111, $ 97. Two North Burma females and this specimen have

rather paler blue neck patches than Sikkim or Cachar or Chin Hills birds.

They are also more olive, less rufescent in tone.

THE BIRDS OF THE MIS H Ml HILLS

33

Niltava macgrigoriae (Burton) : Small Niltava.

Three males and two females collected at Sadiya and Dening measure :

wing 63.5-64.5, $ 63.5, 64.

Niltava sundara sundara Hodgson : Indian Rufous-bellied Niltava.

Four males and a female taken at Sadiya, Tezu and Dening measure;

wing 79-85. The orange-chestnut on the underparts of the males is very bright

and rich in color.

Muscicapa parva ssp. : Red-breasted Flycatcher.

One seen at Sadiya.

Muscicapa unicoldr uuicolor (Blyth) : Pale Blue Flycatcher;

Two males and a female taken at Tezu and Dening measure : wing 82.5,

«3, $ 76. Soft parts: iris dark brown; bill black, base of lower mandible gray;

legs dark brown.

Muscicapa hyperythra hyperythra Blyth: Rufous-breasted Blue Flycatcher.

Two males collected at Dening measure: wing 60, 62.

Muscicapa solitaris leucops (Sharpe) : Sharpe’s White-gorgetted Flycatcher.

A female taken at Dreyi has a wing measurement of 61.

Muscicapa melanoleuca melanoleuca (Hodgson) : Indian Little Pied Flycatcher.

A female with a wing measurement of 55 was taken at Sadiya. Except for

its smaller size, the £ of this species is superficially a good replica of Alseonax

ruficaudus.

Muscicapa thalassina thalassina Swainson : Verditer Flycatcher.

A male collected at Sadiya measures : wing 80, tail 63, culmen 14. The

species was also noted at Tezu.

Muscicapa strophiata strophiata (Hodgson) : Orange-gorget ted Flycatcher.

Four males and a probable female (sexed as a male) were collected at

Dening and Dreyi. One of these males is probably a young bird. The orange

gorget is less well-developed and the wing is 10mm. shorter than the others.

The rest of the plumage is identical.

Paridae

Parus major uipalensis Hodgson : Grey Tit.

A male of this species taken at Sadiya has a rather small wing measurement

of 65.

Parus spilonolus : Black-spotted yellow Tit.

Noted at Dreyi.

Aegithaliscus sp.

A quick-moving flock was seen briefly one day at Dreyi.

Melanochlora sultanea sultanea (Hodgson) : Sultan Tit.

Three males and a female taken at Sadiya and Tezu measure : wing

i 03-108, culmen 16-17. Some specimens are moulting on the body in December.

It was seen in small parties, and its peculiar hovering flight from branch to

branch is reminiscent of an iora’s parachuting display. It makes a rather nasal

short chick note, while hunting amongst the foliage of tall trees.

Sittidae

Sitta castanea cinaamoveutris Blyth: Cinnamon- bellied Nuthatch.

A male collected at Tezu measures : wing 84, culmen 21.5. The very heavy

bill of this race as compared with castanea or prateri is an outstanding feature.

3

% JOURNAL, BOMBAY- NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

Sitta himalayensis Jardine and Selby: White-tailed Nuthatch.

A male taken at Dreyi has a wing measurement of 76. Soft parts : iris

brown ; bill, upper mandible black, lower bluish-white basally, black distally;

legs olive brown. This bird was near the crest of the Tidding Saddle at

6,000 ft.

Li Sitta for mosa Blyth : Beautiful Nuthatch.

Two females shot above Dreyi measure: wing 98, 99.5, culmen 20, 21.5. In

color they appear very slightly paler below than a single bird, sex undeter-

mined, in the collection of the American Museum from Sikkim. This appears

to be the first record of this lovely nuthatch east of Sikkim. The birds formed

part of a small party of four or five in a tall tree.

f Dicaeidae

Dicaeutn ignipectus ignipectus (Blyth) : Fire-breasted Flowerpecker.

A female taken at Dening has a wing measurement 48. 5. The species was

noted also at Dreyi.

Dicaeum concolor olivaceum Walden : Plain-coloured Flowerpecker.

A female taken at Tezu has a wing measurement of 44. 5.

Nectariniidae

Aethopyga nipalensis koelzi Ripley : Koelz’s Yellow-backed Sunbird.

- Six males and two females were collected at Dreyi. They measure : wing

^ 54.. 5-55. 5, $ 50, 50.5; tail 58-63. 5, $ 41, 46; culmen 22-23, $ 21. Soft

parts : iris brown ; bill and legs black, sacs yellowish- white.

Tbese birds were active in wild banana and plaintain clumps in open scrub.

Once or twice they were seen associated with mixed babbler flocks.

Aethopyga saturata saturata (Hodgson) : Black-breasted Sunbird.

A male and two females were collected at Dening and the species was seen

at Sadiya. These specimens measure: wing $ 53, $ 47, 49 : tail g 63, $ 31, 5,

.35. 5 ; culmen <^25, £19.5, 20. The male shows head moult in December.

Zosteropidae

Zosterops palpebrosa palpebrosa (Temmmck & Schlegel) : Indian White-eye.

A female collected at Sadiya measures : wing 52, culm. 12.5. It is quite

greenish on the upper parts. The species was also seen at Dening. Flocks

frequently in association with Stachyris chrysea and other small babblers in

canopy foliage.

Meliphagidae

Arachnothera magfla raagna (Hodgson) : Indian Streaked Spider-Hunter.

Specimens were taken at Sadiya and Dening and the species was noted at

Tezu. These birds measure : wing $ 88-93.5, £ 79.5, 84 ; culmen $ 40-45, £

38.5 i 39. Soft parts: iris iris brown; bill black ; horny-brown, orange along

lower tomiumj legs yellowish-orange, chrome-yellow.

This large Spider-hunter was collected in thick forest often quite high up

and often associated in mixed feeding flocks of babblers, warblers, and other

small birds. Inseparable from wild banana plants, and evidently an important

cross-pollinator of their blossoms. Utters a sharp Kikikik reminiscent of the

Striped Squirrel.

FringillIdae

Carpodacus erythrinus ; Rosefinch .

A solo bird was noted at Tezu.

Passer montanus hepaticus Ripley : Mishmi Tree-Sparrow.

Birds were collected at Tezu and the species was also noted at Dening in the

eavqs of the rest house. The male specimens measure: wing 68-71 ; tail 50-54;

culmen 1T5-12. This is a very dark race with a purplish-brown, almost liver-

colored head arid considerable brownish wash on the underparts.

THE BIRDS OF THE MTSHMI HILLS

is

Though freely occupying the thatch of outhouses, and space between ceiling

and corrugated iron roofs of bungalows, it does not seem to enter tenanted

rooms like the House Sparrow. Has the typical sparrow chirp, but pleasanter

and more musical.

Emberiza pusilla Pallas ; Little Bunting.

A pair of these pleasant little Buntings (which in America would be called

Sparrows ”) was taken in an open upland meadow at Dreyi.

Emberiza aureola : Yellow-breasted Bunting.

Noted at Sadiya, about standing paddy crops.

Ploceidae

PloCeus sp. ?

Large flocks — literally thousands— in company with Lonchura f . rttbrd-

nigra , seen at Sadiya on ripening paddy crops in forest clearing girt by sea of tall

grass. Excessively wary and impossible to approach within shotgun range.

Eouchura ferrugisosa rubronigra (Hodgson) : Northern Chestnut-bellied Muhia.

A male with a wing measurement of 55, in body moult was taken at Sadiya

in late November.

Sturnidae

Saroglossa spiloptera : Spotted-Winged Stare.

Seen at Deopani near Sadiya.

Sturnus malabaricus malabaricus (Gmelin) : Grey-headed Myna.

Birds were taken at Tezu and the species was seen at Sadiya. A pair from

TezU measure: wing $ 103, culmen 21; <j> W 105, culmen 20.5. Iris pale gray.

Northern Assam specimens tend to be darker above and below than birds

from farther south and west.

One pair observed at Tezu had heads as white as in blythii of S-W India.

Sturuus contra contra Linnaeus : Indian Pied Myna.

Taken at Sadiya and Tezu. Lakhirapiir and Mishmi birds have a tendency

to reduced pale streaklets on the hind neck, and a somewhat darker tone below,

measure wing 118-124, culmen 32-35 mm.

Along with Pycnonotus cafer and Pycnonotus jocosus, perhaps the common^

est and most abundant bird species in the Sadiya neighbourhood.

Acridotheres trlstis tristis (Linnaeus) : Common Myna.

Taken at Sadiya in November, some specimens being welLgrown juveniles*

These North Assam birds are slightly darker iu tone of coloration than birds

from southern Assam and India.

Acridotheres (cristatellus) fuscus (Wagler) : Northern Jungle-Myna,

4 males of these Jungle Mynahs taken at Sadiya and Tezu have wing

measurements of 120-128. In tone of upper parts these birds appear slaty and

are slightly more saturated above and below than South and West Indian exam-

ples which have the upper parts distinctly brown in tint. Iris yellow.

Gracula religiosa : Grackle or Hill-Myna.

•Uncommon about Tezu, but increases in abundance above ca. 1,000 ft. eleva-

tion towards Dening.

Above Dening, on the Dreyi load, one day an enormous flock of these

mynahs numbering in the hundreds took wing all at the same time and came

down from a group of high trees far above the trail. They flew with fixed

wings over the trail and tne nearby clearings and descended into the jungle-

filled gorge below. The noise of their wings was astonishingly loud, a great

wishing roar. A Black Eagle which had been soaring slowly far out over the

salley at a great height was attracted instantly, presumably by the sight of the

36 JoVrnAl, bombAy Natural hist, society , Voi. 4s

flock and circled in from a quarter of a mile’s distance to the vicinity of the

trail almost as quickly as the flock made their descent. However, the birds

were safely ensconced in the trees below before the eagle could get within strik-

ing range.

Dicruridae

Dicrurus leucophaeus hopwoodi Stuart Baker : Assam Grey Drongo.

A male taken at Dening has a wing measurement of 150.5. The iris is

brownish-red. I am indebted to Dr. Vaurie for helping me identify these

drohgos (R).

Dicrurus aenea aenea Vieillot : Northern Bronzed Drongo.

The Bronzed Drongo was taken at Sadiya, Tezu, Dening and on the Dreyi

trail at 4,000 ft. These birds measure: wing £ 126.5, $ 120-125, 5.

Dicrurus retnifei* tectirostris (Hodgson) : Indian Lesser Racket-tailed Drongo

The Lesser Racket-tailed Drongo was collected at Sadiya, Tezu and Dening.

These specimens measure : wing g 133.5, £ 126-137.5 ; culmen 26, $ 24-26.

Has large repertoire of loud metallic musical calls like Dissemurus. Is also

a very good mimic.

Dicfurus hottentotus crishna (Gould) : Hair-crested Drongo.

A female was collected at Tezu. It is not fully adult and has a wing mea*

shrement of 157*5. Noted at Sadiya.

Dissemurus paradiseus graudis (Gould) ; Assam Large Racket-tailed Drongo.

At Tezu and Dening these birds were observed and collected, usually in the

very top of silk^cotton trees ( Bornbax)^ which were in flower in early January.

They measure : wing 169, 181* $ 161*5-181 ; bill from nostril 27, 28, $ 28 ;

(culmen, 3 $$ 41-42 mm.)

Irenidae

Irena puella sikkimensis Whistler & Kinnear : Sikkim Fairy Bluebird.

A male was collected at Tezu. It measures : wing 133, tail 95, culmen 29*5.

Iris claret.

Call ; a sharp peepit.

Oriolidae

Oriolus xanthornus xanthornus (Linnaeus) : Indian Black-headed Oriole.

Two first year male orioles were taken at Sadiya in November.

Oriolus traillii (Vigors) : Maroon Orioie.

Specimens including first year birds were collected at Tezu and Dening

where the species was quite common. Iris in adults old ivory ; in immature

brown.

Seen from below, against the sky, when flying into a lofty treetop, the bird

looks black with almost crimson tail.

Corvidae

CorVus niacrorbyuchus tibetosinensis Kleinschmidt & Weigold : Tibetan Jungle

Crow.

The Jungle Crow was seen and collected from Sadiya up to Dening. A male

and three females measure : wing £ 342, $ 297, 322, 345 ; tail £ 210, $ 186, 210 ;

culmen £ 71, $ 63, 65, 67. This species was not abundant, and when seen was

near clearings and habitation. They are apparently scavengers. The voice, as

i n Jungle Crows of Mussooree and other Himalayan stations, is hoarse and

raven-like.

THE BIRDS OF THE MISHM1 HULLS

37

Meinertzhagen (Novit. Zool. xxxiii, 1926, p. 83.) synonymizes tibetosinensis

as it is based on two specimens only. These two specimens were very large

(wing 375 $ 348, tail 260, $ 240.), but no culmen measurements are given.

Although these Assam specimens are not as large as the measurements of

tibetosinensis given above, and although they come within the range of inter-

medins, the Himalayan form which ranges from Afghanistan to Bhutan, their

large raven-like bills are totally unlike the latter form. Mayr (Ibis, 1940,

p. 694.), has shown that similar large birds occur in northern Burma. On com-

parison I find that the Mishmi and North Burma birds evidently represent the

same population of big, large-billed birds, and consequently I would place them

together in this race pending direct examination of the type and other specimens

of tibetosinensis from S. E. Tibet.

[The House Crow ( Corvus splendens) was absent at Sadiya and beyond in

the Lohit Valley.]

Kitta chinensis chinensis (Boddaert) : Green Magpie or Hunting Crow.

The Hunting Crow was seen at Tezu and collected near Dening in thick

bamboos. One specimen was pounced upon by a hawk and carried away

before one author’s eyes. The species is not easy to observe, as it prefers thick

tangles of vines and secondary growth. Its rich melodious calls usually

announce its presence.

Crypsirina formosae himalayensis (Blyth) : Himalayan Tree-Pie.

Specimens of this magpie taken at Dening seem slightly darker on the back

than usual himalayensis . Two females have wing measurements of 141, 142.

ASTANMAI

Ks jO 0V

BY

l ,?

*

Lieut. -Colonel R. S. P. Bates, m.b.o.u., i.a. (Retd.)

( With 4 plates)

Astanmarg, the Pasture of the Shrine, is the head of a miniature

vale beneath the south-eastern buttresses of Mt. Kolahoi. As

Himalayan valleys go, it is but a mere pin point, the .marg, even on

the one inch survey map, hardly large enough to contain its name.

Monstrous cliffs, clean cut as with a knife, rise almost sheer from

its northern rim, while on all sides it is dominated by screes and

precipitous slopes. Only to the west is there a passable outlet up

a curving snow slope on which in the past many ill-clad pilgrims

lost their lives before the Kashmir durbar forbade the use of this

treacherous short-cut from the holy cave of Amarnath.

To approach the marg it is necessary to circumvent a narrow

gorge which leaves the East Lidar’s valley at Tanin. The plea-

santest track mounts through fragrant pinewoods and glades behind

the camping ground ; glades where Orange Bullfinches drop to

the short-clipped grass to feed quietly on ripening seeds before re-

turning with soft call notes to the shelter of the young firs ; woods

in whose shade the trim yellow violets group themselves in neat

array. Some might argue that the Yellow Violet, Viola biflora

Linn., is too tidy a flower to be really beautiful. In comparison

with other blue or lilac members of the genus this may be so, but

wherever I have met with them, their orderly appearance has ap-

pealed to my military mind, their very similarity of form being

reminiscent of soldiers grouped here and there on the parade-ground

ready to fall-in for guard-mounting. Though not uncommon in the

Kashmir forests, penetrating upwards even into the juniper tracts,

they are seldom if ever to be met with below 8,000 ft. They appear,

however, to be equally distributed both in the Pir Panjal mountains

and on the main Himalayan Range, for we have encountered them

on the former at localities as wide apart as Killenmarg, the Marbal

Glen, and on the Margan Pass, and they are reputed to be common

in the Gulmarg woods.

Beyond the pines lies the bare Astanmarg Valley, a forbidding

debris-filled cleft some three or four miles long, a defile almost void

of trees and rising to its head over successive snowbeds which give

no inkling of the presence of the lovely meadow beyond them. The

reason for this is simple. The marg lies round an abrupt bend

beyond successive terraces of glacial origin which culminate in a

stupendous ancient moraine where torn birches have grown and died

in grotesque attitudes amongst the tumbled boulders. Yawning

cavities, large enough to hold houses, gape between these rocks,

each depression in itself a hidden bowl of flowers and the play-

ground of Ruby throats and Redstarts. Beyond the moraine lies a

verdant amphitheatre whose one-time lake has burst its way out

ASIAN MARG

3)9

to dwindle to a mere pond on whose gentian-starred surround are

seen the grazing buffaloes of a gujar’s herd, the summer and only

occupants of this superb meadow.

Unfortunately my wife and I arrived in this haven of peace in a

flurry of sleet, both with vile headaches and feeling slightly sick,

due undoubtedly to a too rapid ascent from the Vale. Even a touch

of mountain sickness has a depressing effect and we found ourselves

contemplating a retreat to Tanin and warmer altitudes. Thanks-

to a return of the sun and an enforced rest while we awaited the

arrival of tents and gear, the nausea passed and our spirits once

more returned to normal. It would indeed have been a tragedy to

have succumbed to so temporary an indisposition. This lapse did,

however, cause us to stop short as it were and place our camp,

before the treasures of the hidden marg had revealed themselves, in

the small depression where we had rested. This was on the second,

terrace, a spot where an iris-studded bank afforded protection front

the blast which often bore down from the snow-field to the west*

When the sun was up it was a delightful site, Trollius and a somewhat,

similar Adonis chrysocyathus stippling the ground with their golden

tufts all about us. This Himalayan Trollius, Trollius acaulis

Lindl., cannot compete with our English globe-flower, for the sepals

lie almost flat and so lack that cosy beauty of the curled-up butter-

pat blooms. The shaggy compact foliage of rich green is, however,

truly beautiful.

I had come to Astanmarg with a view to fracking down, certain

Rosefinches reputed to nest there, but the first week of July proved

too early. There were other birds to interest me of course, while

the flowers were sufficient to make any keen alpine gardener gasp

for breath. Hordes of Mountain-Finches, Fringilauda nemoricola

altaica (Eversm.), were about to nest. These ground-nesters still

cling to their colonial habits even in summer, yet their nests are

indeed hard to come by, for they may be two or more feet within

passages and cavities under large stones, the tortuous excavations

of voles undoubtedly supplying many pairs with their wants. As

might be expected of the contents of nests which never see the light

of day, the eggs are plain white, which somehow seems wrong for

a self-respecting finch, the members of whose family in general

lay such colourful and handsomely patterned eggs.

A bird whose presence at once caught my attention- was the

wild Central Asian Blackbird, Turdus merula maximus Seebohm.

Reports of its breeding in Kashmir are sketchy in the extreme, relat-

ing only to family parties already beyond the nest stage, so in ten

days to run to earth no less than three pairs I felt to be no mean

achievement. In point of fact this fine race of our typical blackbird

is by no means uncommon in the Western Himalayas, but it is a bird

of high altitudes nesting up to the permanent snowline and in summer

never descending below 11,000 ft. Its high habitat in a virtually tree-

less zone has imposed upon it very much the ways of the Ring Ouzel.

It is not in reality unduly shy, but since the open nature of its ground

seldom affords a covered approach, the bird usually takes to its heels*

some distance away, flying low between the boulders Soon to curve

out of sight down some concealing gully or behind a patch of juniper.

Harsh cackles frequently proclaim its disgust on being disturbed

4o JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

but at other times it is rather a silent bird, the song being poor and

infrequently indulged in. Though more often than not to be seen

perched upon nothing higher than a rock, one of my males had

selected as its singing-post the summit of a gaunt birch about 50

yards from its nest. This particular nest was amongst the. buttress

roots of another gnarled birch growing from the side of a steep

bank. The other two, however, were close up against large

boulders on nearly level ground, one of them barely concealed by

a couple of podophyllum plants, Podophyllum Emodi Wall., whose

large scarlet berry produces a drug much used in the medical pro-

fession, though not, I believe, employed by the Kashmiri in that

connection : rather strange since few of the many useful Himalayan

plants appear to have escaped the attention of the Kashmir ‘hakims’.

To quote, in fact, from Lawrence’s Valley oj Kashmir , ‘The native

physicians attribute some property to every plant, and when I have

made inquiries as to the various herbs which I have seen in the

Valley and on the hillsides, I am always told that they are hot and

good for cold humours, cold and good for hot humours, dry and

beneficial to damp humours, damp and beneficial to dry humours.’

The list of indigenous medicinal plants employable in the treatment

of both man and beast is indeed of such great length that, if multi-

plicity of available medicaments counts for anything, the hakims

are indeed favoured members of the brotherhood of healers. Have

they not specifics which cure anything from saddle sores to sword

wounds, snake bites and scurvy, and most internal complaints into

the bargain. In point of fact they are extremely ignorant and their

violent methods of alternate purges and starvation often turn minor

ailments into fatalities. But to hark back to the blackbirds. Two

of my nests contained naked young, three in the case of the nest

by the podophyllum plant, while on the date of discovery, July 1st,

the nest in the birch roots held three fresh eggs. This nest was

indistinguishable from that of a European Blackbird ; the other two

were much bigger. The eggs, in addition to being considerably

larger, were rather more boldly marked, one being reminiscent of

a Mistle Thrush’s egg with its bold blotches.

Our camping ground boasted of one isolated tree, about 20 feet

high, in the upper branches of which was a conspicuous stick nest.

Its interior of finer material was neat and tidy but showed no signs

of occupation. It may have belonged to a Buzzard, but I have

reason to believe that the owner was in all probability a Booted

Eagle, Hieraetus pennatus (Gmelin), which visited the tree twice

during our stay. In spite of the few published records of nests

within Indian limits, this small eagle is not uncommon in Kashmir ;

in fact, Mr. Osmaston goes so far as to exonerate in part the

Black-eared Kites of the Vale from the charges of chicken-

stealing levelled against them in favour of this other marauder.

Pipits were of course our near neighbours. Before long I

noticed a highly-marked individual collecting dry grass amongst

the iris and Trollius tufts around us. The heavy streaking of the

entire breast marked it out from Hodgson’s Pipit, Anthus roseatus

Hodgs., the bird depicted here, which has the centre of the vinous

breast immaculate, besides being the darkest of the family. Our

nest-maker was a Witherby’s Tree-Pipit, Anthus trivialis haringtoni

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate i

Photo by R. S. P. Bates

A male Blue-fronted Redstart about to feed a young Asiatic Cuckoo.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate ii

Photo by R. S. P. Bates

A Hume’s Willow-Warbler, well above its normal altitude, had built amongst

the juniper roots.

R. S* P. Bates

Photo by

A Hodgson’s Pipit leaving its nest,

ASIAN MARG 4I

Witherby, but unfortunately I failed to trace its building- site which

was somewhere in the rather marshy open ground below the terraces

at the foot of the snow slope.

It was down there that we first became acquainted with the

most beautiful of the many kinds of Corydalis to be found in various

parts of our domain. These included the extraordinary Corydalis

crassifolia Royle, with its whorl of overlapping, almost fleshy leaves

contrived to withstand the movements of the shifting stones of an

unstable habitat on steep screes. Its flowers too are rather coarse

and overcrowded though remarkable in being amethyst-purple in

colour. Our dainty Corydalis of the flats was Corydalis cashmeriana

Royle, whose delicate long-spurred flowers are a lovely cobalt blue

with dark blue tips.

The morning after our arrival I made for the shattered moraine,

as I soon dubbed it. It was on my way that I observed the Hodg-

son’s Pipit tripping purposefully from the direction of a cavity under

a stone in the bank of a little dry water-course. Further on, within

a circle of birches just short of the moraine, I espied a warbler

on its way to a nest in the roots of a small patch of juniper. To

my surprise its underparts were pale in comparison with the deep

yellow underparts of Tickell’s Willow-Warbler, the only member

of this group usually found at such high altitudes. Besides, it

possessed a coronal streak and wing-bars in addition to the super-

cilia, so proclaiming it to be Hume’s Willow-Warbler, Phylloscopus

inornatus humei (Brooks). The nest readily confirmed this diagnosis,

for the eggs were well-spotted with red-brown. It was also sunk

deep into the juniper’s roots, whereas the untidy grass dome of

Tickell’s Willow-Warbler, Phylloscopus affinis (Tickell), which is

always snugly lined with feathers, is built off the ground, frequently

rather conspicuously placed two feet or so up on the outer rim of

its bush. The eggs in the case of this bird are but sparingly marked

with minute freckles and frequently but one egg of a clutch shows

any markings at all. Hume’s Willow-Warbler is happier at much

lower levels, preferring sunny glades in mixed forests where it

occurs in large numbers between 7,000 ft. and 10,000 ft., being in

fact the next commonest of the Phylloscopi to the Large Crowned

Willow-Warbler. As I had the hiding-tent with me, we straightway

erected it and retired to one of the hollows to give the bird time to

get used to it.

Lying in the sun on the warm short turf, I lazily remarked to

my wife that we seemed to be causing a female Rubythroat, Calliope

pectoralis pectoralis Gould, considerable anxiety, for she kept

appearing on the boulders first to one side of us, then to the other.

Suddenly I caught sight of her not a yard from my right elbow.

Unfortunately I sat up the better to look around and in so doing

put my hand on a small weed. The damage was done ! A little

dome of grass flattened under the pressure and two faintly marked

blue-green eggs spread their sticky yolks about my palm. Never have

I seen a nest of this bird in quite so open and unprotected a spot.

Generally the base of the nest is well let into a tuft of rank herbage

or roots of a bush, most frequently well back from the outer edge

of a juniper patch. The dome completes about three-quarters of the

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

sphere, the opening- being little if any above the general level of

the half-buried roots. Undomed nests have also been reported, but

such open cup-shaped affairs have never fallen to my lot and I

cannot help feeling that these reports have for some reason or other

been inaccurate.

The Willow- Warbler proved so amenable that an hour in the

hide sufficed for the exposing of all the plates I felt I could then

spare. The rest of the afternoon was devoted to exploring the

moraine and to taking colour and monochrome photographs of its

amazing flora. The grass-covered surface of one immense sloping

boulder was entirely obscured by a tangle of the pale green thistle-

like leaves of the yellow-flowered Morina, Morina Coulteriana

Royle, its subtle perfume pervading the air for many yards around

it. Another rock was patchily quilted with Androsace of two dis-

tinctive kinds; the taller, A. sarmentosa Wall, with conspicuous

cushions from which sprang four to five inch stems crowned with

clusters of pale rose flowers; the other, the short stemmed A. micro •

phylla Hook. F., whose closely-packed stiff little rosettes gave it at

a distance the appearance of a saxifrage, this illusion being en-

hanced by the short scapes varying from but a quarter to an inch

in length. The flowers in this variety range from white to pink or

rose.

To complete a really happy day we gathered armfuls of pale

blue Columbines, to which on our way back to camp were added

numbers of the dark purple solitary-flowered Aquilegia jucimda Fisch.

& Mey., which were growing at Astanmarg in greater profusion

than we had seen them elsewhere.

The following morning I reverted to birds ’-nesting, returning

to the marsh where I had once seen Yellow-headed Wagtails. This

year they were entirely lacking. In fact, the only wagtails seen

were two pairs of Grey Wagtails, Motacilla cinerea caspica

(S.G.Gmelin), one of which owned a nest of two eggs tucked into

a Trollius plant. The clutch was incomplete and, though I waited

a couple of days before attempting photography, neither of the

birds would come before the lens. The absence of Hodgson’s

Yellow-headed Wagtail, Motacilla citreola calcarata Hodgson, was

a disappointment as I have never photographed this interesting

species at the nest. At times very large numbers breed in the Vale,

particularly on those marshes which are surrounded by wide ex-

panses of soft grass and thin reeds, many placing their nests in

real swampy patches so that the bases of the compact grass cups

are quite wet. As far as I can judge this bird’s numbers fluctuate

year by year to an extraordinary extent, it being occasionally diffi-

cult to trace any at all at Valley level. They have, however, a wide

distribution, breeding throughout the Western Himalayas up to

14,000 ft. and on well into Central Asia, so that any of the mountain

tarns providing the necessary marshy conditions are apt to produce

their quota. On the southern face of the watershed of the Great

Himalayan Range I have seen them in the wide amphitheatre near

the Yamhar Pass, near Sonamarg, at the source of the Lidar Valley

by Kolahoi, in the Wardwan Valley, and elsewhere at the higher

altitudes. The nest has also been taken at Lake Gangabal near the

glaciers of Haramoukh. Both sexes of this exceptionally hand-

ASTANMARG

43

some wagtail breed in large numbers in immature plumage, a pale

washed-out version of their full-dress, though the females never at

any time aspire to the £ame brilliance as their mates whose lemon-

yellow heads and breasts contrast so strikingly with their deep black

backs and dark wings.

Wagtails being non-co-operative, I turned my attention to the

Redstarts, the rather unfortunately named Kashmir Redstart,

Phoenicurus ochruros phoenicuroides (Hodgson & Moore), and its

Blue-fronted namesake. The great majority of the former species,

which winters in large numbers in the plains of North India, pass on

migration far beyond the Great Himalayan Range though round

about 11,000 ft. a modicum do pause to nest. The Blue-fronted

Redstart, Phoenicurus frontalis Vigors, is far the more numerous

of the two throughout Kashmir proper, and is found breeding quite

commonly in the Pir Panjal Mountains as well as throughout the

main range.

Two pairs of Kashmir Redstarts were undoubtedly nesting on

a rocky slope not far from our tents but their extreme caution

defeated us. For a time it appeared that but for the Central Asian

Blackbirds my visit to Astanmarg was going to add little new to

my picture gallery. Luckily, returning through the shattered

moraine, I espied a Blue-fronted Redstart with a grub in its bill. Its

interest appeared to be centred around a battered tree-stump about

four feet high. This species usually selects a hole in the ground or

in a wall but here was a nest in the top of this stump, its sole pro-

tection from above being a piece of rotting wood which formed

within the shell a kind of lean-to. The nest itself was of little

interest, a mere collection of bents and dried grass lined with a few

white roots, but its contents at once aroused my enthusiasm.

Entirely filling the cavity, in fact swamping the whole nest, was a

greedy young cuckoo, a young Asiatic Cuckoo, Cuculus canorus

telephomis Heine. Back to camp we went for the hide and by dusk

the tent was erected for use on the morrow, complete down to its

well-camouflaged dummy lens.

Around 12,000 ft, seems a high altitude for this villain amongst

birds to further its nefarious plots, but there were indeed two species

of cuckoo at Astanmarg, the Small Cuckoo, Cuculus poliocephalus

poliocephalus Latham, adding its cacophony of discordant noises to

the avian chorus, and that by night as well as by day. How strange

it is that these two cuckoos so alike in plumage — 1 must add a

third, the Himalayan Cuckoo, Cuculus optatus Gould — should have

such widely divergent voices and habits. The Small and Himalayan

Cuckoos are forest-loving birds, though the former occupies more

open ground than the Himalayan species which is to be found in

even the most dense pine woods and always in forest of some sort.

Astanmarg was consequently not to its liking, its limits ending

with the blue pines a couple of miles down the valley. The Asiatic

and Himalayan Cuckoos are as like as two peas in the field, that is

until they open their mouths, for the latter has the sonorous voice

of a hoopoe, except that it generally indulges in a four-fold repeti-

tion of the hoopoe’s ‘hud-hud.’ Of course, all these cuckoos

produce many other ‘noises-off’. Once in the gloom of a seem-

44

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

ingly untenated pine wood, I was thoroughly startled by the most

ghoulish groans, grunts and cackles, only to find that my discomfi-

ture was caused by a Himalayan Cuckoo some twenty feet above

my head.

The egg of the Small Cuckoo appears seldom to have been

taken in the Kashmir Himalayas, though why I cannot really

imagine. The bird is numerous ; its usual fosterers are well

known, and so are the two dissimilar types of eggs which it lays

at the extremes of its range. In Japan it victimizes warblers of

the genus Cettia almost exclusively, laying, to ensure their co-ope-

ration, a terracotta-red egg like their own. As we move west-

wards a white egg also appears so that in the Eastern Himalayas,

and as far west as Garhwal, eggs of both types are found in nests

of Bush and Willow-Warblers, and occasionally in nests of other

birds as well. In the Western Himalayas probably the white egg

alone is deposited. As it averages very slightly larger than that

of the Himalayan Cuckoo whose eggs are not infrequently plain white,

or so minutely and sparingly spotted as to be virtually so, this

may provide a clue to the problem, since both birds are likely to

aim at the same fosterer in preference to all others, namely the

Large Crowned Willow-Warbler. When we consider that the

Small Cuckoo is only two-thirds the size of the Himalayan Cuckoo,

the fact that it lays an egg of almost identical size may easily

result in confusion. The Pale Bush-Warbler, with its ‘deep

chestnut-chocolate eggs’ — to quote from the Fauna, though the

first one I saw I immediately likened to the colour of Cadbury’s

Mexican chocolate — , is exceedingly common in Kashmir between

6,000 and 8,000 ft. and might confidently be expected to attract the

deposition of the red egg of poliocephalus . Yet no one, not even

that keen observer Mr. B. B. Osmaston who has investigated

many Bush-Warblers’ nests, has ever chanced upon the combination,

But let us leave this mystery, which I hope will not defy solution

much longer, and hark back to the redstarts.

Once left to myself in the hide, I had less than quarter of an

hour in which to redistribute plate-holders, note-book, and other

odds and ends, not to mention limbs which somehow always seem

to be in the wrong places in spite of the most careful planning before

the dismissal of one’s helper. The female it was who first called

me to action, though the male was not far behind her in his efforts

to cope with the voracity of the young cuckoo. But just as we

were all settling down to high speed action, a mystifying lull

occurred. The plaintive danger-call was set up, soon to become

a continuous dirge. From peep-holes I espied the agitated red-

starts hovering around the area, first on one perch and then on

another, but never approaching within less than 15 yards of that

Brobdingnagian youngster. The monster must by now have been

enduring the pangs of hunger, for no longer was he being fed

every few moments. Whatever was the matter? I realised sud-

denly that 40 minutes had passed by since I had last released the

shutter, so decided to call up my helper. As I was on the point of

pushing out a corner of a handkerchief from the back of the hide

in the prearranged manner, the whole problem was suddenly

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate hi

Cortusa matthioli, a striking cerise flower burdened with a particularly ugly English

name, Bear’s-ear Sanicle.

Photo by

R, S. P. Bates

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc,

Plate iv

i

R. S. P. Bates

Androsace of two kinds grew cheek by jowl on the same rock, the tall A. sarmentosa,

shown here, and the small-leaved A. microphylla.

Asian marg

45

resolved. One hundred yards away on the topmost twig of a dead

tree I espied the motionless shape of a cuckoo, engaged no doubt

in a silent survey of the occupants useful to it in its territory ;

Could anything have been more ludicrous ! Here was a pair of

redstarts at pains to conceal their nest from this hated parasite,

when they were already harbouring one of its youngsters and

fostering it with the greatest zeal. Khalik Khan shooed her oft'

to pastures new and the old routine of rapid visits was started

afresh.

It took both birds all their time to keep that young cuckoo

supplied, though the male in his head-dress and coat of deep dull

blue which he wore over chestnut pants and chestnut tail with its

distinctive black tip to make identification easy, put in but half

as many journeys as his more conscientious wife. And she it was

who attended more strictly to nest sanitation, after almost every

feed hopping along the young giant’s back, whereupon without

further stimulation it automatically evacuated the faecal sack to be

seized at once and removed to a distance by the waiting parent.

As baggage ponies to take our gear down to Pahlgam had been

arranged for the following day, we decided to spend the last after-

noon amongst the flowers. We had intended to probe the marg’s

furthermost acres, but to our surprise and annoyance the lassitude

and shortness of breath of the first day had never worn off ; in

fact, rather had it increased. Our constitutions had definitely

rebelled at the too sudden rise in altitude. Perhaps all would have

been well had we spent even two nights at Tanin instead of one.

Nevertheless, the fact remains that that afternoon by the time we

had crossed the shattered moraine further progress held no attrac-

tions for us. Happily there was more than enough in the im-

mediate vicinity to fill our remaining hours. Once again a huge

boulder and the banks around it constituted a flower garden which

no human hands could ever have laid out more pleasingly. A

patch of smoky blue, protruding from a crevice at shoulder height,

warranted immediate investigation. Yes, it really was Eritrichium.

I have never seen Eritrichium nanum in its own setting, in its

way perhaps the most beautiful of all rock plants, that plant

which Reginald Farrar has described in such vivid prose in My

Rock Garden. One can picture the beauty of that scene : the

quite unimaginable blue massed on the sunlit slope. Perhaps

Eritrichium strictum Dene., our Astanmarg variety, never does ap-

pear in overpowering masses : I do not know, being no real

botanist. Indeed, I must confess that before my wife took me

in hand, I was evidently blind to the beauties of individual wild

flowers. When discussing plans for our first combined visit to

Kashmir, I had had to admit that I could not name a single flower

I had noted in the alpine meadows, although I had of course

brought away an impression of vivid colouring. An observer

trained along one line can apparently miss all else, for when at

length we crossed the Yamhar Pass on the same date in early

July as I had done some years previously, I found that in places

it was an impossibility to avoid trampling on flowers, so prolific

were they : Asters and Inulas as big as saucers, sheets of blue

Mertensia, and near the summit pads of the lovely purple Creep-

46 Journal , Bombay natural hist, so girt y , voi. 4s

ing Primrose. On the very crest were . the drooping yellow heads

of Cremanthodium Decaisne Clarke. Now, thanks to my wife’s

enthusiasm for all that is colourful and beautiful in the mountains,

my eye catches the gleam of an unexpected bloom nearly as quickly

as it picks out the movements of a bird. But were we not discuss-

ing Eritrichium?

Here at Astanmarg and at Sona Sar I have seen Eritrichium

flowing in occasional tufts from the cracks of massive rocks,

sites where in bright weather it received all the evening sun, and,

in rain and wind, protection of its rootstock from the jutting rock

above it. The smoky forget-me-not blue against the grey lichen-

spotted stone was so lovely that I used a colour-film upon it,

reserving the panchromatic plates for finds of lesser importance, an

action I regret since I now possess no negatives worthy of re-

production in monochrome.

To reach the Eritrichium, I found myself amongst a welter of

tall anemones. The flower-stalks were as much as two feet high

and bore many-flowered umbels of large white blooms between one

and two inches across. This was Anemone tetrasepala Royle, a

large-flowered species abundant in Kashmir between 7,000 and n,oco

or 12,000 ft. After dealing with this anemone I turned my atten-

tion to a huge birch between whose spreading buttresses I espied

the dainty purple flowers of Cortusa Mattkioli Linn. The hang-

ing funnel-shaped flowers remind one of the Bell-flowers* but Cor-

tusa, I gather, belongs to the Primrose family. Be that as it

may, it is a flower which exudes sufficient charm to turn the bases

of the bare rocks or the naked earth between some drab roots into

a real picture.

These are but. a few of the treasures of that little paradise

but space precludes a longer list. Suffice it to say that amongst

others I photographed the bluest of blue Gentians of whose identity

I am still uncertain. And last, but not least, under a ledge on

that self-same rock ten delicate flowers quivered in the breeze

looking as if every puff would blow away their frail petals of

delicate bluey-white. In spite of its apparent frailty, Paraquilegia

grandiflora Drum. •& Hutch., the Large-flowered Rock-Anemone,

occurs only at high elevations, from 11,000 ft. up to the snow-line.

Near Baltal, when taking shelter under a shelving cliff in the

wildest weather, I came across the blue-green tufts of feathery

leaves drooping sodden from its broken face. The fragile flowers

were hanging on their thin scapes face-downwards and bedrag-

gled. Yet hardly had the storm passed when they raised their

paper-like heads, unfolded the crumpled petals and soon looked as

fairy-like and ethereal as ever. Unfortunately I still lack that per-

fect photograph of Paraquilegia which I so desire. I had perforce

to leave the development of the plates I used on that memorable

day until we had reached our new camp, and when at length I

came to view the Rock-Anemone’s negative I experienced bitter

disappointment. More than half the plate was hopelessly fogged j

how, to this day I do not know.

MARINE FISHERIES OF KODINAR IN KATHIAWAR.

BY

T. V. R. Pill ay, b.sc.,

Assistant Director of Fisheries , Okha, Baroda State

( With a map, one sketch and two photographs )

(Communicated by Dr. S. T. Moses, m.a., d.sc., f.z.s., f.r.a.i.)

INTRODUCTION

A general survey of the fishing industry in Madhwar, one of

the fishery centres on the Kodinar coast, was first conducted by

Dotiwala in 1916 and in his report3 certain proposals were made

for its improvement. Hornell after studying the general position

of the industry in this area during his short visits in 1917 and

again in 1930 recommended a programme of fishery development

for the two ports of Madhwar and Kotda.1 2,3 In 1937 when a

Fishery department was started in the State with Dr. Moses as its

Director, more systematic surveys were possible and Moses pub-

lished a check list of fishes occurring in the State waters based on

collections he made from 1937-19394, a sizeable portion of which

was from the Kodinar area. As a result of studies and investi-

gations preliminary to the starting of the shark-liver oil scheme

and during its working a check list of Elasmobranchs was pub-

lished.5 An account of the fisheries of this coast was also included

by Moses in his article on ‘The Fisheries of the Gujarat Coast’6

and in the departmental bulletin7 ‘Baroda Fisheries’. These are

the only existing publications on the Fisheries of Kodinar. The

data collected, incidentally during investigations mostly industrial

were naturally incomplete and lie scattered in the various depart-

mental reports and notes. The author started his investigations

during the fishing season of 1946 with a view to gain as complete

a knowledge as possible of the local fisheries. The present paper

1 Bulletin No. 4. Dept, of Commerce and Industry, Baroda State (192 1)

Section I (1) ‘Report on the Fisheries at Madhwar and proposals for im-

provement’ by K. R. Dotiwala pp. 1-13.

2 ‘Report on the further development of the fishery resources of Baroda

State’ by James Hornell (1918).

8 Bulletin No. 30. Dept, of Commerce, Industries and Labour, Baroda

State (1930) ‘Report on the marine fisheries of Baroda State in 1930 with

suggestions for further developments’ by James Hornell.

4 Annual report of the Department of Fisheries, Baroda State, for the year

1937-38, pp. 16-20 and the year 1938-39, p. 16.

0 Annual report of the Department of Fisheries, Baroda State, for the year

1940-41, p. 23.

* Journal of the Gujarat Research SoOiety, Vol. IV, No. 2, April 1942,

‘The Fisheries of the Gujarat Coast’ by Dr. S. T. Moses, pp. 61-82.

7 Bulletin No. XI of 1947 of the Department of Fisheries, Baroda State,

‘Baroda Fisheries’ by Dr. S'. J. Moses.

48

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 4&

mainly embodies the results of these investigations and in its pre-

paration free use has been made of the departmental records con-

taining the data collected by previous workers.

Kodinar is a detached block of Baroda territory, 207 square

miles in area, situated in the southernmost end of Kathiawar in

the district of Amreli. It is bounded by the Junaghad State terri-

tory on the West, North and East and the Arabian sea on the

South. To the Southeast of Kodinar and separated from it only

by a creek is the island of Diu ( vide map). The land consists

generally of a level plain of fertile soil and is irrigated mainly by

the rivers Shingoda, Somat and Singavado.

The seas off Kodinar are characterised by regular and not too

strong winds and well protected ports. The three important

fishery ports of the area are Muldwaraka, Madhwad and Kotda.

Muldwaraka is a safe weather port situated between the mouths

of the Somat and the Shingoda about three miles from the town

of Kodinar. To the east of Muldwaraka and about eleven miles

southeast of Kodinar is the port of Madhwad. The nearest village

Velan is two miles from the port. Consisting of a fine bay, well

protected from the north and west, this port has fairly deep water

close into the central beach affording harbour for vessels of 200

khandies and for larger vessels at high tide. Experts are of opi-

nion that if a breakwater is built from the headland on the west

side to a rock some distance away in the mouth of the bay, the

resultant harbour will be far superior to any existing on the western

coast of Kathiawar. As it is, at low tide the vessels have to lie

off for more than two to three hours and this naturally results

in the deterioration of the catches. However Madhwad is the

most important port on this coast and during the season the major

portion of fish trade is concentrated here. About three miles to

the east of Madhwad is the port of Kotda. Located on the south

side of a wide creek dividing the Kodinar taluka from the island

of Diu, it is well sheltered and except when the tide is low there

is enough water to admit fishing boats even of the larger size.

Of late the accumulated silt has rendered passage of boats difficult

at low tide and there is a scheme to deepen the creek and ensure

that a floating basin is formed for the fishing boats to enter and

leave at all states of the tide.

All these ports are served by adjacent and open expansive areas

for the camping of fishermen and curing and drying of fish. The

fishing grounds lying within the io-fathom line are very rich and

famous and the extensive creeks afford good fishing during the

offseason. Despite all these natural advantages, the coast suffers

from a serious handicap in the paucity of local fishermen, except

for a few Machiaras of Kodinar who during the season camp in

Muldwaraka and do fishing in the adjoining seas.

FISHERMEN

Machiaras. — The local fishermen population, as mentioned

above, consists of a dozen families of Machiaras (Muslims) resi-

dent in Kodinar. During the fishing season which on the Mul-

dwaraka coast extends from September to the end of May or the

V\fO

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

dUOLU JAL IH OPERATION - 5 1 A o rsmM AT l C •

49

MARINE FISHERIES OF KODINAR IN KATHIAWAR

beginning- of June, they construct temporary huts in the vicinity of

the port and do fishing with drift nets. The social and economic con-

dition of these men is not very different from that of their brethren

elsewhere in India. The Bombay merchants or their agents who

also camp here during the season give them interest-free advances

under the agreement that their catch will be sold to them at fixed

rates for the season, only enough being retained for their own con-

sumption. The merchants procure for the fishermen such require-

ments as yarn, hemp, bark for tanning nets etc. The Machiaras own

their boats and tackle in use. During the season fishing is done

regularly except on Fridays which are observed as holidays.

Machis. — The Machis are Hindus and natives of Gujarat be-

longing to the villages of Daman, Meyi, Dungri, Umarsadi, Kalai,

Fansa, Maroli, Kolak etc. They camp in the ports of Kotda and

Madhwad during the fishing season which usually lasts from Octo-

ber to May and do fishing with bag nets. Forty to fifty boats

visit the ports annually in three to four instalments. The size of

the fleet is generally dependent on the availability of good fish

during the season. The Kotda camp extends from October to end

of January or beginning of February and about ten to twelve boats

land catches here. The Madhwad camp begins by about Novem-

ber and lasts till May or the beginning of June. A number of

Daman Machis also camp in the Portuguese village of Vanakbara

opposite Kotda and fish on the coast. Each boat has a crew of

nine and fishing is done on a co-operative basis. Each man brings

his net and his quota of equipment like floats etc. At a time eight

men go to sea leaving one man ashore to look after the drying of

nets and fish. The catches are shared equally by all the nine and

the owner of the boat who maintains the vessel in perfect sailing

order. The larger and valuable fishes in the catches are sold to

the camping merchants according to previous contract. For the

curing and drying of the cheaper and smaller varieties they engage

Koli women who are paid 10% of the product as wages. The

Machis observe ‘Agyaras’ i.e. the nth day of the lunar month as

a holiday.

Kharvas. — Unlike the Machiaras and Machis, the Kharvas who

are residents of the villages of Vanakbara and Goggila in Diu

island, do not camp in the Kodinar territory. They only do fish-

ing on its coast and land the catches at one of the three ports.

The Kharvas are Hindus and are expert fishermen and sailors,

venturing as far out as 20 miles or more into the sea in pursuit

of shoals of fish. More than 100 boats manned by Kharvas work

in the grounds, sharing the catches equally. The owner of the

boat who is usually one of the crew gets two shares. These fisher-

men receive advances from merchants and bind themselves to sell

their catches to them at scheduled rates for the season. The daily

earnings of these men are comparatively very high but the vice

of drink is so very prevalent that their general economic condition

is not at all sound. The Kharvas also, like the Machis observe

‘Agyaras’ as a holiday.

Trading in fish is open to all on the Kodinar coast but at pre-

sent the bulk of it is in the hands of three companies of outside

merchants.

4

5d JOURNAL , BOmMY A JATUkAL lilSt. SOcJETY, t?oL 4s

Fishing Craft

Muldwaraka Hodis. — The Machiaras of Kodinar operate drift

nets from ‘Hodis’ which are dugouts made of Malabar teak. They

are 22 to 26 feet long, 3 to 4 feet broad and 2 to 2\ feet deep.

The boats are strengthened by riblike projections on the inside ;

but in the old ones separate ribs are attached. Below the bow is

fitted a keel 5 to 6 feet long and 5 to 6 inches broad. The gunwale

is raised by means of a broad plank fastened to the boat using

split bamboo as a sort of protection to the joint all along (Photo-

graph 1). The stern which is a bit lower than the bow is fitted

with a bent rudder adapted to the shape of the boat and fitted on

by means of iron pintles and gudgeons. At the present rates a

hodi costs Rs. 500 to 700. The crew comprises of 3 to 4 men

and a boy. The boat is propelled by oars or when there is fa-

vourable wind on sails.

Gujarat Hodas . — They are clinker-built vessels having a burthen

of 10 to 20 tons. In prewar days a hoda used to cost Rs. 1,000

to 2,000 but now the rates are treble or even more. The bow

and the stern are decked leaving the central portion open for the

reception of the nets and catches. The crew consists of 7 to 8

men of whom one will be the tindal or the captain. During the

offseason these boats work as cargo vessels.

Vanakbara ‘Hodis’. — These are very similar to the Gujarat hodas

in construction and are of about 10 to 12 tons displacement. The

crew consists of a minimum of 5 to 7 men and they carry with

them a tender canoe to the fishing grounds to facilitate the operation

of the nets.

All these boats are seasonally painted with ‘Chopad’ (formerly

extracted from shark livers by allowing them to rot in tins, but

now obtained from the department as refuse left after the oil is

extracted) which acts as a good preservative.

Nets and Methods of Fishing

The Machiaras and Kharvas use the same type of nets, viz.

drift nets, mainly meant for the capture of Pomfrets and Hilsas

and their allies. The Kharvas also employ shark nets while the

Machis confine their operations to bag nets.

Vichuda Jal. — (Pomfret net) is a drift net made of twisted

cotton yarn. The number of pieces in each fleet of this net differs

with the capacity of the boat from which it is operated. Thus

at Madhwad 40 to 50 pieces form a fleet when operated from the

yanakbara hodis but at Muldwaraka the ‘hodis’ being smaller

only 20 pieces are shot at a time. Each piece is 60 fathoms long

and ij fathoms deep and the mesh measures 3" to 3%”. There

is a head rope about thick, passing along the upper margin

of each piece. To this is tied 6 ft. aparf pieces of wooden planks

cut in rectangular or square shapes. They serve as floats for the

net. The lower margin is strengthened by a foot rope, a little

thinner than the headrope. Small pieces of stones perforated in

the centre are tied to this at distances of about 6 ft. by means

of thin cotton rope. These stones form the weights to keep the

net stretched and upright when operated.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate I

Muldwarka hodi used by Kharvas for fishing in Kodinar coastal waters.

Vanakbara hodi used for hilsa and pomfret fishing by Machhiaras.

MARINE FISHERIES OF RODIN AR IN KATHIAWAR

Si

Drift-netting for pomfrets, is done during day time only, except

for the black kind. On reaching the fishing grounds several pieces

of netting are tied, end to end by means of the free ends of the

head and foot ropes at the 4 corners. They are then slowly paid

out. The Kharvas of Vanakbara use a tender-canoe to spread

the net. One man takes charge of the end and rows away from

the ‘hodi’ in the tender-canoe. The whole fleet is slowly released

and the man in the canoe sets it in the form of a loose wall.

When in action the length of the fleet will be only 1/3 its actual

length. The floats keep the upper margin of the net on the

surface and the sinkers just scrape the bottom of the sea. The

net is allowed to drift with the current and shoals of pomfrets

striking against it get entangled. It is usually hauled up at the

turn of the tide. The season for fishing with this net on the

Kodinar coast is from the end of September to beginning of May.

Palwa Jal. — (Hilsa net). This is also a cotton drift net very

similar to ‘Vichuda jal’. A fleet of ‘palwa jal’ consists of 50

pieces at Madhwad and 30 pieces at Muldwaraka. Hilsa being

a bigger and stronger fish than pomfret, the net pieces are shorter.

Each piece is 15 fathoms long and ij to 2 fathoms deep. The

meshes are also smaller and measure 2" -2|//. There is a headrope

about thick and tied to it are a number of spindle shaped

wooden floats. The footrope is thinner and there are no weights

attached to it as in ‘Vichuda jal’. The modus operandi is the

same as for the pomfret net, the difference being that the net

does not sink to the bottom of the sea but remains in the surface

waters acting as a surface drift net. The net is operated day

and night. Catches during day include also Rawas ( Polynemus

spp), Adadia ( Parastromateus niger) and big Boi ( Mugil spp).

‘Palwa jal’ season is from October to November and again from

the end of April to May. The net is generally operated in the

seas near the ports and the boats return every 24 hours. But

occasionally the fishermen follow the shoals into deeper waters and

remain in the sea fishing for a fortnight.

Both Hilsa and Pomfret nets are tanned with ‘Sajjad Chal’

(bark of Terminalia tomentosa) thrice a week.

Buthar Jal. — (Shark net) operated in the seas opposite Madhwad

port by the Kharvas is a wall net of twisted hemp consisting of

30 to 35 pieces, each 30 fathoms long and i| to 2 fathoms deep.

The mesh measures g" knot to knot. The headrope made of

coir is about thick and is passed through the marginal meshes

and fastened to it by means of cotton thread at distances of about

3 feet. Thick pieces of wood which form the floats are tied to

this rope. The foot rope is also of coir and is passed through

the marginal meshes at the bottom loosely and tied to it at distances

of about 3 feet. This net is meant to catch bottom fishes and

so is moored on the sea bottom by means of iron or stone anchors

in such a way that half its breadth spreads on the bottom and

the other half stands vertical. As in the other 2 nets fishes get

entangled in the Buthar jal also. The fishermen return to the

shore after shooting the net. Every 24 hours it is hauled up.

The catches consist of sharks, rays and skates. This net is tanned

once in two months.

si journal LombAy Natural Hisf. society, Vot 4s

Ghplu Jal. — While the 3 nets described above are specially

meant for the capture of particular types of fishes the Gholu jal

is a bag-net meant to capture almost anything the tide brings in.

(Fig. 1). They are operated only by the Machis in the muddy

grounds near the rocky shoals in the Madhwad Bay at depths

of 9 to 12 fathoms. The net is a large conical bag 150 feet long

with a wide mouth the circumference of which is about 250 feet.

It is made of twisted hemp and has the margin of the mouth

strengthened by coir rope 1 inch in diameter. The cod end is long

and made of thicker twine and in some cases the meshes of this

portion are made of double threads. The net is made in one piece

and the size of the mesh decreases gradually from 4" at the mouth

to at the cod end.

At the beginning of the season 2 piles of 20 to 25 stones,

each perforated in the centre for the passage through of ropes

and weighing 100 to 120 lbs. are constructed about 45 feet apart

on the fishing grounds. They form permanent and stationary

anchors for the net. Each pile has secured to it a thick rope,

about 7" in circumference made of palmyra leaf fibre. The

length of this rope depends on the depth of the water at the fishing

spot. The free end of this rope is kept near the surface by means

of a big piece of wood tied to it. Each ‘hoda’ takes three nets

at a time. They are shot at the beginning of high or low tides.

The free ends of the anchor ropes are taken aboard and tied to

the two lower corners of the mouth of the net. The upper side

is kept afloat by two wooden casks fastened to the two upper

corners of the mouth of the net. Some fishermen use only one

cask which is tied to the middle portion of the upper margin, in

which case two pieces of wooden floats are also fastened to the

two upper corners. The opening of the cod end is closed by means

of a rope to prevent the escape of fish caught. Now it is ready

to be set. The cod end is first thrown overboard and then the

whole net is slowly paid out. The lower portion of the mouth

of the net sinks down by its own weight and that of the ropes

tied to it. (Fig. 1). With the turn of the tide the nets are hauled

up. The four corners are quickly collected together and taken

aboard to prevent the escape of big fishes. The whole net is

then gathered and the catches emptied into the boat through the

cod end after untying the rope closing it. If the catches are

encouraging the nets are set again, thus remaining at sea for

2 to 3 tides. Fishes of all sizes ranging from big Ghol ( Sciaena )

to Gulchi (young ones of Harpodon ) and Kolmi ( Acetes ) are caught.

The destructive nature of this net is shown by the large quantities

of immature Pomfrets, Bombay ducks and Jew fishes landed every

day. But for its successful operation a strong tidal current is

necessary and so catches are scanty from the seventh to the eleventh

and from the twenty-second to twenty-sixth day of the lunar month.

The current being weak then, the hinder part of the net sinks to

the bottom, preventing fish from entering it. Another disadvantage

is that the fishing is restricted to areas where the anchors are

constructed. But generally fishermen prepare two or sometimes

three sets of such anchors at different depths from 5 to 12 miles

away from the shore.

u.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

n

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

5L

52

53

54

MARINE FISHERIES OF KO DINAR IN KATHIAWAR

53

FISHES

3 more important species of fish that constitute the fisheries

coast are listed below: —

Vernacular name j Scientific name

I

Moosi

Loda

Moosi

I f

Magar Magra

Boovar

Pattari

Kanner

Jowla

Hanoth

Dundimagar

Ranjan

Buthar

Lanj, Chethar

Jangeru

Tharabla, Boor

Kandwa

Tharabla, Patra

Shevta

Kodio

Bam in, Salo

Karaj

>i

Vam

Khaga, Shingala

Gaga

Dai

Palwa, Palwi

Choksi

Katta

Katti

Pattu

Poophan

Netla, Talar

Mendli, Madeli

Bumla, Bumli, Gulchi

Kagda

Veku

Koonth, Datia

Damra

Rathad, Rath da

Hajamda

Tiperva

Peradi

Pincheta, Kitlo

Pichuda

Sungeli

Tiparwa

Rawas

Scoliodon sorrakowah (Cuv.)

Carcharinus hemiodon (Val.)

,, dussumieri (M. & H.)

,, menisorrah (M. & H.)

„ limbatus (M. & H.)

Galeocerdo rayneri McDnld,

,, tigrinus M. & H.

Sphyrtia blochii (Cuv.)

,, zygaena (Linn.)

,, tudes (Val.)

Atelomycterus marmoratum (Bennett)

Pristis zysron (Blkr.)

Rhynchobatus djeddensis (Forsk.)

Rhinobatus granulatus (Cuv.)

Narcine timlei (Schn.)

Astra fie di pterygia (Schn.)

Dasyatis sephen (Forsk.)

,, kuhlii (M. & H.)

, , bleekeri (Blyth)

,, walga (M. & H.)

Pteroplatea poecilura (Shaw)

Aetobatis narinari (Euphr.)

Myliobatis nieuhofii (Bl. Schn.)

Molulu diabolus (Shaw)

,, kuhlii (M. & H.)

Muraenosox talabon ( Cuv . )

,, cinereus (Forsk)

Aritis caelatus (C. & V.)

Osteogeniosus militaris (Linn)

Chirocentrus dorab (Forsk.)

Hilsailisha (H. B.)

Clupea toli (C. & V.)

Pell on a filigera (C. & V.)

Opisthofiterus tartoor (C. & V.)

Chatoessus modeslus Day

Me galops cyprinoides (Brouss)

Engraulis purava (C. & V.)

, , mystix ( Bl . Schn . )

Coilia dussumierii (C. & V.)

Harpodon nehereus (H. B.)

Hemirhamphus far (Forsk.)

„ limbatus (C. & V.)

Cromileptes altivelis (C. & V.)

Serranus sp.

Lutianus roseus Day

„ johnii (Bloch.)

Therapon jarbua (Forsk.)

Pristipoma furcaticm (Bl. Schn.)

Diagramma sp.

Gerres lucidus (C. & V. )

Pentaprion longimanus (Cantor)

Scatophagus argus (Bloch.)

Chrysophrys cuvier i Day

Polynemus heptadactylus (C. & V. )

54 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 48

The other constituents of the fisheries here are Chola or Jinga

( Penaens carinatus, Penaeus indicus, Metapenaeus monoceros)y

Tettan ( Pamdirus ), Dedki ( Sepia spp.) and small quantities of crabs

and Squilla. Pomfrets form the most valuable fish on the coast

and they occur in large shoals from October to May with the peak

period in April-May. Ghol, Vam, Bumla and Jinga are caught

in large numbers from October to February and are rare thereafter,

October is the peak for the Bumla season in Kotda and January

to May in Madhwad. Palwa and Choksi appear in huge shoals

from September to December and again from March to May. Other

fishes are available all through the season in moderate quantities.

During March and April young ones of Bombay ducks of ij"

to 3/; size are caught in enormous quantities as also young ones

of the three species of pomfrets of 2" -3" size. As no records are

kept of the quantities of fish caught on the coast it is not possible

to assess the productivity of the fishing grounds. Not less than

80% of the catches are exported and the export figures will give

a rough idea of the present yield. Tables I to IV show the

approximate quantities of fish exported by sea from the 2 main

ports of the coast with their value as calculated from the .Customs

records.

Recent years have witnessed considerable fluctuations in the yield

of this coast. Strong winds, clear water or preponderance of

jellyfish are often believed by the fishermen to be the reasons for

MARINE FISHERIES OF KO DINAR IN KATHIAWAR

55

scanty catches. An interesting- phenomenon reported during the

season of 1947 was the abnormally low catches till about 4 days

before the cyclone that lasted for 3 days from the 16 th of April

when an abrupt rise in the catches, especially of pomfrets was

observed. Fishing boats returned to ports packed to capacity with

pomfrets and they were sold in the ports of South Kathiawar at

4 and 5 per rupee.

The major portion of the prime fish are exported to Bombay

by the merchants in fresh condition packed in ice, by country

craft. There are two ice factories with cold storage facilities, one

at Velan and the other at Kodinar. Ice is also brought from

Bombay in the country craft when they return after delivering the

fish consignments. With favourable winds the journey from these

ports takes only 24 to 36 hours but considerable delay is caused

when weather conditions are unfavourable and the consignments

reach the destination in a deteriorated condition. The bigger fishes

when landed in a stale state are cured by the fishermen or merchants.

Both dry as well as wet curing methods are followed. Ghol and

Vichuda are often wetcured. The proportion of salt used varies

but is generally 1:2. Dry curing is done in shallow square pits

lined with matting and the curing time is from 24 to 72 hours.

Flesh of sharks and Ghol are sometimes filleted and cured for

export. Prawns are always shelled and cured with salt. Bombay

ducks are simply dried in the sun hung in pairs on ropes. Gulchi

the young of Bumla, Mendley, Patti, Bagi, Netla, Tura and Kolmi

as also Dedki are simply sun-dried.

Bye-products

Tura, Mendley, Gulchi, prawn shells and offal of large fishes

are sundried and exported as manure. 11,032 maunds of fish and

prawn manure costing about Rs. 29,500 were sent out from

Madhwad and Kotda during 1945-46. The fins of sharks are also

exported to Bombay from where they are re-exported to China- —

this trade had a setback because of war — where they are in great

demand for the preparation of soup. Fins worth Rs. 998-13 were

exported during 1945-46 from this coast. Another bye-product of

importance is the fishmaw obtained mainly from Ghol (Sciaena)

Khaga (Arius) Vam ( Miivaenosox ). The airbladder is removed in

as fresh a condition as possible and after soaking in water for

sometime the inner vascular layer is removed. The bladders are

then dried in the sun on special barbecues of coirnetting. Ghol

gives the best fishmaws and cost 9 annas per piece ; Kaga maws

cost Rs. 5 per maund and the Vam maws 2 annas each. 34 ,287

pounds costing Rs. 12,723-8-6 were exported from this coast during

1945-46. These two are first sent to Bombay from where they are

shipped to England or China.

Rules Relating to Fish Trade

Fishing in the Kodinar seas is allowed to fishermen on permits

obtainable from the Port Officer on payment of the following fees : —

1. Rs. 12 annually, for every fishing boat with a capacity

of 5 or more tons. .. .

56 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 48

2. Rs. 2 monthly for boats of less than 5 ton capacity but

not under 3 tons.

3. Rs. 1-8 per month or part thereof for boats of 3 ton

capacity or less.

Fishermen who have obtained permits are allowed the free

use of land for building huts and drying nets and are also exempted

from the payment of local cess or mooring charges and customs

duty on provisions brought by them for consumption or for use in

connection with their trade. Those fishermen who, like the

Kharavas of Vanakbara, do not occupy any lands but only land

their catches at the ports have to pay Rs. 2 to the Government

and they are given sufficient space in the port area to erect huts.

Government have laid down certain provisions for regulating

the transactions between the fishermen and the merchants. All

tradesmen wishing to export fish and entering into a contract for

purchasing fish from fishermen for the purpose, have to deposit

with the Customs Officer a sum of Rs. 100 for each boatload of

commodity to be exported or provide a security bond for the amount.

The Kodinar port officer who is also the Revenue officer of the

Taluka, fixes the rates for the different kinds of fish before the

beginning of each season, on the basis of which export duties are

to be levied. The fishermen and merchants are required to enter

into a contract between fhemselves for the sale and purchase of

fish at the rates fixed. The fishermen however charge only rates

lower than those fixed and this is permissible under the rules. The

merchant has to pay 75% of the price of the commodity purchased

by him in cash to the fishermen before exporting it and the balance

of 25% has to be paid within a fortnight of the despatch. If

a tradesman fails to settle his account with a fisherman within a

prescribed period the amount due from him is liable to be recovered

from his personal property or surety. Rentfree land is assigned

to tradesmen and labourers for the purpose of erecting huts to the

extent of 200 square yards per hut in the case of the former and

50 square yards in the latter. However every fish merchant has

to pay an annual charge of Rs. 5.

Conclusion

Sustained efforts to improve the quality of preserved fish and

develop the bye-product industries have been made, since the open-

ing of the Fisheries Department in 1937, though the experiments

conducted for a decade from 1916 by Mr. Dotiwala and later stopped

had the same object. At Kotda the Department of Fisheries runs a

model fish-curing yard with a smoker and a drier and here a scheme

for the preservation of fish by smoking, pickling and curing accord-

ing to some special recipes, started with an initial part-grant

from the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research, is being worked.

Shark liver oil is extracted at the Fisheries Stations at Madhwad

and Kotda. One important activity of the department aims at

the improvement of the socio-economic condition of the fisherfolk.

Here the main handicap to fishery development is the paucity of

local fishermen, and to solve this problem the Government have

sanctioned a colonisation scheme to induce fisher people to settle

MARINE. FISHERIES OF KO DINAR IN KATHIAWAR

57

at Kotda by the grant of concessions ashore such as lands, huts,

salt for curing etc. and the use of a launch at sea. A small party

of fishermen came and stayed for some time in 1944 but they did

not settle down permanently. At Muldwaraka a co-operative

society for the Machiaras was formed last year and these men are

conducting fishing and marketing on their own without the

interference of middle men. The latest development is the floating

of a limited company — the Western India Fisheries Ltd., with a capital

of 5 lacs to which the State Government will contribute a lac.

The company when it starts functioning will do intensive fishing

and expand fish trade by putting up huts for fishermen, building

fishing boats and supplying the men with boats and nets. The

company would install cold storage stations, canneries, smoke

houses, manure factories etc. to deal with the catches and purchase

and work power vessels for quick transport and deep-sea fishing.

Acknowledgements

The author is deeply grateful to Dr. S. T. Moses, Director of

Fisheries, Baroda for his constant guidance and help in the pre-

paration of this paper. Acknowledgements are also due to

Mr. J. S. Shaw, Sub-assistant Director of Fisheries — now Assistant

Director — Kodinar, for help in the compilation of the statistical

records.

State?nent of fresh fish exported from Afadhwad Bunder by sea, during the year 1945-46

58

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

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MARINE FISHERIES OF KO DINAR IN KATHIAWAR

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60

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MORE BUTTERFLIES OF THE ARAKAN COAST

BY

Major A. M. Emmet, m.a., m.b.e.

I read Major Gladman's list (Some Butterflies of the Arakan

Coast, Vol. 46, No. 3, p. 516) both with pleasure and a sense of

disappointment. While we were in Arakan we were both members

of XV Indian Corps and on occasions we must have been close

neighbours. Therefore it is a real pity that we did not meet or

know of each other’s activities; and it is also unfortunate that we

were not able to pool our resources and produce a joint list of the

butterflies of the district. Since we were denied the pleasure of

collaboration, I feel the most useful thing I can do is to build on

Major Gladman’s foundation and supplement his interesting notes.

I have therefore divided my list into two parts. The first part

gives additional information about species included in Major

Gladman’s work. I have mentioned additional localities and new

months of appearance for uncommon species, and have in one or two

cases corrected what I believe to be a false estimate of a butterfly’s

degree of abundance. I have also added by families the names of

the thirty species and forms in Major Gladman’s list which I did not

encounter myself. I believe this negative information may be of

value to any naturalist who is studying distribution ; had the species

been common in the areas where I collected I would almost certainly

have met with them. Moreover several of them were recorded

only from Ramree Island, which is further south than any of the

places I visited.

The second half of my list is devoted to new species and

forms, of which I am able to add 111. The catalogue for this

region is still far from complete ; I cannot agree with Major Gladman’s

claim that his list is ‘ fairly comprehensive ’ for dry season broods.

I always found it difficult to take out a net into a new area of jungle

without making some fresh capture. Owing to the fact that my

division was in contact with the enemy throughout the year I spent

in Arakan, I was seldom able to wander abroad freely or devote

much time to entomology. Most of my species were taken in

surreptitious half-hours in the vicinity of our camps, and only once

or twice was I able to make an expedition to some chosen locality.

Had I been at liberty to collect intensively, the list would have been

very much longer.

In imitation of Major Gladman I give a brief description of the

areas and circumstances in which I made my observations. Like him

I include records from South-eastern Bengal as well as from Arakan

proper.

MORE butterflies of the arakan coast

63

South-eastern Bengal

Chittagong. Open paddy

and scrub.

Cheringa. About 50 miles

south of Chittagong. A

fairly large area of ever-

green jungle

The Teknaf Peninsula.

Evergreen jungle.

Burma

Maungdaw and the imme-

diate neighbourhood.

Coastal plain consisting

of paddy with small topes

and ruined villages.

The Mayu Range. The

foothills were clad in

scrub, and the ‘ Spine \

which reached nearly

2,000 feet at its highest

point in our area, was

covered in bamboo and

evergreen jungle.

Akyab Island. Country very

similar to the Maungdaw

coastal plain.

Myebon. Evergreen and

mixed jungle, and paddy.

Kangaw. Country similar

to that at Myebon.

Ru-ywa. Evergreen and

mixed jungle.

Two short afternoons, one in February

and the second in March, 1944.

Two days in March 1944.

Visited for a single afternoon in each

of the months of May, August and

September 1944

Late March to October, 1944. I did no

real collecting until towards the end

of July when the rains began to

slacken. There were relatively few

species to be had in this open country.

Our Headquarters moved to the foot-

hills in late October, 1944 and we

finally left the area at the end of the

year. Though I constantly visited

the ‘ Spine ’, I was seldom able to

collect there, except for one good

day in October when one of our

battalion commanders provided me

with an armed escort. I wonder

what the sepoys thought !

I was there for a brief and busy spell

in January, and for an idle week at

the end of March, 1945. In the lat-

ter month the topes which were not

full of soldiers held plenty of butter-

flies, particularly Euploeae .

From mid-January till the end of

February. A good area for collec-

ting.

February. Collecting was almost im-

possible owing to the intensity of

the battle, but I obtained some good

specimens in its closing stages.

March 194 >. Butterflies were very

plentiful, and I saw many species

which I could not capture or

identify.

I was on leave in June, at the height of the monsoon, and have no

observations for that month. In late July and August, when the

rains began to ease a little, butterflies were very plentiful and conti-

nued so until mid-November. From then until mid-January few

64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 48

except for the most common and hardy species were to be seen.

February and March were again good months, but, I think, numbers

diminished in April and May.

I have tried to give only positive information in my notes, and

have not made inferences such as ‘generally distributed’ or ‘com-

mon’ except where my information has warranted it. It must not

therefore be thought that my assertion that a butterfly is to be taken

at a certain place and at a certain time of year excludes other places

and other months. For example, under No. 164 Papilio helenus

helenus L. I say that it is common at Teknaf and on the Mayu Range

from August to October. For all I know, it is also found in suita-

ble jungle throughout the whole of the coast of Arakan, and there

may well be a pre-monsoon emergence, say in April and May, which

I failed to record, having been rather preoccupied in making war

during those months.

I have copied Major Gladman in giving before each species its

code number in Brigadier Evans’ Identification of Indian Butterflies.

I have also followed the latter’s nomenclature throughout, though

I am aware that the names of certain species have been revised since

that work was published.

I conclude my list with a fresh analysis of species and forms

(I would have preferred not to give the latter equal standing with the

species). An active collector, working under conditions of peace,

might well add a further hundred species to our total.

A.

ADDITIONAL NOTES ON THE SPECIES INCLUDED IN MAJOR

GLADMAN’S LIST.

Papilionidae

1. A 1-ly Troides helena carberus Fd.

I can confirm the identification, and add that it is not rare throughout the

area. It was conspicuous in the Mayu Peninsula towards the end of monsoon

(late July to September). I also recorded it from Cheringa and Akyab in

March, and from Myebon in January. My from Akyab seem to be referable

to P. emnagos Jord, being almost completely without the white vein stripes on

the forewing.

14. A 6-3y Zetides doson axion Fd.

I took it at Cheringa in March and at Teknaf in August.

I did not encounter the following Papilionids in Major Gladman’s list: 2.

'Pros hector L; 9. Papilio polytes romulus Cr. £. v. cyrus F ; demoleus mala -

yanus Wall. ; 12. Pathysa nomius swinhoe M. ; 13. P. antiphates pornpilius F.

Pieridae

17. B 4-100 Pleris canidia indica Evans.

1 did not meet with it south of Cheringa.

19. B 6-11. Delias descombesi leucacantlia, Fiuh.

I was more fortunate than Major Gladman with the which I found in

approximately equal numbers with the .

65

MORE BUTTERFLIES OF THE ABAKAN COAST

25. B ll-l. Catopsilia crocale Cr.

26. B 11-2. Catopsilia pomona F.

I took crocale both in the wet and thedry season, but pomona in the dry season

only. I am inclined to consider the species as distinct

1 did not encounter 24. Appias Paulina adarnsoni Mi or 33. Eurema

lacteola sarinoides Fr.

Dan aid a e

37. C 2 2. Danais agleoides Fd.

I took one at Akyab and one at Ru-ywa* both in March. It is possibly A

fairly common species* and I may have overlooked it on many occasions owing

to its close resemblance to the common D. aglea nielanoides M.

44. C 3-2^. Euploea alcathoe doubledayi Fd.

Not common, but generally distributed from the Mayu Peninsula south-

wards. I observed or took specimens in February, March, October and

November.

48 C 3-10^, Euploea deione deione Wd.

Rare, but apparently widely distributed. I have two specimens from the

Mayu Peninsula* taken in November, and one from Ru-ywa* taken in March.

I did not take 39* Danais gautama gautama M.

Satyrid ve

58. D 16/3. Orsotrioena medus medus F.

I also found it uncommon, taking only the dry season form sparingly at

Cheringa and Myebon from January to March.

I did not take 54i Myealesis visala neovisala Fruh., or 55. Lethe rohri®

rohria F.

Nymphalidab

64. F 18-37. Euthalia Iepidea sthavara Fruh.

In my experience a common species, especially bitWeen January and March.

On the other hand, 1 met with 66 E . garuda garuda M. only sparingly in the

Maungdaw plain between August and October.

68. F 20 -7. Parthenos sylvia gambrisius F.

It was most plentiful in the Mayu Peninsula in August and September, when

the rains began to slacken.

73. F 26-10. Neptis columella ophiana M.

I did not meet with it north of Ru-ywa, where it was common.

78. F 26-80. Neptis nandina susruta M.

I can add Cheringa and Kangaw as localities, and February and March as

months of appearance. Though I met with this species seldom, and with N.

soma son, a M. not at all, I feel I may have overlooked them through their

similarity to the abundant hylas.

82. F 31. Yoma sabina vasuki Doh.

1 did not find this butterfly north of Ru-ywa.

94. F47-3. Cethosia cyane Drury.

I can add a February record, but I agree that it became very scarce after

Christmas.

5

66 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL II 1ST. SOCIETY, Vdl. 4S

I did not encounter the following Nymphalids

95. Euthalla jahnu jahnu M. 67. Adollas dirtea jadeltina FrUh.

72. Pantoporla cama M . 77. Neptis soma loma M. 91. Issoria sinha sinha

Roll. 92. Cirrochroa fasciata Fd.

I saw 83. Doleschallia bisaltide indica M. on several occasions, but failed

to secure a specimen.

Erycinidae

98. G 4-57. Abisara echerius angulata M.

I never observed it north of Foul Point (the southern tip of the Mayu

Peninsula). From there southwards it was very common.

Lycaenidae

104. H 13. Syntarucus plinius F.

I did not meet with this species north of Ru-ywa,

112. H2?-2. Catachrysops lithargyria M.

In my experience lithargyria was common from November to February,

and much more plentiful than C. strabo F.

122. H 46-1 S • Horsfieldia anita arracana Grs.

1 took only a single specimen of this species at Teknaf in October.

125. H 49-32(3. Amblypodia agaba agaba Hew.

Agaba seems to be the race at Akyab and at Myebon.

126. H 49-367- Amblypodia centaurus centaurus F.

127. H 49-39o{. Amblypodia amantes amantes Hew.

In my experience it was locally common rather than general. I did not meet

with it at all between Cheringa and Ru-ywa. 1 took amantes only at the latter

locality.

132. H 70*7. Cheritra freja freja F.

I concur that it is rare. I can add Cheringa and the Ngakyedauk Pass as

localities, and November as an additional month of appearance.

I seem to have been more fortunate in finding the various species of HyPoly -

caena , Deudoryx and Rapala, (Nos. 133-137) given in Major Gladman’s list.

Myebon was an excellent locality for them. I regard H . erylus himavantus

Fruh. in particular as widely distributed and fairly common butterfly.

138. H 87-0. Bindahara phocides phocides F.

Another rare butterfly. I saw it on the Mayu Range in October aiid took it

at Myebon in January.

I did not meet with the following species : — 105. Chilades lams laius Cr. ;

108. Euchrysops cnejus F. ; 109. Epandava pandaVa Hors. ; 121. Curetis

thetis Drury; 123. Amblypodia khamti Doh. ; 124. A. agaba aurelia Evans;

130. Spindasis lohiia himalayanus M. ; 131. Tajuria melastigma DeN

Hespfriidae

139. I 1-70. Hasora badra badra M.

I found badra only once, namely in heavy jungle at Cheringa.

146. I 21-3 7. Sarangesa dasahara dasahara M.

Fairly common throughout the coastal area from Chittagong southwards,

t recorded it from January to March, and in October.

MORE BUTTERFLIES OR THE ArAkAN COAST 67

147. I 25-1. Odontoptilum angulata sura Fd.

I agree that it is rare. I took only a single specimen at Ru-yvva in March.

149.1 43-9. Aeromachus pygmaeus F.

Common from Chittagong southwards, especially in February and March.

It also flies from August to November. I concur with Major Gladman’s

verdict on the other species he has grouped with pygmaeus.

I did not take the following species of Hesperiidae:— 140. Hasora tami -

natus bhavara Fruh.; 141. H. alexis alexis F. ; 142. lsmene mahintha M. ;

155. Unkana attina Hew. ; 156. Astycus augias augias L. ; 158 . Baoris con -

juncta javana Mab. I did not take 153. Gangara thyrsis thyrsis F. either,

but I saw what I am sure was this butterfly on a number of occasions at

Ru-ywa, and achieved several misses.

B.

SPECIES NOT INCLUDED IN MAJOR GLADMAN’S LIST

Papilionidae

4 A3-57 . Chilasa clytia onpape M.

160. v. janus Fruh.

One at Ru-ywa in March .

6. A4-2. Papilio meranon ageaor L.

161. $ v. butlerianus Roth.

One in the Ngakyedauk Pass (Mayu Peninsula) in November.

162. 2 v. alcanor Cr.

T *

One at Teknaf and another at Maungdaw in August* and I saw it on several

other occasions. I would suggest tentatively that this is the commonest form

of the £ in the Mayu Peninsula. Major Gladman seems to have met with only

the typical $ which I never encountered. This butterfly apparently ceases to

fly in November, and I did not see it at all during the dry season.

163. A4-180. Papilio castor castor Wd.

One $ at Cheringa in March. What I suppose to have been the $ was also

oh the wing, and fairly plentiful.

164. A4-19y. Papilio helenus helenus L.

Common at Teknaf and on the Mayvi Range at the end of the wet season

(August to October).

PlERIDAE

165. B6-12. Delias aglaia L.

I am convinced that I saw this butterfly at Cheringa, Myebon and Ru-ywa,

but since I took no specimen, I cannot confirm the identification.

166. B 10-40. Appias libythea olferna Swin.

Not common. I took it at Cheringa, Maungdaw and Myebon in the follow-

ing months DSF1, December, February and March ; WSF, August.

36j B20-3. Pareronia Valeria hippia F.

167. $ v. phiiomela F.

I watched a specimen of this handsome variety for some time at Myebon in

February.

1 DSF = dry season form ; WSF-wet season form.

68 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 48

Danaidae

168. C1-1S. Hestia Iynceus arracana Fruh.

Not rare locally in the mangrove swamps at Kangrw in February, but I did

not see this conspicuous butterfly elsewhere*

169. C2-10. Danais aglea melanoides M.

I took one at Teknaf in September, and found it common at Akyab,

Myebon, Kangaw and Ru-ywa from January to March.

170. C3-7y. Euploea core vermiculata But.

Common and general as far south as Ru-ywa. I never saw E. c. layardi Driice.

171. C3-ll^. Euploea harrisi hopei Fd.

Fairly common at Akyab in March* One from Ru»j wa in the same month.

SaItridae

172 . D2-3J3. Mycalesis anaxias aeniate Fruhi

Not rare in thick jungle in the Mayu Peninsula at Kangaw and at Ru-ywa,

September-November and February-March.

173. D2-16{3. Mycalesis khasia khasia Evans.

174. D3-21j3. Lethe europa niladana Fruh.

1 took several specimens of each species at Ru-ywa in March.

174. D-3 28j3. Lethe makara zuchara Fruh.

176. D3=37. Lethe vindhya Fd.

Both seem not rare throughout the area. I took mekara in December,

February and March, and vindhya in October and March.

17 7. D3-38. Lethe kansa M.

1 recorded this butterfly only in the Mayu Range in October.

178. D21=l. Anadebis hiraachala M.

Not rare in the Ngakyedauk Pass (Mayu Range) in November*

179. L'22-28. Malanitis phedima ganapati Fruh.

One at Ru-ywa in March.

180. D3?-38. Melanitis zitenius anletes Fruh*

One in bamboo jungle at Kangaw, February.

181. D25*7o£. Elymnias nisaea timandra Wall.

18?. D25-11. Elymnias penanga chelensis DeN*

183. D25-12y. Elymnias vasudeva burmennsis M.

1 took one specimen of each species, all in March. My penanga is from

Cheringa, and the other two from Ru-ywa.

Amathusiidae

184. E5-1. Thaumantis dio/es Db.

One in the Ngakyedauk Pass in November.

MORE BUTTERFLIES OF THE ARAKAN COAST

69

185. E7o£. Amathusia phidippus friderici Fruh.

One at Ru-ywa in March. I have no doubt that I saw several other Ama~

thusiids but l was unable to secure them. 1 was luckier than Major Gladman

with Discophora tullia zal Wd.

N YMPHAUDAE

62. Fl-27. Charaxes polyxena hierax Fd.

186. $ v. corax Fd.

One at Ru-ywa in March. I found hierax scarce and hard to capture.

187. F14. Charaxes marmax Wd.

I secured one in October, which was desporting itself in a very active

manner at the extreme summit of the highest peak of the Mayu Range in our

area.

188. F2-3. Eriboea arja Fd.

Common at Cheringa and in the Mayu foothills in November and from

February to March. In my experience arja was more commonly to be found

in low, damp valleys, while a/hamas preferred higher ground and heavier

jungle.

189. FI8-67. Euthalia julii sedeva M.

Not rare in the Mayu Range at Myebon from September to January.

190. F18-157. Euthalia jama verena Fruh.

Not rare in the Mayu Peninsula from September to December.

191. F18-16. Euthalia phemius Db, & Hew.

One at Cheringa in March.

192. FIB-277. Euthalia evelina derna Roll.

I saw this butterfly on several occasions at Myebon in February, but failed

to obtain a specimen.

193. F18-30o£. Euthalia teuta teuta Db. & Wd.

Although I secured only a single specimeu, it was locally not uncommon at

the extreme summit of the Mayu Range.

194. F19-2|3. Adolias khasiana intermedia Tyt.

Locally not rare in thick jungle. I took specimens at Cheringa, on the

Mayu Range and at Kangaw in October and November, and again in February

and March. I never saw A, dirtea jadeitina Fruh.

195. F25-14. Pantoporia perius L.

One in the Mayu foothills in November.

196. F26-12. Neptisharita M.

Fairly general in the Mayu Peninsula, but not common: also Teknaf,

October to November.

197. F26-28. Neptis paraka But.

Two in medium jungle at Myebon, February.

198. F28-1. Chersonesia risa Db. & Hew.

One in the Ngakyedauk Pass. November.

7°

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 48

Erycinidae

199. G5-2. Taxila haquinus fasciata M.

Two or three at Cheringa in March

Lycaenid^e

200. H2-5o{. Poritia hewitsoni hewitsoni M.

Rare. I took it in the Mayu Range in September and December, and at

Kangaw in February.

201. H5-4. Gerydus longeana DeN.

Two in the Mayu Range in December.

202. H6-3. AHotinus horsfieldii continental^ Fruh.

Common at Cheringa in March.

203. H12-1. Tarucus ananda DeN.

Rare. I only came across it by a stream in the Ngakyedauk Pass.

204. H12-9. Tarucus nara Roll .

Not rare in the coastal plain round Maungdaw in April and again from

July to September.

205. H17. Neopithecops zalmora But.

General and fairly common in thick jungle. I noted it from August to

October, and in December, January and March.

206. H18-50. Everes parrhasius assamica Tyt.

I took it only at Chittagong in March.

207. H2O0. Megisba malaya sikkima M.

One at Myebon in February.

208. H24-l^. Zizeeria trochilus putli Roll.

Rare. Taken only at Myebon in February.

209. H24-3/3. Zizeeria uiaha maha Roll.

Several at Chittagong in March.

210. H24-5. Zizeeria gaika Trimen.

Not rare south of Akyab—February and March.

211. H26-2f3. Lycaenesthes lycaenina lycatnbes Hew.

I took two in the Ngakyedauk Pass in November, and imagine it to be fairly

common there.

212. H32-5. Nacaduba pavana Hors.

Rare. I took it at Myebon in February and March.

213. H32-7/3. Nacaduba helicon merguiana M.

Rare. I took one in the Ngakyedauk Pass in November.

214. H32-12/3. Nacaduba berenice plumbeotnicans WM & DeN,

One at Myebon in February.

MORE BUTTERFLIES OF THE ARAKAN COAST

71

2X5, H32-16/S- Nacaduba dubiosa sivoka Evans.

Common. The DSF, which is very distinct, is as described by Evans.

216. H32-19. Nacaduba dana DeN.

Not rare at Myebon in late January and February.

217. H44-2s(. Curetis saronis gloriosa M.

Not rare in the Mayu Peninsula in March and July-August. I did not see

thetis.

218. H15-1'/. IraTa ti nalem ti noleo i Stoll.

One £ from the coastal plain at Maungdaw : August.

219. H49 — 1°. Amblypodia epimuta elsiei Evans.

One at Myebon in February.

220. H49-31o£. Amblypodia alea alea Hew.

One at Teknaf in October.

221. H49-42o{. Amblypodia eumolphus eumolphus Cr.

Common at Cheringa, Tumbru and Teknaf in March, and from July

to October.

222. H49-63^. Amblypodia perimuta periiuuta M.

1 took two at Cheringa in March, and believe it to have been not rare in

that jungle.

223. H49-72. Amblypodia diardi Hew.

I took two in bamboo jungle at an elevation of nearly 2,000 feet in the Mayu

Range in October.

224. H55-1. Drina donina Hew.

Two at Cheringa in March .

225. H59-l<^. Pratapa vidura penicilligera DeN.

Fairly common in thick jungle throughout the area, in February-March,

and again in August.

226. H6O-190. Tajurla cippus cippus F.

I took a single specimen at Razabil (Mayu Peninsula) in November,

227. H757. Thamala marciana sparanisa Fruh.

I took two males of this handsome butterfly on the crest of the Mayu Range

in October. Since the races are differentiated by the I do not know to which

I should refer my specimens.

228. H77-1P. Horaga onyx onyx M.

Rare. I took it at Teknaf in May, and at Myebon in January and February.

229. H84-20. Virachola perse perse Hew.

A single $ at Ru-ywa in March.

230. H85-7o£. Rapala suffusa suffusa M.

Rare. I took three at Myebon in January and February, where they were

flying with pheretimus , dieneces and jarbas, all of which were common.

72

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

231. H85-lly. Rapala varuna orseis Hew.

Found only at Ru-ywa in March.

232. H85-12. Rapala schistacea M.

Not rare at a locality on the Mayu Range in December.

Hesperii dae

233. I M3o(, Hasora vitta indica Evans.

One at Ru-ywa in March.

234. I 3o(. Bibasis sena sena M.

One on the Mayu Range in October.

235. I 6 2/3. Orthopaetus phanaeus fulva Evans.

One at Cheringa, March.

236. I 11-13. Celaenorrhinus plagifera DeN.

Mayu Range, October and November.

237. I ll»21o4. Celaenorrhinus asmara concertos DeN.

One at Cheringa, March.

238. I 14-107 . Tagiades litigiosa ultra Evans.

Not rare in the Mayu Peninsula from August to November.

239. I 19-6^. Daimio bhagava bhagava M.

Widely distributed but not common. March and November.

240. I 2O-I7. Coladenia dan dhyana Fruh.

Two at Ru-ywa in March.

241. I 20-2/3. Coladenia indrani indra Evans.

Two at Chittagong and one at Ru-ywa, all in March. I cannot yet say

whether any of these specimens should be referred to uposathra Fruh.

242. I 47-10. Suastus gremius gremius F.

Myebon in January and February. Not common.

243. I 49o(. Suada swerga swerga DeN.

It was not rare at Cheringa in March.

244. I 50-2c£. Koruthaialos butlcri butleri WM.

I took one in evergreen jungle at Myebon in February. It was flying with

Sancus pulligo subfasciatus. M. which it somewhat resembles, and may for

that reason be more common than a single capture suggests.

245. 1 55-1. Kerana nigrita God.

Not rare in the foothills of the Mayu Range in October and November and

at Myebon in February.

246. I 58-4/3. Notocrypta paralysos clavata Stg.

Two at Maungdaw in August, and one at Myebon in February.

247. I 58-6. Notocrypta curvifascia Fd.

Cheringa, Maungdaw and Ru-ywa : March and November ; not common.

MORE BUTTERFLIES OF THE ARAKAN COAST 73

248. I 64-4. Matapa sasivarna M.

I took this in March at Chering, where I believe it to have been not rare,

and at Myebon in the following February.

249. I 64-5. Matapa slialgrama M.

One in the Ngakyedauk Pass in November.

250. I 66-1/3. Hyarotis adrastus praba M.

Not rare in the coastal plain around Maungdaw, from August to September.

251. I 68-3o£. Zographetus ogygia ogygia Hew.

Not rare at Myebon in late February and March.

252. I 83-29^. Halpe zema zema Hew.

One from the Mayu Range ; October.

253. I 83-31o£. Halpe moorei moorei Watson.

Rare. I took it at Myebon in February.

254. I 83-34^. Halpe homolea aucma Swin.

Possibly not rare. I took it in the Mayu Range in October and at Ru-ywa

in March.

255. I 87o{. Cupitha purreea purreea M.

Rare. I took it in thick jungle at Myebon and Ru-ywa in February and

March.

256. I 88-27. Taractrocera maevius lineata Druce.

I am practically certain I saw a pair of this species in Akyab Island in March,

but I could not secure them, I know maevius well in South India.

257. I 89-3/3. Oriens gola gola M.

I took it at Cheringa and Myebon, where it was not rare, in February and

March.

258. I 90-90. Padraona cato Clio Evans.

Not rare at Chittagong, in the Mayu Range and at Myebon, but only noted

in the months from December to February. I have examined the genitalia and

am reasonably certain that all my Padraonae belong to the species named cato

in Evans’s Identification.

259. I 92-3o{. Cephrenes palmarum palmarum M.

One at Razabil (Mayu foothills) in November.

260. I 96-10. Iton semamora barea Hew.

Not rare at Cheringa in March.

261. I 97-10. Baoris oceia farri M.

Teknaf and Ru-ywa in October and March.

262. I 97-2. Baoris brunnea Snell.

A single from Cheringa in March.

263. I 97-77. Baoris cahira carna Evans. -

Not rare at Cheringa, Akyab, Myebon and Ru-ywa in February and March.

74

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 48

264. I 97-10^. Baoris cormasa moolata M.

Akyab Island and Myebon in February and March.

265. I 97-20. Baoris contigua Mab.

Two at Chittagong, February and March.

266. I 97-23. Baoris assamensis WM & DeN.

Not rare in the Mayu Peninsula in October, and from December to March.

267. I 97-30o£. Baoris sinensis subochracea M.

Common in the coastal plain at Mauagdaw from July to November.

268. I 97-3 10. Baoris mathias mathias F.

Common in the coastal plain in August, and again in February and March.

269. I 97-320. Baoris guttatus bada M.

Common in the coastal plain from August to November, and from January

to March.

270. I 97-340. Baoris bevani bevani M.

Though I am not quite certain of my identification, I think I have specimens

of beva?ii from Chittagong in March, and from Maungdaw in September.

I have one or two more Baoris which I have not been able to identify.

Analysts

Number of species and forms, excluding seasonal forms, known to occur in

the area : —

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR ENTOMOLOGICAL WORK

IN INDIA

BY

D. G. Sevastopulo, f.r.e.s.

Sooner or later a collector of insects realises that entomology

is something more than the accumulation of boxes of specimens,

and then, unless his interest can be stimulated and guided, he is

likely to become dissatisfied with his hobby and eventually to drop

it altogether. In Europe and America, with their wealth of ento-

mological periodicals and societies, the latter often with large libra-

ries and holding frequent meetings, enabling the student to learn

something of past work and current progress, this guidance and

stimulation is a comparatively easy matter. In India it is other-

wise, and in this paper I propose to try to suggest lines of work

that I consider of interest to amateurs with only limited time at

their disposal.

Entomology is the science of insects, and it cannot be too much^

stressed that insects are living creatures and not rows of corpses

in boxes. The professional entomologist’s bias towards statistical

papers and descriptions of aphides seta by seta, necessary as they

may be, tends to dull the enthusiasm of the amateur, whose inter-

ests more often lie in the pure, rather than in the applied, side

of his science. There are numerous problems, many of them of

no immediate practical value, that are better suited to the acti-

vities of the amateur, rather than the professional entomologist ;

many of them are problems of great scientific interest, and the

answers to others may fit into the jigsaw of knowledge that we

already possess and produce a finished picture that may have great

practical value.

I would urge all entomologists to keep careful notes and records

and to work them up into papers for publication. I believe that

this is one of the best means of maintaining interest and adding

to the worker’s knowledge, not to mention the addition to the

general store of entomological learning. Notes, however carefully

made, are of little value if they are only to be seen by the com-

piler and, eventually, to be treated as rubbish by his executors.

Editors can, generally speaking, be relied on to use their blue

pencil on useless communications, and it is surprising how many

facts, which seem well-known and commonplace to some small

circle of experts, are really unknown and of the greatest interest

to the far larger circle of general workers.

Being a lepidopterist, the following notes deal mainly with

problems concerning butterflies and moths, but much of what 1

write has, I think, a more general application, and students of

other orders will, I hope, be able to think of parallel problems which

concern the insects that are their chief interest. I have avoided

any problems that require either technical knowledge or compli-

‘/G JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

cated apparatus, and I have assumed that readers are acquainted

with the methods of rearing insects through their early stages.

Distribution. — -Our knowledge of the distribution of Indian in-

sects in general is appallingly low ; we may know a little about

the butterflies, considerably less about the moths, and next to

nothing about the other orders. I would, therefore, suggest that

all collectors of all orders keep careful records and publish periodi-

cal lists of the fauna of the districts in which they collect, irres-

pective of whether they are permanent residents or mere visitors

for a month or so. It is from such lists that it is possible to

build up an all-over picture of the distribution of a species, and,

if the accumulation of lists covers a sufficient period, to determine

when and where changes in distribution have taken place. Beirne

has recently published (1947, Trans. R. ent. Soc. Lond ., 98, 273-372)

a most interesting paper on the history and origins of the British

macro-lepidoptera based on distribution and other data. Do not

imagine that even the best known localities are properly worked

out. On a recent visit to Tukdah, near Darjeeling, I discovered

two Zygaenids and a Leucoma new to science, a Lycaenid pre-

viously unknown west of the Khasia Hills, and have a number

of undetermined Noctuids, Geometers and Pyralids, which will

almost certainly include some new species. In Calcutta I recently

discovered two new Redoa spp., both common species that I only

found were undescribed when I sent bred specimens to the British

Museum for confirmation of my identifications before publishing

descriptions of the larvae in this Journal. The publication of a

list recording the results of even a week’s collecting may provide

the essential link to complete the record of some migration. In

entomology, as in all science, no fact, provided it is correct, is too

small to be worth recording; it is only through the accumulation

of many, often apparently unrelated, facts that the whole design

is revealed. Finally I would make a plea for accuracy. If later

knowledge shows that a species has been wrongly identified, a

correction must always be made.

The Existence of a Diapause. — The majority of Indian species

are continuously -brooded, but there are a few that appear to have

a well-defined time of emergence. Careful recording of the occur-

rence of each species, month by month, will determine whether an

insect is continuously-brooded or not. Breeding experiments will

probably be necessary to determine whether there is a diapause,

or whether the break between broods is due to slow development

in the early stages. In Britain the diapause usually takes the form

of hibernation to tide over the period of cold ; in fact it is often

the lack of this period of inactivity that prevents insects with more

southern origins from establishing themselves, and it may be pass-

ed in any one of the four stages which make up the insect life

cycle. In hot countries the diapause usually occurs in the hot sea-

son to escape heat and dryness. In Calcutta, for example, Papilio

crino F., Graphium nomius Esp., Neptis hylas L. and N. jumbah

Moore all appear to have an emergence at the end of the cold

weather in Feb. /March and the imago is only seen at this time.

Seasonal Forms. — By now most of the seasonal forms occurring

in India have been connected up, although it is suggested that

SUGGESTIONS TOR MTOM Ol OGl CAL WORK

Catopsilia pyranthe L. and C. florella F. are the wet and dry forms

respectively of the single species C. pyranthe. We do not, how-

ever, know the exact causes of seasonal dimorphism. In Britain

it is usually connected with the longer development period of the

brood appearing in the spring. In tropical countries it. appears

to be due to changes in humidity. Various suggestions have been

put forward ; it has been suggested that the actual cause is the

type of food, new and lush or old and dry, eaten by the larva, or

that it is the direct result of high humidity or aridity acting on

the larva and/or the pupa, or even that it is constitutional and that,

after a certain number of generations of the one form, the other

will appear, irrespective of conditions. I have experimented with

species belonging to two Satyrid genera — Mycalesis and Ypthima

— varying the maturity of the grass fed to different batches of

larvae from ova laid by one female, and rearing part broods under

conditions of very high and very low humidity respectively, but

without any really conclusive results — rwet, dry and intermediate

forms appearing in each type of culture. Pryer is reported to have

produced the two extreme forms of Eurema ( Terias ) hecahe L. in

Japan by subjecting the pupa to heat and cold (Seitz's Indo-Austr.

Rhopalocera, ix, 167). It is obvious that there is plenty of scope

for ingenuity in devising experiments on this problem. The phe-

nomenon of seasonal dimorphism must not, of course, be confused

with the results obtained by exposing larvae and pupae to tempera-

tures which they would never experience in a state of nature. I

know of no recorded instances of seasonal dimorphism in the early

stages, but I have larvae of Ergolis merione Cr. found in March

with very much shorter branched spines than those found in July*

Temperature Experiments. — If the larvae and pupae of many

species of lepidoptera are exposed to abnormally high or low

temperatures, forms differing widely from the normal are produced.

The patterns on the wings of lepidoptera are produced by the

successive flooding of the wings with the various pigments, often

at ah early stage in their formation, and these can only be taken

up by scales at a particular stage in their development. The effect

of extreme heat Or cold upsets this synchronisation and results in

abnormal patterns. Pupae are said not to be sensitive to the

effects of temperature after they have been formed twenty -four hours.

In India, with the widespread use of domestic refrigerators, ento-

mologists have every facility for testing the effects of extreme cold.

For testing the effect of heat it is possible to devise a small incu-

bator by fitting a small box into a larger and packing the surround-

ing interspaces with wadding and this may be heated by one or

more electnc light bulbs. I know of no records of experiments

of this nature carried out in India, but in Europe it has been found

that cold increases the deposit of the black pigment melanin in the

Vanessidi and decreases it in the Pieridae, whilst heat has the

Opposite effect. Anyone carrying out experiments of this nature

should keep careful notes of the temperatures employed, the iength

of the period of exposure, the stages subjected to the abnormal

conditions and the variation in the time of development as compared

with controls under normal conditions. It may be mentioned that

Working on the English Aglais urticae L., cold produced forms

78 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 48

that have never been met with in nature but that heat produced

a form very similar to the Corsican race of the species.

The Use of the Secondary Sexual Apparatus. — A very large

number of Indian butterflies and moths possess secondary sexual

apparatus in the form of specialised scales covering patches of a

glandular nature and these scales are often in contact with tufts

of specialised hair. It is known that the glandular tissue produces

a scent, which diffuses through the specialised scales and is dis-

tributed by the tufts of hair, which may exist on the wings, body

or limbs of the insect, and it is thought that their special function

is to stimulate the female at the time of pairing. So far as I

know there are only three published records of the use of these

brushes in courtship — two by Prof. Hale Carpenter concerning

African Danaids and one by myself concerning Euploea core Cr.

There are no records known to me of the use of the folds filled

with fine hairs on the inner margin of the hind wings of many

male Papilionids, nor of the hair tufts on the wings of Catopsilia ,

Mycalesis, Pratapa and Rapala , to name only a few butterfly genera.

This is not an easy subject for investigation ; in butterflies it may

mean many hours of observation in the open where the species

happens to be abundant, although it may also, as in the three

recorded instances, be the result of quite a casual encounter. It

is unlikely that the sexual display of moths will ever be observed

in a state of nature, although it may be possible to watch it in

captivity if the insects are kept in fairly large cages. There is

always the possibility that light prevents displaying, in which case)

of course, it would never be seem

I am not suggesting an examination of the structure of these

organs as this entails the use of a considerable amount of apparatus

and the possession of considerable skill in the cutting of sections

and the mounting of microscopical slides. The late Dr. Eltringhain

did a great deal of work of this nature and published numerous

papers in the Transactions of the Royal Entomological Society and

elsewhere.

Scents of Lepidoptera. — The late Dr. Longstaff investigated the

scents of butterflies on a considerable scale, but much still remains

to be done. Moths have been neglected, although the males of

many species emit quite a perceptible scent. This is an interesting

subject for anyone with a keen sense of smell, but it is difficult in

many cases to describe the scents perceived. Generally speaking,

scents which are confined to the male sex are pleasant, reminiscent

of flower or vegetable perfumes, whilst those that are common to

both sexes or confined to the female are unpleasant and of a

more animal nature. To take a few Indian examples, the males

of Cepora ( Huphina ) nerissa F. have a scent like sweet-briar, those

of Elymnias hypermnestra L. of vanilla-scented chocolate, and of

Mycalesis mineus L. like brown sugar.

Shock-produced Intersexes. — -Some twenty or so years ago, a

number of intersexes of the African Papilio dardanus Brown wefe

exhibited at a meeting of the Entomological Society of London.

These intersexes, it was claimed, had resulted from subjecting the

newly formed pupae to severe shock and vibration. Geneticists

have all denied the possibility of intersexes arising from this cause,

7b

SUGGESTIONS FOR ENTOMOLOGICAL WORK

and, so far as I know, these experiments have never been repeated

by anyone with positive results. Two Indian species would seem

to be very suitable subjects for experiment — Papilio polytes L. and

P. memnon L. The method used for applying the shock was to

force the larva to pupate on the side of a box and then to givo

the box several sharp taps with a hammer or mallet at the time

the change to the pupa was taking place. Care has to be taken

not to strike too hard, as the newly formed and tender pupa may

be so badly bruised that it dies, or it may slip out of its girdle

and fall. Results of any experiments, whether positive or negative,

would be of the greatest interest.

Palatability of Insects. — This is an extremely interesting sub-

ject, both for straightforward field work as well as for experiment

both indoors and out. Careful records should be made of any

attacks on insects by birds and lizards, with notes of whether the

insect is actually consumed, discarded or escapes. In the house,

the attacks of geckos on insects attracted by light are always

interesting. The whole subject is, of course, bound up with the

theory of mimicry, both Batesian and Mullerian. Experimentally,

much work can be done with cage birds and small insectivorous

mammals, as well as with lizards. Insects of various species

should be offered in combination and careful notes made of the

reception of each species, the state of hunger of the predator and

any other relevant details. Experiments under more natural con-

ditions may be made by putting down insects on lawns or open

ground where mynahs and other birds are feeding, keeping a note

of the order in which the various species are eaten and of what

species are left untouched. A very interesting set of experiments

was once carried out with ants, the insects to be tested being

mashed up with cream and the mixture smeared on slips of glass

and exposed to the attacks of ants. A control slip of pure cream

was included and, after a short period to allow the ants to find the

slips and start feeding, counts were made of the number of ants at

each slip. In addition to the tests made with insects, a second

series was done with various larval food-plants. When experi-

menting with larvae it would be interesting to test larvae straight

off the food-plant against larvae starved for twenty -four hours, so

that the intestines would be empty, and also with their frass

extracted with cream. This would show whether distastefulness

was due to the larva itself or to the food contained in the intestines.

Colour Perception . — It has been noticed that many species of

butterfly are more attracted to flowers of one colour than to those

of another and it has been suggested that the more attractive

colours are very often those colours that are found in the wings

of the species in question. Other investigators claim to have found

the exact opposite ; the genus Pieris , for example, is said to be

attracted most to reds and purples and the Vanessidi to yellows and

violets. Attraction by the colour of flowers is, of course, compli-

cated by the presence of scents. It may be that the extra attraction

of one flower over another is more a question of scent than of colour.

A very interesting series of experiments was carried out with

the English Argynnis euphrosyne L., an insect not unlike our Atella

phalanta Drury. Paper models, made by cutting out photographs

So JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

and painting the ground colour in different colours, and actual dead

specimens, bleached and dyed (in all cases the black spots were

repainted so that the pattern was unaltered but the ground colour

changed) were exposed in a wood where the species was plentiful

and records were kept of the numbers of wild butterflies that

paused to examine them. It was found that the greatest number

of visits were paid to untreated specimens, models and actual spe-

cimens dyed a colour close to the natural tawny were visited less

frequently and those dyed in unnatural colours were ignored al-

together. Among the models and specimens exposed were some

with the ground colour white, not unlike a rare albino variety of the

species, and these were also completely ignored, indicating that an

albino female would probably never have an opportunity of mating.

Are Catopsilia crocale Cr, and C. pomona F. conspecifie? —

Although most of the books on Indian butterflies treat these two

insects as distinct species, there is a very large body of entomo-

logists who consider they are one. The early stages and the

genitalia appear to be indistinguishable, intermediate specimens

have often been found as well as mated pairs in which one member

was pomona and the other crocale . There are, however, no pub-

lished records of bred families to prove the question one way or the

other, although I believe Mr. T. R. Bell of Karwar has actually

reared broods from all possible combinations and is convinced that

both are forms of one species. This is an interesting line of work,

and the Prince of Wales Museum in Bombay, the British Museum

(Natural History) in London and the Hope Department at Oxford

would all be very glad to receive complete bred families with the

parents if these threw any light on the question. Needless to add,

all results should be published*

Parasites. — -Much work is to be done on the parasites, both

dipterous and hymenopterous, of Indian insects ; many species are

undescribed and many of those that are known have no records of

their host species. Anybody breeding out parasites from his usual

material should preserve them carefully, with full data of the host

larva and of their own biology, whether they pupate internally or

externally, whether the host larva succeeds in spinning or pupating

or whether it dies in an early instar. A note of the instar in which

the larva was when found is also interesting as it gives a clue to

the stage in which parasitization takes place. It is best to preserve

the whole brood of the parasites, together with their cocoons in situ .

In many species males are very rare, sometimes they have not been

found at all, and in others a rare phenomenon known as poly-

embryony occurs, the female lays one egg in the host and this,

instead of producing one larva, produces a large number, which

are, of course, all of the same sex. This is commonest in egg

parasites.

The Society Would, I am sure, be prepared to send specimens to

recognised experts in this group.

Relations with AntSr — Whilst a number of Indian Lycaenids afe

attended by ants ill the larval stage, and whilst we have a number

of Lycaenid genera that are purely carnivorous, such as Gerydus

feeding on aphides, Spalgis on coccids and Liphyra on ants, there

are no Indian species that I know which must have the attention

SUGGESTIONS FOk ktilOkOLOGICAL WORK Si

bf ants if the larvae are to survive, or which have the very interest-

ing and complicated life-history of the English Maculinea avion L.

As is probably generally known, many Lycaenid larvae possess

glands on the ioth and nth somites, the gland on the ioth somite

is dorsal in position and secretes a sweet, honey -like substance.

The glands on the nth somite are sub-spiraeular and their function

is still unknown. The honey from the gland on the ioth- somite

is very attractive to ants, and most Lycaenid larvae will be found

to be attended by several ants, which stroke and caress it, and then

suck up the droplet of honey that the gland excretes. This arrange-

ment is obviously to the benefit of both insects, the ant obtaining

refreshment and the Lycaenid larva protection, but in certain

African species things have gone so far that the Lycaenid larva

is unable to survive if deprived of the ants’ attentions, the honey-

gland becoming choked with mould, causing the owner’s death.

I know of no Indian Lycaenid so constituted, but it is possible

that such species do exist and it would be interesting to discover

if they could be kept in good health without ants by cleaning the

honey -gland with a fine paint brush. The English M. ariony referred

to above, has a larva which, for its first three instars, feeds on

thyme in the usual way. After its third moult, however, it leaves

its food-plant and proceeds to wander until it meets an ant; the

ant is attracted to the honey and the Lycaenid larva then adopts

a special posture and the ant straddles it, picks it up and carries

it down to its nest, where it lives feeding (except for a period of

hybernation) on the ant larvae until pupation, which takes place in

the nest. In addition to the Lycaenidae, many Pierid larvae in

their early instars possess forked hairs which hold droplets of liquid

attractive to ants. This is a far less specialised arrangement than

that exhibited by the Lycaenidae, and one which does not persist in

the later instars, unlike the Lycaenids where the gland is often

undeveloped until the third instar.

In addition to the special points referred to above, it would be

interesting to know whether special species of ants attend special

species of Lycaenid larvae, and whether all species of ants realise

the possibility of obtaining refreshment of this nature.

Genetics.— Here we have a most interesting subject to invests

gate and, due to the rapidity with which brood succeeds brood in

India, work that might take four or five years at least in a tern*

perate climate can be completed in six months or so. Our knowledge

of the genetics of Indian insects is meagre, to say the least ; so far

as I can recall, only the three female forms of Papilio polytes L. and

some of the forms of P. memnon L. have been worked out.

Although this is, in the main, a practical paper, some knowledge

of the modern theory of genetics is necessary to understand what we

are trying to investigate. Broadly speaking the modern science of

genetics dates from Mendel’s discovery that when two varieties of

an organism are crossed the characteristics do not blend and lose

their identity but continue unchanged in their descendants. In

other words crossing a red and a yellow variety of an insect or

flower does not produce an orange variety which will breed true,

there are special cases where an orange variety will be produced

but this will not breed true, and normally the offspring of the

6

h. JOURNAL, BOMBAY MTVRAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 4$j

red x yellow crossing will all be red or all be yellow, and the follow-

ing generation will be both red and yellow in definite proportions.

We now know that the characteristics of an organism are controlled

by what are called genes, these work in pairs, one member being

derived from each parent, and each pair controls one particular

characteristic, maybe the ground colour, the pattern, or some par-

ticular part thereof, size, etc., etc. The foregoing is really an over-

simplification ; in many cases a pair of genes control more than one

characteristic, for instance a single pair determines the tailed form

achetes Sulz. and the tailless isarcha Seitz, with its different pattern,

of Pafilio memnon L., and presumably a single gene controls both

the black and the white apex of the forewing of Hypolimnas misip-

pus L ., the absence of which results in /. inaria Cr. The two

members of a pair of genes are referred to as allelomorphs and,

normally, one of the pair is stronger than the other and masks its

effect. When both are present the stronger member of the pair is

referred to as the dominant and the weaker as the recessive. Let

us now assume that a butterfly exists in two forms, a typical red

and a rare yellow variety and that the red is dominant to the

yellow. An insect containing two dominant genes will be red in

colour and is known as a homozygous dominant, one with two

yellow will be yellow and is known as a homozygous recessive whilst

one that contains a red and a yellow gene will be red (since red is

dominant to yellow) and is known as a heterozygote. In some rare

cases the heterozygotes are intermediate dn appearance between the

dominant and the recessive homozygotes.

When writing about the genetics of any particular species, it is

usual to employ the initial letter of the characterstic of the variety

as a capital to indicate the dominant and as a small letter to indicate

the recessive of a pair of allelomorphs. In our imaginary example,

the red gene would be written ‘Y’ and the yellow ‘y’. Each cell

of every individual contains two members of each pair of allelo-

morphs, either two dominants, two recessives, dr one of each, but

at the time of the formation of the reproductive cells, the sperm

and the ovum, they split so that each ovum or sperm contains one

only of the allelomorphic pair. When the ovum and sperm con-

jugate at the time of fertilisation, the paired character is restored,

one gene of each pair coming from each parent. Whilst we have

only been considering one allelomorphic pair, it must not be for-

gotten that each cell carries a vast number of such pairs, all behav-

ing in exactly the same way, and that an individual may be a

homozygous dominant in respect to certain genes, a homozygous

recessive in respect to others and a heterozygote in respect of still

others.

Normally a typical individual of a species is a combination of

homozygous dominant and heterozygous pairs of allelomorphs, and

varieties are recessive for the particular form of variation they exhi-

bit. There are, however, cases where the variety is dominant to

the type, and it. is generally thought that in such cases the variety

is either exposed to far greater dangers than the type, so that its

chances of survival are very small, or that the gene in its homo-

zygous form carries a lethal, weakening or sterile factor, and that

individuals exhibiting this particular form of variation are really

SUGGESTIONS FOR ENTOMOLOGICAL WORK

*3

heterozygotes in constitution, the homozygous dominants being

either non-existent or exceedingly rare. The dark variety valezina

Esp. of the European Argynnis paphia L. is an example of this.

If something of this sort were not the case, it is obvious that the

dominant variety would gradually increase and eventually replace

the type completely. This has actually happened in recent years

in a number of species of British moths, where a phenomenon named

Industrial Melanism has arisen. In these species, which are nor-

mally procryptic, bark- or rock-resting species with a mottled grey

and brown colouring, a black mutant has appeared and has, in a

comparatively short space of time, completely supplanted the type

in many districts. It has been suggested that these black mutants

are not only stronger in constitution, but that they are better favour-

ed by natural selection, the industrialisation of the districts which

they inhabit has resulted in their natural resting sites being blackened

by soot so that the species’ normal type of colour is no longer

concealing.

The occurrence of a homozygous recessive in nature is normally

a rare thing, much more so than is the occurrence of one indivi-

dual that combines two recessive homozygous genes. For instance,

let us assume that our hypothetical red butterfly is normally spotted

with black and that, in addition to the rare black-spotted, yellow

variety, it also produces a rare, red, unspotted form. In nature

the odds against finding an unspotted, yellow specimen are enor-

mous, but by breeding from two pure lines, one yellow and spotted

and the other unspotted and red, we can obtain a combination of

the two pairs of allelomorphs, as will be described below. In some

cases such a combination of two pairs of allelomorphs will produce

an individual showing the variation of both parents, in other cases

it will, be something entirely new and differing widely from its

parents.

In genetical work the first bred generation is referred to as the

first filial generation (Fi), their offspring as the second filial gener-

ation (F 2) and so on. The original parents are said to belong to

the first parental generation (Pi).

Let us now see what will happen when we cross a homozygous

dominant and a homozygous recessive of our imaginary red butter-

fly. The constitution of the red homozygote, the dominant, will

be YY, that of the yellow, the homozygous recessive, will be yy.

In the reproductive cells these pairs will have split and all the sperms

will be carrying a Y and the ova a y, assuming that the male is the

red and the female the yellow example. On fertilisation they will

recombine, but the pairs will now all consist of a Y and ay. If a

pairing is made between two members of the Fi generation, each

sperm and each ovum will carry either a Y or a y, and, on ferti-

lisation, the recombination pairs may be YY, yy or Yy. Let us

show this diagrammatically upto the F 2 generation.

In other words when two homozygotes are crossed all the off-

spring are heterozygous and when these are crossed inter se we

obtain a ratio of 1 homozygous dominant: 2 heterozygotes: 1 homo-

zygous recessive, or in appearance, owing to the heterozygote being

similar to the dominant homozygote, a ratio of 3 red : 1 yellow.

§4 JOURNAL , BOMBAY ■ NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 48

Pi generation

Reproductive

Fi generation

Reproductive

F2 generation

(Homozygote)

cells

(heterozygotes)

cells

(Heterozygote) (Homozygote)

Fig. 1

The mating between a homozygote and a heterozygote is known

as a back-cross and the following diagram shews the result of a

mating in which the homozygote is the recessive.

Pi generation

Reproductive

Fi generation

(Heterozygotes)

Fig. 2.

(Homozygotes)

If the mating is between a homozygous dominant and a hetero-

zygote, we again obtain a ratio of 2 homozygotes : 2 heterozygotes,

but in appearance all four insects will be alike.

In all cases where there is a variety due to a single pair of

allelomorphs, therefore, we may expect our breeding results to be

in one of three ratios — 3:1, 2:2, or 4:0 — depending on the con-

stitution of the parents. In cases where the dominant homozygote

is so weak that it cannot survive, the 3 : 1 ratio will become 2 : 1

owing to the elimination of the homozygous dominants. The differ-

ence between a 3 !i and a 2 ; 1 ratio is not statistically significant in

broods of less than 56 individuals, so that it is important, when

undertaking work of this nature, to rear as large broods as possible.

I do not propose to go into the question of statistical significance

here.

Let us now consider the results of crossing a spotless red

and a spotted yellow variety of our hypothetical species. Let us

call the gene responsible for the spotless form o (the recessive) and

the spotted O (the dominant), o being the initial letter of obsolete

the usual term for spotlessness. Our spotless red individual will

be carrying the allelomorphic pair of genes 00 for the spotless con-

SUGGESTIONS FOR ENTOMOLOGICAL WORK

85

dition and YY for the red, the spotted yellow OO and yy for the

corresponding1 two characteristics, and these may be written as

ooYY and OOyy respectively. In the F i generation we get nothing

but double heterozygotes with the constitution OYoy. In the Fa

generation we get fresh combinations, the actual ratios being i

YYOO:i YYoo:2 YyOO:2 YYOo:4 YyOo:2 yyOo : 2 Yyoo : 1

yyOO : 1 yyoo, in which all individuals with the constitution YYOO,

YyOO, YYOo, YyOo will be normal red and spotted individuals,

those with the constitution yyOo and yyOO yellow and spotted,

YYoo and Yyoo red and unspotted, whilst those that are yyoo

will be both yellow and unspotted. In appearance there will be

9 normals : 3 unspotted reds : 3 spotted yellows : 1 unspotted yellow,

I do not propose to show how these come about diagrammatically,

but readers may be interested enough to work them out, it being"

remembered that the germ cells will have the constitution YO, Yo,

yO and yo.

We now come to rather more complicated aspects of the subject.

Every cell in the body of an organism contains what are knowo

as chromosomes’, which, at the time of cell division, can be detected

under a microscope if suitably stained. These chromosomes are

present in pairs and the two members of a pair are said to be

homologous. One member of each homologous pair is derived from

each parent and it is now known that the chromosomes are the

actual carriers of the genes. If two genes are carried by the same

chromosome they are said to be linked and it would be impossible

to obtain some of the combinations similar to those obtained in the

hypothetical spotless red and spotted yellow pairing. Sex is itself

of a genetic nature, the males in lepidoptera having two X chromo-

somes and females an X and a Y. Normally the X chromosomes

bear certain genes in addition to those for sex, but the Y chromo-

some is practically functionless and does not carry the normal allelo-

morphs for the genes carried by the X chromosome. A character

that is carried by the X chromosome is said to be sex-linked and,

if recessive, would be far rarer in the male than in the female-

in the male the insect would have to be homozygous whilst in the

female the Y chromosome would have no effect of masking it.

If a certain pairing produces an all over 3 : 1 ratio but all the

males are typical and the females half typical and half mutant, it

is likely that we are dealing with a sex-linked factor, which can

be confirmed by mating the mutant females with their brothers

in the hope that one will be a heterozygote, the result of which

would be male ^nd female types and mutants in equal numbers.

This is entirely different from sex-controlled characters, for which

the genes are carried by the autosomes in both sexes, but which

can only manifest themselves in one sex and this again is an

entirely different phenomenon from that in which a sexually dimor-

phic species has a variant of one sex that cannot, for physical

reasons, appear in the other. For instance the female f. catilla

Cr. of Catopsilia pomona F. is sex-controlled, there is no apparent

reason why the purple blotches on the underside of the hind-wing

should be confined to the female sex; the female f. tnaria Cr., of

Hypolitnnas misippus L. is not, however, as the male has no black

and white apex to lose,

& JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

We now come to another interesting phenomenon known as

multiple allelomorphism. Normally allelomorphs exist producing

two phases only of a character, but there are cases where three,

four, or even more forms of the same gene exist. Thebe can be

arranged in a series in which the first is dominant to all the others,

but these others give intermediate results when crossed among them-

selves. Taking our hypothetical red butterfly, such a series might

be red, orange, yellow and white in colour, with the red dominant

to the other three. A cross between a yellow and an orange would

produce all pale orange offspring, as neither form would be domi-

nant to the other, and these pale orange examples crossed inter se

would segregate out in the ratio 1 yellow: 2 pale orange : 1 orange.

If the orange and yellow forms did not belong to the same allelo-

morphic series, the F 1 generation would all be normal reds in the

same way that the cross between the unspotted red and spotted

yellow variety produced all normal, spotted, red offspring.

The last phenomenon we will consider before passing on to the

practical application of this section is multifactorial inheritance.

In this a character is controlled not by one but by a number of

genes, all of approximately equal importance. In such a case

the normal form will be the common one because it will be domi-

nant, and departures from it will become progressively rarer the

more extreme they become. When such an insect pairs with a

normal the offspring do not segregate in any specific proportion,

but include typical insects, the variants, intermediates and various

mixtures between them. I can think of no Indian species that may

exhibit this type of inheritance. In England it is known among

the Satyridae, species normally bearing one ocellus having varieties

with two or more ocelli, and, conversely, species normally with a

number of ocelli having varieties where they are reduced both in

size and number. In the Polyommatini multifactorial inheritance

is thought to be the cause of underside variation in which the nor-

mal spotting may be much reduced or completely obsolete on the

one hand and be present as rays and lines on the other.

Turning to the practical side, let us assume that we have captur-

ed a female variety of some insect and are anxious to work out its

genetics. If the insect is not obviously freshly emerged, the chances

are that it will have mated and, in all probability, with a normal

male. If our female is freshly emerged we must endeavour to pro-

vide her with a mate, probably not too difficult a task if the species

is a common one. If the variety is a male we have the almost impossi-

ble task of providing a virgin female with which to pair him. We

then endeavour to induce our female to lay as many ova as possible

and the resulting larvae are all reared to maturity, keeping a careful

note of the number of ova that fail to hatch, the number of deaths

in the various larval instars and in the pupal state and the pro-

portion of various forms in the resulting imagines. Having ob-

tained our Fi generation, we now have a certain amount of data

to help in determining the probable genetic constitution of the

parents. Normally all the Fi generation will be normals and it is

an indication that the pairing was between a normal, dominant male

and a mutant, recessive female, all the offspring being heterozygous

in constitution. A pairing should result in a 3 normal : 1 variety

SUGGESTIONS FOR ENTOMOLOGICAL WORK if

ratio in the F 2 generation. Let us examine the other possibilities 1

Assuming that our variety is a recessive, its mate may also have

been a recessive, in which case the Fi generation would all have

been the same as the female parent and would have bred true in

the F 2 generation, an out-cross with a normal would produce

nothing but normals in the Fi generation and these would segregate

3 : i in the F 2 generation. The third alternative is that the un-

known mate was a heterozygote, in other words a natural back-

cross, and this would separate in equality in the F 1 generation,

whilst in the F2 generation a pairing from Fi types would separate

out in the 3: 1 ratio and of Fi varieties would breed true. As-

suming that our variety was a dominant homozygote, its mate

might have been a recessive normal, in which case the Fi genera-

tion would all be like the female parent and the F2 generation would

segregate in a ratio of 3 varieties: 1 normal. Or it might be a

heterozygote, in which case, again, the F 1 generation would all be

the variety and the F2 generation would either produce 3 varieties : 1

normal or all varieties depending on the type of pairing. The third

possible mate would have been a dominant similar to itself, in which

case, again, all the offspring in the Fi generation would have been

varieties, which would breed true in the F 2. Here again an out-cross

with a normal would clear up the position. The two other alter-

natives for the variety are either a heterozygote, in which dominance

is complete, or a heterozygote where it is not. There is also the

other possibility of the variety being an environmental or tempera-

ture form, in which case, of course, it is difficult to forecast what

the F 1 generation would consist of. The reader will be able to

work out the theoretical ratios for the different pairings where the

female variety was a heterozygote. The importance of keeping

careful records of failures to hatch and of mortality will be realised

if a brood produces a 2: 1 ratio and some 25% of the ova fail to

produce imagines, this would indicate some lethal factor that pre-

vents the development of the homozygous dominants and that all

the varieties were heterozygotes.

For anyone interested in this subject, I would very strongly

recommend a study of the book entitled British Butterflies by E. B.

Ford, in the New Naturalist Series published by Collins of London.

This gives a very great deal of information both on the theoretical

and practical side of genetical work.

Let us now see what insects we have in India suitable for

investigation. First let us take some of the named varieties.

Among the Papillionidae there are Polydorus aristolochiae F. and

its variety diphilus Esp. ; the Euploea- and Danais-Yike forms of

Chilasa clytia L. ; the many forms of Papilio memnon L. ; the three

female forms of P. polytes L. ; and P. crino F. and its male variety

montanus Feld. Among the commoner Pierids there are the various

female forms of Ixias pyrene L. ; Catopsilia crocale Cr. in its yellow

and yellow-and- white forms; C. pomona F. with its female forms

catilla Cr., bidotata Fruhs. nivescens Fruhs. and siscia Fruhs. ; and^

Valeria Valeria Cr. and its female form philomela F. In the Danai-

dae there is Danaus chrysippus L. with its forms alcippus Cr ., do -

rippus Klug, bowringi Moore and amplifascia Talbot. Among the

Satyridae I can only think of one example, Orsotriaena medus F.

88 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SO.QIETy, Vol 48

in which the difference between the two dry season forms runeka

Moore and turhata Fruhs. may be genetic in origin, although it is

usually ascribed to climatic differences. The extreme variation

exhibited on the underside of the dry season forms of Mycalesis and

Melanitis is probably multifactorial and influenced by environmental

factors and is unlikely ever to be worked out. Among the commoner

Nymphalidae there is Hypolimnas misippus L. with its two female

varieties inaria Gr. and alcippoides Btlr. I can think of no named

varieties among the remaining three butterfly families, but the

Lycaenidae produces a number of underside varieties, where the

spots are either reduced or wanting, or lengthened into streaks.

In the Heterocera we have numerous subjects for experiment ;

among the Arctiids there are a number of red-bodied or red-marked

species with a yellow mutant — Pericallia ricini F. and ab. zerah Cr.,

Diacrisia casigneta Koll. and ab. xanthogaster Roths, and D. obliqua

Wlk. and ab. dalbergiae Moore for example — and among the Dia-

crisia species there is considerable variation in the amount of black

spotting, Utetheisa lotrix Cr. varies in the amount of both black

and red spotting and Argina cribraria Clerck varies in ground colour

from orange to white. In the Bombycidae, Ocinara varians Wlk.

has a brown form varians and a grey one albicollis Wlk. In the

Sphingidae there is Nephele didyma F. with its ab. hespera F. In the

Eupterotidae, many species of Eupterote have a brown and a yellow

form, among the Lymantriidae Dasychira mendosa Hbn. has several

forms of the male. Among the Noctuidae Spodoptera mauritia Bsd.

has a female-like variety of the male, Ilattia ( Amyna ) octo Guen.

has several forms and Anna coronata F. shews considerable varia-

tion in the size and colour of the reniform. Apart from these well-

known varieties, there are a host of unnamed aberrations that occur

from time to time.

Genetic variation is not confined to the imago, it may manifest

itself in the larva, the pupa or even in the colour of the silk of the

cocoon. A rare teratological aberration in the larva of several

species of Sphingid exists in which the horn is double. This has been

proved to be a recessive. I have never heard of an Indian Sphingid

larva exhibiting this abnormality but there is no reason why one

should not be found. The presence of a small tubercle on the site

of the larval horn in some Sphingid pupae is probably genetic in

origin. I once had a brood of Herse convolvuli L. in which several

of the pupa exhibited this abnormality, but failed to get the F2

generation through. The larva of Melanitis leda L. has three types

of head coloration : a green head with a narrow brown line running

down the sides from the base of the cephalic horns, an all brown

head and an intermediate form, which are probably genetic in ori-

gin. The larva of Asota caricae Bsd. has the head varying from

dark crimson to black, the black suffusion spreading from the lower

half upward, and this variation may also be genetic. An English

Satyrid, Pararge megera L., has a green and a jet-black pupal

form, this does not seem to be environmental and may well be gene-

tic, and some of the Indian Satyridae may exhibit the same pheno-

menon. It is also possible that the pink and green pupal forms of

Danaus chrysippus L. are genetic. There is no lack of problems to

be investigated.

SUGGESTIONS FOR ENTOMOLOGICAL WORK

89

Many apparently normal insects may be heterozygous in consti-

tution and there is always the possibility of some interesting aberra-

tion arising when brother is mated to sister. It is not usually worth

while continuing this type of mating beyond the F 2 generation.

I had not intended makihg any remarks on the subject of breed-

ing methods in this paper, but a word or two would probably not

be out of place here. Messrs. Watkins & Doncaster, of 36 Strand,

London E.C.i, have recently put on the market a cylindrical celluloid

large cage, in which many species of butterfly have been success-

fully paired. A mixed bunch of flowers for the butterfly to feed on,

and of the food-plant for it to lay on, can be put in the cage in a

bottle of water and the whole placed in a sunny position. Alter-

natively a sponge soaked in honey or in sugar and water may be

substituted for the flowers. This same type of larva cage is also

useful when dealing with the larger species of moths, but many

of the smaller ones will pair and lay quite readily in small boxes.

Many species will pair more readily if they are exposed to a draught,

and the males of many of the Saturniidae and other' species that

‘assemble’ are said not to be capable of mating until they have

flown, or at any rate fluttered round their box. There are recorded

instances where a male and female moth have sat side by side in a

box without taking any notice of each other, and that the male has

then been tossed into the air and fluttering down for a yard or so

and alighting close to the same female, has immediately paired.

'Larval Dimorphism ., — We have here a very interesting and

diverse set of problems. Dimorphism in larvae may be genetic in

origin (the Geometrid genus Ephyra for example), it may be a

response to environment, either to the colour or the intensity of

light, and it may be due to the effect of overcrowding in captivity.

The late Sir Edward Poulton did an immense amount of research

into the response of larvae to their surroundings and wrote many

interesting papers on the subject. Experimental work consists,

roughly, of rearing parts of the same brood of larvae in large, light

cages and providing resting places of different colours in each cage ;

thus a twig-resting Geometer species would have one cage provided

with brown twigs, another with green, a third with whitish and a

fourth, possibly, with some unnatural colour such as blue or yellow.

A bark-resting species, such as a Lasiocampid, would be provided

with different, plain-coloured barks in the various cages, and possi-

bly a lichen-covered, mottled bark in another. Another set of ex-

periments could be carried out in which the larvae were reared in

jars of differently coloured glass.

An interesting example of genetic dimorphism is found in the

larva of an American species of Colias . In this species a rare

recessive is unable to utilise the yellow constituent of plant chloro-

phyll, with the result that it is coloured a much bluer green than the

normal form and is so conspicuous on its food-plant that it very

rarely survives to maturity in a state of nature.

Another very interesting aspect of this problem is found in cer-

tain larvae when they are reared in captivity. Many larvae, which

normally feed and live in brilliant sunlight, produce a darker form

when reared indoors in captivity. Examples of this are Danaus

chrysippus L., where the narrow black transverse lines of the larva

90 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY J Vol. 48

broaden into stripes, and Prospalla pallidipennis Warr., where the

normally green, sparsely crimson-marked larva may develop a dorsal

series of large, conjoined, crimson blotches, or even assume a bronze

ground colour instead of the normal green. These changes are pro-

bably due to lack of light, but another group of larvae exhibit a

more puzzling change when reared under conditions of overcrowd-

ing. In this latter class a certain proportion will be found to as-

sume an unusual coloration when reared in overcrowded conditions,

irrespective of the conditions of light, and this form will not appear

in batches of larvae which are not overcrowded. I discovered this

phenomenon quite accidentally when rearing the Sphingid Deilephila

nerii L. in rather large numbers and produced a small percentage

of larvae in which the normal green coloration was replaced by

ochreous, and I have since found that I can usually produce this

form of larva by rearing several larvae together in a small recepta-

cle. I have reared numerous single larvae under the same lighting

conditions and have never produced any but the green form. I

am inclined to believe that overcrowding tends to increase the pro-

portion of brown to green larvae in many Macroglossum

and Choerocampid species, but I have not got sufficient data to

make a definite assertion. An unidentified species of Chloroclystis

also produces a dark form of larva when overcrowded, here a nor-

mally plain green larva develops a series of purple-black lateral spots,

which, in extreme examples, may become transverse bands across

the dorsum. It is not easy to assign a reason for this form *0f

dimorphism. It has been suggested that the accumulation of frass

and consequent fouling of the air by a number of larvae in a small

receptacle slows down the metabolism, but I did not notice that my

nerii larvae grew any more slowly when overcrowded. My own

view is that when larvae are overcrowded they interfere with each

other and move about more than they would normally do, and that

this extra movement causes some change in the pigment produc-

tion, possibly due to increased oxidisation of the blood. Most

larvae have a favourite resting position and it might be possible

to devise some method which would produce extra movement in

solitary larvae, by continually reversing the receptacle containing

them for example. If larvae treated in this way when solitary pro-

duced the same abnormal form as they did when crowded, it would

be a long step to proving this hypothesis correct.

It must not be overlooked that there is a distinct possibility that

dimorphism in many larvae may arise from two separate causes :

genetic and environmental. It may be that the homozygous larvae

are definitely one colour or the other and that it is only the hetero-

zygotes that react to external stimuli. It will require very carefully

planned and extensive experiments with larvae of known parentage

to determine this.

Pupal Dimorphism. This is a very similar phenomenon to larval

dimorphism discussed above. I know of no cases of dimorphism

due to mere overcrowding, but there are examples where it is due

to genetical causes, the Geometrid genus Ephyra for example, and

others where it is environmental, or said to be.

The late Sir Edward Poulton was also a worker in this field and

carried out a series of experiments forcing larvae to pupate on ob-

SUGGESTIONS FOR ENTOMOLOGICAL WORK

9l

jects of special colours or under variously coloured glasses. Using

Aglais urticae L., he found that the gilded pupae were produced

when the larvae pupated on light backgrounds or under yellow

glass, whilst dark pupae were produced on dark backgrounds or

under blue. glass. He found that the larvae were susceptible to this

colour stimulus for the very short period of rest between the selec-

tion of the pupating site and the spinning of the silken pad, and

believed that the stimulus acted on the body as a whole and was

not controlled by the eyes as he obtained similar results from larvae

whose eyes were coated with black varnish. Another worker came

to the opposite conclusion and claimed that larvae whose eyes were

varnished yellow always produced gilded pupae, irrespective of the

background, and those with their eyes varnished blue always pro-

duced dark ones. It will be seen that there is plenty of scope for

experiment.

A suitable apparatus for testing the effect of backgrounds can be

constructed with a large box containing one or more electric bulbs

and covered with a sheet of frosted glass, on which tins enamelled

inside in various colours can be stood. Larvae are introduced into

these tins as soon as they are ready to pupate and the tins are stood,

open end downwards, on the frosted glass which produces a uniform

illumination.

Suitable subjects for experiment are the many Papilionid species

with a green and a brown pupal form, several Pierids again with a

green and a brown form, Danaus chrysippus L. with its pink and

its green pupa, Ergolis merione Cr., which has several different

forms, some of the Satyridae with green and brown pupae, and

many of the Lycaenidae, which have a green and blackish pupal

form connected by intergrades.

My own experiments with the pupa of Papilio polytes L. seem to

indicate that the production of the brown or the green form depends

on something more than mere environment. Elsewhere I have

suggested that the brown pupae may be produced from larvae that

wander more than usual, the green pupae coming from the larvae

that wander little. It has also been suggested that here again is

a case where the pupal colour is partly the result of environment

and partly of genetical factors.

Hybridisation. — A very interesting subject for investigation is

the effect of crossing different subspecies of the same species and

also two different species. The crossing of subspecies gives us a

clue as to how much of the difference is genetic and how much

environmental, but it can also have even more surprising results.

In a previous section I referred to the X and Y chromosomes that

control sex. The production of a female depends on a proper

balance between the X chromosome and the autosomes. And

it sometimes happens that the X chromosome of one subspecies is

more potent than that of another, so that this balance is disturbed

in the hybrid and a potential female becomes an intersex. This

happens very frequently in the case of hybrids between species and

often the balance is so much upset that only one sex survives.

The breeding of hybrids is no easy matter. Normally it is only

possible to obtain a pairing between closely related species, and

even then such pairings are often sterile. Even if the pairing is

92 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Pol 48

fertile, the offspring are usually very delicate and difficult to rear.

The method recommended for moths is to enclose several males of

the one species and females of the other together, then to introduce

a female of the first species in a small muslin-covered cage, when

the males have been excited by the presence of the virgin female of

their own species, she is removed and the males are then supposed

to mate with the females of the other species. I say ‘supposed’ as

this has never happened on the various occasions I have tried to

obtain cross-pairings between different Sphingid species. Even if

there is a will to pair, it may be physically impossible owing to the

structure of the genitalia. In butterflies pairings between males

and females of the same species have been effected by holding the

wings shut with a paper clip, exerting slight pressure on the abdo-

mina so that the genitalia are exserted and then bringing the two

sets of genitalia into juxtaposition, as soon as the male claspers

have taken a grip of the female, the two insects are put gently into

a dark box. I have not seen this method advocated for cross-

pairings, but there seems no reason why it should not work.

If anyone is lucky enough to obtain a cross-pairing between two

species, he should keep a careful comparative note of the appearance

of the hybrid in all stages and also, if possible, make comparative

drawings or photographs of the hybrid and the parent species.

General Biology. — Many entomologists may not have the time

or the inclination to carry out the rather lengthy and detailed work

described above. There is still, however, a great deal of useful and

interesting work to be done in recording the habits, etc. of the

insects they observe and rear. We do not know, for example, how

the larva of Loepa newara Moore contrives to spin its cocoon at the

end of a long stalk. Records of cases where a collector has been

deceived by a mimetic species, descriptions of the resting position of

protectively coloured insects, the warning display of those that exhi-

bit warning colours and many other things are all worthy of pub-

lication, always provided they are accurately recorded. They may

provide the piece of evidence needed to complete another’s work.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

The Punjab Salt Range ( Scale i* = i6 miles)

THE BIRDS OF THE PUNJAB SALT itANGE,

(PAKISTAN)

BY

H. W. Waite, o.i.e., m.b.o.u.

( With a map and two plates).

For the purposes of this paper the Punjab Salt Range is taken

as starting from the river Indus at Kalab&gh and terminating at

the junction of the Bunha torrent with the river Jhelum near

Jalalpur some 30 miles west of the town of Jhelum. As thus defined

it lies between north latitudes 32° 20' and 32° 55' and between

east longitudes 71° 35' and 73° 30; and forms the southern boundary

of the rugged plateau extending from the sub-Himalayas south-

wards over the greater part of the Rawalpindi, Jhelum and Attock

districts.

From the Indus the Range runs south-west in a low and narrow

ridge to Nammal, rising thence to the peak of Sakesar (4992/),

which is its highest point. It then sweeps round and continues

practically due east, more or less parallel to the Jhelum and at an

average distance from it of about 12 miles, finally bending south-

wards to meet that river at Jalalpur.

The distance in a straight line from Kalabagh to Sakesar is

roughly 30, and from Sakesar to Jalalpur 80 miles.

From Kalabagh to Sakesar the Range lies in the Mianwali

district. Thereafter, except for a portion of the northern slopes in

Attock, it is included in the Shahpur and Jhelum districts, whose

boundary crosses it about half way between Sakesar and Jalalpur.

The following physiographical details have mostly been collected

from the various district gazetteers. The southern edge of the

Range rises precipitously from the plain of the Jhelum river, which

lies about 700' above sea level, to a general height of some 2500',

with several peaks reaching to over 3,00c)7. On the northern side,

however, the hills slope much more gradually towards the plateau,

which varies from 1,300' to 1,900',

Eastwards from Sakesar the hills consist of two parallel ridges,

which open out to a distance of some 16 miles across and then

bend towards each other to be connected by a confused mass

of smaller ridges about Sodhi. They then again open out to a

width of about 8 miles to meet once more at Nurpur, beyond which

an area of more or less cultivated upland stretches to Sardhi and

Kallar Kahar. East of Kallar Kahar the two main ridges again

become prominent and enclose a valley some 4 miles wide until

they meet in another confused mass at Choa Saidan Shah. Beyond

this the Range has clearly been subjected to great disturbance.

The northern hills after culminating in the peak called Chel

(3,701') swing round southward in a broad sweep near Phadi&l,

some 6 miles north of Ara. This lateral movement is continued

until the whole chain reaches, and is merged into, its southern

neighbour. Beyond this point of junction . the southern hills

continue for about 5 miles till they reach the town of Jalalpur.

They then wheel abruptly to the north-east and follow a short

course to end at the Bunha torrent.

94 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.

With such differences in altitude of the surrounding country

the appearance of the Range differs greatly at various standpoints.

From the south the view is dreary. The hills are almost entirely

bare of vegetation and a few half-starved and sickly bushes

only emphasize the general barrenness. Nor at the eastern end

is there much grandeur of form. But towards the west, where the

limestone rocks become predominant, there are often long lines of

lofty cliffs, best seen in the narrow gorges which carry down the

drainage of the interior upland. From the north the Range has

the appearance of a low monotonous ridge. There is, however, a

fuller vegetation here and the long slopes of the hills are often

well covered with brushwood.

The valleys enclosed by the external ridges lie at a general

height of from 2,0007 to 2,500/ and are divided from each other by

numerous ridges, usually long and narrow and almost all running

east and west parallel to the general direction of the Range. Four

of them contain lakes namely: — -

The water of all is blackish and in drying up exhales a strong briny

odour. There are some rush and reed beds at Kallar Kahar but

the margins of the others are practically bare. The depth of water

at Kallar Kahar nowhere exceeds 4 feet and in years of drought

the lake sometimes dries up completely.

At Nammal, where drainage from the plateau has cut a narrow

gorge through the hills, a dam was constructed in 1912-13 to con-

serve water for a small irrigation canal running to Mianwali. The

lake thus formed has an average area of 1,800 acres, which is more

than doubled by a rise of 10 feet at the dam. Except for some

rush beds at the southern end, its margins are bare. The water is

fresh and always contains a vast quantity of floating weed.

A few small streams rise in the Range and are used to irrigate

fruit gardens before making their way down either to the plateau

or through deep and narrow gorges to the Jhelum plain, on reach-

ing which they have become impregnated with salt. The chief

garden areas thus irrigated are at Sodhi, Kanhatti (near Khabakki),

Kallar Kahar and Choa Saidan Shah.

The soil of the valleys formed by the gradual disintegration of

the limestone and sandstone rocks of the hills above is exceedingly

fertile and its powers are being constantly renewed by fresh

deposits brought down by the torrents. A very elaborate system

of embankments is maintained by the industrious peasants, the

result of which is that the slopes of the valleys have been gradually

worked into a succession of terraces and that in some cases the

dams are so strong and so well designed that the natural channel

of. a large torrent remains perfectly dry even after heavy rainfall.

The whole stream, is turned on to the ridges on either side and

passing gradually down from terrace to terrace irrigates a large

area of comparatively high land which would otherwise remain dry

and almost unculturable.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc,

Plate i

Sakesar from Uchhali.

Photos by Author

Kallar Kahar Lake.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc,

Plate ii

Near Nurpur.

Photos by

Between Nurpur and Lilia.

Author

THE BIRDS OF THB PUNJAB SALT RANGE

§5

The fertile soil of valleys thus irrigated supports a large

population and their villages, situated at no great distance from

each other, which nestle at the foot of the hills or cluster on the

ridges.

The average annual rainfall decreases as one proceeds west-

wards away from the Himalayas, and ranges from about 30 inches

at Jhelum to 18 at Uchhali (at the foot of Sakesar). The peak

of Sakesar is an exception, receiving about 23 inches. Boughly

speaking three quarters of the rain falls in summer.

While snow sometimes falls, and lies for a time on Sakesar it is

very unusual for it to do so elsewhere in the Bange.

The temperature in summer is generally about 10 degrees lower

than that of the Jhelum plain. Considerable heat is experienced

in June and July just before the advent of the monsoon, and the

cold in January and February is sometimes severe. The southern

base of the hills in summer is probably among the hottest regions

of the Indian sub-continent. At Khushab the temperature rises

day after day to 115° or more in the shade, the average daily

maximum for June being nearly 108°; in January the average

nightly minimum is 41°.

The chief crops raised are wheat and oil-seeds in winter and

millets and pulses in summer. Small quantities of maize and

melons are also grown. In the fruit gardens are to be found

loquats, pomegranates, apricots, almonds, oranges, lemons, grapes,

figs and mulberries, the first three predominating.

In general trees of large size are scarce and practically confined

to Shisham or Tali ( Dalbergia sissoo ), Mulberry, Pippal ( Ficus

religiosa) and Bohr ( Ficus indica) planted by the roadsides or

at wells and ponds. The most common trees are Phuldh ( Acacia

modesta), wild olive, Van or Jahl ( Salvadora oleoides) and B4r

(, Zizyphus jujuba). Less common is Bahura ( Tecoma uridulata ),

which makes a brave show with its gorgeous orange blossom.

On the top of Sakesar a number of Chir Pine ( Pinus longifolia) have

been planted and have reached a good size, also some Eucalyptus

and Juniper, while on its slopes may be found fair specimens of

such trees as Kangar ( Pistacia integermna) and Kular ( Bauhinia

variegata).

The brushwood consists chiefly of Sanattha ( Dodonoea

burmanniana) Yahdkar ( Adhatoda vasica), Kari ( Capparis aphyllcD

and the thorny bushes Kandhdr or Phupari (Gymnosporia spinosa),

Malla or Hamlai ( Zizyphus nummularia) and Jallidhar ( Grewia

villosa). There are many ‘reserves’ under the control of the

Forest Department, some closed, and some open, to grazing «

The trees in these are mostly Phulah and olive, which seldom

attain any size.

The Salt Bange is mentioned occasionally in Whistler’s paper

on the birds of the Jhelum district (Ibis, 1916) and in Hume’s

‘Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds’ are several notes by Theobald

from ‘about Pind Dadan Khan and Katas in the Salt Bange’.

In this connection it should be explained that Find Dadan Khan

is on the bank of the Jhelum 5 miles from the foot of the Bange

while Katas is in the hills 2 miles west of Choa Saidan Shah.

9<5 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

In the course of official duties and otherwise I paid occasional

visits to the Range in most of the thirty years 1918-47. I also

spent a considerable time at Dandot in 1932-33 and made stays

of one or two months at Sakesar in the latter part of the summers

of 1930 and 1931 and of most of those of 1937-46. The following

list, which makes no claim to be exhaustive, is based on casual

notes and observations in the above-mentioned years and on a

collection of a little over 1,000 specimens made in 1927-47 and

now in the British Museum. For the identification of the great

majority of these I was indebted to the late Hugh Whistler, to

whose unfailing interest and _encouragement I owe more than

can adequately be expressed. A tribute is also due to the keenness

and skill of my Indian collector,^ Lala Sheikh, who obtained a

great many of the specimens and prepared all of the skins.

Corvus corax iaurencei Hume. Punjab Raven.

Fairly common resident but markedly less numerous than on the plateau and

between the hills and the Jhelum river. Breeds from January to March but

most eggs, four to six in number, will be found in February. The nest is

usually in a cliff.

Corvus splendens zugmeyeri Laubmann. Sind House-Crow.

Resident about many of the villages but in comparatively small numbers.

Breeds in June and July. Eggs three to six. Does not ascend Sakesar.

Dendrocitta rufa pallida (Blyth). Sind Tree-Pie.

Common resident wherever there is a sufficiency of fair- sized trees. Nests in

April and May. Eggs usually five and occasionally four. Here, as elsewhere,

very destructive to the eggs and young of other birds.

Parus major caschmiriensis Hartert. Kashmir Grey Tit.

Common winter visitor, occurring singly or in small parties. Arrives in

October and leaves in March, a few remaining on into April.

Parus monticolus monticolus Vigors. Simla Green-backed Tit.

Winter visitor in small numbers, arriving somewhat later and leaving earlier

than the last.

Machlolophus xanthogenys xanthogenys (Vigors), Northern Yellow-cheek-

ed Tit.

A female was obtained amongst a party of P. monticolus in the gardens at

Choa Saidan Shah on 28 February, 1932.

Turdoides terricolor sindiauus Ticehurst. Sind Jungle-Babbler.

Resident in most of the gardens and at Sakesar, where a nest with five hard-

set eggs was found on 12 July.

Argya caudata caudata (Dumont). Common Babbler.

Abundant resident, breeding chiefly in May, June and July. Nests with

incubated eggs were found on 11 April and 24 August. Eggs usually four and

occasionally three.

Molpastes cafer pallidus Stuart Baker. Central Indian Red-vented Bulbul.

Common resident in the gardens and also established at Sakesar. May and

June are the usual breeding months but eggs may sometimes be found in July.

The clutch is generally three or four and occasionally two. Most nests are built

in trees and are seldom less than six feet from the ground, eight to ten feet being

the usual height. At Sakesar a snake was shot in the act of devouring one of

two fledged young in a nest about twelve feet up in a kangar tree.

THE BIRDS OF THE. PUNJAB SALT RANGE

97

Molpastes ieucogenys humii Oates. Hume’s White-eared Bulbul.

Abundant resident, frequenting gardens and jungle alike and absent only

from the barest tracts Nests from April to July. The earliest d ite on which

eggs were found was 15 Apr J and latest 1 August. The full clutch is normally

three but only two are sometimes incubated and I have four records of four.

The nest is usually placed some three or four feet up in phulah or ber trees or

Gymtiosporia bushes. A small series of this race was collected at Jalalpur

whence the type was obtained in 1871.

Certhia liimalayana limes Meinertzhagen. Western Himalayan Tree-Creeper.

Common winter visitor from October to March.

Tichodroma murafia (Linnaeus). Wall-Creeper.

Uncommon winter visitor. Earliest date noted 3 November and latest

25 February. A favourite haunt is the gorge below the Nammal dam.

Sdxicola caprata bicolor Sykes. Northern Indian Pied Bush-Chat.

Fairly common summer visitor from March to September, the males

arriving first. Earliest date noted 6 March. Breeds in April, May and June.

The nest is usually on the ground at the foot of a boulder but sometimes in a

hole in a rock. The full clutch seems to be invariably four.

Saxicola torquata indica Blyth. Indian Bush-Chat.

Winter visitor in small numbers from September to April, in both of which

months there is a marked passage increase. In Hume’s ‘ Nests and Eggs’ (2nd

ed., Vol. ii, p. 48) it is stated that they occasionally breed in the Salt Range, but

my confirmation of this in Jour. Bom , Nat. Hist. Soc., 29 : 295 was made in

error : I did not see the bird actually on the nest, which I now feel certain was

that of S.c. bicolor .

Oenanthe picata (Blyth). Pied Chat.

Occurs in fair numbers at Sakesar on the autumn passage and a few may be

seen about the hills until March. Earliest date noted 9 August.

Oenanthe capistrata (Gould). White-headed Chat.

The commonest of the chats occurring in the Range. Arrives in August and

leaves about the middle of March. Earliest date noted 10 August.

Cenanthe opistholeiica (Strickland). Strickland’s Chat.

Winter visitor in small numbers from August to March. Earliest date noted

26 August.

Cenanthe deserti deserti (Temminck). Desert-Chat.

Fairly common winter visitor from October to March. Earliest date noted

23 September and latest 18 March.

Oenanthe xanthoprymna chrysopygia (De Filippi). Red-tailed Chat.

Winter visitor in small numbers from October to March, Maunts bare

and boulder-strewn slopes. Earliest date noted 19 October and latest

15 March.

Phoenicurus erythronotus (Eversmahn). Eversmann’s Redstart.

Occurs sparingly as a mid-winter visitor. Only observed in January and

February and usually in the vicinity of the lakes*

Phoenicuirus ocliruros phoenicuroides (Moore). Kashmir Redstart.

Abundant winter visitor from September to April. Earliest date noted

31 August and latest 3 May.

7

98 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST , SOCl&i'Y, Voi. 48

Chaimarrhornis leucocephalus (Vigors). White-capped Redstart.

Uncommon winter visitor. Seen on the stream at Choa Saidan Shah in

January and the Bunha torrent in November.

Luscinia svecica svecica (Linnaeus). Red-spotted Bluethroat.

Luseinia svecica pallidogularis Zarudny.

Bluethroats occur sparingly in the neighbourhood of the lakes throughout

thfe winter and in fair numbers on passage in Aprii-May and September-

October. Of six specimens collected five were assigned by Whistler to pallido-

gularis and one, taken at Naminal on 15 January, to the typical race. Earliest

date noted 23 August.

Saxicoloides fulicata cambaieusis (Latham). Brown-backed Indian Robin*

Very common resident, frequenting scrub jungle more than cultivated

areas. Breeds from March to August, the nest being placed in the shelter of a

boulder or in holes or crevices in rocks. Eggs normally four, frequently three

and occasionally two. Here, as elsewhere, pieces of snake -skin are commonly

incorporated in the nest.

Cdpsychus saularis saularis (Linnaeus)* Indian Magpie-Robin.

A few are resident in some of the gardens. Observed at Sodhi in May and

Kallar Kahar in December.

Turdus altogularis Jarocki. Black-throated Thrush.

Common winter visitor to the gardens. Earliest date noted 6 November and

intest 21 March.

Turdus yiscivorus (Verreaiix). Himalayan Mistle-Thrush.

A female was obtained in a garden at Rallar Kahar on 3 February,

1939.

Montlcola cinclorhyticha Vigors. Blue-headed Rock-Thrush.

Only observed at Sakesar, where it appears regularly in small numbers in the

first half of August. The first arrivals are all juveniles.

Monticola solitaria pandoo (Sykes). Indian Blue Rock-Thrush.

Winter visitor in fair numbers and usually met with on rocky ground

in the vicinity of water. Earliest date noted 24 August and latest 11 April.

Monticola saxatilis (Linnaeus). Rock -Thrush.

Fairly common on passage at Sakesar in August-September and met

with sparingly until the end of October as far east as Nurpur. Earliest date noted

24th August.

Myiophoneus coeruleus teinminckli Vigors. Himalayan Whistling- Thrush.

Winter visitor in small numbers from October to March. Earliest date noted

27 September and latest 23 March.

Prunella atrogularis huttoni (Horsfield & Moore). Black-throated Accentor.

Occurs not uncommonly as a winter visitor from November to February.

Found both singly and in flocks. Earliest date noted 5 November and latest

13 March.

Prunella strophiata jerdoni (Brooks). Jerdon’s Accentor.

A female was obtained at Sakesar on 30 January, 1929 during a spell of

exceptional cold when the Range had one of its rare falls of snow.

THE BIRDS OF THE PUNJAB SALT RANGE

ft

Muscicapa striata neumanni Poche. Eastern Spotted Flycatcher.

Occurs at Sakesar in some numbers on passage in the second half of August

and beginning of September. In 1946 I was astonished to tind a couple haunting

the garden of one of the bungalows there as early as 6 July. They were seen to

attack a Tree-Pie in a most determined manner and pursue it for some distance.

1 never observed this bird elsewhere in our area but Whistler obtained one at

Sandhi on 10 September (ibis, 1916 : 5u).

Muscicapa parva parva Bechstein. Red-breasted Flycatcher.

Only met with on the autumn passage in October-November when it was

seen frequently in small parties.

Tchitrea paradisi leucogaster (Swainson). Himalayan Paradise Flycatcher.

Common summer visitor. Earliest date noted 4 April and latest 30 Sep-

tember. Breeds in May, June and July. The loquat tree is the favourite for

nesting purposes and after that the mulberry and fig. Nests may also be found

in phulah and willow. The tree selected is always close to running water and

the nest may be at any height from two to eighteen feet from the ground. The

normal number of eggs is lour but three are often incubated and I once found

seven, presumably the produce of two birds.

Lanius excubitor lahtora (Sykes). Indian Grey Shrike.

Common resident. Nests in March and April in thorny trees such as phulali

and ber. Eggs three or four. Occurs well above 4,000 on Sakesar.

Lanius vlttatus Valenciennes. Bay- backed Shrike*

Abundant summer visitor from March to September. Earliest date noted

9 March. Breeds in April, May and June. The favourite tree for the nest is

the phulah, but the ber is frequently utilized and, on Sakesar, the ohve. The

nest is usually from six to eight feet up, but I have seen it as low a* four, and as

high as twenty in a shisham. Eggs normally four and occasionally three.

Lanius schach erythronolus (Vigors). Rufous-backed Shrike.

Resident in small numbers. Most often met with in the gardens and on

Sakesar. Breeds in May and June. The few nests found were from eight to

fifteen feet up in thorny trees.

Lanius isabellinus Hemprich & Ehrenberg. Isabelline Shrike.

A female was obtained at Dandot on 13 January, 1932.

Tephrodornis pondiceriana pallida Ticehurst. Sind Wood-Shrike.

Uncommon resident. Only observed in the neighbourhood of Danddi,

Cboa Saidan fehah and Nurpur. A nest with four slightiy incubated eggs was

found on 15 April.

Pcricrocotus brevirostris brevirostris (Vigors). Indian Short-billed Minivet.

A party of four females was seen in the gardens at Kallar Kahar on 24

March, 1947.

Pcricrocotus peregrinus peregrinus (Linnaeus). Small Minivet.

Pericrocotus peregrinus pallldus Stuart Baker.

Observed in small parties from December to March. Of five specimens

collected three were referred by Whistler to pallidus and two, taken at D .ndot in

December, to the typical form. Whisiler (Ibis, 1916:55) shot a female from

a nest with three eggs at Choa Saidan Shah on 26 May, 1913. Its breeding in

our area must, 1 think, be exceptional as I never saw a minivet there in

summer.

100

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

Dicrurus macrocercus albiriclus Hodgson. Himalayan Black Drongo.

Abundant summer visitor from March to October. Breeds in May and June.

Any fair sized tree is used for the nest, which is generally towards the end of a

branch and not less than fifteen feet from the ground. Eggs normally four but

three are often incubated.

Agrobates galactotes familiaris (Menetries). Grey- backed Warbler.

Appears regularly in small numbers on passage at Sakesar about the middle

of August. Earliest date noted 10 August. Not met with elsewhere in the

Range .

Aerocephalus stentoreus brunnescens ( Jerdon). Indian Great Reed-Warbler.

Only observed on passage in May, when it occurs in fair numbers in reed-

beds on the stream at Choa Saidan Shah and on the Kallar Kahar lake.

Aerocephalus dumetorum Blyth. Blyth’s Reed*Warbler.

Abundant passage-migrant in May and August. Earliest dates noted

6 May and 30 July.

Aerocephalus agricoia (Jerdon). Paddy-field Warbler.

Observed on passage at the end of April and beginning of May in the same

localities as A. stentoreus.

Orthotomus sutorius guzurata (Latham). Indian Tailor-bird.

Resident in small numbers in the gardens but I never found a nest.

Lusciniola melauopogon mintica Madarasz. Eastern Moustached Sedge- Warbler.

Occurs sparingly as a winter visitor to the Kallar Kahar and Nammal lakes.

Earliest date noted 24 October. While waiting in the reeds for a shot at duck I

have often had one creeping about within reach of my hand.

Cisticola juncidis cursitans Franklin. Streaked Fantail-Warbler.

Status uncertain. Gbserved at Kallar Kahar in June and July and at Baudot

in August. A nest with one egg was found in a clump of rushes on the Kallar

Rahar lake on 8 July ; it was about a foot from the surface of the water.

Franklinia buchatiatii (Blyth). Rufous-fronted Wren-Warbler.

Common resident in scrub jungle. Nests with eggs were found in June and

July.

Hippolais caligafa rama (Sykes). Sykes’s Tree-Warbier.

Hippolais caligala scita (Eversmann). Booted Tree-Warbler.

Apparently spring and autumn passage-migrants. Of five specimens taken

at Sakesar and Dandot from 27 July to 19 August. Whistler assigned three to

rama and two (one, a juvenile, doubtfully) to scita. On the spring passage

rama was obtained once, at Dandot on 25 April. It may be mentioned that

rama breeds in grass jungle on the Indus near Mianwali in March and April.

Sylvia communis rubicola Stresemann. Whitethroat.

Occurs commonly at Sakesar on passage in August and September. Also

obtained in August at Dandot. Earliest date noted 11 August.

Sylvia hortensis jerdoni Blyth. Indian Orphean Warbler.

Met with in small numbers on passage at Sakesar in July and August and

ohee obtained at Kallar Kahar in the latter month. Earliest date noted 15 July.

Two specimens taken in July were juveniles.

THE BIRDS OF THE PUNJAB SALT RANGE jqi

Sylvia naoa uana (Hemprich & Ehrenberg). Desert Warbler.

Occurs sparingly as a mid-winter visitor on the sandy and boulder-strewn

waste at the southern foot of the hills, which it does not ascenl.

Sylvia althasa Hume. Hume’s Lesser Whitethroat.

Apparently a double passage -mi grant. Arrives at Sakesar towards the end

of July and is fairly common there till the beginning of September On the

spring passage I only obtained it once, at Kallar Kahar on 27 April,

Sylvia curruca blythi Ticehurst & Whistler. Siberian Lesser Whitethroat.

Fairly common winter visitor. Earliest date taken 17 August and latest

2 May.

Sylvia curruca halimodendri Suschkin. Lesser Whitethroat.

Three whitethroats collected at Dandot and Choa Saidan Shah in Novem-

ber and December were assigned by Whistler to this race.

Sylvia curruca minula Hume. Small Whitethroat.

Winter visitor, and met with much less frequently than S. c. blythi. Taken

at Sakesar on 12 September and above Naushahra and below Ara in January

and February.

Phylloscopus collybita tristis Blyth. Brown Willow-Warbler.

Common winter visitor, chiefly frequenting the neighbourhood of the Nammal

and Kallar Kahar lakes. Earl.est date taken 15 October and latest 4 May.

Phylloscopus griseolus Blyth. Olivaceous Willow-Warbler.

Apparently a double passage migrant. Passes through Sakesar in fair

numbers in August and September. Earliest date taken 11 August, On the

spring passage I obtained it once, at Choa Saidan Shah on 6 April.

Phylloscopus subviridis (Brooks). Brooks’s Willow- Warbler.

Winter visitor in small numbers. Met with at Nurpur in December and at .

the foot of the hills near Warcha and Ara in Janu.iry and February.

Phylloscopus inornatus huraei (Brooks). Hume’s Willow-Warbler

One, unsexed, was taken at Kallar Kahar on 1 February, 1 939.

Phylloscopus trochiloldes nilidus (Blyth). Green Willow -Warbler.

Occurs in fair numbers on passage at Sakesar in August and September and

one was obtained at Kallar Kahar on 23 October. Earliest date taken 2

August

Phylloscopus trochiloides vlridanus (Blyth). Greenish Willow- Warbler.

Met with in fair numbers on passage at Sakesar in August and September

and also at Dandot in the former month. Earliest date taken 12 August.

Phylloscopus occipitalis occipitalis Blyth. Large Crowned Willow-Warbler,

Twice obtained at Sakesar on 29 July, 1937 and 20 August, 1942.

Scotocerca inquieta striata (Brooks). Streaked Scrub- Warbler.

Only observed at .Sakesar, where it is resident but uncommon. Stuart Baker

(‘ Nidification 2 : 454) states that the breeding season lasts from February

well into June but the normal laying season is probably from the end of Febru-

ary to the middle of April. I was never at Sakesar during these months and the

only nest that I found there contained four fresh eggs on 13 August. It was

built between four and five feet up in a small and scraggy wild olive and was

most conspicuous. In construction it was a worn looking and untidy domed

affair of grass, well lined with silky fibre, some felt-like vegetable substance

and a few feathers. The parent birds were remarkably fearless, flitting about

and perching within a few feet of me while I examined the nest.

102

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol 48

Suya criniger striafuia Hume. Sind Brown Hill-Warbler.

Resident, and one of the commonest birds, at Sakesarbut was never observed

elsewhere in the Range. Breeds in July and August but I once found eggs

as early as 10 June. The number of these varies from two to five, but four is

the normal clutch. The ne->ts are built either in rank herbage or in small

bushes overgrown with grass at a height of from one to two feet from the

ground. They are always domed and the eggs do not differ in any way from

those of the typical race. Its monotonous reeling song may be heard till the

end of September.

Prinia inornata ferricolor (Hume). Indian Wren-Warbler.

Uncommon. Presumably resident, but I only met with it in winter and

nowhere but Kallar Kahar.

Oriotus oriolus kundoo Sykes. Indian Golden Oriole.

Common summer visitor from April to September. Breeds in May and to a

lesser extent in June. I once found a nest with young as early as 12 May.

Eggs two to four but three is the normal clutch. Most nests are from ten to

twenty feet up in sbisham and mulberry trees, but occasionally the phulah is

chosen and rarely the Icquat. One in a jT.u’ah was only five feet from the

ground with a nest of Dicrurus macrocercus about the same height above it.

Pastor roseus (Linnaeus). Rosy Pastor.

Double passage-migrant, both in small parties and large flocks, in April-May

and August-September. A solitary bird was once observed at Sodhi on 29 June,

Sturnus vulgaris porphyronotus Sharpe. Central Asian Starling.

Sturnus vulgaris poltaratzskii Finsch. Finsch’s Starling.

Winter visitors from October to March, the second being much the common-

er of the two. The reed-beds of the Kallar Kahar lake are a favourite roosting

place.

Temenuchus pagodarum (Gmeliin). Black-headed Myna,

Whistler (Ibis, 1916: 58) saw a few at Choa Saidan Shah at the end of

May and the end of June 1913. It is, however, no longer to be found there nor

did I ever come across it elsewhere in our area.

Acrldotheres frisfis tristis (Linnaeus). Common Myna.

Abundant resident breeding chiefly in May and June. The earliest date on

which eggs were found was 15 April and latest 6 July* Ecgs three or four but

two were once found hard-set. Like the House-Crow it is absent from Sakesar.

Acridotberes ginginianus (Latham). Bank Myna.

I never saw this bird in the Range until 7 April, 1947, when a small and very

restless flock was encountered on the margin of the Kallar Kahar lake. Six

of them sat in a row for a minute or two on the back of a grazing buffalo. A

week later a few were seen by the Khabakki lake.

Uroloncha raalabarica (Linnaeus). White- throated Munia.

Resident, but by no means common. The only nest found was in a small

ber tree on the bank of a stream and contained two eggs on 23 July.

Coccothraustes coccothraustes humii Sharpe. Hume’s Hawfinch.

Only met with twice, in a forest reserve near Nurpur in the third week of

March, 1943 and 1947. There was a good-sized flock on the former occasion

but only a few birds on the latter. Is not uncommon in winter in the Kala

Chitta hills some 30 miles north across the plateau,

THE BIRDS OF THE PUNJAB SALT RANGE

103

Propasser rhodochlamys grandis Blyth. Red-mantled Rose-Finch,

The female of a pair was obtained in the Gardhala valley below Clioa Saidan

Shah on 12 November, 1932. Whistler (Ibis, 191(i : 68) recorded that Captain

Whitehead shot a female below Sardhi in December.

Carpodacus erythrinus erythrinus (Pallas). Common Rose-Finch.

Carpodacus erythrinus roseatus (Hodgson).

Double passage-migrants appearing at Sakesar in flocks at the end of

August and beginning of September. Earliest date noted 18 August. Of ten

taken there in those months in various years Whistler identified five as roseatus

and five as the typical race. In spring it is common in April abouc Dandot,

Choa Saidan Shah and Kallar Kahar, where the ripe mulberries are a great

attraction. Earliest date noted 19 March. Four spring specimens were all

referred by Whistler to roseatus.

Bucanetes githaginea crassirostrls (Blyth). Eastern Desert-Finch.

Met with in small numbers at the foot of the hills near Warcha salt-mines

and between Nammal and Musa Khel, where it is apparently resident. A male

obtained near Nammal on 15 April had its organs in breeding condition, but

search for a nest proved unsuccessful.

Acanthi’s cannabina frlngi llirostris (Bonaparte & Schlegel). Eastern Linnet.

Winter visitor, occurring in small flocks from October to March. Earliest

date noted 19 October.

Gymnorhis xanthocollis transfuga Hartert. Sind Yellow-throated Sparrow.

Common summer visitor from April to August. Earliest date noted 22

March. Breeds in May, the eggs numbering three or four. All nests found

were in holes in trees at heights of from four to twenty feet from the ground.

Passer domesticus indicus Jardine & Selby. Indian House-Sparrow.

Abundant resident. April and May seemed to be the principal nesting

months and four the usual number of eggs.

Passer domesticus riseogularis Sharpe. Kashmir House- Sparrow.

Double passage-migrant. Obtained from large flocks of sparrows about

Dandot in March and at Sakesar in September.

Passer hispaniolensis transcapicus Tschusi. Tschusi’s Sparrow.

Winter visitor. Found in flocks about Pail and Kallar Kahar in the last

week of October and at Nammal in the beginning of December.

Emberiza schoeuiclus pallidior Hartert. Central Asian Reed-Bunting.

A male was shot in a rush-bed on the Nammal lake on 15 January. It is

common along the Indus from Kalabagh to Mianwali in December-February.

Emberiza stewarti Blyth. White-capped Bunting.

Winter visitor in fair numbers, the majority arriving in August. Earliest

date noted 30 July and latest 9 April.

Emberiza cia par Hartert. Transcaspian Meadow-Bunting.

Fairly common winter visitor from October to March.

Emberiza bruniceps Eversmann. Red-headed Bunting.

Double passage-migrant, occurring in flocks in August (earliest date rio'ed

30 July) and April-May.

io4 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL JUST. S0CIRTN, Vol 48

Emberiza striola a striolata (Lichtenstein). Striolated Bunting.

Status uncertain but probably only a winter visitor. Observed at Sakesar

in fair numbers in August (earliest date taken 29 July) and in both the

Shahpur and Jhelum portions of the Range in January and February. A

juvenile was obtained at Kallar Kahar on 4 September.

Riparla riparia diluta (Sharpe & Wyatt). Siberian Sand-Martin.

A male, one of several hawking over the Kallar Kahar lake, was taken op

3 May, 1933.

Riparia rupestris (ScopoliL Crag-Martin.

Met with sparingly throughout the year in suitable locahties and so presume

ably resident, but I never succeeded in locating a nest. In August a couple was

found haunting an untenanted bungalow at Sakesar.

Hirundo rustics rustlca Linnaeus. Common Swallow.

Found roosting in some numbers in the reed- beds at Kallar Kahar at the

beginning of August, and a solitary bird was noted there in the middle of

February.

Hirundo smithil filifera Stephens. Wire-tailed Swallow.

Fairly common summer visitor from April to September. Breeding starts

soon after arrival and continues into August. The nest is usually affixed to the

roof of a verandah, less often to the overhang of a rock in the bed of a stream.

At Dandot a pair was found building in the horizontal shaft of an abandoned

poal-mine. Three is the normal number of eggs.

Hirundo daurica erythropygia Sykes. Sykes’s Striated Swallow.

Summer visitor in small numbers from April to September. Breeds in May,

June and July. The overhang of a cliff or the roof of a cave are the usual

sites for the nest.

Motacilla alba dukhunensis Sykes. Indian White Wagtail.

Mainly a double passage-migrant. Fairly common on the margins of the

lakes in March-April and October, and a few may be met with through opt the

winter,

Motacilla alba personata Gould. Masked Wagtail.

One, unsexed, was obtained on passage at Sakesar on 9 September, 1940.

Motacilla maderaspatensis Gmelin. Large Pied Wagtail.

Fairly common resident on the streams and margins of the lakes. Nests in

April, but eggs may sometimes be found in the second half of March. Tiie nest

is always close to water, usually in the shelter of a boulder and sometimes in a

loose stone wall. At Choa Saidan Shah a pair nested for three years running

on a small rock partially screened by rushes in the middle of the stream, the

nest being only an inch or two above the surface of the water, Eggs normally

four and occasionally five.

Motacilla cinerea caspica (Gmelin). Eastern Grey Wagtail.

Winter visitor in small numbers from October to April and largely rein

forced in both of these months by passage-migrants.

Motacilla flava beeraa Sykes. Indian Blue-headed Wagtail.

Observed in small numbers at Namraal in the middle of April and Kallar

Kahar at the end of April and beginning of May. It doubtless occurs also on

the autumn passage, and two females taken at Sakesar on 27 August are

probably of this race.

THE BIRDS OF THE PUNJAB SALT RANGE

105

Motacilla flava thunbergi Billberg. Grey-headed Wagtail.

Double pasta germ igrant. Met with in small numbers at Kallar Kahar at

the end of April and beginning of May, and on the return passage a male was

obtained there on 4 September.

Motacilla citreola calcarata (Hodgson). Hodgson’s Yellow-headed Wagtail.

Double passage-migrant. Observed in small numbers at Khabakki in the

middle of April and at Kallar Kahar in March-April and beginning of May. A

male was taken at Kallar Kahar as early as 11 August on the autumn passage.

Anthus trivial Is trivialis Linnaeus. Tree-Pipit.

Observed in fair numbers at the end of August and beginningof September.

Presumably also occurs on the spring passage but I have no note of meeting

with it then.

Anthus similis decaptus Meinertzhagen. Persian Rock-Pipit.

Resident, but its numbers appear to decrease considerably in winter. Breeds

in June, July and August and is then quite common at Sakesar. The earliest

date on which eggs were found was 11 June and latest 21 August. The nest is

built in grass in the shelter of a stone or small bush and is always well

concealed. In construction it is a shallow cup of coarse grass lined with finer

grass and, occasionally, a small amount of goat’s hair. Eggs two to four but

three is the normal number.

Anthus rutulus waitei Whistler. North-western Indian Pipit.

Status uncertain. Fairly common in summer at Kallar Kahar, where it

nests on the grass lands adjoining the lake from April to July. Two nests

found there about a hundred yards apart were built in dry pacs of cattle-dung

round which grass had grown in a clump, one being roofed with a flake of the

dung. Eggs three or four.

Anthus campestris griseus Nicoll. Eastern Tawny Pipit.

Fairly common winter visitor. Earliest date noted 25 August and latest

22 March.

Anthus spinoletta blakistoni Swinhoe. Chinese Water-Pipit.

Winter visitor in small numbers. Taken at Uchhali and Kathwai in

February,

Alauda arvensis cinerascers Ehmcke. Eastern Skylark.

Mid-winter visitor. Common in flocks in the wheat-fields in February.

Calandrella brachydactyla longipennls (Eversmann). Yarkand Short-toed Lark.

Winter visitor. Observed in large flocks in January and February, usually

on grass lands in the vicinity of the lakes.

Mirafra javariica cantillans Blyth. Singing Bush-Lark.

Only observed at Dandot, where two males were obtained in the second half

of August, one being shot from a nest. This was a shallow pad of grass,

sheltered by a small plant in the middle of a field of millet about a foot high,

and contained four well-incubated eggs.

Mirafra erythroptera sindiana Ticehurst. Sind Red-winged Bush-Lark.

Status uncertain. Met with in small numbers at Jahlar at the end of

February, Nurpur in the middle of March and at the foot of the hills near

Musa Khel in the middle of November.

Galerida crlstata chendoola (Franklin). Indian Crested Lark.

Abundant resident, breeding from March to July. The nest is generally built

in the shelter of a stone or small plant and in most cases is encircled by flakes

io6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , FoZ. 48

of sun-dried earth or cattle-dung. One was found in a cattle foot-print on salt-

encrusted ground some twenty yards from the edge of the IJchhali lake.

Another wa« little more than a foot from a well used footpath. Eggs normally

three, "occasionally two or four, and I once found one that was moderately well

incubated,

Ammonianes phoenlcura phoeafcura (Franklin). Indian Rufous-tailed Finch-

lark.

One, unsexed. was cbtained at Kathwai on 2 August, 1927. It occurs in

small flocks on the plateau to the north of the Range in July-September.

Ammomanes deserli phoenicuroides (Blyth). Indian Desert Finch-Lark.

Abundant resident, chiefly haunting the barren stony slopes ar.d nullahs on

both sides of the Range. The nest is very hard to find, apart from the dis-

comfort of searching for it in the scorching heat of its bare and arid surround-

ings. Three nests, two containing four incubated eggs and one three that were

fresh, were taken in the latter half of May. Two were on slopes and one in a dry

torrent-bed. All were shallow cups of grass in the shelter of large stones and

were supported by ramparts of twigs, roots and flat pieces of scone. One was

thickly lined with sheep's wool but there was no such material in the others.

Eremopterix grlsea siccata (Ticehurst), Sind Ashy-crowned Finch-Lark.

Whistler (Ibis, 1916: 80) found it common at Sardhi and obtained a male

and nestling there on 10 September, 1913. I faded to meet with it anywhere in

our area.

Eremopterix albifrons af finis (Blyth). Indian Black-crowned Finch-Lark.

One, unsexed, was obtained at the foot of the hills below Ara on 21 February,

1932. Whistler (loc. cifc. sup.) recorded that Captain Whitehead met with it in

fair numbers in December some four miles north of Lilia, i.e. at the foot of the

hills below Sardhi.

Zosterops paipebrosa occidentis Ticehurst. North-western White-eye.

Common resident in the gardens. Breeds in May, June and July, and I once

found eggs as late as 7 August. The nest is usually from five to seven feet from

the ground, but one was taken about twenty feet up in a large apricot tree and

another at only three feet in a loquat. Eggs normally three, occasionally four

and sometimes only two.

Cinnyris asiatica brevirostris (Blanford). Sind Purple Sunbird.

Abundant summer visitor. Earliest date noted 5 March and latest 11

August, Breeding starts soon after arrival, and eggs, two or three in number,

may be found till the end of June. The nests are built in trees and bushes at

heights varying from two to six feet from the ground.

Picus squamatus squamatus Vigors. Himalayan Scaly-bellied Green Wood-

pecker.

Confined to Sakesar, where it is resident in small numbers. I was never

there early enough in the year to find an occupied nest-hole.

Dryobates scindeanus (Horsfield & Moore). Sind Pied Woodpecker.

Dryobates mahrattensis aurocristatus Tickell. Northern Yellow-fronted Pied

Woodpecker.

Both of these woodpeckers are resident, the second common and the first

fairly so. So far as my observations go the former alone occurs at Sakesar.

Brachypternus benghalensis diiutus Blyth. Sind Golden-backed Woodpecker.

Only observed at Choa Saidan Shah, where it appeared to the resident in

very small numbers,

THE BIRPS OF THE PUNJAB SALT RANGE

107

lynx forquilla torquilla Linnaeus. Wryneck.

Winter visiror in small numbers. Earliest date noted 28 August. Appears

to leave early and was not observed after February.

Megalaima virens marshallorum Swinhoe. Himalayan Great Barbet,

A tew are resident in the gardens at Choa Saidan Shah. On 5 June, 1926,

three young birds, almost ready to fly, were found in a natural hole some 25

feet up in the branch of a large mulberry. In May, 1933, a pair was watched

excavating a hole in the trunk of another mulberry. The work appeared to be

finished by 18 May but I had to leave before any eggs weie laid.

Megalaima haemacephala lulea (Lesson). Indian Crimson-breasted Barbet,

Resident at Jalalpur but so far as I know does not ascend the hills.

Cuculus canorus canorus Linnaeus. Common Cuckoo.

Double passage-migrant in small numbers. Observed regularly at Sakesar

in the first week of Ai:gust (earliest date noted 28 July) and obtained at Kallar

Kahar in the middle of April. Only once seen in the hepatic phase.

Clamator jacobinus serratus (Sparrman), Pied Crested Cuckoo.

Occurs sparingly as a summer visitor. Earliest date noted 4 June and latest

25 August. An egg was taken from a nest of Argya caudata on 29 June and

young birds were met with in July .

Eudynamis scolopaceus scolopaceus (Linnaeus). Koel.

Uncommon summer visitor. Earliest date noted 4 May and latest 6 August,

Centropus sinensis sinensis (Stephens). Common Crow-Pheasant.

A few are resident at Kallar Kahar and Nammal, where they haunt the rush-

beds on the edge of the lakes. Also occasionally observed in the gardens at

Kallar Kahar.

Psittacula eupatria nepalensis Hodgson. Indian Large Paroquet.

Psittacula krameri borealis Neumann. Rose-ringed Paroquet.

Resident, and do much damage in the fruit gardens. Krameri is common

and eupatria comparatively scarce. Eggs of the former were found in April.

Psittacula cyanocephata bengalensis (Forster). Blossom-headed Paroquet.

Only observed at Sakesar, where a male was obtained from a party of three

on 18 July, 1937.

Coracias garrula semenowi Loudon & Tschusi. Kashmir Roller.

Fairly common on passage in August. Earliest date noted 25 July.

Coracias beughalensis benghalensis Linnaeus. Indian Roller.

Apparently resident in small numbers and largely reinforced by summer

visitors. Nests with eggs may be found in May.

M crops apiaster Linnaeus. European Eee-eater.

Only observed at Sakesar, where it appears in fair numbers on passage at

the end of August and beginning of September. Earliest date noted 18 August.

Merops orientalis orientalis Latham. Common Indian Green Bee-eater.

Abundant summer visitor. Earliest date noted 9 March and latest 23

September. Breeds in May. Eggs normally six and occasionally five.

io8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 4g

Merops superciflosus javanicus Horsfield. Blue-tailed Bee-eater.

Merops superciliosus perslcus Pallas. Blue-cheeked Bee-eater.

Large bee-eaters were observed in some numbers round the Kallar Kahar

lake from April to August, along the stream at Choa Saidan Shah in May, at

Dandot in August and about the Khabakki and Nammal lakes in October,

The Dandot birds were javanicus and the Nammal ones persicus. I never came

across a breeding colony, but once found a solitary nest on a hill-side at Choa

Saidan Shah. The bird, which dashed out as I passed, was not secured but was

probably javanicus . Tnis was on 18 May and there were five incubated eggs.

Ceryle rudis leucomelanura Reicbenbach. Indian Pied Kingfisher.

Once seen in February on a stream near Ara, doubtless a straggler from the

Bunha torrent below.

Alcedo atthis bengalensis Gmelin. Common Indian Kingfisher.

Occasionally observed at Choa Saidan Shah in summer, and Whistler (Ibis,

1916 : 83) obtained a female there on 1 July. Also seen at Kaiiar Kahar at the

end of April and at Kathwai in July.

Halcyon smyrneusis smyrnensis (Linnaeus). White-breasted Kingfisher.

Common resident, breeding in April and May. Eggs four to six.

Upupa epops Linnaeus. Hoopoe.

Common in summer but seemed to disappear in November and return

towards the end of February. Breeding starts in April,

Micropus melba melba (Linnaeus). Alpine Swift.

Occurs regularly on passage at Sakesar in July-September. Earliest date

noted 14 July." Some parties pass straight over while others remain for a few

days and hawk in company with M. af finis. Many were once seen in February’

feeding very low after heavy rain at the foot of the hills below Kathwai,

Micropus affinis afftnis (Gray). Common Indian House-Swift.

Mainly a common summer visitor from March to September and may be met

with in small numbers throughout the winter. Breeds in March-dVIay and

again in July-August. Nests usually in the roof of verandahs and stables and

at Dandot a colony was found in the horizontal shaft of a disused coal-mine.)

Occasionally a pair usurps a Striated Swallow’s nest. There is a large colony in

the overhang of an inaccessible cliff near Kallar Kahar. Eggs normally three

but two are often incubated.

Caprimulgus europaeus unwini Hume. Hume’s Nightjar.

Fairly common summer visitor from May till the beginning of September.

Breeds chiefly in June and July. The earliest date on which eggs were found

was 22 May and latest II August. They are laid on stony ground amidst a

plentiful growth of Dodonoea and GymnosPoria bushes and may occasionally

be found on the steep side of a ravine. They are nearly always in the shelter of

a bush, often one of fair size. Single incubated eggs were found on two occasions.

The steady whirring note is uttered both on the ground and from a bush or tree

On the wing the call is very similar to that of C. monticolus .

Caprimulgus mahrattensis Sykes. Sykes’s Nightjar.

Apparently a summer visitor and confined to the stony waste dotted with

van trees along the southern foot of the hills. It arrives and breeds early, eggs

being usually found from the middle of March to the end of April. Two

clutches were, however, taken, and brought to me, in the last week of July.

The eggs are usually laid at the foot of a vena ( Rhazya sp.) or harmal ( Peganum

barmaid) plant. 1 never heard any call uttered other than a low chuckle when

flushed during the day.

THE BIRDS OF THE PUNJAB SALT RANGE 109

Caprimulgus monticolus monticolus Franklin. Franklin’s Nightjar.

Summer visitor, arriving and departing at the same time as C. europaeus but

in much smaller numbers. Breeds in June and July in the same localities as that

bird, the eggs being laid at the foot of, or fairly close to, a plant or small bush.

The call, a shrill and penetrating choo-ee , is mostly uttered on the wing.

Asio flammeus (Pontoppidan). Short-eared Owl.

A female was obtained at Dandot on 16 March, 1933.

Bubo bubo bengaleosis (Franklin). Indian Great Horned Owl.

Resident in small numbers. Met with at Choa Saidan Shah and around

Nurpur and Naushahra. A male shot in the first-mentioned locality on 6

March had its organs approaching breeding condition.

Bubo coromandus corotnandus (Latham). Dusky Horned Owl.

Resident at Katha Sagral, a few miles from the foot of the Range below

Pail, but not observed anywhere in the hills.

Otusbrucei (Hume). Striated Scops Owl.

Obtained at Sakesar in July and September and below Sardhi in March. I

believe it to be the only owl that occurs at Sakesar and what was possibly its

call, heard occasionally in July, rather resembled the noise made by inflating a

motor-tyre.

Athene brarna indica (Franklin). Northern Spotted Owlet.

Resident in comparatively small numbers.

Sarcogyps calvus (Scopoli). Black Vulture.

Resident in small numbers. Breeds in March. The few nests found were

on stunted phulah trees on steep hill-sides.

Gyps indicus jonesi Whistler. Himalayan Long-billed Vulture.

Resident, and nests commonly in the precipices along the southern face of

the Range. Eggs are laid at the beginning of January but I have one taken as

late as 3 February.

Pseudogyps bengalensis (Gmelin). Indian White-backed Vulture.

Generally to be seen at a carcase in company with the last, but sometimes the

congregation consists of this species only. Does not breed anywhere in the hills.

In Hume’s ‘ Nests and Eggs’, 2nd ed., Vol. 3* p. 206 there is a note by

Theobald that it nests in large trees. There may possibly have been some trees

of sufficient size about Katas in his day, but this is open to doubt and there

certainly is none such now.

Neophron perenopierus perenopterus (Linnaeus). Large White Scavenging-

Vulture.

Resident but much less common than on the plateau and in the Jhelum

riverain. Breeds in April but eggs, two in number, many sometimes be found

in the last week of March. The nests are in natural hollows and ledges in cliffs,

chiefly in the nullahs along the northern base of the hills.

Gypaetus barbalus hemachaiaaus Hutton. Himalayan Bearded Vulture.

Observed occasionally throughout the year and the whole length of fhe

Range. Doubtless nests somewhere in the cliffs around Sakesar, where it was

most often seen.

Falco peregrinus Tmlstalh Peregrine Falcon.

May occasionally be seen in winter at Kallar Kahar. One made a magnifi-

bfent stoop at a flock of teal just as they were passing in front of my ‘ hide ’.

xxo JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST , SOQJRTY, Vol. $

Falco jugger Gray. Laggar Fa’con.

Resident, but by no means common. Nests on ledges in cliffs in March

and Aprl.

Falco subbuteo subbuteo Linnaeus. Hobby,

One, unsexed, was obtained at Sakesar on 19 September, 1940 and another

was seen there in August and September, 1942.

Falco chiquera chiquera Daudin. Red-headed Merlin.

Probably resident in very small numbers. Observed at Dandot in June

and near Nurpur in October. Breeds commonly early in March between the

hills and the Jhelum and on the plateau to the north.

Falco tinnunculus Linnaeus. Kestrel.

Common in August and September about Sakesar, where I once saw a

party of five, and observed occasionally throughout the winter. A few pairs

undoubtedly breed in our area and a nest with four eggs was found on 17 April

in the earthen cliff of a nullah on the northern slopes. A couple was seen

at Dandot in March and April and Wnistler (Ibis, 1916: 97) saw a couple at

Choa Saidan Shah on 30 June.

Aquila rapax viudhiatia Franklin. Indian Tawny Eagle.

Observed occasionally throughout the year. Breeds commonly in February

and March between the hills and the Jhelum and on the plateau. The only nest

found in the Range was about 30 feet up in a shisham at Kallar Kahar and

contained one hard-set and one addled egg on 20 February.

Hieraetus fasciatus fasciatus (Vieillot). Bonelli’s Eagle.

Noted occasionally at Sakesar and pairs were also seen in the gorges

below Choa Saidan Shah and Sardhi. Doubtless breeds in the cliffs along the

southern face of the Range but I never located an eyrie. Hume (‘Nests and

Eggs’, 2nd ed., Vol 3, p. 140) found many pairs breeding in the precipices

near the Mayo (salt) mines at Khewra. That locality, however, is no longer

favoured, Khewra being now a centre of cement and chemical manufacture

and, at night, a blaze of electric light.

Circaetus gailicus (Gmelin). Short-toed Eagle.

Occasiorally observed at Sakesar in August and September and once be-

tween Uchhali and Naushehra in March. I never found a nest in our area but

in a copy of Hume’s ‘ Nests and Eggs’ given to me by Mr. C. G. D. Farquhar,

Indian Police, who served for some time in the Jhelum District, there is a

marginal note in his handwriting against this species as follows : ‘ Two nests

in shisham trees about 25 feet from ground on very top of tree, 19-2-’94. One

with well grown young one and one with a young one able to fly. Nests of

twigs. Kallar Kahar, Jhelum ’.

Butastur teesa (Franklin). White-eyed Buzzard-Eagle.

Only observed at Sakesar in August when it occurs therein fair numbers.

Haliaetus leucoryphus (Pallas). Pallas’s Fishing-Eagle.

Winter breeding visitor. Earliest date noted 26 September. There are eyries

at all of the lakes except Jahlar. There being no fish, except small ones at

Namrral, the birds prey chiefly on waterfowl. I have watGhed them catching

Little Grebes at Kallar Kahar, hovering low over the water and seizing the

victim as it surfaced after a dive.

Milvus migraus govinda Sykes. Common Pariah Kite*

Abundant resident, breeding in March and April.

THE BigUS OF THE PUNJAB SALT RANGE

in

Circus pygargus (Linnaeus), Montagu’s Harrier.

An immature female was shot at Kallar Kahar on 27 April. In that month

and in August harriers are commonly seen on passage but this was the only

specimen secured.

Circus aeruginosus asruginosus (Lmnaeus). Marsh Harrier.

Winter visitor in small numbers. Earliest date noted 4 September and

latest 3 May.

Buteo rufinus rufinus (Cretzschmar). Long-legged Buzzard.

Theobald’s statement (Hume’s ‘Nests and Eggs ’ 2nd ed,, Vol 3, p. 126)

that Buteo ferox breeds in our area has long been discredited. Although this

bird is common on the plateau in winter and has marked passage through Rawal-

pindi in October-November. I never came across it anywhere in the

Range.

Astur badius dussumieri (Temminck). Indian Shikra.

Apparently a summer visitor from March to September, but one was obtained

at Kallar Kahar as early as 1 February. Breeds in. April and May, nesting

usually in shisham and mulberry trees near running water. Eggs three o t

four.

Accipiter nisus melanoschistus Hume. Sparrow-Hawk.

Only met with in October, when there appears to be a passage across the

Range. A male and two females were obtained near Nurpur at the end of

that month.

Columba livia oeglecta Hume. Hume’s Blue Rock-Pigeon.

Very common resident, nesting in buildings and in colonies in the cliffs. Eggs

taken in March and May.

Colutiiba palumbus casiotis (Bonaparte). Eastern Wood-Pigeon.

Resident in small numbers at Sakesar, and a few pairs used to nest in the

Gandhala Valley below Choa Saidan Shah. Two nests found in the latter

locality on 12 April and 4 June contained young birds. They were both about

18 feet up, one in a ber and the other in a shisham. Of three nests with eggs

found at Sakesar, one on 13 June and two on 9 July, one was in a chir pine,

one in a kangar and the third in a ban oak ( Quercus incana).

Sfreptopelia senegalensis cambayensis (Gmelin). Indian Little Brown Dove.

Very common resident, breeding from April to August. The phulah is the

favourite tree for the nest.

Sfreptopelia decaocto decaocto (Frivalszky). Indian Ring-Dove.

Very common resident, breeding chiefly from April to July. The nest is

usually in ber or phulah. There is a noticeable decrease in the numbers of both

this and the last in mid-winter, when doubtless many seek warmer quarters at

the foot of the hills.

Oenopopella trauquebarica tranquebarica( Hermann). Indian Red Turtee-Dove.

Common summer visitor from the middle of April till the end of August.

Breeds in May and June. Most nests are in shisham trees and from 12 to 15

feet from the ground but one was found not less than 30 feet up in a large

mulberry.

Pferocles orientalis (Linnaeus). Imperial Sand-Grouse.

Uncommon winter visitor. Small parties were observed occasionally in

mid-winter between Kallar Kahar and Nurpur and a solitary male was once

seen on 21 February.

i 12 JOURNAL BOMBAY [ NATURAL JUST, SOCIETY , Vol_t 48

Pterocles indicus (Gmtlin). Painted Sand-Grouse.

Resident in fair numbers. Nests both in the hills and on the stony and

broken ground at their southern base. Most eggs will be found in March and

April, but it also lays in May and June and l have two clutches taken at the

beginning of O rtober. The nest is usually a mere scrape, with a few pieces of

grass or straw in the hollow, but one was found in which a neatly made pad of

grass had teen provided. Eggs normally three and occasionally two. The bird

is a ciose sitter and will sometimes allow itself to be caught on the nest.

Pterocles exustus ellioti Bogdanow. Common Indian Sand-Grouse.

Occurs in small flocks in the hills in winter but mostly frequents the ground

between them and the Jhelum. Breeds commonly from March to May iu the

stony waste along the foot of the hills. Eggs, normally three and occasionally

two, may also be found in June, and I have one clutch taken on 15 October.

Pavo cristatus Linnaeus. Common Peafowl.

Resident in a semi-feral state in the gardens at Kallar Kahar and below

Sardhi, where they are associated with shrines and so not molested. A nest

with four eggs was found on 1 June.

Coturnix coturoix coturnix (Linnaeus). Common Quail.

Occurs on passage in comparatively small numbers in March-April and

Augusl-September, when I have flushed it on the very top of Sakesar. Earliest

date noted 29 February.

AlectoHs graeca koriakovi Zarudny. Persian Chukar.

Resident and common in suitable localities. Breeds chiefly in April and May*

but eggs may sometimes be found at the end of March and as late as the first

half of August. The clutch varies from seven to nine but I have one record of

thirteen. Breeding is on a much reduced scale in years of drought.

Ammoperdix griseogularis griseogularis (Brandt). See Partridge.

Common resident at all levels. Breeds in March and April. Nests with

from eight to sixteen eggs were found from 1 to 9 April and one with twenty-

eight on 25 April.

Francolinus pondicerianus interpositus Hartert. Northern Grey Partridge.

Common resident, breeding chiefly in April and May. Eggs from six to

eight, but I once had ten brought to me, which were said to have been taken

from a nest at the foot of the hills on 30 March.

Turnix sylvatica dussumieri (Temminck). Indian Little Button-Quail.

Theobald (Hume’s * Nests and Eggs ’ 2nd ed., Vol. 3, p. 371) stated that it

bred in our area in August. I frequently heard the booming call in the millet

fields round Nurpur in that month, but never found a nest nor obtained a bird.

Rallus aquaticus korejewi Zarudny. Turkestan Water-Rail.

Met with in fair numbers in the reed beds of the Kallar Kahar lake at the

beginning of February.

Forzanna pusilla pusilla (Pallas). Eastern Baillon^ Crake*

Occurs in some numbers on passage at Kallar Kahar at the end of April and

beginning of May.

Galllnula chloropus Indicus Blyth. Indian Moorhen.

Status uncertain. Observed in small numbers at Kallar Kahar from the

beginning of May till the end of October. It undoubtedly breeds there as chicks

in down were seen in July.

THE BIRDS OF THE PUNJAB SALT RANGE in

Porphyrio poliocephalus poliocephalus (Latham). Indian Purple Moorhen.

A few are resident at Kallar Kahar. A nest with two eggs containing dead

chicks was found there on 8 July.

Fuiica atra atra 1 innaeus. Coot.

Occurs on all of the lakes in varying numbers throughout the year being

always most numerous in winter. 1 never saw any evidence of breeding.

Hyrophasianus chirurgus (Scopoli). Pheasant-tailed Jacana.

Observed in small numbers at Kallar Kahar from April to July and doubt-

less breeds there but I never found a nest.

Rostratula benghalensis benghalensls (Linnaeus). Indian Painted Snipe.

Met with in small numbers at Kallar Kahar from April to July. An

apparently deserted nest with two rotting eggs was found there on 1 July.

Megalornis grus (Linnaeus). Common Crane.

Anthropoides virgo (Linnaeus). Demoiselle Crane.

Flocks of cranes of either or both of these species may frequently be seen

crossing the Range on the autumn passage in August and September. They fly

at a great height and sometimes circle over the lakes for a short while before

passing on. The earliest dates on which flocks were observed in various years

are given below: —

On the spring passage I only noted them twice, on 29 February and 5 April.

Chlamydotis undu! ata macqueeni (Gray). Houbara.

Uncommon winter visitor. A few were observed on sandy ground between

Kallar Kahar and Nurpu**, and between Pail and Naushahra, in December.

Cursorius coromandelicus (Gmelin). Indian Courser.

Noted in small numbers on fallow land and stony waste from March to May

and also in December. Apparently resident, but I never succeeded in finding?:

nest.

Larus ichthyaetus Pallas. Great Black-headed Gull.

A solitary female was shot on the Khabakki lake on 25 October, 1943.

Larus ridibundus ridibundus Linnaeus. Black-headed Gull.

Winter visitor to the lakes in small numbers and one was once seen on a

village pond. Earliest date noted 17 October and latest 14 April.

Chlidonias hybrida indica (Stephens). Indian Whiskered Tern.

Apparently a summer visitor. Observed in small numbers on the Kallar

Kahar lake from May to October and probably breeds there but I never found

a nest.

Gelochelidon nilotica nilotica (Gmelin). Gull-billed Tern.

Two males were secured from a number seen on the Nammal lake in the

middle of April, 1939.

Sterna aurantia Gray. Indian River-Tern.

8

ii4 journal, Bombay natural hist, society , voi. 4

Sterna melanogaster Temminck. Black-bellied Tern.

Both of these terns frequent the Nammal lake in fair numbers throughout

the winter.

leucopolius alexandrinus alexandrinus (Linnaeus). Kentish Plover.

A female was obtained at Kallar Kahar on 23 December, 1930.

Charadrius dubius curonicus Gmelin. European Little Ringed-Plover.

Apparently a double passage-migrant. Not uncommon at Khabakki and

Kallar Kahar in April and October.

Charadrius dubius jerdoni (Legge). Indian Little Ringed-Plover.

Taken at Nammal in January and Kallar Kahar in August. Doubtless

breeds in the wide torrent-beds running into the Nammal lake.

Vanellus vaneilus (Linnaeus). Green Plover.

Winter visitor in small numbers. Earliest date noted 15 November and

latest 21 March.

Chetfusia gregaria Pallas. Sociable Lapwing.

A male was shot from a flock of about a dozen on the margin of the

Khabakki lake on 17 October, 1947.

Chettusia ieucura (Lichtenstein). White-tailed Lapwing.

A male was obtained at Kallar Kahar on 16 October, 1943.

Lobivanellus indicus iudicus (Boddaert). Indian Red-wattled Lapwing.

Apparently resident and strongly reinforced by summer visitors, which begin

to arrive in the second half of February. Breeds from April to June. It is not

unusual to find only three incubated eggs.

Himantopus himantopus himantopus (Linnaeus). Black-winged Stilt.

May be seep in fair numbers on all of the lakes except Jahlar throughout

the year. Breeds at Kallar Kahar in June and July. Thirty-five nests were

counted thereon 22-23 June, 1925 and twenty-six on 13 June of the following

year. While four is the normal number of eggs three are frequently incubated

and occasionally two, and I once found five. When the nests are approached

the birds are loud in their protests, flapping their wings and jumping

about in a frenzied manner. The nests are built round the margin of the

lake where the water is about six inches deep. They usually Consist of a

heap of weedy scum collected and built up, with a small reed clump as foun-

dation, to a height of a few inches above the water. These small mounds

of mud appear above the surface these are utilized instead of heaps of scum.

In years of drought the scum, which then covers large areas of the lake’s

surface, becomes baked to a hard crust and eggs are sometimes laid on this with

nothing but a few bits of grass beneath them. In 1946 there was a growth

of reeds and grass at one end of the Uchhali lake and a considerable number of

birds were seen there at the beginning of July. Judging from the commotion

caused when a villager waded in to drive out a grazing buffalo they were

nesting there also.

Recurvirostra avosetta Linnaeus. Avocet.

A solitary bird was observed at Kallar Kahar on 21 March and H. W. Wells,

the Bombay Natural History Society’s mammal collector, shot four males from

a flock of eight there on 1 May. A flock of similar size was seen at Khabakki

on 17 October.

THE BIRDS OF THE PUNJAB SALT RANGE iig

Numenius arquata lineatus Cuvier. Eastern Curlew.

A female was obtained at Kallar Kaharon 13 October, 1943 and a male at

Uchhali twelve days later. On 7 November, 1925 I saw one which a villager

had shot that day at Kallar Kahar.

Umosa lapponica lapponica (Linnaeus). Bar-tailed God wit.

A female was taken at Nammal on 2 October, 1940.

Tringa ocroplius Linnaeus. Green Sandpiper.

Actitis hypoleucos (Linnaeus). Common Sandpiper.

Fairly common winter visitors from the middle of August till the beginning

of May.

Tringa glareola Linnaeus. Wood-Sandpiper.

Winter visitor and common passage-migrant in April. Latest date noted

2 May.

Tringa totanus e irhinus Oberholser. Eastern Redshank.

Occurs sparing as a winter visitor, its numbers increasing considerably on

passage in March nd October.

Tringa erythropus (Pallas). Dusky Redshank.

A female was obtained at Kallar Kahar on 21 March, 1943.

Glottis nebularia (Gunnerus). Greenshank.

Observed in small numbers at Kallar Kahar on passage in April and

October.

Philomachus pugnax (Linnaeus). Ruff and Reeve.

Occurs in small flocks on passage in March April and the end of September.

Erolia temminckii Leisler. Temminck ’s Stint*

Common winter visitor from November to April. Latest date noted 2 May.

Capella gailinago galiinago (Linnaeus) . Fantail Snipe.

Limnocryptes minima (Brtinnich). Jack Snipe.

May be met with in small numbers throughout the winter but are mainly

passage migrants in March and September.

Platalea leucorodia major (Temminck & Schlegel). Indian Spoonbill.

Small parties occasionally visit some of the lakes. Observed at Kallar

Kahar at the end of June and Nammal at the beginning of October.

Psendibis papillosus (Temminck). Indian Black Ibis.

A party of five was seen flying over the Kallar Kahar lake on 3 May, 1933.

Ciconia nigra (Linnaeus). Black Stork.

One was seen at Kallar Kahar on 17 April, 1947.

Xenorhynchus asiatlcus asiaticus (Latham). Black-necked Stork.

A couple was seen in the low hills near Jalalpur on 24 February, 1921.

Ardea cinerea Linnaeus. Grey Heron.

A few may generally be seen on the lakes from October to May.

ti6 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo/.

Egretta sp ?

Both large and small Egrets were observed on the lakes at various times in

winter but no specimen was secured.

Ardeola grayii (Sykes). Indian Pond- Heron.

Apparently resident and reinforced by summer visitors. Breeds in June and

July. There is a colony in a large bohr tree at Kallar Kahar.

Nycticorax nycticorax nycticorax (Linnaeus) . Night-Heron.

Summer visitor in small numbers. Earliest date noted 17 April. A few

pairs nest in the gardens at Kallar Kahar.

Ixobrychus minutus mimitus (Linnaeus). Little Bittern.

A female was obtained on the stream at Choa Saidan Shah on 3 June, 1933

Phoenicopterus ruber antiquorum Temminck. Flamingo.

A flock may be seen on one or more of the lakes, except Jahlar, throughout

the year. The strength varies but is generally greater in winter. A solitary

bird in juvenile dress was observed at Khabakki on 14 April.

Anser anser Linnaeus. Grey Lag Goose.

Occurs in comparatively small numbers at Nammal and, occasionally, at

Kallar Kahar. Earliest date noted 16 November.

Tadorna tadorna (Linnaeus). Sheldrake.

A flock of five was seen at Nammal on 16 January, 1933 and of twenty at

Uchhali on 3 March 1S48.

Casarca ferruginea (Pallas) . Ruddy Sheldrake.

A few may be seen on most of the lakes from October to April.

Anas platyrhyncha platyrhyncha Linnaeus. Mallard.

Met with in small numbers from the end of October to April. A few stay

on into May.

Anas streptera Linnaeus. Gad wall.

Large flocks may be seen on- the Kallar Kahar and Khabakki lakes in

October— November and again in Marcli. Fair numbers remain throughout the

winter. Latest date noted 14 April.

Anas penelope Linnaeus. Wigeon.

Arrives in fair strength in October and may be met with sparingly through-

out the winter. Its numbers increase again in March — April.

Anas crecca crecca Linnaeus. Common Teal.

Common from October to April. Observed at Kallar Kahar as early as the

first week of September and as late as 9 July.

Anas acufa acuta Linnaeus. Pintail,

Moderately common in October and April but its numbers are few in the

intervening months. Earliest date noted 17 October and latest 3 May.

Anas querquedula Linnaeus. Garganey.

Whistler (Ibis, 1916 : 117) met with a couple at Sardhi on 12 September

and I once saw a few at Kallar Kahar on 10 April.

THE BIRDS OF THE PUNJAB SALT RANGE

Spatula clypeata (Linnaeus). Shoveler.

Common from the middle of October to the middle of May, a good many

staying on into June. Most numerous in November and March. A dozen or so

were seen at Kallar Kahar as late as 24 June.

Marmaronetta angustirostris (Menenries). Marbled Duck.

Only met with at Kallar Kahar in November, in which month single birds

were shot there in 1918, 1921 and 19.2 and a couple in 1925.

Netta rufina (Pallas). Red-Crested Pochard.

Only seen once when a female, presumably a pricked bird, was obtained at

Kallar Kahar on 24 June.

Aythya ferina (Linnaeus). Common Pochard.

Fairly common from October to April, a few staying on into May. Observed

in considerable numbers at Khabakki on 3 October.

Aythya rufa rufa (Linnaeus). White-eyed Pochard

Aythya fuligula (Linnaeus). Tufted Pochard.

May be met with in fair numbers from October to April. Seen at Kallar

Kahar as early as 20 September and as late as 17 May.

Erismatura leucocephala (Scopoli). Stiff-tailed Duck.

Occasional winter visitor. Three were shot at Nammal on 27 November ,

1922 (. Journal Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.t 29 : 563) and I noted some at Kallar

Kahar on 31 December, 1939. On 4 March, 1948 I watched a flock of about

twenty at Khabakki and of thirty odd at Kallar Kahar eight days later.

These appeared to carry the tail either cocked at an angle of ab ;ut 45° or flush

with the surface of the water.

Mergus albellus Linnaeus. Smew.

Large flocks visit the Nammal lake in winter and sometimes greatly out-

number the duck. Occasionally seen at Kallar Kahar, and I once shot one in

December on a jheel a few miles south of Nurpur.

Phalacrocorax carbo (Linnaeus). Cormorant.

Phalacrocorax iavanicus (Horsfield). Little Cormorant.

Both visit the Nammal lake in small numbers in winter.

Podiceps cristatus (Linnaeus). Great Crested Grebe.

Observed in fair numbers at Nammal on 17 November, 1929 and a few were

seen at Khabakki at the end of October, 1946 and 1947,

Podiceps ruficollis capensis Salvadori. Little Grebe.

Ctmmon resident. Eggs, four to seven in number, may be found in the

second half of April but the chief breeding months are May and June. Thirty-

eight nests were counted on the Kallar Kahar lake on 13 June, 1926.

[Mr. J. H. Butter informs us that he shot a fine Scaup drake {Aythya

marila marila ) on Nammal lake on 24-12-1948. Eds.]

8CIAENIPS OF TEE WEST COAST OF MADRAS PROVINCE1.

BY

p. K. Jacob, b.a., m.sc.

Assistant Director of Fisheries ( Marine Biology ),

Marine Biological Station , West Hill, Malabar.

( With one plate and one text figure)

The group of Sciaenid fishes, locally termed ‘Kora’ by the Malabar

fishermen, was popularly designated as ‘Jew fish’ by Hornell, a former Director

of Madras Fisheries, for the reason, that the music produced by the fish

reminds one of the playing of the Jew’s harp. But according to Jordan

(4) Jew fish is the name given to an entirely different group, viz. certain

great bass. According to Fowler _(2) the Sciaenids are often known as croakers,

grunters, or drums, because they produce sounds usually heard under the

water during their breeding season.’

Importance of the Fishery:

According to Lin (5) Sciaenids constitute one of the most important groups

of Chinese food fishes, the annual catch being estimated to fetch even twenty

million dollars. On the West Coast of India also, the Sciaenids occur

abundantly and they rank high among the economically important food species

on the West Coast of Madras Province, as shown in the table below: —

The rank ranges between 4 and 14 among the major fisheries of the West

Coast and the average for the twenty years given above, works out to 10.

The species of Sciaenids, such as Sciaena diacanthus (Lacepede) which

grows to five . feet according to Day (i) and Sciaena coitor (Ham. & Buch.)

growing up to three feet in length, provide prime fish for the tables of the

rich and are in great demand. When comparatively large shoals of these

are obtained, they are either cured or iced and sent to inland markets. Fowler

(2) has noted the high value of this fishery, due to the large size to which,

some of the species grow and their well-flavoured flesh. The other species

1 Published with the kind permission of the Director of Industries and

Commerce, Madras.

a The computation is according to fisheries year beginning with July of ope

year and ending with June of the succeeding year.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Otolithus ruber (Bl. & Schn.) P. K. Jacob.

SCIAENIDS OF THE WEST COAST OF MADRAS PROVINCE ug

which do not attain a large size are collectively termed locally ‘Korakutty’

meaning young ones of Jew fish. These are often caught in large numbers

either exclusively or with other miscellaneous fishes like soles, thread-fins,

anchovies, white-baits and prawns. These small species of Jew fish provide

food for the masses. Even from the earliest times, the air-bladders of the

larger species were exported for the manufacture of isinglass. A few species

such as Sciaena diacanthus and Sciaen coitor are hunted by anglers as they

afford good sport.

While describing the systematics of Sciaenids of China, Lin (5) asserts

that a thorough knowledge of the biology of these important fishes is un-

doubtedly essential for all projects of developing the fishery. This note is

a preliminary report on the attempt made at the West Hill Biological Station,

in this direction. The following species contribute to the Jew fish fishery of

the West Coast of Madras Province.

1. Otolithus ruber (Bl. & Schn.)

2. Otolithus argenteus Cuv. & Val.

3. Otolithus maculatus Cuv. & Val.

4. Sciaena carutta (Bl.)

5. Sciaena coitor (Ham. & Buch.)

6. Sciaena belangeri (Cuv.)

7. Sciaena osseus (Day.)

8. Sciaena dussumieri (Cuv.)

9. Sciaena diacanthus (Lac6p.)

10. Johnius senviPuctosa (Cuv.)

11. Umbrina macroptera (Blk).

12. Umbrina dussumieri (Val.)

13. Umbrina sinuata (Day.)

1. Otolithus ruber (Bl. & Schn.)

Food: (a) Phytoplankton:

Thalassiothrix sp.

Biddulphia sp.

(6) Fish :

Stolephorus spp. (White bait.)

Cynoglossus semifasciatus Day.

(Malabar Sole, small specimens).

Fish scales.

Fish eggs.

(c) Crustaceans:

Young and adult prawns.

Otolithus ruber is essentially piscivorous in habit. This fish is locally

termed ‘Palli kora’ due to the conspicuous canines (Fig. 1) with the help of

which it preys on other fishes. It follows shoals of white bait and prawns

and preys on them indiscriminately. A specimen 16 cm. long had three speci-

mens of white-bait 4 cm., $.5 cm. and 3 cm. long respectively in its stomach.

A specimen 19 cm. long, examined on 2-7-’40, had swallowed 37 prawns.

Out of the 153 specimens examined from the samples collected during the

past decadje, 53 specimens were found to have fed on prawns, while 41 had

white baits as their stomach contents. Prawns appear as pinkish masses in

the stomach. As in the case of the Big-jawed Jumper, this Jew fish competes

with a number of species of economically important fishes, by feeding mainly

on white baits and prawns which are important links in the food chain of

the sea.

The phytoplanktonic organisms, seldom met with, might have entered th©

stomach accidentally.

Spawning season :

Specimens with ripe gonads were often met with in th© catches during

the months of May and August. As spent ones were available at the clo^e

130 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

of this period, this period constitutes in all likelihood, the spawning season

of this species.

Size ranges :

According to Day (1) Otolithus ruber attains a total length of 76 cm. The

majority of the commerical catches consisted of specimens ranging from 15 cm.

to 25 cm. in length. The largest specimen examined in the laboratory measured

28 cm. This fish attains maturity when it reaches a length of 14 cm.

Methods of capture and fishes caught along with Otolithus ruber.

Otolithus ruber is usually caught in the common seine net ‘Paithu vala',

the drift net ‘Ayla chala vala’ and the cast net ‘Veechu vala’ operated either

from the shore or in the inshore waters.

It is captured along with shoals of white baits and prawns which it

follows and preys upon. It is also caught with the Big-jawed Jumper,

Lactarius lactarius (Cuv. & Val.) and other Jew fishes, which are competitors

for the same food, and along with the Malabar Sole, Cynoglossus semifasciatus

(Day.).

2. Otolithus argenteus (Cuv.)

Food :

In its feeding habits, 0. argenteus resembles 0. ruber. The following

items constituted tfie food of the species: Stolephorus spp. (white bait)

prawns, carangid larvae, fish scales and polychaete worms.

Out of the fifty specimens examined forty had Stolephorus spp. (White bait)

and twenty five had prawns. White baits and prawns form the main fcod

of a number of economically important fishes and hence this Jew fish competes

with them by sharing the same food. A comparatively small specimen 8.6 cm.

long had 26 young prawns in its stomach. The bottom feeding tendency of

this fish is revealed by the presence of polychaete worms and fish scales found

in its stomach.

Spawning season :

The spawning season of this species almost coincides with that of Otolithus

ruber. Mature specimens, with gonads in advanced stages of development

were met with, as early as in April. Specimens with gonads in roe were

met with in May, June and July. The spawning season therefore appears

to be from April to July.

Size ranges :

The majority' of specimens examined ranged from 15 cm. to 20 cm. The

size of the largest specimen examined was 30 cm. iong. According to Day (1)

it grows to 76 cm. It first attains maturity when it reaches 12 cm. in length.

Methods of capture and fishes caught along with Otolithus argenteus:

Otolithus argenteus is often caught in the common seine net ‘Paithu vala’

and the cast net ‘Veechu vala’ along with 0. ruber , Sciaena spp. the Jew

fishes Cynoglossus semifasciatus (Day.) the Malabar Sole Sillago sihama

(Forsk.) the Indian whiting, Polynemus spp. the Thread fins, Platycephalus so.

the crocodile fish Engraulis spp. the Anchovies, Stolephorus spp. the while

baits and prawns.

3. Otolithus maculatus Cuv. & Val.

These were rather rare in the catches and only a few specimens could be

examined. A female specimen 19 cm. long, caught in the month of July was

found to be in roe with plenty of fat in the abdomen. Specimens were

obtained in February also. They were caught in the seine net ‘Thattu vala’

find seemed to have fed on small fish.

SCIAENIDS OF THE WEST COAST. OF MADRAS. PROVINCE

121

4. Sciaena carutta (Bl.).

Food : (a) Zooplankton.

Copepoda.

Paracalanus sp.

Leucifer sp.

Foraminifera.

Radiolaria.

Larval crabs.

(6) Fish.

Stolephorus spp. the white baits.

Cynoglossus semifasciatus (Day) the Malabar Sole.

Sciaena spp. the Jew fish.

Fish scales.

Fish eggs.

Prawns.

(c) Other marine forms.

Gammarus sp.

Young crabs.

Polychaete worms.

Sand grains.

As in other species of Jew fish, white bait and prawns constitute the major

food of this species also. Out of 209 specimens examined 100 specimens had fed

on prawns and 61 had white bait. There was an interesting instance when all

the thirty-four specimens obtained from the same haul had white bait in their

stomachs. It is likely that this shoal came across a shoal of white bait

coming from the opposite direction. This is warranted by the fact, that the

victims were noticed to have been swallowed head first.

An interesting case of cannibalism was observed in this species once,

when a young one of the same species was found in the stomach of one

specimen.

The presence of a large number of planktonic organisms in the food,

absent in the Otolithus spp. referred above, is also interesting. The bottom

feeding habit is all the more pronounced in this species, as can be deduced

from the frequent presence of radiolarians, fish scales and sand grains. The

combination of fish scales and sand grains found in the stomachs confirms

the carrion feeding habits of this species.

Spawning season:

The gonads of the specimens examined in the months of March, April,

and May were found to be ripe. They were found to be in roe again in

September, October and November. This species thus seems to have two

long spawning seasons. Plenty of specimens of this species measuring below

2 cm. were caught in May 1942.

Methods of capture, and fishes caught along with Sciaena carutta.

Sciaena carutta are often caught along with other species of Jew fish and

other miscellaneous varieties, in the common seine net ‘Paithu vala’. The

miscellaneous varieties consist of Clupea thoracata the white sardine,

Leiognaihus spp. the Silver bellies, Engraulis spp. the Anchovies, Hemiramphus

sp. the half beaks, Stolephorus spp. the white baits, Cynoglossus semifasciatus

the Malabar sole and Dussumieria hasseltii the rainbow sardine.

Size ranges :

According to Day Sciaena carutta attains a length of 30 cm. The majority of

specimens examined in this investigation varied from 10 cm. to 15 cm. in

total length. This fish attains maturity when 10 cm. in length.

5. Sciaena coitor (Ham. & Buch.).

Only a few specimens of this fish could be examined. According to Day (1)

it reaches a total length of 91 cm. Specimens measuring upto 50 cm. were

among the samples analysed. Their usual food consists of white bait and

prawns as in the other species of Jew fish, but in one instance the stomach

i2? JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . gOCIRTY, Vol 48

was found to be gorged with shells of Modiola sp. The gonads were found

to be in roe in July. They are caught in seine net ‘Thattu vala’.

6. Seiaena belangerl (Cuv.).

The few specimens examined were obtained in the month of March. They

ranged from 11 cm. to 17 cm. in length. The food consisted of prawns and

larval bivalves. Thie gonads of the larger specimens were almost ripe in

March. They are also caught in shore seines in June.

7. Seiaena osseus (Day).

Only immature specimens measuring from 7 cm. to 8.5 cm. were examined.

They were found to have fed on prawns.

8. Seiaena dussumieri (Cuv.).

The length of the few specimens analysed varied between 9.5 cm. and

11.5 icm. The largest specimen examined measured 30 cm. in length. The

main food consisted of prawns and white bait as in other species of Jew

fish and they are often caught along with them in the common seine net

‘Paithu vala’ and the cast net ‘Veechu vala’.

9. Seiaena diacanthus (Lacep.).

According to Day (1) this species attains a length of about five feet and

enters tidal waters. They shoal in fairly large numbers and due to large size

and strength, can be captured only in seines made of jute, locally known as

‘Vakku vala’ which is also used for the capture of large cat fish, Arius

thalassinus. Hornell (3) mentions the use of harpoons to capture the large

Jew fish. Shoals of Seiaena diacanthus are observed to follow shoals of

Rastrelliger kauagurta (mackerel) and on one occasion an entire mackerel

was obtained from the stomach of this fish. Being one of the prime food

fishes, this fish is in great demand and fetches a good price. The large air

bladders are exported for the manufacture of isinglass. Pipe specimens were

available in September. The following are the particulars of the roe obtained

from the Calicut market on 8-9-’47 : — •

(i) Length of roe 19 cm.

(ii) Breadth 5.5 cm.

(iii) Weight of roe 445 gm.

(iv) Approximate number of eggs 62,50,000.

10. Johnius semiluctosa (Cuv.).

Every year, v]ery young specimens measuring from 2 |cm. to 4 cm. are

caught in the common S)eine net ‘Paithu vala’ along with Seiaena carutta in

the month of April. A larger specimen measuring 20 cm. was examined in

the month of November caught in cast net opposite West Hill. The gonads

of a female specimen 26 cm. long, caught in June were found to be well

developed. It had fed on phytoplanktonic organisms such as Thallasiothrix sp.

and Biddulphia spp. Partly digested prawns were also found in its stomach.

11. Umbrina macroptera (Blk.).

A few specimens wjere obtained in the months of June and August. They

were obtained in the common seine net ‘Paithu vala’ and the cast net ‘Veechu

vala’. The size ranged between 11 cm. to 12 cm. Their food consisted of

larval bivalves, young prawns, and phytoplanktonic organisms such as

Pleurosigma sp. and Fragillaria sp.

12. Umbrina dussumieri (Val.).

A specimen obtained in August, 16 cm. in length, had a variety of organisms

in its stomach including polynoid worms probably Lepidonotus sp. broken

molluscan pieces, hydrozoan colonies, radula of mollusca and sand grains.

13. Umbrina slnuata (Day).

A specimen 11.5 cm. long was obtained in the month of December in cast

pet off West Hill. The sex was indeterminate apd the stomach was empty.

SCIENIDS OF THE WEST. COAST OF MADRAS PROVINCE 123

The: major, fishing grounds of Jew fish on the West Coast.

Jew fish was largely caught at Gangoli, Cannanore, Badagara, Quilandy,

Calicut, Parappanangadi, Tanur, Paravanna, Ponnani and Blangad.

The various implements used in the- capture of Jew fish

THROUGHOUT THE WEST COAST.

Uli, or ‘Chattuli’ (harpoons) ‘Beppu’ (large hook and lines.)

Seine nets :

Paithu vala, Peru vala or Mari vala.

Sultan vala.

Nool vala.

Kolli vala.

Vadakkan vala.

Yakku vala (Hemp seine net).

Drift nets :

Kolia vala.

Odu vala.

Kondadi vala.

Ozhukku vala.

Chala vala (Sardine net).

Thirandi vala (Skate net).

Suravu vala (Shark net).

Drag net: Koru vala.

Shore seine net: Bampini vala.

Cast net : Vepchu vala.

Hand seine net: (Vatta vala.).

Chart showing the landings of Jew fish on the West Coast

for 20 years 1925-45.

Pig. 1

i24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 48

The fishery shows fairly regular fluctuation. A regular rise in the landings

every fourth year is noteworthy.

Summary.

The more important species constituting the Jew fish fishery have been

identified. It was also possible to examine a number of specimens of the more

dominant species, to discover their main items of food, to determine their

probable spawning seasons, to study the various methods of their capture

and enumerate the various fishes caught along with them. From the

statistics of fish landed on the West Coast, a chart illustrating the landings

of the Jew fish for the past twenty years is given. The various fishing

methods employed for the capture of Jew fish as well as the main fishing

centres of this fish on the West Coast are also enumerated.

Acknowledgments.

I am thankful to all" the research workers who worked at the Marine

Biological Station, West Hill, during the past decade for the valuable data

collected by them on Jew fish fishery which I have incorporated in this

note. My thanks are also due to Mr. P. I. Chacko, B.Sc. (Hons.), F.Z.S.,

and Dr. H. Sreenivasa Bao, D.Sc., F.A.Sc., F.N.I., for going through the

manuscripts and for valuable suggestions.

Befeeences.

1. Day, F. — Fauna of British India; ‘Fishes’, Yol. 2, pp. 111-129 (1889).

2. Fowler, H. W. — ‘Contributions to the biology of the Philippine archi-

pelago and adjacent regions’., U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull ., 100, Vol. 12, p. 35 (1983).

3. Homell, J. — ‘Fishing methods of the Madras Presidency’. Mad. Fish.

Bull., No. 27, p. 39 (1937).

4. Jordan, D. S. — ‘Fishes’, Appleton, p. 535 (1925).

5. Lin, S. Y. — ‘Notes on Some Important Fishes of China’. Bull. Chekiang.

Prov. Fish. Exptl. Stn. Tenghi. Chekiaug China., Vol. 1, No. 1, p. 1 (1935)

JUNGLE MEMORIES

BY

Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian-Adams, o.b.e., f.z.s., i.a. (Retired)

Part I —Tiger.

( With two plates)

4 There are more ways of killing a cat,’ says the old proverb,

* than by drowning it in cream,’ and there are more ways than one

of bringing to bag that grand Tom Puss, the tiger. You many beat

for him wdth a line of elephants— a pastime, to use the words of a

famous advertisement, * for Rajahs and rich men only ’—or, as more

generally practised, with a line of beaters in conjunction with the

all-necessary stops. Where beating is not practicable, due either

to conditions of terrain, lack of men, or a shallow purse, you may

sit up for him, either over a natural kill, or over a young buffalo

(dead or alive), or over a water-hole, or on a moonlight night

covering a well-known tiger walk. If you are simply a pot hunter,

without consideration for the ethics of sportsmanship, you may

murder him from a motor car, while he stands gazing at it in surprise

or dazzled by its head lights at night. This is much on a par with

the globe trotter who bought a tiger in a cage and shot it between

the bars in the presence of his Consul, so that the latter could give an

affidavit that the animal had been shot in his presence at a range of

5 feet or whatever it was — a yarn which whether true or not, had a

wide circulation in Burma many years ago !

But there is yet another method of bringing a tiger to bag which

from all accounts appears to be little known — tiger shooting on foot—

which affords the greatest thrill of all, and it is mainly with such

episodes that the following account is concerned. I am not referring

to following up wounded tigers, which is generally done on foot,

certainly the most dangerous though at the same time most necessary

proceeding which a sportsman can be called upon to undertake, but

to the deliberate hunting of unwounded tigers on foot, which for

obvious reasons will often include those met by chance. It is grand

sport calling for a cool head and very accurate placing of the first

shot, but with those provisos should not entail much more risk than

any other form of tiger shooting. There is of course always the

chance that the tiger may move just as the shot is fired and the

bullet be misplaced, and it was due to that cause that I experienced

two regrettable incidents; but some risks must be taken in shikar.

There are several ways in which this form of sport may be

practised. You may stalk a pool of water in which the tiger is in

the habit of lying during the heat of the day, you may call him up

during the mating season, you may still hunt for him in the jungle,

or you may stalk him on the open hill-side, and finally you may meet

him by chance and not by design. Luck of course bulks very largely

126 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Yol.

in all big game shooting, and after over 40 years experience I am

inclined to agree with a writer who estimated it at 60 per cent, with

30 per cent for bandobust and 10 per cent for straight shooting. In

hunting tigers on foot the estimate for luck can be considerably

increased.

Memory is notoriously unreliable, but fortunately I have available

for reference the shikar diaries which I have kept since 1905, and it

is with the help of these, which were invariably written up within

24 hours of the event, that I have compiled the following accounts of

tigers shot on foot ; in many cases extracts from the diary are quoted

verbatim. There is nearly always a lesson to be learnt in tiger

shooting, and in each case I have endeavoured to point the moral.

My Fikst Tiger

As it happened my first tiger, and in fact my first head of big

game except for a gooral, was shot on foot, though that was by

chance and not by design. While stationed with my regiment at

Kamptee in the Central Provinces in 1906, I received a letter from a

Roman Catholic priest whom I had met, and who lived in a small

village in a Bilaspur zemindari, asking me to come and shoot a tigress

which was killing a lot of cattle. Ten days leave was obtained, and

the train decanted me at Pendra Road station where the Mission

tonga was waiting to cover the last lap. On arrival at the village I

learnt that a tigress with two cubs lived in a cave about 2 miles

distant ; she was in the habit of lying in a pool of water during the

heat of the day (it was now May), and had demonstrated at some men

who followed her up after she had killed a bullock a few days before.

The plan arranged was that I should first stalk the pool, and if that

failed, should sit up in a machan over the cave with a goat as bait

since no buffalo calves were available, and the villagers were

unwilling to sell a bullock for the purpose. I set out at 3-30 p.m.

and after about a mile of fairly open jungle came across the waterhole

but found nothing except fresh pug-marks. I then loaded my rifles,

which of course I should have done before setting foot in the jungle,

and taking my single barrel Jeffery H. V. -400 went on, the men

following with the goat and my double *577/ -500 Rigby No. 2

Express. After 10 minutes going we topped a slight rise and looked

down into a deep nullah with rocky and precipitous sides in the bed

of which a lot of huge rocks were piled up one on the other. One of

the coolies tapped on a tree with his axe and I saw something dark

coloured rush out from the cave below us. I thought it was a hyena,

but the headman said it was the tigress. Almost at the same

moment the goat let out a piercing bleat, and the tigress stopped

about 70 yards away and turned partly round to look back. I rested

the °400 against the side of a tree and fired standing. She did not

move to the shot but stood quite still for at least 3 seconds, appar-

ently deliberating whether to charge or not. I did not dare take my

eyes off her and was fumbling with the breach of the rifle, trying to

get the case out, having entirely forgotten that I had a second

weapon. I thought I saw her sway just as she bounded off over the

skyline — only a few yards — but could not be sure. The coolies were

very plucky and wanted to follow up at once, but I was sure I had

JUNGLE MEMORIES i2 j

not missed, and had sufficient sense to insist on waiting for a bit.

After 40 minutes, as it was getting rather dark and looked like rain,

I went along the top of the right side of the nullah, which was some

20 feet high and very steep, and looked across to the opposite side

where the tigress had last been viewed, but could see nothing though

I used my glasses. I found afterwards that she was lying half way

up the opposite side in the open and not 70 yards away. The dry

grass was not 18 inches high, but so well did her coat blend with it

that we could none of us spot her. Thinking all was clear I went

down into the nullah with my No. 2 Express at full cock and the

men behind me, and climbed up to the place where the tigress had

stood where I fired. I found blood and was looking for the tracks

where one of the men who, contrary to the orders, had gone a little

way in front and about 20 yards to the right, shouted out f bagh ata.’

All the men at once made for the trees at their best pace, but I

caught a glimpse of the tigress lying obviously dead, so called them

back. She had tried to climb the steep bank and had got halfway

up when she collapsed ; a small tree caught her by the middle as she

rolled down and held her there. We then retraced our steps out of

the nullah and so round to the top of the bank immediately above the

tigress, as of course we ought to have done in the first place. She

was obviously dead but the men would not go near her till I had

pulled her tail. The bullet of 400 grains with lead exposed had

entered behind the ribs and passing diagonally through the heart,

was found beautifully mushroomed under the skin behind the right

fore-arm, in spite of which she had managed to go some 40 yards.

While the men were cutting a sapling to carry her, I went down to

the cave and looked for tracks— there were no others, so either the

story of the cubs was a myth or there was another tigress. I did

not wait to see as I was so anxious to get my trophy back. Begin-

ner’s luck, with a vengeance ! If the tigress had not been dead I

should have struck bad trouble with her above me. The lessons

learnt then were not forgotten.

Between 1907 and 1910 I bagged several tigers by beating, but my

efforts at shooting them on foot were unsuccessful. Both in the Chanda

and Raipur jungles I used to spend hours in the middle of a hot

weather day stalking pools in the fast-drying river beds in hopes of

finding a tiger either in the water or asleep in the shade nearby.

Lack of experience and failure to realise how abnormal a tiger’s

hearing is, were no doubt responsible for my failure. On more than

one occasion the tiger had only just left, as shown by drops of water

which in that intense heat take only a minute or two to dry. Those

were my subaltern days of over 40 years ago when we wore rope-

soled boots, not nearly so silent as the crepe-rubber soles of today,

and I did not think (as I should have done) of going in stockinged

feet. Others have brought tigers to bag in this way, and provided

one can stand the heat, it is a method well worth trying, especially

in the case of a cunning tiger which refuses to return to its kill or to

lie up in ground suitable for beating. But a word of warning is

necessary. Unless the first shot is fatal or at any rate disabling, the

sportsman, owing to the shortness of the range, may be in for bad

trouble. It is extremely difficult to put a satisfactory shot into a

tiger, or for that matter into any animal which is lying down,

128 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

particularly if in water and so only partly visible. For that reason it

is better, after getting into position and ready to fire, first to bring

the animal to its feet. A slight noise, such as the tap of a cartridge

on the riflle will generally prove sufficient.

A move to Burma in 1911 while affording grand opportunities

for sport with elephant, bison, tsine and thamin, gave me no chance

at tiger, while the war years prevented all chance of big game shoot-

ing. So it was not till I retired and settled down in the Nilgiris that

I was able to resume operations against Tom Puss.

The Naragulimund Tiger

My ambition was and still is, to shoot a black panther which I

knew might be found in the uninhabited parts of the Nilgiris plateau

known as the Kundahs, along the great range of cliffs overlooking

Malabar, while there was also a good chance of tiger. Many were

the camps I pitched from Nilgiri Peak to Sispara, but though I

secured good heads of sambar and Nilgiri ibex no sight did I

obtain of a black panther and it was some time before I came across

a tiger, though my shikari ‘ Old Anthony,’ who had seen so many

tigers shot and was always pointing out places where so and so had

met one, used to post me in positions most favourable for observa-

tion. And here, both to illustrate the method adopted, and for the

benefit of those who do not know the Nilgiris, it will be as well to

explain that the plateau, apart from the cultivated areas, consists

chiefly of rolling grassy downs interrupted by wooded ravines,

locally known as sholas. These sholas which are sometimes of

considerable extent, give cover to sambar and tigers during the day

time, and it is only during the early hours of daylight or shortly

before dusk that one has much chance of seeing an animal outside

them— exceptions do of course occur, but generally speaking that is

the position. The sportsman therefore takes post sufficiently high to

command a wide and general view — if a tiger is seen he stalks and

tries to intercept it before it lies up for the day or darkness falls, as

the case may be.

But my first meeting with a Nilgiri tiger was not the result of a

stalk but my chance. We had broken camp after a blank trip and

were marching in from Pirmund to Avalanche — I was with the

Shikari and gunbearer about a mile in advance of the pack ponies.

As we started up the long hill past Naragulimund I heard a sambar

ponk at the top, and looking up saw two hinds belling a tiger which

was walking down the bridle path towards us. It was about 1000

yards away and I remember thinking it looked like a big striped

sausage as it came downhill. It is a sound rule not to fire at a

dangerous animal above one, and as the tiger disappeared round a

bend of the path, I hurried uphill with the two men so as to command

a corner about 100 yards distant and level with us. As the tiger

came round the corner I sat up and came into position (I should have

done this before) but found that the grass just in front of me

obstructed my view so had to take the shot standing. As I fired

the tiger, which had halted on seeing us swung round, with the result

that the bullet caught him far back. He galloped down into a

shola and I gave him half an hour to stiffen. By that time my pack

Photo by H. H. Maharao of Kotah

A tigress changing covert.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc,

Plate ii

The Dodakatte tigress.

“ She was a full grown tigress but rather lanky.”

Photo by Author

In the Kundahs.

“ Rolling grassy downs interrupted by wooded ravines locally known as

sholas.”

JUNGLE MEMORIES

12$

ponies had come up with my three dogs, so we put them on the trail.

They bustled the tiger into another shola but I could get no shot, so

ran up to the top. I could get glimpses of the tiger and dogs below

me, but nothing to shoot at, and shortly after he broke across the

open into a third shola so closely followed by the dogs that again a

shot was impossible — I could however see that he was hit far back. I

ran down the hill and up the other side so as to get above him, but

after sometime hearing no sound from the dogs and thinking, foolish-

ly, that the tiger had passed out went down to the shola, as I knew

that once inside I should have a clear view of at least 50 yards. I was

just entering when I heard a growl, and a cry from my shikari whom

I had lost sight of and who, unknown to me, was also peering into

the shola 50 yards away on my left. I ran round and found that the

tiger had bitten him in the shoulder and also practically scalped him.

I supported him- down to a stream and while I was doing what I

could in the way of first aid, the dog boy also suddenly came out of

the shola with a bite in the foot and one toe hanging by a thread. My

shikari, stout fellow, implored me to follow up the tiger and finish

it off, but I would not hear of it and concentrated in getting both

men into hospital with the least possible delay. This was done and

I am glad to say that both made a satisfactory recovery, though the

shikari had a bad time. The tiger died not far from the scene of the

accident, but the skin when recovered was too far gone to save*

Altogether a bad business, but two lessons stood out — the import*

ance of a deadly first shot and the necessity for keeping together

when following up,

THE DoDDAKATTE TlGRESS

In April 1925 I was in camp at Doddakatte, some miles north

of Mudumalai in the Nilgiris-Wynaad. There were a number of

wild dogs hunting the valley south of the hut and I was lucky enough

to shoot 5 of them in the first two days. But of course they had

frightened the chital away on that side and so on the third morning

I took the forest path north towards Karaboyee. Within half a mile

I came across a small herd of bison but left them alone as the bull

was (as is generally the case) a small one. We went on very slowly

in hopes of finding a good chital stag, and just as we reached a bend

in the path I saw through the thick foliage of the teak saplings some*

thing red about 40 yards away. I thought it was a wild dog, but

my shikari Kempa said it was a tiger. I could not make out how

she was standing so moved forward a couple of yards, when through

the leaves I saw that she was facing, while a snarl showed that she

has recognised us. Resting my rifle against the side of a sapling

for greater steadiness I aimed high on her chest and fired. She

dropped to the shot but I could not believe she was dead, so climbed

a tree and put another shot into the back of her neck. She was a full

grown tigress but rather lanky — a typical game killer. The first

bullet had entered at the hollow of the throat and was under the skin

half way down the back, beautifully mushroomed — a *423 soft-nosed.

It was just as well that she was laid out on the spot, or a charge

would probably have ensued as she was facing us. But ‘ all’s well that

ends well ’, and I had learnt how deadly that particular shot is.

9

I30 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

The Porthimund Tiger

In September of the same year a Badaga came to my bungalow

in Lovedale with news of a buffalo killed by a tiger beyond Krur-

mund, so I took out beaters the next day to try for it. The first

beat was blank but as the tiger had fed heavily overnight he was

probably still in the vicinity and I decided to try one more beat.

The shola to be beaten ran uphill to an open col about 40 yards

across, with bare ridges on either side, and another big shola running

down behind us. I took up my position in a bush covering the

centre of the col — it was high enough to cover my head in front and

I cleared openings to enable me to shoot to the right or left. Soon

after I was in position I heard heavy footsteps in dead leaves near

the edge of the shola in front of me — they moved to the right and

then stopped. I guessed it must be a tiger, and w'as expecting him

to come out on that side, but when I next looked to the left I saw

the tiger crossing the open not 25 yards away— a wonderful sight

with his orange coat glinting in the sun. I raised my rifle (a D.B.

No. 2 Express by Rigby) intending to let him pass before firing, but

the movement caught his eye and he stopped and stared at me. At

such close range a shoulder shot would have meant a charge and his

neck was covered, and so I fired at his head. The shot knocked him

over but did not kill or even stun him, and he rushed back towards

the shola, on the edge of which he fell, followed by an ineffectual

left barrel. My first bullet, as I found afterwards had gone below

the brain, down his throat and into his lungs, but I did not know this

at the time. All I did know was that I must get in another shot

before he recovered himself. I ran round in front of my bush

hurriedly reloading — and what a slow business it was with an under-

lever, hammer, non-ejector rifle ! I could see a great striped body

rising and falling in the shade of the shola not 40 yards away and

fired two hurried shots, one at the shoulder which missed and the

other at the head as he picked himself up and started to enter the

shola— the latter hit behind the ear and finished the business.

Though this tiger was shot on foot, I had beaters to drive him out

to me, and so strictly speaking this episode hardly deserves inclusion

in the series. But I have related it to draw attention to the risk of

head shots. Here was a steady shot at close range and I hit exactly

where I aimed and yet I failed to brain him, due to the fact that I

miscalculated the angle. He was on slightly higher ground than

myself— a question of a few feet only — and I thought that if I aimed

for his eye I should go above the brain and the bullet possibly

glance off. I therefore aimed just below the eye, and the result was

that I went too low. Another point worth noting was his noisy

progress inside the shola to my right until he evidently spotted the

stop in that direction when he retraced his steps absolutely silently,

and was in fact half way across the open on my left before I spotted

him.

He was a big heavy tiger, well above average, with a very hand-

some skin, many of the stripes being double, as is so often the case

with our South Indian tigers, as compared with the paler colouration

and lighter markings of those from the North. A Royal tiger, i.e.

with an unbroken band of black completely encircling the body, is

JUNGLE MEMORIES i3i

however as rare in the South as elsewhere. An unhealed wound

along the fore-arm identified this tiger as the one which had fatally

tnauled a young planter a short time before.

The Bangi Tappal Tigers

In General Douglas Hamilton’s book Records of Sport in South-

ern India there is a plate of a family party of five tigers which he

saw in the Kundahs near Onnemund in 1867 — two full grown and

three cubs the size of panthers. It was my good fortune also to

meet a family party, though not so large, in November 1926. Tigers

are in the habit of coming up from Bhavani and the Silent Valley

each year when the N. E. monsoon breaks, and their route is past

the Bangi Tappal forest bungalow. I decided to go out there on

the chance of intercepting one, and at dawn on the 1st November

left my camp at Lakkidi where I halted for the night, en route for

Bangi Tappal. We had marched about 5 miles when my shikari

stumbled in crossing a stream and pushed the muzzle of the rifle

into some mud, completely clogging the bore. At first I thought of

leaving it till we reached the bungalow only 2 miles away, not

having a cleaning rod with me, but wiser counsels prevailed and I

managed to clear the obstruction with the pull-thru weight. As I

did so I said to my shikari, ‘ If I don’t clean it now we shall meet a

tiger round the next corner ’. I little knew how true a prophet I

was! We had not gone more than half a mile in the drizzle, when

topping a slight rise I saw an animal on the grass by the right side

of the path and some 50 yards away — a hurried impression of red

gold, black and white showed it was a young tigress. It turned and

cantered off and I then saw there were two more (a tigress and a

young male) on the left of the path about 100 yards away, also on

the move. It was the sight of a lifetime — three tigers cantering

over the open grass plain, with their tails stiffly on end. I tore off

my rain coat, seized the rifle and ran down the path after them whist*

ling and calling in the hope that they would stand and give a better

chance. But I soon saw that they would not stop, so lay down and

opened fire at the largest which was going half left towards the long

ridge which flanks the path for [many miles. I fired four shots but

the range was long and constantly increasing — at least one found the

mark but failed to stop her and she disappeared uphill into a small

shola. I climbed up above it but from the blood marks we could see

that she had already passed on into the big shola which ran up

almost to the top of the ridge some 600 feet above. I sent the two

men down to bring up my waterbottle etc., which had been left

behind, and also to intercept my pack ponies when they passed and

bring up two more men and the dog, so as to have as many

on the look-out as possible. Meanwhile I toiled uphill level with

the top of the big shola and sat down behind a convenient bush. I

had not been there ten minutes when I saw a second tiger follow-

ing the line of the first enter the shola far below me — he came at a

crouching trot and looked brown with sepia stripes in the dull light,

I thought at first of running down to intercept him while still in

the open, but fortunately decided to stay where I was. Fifteen

minutes later he broke cover and trotted out across the open spur

J33 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST , SOCIETY, Vol. 48

125 paces below me, with his ears laid back. I fired but missed,

and he broke into a gallop downhill making for another shola.

Swinging a full length forward I fired again, bringing him head

over heels like a rabbit — I had a glimpse of a white belly and hind

leg waving in the grass as he crashed into the shola. Exactly

where I had hit him I did not know, but it seemed probable that

his back was broken. A11 hour later my faithful retainer Bob

arrived with the dog and the other men, and I explained what

had happened. We went down very much on the qui=vive to the

place where I had last seen the tiger. There was a big trail through

the long grass, and the bushes were smashed where he had crashed

down the steep bank into a small stream below. A heavy bombard^

ment with stones produced no result, but * Little Boy \ who knew

all about tigers, went in and by his furious barking showed us where

the wounded animal lay. I moved uphill a short distance and then

entered the shola with the men — it was a beastly place with a mass

of small hill bamboos and vision was very restricted, but at last I saw

a patch of black and yellow in the bed of the stream about 40 yards

away. I fired 3 shots but at least two of them were intercepted by

the undergrowth, so moved closer, being greeted with growls, and at

last got a clear shot which finished him— he was a fine young male

and I was glad to have brought him to bag without accident. After

a rest we then went after the wounded tigress, but she had got into

such terribly thick stuff that it would have been suicide to follow up

further, so very regretfully I had to leave her — the skull was brought

into me some months later by a cowherd. The last of the family,

a young tigress, had gone off to the right of the path when the

firing started and we did not see her again, though we heard her

calling while we were skinning her brother. I was fated to meet her

twice again, but that is another story.

There are I think several points worth noting in this affair :

First, it is not worth while to fire long shots at a tiger, especially at

one going straight away^ Second, the persistence of a tiger in maim

taining his original line. Here were three ^igers going East— the

firing drove them to the West but in spite of that the tiger which I

shot resumed his easterly direction as soon as he could. Another

point is the importance of having a good dog to locate a wounded

animal, which greatly reduces the risks inherent in a follow-up ; and

finally that while one may stop a tiger by a call before he has seen

you, it is waste of time trying this method after one has been

recognised.

1 _ .

The Deaf Tiger

In December 1927 I was in camp near Pirmund in the Kundahs.

On the 23rd morning I had beaten the sholas near Naragulimund

bagging 2 woodcock, and in the afternoon went out to try the ground

on the other side of camp. We had no luck with the ’cock but when

working a long swamp for snipe my shikari drew my attention to a

reddish animal which had just emerged from a shola on to an opeii

grassy spur about 100 feet high and 1,500 yards away. My glasses

showed that it was a tiger, and as I watched he lay down on the

grass at the top of the spur, which fell steeply to the swamp which we

JUNGLE MEMORIES

m

were working, and looked intently towards us. Leaving the rest of

the men where they were, 1 took the shikari, and moving cautiously

till we were out of sight of the tiger, went up the left side of the spur

so as to come out on the same level. The last few yards were done

very • slowly and carefully as I expected to see the tiger at close

range, but when we reached the spot where he had been lying he

was gone. On our way uphill we had passed along the side of a

small shola and though we did not know it the tiger was then coming

round the spur below us, though out of sight, and shortly after

entered the same shola when we had moved on — the beaters sitting

1,500 yards away had a clear though distant view of all that happened.

On reaching the top of the ridge we heard monkeys cursing in the

big shola from which the tiger had emerged and thought that he had

returned there and might be moving towards the waterfall, so sat

down to watch. After 10 minutes as nothing had happened and the

light was going I started back to rejoin the beaters using a game path

through the small shola which afforded a short cutback. I was wearing

nailed boots and almost at once trod on a dry stick which snapped with

a certain amount of noise, but I did not trouble about it as it was hardly

likely that we would see anything. We had gone about 50 yards

when at a sudden turn of the path I saw in front of me what appeared

to be a reddish ant-heap only 20 yards away. A hurried glance

through my glasses showed that it was the back of the tiger’s head

with ears cocked forward and a little of the white of the right cheek

showing. He was lying in a depression of the path at the edge of

the shola, obviously watching the men below. I quickly unslung my

rifle and fired at the back of his neck and he fell over on his right

side. Calling the shikari I rushed uphill so as to get above him, and

then moving slowly forward at last managed to get in a second shot

through the heart, but the first bullet had done the trick having

smashed the spinal vertebrae. He was a big male but lanky, with a

short tail, and while skinning him we found an old wound between

the eye and the ear on the left side, from which pus was oozing.

There was nothing to show how it had been caused— he may have run

on to a spike of wood, or it may have been made by a sambar’S

horn. But whatever it was, there can be little doubt that the wound

made him stone deaf, otherwise he must certainly have heard the^stick

break only 70 yards away and our approach to within 20 yards —

measured next day. Altogether a wonderful piece of luck — first in

seeing him, and then in getting such an easy shot. Here also we have

another example of a tiger’s persistence— he had come out on to the

grassy spur for reasons of his own and had been disturbed, but pretty

obviously he intended to come out again as soon as the coast was

clear.

The Kolaribetta Tiger

On the 3rd February 1929 I was marching in from the Kundahs

and at 1-30 p.m. reached Lakkidi, at the head of the Avalanche pass,

where I intended to halt for the night. We had scarcely settled into

camp when my servant Bob called my attention to a herd of ibex

(Nilgiri Tahr) on the slopes of Kolaribetta, a dominant hill about a

mile distant. They were too far for me to be sure but I thought

134 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST , SOCIETY, Vol 48

there was a ‘ saddleback ’, so after a meal moved up to prospect. Clouds

now came down and covered our approach to within close range of

where we had last seen the ibex. While waiting for the clouds to lift

we heard sambar ponk several times ahout half a mile ahead of us,

and shortly after the sound of a tiger roaring. The mist now

cleared and showed the ibex about 200 yards above us — they

stopped feeding for only a moment to listen to the tiger which now

called again. There was no suitable buck, and in any case a

Saddleback was out of the question when there was the chance of a

tiger, so we left them and hurried along the cliff face track after the

latter. Turning the corner of the hill we spotted the tiger lying in

the open on the far side of a big ravine. Only his head and

shoulders showed above the long grass, and he was moaning and

roaring — evidently calling for a mate— looking down towards the

Avalanche river far below on our right. We slipped back out of

sight and under cover of a ridge hurried down to get opposite to him.

The tiger got up and moved down his spur parallel to us and about

500 yards away, looking a perfect sight with the evening sun lighting

up his glorious orange coat and white belly against the green grass.

We went downhill as far as a shola which ran up to the edge of our

spur, expecting the tiger to cross the ravine and come up by a game

path through the shola on his way to Lakkidi, but saw that he

intended to cross lower down, so went on again— all this time the

tiger was grumbling to himself and seemed very disgruntled. As

soon,as we were clear of the shola I cautiously came over the crest

and sat down — the tiger was now coming downhill opposite me and

about 350 yards away — the descent was steep and he never looked

up. It was a question which line he would take when he reached

the bottom, to his left down the ravine towards the Avalanche river,

or straight up to us by a game track which would bring him into

view at about 15 yards range as my shikari expected, or to his right

into the shola. He had got about three-quarters of the way down

when his head turned slightly to his right, and I feared that he was

making for the shola and be lost to us, so decided not to wait any

longer. He was still coming slowly downhill so I aimed for his

nose hoping to get him in the neck or between the shoulders, but

I had under-estimated the distance, and the bullet fell short. At the

shot he raced downhill to the bottom and turned right across an

open space in front of the shola. I stood up, and as he appeared

from behind a rhododendron tree about 100 yards below me, fired

again. He seemed to lurch, then raced away, and with two great

bounds sprang into the shola, followed by a hurried snap shot which

obviously missed. After he had disappeared, the bamboos at the

edge of the shola, of which I could see only the tops, continued to

shake for an appreciable time and I hoped this indicated that he was

lying there in extremis, though my shikari was positive that all my

shots had missed ; the gunbearer was not so pessimistic. We were

too far from camp to send for the dogs, so went back up the spur to

where the jungle thinned and sat watching, since if unhurt or only

slightly wounded he was pretty certain to come out uphill. By

6-15 p.m. nothing had happened and as the clouds were down again

and visibility restricted to 30 yards, we returned to camp. At 7 a.m.

next morning after packing up and ordering the pon ies to wait at

JUNGLE MEMORIES

i35

Avalanche, we returned to the spot with the two dogs. On reaching

the place where I had fired from we descended to the open patch at

the foot of the ravine and at once “ Little Boy ” took up the scent

as far as the bamboos when he backed out barking furiously with

every hair up, I should have bombarded the place with stones but

was pretty sure the tiger was dead so advanced cautiously. The

ground fell steeply to the bamboos and as we reached the edge,

my servant Bob who was armed with my 12 bore and Lethals called

out that he could see the tiger. It was lying obviously dead in the

bamboos with its head on its paws just outside, but to make sure

1 gave it another shot in the neck. The dogs then rushed in and

amid general congratulations, we went down and pulled it out— a

fine male. The first bullet had just cut the skin on one fore-paw

as it was raised, so must have been pretty close to its nose — the

second had gone through the heart and it was doubtless his expiring

struggles in order to face round the way he had come which caused

the bamboos to shake as they did. Luck-yes ! but also the reward

for the previous week’s hard work without a shot. This may be

considered a typical example of tiger-stalking on the plateau, when

everything went right. It does not always do so by any manner of

means !

The Mudumalai Tigers

Mudumalai, in the low country about 10 miles from Gudalur is

one of the best, if not the best shooting centre in the Nilgiris, and

for many years has been my favourite hot-weather camp. I have

seen more tigers there than in any other part of the district, and the

following is the account of some which I encountered.

Having booked the N.G.A. Game Hut for a week I motored

down on the 11th May 1933, and in the first three days bagged

2 good chital stags and a pig for the men. As usual there were

several tigers about and on the 15th afternoon learning from the

Forester that he had seen a tiger that morning on the big fire line

towards Kargude, I decided to try for it. At 4 p.m. the usual heavy

thunderstorm came up and as soon as it cleared I set out in the car

towards Kargude. My luck was in, for as we rounded a bend in the

road not half a mile from the Hut I saw a tigress on the road

200 yards in front — she turned and sprang into the long elephant

grass on our right. I ran the car up to the spot but there was no

sign of her. The question to be decided was whether she was

merely crossing the road or coming down it, as in the latter case,

bearing in mind the persistence of tigers, there was every chance that

she would come out on it again behind us. I ran up the road

50 yards and saw that her tracks were along it so hurried back past

the car towards Mudumalai. We had not gone 100 yards when we

saw her come out of the grass and cross the road diagonally. I sat

down at once and clicked but she was 130 yards or so away and did

not hear, so I made a louder noise and she looked round and

crouched just as she reached the edge of the road. It was a poor

target but I had to take it, and as I fired she moved forward so that

my shot if it hit at all must have been far back, which meant a very

,nasty follow up in the long grass. X drove back to the Hut where

i36 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol 48

we picked up my second rifle and the dog, and then on foot cautiously

approached the scene of the encounter. There was no blood but

there were 3 or 4 extended claw-marks which looked hopeful.

“ Little Boy ” took up the trail into the elephant grass but though

he hunted round for some time did not give tongue, and though we

climbed trees we could see nothing, so gave it up and returned to the

Hut, when I arranged with the Forester for the loan of an elephant

next morning. My shikari Masty without orders went off at dawn

before I was ready and came back with news that he had found the

tigress dead. I was so pleased that I dashed off at once with the

camera, not remembering till we were close to the place that I had

failed to bring my rifle ! However all was well— -the bullet had as

I expected caught her far back and high up, passing through the

body diagonally — she had managed to go about 100 yards before

collapsing. It was a terrible place for a follow-up and without the

elephant, I do not think that we should ever have found her, in spite

of the dog’s help. That I got a shot at all was due to correct esti-

mation of her intentions.

My old Kurumba shikari Kempa always insisted that the

Dipavali festival was the season for tigers’ mating, and had promised

that if I came down then he would show me a favourite promenade.

I was however not able to manage the trip till November 1938, by

which time Kempa had died, and I had to engage his younger brother

Masty, who though a good shikari was not in the same class with

the old man. On the morning of the 3rd November I had been still-

hunting towards Doddakatte, during which I had shot a pig for the

men, and was on my way back to the Hut. Crossing the big swamp

I sat down for a smoke, when Masty who had gone down to the

stream for a drink, came back with the news that a tiger had only

just passed, and at the same moment sambar began to ponk ahead.

We hurried towards them when a reddish lump in the breast high

grass caught my eye and my glasses showed the head of a tiger

watching us. It was about 200 yards away and I thought that a

head shot would be kill or miss so put up the back sight and fired —

obviously a miss. The head then re-appeared about 50 yards

further on and I had another shot with the same result. On reaching

the place we found a young sambar freshly killed and with only one

haunch slightly eaten. If I had known about the kill I should not

have taken such a long shot but would have sat up — however it is

easy to be wise after the event. My driver George, who had not

shot a tiger, was very keen to take the chance although the tiger had

been disturbed, so after we returned to the Hut and had a meal, I

sent him off to sit up. But he wasted a lot of time cutting bamboos

and creepers for the machan, and by the time he reached the spot

the kill had gone. A search showed that it had been dragged

further into the grass and completely finished, not by one but by two

tigers. So that was that — a good chance messed up !

But as it happened we were fated to meet them again with more

satisfactory results. While I was in camp at Mudumalai in May of

the following year, we found a sambar kill not 100 yards from the

Hut on the swamp side. The guts had been cleaned out and a good

deal had been eaten but sufficient remained, so I had a machan

erected, and put George to sit up. The tiger arrived at 3-40 a.m*

JUNGLE. MEMORIES

*37

and was bagged without incident — a fine young male 8' 5" between

pegs. The encounter with his twin in the following month was more

exciting. I had been out all the morning still-hunting up my

favourite path towards Doddakatte — there was a tiger about as we

could tell by his fresh tracks and the calls of the chital, but we could

not contact him. He had gone towards Mudumalai, and when we

reached the hut at 11 a.m. I heard monkeys cursing on the other

side of the road where there is some thick cover in a ravine — a good

lying-up place, but inside the Sanctuary. In the afternoon I decided

to take it easy, so sent George off down the Thoraipalli road while I

stayed in the Hut. About 6-50 p.m. the monkeys got very noisy

again in the same place as in the morning and I also heard a sambar

ponk. Taking the spare rifle (George had mine) I went past the

car-shed to the edge of the clearing round the Hut, and two minutes

later a tiger crossed the path in front of me and only 60 yards away.

If I had had my own rifle I could have got a shot, but the spare rifle

had a very small back sight and by the time I had got it aligned his

shoulders were hidden, so I did not fire. It seemed probable that

he would go back up the Doddakatte path, so I ran to the comer and

waited there a few minutes, but there was no sign of him. I guessed

then that he must have gone down to the swamp and hurried back

past the Hut to cut him off. As I came on to the causeway of the

Benne road I saw him through the bamboos, with his head down

drinking at a pool and only 19 yards away (measured next day). It

was now 7-10 p.m. and the light had almost gone, and to align the

sights I first had to raise the rifle to the sky to get the bead into the

notch, then lowered it and fired at his shoulder. He sprang into the

air with a ‘ wuff ’ and all four feet off the ground, having in some

extraordinary way turned completely round, and as it was nearly

dark I waited to see no more. Once before I had seen a panther

bound into the air and reverse in this way and that panther was hit

far back and had gone some little way before we found it dead next

day, so I was not at all sure whether this would not prove a similar

case. But a cautious approach at dawn showed him lying dead in the

pool, the bullet having passed through the heart and mushroomed

nicely under the skin on the far side in front of the shoulder. I took

a big chance firing at him at all at such short range in failing light,

but it was not to be resisted, and after all one must take some

chances in big game shikar. My diary records that while drinking

he looked an extraordinary sight, just like a great black and white

frog. If I had not been looking for him I doubt whether I should

have seen him at all in that light. The lesson to be learnt from this

episode is that it pays to investigate alarm calls in the jungle.

One more incident Will suffice for the Mudumalai tigers. In May

1948 I was returning from my favourite round and taking a short

cut back to the Hut across the swamp. As we reached the latter I

saw a fine tiger passing us across the open grass about 200 yards

away, moving steadily forward with his head down. We were in

shoulder high grass and I hurried forward under cover to try and

get closer but he was going too fast, so I withdrew and made a quick

circuit to get ahead of him but we never saw him again. I do not

think he saw us and probably he had a place to lie up in the thick

cover which we skirted. In the month following I was down at

i38 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST , SOCIETY, Vol. 48

Mudumalai again and the first morning left my driver with the car

at the Honurhatti cross-road as we were short of trackers and there

was no one to accompany him. He saw a tiger come out on to the

road 200 yards away and walk steadily towards the car which was

parked in the jungle and to some extent concealed by young growth.

Not till he got within 20 yards of the car did the tiger spot it when

he stopped, had a good look at it and then quietly withdrew. George

noticed that he held his head low as he came along and I have not

the least doubt that it was the same tiger which I saw in May. The

swamp where I saw him then was only 400 yards behind where the

car was parked and he was making in that direction. My driver

thinks that the tiger never spotted him at all, as he sat motionless

but that his attention was focussed entirely on the car, which I think

very probable in view of a previous experience related below. The

episode also shows how tigers are inclined to stay on in one parti-

cular locality, and that only perseverance is needed to contact them.

The Tigress and the Car

In December 1940 I had come up to my home in the Nilgiris on

7 days’ leave, and on the 26th determined to run down to Anaikatti

to revisit old haunts, which owing to war service I had not seen for

some time. We left at 6-30 a.m. with the hood down for better

visibility and were glad of our warm coats in the freezing cold.

Reaching the foot of the Sigur ghat at 7-10 we turned to the right

and motored slowly along the forest road. It was still a bit early for

jungle-and peafowl to be out and we saw none. Passing the temple

of Sokanhalli I noticed fresh tracks in the dew on the short-crop-

ped grass and wondered what animal had made them. We were soon

to know, as half a mile on, out of the spear-grass which here

covered the centre of the track, and not more than 70 yards away,

rose the form of a tiger, which without looking back, walked into

the jungle at the side of the road. One would have thought that

such a large animal would have been visible in grass not 6 inches

high before it rose, but apart from the protection given by immo-

bility, was the protective colouration of the tiger’s coat which

exactly matched the dead spear-grass. As it walked away I noticed

how dark it looked, as usual when tigers are viewed going away —

almost brownish — with the tail carried in a low loop. I stood up in

the car hoping for another view as we ran up to the spot where it

had disappeared and found that we were at closer quarters than

expected, for there only 10 feet away (measured afterwards) was the

great black, white and orange head peering in a surprised way out

of the grass and bushes which lined the road — she was lying down

and only part of the body was visible. Her eyes at first showed

puzzled curiosity and I think there can be no doubt that she was

looking at her own reflection in the polished side of the car, as one

so often sees in the case of dogs. Then she looked up and her eye

met mine, and with a snarl and a huge spitting ‘ Ha ’ she turned and

was gone. It was lucky that none of us made an indiscreet move-

ment at such close range, as I should certainly not have had time to

fire if she had turned nasty. The episode was an extremely interest-

ing one, and shows not only that tigers have a great vein of curiosity,

JUNGLE MEMORIES

139

but also that, contrary to popular opinion, they are not aggressive

even at close quarters provided one makes no move. The beast in

question was a young tigress but full-grown.

The Kolimund Tigress

The scene now shifts back again to the Nilgiris plateau. I have

already related how I met 3 tigers on the path near Bangi Tappal

in 1926 and how the young tigress escaped unfired at. She stayed on

in the vicinity and as she grew older gave a lot of trouble killing cattle

and buffaloes from the herds brought up to pasture in the dry season.

I came across her once in 3928 beyond Nanjamund, some 3 miles

from Bangi Tappal, when I missed a difficult running shot, and

during the following years sat up several times over buffaloes which

she had killed, but without success. In May 1933 she stalked my

pack ponies at Bangi Tappal just behind the bungalow, but a pheall

cry gave us warning and they were rounded up in time. But the

sands were running out and in October of the same year we had our

final encounter. At the time I was in fishing camp at the de

Heriez Hut on the Billithadahalla, and on the 13th having noticed

the tracks of this tigress about 2 miles away from the bungalow,

I gave strict orders that the ponies should be tied up at night, in

the stable. However this was not done, and when my servant called

me on the 14th morning he said that one of the ponies was dead

and had apparently been killed by a tiger. I went out on to the

varandah and saw the pony lying in the open 100 yards away across

the ravine. My shikari who was examining it called out that a tiger

had killed it and that its foal also was missing. After breakfast I

took my rifle and 2 men and inspected the kill ; the large fang marks

showed that it was the work of a full-grown tiger and a few yards

away a pool of blood indicated where the foal had been killed. There

was no sign of the latter and the long grass afforded no pug marks

but I guessed that it had been taken uphill into a small shola which

we proceeded to search but without result. I then went uphill, and

‘ Little Boy ’ who had got the line and gone ahead over the top,

suddenly came running back, barking furiously and looking behind

him. There could be no doubt that the tigress had only just gone —

probably she had been lying in the grass at the top watching us, so

we hunied up but could see nothing. The dog took the line some

way up the valley and then lost it, but I was pretty sure that she

would make for Kolimund, to lie up in one of the big sholas there,

so we carried on. After half-a-mile or so the valley forked — right to

Lingamund, centre to Woodcock Shola, and left to Kolimund; there

were no pug-marks at the crossing so I continued left towards

Kolimund. Five minutes later we were rounding a spur when I saw

the tigress on our left about 300 yards away cantering down the open

slope, having cut across the corner of the valley. I do not think

she saw us, as she broke into a walk on reaching the shola and

entered it without looking back. The shola was a long narrow one

running about 400 yards uphill — at the botton a stream fringed by

small trees came down from another small circular shola on a steep

slope on our right — this small shola was to be the final scene of

operations. Our object was to keep the tigress from breaking out

I40 JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

to the left where she could easily reach the big sholas beyond

Kolimund and be lost to us, so as a first move, I sent the two men

up the open spur on the left of the shola with orders to shout while

I covered the angle between the two sholas, but nothing came out

except a jungle sheep which went over the crest of the hill and which

at first sight I thought was the tigress. The latter had evidently

made up her mind to lie up, sol sent one man back to the bungalow

to bring all available men (there were only three) while my shikari

watched the top of the big shola and I moved up above the small

one — We thus commanded the whole area and it was impossible for

the tigress to slip out unseen. The beat was to be down hill with

the right leading so that the tigress would either break across the

open spur, which was unlikely, or more probably come out at the

bottom along the fringe of trees and up through the small shola. I

therefore selected a spot on the spur covering both lines and about

130 yards from where a game track emerged on to the col from the

small shola. Knowing how keen a tiger’s sight is and as my

position was on the bare hillside, I pulled up some grey bents

growing on some rocks nearby and built a small wall 18 inches high

to cover myself, and also put some of the same on my topi. About

10 a.m. the men arrived and the beat commenced, and for some 10

minutes nothing happened. Then I saw the tigress standing on the

col at the far side of the small shola looking at me, evidently uncer-

tain what I was. She was partly hidden by the grass and low

growth and was 180 yards away— a good deal further than I expected.

My sight was set for 100 yards only, so I aimed extra high on her

shoulder and fired. She fell and rolled about and gave me time for

a second shot, which however struck short, as I had forgotten to aim

high the second time. She then got up, bounded in my direction a

few yards, then turned to her left and sprang into the shola. I called

up the men, and after an interval we proceeded to the spot and sent

the dog in. We soon heard him barking furiously and then growls,

so it appeared she was still alive, and as the undergrowth Was very

thick I decided to leave her till the morrow. Next morning the

same barking and growls occurred when the dog went in, but I could

wait no longer as I had to return to Ooty. As a first move I had a

lot of stones collected and the place well bombarded, but without

eliciting any response. The shola was only some 50 yards through

on a steep slope, and from the dog’s barking it appeared that she

was lying at the bottom just inside the bushes. Nothing could be

attempted from below except by a suicide squad, so we entered the

shola at the top and I covered two men while they climbed trees.

Sending in the dog again gave us further confirmation of the tigress’s

position, and the men were able to move forward from tree to tree

without coming to the ground till at last the shikari spotted her and

with my permission fired a Lethal bullet. But she was dead, lying

in a little hollow which almost completely hid her. My first bullet

had smashed one shoulder and gone through the heart, and yet she had

lived to roll about, bound forward as if untouched and then spring into

the shola. The growls we heard were evidently made by ‘ Little

Boy ’ who had worried a piece of skin of the stomach — he must have

thought us queer people to leave her the day before. If only dogs

could talk ! This was his 8th tiger — apart from one which he chased

J UN GLE MEM OKIES

ty*

out of a shola while we were beating for woodcock near Avalanche

— and proved to be his last, as he died while I was in England in

1934, a sad loss as I found to my cost later in the same year. Till

he was gone I did not realise how much I relied upon him. The

tigress was of course * frozen ’ stiff so her measurement of 8'8"

between pegs was certainly several inches less than it would have

been if taken immediately after death — as soon as I saw her pads I

recognised our old friend, who had given us the slip so often, and

had caused such destruction among the Badagas’ herds.

Apart from the importance of having a dog to follow up, I think

the chief lesson from this episode is the necessity for having some

cover, however slight, if one is posted on a bare hill-side. Without

it I should probably not have got a shot at all, certainly not a steady

one.

The Bison Swamp Tigress

Man-eating tigers are almost unknown in the Nilgiris but during

1933-4 a tigress was reported to have killed and eaten 8 persons

near Attapadi in the upper Bhavani vallej^. She was said to be a

big beast in the prime of life, but with one canine tooth missing.

My shooting hut at Bison Swamp overlooks the gorge of the

Bhavani river and is an excellent centre for sport. Old shikar books

record the shooting of both elephant and bison there, but nowadays

elephants visit only occasionally the most distant parts of the Kun-

dahs round Angindamalai, while bison are practically unknown on

the plateau, though I did find the tracks of a big solitary bull near

Bangi Tappal in 1935. Bison Swamp is however still good for tiger,

sambar and Nilgiri ibex, while several black panthers have been

shot there. It was more especially for the latter that I camped there

in April 1933 but without success. There was however a tigress

about and we were constantly coming across her tracks and heard

her calling on several occasions. One evening she followed us right

back to the hut, though we did not know it till we saw her tracks

next morning, but finally we had to leave without sighting her.

At Christmas 1934 I camped at Billithadahaila for several days and

then moved across to Bison Swamp. On the afternoon of arrival,

wanting some meat, I went out with my shikari to the head of the

valley to try for a jungle- sheep. I took my *318 only as I did not

expect to see anything else so close to the hut. I had been sitting

by the edge of a shola some time watching the open ground when I

heard heavy footsteps inside the shola. They reminded me of those

made by the Porthimund tiger before he came out, but we had

seen no fresh tracks of tiger and I had no reason to suppose there

was one in the vicinity. As the light began to fail I started back

for the hut cutting over a spur, and had scarcely reached the top

when my shikari pointed out an animal sitting up on the top of the

main ridge some 300 yards above us ; my glasses showed that it was

a tiger. To fire at a dangerous animal above one is generally asking

for trouble, but in between there was a deep wooded ravine— the light

had almost gone but I knew that the telescopic sight would give

sufficient illumination, while I had the utmost confidence in the accu-

racy of my *318, though I had never used it before on dangerous

game. Sitting down quickly, I therefore fired a steady shot at her

i42 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

chest, but whether she rose at the moment or whether I under-

estimated the distance, the fact remains that she did not fall to

the shot, but came roaring down the hill towards us, finally crash-

ing into the wooded ravine which lay between. The light was

now gone, so nothing more could be done for the present and we

returned to the hut. At dawn next morning we went to the top of

the ridge and followed the trail down to the shola. A bombardment

with stones having elicited no response and the ground being in our

favour, we then entered the shola and continued the search. There

was a copious blood trail and we also found at intervals large pieces

of gut, so that although obviously hit in the stomach it did not

appear likely that she could go far or survive long. Not having

a dog our progress was slow, but by 1 p.m. we had searched

three sholas without result, though we did find the very smelly

remains of a sambar on which the tigress had been feeding

in the shola outside which I had been sitting on the previous

evening— so there was little doubt that the footsteps I heard

were tier’s. An injured knee was now becoming increasingly

painful and as we were all feeling the strain, we returned to the

hut for food and a rest. About 2 p.m. Jogi, the game watcher

from Billithadahalla, who had been in at the death of the Kolimund

tigress turned up, and learning what had happened and that I was

too lame to go out, he volunteered to go and search the one

remaining shola, with the shikari and gunbearer, who were positive

that the tigress must now be dead. I absolutely refused and said

we would leave it till next morning by which time I hoped that my

knee would be well enough for me to accompany the party, but after

further discussion very weakly gave way. I insisted however that

they should work the shola from the top, that they should all keep

together, and that my driver George should accompany them with

my 12 bore and Lethal bullets. If they found the tigress still alive,

they were to send for me at once and I would get out somehow.

An hour after they had left, George came running back to say that

they had found the tigress alive and that she had killed Jogi. Get-

ting on one of ?pack ponies I went out to the spot. It seems that

while the rest of the party were negotiating some difficult ground,

Jogi had, against their advice, gone on in advance and found the

tigress lying under a fallen tree. She came towards him slowly, but

instead of hitting her with his axe, he retreated and fell backwards

over a bush, whereupon the tigress gave him one bite on the thigh

and left him. There were only a few drops of blood, so the femoral

artery could not have been severed, and it appeared that the poor

fellow had died of shock. The tragedy necessitated a return to Ooty,

and it was not till 4 days had elapsed that I was able to visit the

spot again, when we saw 2 jackals slink out of the shola and guessed

that the tigress was dead. But I was not taking any chances and we

moved down into the shola in a compact body with the 2 guns lead*

ing. We found her dead near some water about 50 yards lower

down, and a further search showed that she had been lying for some

time under the bushes close to the scene of the fatality and must

have been watching us while I covered the men who removed the

body, though I could see no sign of her. She was a big tigress,

considerably above the average, and I noticed one canine tooth was

JUNGLE MEMORIES

M3

missing. Whether she was the Attapadi tigress or not can never be

known, but from that date onwards there were no further reports of

human kills in that area.

Even after the lapse of years the memory of this tragic episode

is distressing and I would willingly have omitted it, but for the

lessons which it embodies. And to my mind the first and most

important of these is that one should not fire long shots at a tiger

with a light rifle. Another is the importance of having a dog to

locate the wounded animal, and finally that one should never send

men to search for a tiger, even though you believe it to be dead or

at any rate incapable of mischief, without accompanying them oneself.

However detailed may be the instructions which you give, there is

always a risk of their non-observance as happened in this case.

The Mukerti Tigers

On the 3rd May 1943 having obtained a few days leave I was in

camp at the Mukerti Hut half way up the east side of the lake. I

had intended to fish but conditions were hopeless, so I decided to

try for a black panther which had been missed by another sportsman

the previous month, and which was said to be still in the vicinity.

About 4 p.m. we went back along the path for about half a mile to

the old buffalo kraal and I then worked up the big spur of Pichukal-

betta Hill to a convenient position, so that I could overlook the

whole valley with its several sholas, and cover a good game track

favoured by tigers just below me. In my rear was the Mukerti

Lake now some 20 feet below level, and dead still save for an

occasional ripple, and on my left front some 1,500 yards away a

freshly burnt round knoll above which was the shola leading to the

col where I had shot the big Porthimund tiger in 1925. Several lots

of sambar appeared with one small stag, most of them making for

the knoll — where the young green grass was an obvious attraction.

I heard monkeys cursing in the big shola just short of it, and twice

a sort of moaning noise which sounded somewhat like a faint tiger

call. But nothing further materialised except that a black monkey

came out of a shola on to the grass some 300 yards below us and

stayed for some 10 minutes — I hoped at first that it was the black

panther, but no such luck ! and so at dusk we gave it up and

returned to the hut.

At 4 p.m. the next day we went again to the same spot, and at

5.30 I saw an animal going diagonally up the slope of the round

knoll, and as it did not look quite like a sambar, I got my glasses

on it. It was a tigress with her magnificent black, orange and white

coat standing out in splendid contrast to the green grass. She

seemed uncertain what to do when she reached the top, first going

towards the shola beyond and then returning — finally she lay down

among some small rocks looking towards us, having possibly seen

my shikari who was further up the hill, coming down to join me.

Though I had only the *318 with me I decided to go after her but

determined on no account to fire unless I got a steady shot at close

range, so we started down the spur in full view of her, but some 1,500

yards away — I did not think that at that distance she would be able

to make us out. We had not gone far when my shikari said

i44 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY , Vol. 48

there was a second tiger, but my glasses showed a cub on each side

and a third scrambling up the slope towards her. They were not

much bigger than jackals, so of course I gave up all ideas of shooting

and sat down to enjoy the wonderful spectacle till she passed out of

sight over the knoll.

Some months later she moved over into the Avalanche valley

Where she was fired at and missed, but one of the cubs was shot—

she then returned with the remaining cub to the Krurmund-Mukerti

area, and in November 1945 I saw her one morning not far from

where we had first sighted her. She was coming down an open

grassy slope about 800 yards away and did not emerge from the shola

at the bottom so obviously intended to lie up there. By 4 p.m. we

were in position covering the probable lines of exit, George being

some way uphill of me. An hour later the tigress came out below

him at pretty close range, but he did not allow for shooting downhill

and the bullet went over. She rushed on and into the shola just

below me, though not in view, but shortly after came out again with

her tail on end and evidently looking for trouble. George made no

mistake this time and dropped her on the spot, the range being about

80 yards. When we went to skin her next morning we found that

the cubi now almost full grown, had been lying all night in the grass

close to the body, as we could tell by the hairs left in the dry form.

The episode contains no particular lesson, but is related as of general

interest.

Calling Up Tigers

Personally I have no experience of this method but there is no

doubt that it can be practised with success. A friend has described

to me his experience in the Anamalais many years ago, when a tiger

was heard roaring and his shikari began to call it up. My friend at

that time knew little about shikar and could not speak the language)

so failed to realise what the shikari was doing, and got the shock of

his life when a large tiger suddenly materialised at close range— he

was in fact so flabbergasted that he fired blindly and missed !

Another friend has by the same means brought several tigers to

bag in the Mysore jungles and has stressed the importance of being

well concealed and of being ready to fire quickly at very close range.

The method employed is oral with the hands cupped round the

mouth — whether a different tone has to be employed according to the

sex of the animal I do not know. I have also seen a small earthen-

ware chatty with the mouth tightly covered with parchment. A

waxed cord passes through the middle of this and out by a small

hole in the base of the pot. By drawing the cord to and fro an

excellent imitation of a tiger’s call can be produced, and it is said to

be quite effective in calling one up, but as I said before I have no

personal experience of either method.

Conclusion

These jungle memories of some tigers which I have met have been

narrated not as an unvarnished record of slaughter, but in the hopes

that the lessons to be learned from the various episodes may prove

JUNGLE MEMORIES 45

of benefit to others who may have the good fortune to indulge in this

particular form of sport, the grandest which India — that land of happy

memories and to whom I owe so much — can offer. There are many

good books on Indian shikar which give full details of the procedure

tor beating or for sitting up for tigers, but for some reason the

subject of tiger shooting on foot has received very little attention.

The difference lies chiefly in the need for quick decisions. When beat-

ing one has ample time to select trees for the machan and for stops,

and when the tiger does appear it is not generally necessary to take

an immediate shot. The same applies to an even greater extent when

sitting up. But when shooting tigers on foot the encounter will often

be at close range, and a split-second decision is necessary if success is

to be achieved. Risks have to be taken as in any kind of sport, but

they can be minimised by going about things the right way and by

learning from the mistakes of others. There is nothing new in the

lessons which I have tried to bring out, but I hope that this narrative

will show how they can best be applied in practice, so that other

sportsman may avoid the mistakes which I have made.

Note.-— * The Deaf Tiger’ first appeared in the Indian State

Railway Magazine , and is reproduced by kind permission of my

collaborator Major F. Murcutt (‘ Fred Barrie’) and the editor of that

journal.

{To be continued)

A NOTE ON THE FOOD HABITS OF THREE KINGFISHERS

OCCURRING ON SINGAPORE ISLAND

BY

C. A. GlBSON-HlLL, M.A., M.B.O.U.

Baffles Museum, Singapore

(With 2_ text figures)

• Early this year I began a comparative study of the food habits

of several groups of nearly related Malayan birds. Pressure of

other work forced the abandonment of this project in its

original form. In view, however, of the limited number of de-

tailed observations available on even the commoner species, it

would seem to be of interest to record here the data collected in

the case of three of the kingfishers.

The work was prompted to some extent by a consideration of

the contention of Gause (1934) that two species with a similar

ecology cannot live in the same area, and the subsequent

examinations by David Lack (1944 and 1945) of the habits of closely

related passerine and non-passerine birds in Britain and on certain

oceanic islands. Lack in particular gives a number of cases in

which members of a genus occupying the same geographical area

show different diet, feeding and nesting preferences. A further

study of the principle at issue is recommended to those members

of tnis Society who have opportunity and time for detailed field

Work.

Alcedo atthis bengalensis Gmel. Indian Common Kingfisher.

This bird is Undoubtedly resident on the island of Singapore,

but the numbers are very much increased in the autumn and

winter months (from late September to March or early April), and

it is only during this period that it can really be considered common.

It is nearly always encountered over water, or in its immediate

vicinity. It is most numerous in the coastal areas, in the channels

through the mangrove belt, over the prawn and fish ponds towards

the west end of the island, or more rarely on the shore itself. It

also occurs, though less frequently, by freshwater further inland,

and I have seen it over both streams and ponds. At the beginning

of 1942 two birds were apparently resident at a disused brick-clay

pit, which had filled with water.

The Common Kingfisher generally perches on a stump, branch

or post overlooking water, and obtains its food by plunging down

suddenly, after a long period of careful watching. It normally

continues its flight in an almost straight line, and after rising

from the plunge settles on a further stump. The food is usually

carried in its bill, and swallowed after alighting. Fish are generally

held crosswise while it is in the air, and then turned so that they

go down head first after the bird has come to rest. Often this

is achieved by a gulping action, but occasionally they are thrown

FOOD HABITS OF THREE KINGFISHERS ON SINGAPORE ISLAND 147

up a few inches and then caught by the head as they fall. If

still very active they may be beaten several times on the bird’s

perch to quieten them before they are Swallowed, much as I have

seen cormorants hitting large eels on the surface of the water off

the British coast. More rarely bengalensis feeds by swooping in

a similar manner over exposed mud-banks of muddy beaches, when

the tide is low. On two occasions I have seen it making a vertical

plunge into water, frorh a height of about fifteen feet, after hover-

ing fof a shoft time.

It is interesting to note that when feeding in streams or very

Small ponds these birds are often seen alone or in pairs, and

they appear to resent the intrusion of others of their species.

During the winter months on the open prawn ponds, on the other

hand, there may be as many as eight birds working an acre of

water, apparently amicably. Possibly the stream birds are in the

neighbourhood of their nests, and it is breeding rather than feeding

territory that is being defended. iUternatively the apparent

toleration shown on the open ponds may be due to a high proportion

of immature birds, which have not developed fully a quite reasonable

reluctance to being hemmed round by their fellows.

By bulk the diet of birds feeding in the mangrove areas appears

to consist largely of small fish, 25-45 mm. in length. They also

take a number of rather shorter prawns. The stomach from a

representative example collected at the Pasir Panjang ponds con-

tained two fish, partially digested, or about 30 mm. length, the

greater part of the chitinous portions of a prawn, and the lenses

from the eyes of a further two fish. The latter appear to remain

in the stomach long after everything else has disappeared, except

possibly for a few indeterminate bone fragments, a common finding

in sea and coastal birds (Gibson-Hill, 1947). When feeding over

muddy beaches this kingfisher takes mostly small mudskippers,

Periopthalmusdschlosseri Cantor, and fiddler crabs. Five birds

examined on Singapore Island in October-November contained

nothing further that was discernible.

Birds feeding over inland streams appear to take anything of

an animal nature that they can find alive in the water. An example

collected in Selangor in May contained a dragonfly larva, two water

beetles and the remains of a small fish, while a second from the

same area had the remains of what appeared to be several tad-

poles. An inland bird from the Bukit Timah area on Singapore

Island, examined in November, contained a small fish and four

Neuroptera larvae.

Alcedo atthis, in its nine subspecies, has a wide range over

Europe, North Africa, Asia and the islands of the south-west

Pacific. The feeding habits and diet of A. a. bengalensis as

observed on Singapore Island and in Selangor would seem to be

very similar to those recorded for the species in other areas.

Probably the most complete summary is that given for the Western

European race in volume 2 of the Handbook of British Birds

(Witherby et al., pp. 273-274). The latter quotes green water-weed

as present in the castings; one would suggest that it had probably

been taken in error, particularly as it must have proved largely

indigestible.

i48 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

Halcyon smyrnensis fusca (Bodd.) White-breasted Kingfisher.

This bird is resident on Singapore Island, and both plentiful

and conspicuous in suitable areas. It is usually found in gardens,

orchards or similar patches of open countryside, and it is rarely

seen over or close to water. It is relatively scarce in the mangrove

belt or other extreme coastal areas.

Its manner of feeding is rather similar to that of the preceding

Species, It makes a sudden swoop downwards from a vantage

point at a height of ten to twenty feet, carrying on after striking

at its prey to alight on a further, similar perch, where the food

is swallowed. It differs in that it almost invariably works over

dry ground. I have never seen it take food from water, and only

once from a mud beach.

The principal constituent of its diet oir Singapore Island is un-

doubtedly insects, mostly grasshoppers and other orthoptera.

Often these are taken in the larval stage. It also eats a number

of lizards, chiefly skinks. I have found remains of the latter

suggesting total lengths up to about 1250.50 mm. 1 also once

watched a bird battling with, and eventually swallowing, a gleen

lizard, PCalotes cristatellus Kuhl, fully 350 mm. long, including

the tail, Lizards at least appear to be turned and swallowed head-

first, as bengalensis swallows its fish. This species also takes young

or small birds : while interned in Ohangi jail a group of us watched

one attack and swallow a sparrow fledgling, barely able to fly,

and make a determined though unsuccessful attempt on a second.

In all eight stomachs were examined, six on Singapore Island

in June, August and October, and two in Selangor in May. These

yielded the remains of three skinks, Mabuia sp., probably M.

multifasciata Kuhl, feathers and the head of a Munia sp., some

fifteen grasshoppers of varying size, a 65 mm. Mantid, four beetles,

three bees, four large black ants, a small scorpion, Isometrus

maculatus, and two centipedes, 8 colopendra subspinipes. There

were also a number of insect remains not identifiable, but no traces

of fish or Crustacea. The three bees and the four large ants were

all in one stomach, together with a few further well-digested insect

fragments, which may have been the remains of crickets. The

large Praying Mantis, Hierodula ?venosa Oliv., was alone, and

seemed to be providing a meal in itself.

Halcyon smyrnensis , in its five subspecies, occurs across the

whole length of southern Asia, from Asia Minor to the Philippines.

The examples examined on Singapore Island and in Selangor were

all feeding on purely terrestrial animals — mostly insects, and to a

lesser extent other arthropods, lizards and small birds, This

agrees in general with the findings of Stuart Baker (1927, p. 270),

llob in son (1927, p. 97), JDelacour and Jabouille (1931, p. 319),

Smythies (1940, p. 289) and Salim Ali (1941, p. 214), except that

Stuart Baker, Delacour and Jabouille, and Robinson include Crustacea

and fish as possible items.1 It definitely does not conform to the

1 ‘Its principal articles of diet are undoubtedly grasshoppers and locusts,

but it will eat almost any living thing not too large to swallow. Frogs, small

lizards, worms, etc., are all thankfully taken and eaten; I have seen it taking

FOOD HABITS OF THREE KINGFISHERS ON SINGAPORE ISLAND

149

observations of Delacour and Mayr (1946, p. 136) for II. s. gularis

(Kuhl) in the Philippines, of which they write, ‘The name king-

fisher seems more appropriate to the White-throated Kingfisher

than to any other member of the genus Halcyon in the Philippines’.

Oddly enough these authors quote as a diet for H. Moris collaris

(Scop.) a menu that would seem more fitting for the present

species — A . . feeds mostly on grasshoppers, lizards and crusta-

ceans, but in the Philippines is also reputed to catch fish’, (ibid,

p. 135).

Halcyon chloris humii Sharpe White-collared Kingfisher.

This bird again is resident on Singapore Island. It is almost

as plentiful as the preceding species, but it is largely confined to

the mangrove belt and immediate coastal areas. It may occasionally

be met with inland, but I have not seen it feeding away from

the vicinity of water.

Its method of obtaining food is similar to that of the other two

birds, but it generally feeds over exposed mud flats and mud

beaches. It may frequently be seen perched over water, apparently

watching it intently, but I have only twice seen it actually swoop

down, and on neither occasion did it appear to have been successful.

On the other hand, I have several times seen it perched on fallen

trunks, and seemingly pecking at small Crustacea moving over

them.

Six stomachs were examined, all on Singapore Island, in

August, September and October. One was empty. The other five

contained only the remains of six small crabs, fiddlers and others,

one prawn, two mud-skippers, Periopthalmus sp., and three large

larval grasshoppers.

Halcyon chloris, in some forty-seven subspecies, occurs across

southern Asia from the Red Sea coast eastwards, and out over

the islands of the west and central Pacific. The examples examined

on Singapore Island were all feeding in the mangrove belt, or on

adjacent beaches — taking mostly Crustacea, and to a lesser extent

fish and orthoptera. This agrees in general with the observations

of Stuart Baker (1927, p. 276), Robinson (1927, p. 101) and

Delacour and Jabouille (1931, p. 323), though the last two include

cicadae from the trunks of trees, whilst prawns, small crabs, etc., are taken in

preference to fishes when it hunts streams’. (Stuart Baker, 1927, p. 270).

‘The diet is largely small Crustacea, lizards, large insects, etc., and less

purely fish than the smaller members of the family’. (Robinson, 1927, p. 97).

‘La majeure partie de sa subsistance consiste en sauterelles, en eigales,

en, petits lizards, grenouilles, vers, puis en petits crabes qu’il poursuit, de

preference aux poissons, dans les petits cours d’eau’. (Delacour and Jabouille

1931, p. 319).

All the additional items given by these authors are compatible with the

observations made in Malaya, except for the prawns and the fish. Since these

birds appear to confine themselves fairly strictly to living matter, this must

mean that they do occasionally feed from water, a habit which I havje not yet

observed personally. It may, of course, be that this occurs in areas more

thickly wooded than those in which I have watched them, where water provides

the greater part of the clear spaces in which they can hunt.

150 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

small reptiles.1 * 3 This is by no means inconsistent with the findings

outlined above; the difference between a shink and a mud-skipper

2

Fig. 1

Outline drawings of the heads of the three kingfishers discussed in this

paper: (1) the Indian Common Kingfisher, Alcedo attkis bengalensis, (2) the

White-collared Kingfisher, Halcyon cliloris laumii , and (3) the White-oreasted

Kingfisher, H. smyrnensis fusca. All three drawings are about life size, and

represent female birds taken on Singapore Island.

must, to a bird, be of little consequence. Mavr (1945, pp. 240

and 243) suggests by implication that the five races occurring in

the Solomon Islands have feeding habits similar to those of shrikes

1 ‘Their food consists largely of small land-crabs, but they also feed on

grasshoppers, insects, small reptiles, etc’. (Stuart Baker, 1927, p. 276).

‘Sa nourriture consiste surtout en petits crabes terrestres, et eg-alement en

sauterelles, insectes divers et petits reptiles. T1 ne s’eloignp pas de la mer’.

(Delacour and Jabouille, 1931, p. 323).

The first sentence of Delacour and -Tabouille reads, as a number of their

comments do, very much like a translation from Stuart Baker.

FOOD HABITS OF. THREE KINGFISHERS ON SINGAPORE ISLAND 151

and flycatchers, but this is obviously not a final statement on the

subject.

Comparative Note.

The last two species are in many respects very similar to each

other; the first is closely related to them. In broad outline the

three birds employ the same manner of feeding, but on analysis

they would seem to be operating in rather different fields. Alcedo

Outline drawings of the bills of the three kingfishers discussed in this

paper, on the right from above, and on th;e left in profile. The scale has

been varied in preparing these drawings so that each bill is represented with

the exposed culmen about 2 inches long. The birds, all adult females taken on

Singapore Island, are (1) Alcedo atthis bengalensis, (2) Halcyon j chloris humii,

and (8) H. smyrnensis fusca.

atthis feeds typically and largely from and over water, Halcyon

chloris from mangrove mud banks and muddy beaches, and H.

smyrnensis from dry ground and open country away from water.

In this respect H. chloris occupies an intermediate position between

152 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 48

the other two species. This also applies to the areas in which it

is seen most frequently. It is usually encountered on the coast,

near to or in company with A. atthis, but it may stray far enough

from water to be found in the same area as H. smyrnensis.

The question arises as to whether there is any appreciable

structural difference in the bills of these three kingfishers. To

afford a direct comparison drawings, based on photographs, were

prepared from a representative example of each species. In doing

so the scale of magnification was varied, to keep the exposed

culmen a constant length. The resulting diagrams emphasize the

generic distinctions. Alcedo atthis has a fine, slender, pointed bill,

with proportions roughly similar to those of the majority of the

terns, birds which frequently feed in much the same manner.

The other two species, Halcyon chloris and H. smyrnensis , have

much heavier, thicker bills. The gross difference between the two,

however, is largely one of total size. In the flesh the length of

the exposed culmens are approximately in the ratio of 1 to 1*36.

When the culmen is reduced to unity the breadths, at the level of

the proximal end of the exposed culmen, are in the ratio of 1 to *8,

and the depths 1 to *94. H. chloris , therefore, has a bill that is

appreciably shorter than that of H . smyrnensis in relation to the

total length of the bird, and relatively broader. The lateral profile,

however, is roughly similar, and in both the bill is much stouter

than in Alcedo atthis.

Briefly it may be said that Alcedo atthis has a bill well adapted

to stab fishing in water, and less likely to be fully effective outside

this medium. The other two birds have stouter, heavier stabbing

bills, such as may be seen in some of the storks, and with probably

no greater difference between them than is shown by their slightly

divergent food preferences. These differences, such as they are,

would seem to be attributable to habit and habitat rather than bill

structure.

References.

Baker, E. C. Stuart — Fauna of British India, Birds, Vol. 4, 1927.

Delacour, J.. and Jabouille. P. — Les Oiseaux de l’lndochine Francaise,

Vol. 2, 1931.

Delaeour. J., and Mayr, E. — Birds of the Philippines, 1946.

Gause, G. F. — The Struggle for Existence, 1934.

Gibson-Hill, C. A. — ‘The Normal Food of Tropic-birds ( PtiaHhon spp.V,

Ibis, October 1947.

Lack, David — ‘Ecological aspects of species formation in passerine birds’,

Ibis, Vol. 86, pp. 260-86, 1944.

Lack, David — ‘The Ecology of closely related species, with special reference

to Cormorant and Shag’, Journ. Animal Ecology, Vol. 14, pp. 12-16, 1945.

Mayr, Ernst — Birds of the South-West Pacific, 1945.

Robinson, E. C. — Birds of the Malay Peninsula, Vol. 1. 1927.

Sdlim Ali — The Book of Indian Birds, 1941.

Smythies, B. E. — Birds of Burma, 1940.

Witherby, H. F. et al— The Handbook of British Birds, Vol. 2, 1938.

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE HABITS OF

HIPPOCAMPUS GUTTULATUS CUVIER, REARED

IN THE MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION, WEST HILL.*

BY

P. K. Jacob, b.a., m.sc.,

Assistant Director of Fisheries ( Marine Biology )

AND

A. D. Isaac Rajendran, b.sc. (Hons.),

Research Assistant

{With a text-figure )

* The peculiar little fishes known as sea horses have caught the

popular fancy and attracted wide interest since ancient times,

because of their bizarre appearance. No less than the popular

attraction is the scientific interest in these fishes, because of their

peculiar structure, their distinctive mode of life, and their unusual

mode of reproduction ’ (3). The rearing of Hippocampus guttulatus

in the laboratory of the Marine Biological Station, West Hill, provi-

ded facilities for some interesting observations.

On 10th January 1948, some fisher

children brought a young Hippocampus

guttulatus to the Marine Biological Sta-

tion in a small vessel containing sea

water. On enquiry they informed us

that the sea horse was caught in the sea

opposite Calicut in a cast net along with

other fishes at a depth of about five

fathoms. The fishermen had kept it

alive in the sea water which had collected

at the bottom of the boat.

In the laboratory, the sea horse was

reared in a bell jar aquarium and the sea

water in which it was kept was changed

daily. The sea horse survived for sixty-

nine days in captivity. It lived a solitary

life in the aquarium for thirty-nine days

after which a young Therapon jarbua

(Squeaking Perch) was introduced as its

companion. This perch was collected

alive along with plankton in the early Hippocampus guttulatus Cuv\et

hours of 18 February 1948. (natural size)

* Published with the kind permission of the Director of Industries ancl

Commerce, Madras.

j 54 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 48

As soon as the little squeaking perch was let into the aquarium,

the sea horse began to chase it, may be for preying on it. But, the

small perch proved to be too quick for the slow-swimming sea horse.

After chasing the perch round the aquarium a few times in vain,

the sea horse gave up this pursuit. Now the perch moved to the

centre of the aquarium and remained motionless, while the sea horse

approached the small fish and began to stare at it. After a minute

or two the sea horse produced a few clicking sounds like those pro-

duced by the Click beetles (Elateridae), which appeared to emanate

from its pharyngeal region. When the sound is produced the ante-

rior region of the operculum shows vibrating movements. It is a

non-continuous, short, snapping sound produced at intervals of a few

seconds. After producing half a dozen such clicking sounds, the sea

horse swam away. From that time onwards not only was there no

lack of understanding between the sea horse and the squeaking perch,

but a new bond of friendship also was effected between them. When

the perch got scared, at anyone poking a finger or a glass rod

into the aquarium, it took shelter behind the curved tail of the

sea horse. The sea horse also concealed the perch from the ob-

server’s view and thus seemed to protect it.

Hippocampus brevirostris , another species of sea horse is

reported to produce sounds which are ‘ more intense and fre-

quent in the breeding season’ (I). Evidently these sounds are

sexual in character. The same sounds produced when some other

species of fish is present close by, might be an expression of friend-

ship.

Norman (7) states that sea horses have a diet similar to that

of the Pipe Fishes which belong to the same family. The diet con-

sists mainly of small crustaceans. In the Marine Biological Station,

West Hill, the sea horse was fed on the planktonic organisms got

both in the surface and in the vertical hauls, The organisms that were

consumed by this sea horse in captivity were Leucifer hanseni , young

prawns, Isopods belonging to the family Aegidse, and carangid fish

larvae. It was not noticed to feed on the copepods or other minute

crustaceans even though they were present in abundance. When

there were no large crustaceans, the sea horse starved. It preferred

live organisms but when live ones were not available, it

readily fed upon dead ones. Its feeding was observed to be

peculiar. When it sighted prey it approached and stared at it for

a time. While watching, it invariably had the end of its snout at a

level lower than that of the prey. Then suddenly it made an up-

ward jerk of the snout and the prey was sucked in, in the course of

this movement. When the prey moved fast the sea horse chased

it till the prey got tired and when it stopped for a short spell of

rest, the sea horse swallowed it with an upward jerk of its snout.

This sea horse was a voracious feeder. Once in addition to two

Penaens young ones each measuring 15 mm. and two carangid fish

larvae measuring 6 mm. each, the sea horse consumed 55 Leucifer

hanseni . All but the young prawns were dead. The cephalo-

thorax of the young prawns were not consumed. In the case of

large prey that could not be sucked into the mouth entire like

young prawns, the sea horse held the prey in its mouth and by a

few quick snapping movements of the jaw cut it into bits which

HABITS OF HIPPOCAMPUS GUTTULATUS

J55

were swallowed subsequently. When the sea horse was hold-

ing such big prey, its companion the perch would at times

snatch away the prey from its mouth. But before the perch had

time to consume it, the sea horse snatched it back and swallowed it

quickly.

The sea horse is considered a poor swimmer and is said to be

‘carried about by currents’ (8). There is no caudal fin; the tail

is prehensile and used to coil round sea weeds. But even when

there is no sea weed or other structure around which it can

coil round, the tail is always in a coiled position, or the tip at least is

curved. Locomotion is effected mainly by the small single dorsal

fin which moves rhythmically in a wave like motion. The pectoral

fins move forwards and backwards. These fins are much smaller

than the dorsal fin.

The sea horse moves forward in an upright position and the

movement is slow and graceful. But when chasing prey, it bends

forwards and assumes a slanting position. Even though the sea

horse sometimes dives head downward it usually goes to the bottom

gradually with the head up.

Hippocampus guitulatus reared in the Marine Biological Station,

West Hill was a female and a description of its external characters

is given below. The description and the measurements taken are

according to the method described by Ginsburg (3).

Dorsal fin rays

Anal fin rays

Pectoral fin rays

Trunk segments

Caudal segments

Total length

Length of head

Length of snout

Length of trunk

Length of tail

Orbit

Post orbital

Depth

20

4

17

11

40

88 mm.

20 mm.

8 mm.

28 mm.

60 mm.

4.5 mm

9 mm.

13 mm.

Day (2) in his description of Hippocavipus gutiulatus gives the

number of dorsal fin rays as 16 to 17 and the number of caudal

segments as 33. But Ginsburg’s description (3) of Hippocampus

guttulatus agrees with the description given by us.

The brood pouch was absent, the specimen being a female. The

dorsal fin is situated over the last two trunk segments and over the

first twTo caudal segments. There is a coronet bear five short

spines. There are two supraing orbital spines present and these are

directed slightly backwards. The tubercles over the trunk and tail

are short and blunt. Filaments are absent. The sea horse was dark

brown in colour while alive. When it starved for a couple of days

the stomach region became pale white in colour.

About the distribution of sea horses in general, Gunther (4) states

as follows: 4 They are pelagic fishes which attach themselves to sea

weed or other floating substances and are carried by currents to

great distances. Consequently, some species are spread over differ-

156 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

ent parts of the globe, like Antennarius a genus the geographical

distribution of which nearly coincides with that of Hippocampus' .

Hippocampus guttulatus also seems to have a very wide distribution.

Day (2) describes it as occurring in the 1 Red Sea, Indian Ocean to

Japan, also tropical parts of the Atlantic \

References

1. Bridge, T. W. — * Fishes ’ Cam. Nat. Hist, p. 362. Macmillan. 1910.

2. Day, F. — ‘ Fauna of Brit. Ind. Fishes ’, Vol. 2, p. 469. 1889.

3. Ginsburg, I. — Review of the Sea Horse ( Hippocampus ) found on the

coasts of the American continents and of Europe.

Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus , Vol. 83, No. 2997, p. 497. 1937.

4. Gunther. — Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus., Vol. 8, p. 198. 1870,

5. Idem. — Ibid. pp. 501-509.

6. Idem. — Ibid. pp. 543-546.

7. Norman, J. R. — ‘A History of Fishes,’ p. 117. Ernest Benn. 1931.

8. Sedgwick, A.— ‘A Student’s Textbook of Zoology,’ Vol. 2, p. 229. Swan

Sonnenschein. 1905.

TRICHO GRAMMATOIDEA NANA ZEHNT. (HYM. CHALC-

IDOIDEA) — AN EGG PARASITE OF THE SUGARCANE

BORER ARGYRIA STICTICRASP1S HAMPSON :

A NEW RECORD FROM SOUTH INDIA

BY

M. C. Cherian And V. Margabandhu

Agricultural Research Institute , Coimbatore , S. India

Introduction

Trichogrammatoidea nana Zehnt., is a minute egg parasite originally

recorded from Java. It appears to be fairly common and widely distributed on

several hosts in Java. Recently, Mr. S. Ramachandra Iyer, the Assistant

Entomologist in the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research scheme for the

investigation of borers of sugarcane in Madras, found this parasite for the first

time in India from the eggs of Argyria sticficraspis . The writers wish to

thank him for allowing them to study this parasite. In view of its importance

as a parasite of economic importance with potentialities in the future in biologi*

cal control work it is proposed to give a connected account of its range of

distribution, hosts, possibilities of breeding and a systematic account since much

of the information available is scattered in literature.

Range of Distribution and Hosts

Deventer (1906) while dealing with pests of sugarcane and their parasites

records this on the sugarcane borer Diatraea striatalis Sn., and the sugarcane

leaf roller Grapholitha schistacea?ia Sn. Taylor et al (1930) give the hosts as

follows in Java: Diatraea striatalis Sn., Chilo infuscatellus Sn., Scirpophaga

Intacta Sn., Schoenobius bipunctifer and Artona trisignata. Ferriere (1933)

mentions from specimens received by the Imperial Institute of Entomology on

Tirathaba sp., Tineids on coconut and on eggs of Nacoleia cctasama Meyr

from Fiji : and on eggs Brontispa froggatti Shp., from Solomon Is. Ferriere

also gives a further list of hosts from Sumatra and Java as a result of informa-

tion obtained from van der Goot, viz., bred from the eggs of Diatraea striatalis

and Grapholitha schis laceana on sugarcane, DeioPeia pulchella on Crotalaria ,

Rhodoneura myrtacea on Palaquium} Nephopteryx robust a on Citrus , Heliothis

obsoleta on Physalis. Garth waite and Desai (1939) mention the hosts as Hapalia

machaeralis Walk., and Hyblaea puera Cram., the two teak defoliators in

Burma and bred from Corcyra cephalonica Staint in stored rice and Sitotroga

cerealella Oliv in stored grains, Beeson and Chatter jee ( 1939) state that these

parasites were bred with difficulty on eggs of flour moth Diacrisia obliqua and

H. machaeralis in India. Glover (1939) says that it attacks eggs of Eublemma

amabilis, Holcocera pulverea and the Lycaenid Tarucus theophrastes F., from

India. Takabashi (1939) records that eggs of moth borers of sugarcane are

attacked in Formosa. Recently a further record of it was obtained from eggs of

Argyria s tidier as pis from India. From the above long list of hosts it can

easily be seen that this parasite can readily attack eggs of most lepidopterous

insects.

A Brief Description of the Parasite

Trichogrammatoidea nana belongs to family Trichogranmiatidae and is

an exceedingly small parasite. The female measures about 0.5 mm. in length.

General color dark greyish yellow ; antennae and legs pale yellow ; ocelli red ;

eyes dark ; forewing in the basal half with a cloud at base, the rest being

hyaline; rest dark greyish yellow. Head broader than long and broadest across

eyes ; anterior margin very slightly broadly arched ; surface of head finely

reticulated ; antennal length shorter than head and thorax. Antennae : 1st

joint (scape) long, broad in the middle and narrowing gradually both ways and

158 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

as long as club ; 2nd joint (pedicel) narrowed at base and broad towards apex

and about half the length of scape ; 3rd and 4th joints (ring-joints) broad, short

and compressed ; 5th and 6th joints (funicles) stout and broad ; 7th joint (club)

broad up to middle from base and gradually tapering to a point and club-shaped,

clothed with dense hairs and much broader than rest of the joints and as long

as the scape. The forewing is somewhat broadly rounded at apex with a

fringe of long hairs, the front margin slightly curved within the basal region.

Basal half of the wing is cloudy which is characteristic of the species. Surface

of wing in the distal half with rows of hairs. Hind wings are small, long, with

front margin with a joint in the middle ; surface with a row of small hairs ;

wing margins covered with long hairs except the basal third. The description

of the species almost tallies with the description by Deventer. A few indivi-

duals of the species, however, showed slight variation in color and size.

How to Distinguish Trichogrammatoidea from Allied

Genera.

The genus Trichogrammatoidea was erected by Girault (1911) with Chaeto -

Stricha tiatia Zehnt., as the type. According to Ferriere (1933), the species of

this ‘can be readily distinguished from the true species of Trichogramma by

the jointed antennal funicle in that of the male, the dark cloud at the base of

the wing in the female and the longer marginal ciliation of the wing. But in

the case of those at Coimbatore even the males show the cloud at the base of

the wing. The three allied genera are Trichogramma Westw., Lathromeris

Forst and Chaetostricha Walk. Trichogramma can be distinguished from the

others in having eight antennal joints while the rest have only seven antennal

joints. Of the other three genera Chaetostricha and Trichogrammatoidea have

the marginal fringes long while Lathromeris has short ones ; Trichogramma-

toidea can be distinguished from Chaetostricha in having the cioud at the base

of forewing (vide plate).

The genus Trichogrammatoidea is represented by three species, viz.,

T. nana from Java, Burma, India, Formosa and Fiji; T. flava Gir , from

Australia ; and T. lutea Gir., from Africa.

Life History of the Parasite

The parasite attacks eggs of Earias fabia and Corcyra cephalonica easily.

The average duration of life cycle of the parasite in both cases is six days. In

both the cases, the parasitised eggs get darkened in about three days. Out of

62 eggs of Corcyra parasitised, in 93*5% of the cases there was only one parasite

per egg while in 6*5% of the cases there were 2 per egg. When single females

were "allowed to oviposit separately, a maximum number of 52 eggs was obtained

in a day in one instance. The habits of Trichogrammatoidea are almost

similar to those of Tricho gramma, both with regard to life history details and

also in the number of hosts they have in nature and the ease with which they

can be bred in captivity on several hosts.

References

Beeson, C. F. C. and Chatter jee, N. C. (1939 ).—*Ind. For . Rec . v ; 379.

Deventer, Wan W. (1906). — Handboek ten dienste van de Suikerriet Cultur

en de Rietsuiker Fabricage of Java, II: 139-140.

Ferriere, Ch. (1933). — Sty lops II ; 103-104.

Garthwaite, C. G. and Desai (1939). — Ind. For. Rec., V : 350-351.

Glover, P. M. (1939).— Rep. Ind. Lac. Res. Inst. Namkum. (Ent. Sec-

tion) : 1938-39.

Girault, A. A. (1911 ).-r-lrans. Amer. Ent. Soc., 37 : 13.

Takahashi, H. (1939) .—Jour. Formosan Sug. Plant. Ass 17 : 265.

Taylor, T. H. C. et at (1930).—' The Coconut-Moth in Fiji ' 244-248.

Zehntner (1896).— Meded. v. h. Proef station Oost-Java (n.s.) 23 : 14-16.

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE GIZZARD-SHAD ANODONTOSTOMA

CHACUNDA (HAM. BUCH.) AND ITS FISHERY ON THE

WEST COAST OF MADRAS PROVINCE. *

BY

P. K. Jacob, b.a., m.sc.,

Assistant Director of Fisheries ( Marine Biology),

Marine Biological Station, West Hill, Malabar.

The Gizzard-shad Anodontostoma chacunda provides a minor fishery on the

west coast of Madras. In fact, only seldom does this species afford a fishery

by itself, mostly shoaling, as it does along with other fishes like Sardinella

longiceps Cuv. & Val., Clupea fimbriata Cuv. & Val., Cynoglossus semifasciatus

Day and Caranx crumenophihalmus Bloch. This is termed ‘ Kondadi mathi’

in Malayalam meaning a sardine which wags its tail. Though during the

spawning season the fish is tasty, it is not preferred by many on account of the

innumerable bones. The Gizzard-shad has a very elegant form and is golden

in colour, shot with purple, with lines formed of spots along the rows of scales

on the upper third of the body and also with a black spot on the shoulder,

as described by Day (1) .

Size Range

According to Day (1) Anodontostoma chacunda attains 20 cm. in total

length, but the largest specimen examined during this investigation was only

17 cm. long. The majority of the catches ranged between 10 cm. and 15 cm.

This species is noticed to attain maturity when it reaches a length of 12*5 cm.

since no specimen measuring less than this ever had fully developed gonads

during the spawning season.

Season of Occurrence

Specimens of Gizzard-shad were available for examination all through the

year except during the monsoon months of June, July and August when the

fishery on the whole is poor. So it may be inferred that Anodontostoma

chacunda occurs throughout the year.

Spawning Season

Gizzard-shad with ripe gonads were available from November to March.

Spent females with tape-like ovaries were available in March and April.

Batches of developing eggs were obtained from the plankton in January by

Devanesen and Chidambaram (2). As this fish was not available in the

catches of the inshore waters these authors concluded that they were spawning

offshore and this conclusion was subsequently confirmed by obtaining ripe

specimens with transparent ovaries full of ova from offshore waters.

The spawning season extends from November to February. Eggs of

Anodontostoma chacunda were again ''obtained from the West Hill plankton in

January 1943. The ovaries, when in roe, are bright yellow, shot with red blood

vessels, forming a net work on them. The gonads were noticed to be better

developed on the left side, a feature not uncommon especially among other

sardines of the West Coast. Devanesen and John (3) have cited a similar case

in Kowala thoracata (Cuv. & Val.).

* Published with kind permission of the Director of Industries and Commerce,

Madras.

i6d jOUEMAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 4§

Food

The following items figure in the stomach contents of members of this

species : —

Phytoplankton

Fragillaria spp.

Coscinodiscus spp.

Biddulphia spp.

Pleurosigma spp.

Nitzschia spp .

Navicula spp .

Bacillar ia spp.

Otber items :

Fish scales.

Sand grains.

The above list clearly shows that Anodonto stoma chacunda is purely a

plankton feeder. As in the case of plankton feeders like mullets, the Gizzard*

shad, as its name indicates, has a stomach resembling the gizzard of a fowl.

Norman (5) states that the Hickory-shad of America which subsists on decom*

posing organic matter mixed with mud, also has a gizzard similar to that of

this species. In the majority of cases both phytoplankton and zooplankton

were present almost in equal proportions, though in a few cases, phytoplankton

alone was present. Most probably this was due to the predominance of phyto-

plankton in the locality where the fish fed. The very rare occurrence of fish

scales and sand grains cannot be taken as a proof of its bottom feeding habit as

these might have got in accidentally while in suspension in the sea.

Methods of Capture

The Gizzard-shads are caught in drift nets* * Ayila chala vala ’ and ‘ Mathi

chala vala * the seine net * Paithu vala’ and the cast net * Veechu vala \

Copepods.

Evadrie spp.

Paracalanus spp.

Acartia spp.

Oithona sp.

Enter pina spp.

Gastropods } *arva*

Fish eggs.

Place of Capture

The Gizzard-shads were caught from offshore regions thirteen miles from the

shore, at a depth of fourteen fathoms as well as from very near the shore at a

depth of one fathom.

I am thankful to Dr. H. Sreenivasa Rao* d.Sc.j f.a.sc., f.n.i. and Mr. P. 1.

Chacko, b .Sc. (Hons.), f.z.S., for going through the manuscript and for afford-

ing valuable suggestions. I am also thankful to the various research workers

who gathered the data embodied in this note at the West Hill Biological Station.

References

1.

2.

3.

Day, F.

Devanesen, D. W.

&

Chidambaram, K.

Devanesan, D. W.

&

John, V.

1889. — Fauna of British India Fishes. Vol. I,

p. 386.

1941. — ‘ On two kinds of fish eggs hatched out

in the laboratory of the West Hill Bio-

logical Station, Calicut.’ Curr. Scl.

Vol. 10, No. 5, pp. 259-60.

1941. — ‘ On the natural history of Kowala

thoracata (Cuv. & Val.) with

special reference to its gonads and

eggs.’

Rec. Ind. Mus., Vol. 43, p. 216.

1931. — A History of Fishes. Chapt. 9 — p. 3.69.

Ernest Benn.

4. Norman, J.R.

AN ABNORMAL FORM OF LAC CELL AND ITS

EARLIEST ILLUSTRATION

BY

S. Mahdihassan

( With a plate )

A typical lac insect has two life cycles ; one matures during the monsoon

season, the other during the non-monsoon period of the year. Up north, the

monsoon life cycle may be as short as four m.onths or even less, while the

n, on-monsoon generation may cover eight months or more. In South India

the species, Lakshadia communis covers one life cycle in five months, from

June to October, the other in seven months, from November to May. Insects

developing during the rains give rise to young ones in November which mature

as winged males. The entire generation consists of males. The lac insects excrete

honey dew; which attracts flies. These visit lac encrustations at the time larvae

are swarming and incidentally transport the larva far and wide, usually singly.

Such isolated insects change their sex and produce abnormal forms of cells. The

normal female cell is round, like a pill, that of the male on sex reversal becomes

hexagonal and on account of its resemblance has been called a crown shaped

cell. The generation that swarms from it, in Junje, consists of J3 females

to 1 male, which is wingless. Thus only the crown shaped cells really give

rise to any female larvae and these alone can form encrustations. It is clear

that lac can be collected only at the end of the monsoon season and then

as chunks being produced by the progjeny of one mother insect only.

A species that shows the greatest sex ratio variation and the largest

preponderance of males is Lakshadia communis. Naturally this insect is also

the one which shows the crown shaped cells more than other species. This

explains how Clusius (1), who offers three illustrations of stick lac, unwittingly,

illustrates in one of them a crown shaped cell, as seen in silhouette. Clusius

translated a book by Garcia, who published his original treatise, at Goa.,

in 1563. Garcia _was shown sonoye pieces of stick lac and he probably had

three illustrations made from it, but, as the press in Goa at the time could

not print any figures, the original drawings were handed over to Clusius

who had wood engravings madje from them and the pictures reproduced in

the Latin edition of Garcia’s book. Even as early as 1563*, Garcia reports,

•‘because it bears little lac they do not value it, the soil not being fit suited

to reproduce it’. One can read such remarks in most official reports on lag

to day 1 One of the three pictures by Garcia- Clusius, showing a crown-shaped

cell, is reproduced as Fig. 1 here. The twig is shown natural size and

belongs to Zizyphu $ jujuba, but the absence of thorns may be noticed.

Fig. 3 was derived from the same species of tree but it is also devoid of

thorns. The crown-shaped cell, in Fig.l, has been marked, K by me and it

is further connected with a separate sketch to show; th;e same object clearly.

The crown-shaped cell (2) usually occupies the extreme basal end of the

encrustation. This is seen in Fig. 1 and is confirmed by Figs. 2 and 3 where

the object is also indicated with K. This cell occurs in most cases .on that

part of the twig which faces the earth. That in Fig. 1, K, was the position

nearest to the earth on the twig can be indirectly shown.

Flies usually settle on the twig where it is darkest, being usually a spot

which faces the earth, as below a horizontal twig. On a twig which is

inclined, K, would be the position facing the earth and not opposite to it.

On such a twig larvae would settle mostly on the lower surface while its upper*

which may be called its back, would be thinly populated or not at all.

Depending upon the inclination of the twig a quantitative relationship can be

11

1 62

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST , SOCIETY, Vol. 48

established between this factor and the intensity of infection by lac. We

get all degrees of infection. Fig. 1 shows towards the right of the reader

a narrow empty space where lac larvae had not settled and the space, though

linear, was actually the space left unoccupied by the insects. This narrow

region distinctly shows to be the one most away from the earth, hence its

opposite side should be the one facing the earth, which, in Fig. 1, is the

side where the crown shaped cell, K, is situated.

Fig. 2 shows a fresh lac encrustation on Z.jwjuba, collected at Bangalore.

A thorn at the basal end is evident. The crown-shaped cell, K, again occupies

the position typical for it. The main part of the progeny derived from it has

formed the encrustation which appears dusted with a white powder. Living

lac insects secrete a soft wax which is dusted all over the surface of fresh

stick lac. A small part of the generation died prematurely and is seen darker

than the rest due to the absence of the white powdery wax ; this portion

of the encrustation is marked D. It would be apparent that the main colony

of insects had settled in front of the crown shaped mother cell, the larvae

having moved towards the apex of the twig which is normally the case.

The same tree which supplied stick lac, seen in Fig. 2, also gave the

piece shown in Fig. 3. The crown shaped cell, seen more in profile and

again at the base of the encrustation, is indicated as K. Some insects died

prematurely and are marked D which appear darker from want of the white

powdery wax. If Fig. 3 were to be copied and printed from a wood engraving

the crown-shaped cell would not be more conspicuous than the same object, K,

"in Fig. 1. In order to appreciate my interpretation of K, in Fig. 1 such

a visualisation would be desirable. It may be repeated that Fig. 1, K, shows

the crown-shaped cell in silhouette. It has been already mentioned that Fig. 3

does not show any thorn although it is longer than the piece in Fig. 1, whose

identity it is proposed to establish, as belonging to Z.jujuba.

Fig. 4 sh.ows a twig of Ficus mysorensis collected at Bangalore. It was

growing horizontal with the encrustation facing the earth. The picture shows

it, lying on its back as it were, tbje scale in mm. gives the enlargement. The

encrustation appears to be formed in four lumps. The largest is the basal

one, with the crown shaped cell raised by it and yet attached to its surface.

The basal lump is conspicuously large, while the other three are more or less

similar to one another. It would be apparent that the twig is a very short

one. When the larvae swarmed from the crown-shaped mother cell normally

they should have moved towards the apex of the twig but the distance

from the mother cell to the apex would indicate that it would have been

wise for the insects not to have done so. The larvae settle once for all on a

twig and in this they are guided by their instinct of acquiring food. It

would appear that the food of the lac insect was not present in the part of

the twig from the crown shaped cell to the apex. But since movement towards

the base of the twig is also unnatural for the larvae the greatest competition

has occurred in their trying to settle as near to the mother cell as possible,

hence this basal part of the encrustation has become the largest.

The presence of crown-shaped cells has not been recorded in the literature

by any other worker on lac. Fig. 4 has been specially offered to show what

a conspicuous object it can sometimes be. There appears to be one more

record of it than that of Clusius which is by Chamberlin (3) who found it

in the species Lakshadia chinensis but wrongly named it as a new species

L. rangoonensis. Strange enough this author does not admit L. chinensis to

be specifically different from other lac insects.

SUMMARY

In 1567 Clusius printed the first illustrations of stick lac. The pictures

were first made by Garcia at Goa in 1563 and passed on to Clusius who

translated his book into Latin. One of these three illustrations is an encrustation

of Lakshadia communis formed by a progeny that issued from a single crown-

shaped mother cell. This object is seen at the base of the encrustation in

profile and as silhouette. Similar encrustations are shown to support the

interpretation of the object illustrated by Garcia-Clusius, as a Crown-shaped cell.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Fig. 2

Fig- 3

Fig.

For explanation of figures see end of the article.

.

An abnormal form of lac cell 163

Explanation of Figures.

Fig. 1. — Stick lac illustrated by Garcia-Clusius in 1567. The crown-shaped

mother cell K is also shown separately.

Fig. 2. — Encrustation of L. communis on Z. jujuba. Crown-shaped cell is

K, the dead insects are marked D. Magnification 11:10.

Fig. 3. — Encrustation of L. communis on Z. jujuba. The twig shows no

thorn. The crown-shaped cell K, and dead lac insects D are indicated.

Magnification 11 : 10.

Fig. 4. — Fresh stick lac of L. communis on Ficus mysorensis. The crown-

shaped cell, hexagonal in outline, is self evident. The enlargement is shown

by a mm. scale.

References

1. C. Clusius : Aromatum et Simplicium. Antwerp, 1567.

2. S. Mahdihassa : The probable occurrence of sex-reversal among lac insects.

Zeit. f. ang. Entomol. 1930; 16: 527.

3. J. C. Chamberlin : Laccifer rangoonensis Btn. Ent. Res. 1925 ; 16 : 35.

REVIEWS

i. ‘PROCEEDINGS OF THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF BENGAL' Yd.

I, No. 1, March 1948.

The appearance of a new zoological periodical in India is an event which

cannot be passed over without comment. Through the enthusiasm of a few

zoologists in Calcutta, the Zoological Society of Bengal was founded some

years ago and that Society has now brought forth its Proceedings in the

form of a biannual journal. The first number of the Proceedings covers

78 pages and contains several text-figures and four plates. There are, in all,

eight research papers dealing with a wide variety of subjects ranging from the

cytology of grasshoppers, the development of fish scales and the descriptions of

new parasitic protozoa, to the development of the vertebral column in the alligator.

The editing is good, the figures and plates well drawn and well captioned,

and it is a pleasure to congratulate the Society on the production of this

excellent journal. A few improvements that strike us may be mentioned—

not so much as criticism as by way of helpful suggestions. For instance,

the titles of various papers can be made more comprehensive and attractive

by the addition of common English names of animals : thus instead of

‘Meiosis in diploid and tetraploid spermatocytes of Attractomorpha sp.’, the

title could profitably be ‘Meiosis . . * in the Short-horned Grasshoppers,

Attractomorpha sp.’ It is also rather unfortunate that the grasshoppers were not

identified specifically, for that would have enhanced the value of the paper.

The headquarters of the Society are situated in the Zoological Laboratory

of the Calcutta University at 35, Ballygunge Circular Road, Calcutta. The

President for the current year is Professor H. K. Mookerjee, the Secretary

Dr. S. P. Bay Chaudhuri, and the Editor Dr. J\ L. Bhaduri.

We wish the Society and the Proceedings a happy and prosperous career and

hope that they will be able to maintain the standard that they have set for

themselves in the first number.

2. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF HOMOPTEBA AUCHENOBHYNCHA. By Z. P.

Metcalf, Dept, of Zoology, State College Station, Baleigh, North Carolina.

U.S.A., 2 vols. 1947, published by the author, price $7.50.

It is well knowm that the Germans have given us model examples of monographic

studies. The Americans deserve the credit for compiling ideal bibliographies.

On scale insects Mrs. Fernald’s bibliography was not only the first but is

still the only one existing. We have now Prof. Metcalf's Bibliography of

Homoptera in 2 vols. The wrork is published by the author which accounts

for the modest price of the book. The publication under review is really an

encyclopaedic bibliography which leaves nothing to be desired. The printing

and binding are excellent and there are 1100 pages of clearly printed matter.

Yol. I comprises of nearly 900 pages of papers by authors whose names

appear in alphabetical order. An average page consists of more than 11

entries so that there are about 10,000 papers indexed.

Vol. II contains in all 186 pages of which 85 are occupied by the list of

different journals from which the bibliography has b|een compiled. Taking

16 names on an average page, over 1350 journals have been mentioned To

extract 10,000 titles from 1350 journals is a gigantic task and a country like

India one would be fortunate if one could find even 300 of thpse in libraries

throughout the length and breadth of the country. It is in such gigantic

undertakings that the American workers se(em to excel.

Pp. 105-186 contain a summary of the analysis of the 10,000 papers listed.

This index is as perfect as it could be desired. Papers are divided according

to the geographical distribution of the insects, also according to their family,

to their host plants and according to the physiological, ecological and anatomical

studies carried out on each family of homopterous insects.

If the compilation of Vol. I shows indefatigable labour, Vol. II shows a

thorough mastery of the contents of the papers. Prof. Metcalf’s bibliography

is sure to be of interest to every entomologist working on homopterous insects

and will long remain the only encyclopaedic source of information upon them.

S. Mahdihassan.

REVIEWS

165

3. CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER AND OTHER SPORTING FISH

IN INDIA AND BURMA. By A. St. J. Macdonald, with 4 coloured. 17 black

and white plates and 64 text-figures: pp. ix-306. 9^x6£ in. Published by the

Bombay Natural History Society. 1948. Price Rs. 15.

Since the days of ‘The Rod in India’ by H. S. Thomas (the first edition of

which was published in 1873, the sjecond — and best — in 1881, the third in 1897)

several books on freshwater angling in this country have appeared. Some of

these are mentioned at pp. 255-256 of the book under review ; one—' Sunlit

Waters, An Introduction to the Art of Fishing with Light Tackle’ ‘by Capt.

C. W. W. S. Conway, 1942 — should be included.

Though all these fulfilled a want in some way, none of th|em approached

the present volume by Mr. Macdonald. This is an up-to-date and fully

comprehensive work on all aspects of angling in the rivers and lakes of India

and Burma. Through contributions by sea angling experts, and a list of

references at page 175 it also effectivjeiy deals with Sea and Estuary Fishing

along the coasts of India from the Persian Gulf to Calcutta ; also Aden, the

Andaman and the Laccadive Islands

The material of the book passed through the pages of the Society’s Journal

in a continuous series from August 1942 to August 1946, and now takes its

place as one of the growing library of authoritative volumes published from

time to time by the Society, having been written by its members: — The

Game Birds of India, Burma and Ceylon in three sumptuous volumes ; Indian

Pigeons and Doves similarly produced ; Some Beautiful Indian Trees ; The

Identification of Indian Butterflies ; The Book of Indian Birds ; The Book of

Indian Animals; and now this book on Angling which will be the companion

of the sportsman on his outings and his guide and mentor as to all matters

piscatorial. There is little that even the most experienced angler wiil be

able to add to or modify. As the immortal Thomas wrote, ‘If old hands,

nevertheless, find nothing new in these pages, will they kindly consider that

it is mainly their own fault for knowing too much’ !

As to spinning dead bait the author rightly points out (page 47) ‘it is

the pace that kills — 'the correct pace’, and that, it may be said is the pace

discovered through intelligent use of experience. In para. 30, page 53 it is

correctly pointed out that agate rings are easily damaged. The experience of

your reviewer is that so much is this so that such rings should be avoided.

Often will the rod-repairing expert show to his customer through the magnifying

glass (p.28) that his precious agate rings are cracked and causing unsuspected

line damage. This is only one of the many ways in which this book will

quickly repay its purchase price. Rings of stainless steel would be safe and

everlasting ; but that would not be good for the trade 1 Protected porcelain

rings are as good as agate.

That scaled spoons attract fish is rightly remarked at page 46 para 10.

This has been found in a number of rivers, among others the streams of the

Western Ghats, where also less glittering spoons of frosted silver finish do

better than ordinary bright spoons. (See Angling Localities, page 296).

One could wander through the book in this way for a long time. Enough

has been said to show what a wealth of information and detail is here at the

disposal of the angler.

The angler will feel the need of a General Index1 use of which would

save much time and some irritation. Such an Index should be provided in any

subsequent edition. The value of a book is much enhanced by a good index.

The 1881 ‘Rod in India’ is an example of this. The labour to the author is

abundantly repaid by increased pleasure in use afforded to the busy angler.

Cease, carping critic !

The book contains twelve chapters : — Mahseer Fishing as compared to other

sport ; Simple Natural History of the Mahseer — Fishing for Mahseer — The

Mahseer in Burma — Mahseer Fishing in Assam and the Dooars — Other Sporting

Fish and How to Catch Them — Sea and Estuary Fishing — Tank Angling — Scraps

from My Note Book— Advice to Anglers ; and a 47 page Localities Index which

will be a valuable guide to the angler whenever he may happen to be.

1 For the inadvertent omission of the author’s carefully prepared index the

publishers tender apology both to the author and to users of his book. Eds.

1 66 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

The book is well bound, printed and produced. There are few printers

errors. At foot of page 35 the name ‘Mr. Verhgen’ should read, ‘Mr. J. de

Wet Van Ingen.’ A photograph of this, now the record Mahseer, and of its

captor is at page 406 of Vol. 46 of the Society’s Journal. Photographs with

account of capture of the former record fish of 119 lbs. and the next largest of

110 lbs. are at pages 662-663 of Vol. 43. Another account of the taking of

the 119 lb. fish is at page 254 of this book. The name ‘Corbet’ at p. 36 should

be ‘Corbett’.

The coloured plates following page 6 well illustrate the several forms of

Mahseer met with in India, Assam and Burma. 31 of the ‘Other Sporting Fish’

are well depicted by pen-and-ink sketches. The angler who possesses or obtains

from the Society the re-print (Nov : 1932 66 page pamphlet on ’Game Fishes of

Bombay’ — item 6 page 256) will have 14 coloured plates of some of these, as

also further local and other useful information regarding the Bombay District

and the Deccan. Some of the sea fish are illustrated by photographs.

The many text-figures — of which them are 85 and not 64 only as mentioned

pn the title-page, greatly assist the informative nature of the book.

Both the angler of less experience and the novice will be quickly repaid the

quite moderate purchase price of the book through saving in a number of

ways of otherwise expensively acquired experience : and it will be greatly

valued by all who possess it.

R.W.B.

The following books have been added to the Society’s Library since

October 1948 : —

1. CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER AND OTHER SPORTING FISH

IN INDIA AND BURMA. By A. St. Macdonald (The Bombay Natural History

Society, Bombay, 1948).

2. FISHING. By Clifford George (Oxford University Press, 1948).

3. THE GARDEN IN THE PLAINS 3rd Edn. By Agnes W. Harler

(Oxford University Press, Bombay 1948).

4. ALPINE FLOWERS (Iris Book). (Oxford University Press, 1945).

5. WONDERS OF THE SEA — shells (Iris Book). (Oxford University

Press, 1945).

6. WONDERS OF THE SEA — life of the ocean — fishes etc. (Iris Book).

(Oxford University Press, 1945).

7. THE BEAUTY OF BUTTERFLIES (Iris Book). (Oxford University

Press, 1945).

8. MAMMALIAN GENETICS. By William E. Castle (Oxford University

Press, 1940).

9. MANUAL FOR A LABORATORY COURSE IN GENETICS— to

accompany THE TEXT book mammalian genetics. By William E. Castle (Oxford

University Press, 1940).

10. THE GENETICS OF DOMESTIC RABBITS. By William E. Castle

(^Oxford University Press, 1930).

OBITUARY

T. R. D. BELL

With a plate

The late Thomas Reid Bell was one of the oldest members of the

Society and spent the greater part of his life in the Bombay Presi-

dency. He was born at Bandon, Cork, on 2nd May, 1863, and was

the youngest of a family of twelve. After leaving Ireland his mother

went to live in Dresden and most of his boyhood was spent there.

When he was about seventeen or eighteen he came to London and

attended classes at Messrs. Wren and Gurney, the well-known

crammers, where one of his brothers was a tutor. He tried for the

Indian Civil Service but failed and, at the instigation of his brother,

sat for the entrance examinations to both Woolwich and Sandhurst

which he passed. He decided, however, not to enter upon an Army

career and later passed the examination for the Indian Woods and

Forestry Service. After undergoing the usual instructional training

in Nancy, in France, he went out to India in 1884 and was appointed

District Forest Officer, Dharwar, on 24th November. At that time

Colonel Peyton, one of the Army officers appointed to the Forestry

Service at its inauguration, was in charge of the Southern Division.

He was a great shikari and a noted shot, and Bell started his training

under him. I remember Bell telling me that the first time he went

after a tiger with Peyton the tiger came out of the beat in front of

him and he killed it with a shot in the head, the bullet passing

through an eye. Some time later he took part in another beat and

again the tiger came out to Bell, who killed it with a similar shot.

Colonel Peyton, after examining the dead tiger, turned to Bell and

said : ‘ Young man, do you always shoot your tigers through the

eye ? ’

Although Bell had shot all kinds of large and small game he was

more interested in entomology and other branches of natural history.

In the Journal , Volume xv, pp. 344, he graphically described

an eerie experience with a man-eating panther. The animal had

made a practice of taking natives from machans while guarding the

crops. Bell sat up in a tree for the panther and presently he saw it

looking at him from some long grass in front, then it disappeared.

After a time he had an uncomfortable feeling that something was

watching him from behind. Turning cautiously round he saw the

head of the panther looking at him round the stem of an adjacent

tree. Slowly raising his rifle he fired, but when the smoke cleared

away the head was still there, the animal had not moved. Fortuna-

tely a second shot sent it crashing to the ground.

In the early nineties natural history flourished in Kanara. Bell

was the Forest Officer, James Davidson, his life-long friend, the

Collector and E. H. Aitken in charge of Salt and Excise. The last

named, better known as Eha, was the son of a Scottish missionary

at Satara, and as a small boy used to while away the tedium of a

j6S JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

strict Sabbath by watching his caterpillars. After entering Govern-

ment service Aitken began to make a special study of the life

histories of butterflies and along with Davidson wrote several papers

on the subject for the Journal. In his study of lepidoptera Bell

owed much to these two, and in 1896 all three combined in writing a

paper on the butterflies of North Kanara, his first contribution to the

Journal. In addition to his great interest in entomology Davidson

was a keen ornithologist and had contributed papers to Stray

Feathers and the Journal. But his principal interest in birds was

their eggs, and for long he had wished to make a trip to Kashmir to

collect birds’ eggs. After he retired in 1896 he was able to put this

into execution and invited Bell to accompany him. In his account of

the expedition, which he wrote for the Ibis, Davidson remarks that

his companion had for many years been a great collector of lepidop-

tera and coleoptera but had not hitherto taken special interest in

birds or their eggs. The two spent about six weeks in Kashmir

going as far as Sonamarg, but although they collected many

eggs and butterflies, the season was rather a disappointing one.

Nevertheless the trip had one important result — it aroused Bell’s

interest in both birds and their eggs, especially the latter. After

Davidson went home in 1896 Bell corresponded regularly with him

and I, fortunately, have several of these letters, which are full of his

bird-nesting activities and finds amongst the lepidoptera.

Towards the end of the nineties he was transferred to Khandesh

where he took every opportunity to increase his insect collection.

About this time he sent his entire collection of beetles to

H. E. Andrews but this did not mean he gave i^p collecting these

insects — far from it ; he began at once to form another collection.

But in Khandesh at least he seems to have paid more attention to

moths and hymenoptera. During the nesting season he devoted

what time he could spare to searching for the nest of the aberrant

tree creeper Salpornis spilonotus which was not uncommon in the

forests of the northern parts of the district. But all attempts to find

a nest failed in spite of the fact that he enrolled the help of a fellow

D.F.O., the Commissioner and even the wife of the Commissioner.

Then one morning he heard one of the birds singing on a tall bare

leafless tree and after much searching through his glasses he noticed

a small nest in the fork of a slender branch with the bird sitting on

it singing ! In no time he was up the tree and secured the eggs, the

first taken in the Presidency.

In 1899 Bell was back again in Kanara but not for long as the

Government decided that he should have some experience of forestry

conditions in Sind. Bell protested, but Government was adamant

and to Sind he had to go, vowing that he would not shave until he

returned to Kanara — nor did he. In Sind, however, there was much

to interest him and the bird and insect life was very different from

that of Kanara and Khandesh. Hymenoptera were specially interest-

ing and he met with many species of butterflies new to him. He

paid special attention to the breeding birds and found the nests of a

number of species previously only known from Scrope Doig’s paper

on the Birds of the Eastern Narra Canal many years previously.

Near Karachi he discovered that, in the hottest parts of the year, the

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc,

The late T. R. D. Bell, C.I.E., I.F.S. (Retd.)

.0 .

OBITUARY 169

Desert Lark Alaemon alaudipes was not uncommon as a breeding bird.

While on tour in the northern part of Sind he secured two examples

of the Penduline Tit, Remiz coronaius , at Ruk near Sukkur on 27th

February, 1904, a species not previously recorded from India.

When not on tour he lived at Clifton close to his old friend Aitken,

now Collector of Customs and engaged in writing the natural history

part of the Sind Gazetteer.

In October 1904 his sister Eva came out to stay with him and

soon adapted herself to camp life. Bell was anxious that she should

see Kanara as soon as possible and arranged to spend Christmas at

Karwar. The journey from Bombay was by rail so that he could

show his sister the scenery of the Poona and Goa ghats. Karwar

was reached at midnight ‘ just as the moon was rising over the

mouth of the Kalanaddi with the black outline of the Ghats beyond.’

They stayed at the Gaddhelli bungalow and he wrote to Davidson

that Eva ‘ is pleased with everything and I think would like to stay

here always.’ How delighted he must have been that his sister had

fallen under the spell of his beloved Karwar. He now began to talk

of buying a bungalow there. Early in 1906 he was transferred to

Belgaum and in 1907 we find him writing to Davidson about the

moths he was breeding and his hunts for the nest of the Broad-

tailed Grass Warbler Schoenicola platyura. Later he moved to

Karwar and while there got a thorn into his foot which developed

into a blister corn making walking impossible. Ultimately he had to

go to Bombay for an operation and after some of the surrounding

tissue had been removed and examined it was pronounced to be

malignant. Bell immediately went home for further advice and on

arrival in London went straight to H. E. Andrews at Highgate.

Much to the relief of all his friends the previous diagnosis was not

confirmed and before long crutches were dispensed with and he

could walk as before. This was his first leave home but though he

was delighted to see his friends, towns whether they were London or

Edinburgh (where he stayed with Davidson) were not to his liking

and by the end of 1908 he was on his way back to India.

A series of papers on the Common Butterflies of the Plains of

India by L. C. H. Young had been commenced in the Journal but

unfortunately owing to ill-health Young had left India. Our then

secretary, Mr. W. S. Millard, approached Bell to continue the series

which, after some hesitation, he agreed to do. In addition to descrip-

tions of the perfect insects Bell added descriptions of the larvae in

different stages and ultimately the series, after many delays, was

finished in volume xxxi pp. 951. The work was a valuable contri-

bution to our knowledge of the life histories of Indian butterflies but

the descriptions, whether of the butterfly or the caterpillar, were too

detailed for the ordinary collector.

Some time after his return to India I went to stay with him at

Karwar — a never-to-be-forgotten experience. I remember him taking

me his favourite walk up the hill behind the bungalow and after

scrambling over some rocks we reached the summit above the tree-

tops. What a wonderful view there was and what a sight for the

naturalist! About the tops of the trees numbers of butterflies were

flying to and fro, and flitting from one tree to another were drongos

i;o JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

wood-shrikes and brilliant coloured minivets. A walk in the jungle

with Bell was always of interest; but one had to be in good condition

as he moved fast and had a way of gliding through the thick places,

which made it difficult to keep up with him. Every now and again

he would stop and examine the leaves on a tree or shrub and as likely

as not discover some caterpillars, which would promptly be bottled.

He had a wonderful ear for bird-notes and was very good at finding

nests.

In either 1912 or 1913 both his sisters came out to India and he

was never happier than when he had some of his family with him.

He became Chief Conservator of Forests for the Bombay Presidency

and then had to live in Poona and spend most of his time in an office,

but whenever possible he escaped to inspect forests in the lesser

known parts of the Presidency.

Bell was awarded the C.I.E. in 1911, but such honours interested

him little, and it was not until two years later that the decoration was

formally presented to him, and then only after a hint from high

quarters. His official service came to an end in 1920 and thereafter

he settled at Karwar where he was joined by his sister Eva. Not

long after his retirement his brother Jim came out tc visit him and

the two brothers and Eva made a trip to Kashmir an Baltistan. I

know little of that trip except that he got some interes' ng butterflies

and sent a number of birdnotes to Davidson.

A few years later he started an unfortunate ventui and went into

partnership in a timber business in Savantwadi State. At first all

went well, then things began to go wrong; his partner disappeared

and after months of worry the business was finally wound up, but

not before Bell had lost a good deal of money. He was no business

man, was too trustful of others and to attend to the work he had to

be constantly at Savantwadi away from his sister at Karwar. Added

to all this he had recurrences of dysentery which he had first contracted

in Sind.

In 1930 Bell sent his entire entomological collection home to the

British Museum, where he thought it would be safer than at Karwar,

and afterwards presented it to the National Collection. This magui-

ficent gift was probably the largest collection personally collected by

one man and consisted of 3,000 butterflies, 12,000 moths, 1,900

coleoplera, 1,720 hymenoptera and 20 orthoptera. In many cases

there were long series of butterflies and moths bred by himself. For

many years he had taken an interest in hawkmoths and had been in

correspondence with the late Lord Rothschild and Dr. K. Jordan in

England and Major F. B. Scott, a keen collector in Assam. By

1924 Bell and Scott between them had bred eighty out of the one

hundred and ninety-two species known to occur in India, Burma and

Ceylon, and the former’s collection contained some 1,500 specimens.

He now was desirous of publishing a review of the Kanara

Sphingidae wdth descriptions of the larvae, but unfortunately his

manuscript was so bulky that none of the Societies he approached

would publish it. This was a very great blow to him, but fortunately

it was ultimately arranged that he and Scott should combine together

and write the volume on the Sphingidae in tne Fauna of British

India series which w^s published in 19.

OBITUARY

171

In 1936 Bell came to England and visited many of his old friends

but spent most of his time working in the Museum at his moth

collection with H. W. Tams. Early in the following year he was

joined by his brother and then they both went to Lucerne where his

sisters were living. In the late spring he returned to Karwar with

Eva and settled down to the old life. Four years later, on 17th May

1941, his sister Eva died after a short illness. This was a great

blow to Bell, who was very deeply attached to his sister, and it is

doubtful if he ever fully recovered from it. Without Eva life in

Karwar was very lonely ; his health began to fail and he was unable

to use his car and now could only walk very short distances on level

ground. All this must have been a very great trial to one who had

led such an active life. His health did not improve and in 1946 his

niece, Letty Bell, flew out from Switzerland tc join him. Early in

1948 he became worse and after much suffering died on June 24th.

Besides being an entomologist and ornithologist Bell was a keen

botanist and with the late L. J. Sedgwick, I.C.S., made a study of the

flowering plants and grasses of Kanara. Between them they

brought together a large collection which is now in St. Xavier’s

College, Bombay. In later life orchids occupied his attention and

his sister madtanany beautiful paintings of them.

India has iihfeen the scene of the labours of many fine naturalists

but it is doubtful if any have excelled T; IR. D. Bell in all-round

knowledge of /-■'game animals, birds, insects and plants. He was

specially a field naturalist, but unfortunately he published little and

much of his knowledge dies with him, although all his life he kept

careful notes.

He will be mourned by a very large circle of friends who will look

back with pleasure to the delightful days spent in his company. One

can picture him now in his beloved Kanara, his tall, slim figure, with

exceptionally long legs, clad in a suit of green shikar cloth of

peculiar make, with white canvas rope-soled shoes on his feet striding

through the jungle or jumping from one rock to another with extra-

ordinarily youthful agility. That was T. R. D. Bell as we love to

think of him.

N. B. Kinnear

CAPTAIN G. C. SHORTRIDGE

(By courtesy of ‘ The Times ’ — London, January 20, 1947)

Captain G. C. Shortridge, director of the Kaffrarian Museum,

King William’s Town, South Africa, whose death has already been

reported, was well known as a naturalist and collector of wild animals.

Guy Chester Shortridge took part in some seven expeditions on

behalf of the British Museum— to Australia, New Guinea, Java, and

Borneo, besides visiting Guatemala to obtain live animals for the Zoo-

logical Society of London. Oldfield Thomas, for so long in charge

of the mammal collection in the British Museum (Natural History),

considered Guy Shortridge the best collector who had ever worked

for the museum. It was on Thomas’s recommendation that Short-

ridge went to India to join the Bombay Natural History’s Mammal

172 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

Survey in 1912 and during the two years he was there he brought

together a wonderful collection of specimens from southern India

and Burma. He had a way of interesting people in his work and

before he had been long in the country he had district officers, police,

and coffee planters all helping. From southern India he went to

Burma where he was at the outbreak of the 1914-18 war.

Hurrying back to Bombay he was just in time to get himself

enrolled as a dispatch rider on the staff of the Indian Expeditionary

Force then embarking for France. He also saw service in Palestine,

where he found time to do some collecting and in Iraq, where he

was attached to the R.A.F. as an observer. After the war he went

to Northern Rhodesia on behalf of the British Museum and while

there was appointed to the charge of the Kaffrarian Museum at King

William’s Town. The museum prospered under his charge and

plans for increasing the buildings were proposed a few years ago.

But Shortridge was not content with the life of an ordinary museum

curator. He longed to be in the open again collecting. With the help

of money he raised locally, and from the British Museum and

American sources, he made repeated trips to all parts of the Union

and there is now in the Kaffrarian Museum the finest collection of

South African mammals in existence.

At the outbreak of war in 1939 Shortridge at once volunteered

for active service, but he was over age and had to be content to work

in Pretoria and Nairobi preparing a useful little gazetteer of Aby-

ssinia and Somaliland which was of much value in the Abyssinian

campaign. Much to his disappointment he was not allowed to

accompany the South African troops in the North African campaign.

In spite of his age — he was over 60— Shortridge made further

collecting trips after the war, extending his operations to Nyasaland.

In 1934 he published a two-volume work on the mammals of South-

West Africa which dealt with the habits and distribution of the species

found in that area.

N. B. K.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1.— BLACK LEOPARD CUBS

(With a photo)

About ten years ago a litter of two leopard cubs was found

near Golaghat in central Assam, and sent to me by a friend.

One of them was black and the other normal-coloured. The mother

was seen, and was normal-coloured. The father was not seen,

and may have been black or spotted, but there was no definite

report of a black leopard in the district at that time.

I dare not enter into the complex questions of how and why

melanism in leopards originally came into being, a problem which

I think has never been satisfactorily explained by anyone. But

I have tried to fathom the laws of genetics by which black cubs

are produced,

One fact appears to have been established: that black leopard

mating with black produces only black offspring. This has been

proved many times; for instance in the Alipore Zoo, Calcutta,

during' the years up to 1926 successive litters of all-black cubs

were produced by a pair of black parents. And in the Kolhapur

Gardens three similar all-black litters were born to black leopards.

In no instance was there a throwback to the spotted type. I

presume, then, that melanism is either a dominant character of

the ‘pen A kind, or else a recessive, always breeding true in

accordance with Mendel’s theory.

Much more complicated seem the laws, if any, governing the

proportion of black and spotted Cubs of (1) black and spotted

parents, and (2) spotted parents of which one or both have had

a black ancestor. I do not know if any records of such breeding

i^4 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

in zoological gardens exist, or if so what the results were. It

would be only in captivity or semi-captivity that accurate observa-

tions could be made, for in the jungle the absence of the male

parent when the cubs were born would give rise to doubts. A

further difficulty lies in the fact that in the cat family mothers

often devour one or more of their own litter, and it is not un-

reasonable to suppose that, in a litter of three or four cubs of

a spotted mother, the first to go would be a black cub.

It is well known that black leopards readily mate with the

spotted type, but I cannot help feeling that if a black animal

actually had the choice of a mate it would choose one of its own

colour, and vice versa.

I presume that the law of genetics in the case of black and

spotted leopards would also apply to black and yellow domestic

dogs, such as black and yellow Labradors, Retrievers and the like.

It is possible that someone may have worked out the colour

variations of breeding these kinds of dogs, and compared them

with existing records concerning leopards.

More information on the above subjects would prove of great

interest.

Doyang Tea Estate,

Oating P.O.

Assam. E. P. GEE

[Stemdale quoting Blyth (Mammalia of India, page 176)

records one black cub in a litter of 4 when both parents were of

ordinary colour. He also records that a black leopard was often

seen and known to consort with an ordinary female. There are

many cases of black leopard being crossed with black leopard

and the offspring has always been black. This coupled with

Blyth ’s reference above leaves little doubt that melanism in leopards

is controlled by a double or ‘pure’ recessive and it can be carried

for many generations without showing any change.

Pocock (Fauna, Mammalia, Yol. 1, page 224) writes ‘There is no

doubt that in certain parts of British India black leopards are

much commoner than in others. They have been recorded from

Ceylon and appear to be not uncommon in parts of South India

and Assam. They crop up in Burma and the percentage of black

specimens seems to increase southwards through the Malay

Peninsula until they become the dominant if not the sole type of

leopard in the south of that country’. He also states that there

is some evidence ‘that blackness is a discontinuous variation — that

is to say that a leopard is black or normal colour. Cubs of the

two types have been found in the same litter.’ This endorses the

assumption above. Black leopards have been recorded from

Southern Rhodesia and Abyssinia. (G. C. Shortridge, The

Mammals of South West Africa, page 97.)

Melanism is due to superabundance of black pigment and has

been described in many birds such as bullfinch . skylark and

particularly in the Common Snipe, which has been regarded as a

distinct species, Sabine’s Snipe (Newton’s Dictionary of Birds,

page 99).

MISCELLANEOUS N O TES

m

Huxley (Evolution, pp. 103-5) refers to hamsters in Siberia,

opossums in Tasmania and the bird Coereba in the West Indian

Islands, in which melanic forms occur with varying frequencies

in different areas. As a general rule humidity appears to favour

melanism and this is in keeping with the frequencies of black

panthers in India and the neighbouring countries.

It is interesting to refer here to the occurrence of melanism in

many species of moths and butterflies which has become markedly

more frequent during the last century in the industrial districts

of Great Britain; so much so that in some cases the entire

population of an industrial area or large city has become melanistic.

Gott (Adaptive Coloration in Animals, p. 17) believes that this may

be due to the ‘smoke-blackened' countryside of many manufactur-

ing districts, where the physiological advantages inherent in

melanism, would more easily outweigh the disadvantages of

conspicuousness. Huxley stresses the fact that melanism is

physiologically useful and confers extra hardiness and viability only

when it is controlled by dominant or partially dominant genes.

We have no information on the hardiness or viability of black

leopards, but it is generally believed that they are more fierce

than the normally coloured ones.

Ernst Mayr in his ‘Systematics and the Origin of Species' holds

£hat mutations of this kind, i.e. albinism and melanism, are o£

little interest in evolution except that allied families show similar

traits, and their phylogenetic affinities can thus be established,

e.g. albinism among the herons. In this context it is noteworthy

that no authentic record of melanism in the tiger has yet been

established.

The records of black leopards mating in the Calcutta Zoo have

already been published in the Journal. We do not know whether

there is any justification for Mr. Gee’s feeling that if a black leopard

had the choice it would mate with one of its own colour. Colours

in dogs are also genetically transmitted, but we do not know

which are dominant and which recessive, and it is also possible

that this character may vary with the different breeds of

dogs. — tEds.]

2. — A TALE OE MANY TIGERS'

Mr. Randolph C. Morris sends us for publication the following

extraordinary account dated 6-2-1948 received by him from Dr.

Willoughby Grant of Kempstowe Nursing Home, Ootacamund. The

writer of the note vouches for its accuracy and adds that the rifle

he used was a .850 Rigby.

‘I went up to Mukerti (Nilgiris), not far from the bungalow, and

camped, with the idea of verifying a report that there was a 40"

sambar there. On the Tuesday morning I went up to the top of

the hill behind the bungalow and sat up amongst some rocks.

The sambar stag came out but, as was expected, it was only about

a 34". So I let him alone and only watched him through glasses.

After a time he became suspicious of something, and looking in

the direction he was looking in, I saw a tiger come out on the

1/6 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Foj. 48

opposite hill, about 300 yards off. The tiger after a time lay down

watching the sambar. I watched them for about half an hour

and then I wanted to get back to camp for breakfast, but was

persuaded to take a long shot, as it was absolutely impossible to

get any nearer. I took the shot with the 300 yd. sight up and

dropped it. We then, with difficulty, got to it (took about 1-J

hours!). It was a young tigress, but we found many other tiger

footprints just inside the shola where she was lying. We got her

into camp and I went out the next day, Wednesday, and sat up

again all day, but saw nothing at all till about 5.30 p.m. When

I got up to leave, the shikari spotted a tiger sitting down in the

long grass right away at the bottom of the hill. As it was getting

dark, I took a long shot again with the 300 yards sight up. I hit him

in the back and he tried to crawl away, when, without any

warning, either 7 or 8 tigers were upon him and started to tear

him to pieces. It was impossible to shoot into the bunch with

any hope of success, so I watched with glasses and could make

out one tigress with two full grown cubs, one tigress with two half

grown cubs and two tigers; but the scrum was so great I was not

sure of 7 or 8. After a time the whole lot went or rolled down

a bank and out of sight. In a few minutes one came up and

I shot it. As it dropped all the rest came up and fell on this one.

Again the same thing happened and they all rolled out of sight* Then

after about 5 minutes one came up and showed itself and I hit

that, and again this was set upon. In this case, there was a hell

of a fight, and no end of a din. I heard all this going on although

I could not see anything of them at all.

The following morning, I went for the pick up. I retrieved

one tiger intact, one half eaten (lower half) and one completely

eaten except for 4 pads and one side of the head. That the

tigers ate them I am quite certain of because there were only

tiger footprints round the carcases, and the ground was wet. Had

there been any other footprints we couldn’t have helped seeing

them* *

EDITORS

3.— ‘DEATH CRY’ OE TIGER

It was only on reading Mr. Dunbar Brander’s note dn

‘Shamming Death’ (Yol. 46, p. 399) that it occurred to me to

make mention (Yol. 46, p. 719) of the death cry of the tiger, and

it was then, giving thought to the matter, I realized that I had not

read anywhere of this cry having been recorded. Now that

Mr. Dunbar Brander in his additional note on the subject (Voi.

47, p. 557) confirms there is no previous record, members interested

will welcome further details*

It would seem remarkable that in the hundred and more books

relating shikar experiences in this country during the past century

end a half there should have been no mention of this death cry,

which must have been uttered by some of the many thousands

of tigers slain during that long period. Probably it has been, as

with me, that it did not occur to those who heard it to say

anything about it.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES i77

Perhaps many have heard, as I have, the death-yowl of a

domestic cat killed by dogs so did not think it as at all extraordinary

that the largest of the felidae should utter a similar cry when at

point of death from a violent hurt.

1. 4 th February 1925, where the cart road crosses the first

nala west of Junapani village in the Jarkahu Shooting Block of

the Hoshangabad Forest Division: The tiger came to the kill at

a few minutes to eight p.m. and the *470 soft nose bullet hit him

too far back on the body. I had no torch and the radium foresight

did not show up as the moon was from the front. Full moon was

four days later. With the moonlight from behind the radium

sight is excellent, but under the circumstances it was not easy to

align the sights correctly. The tiger dashed away without response

to the shot, but I hoped for the best as quite frequently no sound

is uttered even in case of a mortal wound.

At 11.30 p.m. I heard a peculiar noise which had the sound

of a cat-yowl and shortly after a sambur, then a barking deer

sounded alarm calls at about the same place. So it was fairly

certain the tiger was down, and probably dead or he would not

have been at this time (three hours later) within a couple of

hundred yards of where fired at.

There was a considerable blood trail and it was evident he

had dragged himself along in a crippled state. He was found a

short two hundred yards away in a fairly deep nala into which

he had collapsed in attempting to reach the bamboo jungle on

the further side. It was on hearing the death-cry of a tigress

two months later in another block (West Tapti in Betul Forest

Division) that I realized what the call had been, for it was a

sound not heard on any previous occasion. This tiger measured

8 ft. 10 in. between pegs, and weighed 380 lbs.

2. 7 th April 1925, Taori hamlet: The tigress killed the boda

tethered for her in the Lapada nala and made great efforts to drag

the kill but was defeated by the plaited wire rope. The *470 soft-

nose split bullet hit her rather low behind the near shoulder and

made exit beneath the opposite armpit, doing much internal

damage but missing the heart. To the shot she fell over, kicking

and struggling, so the second barrel (a miss) went into the midst

of the wriggles. On this shot she went off at a tremendous pace

and tried to scale the high, steep bank, almost a cliff, on the

further side of the wide nala bed. I heard her fail to do this

and tumble back, roaring and making a great noise. She lay

struggling among the leaves but I did not see her as there was

much shadow there. The struggles ceased and I heard her heavy

breathing. It was about twenty minutes after the shot that she

uttered a loud cat-yowl and I knew she had died and at once

recalled the sound made by the Junapani tiger. There was no

doubt about the sound or the meaning of it. This tigress measured

8 ft. in. between pegs, and weighed 265 lbs. which was light

for her full age and extra large teeth. A pack of about twenty wild

dogs ate her carcase the next evening.

3. 15th March 1926, Biba Block in the Melghat Forest Division:

The boda tethered at Chobita, a place where the cart track passes

through a grove of large trees, was killed on the night of the 13th

12

x7«: JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL 48

by a wary tiger; or perhaps he found some attraction further away

for he gave me a fruitless vigil. The next evening I was delighted

about 7.30 to hear the well-known footfalls on the dead leaves

below the machan chair. The tiger stood quite three minutes,

motionless, listening, observing before going to the carcase. There

was crunching of bones followed by a large escape of gas for the

weather was hot and the poor boda fast approaching dissolution.

To the shot the tiger grunted, and was seen by the overhead

light to be knocked over on to his back with all four legs in the

air, but before a second shot could be aimed he was up and away.

He could be heard tumbling about among dry leaves not many

yards distant and it was certain he was badly wounded. Noise

among the leaves continued at the same place for about two

hours, after which all was quiet.

The night was not uneventful. A hyaena made a fine feast

of the carcase; a cart came rumbling along and would have had

to be turned back had it not left by a side track. A flying squirrel

rushed up my tree and I almost had him by the tail — a lovely long

furred creature, of which there were several in that grove.

About 4 a.m. I awoke from fitful slumbers and heard the

laboured breathing of the tiger, so hoped for an easy finishing shot.

Daylight was near, the birds beginning to wake up, when I heard

the loud dying cat-yowl giving the comforting assurance of no

further trouble. There had been some mistake in aim and the

*470 soft-nose bullet struck in the thick part of the neck in front

of the shoulder. Here again the place where the tiger lay was

only a little over sixty yards and there was no possible doubt as

to what I heard, or the meaning of it. He measured 9 ft. 1 in.

between pegs, and weighed 380 lbs.

On 18th March a fall from a machan broke my right thigh and

wrist, so there was no more shikar for a while!

A Tiger’s ‘Whisper’!

There is another voice sound of the tiger which not many are

likely to have heard — his ‘whisper’ or ‘hist’ informing his mate

of danger. I could not say positively the warning was uttered

by the male, but that can be presumed from the circumstances.

It was a big tiger which slew a boda tethered in the wide nala

bed, all smooth basalt boulders and a few flood-torn jamun bushes.

The machan chair was tied in a small tree growing at the entry

of a small ravine into the main nala and it w^as certain the tiger

would pass beneath it on its way to the kill. It was a faulty

arrangement, as I knew at the time, but there seemed no other

choice.

At 7.30 I heard footfalls in the forest to my front. These

came closer and then there was a deep grunt from the tiger which

was instantly answered from a hundred yards further back so I

knew he had brought his mate to dinner. I was very still, crouched

in my chair with cheek on rifle stock. Every rustle of the stealthy

approach came to my ears, also the deep throat sound — a sort of

threatening rumble — and when much nearer the sniff of the nose

being used. Then by slow advance the tiger — I could not dare to

Ml SC ELLA NEOUS NOTES

179

look but knew it was the male as his was the kill— passed under*

the tree and out on to the sheet rock of the nala. Then came

the similar advance of the tigress, without any throat noises, and

I heard the rustle of grass as she also passed below and out into

the open. Then there was silence. What a grand sight that

would have been in daylight, the pair of them standing motionless,

listening, gazing.

Now came a slight sound, a sort of ‘hist’ or whisper of a

sound, which was doubtless made by the tiger and from that

moment nothing further. I realized I had been winded, or danger

otherwise detected. In all probability it was the sudden puff of

wind which slanted downwards from the ridge from which the

animals had come which carried my scent. Had it been the

movement of a portion of my blanket, which I afterwards found

had worked loose and hung down a bit behind my chair, there

would probably have been a frightened whoof, as heard on another

occasion, and not that sibilant ‘whisper’, for such it seemed.

I have successfully taken greater risks of detection than that

described, but it is always best to be as high off the ground as

possible. The sense of smell of the tiger should not be ignored,

and direction of the wind studied when arrangements for a pit or

hide are^made. That is my experience. That one or other of the

pair uttered that whisper of warning is sure, and only under such

circumstances could it ever be heard by the sportsman.

Seven days later I killed a tiger and tigress a few miles away

from that place. The tigress at 7 p.m. and the tiger at 8 a. in.

when his tremendous tug at the kill roused me from light sleep.

By the light of the electric torch he was seen standing close to the

dead tigress, one more instance to show that animals have no

knowledge or realization of death, as such. The kill had been

made by the tigress. I was fairly sure that these were the two

animals of the incident just related. The male weighed 420 lbs.

and measured 9 ft.. 3 in. between pegs; the female 255 lbs.

8 ft. 1 in.

No Death-cry by Panthers

None of the many panthers shot by me have uttered this cat-yowl

death-cry though there have been occasions when the wound and

the circumstances might have given rise to it. An instance may

be mentioned. The -500 modified cordite bullet struck the shoulder

of the male panther 3 inches low. To the shot, after a short

pause accounted for by a temporary knock-out, the beast rushed

off without any voice sound. After a couple of minutes he made

tremendous noises, truly prodigious roars, which had a note of

pain, and was evidently in extremis. After a minute or two of

this there was silence, and then a final lesser noise which I was

convinced was the end.

In the morning he was found dead 90 yards behind my machan

chair at the place the roars came from. On skinning it was found

the whole shoulder blown to pieces, lungs damaged, but heart not

injured. There was much blood at the place where the body lay

when the animal was dying and he had moved a pace in his final

186 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Pot. 4

struggles. This is one of several cases I have known when, if

the panther has a habit of the cat-yowl on demise in these circum-

stances, he would have announced his death by such a cry. This

animal was old, of stocky build and dark colouring, like most

Wynaad panthers of the Manantoddy area. It weighed 92 lb.

Bangalore, R. W. BURTON,

29 th August 1948. Lt.-Col. , I. A. (Retd.).

I have been privileged to see Col. Burton’s further notes (above)

on the tiger’s death-cry, and have been invited to comment thereon.

It is singular that, so far as I know, there is no record of this

having been heard previously, yet Col. Burton has heard it no

less than three times. Col. Burton’s position in the sporting world,

and as an observer of nature, is such that no one can have any

doubts as to the cry having been uttered and the interpretation

thereof. It must certainly have been heard by others, and either

ignored, or its significance overlooked.

I personally, so far as I know, have never heard it, and I think

it probable that had I done so I would have recognized it as a

death-cry. The only noise I have ever heard made by a tiger

at the moment of death was a deep, heavy sigh as he expelled

his last breath.

It is my belief that a great many animals have a death-cry,

and in course of time, more and more of these will be heard,

and recognized as such. In fact it would not surprise me if even

the giraffe, which has so far never been known to make any sort

of noise whatsoever, might yet be capable of a death-cry.

18 th October 1948. A. A. DUNBAR BRANDER.

4— MAMMALS OF SOUTH TINNEVELLY,

MADRAS PROVINCE

The following notes supplementary to my paper on the Mammals

of South Tinnevelly (J.B.NM-S. 48, pp. 629-644) may be of interest

to your readers.

Rusty Spotted Cat. Prionailurus rubiginosus. A beautiful

specimen of this small wild cat was killed on 28-8-48 in a tool shed

in one of our market gardens at Dohnavur. The four black lines on

the head and the rusty spots on the flanks were very clear identifica-

tion marks. Its head and body measurement was 16 inches. The

tail was unfortunately damaged during the skinning. The description

4 smaller than a domestic cat ’ is correct.

Indian Palm Civet. Paradoxurus hermaphrodilus. A variety

of this animal not specifically mentioned in any publication as far as

I know has the majority of its body white with very occasional black

hairs. The general appearance from a distance is of a white animal

with a bushy white tail. But actually the head, shoulders and front

of the front legs down to the second joint was blackish in a specimen

shot in our compound on 20-2-47. The pads of the feet were

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

i St

pinkish, the eyes a dark brown. It was a male. Head and body

length 1' 9", tail 1' 9" ; weight 5J lbs. I have heard from a reliable

observer of two more specimens with this style of colouring. One

was a baby found at the top of a palmyra palm ; the other a full

grown animal found dead, both in the foot-hills area.

Rufous Horse-shoe Bat. Rhinolophus rouxi. This bat is common

both on the plains where it spends the day hanging in the roofs of

shut-up houses, and in the hills at 3,000 feet where I found a colony

of 30 or more occupying a cave on the hill-side. At dusk I have

seen them hawking for white ants beside our house. They appear

to be able almost to stand on the ground when picking up a flying

white ant as it emerges from its hole, and before it actually takes

flight. This bat was omitted from my previous list.

Ceylon Bi-coloured Leaf-nosed Bat. Hipposideros airatus. I

found four of these hanging under a bed in a shut-up room on the

hills at 2,700 feet, on 20-6-48.

Dobson’s Wrinkle-lipped Bat. Taderida tragata. A single

specimen was found dead in one of our houses on 6-9-48. This is an

addition to my previous list.

White-tailed Wood*Rat. Rattus blanfordi. This is undoubtedly

the rat referred to in my article below No. 49 and called by me from

the Tamil name ‘ Rock Rat I have since noted the white end to

the tail,

Dohnavuk, C# G. WRBB-PRPLOE.

S. Tinnevelly,

1 Qth September 1948.

5. — DBATH-CRY IN ANIMALS

It is difficult to know where to draw the line of differentiation

between the cry at time of expiring and that of acute perception.

I can recall two cases of the palm squirrel giving a high pitched

cry ; once when caught by a Sparrow-hawk, and on the other occasion

when cornered in the hollow of a tree by my tame mongoose. This

was from fright, but to those of us who have done any amount of pig-

sticking, the death cry of a really gallant boar will be nothing new.

I have, not once but a dozen times, experienced a really good fight-

ing pig that came in and charged at sight and took spear thrust

after spear thrust without a sound, on going down on his knees or

turning over just before death, emit a high pitched squeal that could

only be taken as a death-cry. I do not refer to the boar held down

with the spear, or turned over, but to those gallant fighters who take

all the punishment without a murmur and only squeal as they die.

Dunbar Brander makes reference to jackals. In the old days in

Bihar while hunting jacks with polo sticks, a beast would often emit a

long one-note howl on being hit on the head and knocked out. This

may also be termed a death-cry.

An interesting feature of this cry is, that it attracts others if near

by, and the tribe of ‘ Jackal Callers ' use it to bring jacks out of

cover i

iS2 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY t Vol 48

Whatever the cause, it has some significance in the * Geedar ’

language.

8 Dalhousie Square, East,

Calcutta, A. St. J. MACDONALD.

21th August 1948.

6.— FUNERAL OF A WEASEL

(. Reprinted from ‘ The Field * of March 27, 1948)

‘ Sir, — Here is the account of the funeral of a weasel. Readers

who might be inclined to dismiss the story as incredible should

remember that many stories written in Gaelic (the Irish national

language) contain references to the tradition that weasels mourn and

bury their dead.

While engaged gathering sticks along the main Castlefin-Raphoe

road at Sandymills, Mr. William Doherty, of Clogfin, Ballindrait,

observed a weasel emerging from a ditch, carrying something in its

mouth. On Mr. Doherty drawing nearer, the weasel dropping what

it carried, ran off. Mr. Doherty then saw that it was the body of a

dead weasel. Remembering how in his young days he had heard

the old people talk of the belief that weasels held funerals, he decided

to wait and watch. Concealing himself on the far side of the road

some distance from the spot he awaited events.

Within a few minutes, a weasel jumped out of a hole in the ditch,

gave a quick glance around and beat its forefeet on the ditch. In a

few seconds no less than eighteen weasels appeared and bunched be-

hind their leader.

Two of the weasels approached the body of their dead friend,

slowly raised it and set off with it, keeping to the grass margin of

the road. All the other weasels, two, abreast, followed in sad pro-

cession. They moved at a slow pace down the road until they had

gone almost one hundred yards when the ‘ cortege entered a field by

a gate and proceeded to a sand pit, where the dead weasel was

interred.

Mr. Doherty regrets he had not a camera with him to record the

event.’ ~ -

Omagh. H. B. McCANN.

[There are many references in Gaelic, Celtic and Norse literature

to the burial by weasels of a dead companion. It should be remem-

bered that in ancient times the weasel was regarded as a fairy

animal, or as the property of fairies, and was often credited with

superhuman powers, and accounts in the ancient literature should bp

read in this light. There can, however, be no. doubt whatever that

weasels do on occasion bury their dead. Instances have been

recorded previously in ‘ The Field ’ (notably by Buckland reporting a

gamekeeper in Yorkshire, and Hariing reporting gamekpeper in

Berkshire) and there are also records in 1 The Gentleman’s Magazine \

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

*3

Aa instance has also been witnessed recently by a gamekeeper in

Cumberland.

There appear to be no records of stoats burying their dead, but

the habit is not confined to weasels. Some twenty years ago Brian

Vesey-FitzGerald recorded the burial of a dead badger — this account

was later included in his ‘A Country Chronicle ’ — and badger funerals

have also been witnessed in Britain by Col. R. Meinertzhagen

(reported in ‘The Field') and J. B. Smyths. There are also records of

badger funerals from Russia and Sweden. Bears wall also bury their

dead. Three such funerals have been recorded from Russia; an

account is given by A. K. Arseniev in which dead foliage and wood

was piled over the grave after interment — Eds.’]

7. DOG-FOX CROSSES

Relying on correspondence in ‘The Field’ I have stated in the

August Journal (pp. 728-729) that unions between the English fox

and domestic dog are fertile.

In a letter to ‘ The Field ’ dated the 20th November 1948 another

correspondent remarks that the dog and fox are not of the same

genus though they belong to the family Canidae , and there is no

authentic case of the European or any other fox crossing with the

dog.

The editor of ‘The Field’ confirms that the correspondent is

correct and that it is impossible (despite all the rumours about dog-

fox hybrids) for the two to inter-breed. This does not mean how-

ever, says the editor, that they will not couple.

Bangalore, R. W. BURTON,

1 6th December 1948. Lt.-CoL, LA . (Retd.)

8. OCCURRENCE OF THE LARGE HIMALAYAN

MALKOHA [. RHOPODYTES T. TR1STIS (LESS.)]

IN KHULNA SUNDERBANS.

During my trip to the Sunderbans in the year 1944 when the

launch ‘ Harrier ’ (placed at my disposal through the courtesy of the

then D.F.O.) was halting at Mankiduania Khal between August 7

and 8 I snatched a few hours for bird-watching from a small boat

along the adjacent water channels, penetrating into the thick forest

consisting mainly of trees like Sundri ( Heritiera minor Roxb.),

Gengwa ( Excoecaria agallocha Linn.) and Keora (Sonveratia apetala

Ham.). The Kera trees growing on the banks of Mankiduania Khal,

being generally of considerable size, were noticed to harbour many

interesting species of birds. Large flocks of Dicaeum cruentatum

(Linn.) moving up from all directions gathered around the taller

trees and plunged into lively activity, quarrelling, chirping and

searching for food among the leaves. The sky was overcast 'and it

was neaiing dusk, but as my boat drew nearer I could watch them

closely. In the failing light the movement of an unusual-looking

184 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 48

bird in the topmost branch of another Keora tree caught my attention

and I shot it. It was a great surprise to find that the specimen was

a Green-billed Malkoha \Rhopodytcs trislis (Less.)]. It seemed to be

an immature bird and measured as follows :

Total length 435 mm ; wing 148 mm ; tail 280 mm ; tarsus

41 mm ; culmen 30 mm.

Colours of soft parts : iris brown ; orbital skin crimson.

From the darker colouring of its upper plumage, richly glossed

with green, the ochreous tinge of the under parts as also the oblique

shape of the white tips to its tail-feathers it appears to correspond

with the typical race (P. t. trislis ).

Evidence 01 the distribution of the species in Central and South

Bengal is rather obscure. Jerdon’s mention of Lower Bengal appears

vague. Some contusion was created by Blyth stating, on the testi-

mony of Mr. Frith, that Ph. sumatranus occurs in the Sunderbans

of Bengal (J.A.S.B. xii. p. 246). At that time, however, Blyth pre-

sumed Cuculus sumatranus of Raffles, M. diardi of Lesson and Ph.

trislis to be synonymous. The point was cleared up by Blyth’s

subsequent tieatment of these three as separate species (Catalogue of

Birds in the Indian Museum) and his specific statement that of these

only trislis inhabits Bengal and some other areas within Indian limits.

Scuart Baker in P. B. /., Birds , 2nd ed.* mentions Bengal as

type-locality of the species. In his Nidificatioft he refers to its dis-

tribution in Eastern Bengal, where no doubt the species is found ;

e.g., not uncommon in Dacca and surrounding areas (Simson, Ibis, VI,

I8o2, p. 87). In North Bengal the species is a well-known inhabitant

of the lower Eastern Himalayas, frequenting foot-hill forests and

those in warm humid valleys.

50 Kailas Bose Street,

Calcutta,

23 ra July 1948. SATYA CHURN LAW,

M.A., Ph.D., F.N.I.

[Lowther (J.B.N.H S 41,' p. 542) records this species as fairly

common in the Manbhum District, Bihar, adjtining western Bengal,

nesiing in July and August. — Eds.]

9. GREEN PIGEON IN A SWAMP

Frend’s note in the Journal of April 1948 (Vol. 47) recalls to

memory Green Imperial Pigeon at Sahmaw Burma, coming down

from the high tree-tops which they normally frequent, to either

drink the brine or eat the deposit of sodium carbonate that came from

a salt spring by the Sahmaw River. (‘ Sahmaw ’ incidentally means

salt spring). The Kachins expressed no astonishment at seeing

fifteen or twenty of these birds hopping around where the ooze took

place, and informed me it was usual both in the mornings and even-

ings to see them come down and drink here.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1S5

In the U.P. I have seen the Common or Bengal Green Pigeon

come down to a tank to drink, and also feeding from the ground

below a Ficus tree picking up figs.

c/o StJRAJMULL NAGARMULL,

8 Dalhousie Sq., East, A. St. J. MACDONALD.

Calcutta,

27 th August 1948.

10. ARRIVAL OF WAGTAILS IN MADURA DISTRICT,

SOUTH INDIA

I hare read with great interest the dates of the arrival of wagtails

in Upper Assam in the Journal (Vol. 47, No. 1). Mrs. Cantlay who

has resided in these hills (High Wavy) for many years has kept a

record of the dates of the arrivals of the first wagtails after the rains,

and she has been good enough to let me use these as they make a

good contrast with the dates quoted by your correspondent.

It is of interest to note that one unmistakable bird (due to having

a very prominent white feather in its tail) returned to this garden

four years running ! Twill give the dates and years below of the

first arrivals

1940— 2 September

1941— 3 September

1942 — 4 September

1943 — 4 September

1944— 9 September

1945— No record

1946— 5 September

1917—3 September

The species concerned is the Grey Wagtail ( Motacilla cinerea)

The dates are interesting since the birds seem to arrive here

earlier than in Assam which is nearer to their nesting area.

High Ways Estate,

Chinnamanur P.O., A. F. HUTTON.

Madura Dist.,

1st June 1948.

11. MORNING AND EVENING SONG OF BIRDS

This year the spot selected for recording the serial succession

of the morning and evening song of birds was Pokhri Bal, latitude ca.

34°N., longitude, ca. 74°E. This place is situated at the foot of

the eastern side of Hari Parbat hill (5,700 ft.) A part of the Dal

Lake runs in towards the land and there are a number of islets

covered with willows, orchards and tall poplars; several beds of

bulrushes lie in amongst the islets affording a place of safety for

water-birds.

1 86

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 4S

Towards the land there are gardens of almond on a raised level.

The chinars, acacias, willows, poplars and mulberries, make the

place dense with trees. There are here a number of sheds where

people can spend the night if they wish. A spring closeby is sacred

to the Hindus.

The sky was serene and clear of clouds and the distant mountain

ranges were steeped in sombre hue. The peak of Mahadiv (13,013 ft.)

covered with snow shed lustre when the goddess of Dawn began to

unvail herself. Rare are such occasions, when man can merge his

thoughts with Nature. The songs proceeded thus :

Indian Standard Time.

MTSCELLANE OILS NO TES

187

6-5 a.m. Hoopoe ( Upupa epops epops )

6-10 „ Sunrise.

7-10 p.m.

• 7-15 „

7-18 „

7-19 „

7-20 „

7-21 „

7-25 „

7-35 „

7-39 „

7-41 „

7-44 „

7-48 „

7- 49 „

8- 10 „

Sunset. Golden Oriole ; Ringdove; Bulbul

Ringdove ; Sparrow.

Ringdove again; Sparrow continuing.

Bulbul ; Ringdove stopped.

Kingfisher.

Moorhen.

Ringdove.

Two Ringdoves.

Call of Thrush.

Paradise Flycatcher ; Ringdove.

Shrike ; Paradise Flycatcher continued.

Call of Thrush.

Cuckoo continued for 4 min.

All quiet.

Central High School,

Fateh Kadal, SrInagar, SAMSAR CHAND KOUL.

Kashmir.

[Unfortunately the date is omitted from the note. Previous

observations on the same lines, recorded by Mr. Koul on 24th May

1947, are published in volume 47 of the Journal , pp. 386-7. — Eds.]

12. SOME INTERESTING BIRDS OF THE GIR

AND GIRNAR, KATHIAWAR

With the kind permission of the Junagadh State authorities I was

able to spend a happy week of bird study in the Gir forest from

May 22 to May ‘30, 1947. The Gir is situated in the south of

Kathiawar. It is approximately 500 sq. miles and consists of

a plateau formation of hills amidst dry deciduous forest. When

I reached Sasan I found the forest unusually green, the result of an

early rainfall in April. Consequently the bird life was plentiful and

mostly in full breeding condition. A chorus of sweet avian music

could be heard resounding throughout the forest area.

The Girnar mountain is about 40 miles west of Gir forest near the

town of Junagadh.

I did not come across the Grey Hornbill in the Gir inspite of the

fact that it is resident. I am afraid it is being persecuted by local

people because of its supposed medicinal value.

The Girnar hill' unexpectedly contained less bird life than the

Gir forest and I was surprised at the absence of many birds seen in

the Gir area.

; The following is the list of birds seen : —

1. Jungle Crow ( Corvus macrorhynchos). Common.

2. House Crow (.Corvus s. splcndens). Common.

l- ... 3. Tree Pie (De?idrocitta vagabunda). A few pairs seen hunting

and in unusually bright plumage.

1 88 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 48

4. Grey-Tit {Panes m. stupae). Common throughout the

forest and seen nesting in hollows of trees of which the forest is

full.

5. Jungle Babbler ( Turdoides som^rvillei). Fairly widespread

and common.

6. Scimitar Babbler [ Portia io? hinus ( hors{ieldij\ . One bird

seen on hill-side.

7. White-throated Babbler ( Dumetia hyperthra albogularis).

Seen in pairs and in groups usually near waterside. Resident.

8. Yellow-eyed Babbler ( Chrysomma sinensis ). A few birds

seen in grassy forest, not far from water.

9. Central Indian Iora ( Aegithina tiphia humei). Not un-

common. Seen in the flatter forest areas and in thorny scrub. A

few pairs found breeding.

10. Red -vented Bulbul (Molpastes h. paliidus). Common.

11. Magpie Robin ( Copsychus saularis ) Abundant. Many nests

found. Heard in full song.

12. Indian Robin ( Saxicoloides fulicata cambaiensis ), A few

birds seen in open scrub. One pair seen nesting,

13. Tickell’s Flycatcher (Afuscicapula ticket liae\ Fairly common

and many nests found. Birds in full breeding condition ; preferring

thick forest near streams and ravines.

14. Paradise Flycatcher ( Tchitrea paradisi). A number of pairs

seen breeding in ravines ; also away from ravines in flat country.

Others seen in courtship.

15. White-browed Fantail Flycatcher ( Rhipidura aureola ). A

number of pairs seen, but apparently less common. Birds found on

nest with eggs.

16. Small Minivet {Pericrocotus peregrinus). Seen in pairs

commonly on hill-side and in patties in thorny scrub jungle in lower

ground,

17. Black-headed Cuckoo-Shrike ( Lalage sykesii). A few pairs

seen near camp on hill-side, and one pair found nesting on a teak

tree.

18. Large Cuckoo-Shrike (Grauculus javensis ). Seen frequently

on the topmost branches of trees preierring larger unfoliated trees.

Saw fledglings following parent birds. The conspicuous call is a

harsh one, and which readily identifies its presence.

19. Black Drongo ( Dicrurus macrocercus ).

20. Grey Drongo ( Dicrurus longicaudatus)

21. Tailor Bird {Ortholomous sutorius).

22. Franklin’s YV r e n - W a r b 1 e r ( Fra nkiinia gracilis ).

23. Jungle Wren-Warbler (Prinia sylvatica).

24. Common Myna ( Acridolheres l. trislis). Forest full of them.

Breeding.

25. Jungle Myna ( Aethiopsar fuscus). A number of birds seen

feeding with Common Myna.

26. Dusky Crag Martin ( Riparia concolor). A number of pairs

seen near top of Girnar hill and dose to Uperkot.

27. Sykes’s Striated Swallow (Hirundo daurica erythropygia :).

Sporadic pairs seen in forest near hill tops and near river beds. One

pair found building nest in a rock cavity on hill-side.

MISCELL AN ROLLS NOTES

189

28. White-ey q (Zosterops palpebrosa). Not uncommon. Found

nesting on trees overhanging ravines, fairly close to water-hole.

29. Pitta ( Pitta brachyurd). Widespread and heard calling

frequently. One pair had started to nest.

30. Pied Woodpecker ( Dryobates mahrattensis ). Seen more

frequently in thorny scrub and mixed deciduous forest.

31. Pigmy Woodpecker (. Dryobates hardwickii). One pair

found nesting in teak with 3 eggs, quite close to camp. Other pairs

seen frequently in forest often sunning themselves in the early

morning on dry rotten trees. Not very shy. I believe the male

incubates at night, the female by day.

32. Golden-backed Woodpecker (Brachyplernus benghalensis).

Fairly common throughout the forest. Young birds seen, and used

nesting holes found at the height from 15 to 45 feet. Resident.

33. Coppersmith ( Megalaema h. luted). Fairly common and one

pair found breeding next to camp bungalow which had three young

ones in nest.

34. Common Indian Cuckoo ( Cuculus canorus). Seen occa-

sionally but heard fairly frequently. Breeding ?

35. Hawk-Cuckoo \Hicrococcyx {yarius)\ Seen and heard at

base of Girnar hill.

36. Pied Crested Cuckoo ( Clamator jacobinus ). Seen at base of

Girnar hill and heard calling.

37. Blossom-headed Parakeet ( Psittacula cyanocephala). Fairly

common in forest area and is a resident species.

38. Indian Roller ( Coracias benghalensis). One pair seen near

camp regularly and was suspected of nesting.

39. Green Bee-eater ( Merops orientalis onenialis ). Found

nesting on ravine banks in small colonies and singly. Fairly common.

40. Common Kingfisher ( Alcedo althis). Seen frequently on

running streams and evidently breeding. A nest discovered in a

small cave next to water, had five young ones.

41. White-breasted Kingfisher [Halcyon smyrnensis). Seen fre-

quently on banks where I found it nesting. Five-egg clutches

normal.

42. Crested Swift ( Hemiprociie coronata). One bird seen singly

over forest area in the hills for two days consecutively hawking for

insect life, about 15 miles from camp.

43. Fish-Owl ( Ketupa z. leschenaulti '■). Not uncommon and seen

amongst tall trees near running streams and dry sandy beds. Saw

two fledglings.

44. Spotted Owlet ( Athene brama). Frequently seen at dusk.

45. Black Vulture ( Sarcogyps calvus). A few pairs but com-

mon.

46. Griffon Vulture* ( Gyps hilvus ). Some pairs seen on the

crags. Girnar.

47. White-backed Vulture (Pseudogyps benghilensis). Young

birds in full plumage. Girnar.

48. Neophron (. Neophron perenopterus). Common,

* Qr Long-billed ( G . indicus) ?, or both ? — Eds,

190 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HJST. SOCIETY , FoL 48

49. Shahin Falcon (Falco per egr inns peregrinoidcs ). One seen

flying towards Girnar mountain.

50. Bonelli’s Eagle ( Hieraetus fascialus fasciatus). Adult and

immature bird seen near bill-side close to camp.

51. Indian Crested Hawk-Eagle ( Spizaeius c. cirrhaius). A

number of specimens seen singly and near water-holes, often

mobbed by crows.

52. Serpent Eagle ( Spilornis cheela). Two specimens seen

which might be breeding.

53. Common Kite ( Milvus m. govinda). Common.

54. Shikra (Aslur badius dussumieri). Sometimes seen.

55. Indian Honey-Buzzard ( Pernis ptilorhynchus ruficollis). A

few pairs seen together. One pair collected was in full breeding

condition.

56. Green Pigeon ( Crocopus phoenicopterus). Fairly common

and seen breeding in secluded valleys.

57. Spotted Dove [S. c. suratensis ). Abundant.

58. Little Brown Dove (S. s. cambaiensis). Common.

59. The Ring Dove ( Streptopelia d. decaocto ). Seen in open

forest.

60. Painted Sandgrouse ( Pterocles indie us). Seen in small

flocks in openings surrounded by forest.

61. Jungle Bush-Quail ( Perdicula a . asiatica). Fairly common

in forest area. Resident This may prove to be a new subspecies.

62. Rock Bush Quail {Perdicula argoondah). Found on outskirts

of forest where thorny scrub and forest trees meet.

63. Grey Partridge ( Francolinus pondicerianus).

64. Painted Fraucolin ( Francolinus pictus).

65. Red-wattled Lapwing ( Lobivanellus i. indicus). Surpri-

singly seen nesting in forest on rocky bed of ravine. Most unusual.

66. Yellow-wattled Lapwing ( Lobipluvia malabarica). Seen

breeding in open spaces in forest and outskirts. One pair with eggs

in compound.

67. White-necked Stork. ( Dissouva episcopus). A few birds

seen on tall trees in forest and one nest found. Uncommon.

Bhavnagar,

8 th October 1948.

DHARMAKUMARSINHJI.

13.— REMARKS ON ‘AGGRESSIVE DEMONSTRATION

BY RUSSELL’S VIPER’

I have read with interest Mr. A. A. A. Fyzee’s note in Vol. 47,

No. 2, at pages 388-89. From what I have observed I am also

inclined to believe that Russell’s Viper, as suggested by Mr. Fyzee,

is conscious of its own potency. I have noticed, and it is a well-known

fact, that it is indifferent to, and almost contemptuous of, man’s

presence. The following incident illustrating its temperament might

interest you.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

191

Some years ago when I was stationed at Navibunder on the west

coast of Kathiawar, I was one evening watching flamingoes in a

nearby creek from a hard and rising ground. My attention was drawn

by a small snake hissing in front of me. It was a Russell’s Viper

hissing violently, writhing and moving from side to side. I could

see that it wanted to move in my direction, but its progress was

blocked by my presence. The snake was hardly a foot and a half

long, but it displayed such a violent attitude that I thought

discretion was the better part of valour and retreated a couple of

steps. No sooner I did it than the reptile moved in my direction and

disappeared into a hole. Then I realised that I was blocking its way

to its home. What surprised me was its insistence to go its own

chosen way and not to escape in any direction on my approach. By

such bullying tactics, to use legal parlance, it asserted its right of

way.

V. M. VASU.

28 (80-a) Kurla Road,

ANDHERI, BOMBAY,

10/// June 1948.

14— DEVELOPMENT OF FISHERIES OF THE

PERIYAR LAKE*

The Periyar Lake is a permanent water situated within the

Travancore territory but adjoining the Madura district of the Madras

Province, at an altitude of about 3,000 feet above M.S.L in a wild

country surrounded on all sides by magnificent well-wooded hills in

which elephant, bison and other wild animals roam about. The

area of the water-spread at F.S.L. of 152 feet is 102 square miles,

and it has an average supply of ten million cubic feet of water

estimated to yield about 78 million pounds of fish.

The fishery of the lake belongs to the Madras Government and

has teen leased to the Peermade Game Association, who in turn

permit only angling by licencees. With a view to develop the

fishery a survey of the indigenous fish fauna was conducted in 1946.

The following species were listed : —

1. Anguilla bengalensis (Gray & Hardw.), 2. A bicolor

McClell., 3. Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch), 4. Callichrous bima-

culatus (Bloch), 5. Silundia sykes i Day, 6. Macrones cavasius

(Ham), 7. M . vitlatus (Bloch), 8. Glyptothorax madraspatanum

Day, 9. Garra lamta (Ham.), 10. G. mullya (Sykes), 11. Lcpi-

docephalus thermalis (C. & V.), 12. Nemachilus evczardi Day,

13. Lepidopygopsis lypus Raj, 14. Barbus amphibius (C. & V.),

15. B. arulius (Jerdon), 16. B. curcuma (Ham.)1. 17. B. mcla?ia-

amphyx (Day), 18. B. mclanostigma (Day), 19. B. micropogon

periyarensis Raj, 20. B. (Tor) khudrce (Sykes), 21. B. o phi-

cep ha lus Raj, 22. B. pinnauratus (Day), 23. Rasbora daniconius

(Ham.), 24. Barilius bendelisis (Ham.), 25. B. bakeri Day,

* Communicated with the kind permission of the Director of Industries, and

Commerce, Madras.

igi JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 4g

26. B . ga Musts (C. & V.)., 27. Danio aequipinnatus (McCIell.).

28. Chela boopis Day, 29. Notopterus nolopterus (Pallas), 39. Aplo-

cheilus lineatus (C. & V.), 31. Glossogobius giaris (Ham.),

32. Rhynchobdella aculeata (Bloch), 33. Mastace mb elus armatus

(Lacep), 34. Ophicepbalus striatus (Bloch), and 35. O, gachna Ham.

The commonest fish in the lake is the Manseer, which grows to a

size of 20-30 pounds. Mahseers of an average weight of 8 pounds

are captured throughout the year by rod and line using boiled

tapioca, minnows and rice-paste as bait. The Mahseer breeds in the

lake during the monsoons, extending from April to October. The

breeding areas are shallow gravelly beds or places with thick vegeta-

tion near the several streams that feed the lake.

In order to improve the quality of the fishery by stocking semi-

exotic speci°s, the quick-growing carp Catla cal la (C. & V.) a id the

Milkfish, Chauos chanos (Forska)), were introduced into the lake for

the first time in October 1916 and April 1917 respectively. Catla

was brought from the Godavari, 800 miles away. It is expected to

breed and multiply in the favourable environs of the lake. Tne

Milkfish was collected from the sea around Krusadai Island, Gulf of

Manaar, where trie salinity at the lime of collection was 1 7 * 4 9 0 / ° ° ;

and transported over a distance of 290 m les before stocking in the

lake. Though it is not expected to breed in the lake, its thriving is

being watched with interest. The development of this lake fishery

is also expected to enrich the fisheries of the several irrigation tanks

in the Madura district wnich are fed by the Periyar System.

Inland Fisheries Office, P. I. CHACKO

8 Ormes Road, Kilpauk, Madras,

nth June 1918.

15. — * TERMITE FUNGI »

With reference to the note by Mr. C. McCann in Vol. 46 of the

Journal (p. 739), Prof. S. R. Bose of Calcutta, to whom the specimens

were sent, has kindly identified the species as Entotoma microcarpum

B. & Br. It is stated to be found in termite-eaten wood.

114, Apollo Street,

Bombay, EDITORS.

18 th August 1948.

16. —INTRODUCTION OF FOREIGN INSECTS

WITH IMPORTED GRAINS.

Acute shortage of food grain as a result of the last war, forced

importation of grains from outside to avert famine conditions. Till

recently it was not appreciated that the imported grains mijght as well

introduce foreign insects which will create a permanent menace to our

storage problems. Thousands of tons of grains were imported and

distributed throughout the country but unfortunately even the

. : MJ&CELLMEOUS NOTES m

ordinary precautions followed in allowing the entry of a small cotton

sample, were not taken while introducing these large consignments.

This has resulted in the importation of a number of reputed pests.

Our attention was first drawn to this problem towards the close

of 1945 by a severe outbreak of Plodia interpunctella H., in one of

the wheat godowns at Bombay. Our observations also revealed a few

more insects namely Siiophilus granarium L. and Tribolmm

coniusum , which were later recorded also from various other

godowns.

Due to the introduction of some hardy insects such as Trogoderma

granaria E. and Plodia interpunctella H., the storage problem at

present is getting difficult. Bombay being the main port of India,

most of the grains are being unloaded and stored here. Thus

Bombay has become the nucleus for the propagation of these pests.

With a view to keeping some watch on the imported material

the grains were inspected while in the steamers and a report made

to the Food Controller, Bombay, about the insect pests. The infor-

mation collected so far is presented here to expose the implications

of this problem. (See tabulated statement overleaf.)

The inspections were started in January 1947. During the last

15 months, 192 steamers with food grains were inspected at Bombay

and some details are given in the following statement.

Obviously some grains such as Burma rice, American maize and

African wheat were received in an infested condition while

others were practically sound. The infestation in other grains

wherever noticed was not found to exceed 0.3% which indicates that

probably the infestation was picked up during transport. If it be so,

the problem becomes quite easy and considerable losses and the

introduction of new insects would be prevented by simply disinfect-

ing the ship before loading the grains. At the same time

fumigation of stacks before unloading at Bombay, will be an effective

preventive measure which is quite practicable because the holds

of ships are practically airtight. It is suggested that necessary

precautionary steps should be taken up at once to avoid complexities

in the storage problem and the establishment of new insect pests in

this province.

We acknowledge with gratitude the help and co-operation afforded

by Mr. B. D. Deshpande, m.ag., Food Controller, Bombay, for

carrying out these observations.

College of Agriculture,

Poona (5)

11 th August 1948.

K. N. TREHAN

S. V. PINGLE

13

t

STATEMENT SHOWING THE CONDITION OF GRAINS IMPORTED BETWEEN 1-1-1947 AND 1-3-1948

i94: JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCMTY, Vol 48

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CO

STATEMENT SHOWING THE CONDITION OF GRAINS IMPORTED BETWEEN 1-1-1947 AND 1-3-1918

Country

from which

imported

Kangani Rice. Pakistan

Type of

storage on

Condition of

grain at the

:ime of import

Sound

Frequently

damaged b

ceedingO-2%

Infestation

noted in seve

cases, varying

between 0-3%

to 2-1%.

Infestation

noted in one

case, not 0*1%

Ephesiia cautella W.

Triboliuvt castaneum H.

Sylvanus sutinamensis L.

Sitophilus oiyza L.

Triboliunt castaneum H.

Sylvanus surinatnensis L.

Tenebroides mauritanicus I

Corcyra cephalonica St.

Loemopholoeus minutus O.

Ephesiia cautella W.

Sitotroga cerealella O.

'Tyrogiyphus spp. '

Tribolium casianeutn H.

Tyrogiyphus spp.

Sylvanus surinatnensis L.

Sitophilus oryza L.

This grain was ob-

served mostly

damaged by mois-

’ fungus, oj

I Jowar, Bafrt i America,

African wheat

Sind wheat...

Wheat flour.

Pakistan .

U.S.A. .

Frequently^

Cool and

In bulk and

bags. Most-

ly in bags.

In bags ...

doth

ceeding 0*1 %

Infestation

noted in on

oeeding 0-:

Infestation

Sitophilus oryza L.

*Plodia interpunctella H.

Sitophilus oryza L.

Tribolium castaneum H.

Sitophilus oryza L».

Tribolium castaneum H.

Corcyra cephalonica St.

*Plodia interpunctella H.

Corcyra cephalonica St.

*Ephestia cautella W.

Sitophilus oryza L.

*Plodta interpunctella H .

Corcyra cephanolica St.

Ephesiia cautella W .

Tribolium castaneum H.

* Tribolium coni usum J.Dn.V .

Invariably this wheat

was found mixed

with weed seeds

such as of Lollium

spp. Datura spp.

and others. Some

of these are said to

have narcotic effect

m JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOpjEty,

STATEMENT SHOWING THE CONDITION OF GRAINS IMPORTED BETWEEN 1-1-1947 AND 1-3-1948— {contd.)

196 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

197

17.— ON THE OCCURRENCE OF WHITE RUST ON

AMARANTH US POLY GAM US LINN.

In spite of the extensive work done on the occurrence of White

Rust on Crucifers (2, 3, 4), the disease on any other host has not

been seriously studied though there are several reports of work done

on the attack of the pathogen on some other host tissue (1). The

present note is the outcome of an investigation on the damage

caused by White Rust to common vegetables of the plains, other

than Crucifers.

: Amaranthus polygamus Linn, is a very common vegetable of the

plains which occurs as an annual. The occurrence of White Rust on

different species of Amaranthus was reported by Butler, Dastur and

others from different parts of India and Burma.

Symptoms. — The attention of the author was first drawn to the

infection when he noted beautiful spots on the leaves of Amaranthus

polygamus Linn. The appearance of white prominent pustules or

more or less blister-like spots on the lower surface of the leaf led to

his working out the nature of the pathogen. The pustules vary in

size and shape and often become confluent, to form more extensive

patches. ~

The pustules appear in patches strictly on the lower surface of a

leaf. When young they look like unbroken blisters, but later burst

and the cOnidia_ are dispersed. The infection is most vigorous during

the month of March and onwards. During this period the tempera-

ture is neither uniformly low nor high. The causal fungus gradually

disappears with the advent of the summer heat. The attack of the

pathogen causes premature wilting of the leaves and hampers further

growth of the plant. At first the pustules appear scattered over the

leaf surface. With their" further development the infected leaves take

on a, pale tinge and ultimately drop off.

-Microscopic Examination.— Sections of the infected leaves reveal

the Conidibphores associated in groups at right angles to the host

tissue and bearing chains of conidia. In some sections the conidio-

phores are covered by the epidermis, whereas in others where the

conidia' have matured perfectly the epidermis is ruptured abd pushed

up like a lid. Through this ruptured epidermis mature conidia are

dispersed. The conidiophores are more or less club-shaped and

thick- walled. From the apex of these, conidia are cut off in chains

in basipetal succession. Conidia are perfectly round when mature ;

when young the base is more or less flattened and bears a very short

stalk-like structure. With gradual maturity the conidium becomes

rounded and the stalk disappears. Conidia are hyaline, uninucleate,

and measure 18/no 24/z.

Mycelium is hyaline, non-septate, and shows considerable variation

in diameter. Sex organs occur in the same sorus. Both antheridium

1 98 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

and oogonium occur side by side. Immature oospores are present

which are more or less globular, dark coloured, rough and warty and

resemble resting spores. Mature oospores measure about 54/*.

From the nature of the pustules and dimensions of the conidia

and oospores, the causative organism can be identified as Albugo sp.

(White Rust).

Conclusion. — White Rust ( Albugo sp.) forms white spots on the

lower surface of the leaf oiAmaranthus polygamusUmw. and ultimately

causes damage to the foliage. The infection of the pathogen is

strictly influenced by atmospheric temperature. It generally appears

during late winter and early summer. The probable source of infec-

tion is the oospores, which are plentiful and whose external appear-

ance indicates that they may withstand unfavourable conditions and

can pass through a resting stage.

References

.1. Butler, E. J. & Bisby, G. R. — The Fungi of India, Scientific Monograph

No. 1. Imp. Counc. Agr. Res. 1931.

2. Davis, B. M.— Bot. Gaz. 29 : 296-310, 1900.

3. Stevens, F. L.— Bot. Gaz. 32: 77-93, 157-167, 238-261; 1901.

4. — — Bot. Gaz. 28: 149-176, 225-245; 1899.

1 ...

Botanical Laboratory,

Presidency College, ASOK KUMAR KAR*

Calcutta .

1&— FREAK SHOTS

There has recently been some correspondence in The Field in

connection with freak shots, and among the many curious incidents

recorded are 14 and 11 teal to one shot in Egypt, as well as 21 snipe

with a right and left in England.

It would be interesting to collate some similar shooting stories

from India and the ball might be set rolling by quoting

Mr. H. B. Hayes who remembers picking up 20 snipe to a right and

left of 9s from a 20 bore. This was in Bengal many years ago, early

in the season when the birds first arrive in large wisps.

A large wisp doubled on itself just when within range and the 2

shots were fired into the thickest part. The 20 birds were picked

_ . f At.present.Ricfi Research Officer, Bankura. _

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES i99

Up out of knee-high grass in a hurry, as Mr. Hayes’s party was

racing another to a snipe ground half a mile away, so it is possible a

few may have been left behind.

Will this true story lead to another ?

c/o Faiz & Co. HUMAYUN ABDUL ALI

75, Abdul Rehman Street

Bombay

30 th July 1948

V- I

V

■O

APPEAL ~

INTERNATIONAL DEPOT OF MICROSCOPIC PREPARATIONS

[A l U 3 VxU OF CYTOLOGY , y ;y/I O\o

Created by • • * »I

The International Union of Biological Sciences

An Appeal to Cytologists

In 1939, the International Union of Biological Sciences, requested Professor

P. Martens, Director of the J. B. Carnoy Institute, at Louvain, Belgium, to take

up again the project of an International Depot of microscopic preparations of

cytology, animal and vegetable. This plan had previously been submitted by

the Union to the late Prof. V. Gregoire, but owing to his poor health condi-

tion he was unable to realize the practical side of this plan. On the other

hand, the international situation, and the state of war, have delayed until today

the announcement of the creation of this organisation.

It would therefore be a matter of grouping together in an easily accessible

center — the Laboratory of Cytology of the Carnoy Institute, at Louvain (Belgium)

— preparations obtained from numerous research centers, and having already

been used as basis to previously published works. Each worker interested in a

definite problem, could thus locate and compare with his own documentation,

the original microscopic documentation of other authors relative to the same

matter. It is hardly necessary to underline the considerable interest that a

depot of this kind would acquire also how much it would favour a good under-

standing amongst workers, and would smootheu out many difficulties and vain

contestations, which are inclined to fill up scientific literature.

But this result can only be obtained with the greatest comprehension and

collaboration of the greatest number possible of cytologists. L’U.l. S. B.

invites them therefore, from now onwards to send their works to the Laboratory

and enclosed with them several preparations having already been used as basis

to published works and to review such deposits in the future. It is desirable

that the spots considered by authors as particularly demonstrative or used as

published illustration — should be specially noted on the preparations as clearly

as possible. It is also requested that a sample of the published work should be

attached when sent.

Every biologist, known for his publications — and any other person, possessing

an authorized recommendation — will be able to consult and study as much as

they like, all preparations which have been entrusted to the Depot ; the consul-

tants will have at their disposition, the Laboratory, the equipment and

necessary optical instruments. All work must be done within the Depot, except

with a written permission granted by the depositor.

The preparations will always remain the entire property of the depositors,

who can at any time, have them sent back to them, the cost of postage being

borne by the administration of the Depot.

P. Vayssiere

Prof. (Paris)

The Secretary General of the U.I.S.B .

P. Martens

Prof. (Louvain)

Administrator of the Depot

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS,

l8 CHURCH ROAD, VEPERY, MADRAS 25-4-49—C8398

EDITORS: s/LIM ALI, AND s. B. SETNA, 114 APOLLO STREET, FORT, BOMBAY

VS}

FOR SALE

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Palaearctic Region : 4 volumes complete with plates

4 supplementary volumes nearly

complete

m

Indo-Australian Region : 4 volumes complete

American and African Regions : Fragments

Enquiries and offers to

M. SUTER, Esq.,

116 Koregaon Park, Poona.

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER

And Other Sporting Fish in India and Burma

By

A. St. J. Macdonald

Jk HANDY comprehensive volume for anglers and fishermen,

1 profusely illustrated with black and white plates and 4 in

colour depicting the various mahseers. It deals with every aspect of

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mation found in Thomas’s * Rod in India * and other works of that

kind, it contains much that has not been dealt with before. Besides,

it furnishes accurate information on the status and distribution of

Indian Game Fishes, and on fishing localities.

Bound in full cloth Price Rs. 15

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APRIL, 1949

Price R$. 15 net .

too 4

Vol. 48, No. 2.

THE

JOURNA

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society

EDITED BY

sAlIM ALL s. B. SETNA, PH.D. 8i H. SANTAPAU. S.J,

PUBLISHED BY

THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

814 Apollo Street, Bombay.

London Agents :

DAVID NUTT, (A. G, BERRY).

212 SHAFTESBURY AVENUE.

LONDON, W.C. 2.

ALWAYS LOOK

FORI

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appearance only, and overlook the

name of the maker.

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buying a watch, and if that name is

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assured that, whatever price you are

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Appearance, Craftsmanship, and

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IOTH INTERNATIONAL ORNITHOLOGICAL

CONGRESS

The Permanent Committee for International Ornitholo-

gical Congresses has instructed the Ornithological Society

of Sweden to organize the ioth international congress. It

is to be held at Uppsala on June ioth-iyth, 1950.

According to the preliminary programme the opening

of the Congress will take place on Saturday, June ioth, at

2 p.m. Sunday, June nth, will be devoted to a whole-day

excursion ; June 12th- 17th to congress discussions as well

as another whole-day excursion and an afternoon tour.

Before and after the Congress, excursions will be arranged

to various parts of Sweden.

Ornithologists from all countries are cordially invited

to attend. The congress fee is 25 Swedish crowns, and

applications should be sent in before the end of February,

1950. Applicants will be furnished with a detailed pro-

gramme.

At the Congress a few survey lectures will be held by

lecturers specially invited. Other members may also

lecture or give short announcements.

A preliminary invitation to the Congress will be distri-

buted very soon through representatives in every country ,

and can also be obtained from the following address : ioth

International Ornithological Congress, Uppsala, Sweden.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 48, No. 2

Jungle Memories, Part II. By Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian-Adams, o.b.e.,

f.z.s., i.a. (Retd.) {With 2 plates)

Notes on the Nesting Habits of Seven Representative Tropical

Sea Birds. By C. A. Gibson-Hill, m.a., m.b.o.u. {With 5

plates)

The Indian Caddis Flies (7 richopleta). Part IX. By the late Martin

E. Mosely, f.r.e.s., f.z.s. {With 14 plates)

The Nilgiris Revisited. By M. A. Wynter-Blyth, m.a., f.r.e.s.

{With a map and 2 plates)

The Bionomics of Ribbon Fishes {Trichiurus spp.) and their

Fishery on the West Coast of Madras Province. By P. K.

Jacob, b.a., m.sc. {With a text-figure)

A Supplementary List of the Food-Plants of the Indian

Bombycidae, Agaristidae and Noctuidae. By D. G. Sevas-

topulo, F.R.E.S.

Artificial Key to the Papilionaceae of Bombay Province, By

H. Santapau, s.J.

Wild Life Reserves in India : Bihar Province. By Jamal Ara.

{With a map and 2 tables)

Preservation of Wild Life in India. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton,

i.a. (Retd.)

Microcos blattaefolia (Corner) Seshagiri Rao, Nov. Comb. By

R. Seshagiri Rao

The Study of Indian Molluscs, Parti. By James Hornell, f.l.s.,

* • f.r.a.i. {With 28 text-figures)

Identity of Microbracon brevicornis Wesm. and Microbracon hebetor

Say. By M. C. Cherian and V. Margabandhu

Sweet Flag {Acorus calamus)— A Potential Source of Valuable

Insecticide. By T. V. Subramaniam, b.a.

Reviews

I. Journal of the Zoological Society of India, Vol. I, No. 1 (S.M.)...

2. Wildlife for America : The Story of Wildlife Conservation.

(S.A.)

3. Adventures with a Naturalist. (H.A.)

4. The Parasitic Cuckoos of Africa. (S.A.) ...

5. Animal Encyclopaedia (Mammals). (H.A.)

Additions to the Society’s Library

oct 1 a 1949

Page

201

214

236

246

261

265

277

283

290

300

303

335

338

342

343

344

346

ii

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 48, No. 2

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. Tiger eating Panther ? By Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian- Adams (p. 353).

2. Charge by unwounded Bison. By Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian-Adams (p. 353).

3. ‘ Death Cry ’ of Tiger. By Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian-Adams (p. 354).

4. Feeding habits of the Nilgiri Marten. By A. F. Hutton (p. 355). 5. ‘An

Elephant 170 years old.5 By N. G. Pillai (p. 356). 6. A Whale near Bombay.

By N. G. Pillai (p. 358). 7. Unrecorded nesting sites of the Grey-headed

Flycatcher ( Culicica pa ceylonensis ceylonensis Swainson). By Chas. M. Inglis

(p. 359). 8. Nightjars. By W. W. A. Phillips (p. 359). 9. Luminiscent

Owls. By Humayun Abdulali ( p. 361). 10. Wilsoil’s Storm-Petrel {Oceanites

oceanicus ) in the Gulf of Aden. By A. G. S. Bryson (p. 362). 11. Occurrence

of the Bar-headed Goose ( Anser indicus Latham) in Bombay. By Mrs. Kay

Nixon Blundell (p. 364). 12. Occurrence of the White-fronted Goose Anser

albifrons Scop, in Orissa. By L. A. Craven (p. 365). 13. The Bronze-capped

Teal in Assam. By J. C Higgins (p. 366). 14. The Tufted Duck ( Aythya

fuligula Linn.) : An interesting addition to the avifauna of Ceylon. By

W. W. A. Phillips (p. 367). 15. The Great Crested Grebe {Podiceps cristatus

Linn.) in Orissa. By H. G. Alexander (p. 367). 16. ‘ The Birds of Delhi and

District.’ By E. C. Benthall and H. G. Alexander (p. 368). 17. The Dawn

Chorus in India. By P. I. R. Maclaren (p. 372). IS. Bird Notes from Kutch.

By Manarao Madansinhji (p. 373). 19. Herpetological observations in Assam

and Bengal (1944) . ByJ. D. Romer (p. 374). 20. Extension of Range of

the Earth Snake Uropeltis rubrolineatus (Gunther). By Salim Ali (p. 376).

21. Freshwater Shark ( Wallagonia attu) swallowing a Coot. Ry R. S. Cooper

(p.377). 22. Accidental asphyxiation of a Fringe-lipped Carp {Labeo fim-

briaius). By K. H. Alikunhi (p. 377). 23. The butterfly genus Delias. By

D. G. Sevastopulo (p. 378). 24. Additional notes on Arakan Butterflies. By

John C. Gladman (p. 379). 25. The butterfly Danaus chrysippus in Calcutta.

By S. Percy-Lancaster (p. 381). 26. Chironomid midges in Southern Tibet.

{With a photograph). By P. I. R. Maclaren (p. 381). 27. Bee v. Scorpion.

By Lt.-Col. E G. Phythian-Adams (p. 382).

Page

Catalogue of Books in the Society’s Library, Part II Birds .... 383

j

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society

1949 Vol. 48 No. 2

JUNGLE MEMORIES

BY

Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian- Adams, o.b.e., f.z.s., i.a. (Retd.)

Part II — Elephants

( With two plates )

So far back as the days of Asoka Maury a (273-242 B.c.), the

killing- of an elephant was punished by death, and even now the

.shooting of one without a permit may involve a fine of Rs. 500.

But it would be a great mistake to imagine that elephants have

always been protected. Prior to 1873 when the Madras Elephant

Preservation Act became law, these grand but destructive animals

were classed as vermin, and a Government reward of Rs. 50 was

paid on each one brought to bag, without distinction of sex or age.

In spite of the very inadequate weapons of those days, so many

were killed that Government became apprehensive lest the supply

of elephants for commissariat and forest work might be seriously

affected, and consequently passed the Act in question, under which

it became an offence to shoot any elephant without special per-

mission. Admittedly shooting in self-defence is allowed, but such

a plea is bound to meet with scepticism, and even if substantiated

will almost certainly involve the loss of the tusks, while the sports-

man will be lucky to escape without a heavy fine. So, for all

practical purposes, no elephant may now be shot unless he is a

proscribed rogue, and even then permission to retain the tusks is

by no means certain.

Meanwhile, thanks to the protection afforded, elephants have

increased to such an extent that they have become a serious menace

to the cultivator, and some relaxation of the Act is absolutely

necessary in the general interest. This was recognised in Burma

202 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 4 8

so far back as 1910, when it was possible for a bona-fide sportsman

to obtain a permit to shoot one or more tuskers, even though not

proscribed, and to retain the tusks of any he might bag. Similar

action in India is long overdue, and if introduced would go far to>

protect life and property from these grand but mischievous brutes.

It is no exaggeration to say that every solitary tusker is a potential

rogue, but under the rules in force he may not be shot until he

has maimed or killed some unfortunate villager, and not even then

until a Forest subordinate at great personal risk has examined

the animal at close quarters and reported on his height, the shape

and size of his tusks, and any other distinguishing marks, so that

the notice of proscription with necessary details may appear in the

District Gazette. All this takes time and meanwhile the probability

is that the rogue will have caused more loss of life. Other sports-

men besides myself will have personal experience of such cases,

and it is utterly unreasonable that such state of affairs should be

allowed to exist, when it can so easily be remedied by the issue of

permits similar to those which were in vogue in Burma before the

last war. However, these musings — justified as they may be — are

hardly ‘Jungle Memories’, so let us leave the realm of fancy for that

of fact, and see whether we cannot at least learn something from

the episodes related below.

North Canara

The first time that I encountered elephants in the jungle was

in North Canara in 1909, while I was in camp at Dandeli, trying*

for bison or anything else which might turn up. On 8th May

I was working through the jungle with my shikari Raya Gowda

towards Pardhana, where I proposed to halt for a week or more,

and about 8-30 a.m. heard elephants trumpeting. There had been

a lot of rain and as we were moving silently towards them, I saw

a yellow animal dash away through the clumps of bamboos about

40 yards off — possibly it was a tiger with designs on an elephant

calf, but the thick carpet of leaves left no pugs marks. I went on

and found a number of cows but no tusker, so withdrew and

worked further round, nearly running on top of a big cow. I saw

her before my shikari did, looming above the bamboos about 50

yards away — she looked like a huge wet grey rock in the rain, and

at first I was uncertain what it was. But as we got closer my shi-

kari spotted her and hurried me back behind a big tree, when with

my glasses I could see a calf lying down close by. We withdrew

quietly and further on came across a youngster blowing sand over

Ins back — he spotted us and bolted with a great crashing of bam-

boos, and the rest followed him. This herd, which had only recently

entered the district, was later proscribed on account of the damage

they did, but at the time I had no permit, and examined theirr

simply out of curiosity. The lesson I learnt was that with slow

and silent progress and with due regard to the wind, it is possible

to work up close to individual qnimals, and in and out of a herd,

without being detected.

JUNGLE MEMORIES

203

The Magyigon Rogues

In 1913 while stationed with my regiment at Rangoon, I ob-

tained 60 days privilege leave, and atter a 3 weeks shoot at Paungde

in the Rrome District, in the course of which I bagged some good

heads of thamin (including a magnificent one of the rare spatulated

type with 14 points), I decided to try the Arakan Yomas for rhino.

I reached Thayetmyo on 3rd June and started my march towards

Mindon, but at my second halt met the D.S.P., who incidentally at

first mistook me for a notorious character known as the ‘White

dacoit’ ! He advised me to give up all idea of working the Arakan

Yomas in the monsoon but to try the Pegu Yomas on the east of

the Irrawaddy where there were excellent chances of elephant,

bison and tsine. I already had a permit for one elephant, and when

I passed through Thayetmyo on my way back the Deputy Commis-

sioner asked me if possible to deal with three rogues,' which were

giving a lot of trouble at a place called Magyigon. He strongly ad-

vised me to use only solid bullets, as another sportsman had recently

fired no less than 28 softnosed at an elephant without success,

though it was eventually recovered. Four marches brought me to

the village in spite of delays occasioned by floods and a broken axle

of one of the carts, and the rest of the day was spent in settling

in at the very comfortable forest bungalow and discussing shikar

prospects with the local moksos (shikaris). They told me that there

were 3 rogues in the vicinity, of which the most notorious was

named ‘Bedin’. Only a short time before he had played havoc in

the village gardens and had even tried to push over one of the great

teak posts which supported the Rest House. The. second rogue

was said to have short but thick tusks, while the third was a ‘hine’,

or tuskless male.

Next morning I started off at 5-30 a.m. and an hour later

found fresh tracks of elephant — at first only the indentation of one

toe-nail, which I should not have recognised without the tracker’s

assurance. He was positive from its depth that the animal was a

tusker, and shortly afterwards, when complete footprints were

visible, identified them as belonging to ‘Bedin’. At 7-30 a.m. I

saw a very fine tusker standing in rather open bamboo jungle flap-

ping his ears but otherwise motionless— I think now that he

probably suspected our approach. There were no big trees under

cover of which I could work up, but I managed to reach an ant-

heap in the open about 50 yards from him without being detected.

I knew that one should get as close as possible before firing, but

further approach seemed impossible, so I rested my .400 H.V.

Jeffery on the ant-heap and fired a solid bullet at his ear hole. At

that range I could not distinguish the exact spot as the ear waS

flapping to and fro and the bullet failed to reach the brain. He

swung round with a roar and came straight towards me for 20

yards while I tried to make myself as small as possible behind the

ant-heap — then went downhill on my right like a runaway loco-

motive. I got in two more shots with the .400 and two from the 10

bore (which my orderly ran up and handed to me) firing for the

204 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 48

spine, as he went up the opposite side of the ‘choung’, but though

badly hit he carried on. I followed as fast as possible but he soon

outdistanced us, and we had to slow down when the track shortly

after entered some very thick cover. After following the trail

through two patches of io feet high ‘kine’ grass where visibility

was limited to about 6 feet, I refused to enter any more such but

skirted them and picked up the tracks again on the far side. In one

place the trail led up a watercourse with precipitous banks about io

feet high, ending in an almost perpendicular sheet of rock up which

I could not have believed that any elephant could climb, but he had,

and at the top had swung round and waited some time on the top of

the bank. Fortunately he had gone on again before we arrived

or he would have had us at a serious disadvantage. At 11-30 a.m.

1 sighted him moving slowly ahead of us, and hurrying forward

caught a glimpse of his tusks in a thicket 40 yards off where he had

nalted. I could not get a shot at his head which was covered by

a mass of dead stuff and I did not then appreciate the value of a

body shot. But when he moved on about 5 minutes later, I ran up

alongside and fired up at his ear-hole, with as little result as my

first shot had, and with a bellow he made off again. We followed

till 1-30 p.m. and then on the advice of the trackers, gave it up

and returned to the bungalow.

My trackers were not happy about the killing power of the .400

and implored me to rely in future on my double 10 bore. I knew

of course that there was nothing wrong with the rifle and that only

my bad shooting was to blame, but to humour them I took my

10 bore and a .303 carbine as second weapon when we started out

next morning. By 7-15 a.m. we had picked up the overnight tracks

and at the request of the trackers we halted to do puja to the jungle

Nats. The rifles and dahs were placed on a cloth under a tree, with

incense, cheroots, etc., and prayers were offered for our success.

On previous occasions a similar ceremony had produced a quick

result, but on this day its action was delayed. We followed the

trail steadily hour after hour but could not come up with the rogue,

though we found the place where he had slept. At last at 1-30 p.m.

1 heard bamboos being broken ahead of us, and saw there were now

tracks of two elephants — I thought one of them was my wounded

animal but later found that he had branched off. Moving towards

the sound I saw two elephants feeding — one of them a small tusker,

but the other a good deal larger with short though thick tusks, and

the trackers told me that he was one of the rogues. They also

intimated that now they had brought me within sight, the rest of

the operation devolved on me, and without making any bones about

it climbed up trees to await the result. The jungle was very open

but I managed to work up to a small clump of bamboos 20 yards

from the rogue. Here I left my orderly with my spare rifle and

being determined to make no mistake about it this time, walked

out across the open until I was within 10 yards of his backside

(which seemed close enough to slap !), and then as his head swung

round fired a conical bullet from my 10 bore at the earhole. He

dropped to the shot and never moved again, but as the small tusker

JUNGLE MEMORIES

206

came up to investigate and seemed inclined to give trouble, we

withdrew about ioo yards. A shot in the air drove the survivor off

and the trackers now came down from their trees but would not

approach the fallen tusker till I had fired a shot with my .303 into

his body, which I remember quaked like a jelly. He was gr 3" at

the shoulder with a good average pair of tusks but nothing like

Bedin’s — there were a number of dead horse-flies stuck to the skin

of his back, evidently squashed by the branch I saw him plying

when we first sighted him. We had scarcely finished taking

measurements when some 40 Burmans — men, women, and children —

turned up. They had followed us all day, at a discreet distance, for

the sake of the meat, as they were confident that I would bag an

elephant, and had closed up on hearing the shots. They got busy

at once, some building small huts of split bamboos to smoke the

meat in, and baskets of the same material to carry it back, while

others started to cut up the carcass. The Burman is an artist with

his dah, and it was most interesting to watch their use of it. But

time was passing and we had to get back to camp which I now

learnt was 4 hours away. It was not till then that I realised how

tired I was — we had been on the go for 2 days and had covered an

immense distance over very bad country, through heavy jungle with

tangled undergrowth and fallen trees, through swamps and thorny

cane brakes, uphill and down, and much of the time in pouring

rain — added to which was the mental strain of following a wounded

animal for so many hours. By the time we reached the bungalow

at 7 p.m. we were about all in, trackers and orderly included, and

personally I have never felt so tired before or since — Was it worth

it? Of course it was — every time !

For the next 2 days I could get nothing done about Bedin as

the whole village had gone out to the dead elephant and were

gorging themselves on the meat and smoking what they could not

eat, but as soon as that was over I renewed the search for the

wounded animal. I sent trackers out to distant jungles and for

the next week was out all day looking for tracks, but apparently

he had cleared right off and we never saw him again, nor did I hear

his fate till 7 years later. It was in 1920 that while travelling down

to Rangoon in the night Mail, I got into conversation with another

passenger and learnt that he had come across Bedin by chance some

time after I had left Magyigon and bagged him. He told me that

though very emaciated, the rogue appeared to have recovered from

his wounds. I forgot the weight of the tusks, but they were a very

fine pair, much above the average.

The mistake I made over this elephant was taking the head

shot in the first place instead of firing at the heart. I had at the

time no practical experience of elephant shooting, but had studied

the diagrams in Sanderson’s book, and had come to the conclusion

that the head shot was the shot to take. So it is if you are close

enough, but you have got to be very close indeed to make out the

ear-hole, and at 50 yards it would have been a fluke if I had found

the brain. Far better would it have been if I had fired at the heart

in the first place and also during the follow-up when I had a clear

206 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

view of his side but could not make out his head. Later on I heard

of a sportsman who had been very successful with elephants, and

his method was to fire both barrels of his H.V. rifle at the heart

and then return to camp — the elephant was almost invariably found

dead next day within half a mile.

So much has been written about headshots, that many sports-

men have come to believe it is the only way in which an elephant

can be shot, but this idea, which probably dates back to the old

days of black powder rifles, is a mistaken one. A heart shot is not

to be despised — if well placed it is equally fatal, although the effect

may not be so immediate. Major Evans in Big Game shooting in

Upper Burma puts it very aptly when he says that the head shot

is the poetry and the body shot the prose of elephant shooting.

The Taiping Tusker

How difficult it is to get a shot at an elephant from the back

of another is well illustrated by an experience I had while shooting

near the Taiping river north of Bhamo in 1914. In the lines at the

Fort were 9 Commissariat elephants which had once belonged to

King Thibaw and had been captured during the 3rd Burma War.

We were allowed to hire these for shikar, when not otherwise

required, for the ridiculously small sum of Re. 1 each per diem.

In June I engaged two and marched to Teinthaw on the Mole

Chaung, when I heard there was a good solitary bull bison. On

the 3rd morning I was out on ‘Luxmee’ to try and bag a hog-deer

for the pot, and while working a swampy plain of 10 feet high

grass heard an elephant trumpet — we could just see his back above

the grass about 100 yards away. I had a permit for two elephants,

so moved up to view his tusks, and got within 30 yards but could

not make them out clearly. He went off and kept moving in a circle

of about 400 yards diameter but would not leave the grass, so from

my elephant I climbed a tree and then had a good view of him as

he came straight towards us (probably attracted by my mount) and

halted 40 yards away. I could see that his tusks were smaller than

the ones I had obtained the previous year, but even had I wished

to fire it woukl have been impossible to get in a fatal shot, as his

body was hidden by the grass and a frontal shot at his head from

above was out of the question — so we left him to it and came away.

Later I heard that he was a rogue and had killed 3 men, but he

certainly showed no signs of ill feeling towards us. He had once

belonged to the Wunthoo Sawbwa, so my mahout told me, and had

been turned loose when that chief fled to China in 1891 after his

abortive rebellion.

The Yinmabin Rogue

The year 1920 found me at Meiktila in Upper Burma in com-

mand of the 2/8oth C.I. I had my hands pretty full with the

command of the station in addition, and the custody of 5,000 un-

fortunate Turkish prisoners still awaiting repatriation, but found

time for an occasional week-end run up the Kalaw Ghat to Yinma-

T O T T T? 7\T RnMR

Tusker and Family

( Peviyar Wild Life Sanctuary )

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate II

The Cradle Tusker

Copyright Salim Ali

A Tusker scents danger

JUNGLE MEMORIES

207

bin, which was an excellent shooting centre. On my first visit there

I was told of a rogue which only the week before had killed an old

woman gathering sticks in the forest, and according to my mokso,

had torn her arms and legs off. I applied for find was granted a

permit to shoot this animal, but my opportunities were limited and

it was some months before I came across him. As is usually the

case he was a solitary but at times joined a herd, from which he

had no difficulty in driving away the hine (tuskless male) normally

in charge. Each time I met the herd it was therefore necessary

to comb it out, and very exciting work it was dodging from tree to

tree, and of course all the time keeping the wind, but it was not

till ioth November that I found the rogue with them. We first

met the hine by himself half a mile before we came up with the herd

so guessed our luck was in. There were about 20 of them spread

•out more or less in a semi-circle, and by working from tree to tree

I managed to get into the middle undetected and within 35 yards

of the rogue. He was partly covered by two big cows and I had to

wait some minutes before they cleared him — luckily no puff of

wind gave me away as there were elephants on three sides of me.

It was too far for a certain head shot, so as soon as I got the chance

I fired a solid bullet from my .405 Winchester at his shoulder. He

rushed away followed by most of the herd, but a young tusker

halted on the other side of the tree behind which I was sheltering,

with his trunk up trying the wind. I fired a shot in the air and he

bolted, and I then heard an extraordinary wheezing noise in the

direction the rogue had taken, rather like a platoon doing deep-

breathing exercises. I ran forward and found him on the ground

trying to rise. Here was a problem of which shikar books take no

account — how to finish off an elephant lying down. I went up

within a few yards and kneeling down to get the correct angle fired

at his heart, but his struggles continued. So I ran round behind

him and put a bullet into the base of the skull and that settled the

matter, and incidentally taught me a very useful shot. My first

bullet had gone too high and smashed his shoulder, and once he

was down he could not get up again. I think his lungs must have

been pierced too — an elephant’s heart is rather low down and I

•did not allow for this.

The Cradle Tusker

It was in December 1931 while I was living in Mysore City that

I first heard of this rogue. He was in the habit of visiting the fields

near Areipalaiyam village in North Coimbatore at certain seasons,

but most of his time was spent in Mysore territory where he could

not be pursued. He had been proscribed in Coimbatore for a good

many years and was credited with the deaths of 8 villagers— had

been fired at on several occasions but escaped serious injury — and

finally derived his name from his curved tusks which were reported

to be a magnificent pair. Such was the description of this notori-

ous rogue, and he seemed to me an animal very well worth trying

for.

208 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Fol. 48

I camped at Areipalaiyam in January 1932 to study the ground!

and to obtain first hand local information, and soon realised that it

was going to be a big job, as the rogue’s visits were so uncertain

and of such short duration. Further trips in May and July also drew

blank and it was obvious that without timely information of his

movements I should have little chance of intercepting him. My

good friend M. who owns an estate not far away, very kindly lent

me the services of two of his trackers, and promised to let me

know when the rogue next crossed the Coimbatore boundary. The

expected wire arrived on 1st November and dusk of the follow-

ing day found me installed in the Areipalaiyam forest bungalow

with the comforting news that the Cradle Tusker was in the vicinity

and that at last I should be able to try conclusions with him. Soon

after dawn on the following day I went down to the Sholaga village

and picked up the trackers and we started up the path which runs

over the ridge to the Gundal Rest House. At the col I saw for the

first time the footprints of the rogue, which were simply immense

when compared with those of the other two elephants which accom-

panied him — a tree against which he had rubbed himself also gave

me some idea of his great height. The tracks led down to the

Gundal Valley, so we followed, but after ravaging some fields the

elephants had, so we learnt, been driven off by fire and had retired

up the Hethinibetta hill. A terrible climb of 1,500 feet followed

the path being simply a rocky track practically straight up through

a tunnel of bamboos without a breath of wind. I have seldom

sweated so much, and felt it all the more as I was soft after 5

months enforced rest due to an injured knee. About 1 p.m. we

topped the col where a spur runs from the main hill to join up

Kortaybetra, ana at once I distinctly smelt elephant, and also

heard movement in the bamboo covered ravine below us. Working

along the hillside we found a convenient rock and sat down to have

an easy and await events. Half an hour later a small tusker ap-

peared and cleared off in a hurry for no obvious reason, but we

could still hear at least one elephant feeding about 150 yards below

us. The trackers now went off to see whether an approach was

nossible and shortly before 2 p.m. one of them hurried back and

beckoned to me urgently. I went down and saw indistinctly

through the bamboos about 80 yards away the head and tusks of a

big elephant which the trackers assured me was the Cradle Tusker.

Leaving the men behind I advanced with my driver George carrying*

my spare rifle to a tree about 30 yards from him, and as the ele-

phant moved forward to our right I had a clear view of his head

and tusks. The latter however were not so long as I had been led

ic expect, and to make absolutely sure that there was no mistake,

[ beckoned one of the trackers down and questioned him. He

assured me that it was the Cradle Tusker — he had known the

animal for years and was quite positive about it. Being satisfied,

as soon as he stopped moving and I had a clear view of the earhole,

I fired at it, but did not allow for being on slightly higher ground,

so that my bullet — a solid .423 — as we afterwards found, passed

below the brain and was embedded in the base of the tusk on the

JUNGLE MEMORIES

209

far side. At the shot he swung round and rushed back a few

yards, then towards us, but as we remained motionless he was

uncertain where the shot had come from, besides doubtless being a

little dazed. He then turned away and up went his trunk in the

air trying to get our wind. I aimed behind his ear but as he moved

still further round and exposed the base of his skull, got the bead

on to that and fired. At the shot he reared up and fell over back-

wards with a most almighty crash against a clump of bamboos

which gave way under him with much splintering and cracking,

and I was on the point of running up to give him another bullet if

necessary when a third elephant, which we had not previously

seen, made his appearance and came hurrying towards us.

He was quite a good sized beast with tusks about 3 feet long, but

compared with the Cradle Tusker looked an infant. I don’t think

he saw us, but as he was getting rather too close and I had no

permit to shoot him, we withdrew to our rock and shouted at him

when he cleared off and allowed us to examine our prize.-

In that classic Thirteen Years among the Wild Beasts of India,

Sanderson expresses the view that, ‘there is little doubt that there

is not an elephant 10 feet at the shoulder in India’. I only wish

he could have been present to check up on the Cradle Tusker !

Careful measurements between uprights at heel and shoulder gave

him a height of ior 6", and this was confirmed by the foot measure-

ments, allowance being made for loss of expansion since the animal

was in a horizontal position. The size of the tusks had been greatly

exaggerated, but even so they were a fine pair taping 5' 7" and

5.'' 6\ " respectively with a girth of 16", while their combined weight

was 97 lbs. according to the Forest Dept, scales. In accordance

with the rules they had to be surrendered, but were eventually re-

turned to me by order of the Board of Revenue, after I had signed

a declaration that I had shot the rogue ‘at close range and at great

personal risk’ !

On the following morning, when we returned to extract the

tusks and remove the feet, we found the third tusker still in the

vicinity, but ‘Little Boy’ soon chased him away. He had visited

his dead companion during the night but had made no effort to

move him, as elephants sometimes do. When skinning the rogue

we found 2 bullets just under the skin of his side and fore-leg, and

another was deeply embedded in the forehead — no doubt there were

others which we overlooked, as in the course of his career he had

been fired at often.

Now to analyse the shots taken, and to see what can be learned

from them. I think there can be no doubt that with such a bloody-

minded animal it was imperative to take the head shot, and this

seemed to offer no difficulty. I was reasonably close, had the side

of the tree to steady my rifle and thought I had him cold, and yet

I missed the brain, because I did not allow for the fact that we

were not on the same level. An elephant’s brain is small compared

with the huge bulk of his head, and the side shot is definitely diffi-

cult, as it is not easy to make out the ear-hole among the wrinkles

of the ear. The frontal shot is much easier, in fact I was told on

-’10' JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

the best authority of a thugyee (village headman) in the Thayetmyo

district of Burma who with a single barrel 12 bore and the ball

cartridges supplied by Government as a protection against dacoits,

accounted for a number of cow elephants in this way ! For the

second shot I had to thank my experience with the Magyigon

rogue as already related — it is a shot well wTorth knowing.

The Benne Rogue

It is over 10 years since I shot my last elephant, but the en-

counter was an exciting one, and the memory of it is still so fresh

that a reference to my diary serves only to confirm it. On

26th April 1937 a Forest Guard accompanied by another man was

walking along the road between Masnigudi and the foot of the

Sigur Ghat in the Nilgiris when an elephant, previously proscribed,

suddenly rushed out of the jungle at them and killed the guard,

who had stumbled in his efforts to escape. My house is at the

top of the Sigur Ghat and only some 9 miles from the scene of the

tragedy, but I did not receive news of it till two young officers who

had gone after the animal, looked in on their way back and gave

me an account of what had occurred. It had taken them 2 days

to locate the brute and when they did come up with it they had

fired a number of shots into its head and body, but owing to lack

of experience none of these was fatal, though one shot actually

floored it. That night the rogue moved along the foot of the hills

and was located on 2nd May in some very thick cover near

Anaikatti, where they had to leave it.

As it happened I had already booked the forest bungalow at

Anaikatti from the 4th, so when we arrived I at once sent men to

track down the wounded animal, since both R. and I possessed

permits to shoot it. The trackers returned in the evening with the

news that they had located the rogue with another elephant at

Sirur some 6 miles to the east, and that he was in a bad way and

constantly lying down. Next morning on arrival at Sirur we took

up the tracks and soon found several places where the animal had

lain down, but there was no blood, which rather surprised me in

view of the number of wounds he had received. Soon after we

beard bamboos breaking and the tusker’s head and back appeared

above the lantana about 50 yards below us. He was uneasy but

not alarmed, and after 5 minutes moved slowly uphill — we followed

along the hillside above him and as he came out of the bushes into

the open had a grand view of him not 30 yards from the rock on

wdiich we were sitting. Before firing it was however essential to

make sure that it was the rogue, and as I could see no sign of

wounds (he was well plastered with mud) we went back to the

river and measured his footprints which definitely, showed that he

Avas not the proscribed animal, though his lying down so frequently

rather indicated that he was sick. So we left him to it and were

fitting on a knoll having an easy before taking up the tracks of the

second animal, when the latter appeared crossing the open about

1,000 yards away. He was a magnificent beast with tusks show-

JUNGLE MEMORIES

211

jng at least 5 feet of ivory and so curved that they reminded one

ot a mammoth’s. They alone were sufficient to show that he was

not the rogue, whose tusks were known to be short and straight,

.and as no other tracks could be found, we had to give it u*p and

return to Anaikatti. We remained in camp there till the 9th, but

though I had trackers out daily, no further sign of the wounded

animal could be found, and it was not till several days later that

1 had news of him. Where he had been in the meantime is un-

known, but on the night of the 14th he came on to the main road

beyond Masnigudi and walked along it to Teppakadu, where the

villagers heard him wheezing — no doubt from a lung wound— as

he crossed the bridge over the Moyar river close to their houses.

His tracks then led towards Mudumalai, so R. and I motored down

there on the 16th only to learn that the rogue had moved on to-

wards Benne. Next morning he was definitely located near the

elephant camp 8 miles away, so we at once motored there, arriving

about midday and bagging en route a wild dog which I hoped would

prove a lucky omen. The rogue was said to be at the foot of some

low hills 2 miles off, so we set out, meeting on the way one of the

trackers who had located the elephant and had identified it by the

wound in its side. A climb through long grass up a spur brought

us well above him, and after a short halt we then began the final

approach down to the small stream where the rogue had last been

seen. The jungle was thick and there was a nasty tangle of

bamboos, while big trees, which are such a comfort when working

up to an elephant, were few and far between. After about 200

yards we found a place where he had just fed on bamboos, and then

suddenly saw him only some 30 yards away standing in the bed of

the small stream with his head towards the steep bank on our right.

After a whispered consultation we decided to move up the bank

to the left so as to be above him, which was done, and R. and I

then advanced down the open slope to a tree which I had marked

down not 20 yards away from the rogue, where our feet were

about the same level as his back and with the ground sloping gently

towards him. He was tail on to us, idly swinging a hind leg and

his tail and occasionally flapping his ears. There was no wheezing

noise from the lung as reported, and since from our position we

could see no wounds, I beckoned up Mada and the mahout, whom

we had left behind, to make certain that he was the right animal.

They insisted that it was, so I got ready to shoot, as the wind

was uncertain and might change at any moment. We had arranged

overnight that I was to fire first at the head and R. to fire at once

after at the body. We had not anticipated an end-on shot but

there was no time to make other arrangements. Accordingly I

fired at the back of his head, though I doubted whether a shot at

that angle would prove effective, while R. fired at once after at

his spine. The huge brute seemed to crumple, but suddenly whirled

round with coiled trunk and in grim silence came straight for us.

We both fired again and down he crashed dead only 15 yards away

with 2 bullets in the brain. We counted no less than 9 old bullet

holes, one severe 5 inches in diameter behind the right shoulder

212 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST , SOCIETY, Vol. 48

(too high for the heart) from which pus was dripping and what

looked like a piece of lung: — we could not examine this properly

as he had fallen on that side. There were 2 wounds on the bump

at 3 and 6 o’clock — a big* wound on the left side of the forehead

and 5 more scattered about the upper part of the head. In all

14 shots had been fired into him during- the encounter on 1st

May and in spite of this he had covered not less than 50 miles and

probably twice that distance, and had survived for 17 days, so I

don’t think there can be much doubt that if we had not encountered

him he would eventually have recovered. All of which goes to

show that an elephant is not an easy animal to kill unless hit in

the right place. Measurement showed the rogue’s height to be

9 and the tusks when extracted taped 54" and weighed 48 lbs.

The rifles used on this occasion were both H.V. with solid bullets —

mine a .423 Mauser and R’s a double .470, and the 4 shots must

have been fired in the space of 5 seconds.

This brings to an end my experiences of shooting elephants,

which, limited though they are, contain some lessons which I hope

may be of use to others. To any sportsman about to hunt these

animals for the first time, may I offer a few words of advice? First

read Sanderson’s book and after studying the diagrams of an ele-

phant’s head, compare them with a living elephant if possible, or

at least with the photographs which so often appear in illustrated'

papers, paying particular attention to the bump and the ear-hole —

you should then have no difficulty in deciding where to aim when

you are up against one in the jungle. But remember the head shot

is not worth faking unless you are very close indeed, and that to

get close you have got to take some risks of detection — do not

therefore despise the body shot. When you are going after a rogue

try and get another sportsmen to accompany you, and arrange

with him beforehand that one should take the head and the other

the body-shot — also which of you should fire first. Remember that

you are dealing with a bloody-minded animal, who will certainly

kill you if he gets a chance — you need therefore feel no compunction

about firing to cripple him if you are doubtful whether a fatal shot

offers. Once an elephant is down run up and give him a finisher

in the base of the skull before he can rise. Do not follow the

example of the Burmese thugyee, but use a high velocity rifle of

not less than .400 bore with solid bullets. Finally, before you shoot

be quite certain that the elephant in front of you is the animal for

which you hold a permit. Two elephants had been shot by mistake

for the Cradle Tusker before I accounted for him, and both were

proscribed posthumously. It is not always that district officers are

so complacent !

Rifles

Sportsmen, more especially those new to the game, may be

interested to have my experiences with various types of rifle. I

came out to India in 1904 very keen but with no experience at all

except of small game shooting, and shikar books in those days

JUNGLE MEMORIES

213

were few and mostly out of date, since the high velocity rifle of

medium bore had only just appeared on the scene. My first

rifle was a .256 Mannlicher but I soon found it too light and

changed to a single barrel .400 H.V. Jelfery, a first class weapon

which accounted for many head of game in my subaltern days, but

had the drawback of being a single loader. To supplement it I

picked up a DB -577/500 No. 2 Express by Rigby firing low pres-

sure cordite and a nickel cased bullet of 440 grs. with a copper tube,

or 460 grs. solid lead, a most excellent rifle for tiger, but not heavy

enough for bison and elephant. For those I purchased a DB 10 bore

ball and shot gun by Jeffery, which weighed 16 lbs. and fired a 2 oz.

ball, but used it little as the 1st World War intervened. A .303

magazine carbine which I obtained from the Ordnance and refitted

with a bead foresight proved very useful for lighter game, and also

as a spare weapon, but it was not easy to obtain sporting ammuni-

tion for it, and experiments with filed down solid bullets were not

very satisfactory. I also for a short time possessed a .280 Ross,

but did not care for the action and soon disposed of it. For a good

many years I used a .405 Winchester, but finally changed to a .423

Mauser — a rifle which I still use and can strongly recommend to

the sportsman with a shallow purse. With it I have shot most

kinds of South Indian game from jungle sheep to elephant, and

have seldom found a second shot necessary. To supplement it

I have a .318 Mauser with telescopic sight, more particularly for

crocodile shooting where extreme accuracy is essential. I do not

believe in small bore rifles for dangerous game. Let the sportsman

use the heaviest rifle he can and he will be saved a lot of trouble.

Personally I prefer a magazine rifle to a double barrel.

NOTE : —

The stories of the Cradle Tusker and the Benne rogue have already appeared

in somewhat similar form in the Times of India Xmas supplement for 1937

and the Indian State Railway Magazine respectively, and are reproduced by

kind permission of my collaborator Major F. Murcutt and the editors of the

journals concerned.

(To be continued)

NOTES ON THE NESTING HABITS OF SEVEN

REPRESENTATIVE TROPICAL SEA BIRDS

BY

C. A. GlBSON-HlLL, M.A., M.B.O.U.

( Raffles Museum, Singapore )

( With five plates )

Contents

Page

Introduction ... ... ... ... ... ... 214

Common Noddy , Anoits stolidns pHeatus (Scop.) ... ... ... 215

White Tern, Gy gis alba monte Math. ... ... ... ... 218

Eastern Reef Heron, Demigretta sacra sacra (Gmel.) ... ... 221

Brown Booby, Sula leucogaster plotus (Forst.) ... ... ... 223

Redfooted Booby, Sula sula rubripes Gould. ... ... ... 226

Christmas Island Frigate-bird, Fregata andrewsi Math. ... ... 228

Redtailed Tropic-bird, Phaethon tubricauda westralis Math. ... ... 231

References ... ... ... ... ... ... 234

Notes on the Measurements and Plates ... ... ... 234-5

Summary ... ... ... ... ... ... 235

Introduction

The data on which this paper is based were obtained during a

residence of 2\ years on Christmas Island (September 1938-

December 1940) and io| months on the Cocos-lveeling Islands

(December 1940-November 1941). Both islands lie in the eastern

portion of the Indian Ocean, approximately between the latitudes

io° and 120 south.

Christmas Island is almost due south of Java Head. It has

an area of about 64 square miles, with a maximum length from

east to west of 13 miles, and from north to south of n| miles. It

is composed of a covering of coral limestone on a core of basalt.

The greater part is occupied, by a central plateau, 600 to 700 feet

above sea level, rising in three places to low hills with maximum

altitudes ranging from 970 to 1,170 feet. Round the edge it de-

scends to the sea in a succession of terraces, separated by steep

slopes or sheer cliffs. The lowest of these terraces, known as the

shore terrace, runs almost completely round the island, at a height

of 30 to 50 feet above the water. The Cocos-Keeling Islands are

typical coral islands, similar in most respects to the majority of

those in the Maidive and Laccadive groups. They comprise a

medium-sized atoll, and a small atollon, known as North Keeling,

some fifteen miles further north (see Gibson-Hill, 1948).

These notes cover only seven of the sea and shore birds breed-

ing on one or both of the islands. They have been selected for

presentation here as representative of their genera as they occur

NESTING HABITS OF REPRESENTATIVE TROPICAL SEA BIRDS 215

in the Indian Ocean, and as the ones for which the greatest amount

of data was obtained. References are made to the. others where

the differences seem likely to be of interest.

The majority of the tropical sea birds breed on small, often

isolated and relatively inaccessible, islands. There are, therefore,

few ornithologists who have had an opportunity of watching them

over a long period. Much information has been published on nest

sites and structure, and to a lesser extent egg sizes and colours,

in different parts of the world, but little or nothing on incubation

periods, rates of development and feeding. Two summaries of

the data available at the times when they were compiled have al-

ready appeared (Bent 1921 and 1922, and Murphy 1936). These

and several subsequent papers, particularly those relating to the

islands of the Indian Ocean, have been examined, and reference

is made to them where they give information on the latter points.

On the other hand, to keep this paper as short as possible, no

comments are made on observations in the first category, except

in cases where it would appear that the birds under observation

were not behaving typically. The one exception to this is that I

have in parts used data published in a previous paper of my own

(Gibson-Hill, 1947b), based on the observations made in my first

fifteen months on Christmas Island. This has been done where

no further information was discovered in the subsequent two years'

work, in order to make these biographies, though concise, as com-

plete as possible.

Anous stolidus pileatus (Scop.) Common Noddy

The Common Noddy occurs on both Christmas Island and the

Cocos-Keeling Islands. In both places a few birds are present

throughout the year, but the great majority arrive a little before

the beginning of the breeding season and leave shortly after its

close. In both, also, the birds are conspicuously confined to the

coast or lagoon beaches, and they never appear to venture far over

the land. The breeding population on Christmas Island in 1940

was in the region of 4,000 to 5,500 pairs. In the Cocos-Keeling

Islands in 1941 there were about 20 pairs nesting on the main

atoll, and 500 to 750 pairs on North Keeling.

Situation. — On Christmas Island nests were found only on

ledges on the sea cliff, usually within 15 to 30 feet of the water,

except for one which was in the crown of a small Pandanus palm

projecting over a narrow beach on the north coast. The birds on

North Keeling were breeding on the summit of a low shingle ridge,

between the beach and the beginning of the vegetation, at the

south-east, windward corner of the island. The 20 odd pairs on

the main atoll were nesting in the crowns of a small clump of

coconut palms on the lagoon side of the south end of West Island.

The site chosen appears to vary considerably in this species, and

the use of trees and bushes has been recorded from several localities

in America and the Pacific. It is therefore surprising that prac-

216 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 48

tically no use was made of the dense vegetation, reaching to the

cliff-edge, on Christmas Island.

Nest. — No indication was seen of the construction of a proper

nest. During courtship, on Christmas Island, the male bird

brought his mate occasional offerings of sticks or other flotsam.

These she placed on the ledge on which she was standing. Some

birds accumulated a considerable amount of material, and by the

time that the egg was laid had an untidy layer of debris covering

about a square foot of rock. Others gathered only some half dozen

pieces. The fragments were not worked together and individual

pieces occasionally fell off the ledge. Generally a few bits were

added during incubation, but they did not in the long run com-

pensate for the loss, and by the time that the chick was ready to

fly the shelf was usually bare. On North Keeling the Noddies

were placing their single eggs in suitable depressions among the

coral shingle, or among the coarse grass immediately behind it.

A few pairs had lined the hollow sparsely with dried leaves and

twigs of Tournefortia, but in most instances it was bare. The

birds breeding in the coconut palms had gathered a few leaves and

other material, but even here little attempt was made to construct

an adequate nest. In general it would appear that on both islands

the nest is rudimentary. In this feature the Noddy would seem

to vary from place to place in its range, though nowhere does it

build well and securely (see Bent, 1921 : 303-306. Murphy, 1:936 :

1154. Van Bemmel and Hoogerwerf, 1940: 461. Vesey-Fitzgerald,

1941 : 528).

Eggs. — All the nests examined contained only one egg, or a

single chick. The egg is roughly ovoid, slightly more pointed at

one end, with a fine matt surface. The ground colour ranges from

a warm off-white to very pale fawn, with a few light gull-grey or

pale purplish grey blotches, and above them a few fine or coarse,

umber or dark umber, markings mostly at the wider end. Thirty

examples from Christmas Island ranged from 51 to 56 mm. in

length and 35 to 38 mm. in breadth: average, 53-3. x 36.1. Ten

measured on North Keeling ranged from 50 to 54 mm. in length

and 34 to 37 mm. in breadth: average, 52.9x36.

Breeding Season. — On both islands the Noddy has a definite

fairly well marked breeding season, but though their latitudes are

almost the same the times are different in the two places. On

Christmas Island the season runs from the beginning of April to

the end of September. The earliest egg was seen on 24 March,

on the east coast, and the latest on 3 September, at the north-east

corner of the island. The majority are laid in May, and hatch in

June. On North Keeling nests, all containing eggs, were plentiful

in January, and in July the only signs of reproductive activity were

a few juveniles, with slight fragments of down on the belly and

wings, which flew with difficulty. Most of the birds breeding on

the main atoll laid in January, and all had finished and left bv the

end of June. The season in the Cocos-Keeling Islands would

therefore appear to be about four months earlier in the year than

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate I

Chick of the Common Noddy, aged about 23 days, with adult bird.

Photos C. A. Gibson-Hill

Chick of the White Tern, aged about 35 days.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate II

Chick of the Brown Booby, aged about 4 days.

Photos C. A. Gibson-Hill

Chick of the Brown Booby, aged about 65 days.

NESTING HABITS OF REPRESENTATIVE TROPICAL SEA BIRDS 217

that on Christmas Island. A set breeding period, varying in tim-

ing in different parts of the world, would seem to be the normal

procedure for this species, though evidence from the Galapagos

Islands suggests that the local race there may be nesting regularly

throughout the year (Murphy, 1936: 1159-1160). Vesey-

Fitzgerald, writing of A. s. pileatus in the Seychelles says, ‘Eggs

are laid throughout the year, but the main laying season is July

and August’. (1941 : 5 27).

Incubation. — Both parents incubate. On Christmas Island,

where prolonged observation was possible, it appeared that the

shifts were normally short. The birds sometimes made as many

as five changes in the 'course of a day. The egg was seldom left

unattended for long, though on several occasions the sitting bird

was seen to fly down to the water for a few minutes to moisten

its feathers. The incubation period was timed in thirteen cases.

In eight of these, where the beginning was known to within a few

hours, it lasted from 33 to 35 days. In the other five it ranged

from 30 to 35 days, but it is possible that the shorter periods were

underestimated. Watson, working on the Dry Tortugas, in the

Gulf of Mexico, gives 35-36 days (Watson 1908) : Murphy says

32-35 days (1936: 1156).

Feeding of the Young. — At first the chick is fed at short

intervals, in the region of two to three hours, with liquid material

regurgitated for it. Towards the end of the first week it is usually

left alone for the greater part of the day, though one or both

parents still settle with it at night. Its food, which is brought

only about four times a day, is more nearly solid, and later becomes

completely so. Feeding continues for some weeks after the birds

are capable of flying. At first the young remains near the nesting

ledges and return there to be fed. Later it may be seen soliciting

its parents at any of their alighting places away from the breeding

site.

Fledging. — The young bird emerges covered with down. On

Christmas Island this was usually a smoky grey colour, paler over

the forehead and belly, but in about one tenth of the chicks it was

a uniform dirty white. The down is pre-plumule.

The earliest feathers are a longitudinal plaque down the back

and a small patch in each scapular region. These start to sprout

through the skin about the seventh day. The remiges, on the

radius, appear about the same time, and the rectrices shortly after-

wards. Nevertheless, as late as the tenth day the young bird, on

superficial examination, still seems to be clothed only in down. By

the twelfth day the juvenile feathers appear above the down all

over the dorsal surface of the body. By the twentieth to twenty-

second day the down is represented only by a few fluffy fragments

adhering to the feathers of the belly, wing coverts and gular area.

Left to itself the chick begins to fly about the thirty-fifth day.

In 1940 the chicks in ten nests were measured at intervals of

two days. Six of the eggs hatched between sunrise and noon, and

the other four during the afternoon. No attempt was made to

climb down to the nest the first day. Measurements were not

2

218 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

continued beyond the twenty-ninth day, as at this stage the chicks,,

though still unable to fly, were very willing to precipitate them-

selves into the sea to escape capture when the ledge was approach-

ed. Some of the chicks grew rather more rapidly than the others

during the initial stages, while others developed more quickly dur-

ing the second and third weeks. The figures below, obtained fronr

one nest, are given as the nearest to the average of the series : all

measurements are in mms. Unfortunately the early records for the

length of the wing are missing from this sequence. The normal

length shortly after hatching is about 15 mm., and this has been

added in brackets.

Keeling Islands it is resident throughout the year on both the main

atoll and North Keeling. The birds may be met with in the open

sea a few miles away from the group, but they are never seen at

any great distance from the land. On the main atoll the birds were

nesting mostly on Horsburgh Island (Pulo Luar), but there were

also two or three pairs on the west end of Direction Island (Pulo

Tikus). An accurate estimate of the total population was not

possible, but it was probably between 100 and 300 pairs. There

was also about the same number of birds present on North Keeling.

Situation. — The single egg is usually deposited on the branch

of a tree, or against the midrib on the horizontal portion of the

curving frond of a coconut palm. The trees generally chosen are

the Cocos Ironwood, Cordia subcordata Lam., or Kayu Sireh,

Tournefortia argentea Linn. The sites most favoured were between

ten and twenty-five feet from the ground, and a short distance in

from the edge of the island.

The choice of nesting site would seem to be a fairly normal

one for the species. In the use of tree branches it is noticeably

similar to that recorded for the Seychelles by Vesey-Fitzgerald

(1941 : 529), though the kinds selected are different. Murphy

(1936 : 1166-67) also quotes several instances of the typical race

NESTING HABITS OF REPRESENTATIVE TROPICAL SEA BIRDS 21»

laying on bare rocks or ledges, and Moreau (1931 : 780) records

it nesting on the cliffs overhanging- the quay at Jamestown, St.

Helena. These observations are of interest here in view of the

White Tern’s absence from Christmas Island, which possesses an

abundance of suitable vegetation and cliff-ledges.

Nest. — No nest is built. The sitting bird usually leaves its

perch by falling away backwards, rather than springing up, in

order, presumably, to avoid disturbing the precarious balance of

the egg.

Eggs. — Only one egg is laid to a clutch. Its shape is an

almost perfect oval. The surface is fine matt. The ground colour

ranges from light fawn to olive. It is variously blotched with gull-

grey and lilac-grey, and above these with scrawls of dark umber

and brownish black, the latter markings being mostly in a ring

round the broadest portion of the egg. Fifteen eggs, of which

five were taken, measured 40 to 44.5 mm. in length, and 30 to

34 mm. in breadth, with an average of 42.6 x 32.3 mm.

Breeding Season. — In certain parts of its range the White

Tern is said to breed throughout the year (Murphy, 1936: 1167.

Vesey-Fitzgerald, 1941 : 529). It is possible that it also does so

on the Cocos-Keeling Islands, but if this is occurring it would

seem that there is a definite peak period for laying covering the

months from May to July, with a recrudescence or possibly a

second brood from September to November. All the eggs and

young birds that were found fitted in with these two periods, except

for an egg seen in March and a chick about two weeks old at the

beginning of May.

Incubation. — Both parents incubate, but it was not possible

to time the length of the shifts. The eggs were never found un-

attended, though the sitting birds often left them, partly out of

curiosity, when they were approached. The incubating bird does

not sit above the egg, but perches behind it, and fluffs the feathers

of its breast to cover it. Two full periods were timed to within 24

hours: they lasted 30-31 and 31-32 days respectively. Wood-Jones

gives 36 days (1912: 341). I know of no other records on this

point.

Feeding of Young. — The newly emerged chick is fed at short

intervals with semi-liquid material regurgitated for it. Later dur-

ing the second and possibly third week, it is given more solid

matter, and after this whole fish, about i\ to 2 inches long. These

are brought to it crosswise in the parent’s bill. It is not unusual

to see two or three fish carried at the same time in this manner.

The fish are mostly Stolephorus sp., known locally as Ikan Bilis

or Ikan Teri. The parents obtain them either by hovering over still

water and picking them from the surface, or by catching them

when they are driven into the air by the attacks of larger fish. I

never saw the White Tern dive properly. The stomachs of three

of the twenty adults examined contained also the remains of small

crabs, but I never saw them being caught, or offered to the young.

Fledging. — The young bird emerges covered with a pre-plumule

220 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

down, smoky grey in colour, with a varying extent of biscuit brown

at the tips. the earnest leathers to appear are those along the

middle portion of the dorsal tract and a small patch in each scapular

region. These start to sprout through the skin about the eighth

day, and appear above the down three to five days later. The

remiges, appearing first on the ulna, and the rectrices emerge very

soon afterwards. These, together with the long scapular feathers,

develop steadily until about the end of the third week. During the

fourth and fifth weeks their rate of growth seems to slacken slight-

ly, presumably in consequence of the great development of the

covering feathers which takes place at this time. By about the

thirty-fifth day apparent down remains only on the forehead, neck,

flanks, belly and rump, and in a few fragments adhering to the

lesser wing-coverts. By the fortieth day it is reduced still further

to a little on the forehead, throat, lower belly and rump. A few

forward chicks probably begin to fly naturally at this stage, but

the majority do not seem to do so for a further seven to ten

days. By then the down is represented by no more than a few

whisps round the throat, over the wing coverts and on the lower

belly. These are very tenacious, and three apparently independent

birds, with total lengths ranging from 290-299 mm., still carried

traces on the wings and in the neighbourhood of the vent. The

greater part of the juvenile plumage is white, but the upper wing

coverts and mantle feathers are richly marked with one or two

terminal bars of brownish black bordered by orange rufous, the

feathers of the forehead, crown and flanks similarly though less

strongly so, and the upper tail coverts faintly so.

Two chicks were measured at intervals of three days to the

time they moved away from the nest ; a further four were re-

corded over a part of this period. The figures obtained were broad-

ly similar, and the longest series is given below. This chick was

still on the site as late as its forty-third to forty-fourth day, but it

was not there when the place was visited again three days later,

nor was it seen subsequently. The other chick allowed itself to be

lifted up and measured when it was approximately forty days old,

but flew fairly efficiently as soon as it was put down, and did not

reappear. It should be emphasised that both birds were still far

from full grown when the last measurements were taken. Fifteen

adults, both sexes, from the same island gave the following figures :

total length 310-333, av. 320; gape, 51-56, av. 53; exposed

culmen, 39-43.5, av. 40.5; wing flat, 225-241, av. 236; tail, 102-

120, av. 108.

Wood-Jones, who provides the only other record of fledgings

that I have been able to trace, says that the young birds do not

move from the nest-site until they have acquired the full white plu-

mage, and quotes a bird hatched on 3 September which did not fly

until it was 70 days old (1912 : 341). The first statement is certain-

ly not correct; see also Murphy (1936: 1167), referring to the

typical race on South Trinidad, ‘The chicks are. . . . extraordinarily

precocious, and they fly about long before they have lost all the

down from the tips of their rusty-tinted white feathers’. The

NESTING HABITS OF REPRESENTATIVE TROPICAL SEA BIRDS 221

second is by no means compatible with the records that I obtained.

It is perhaps of interest to note that I gave two chicks, which I

tound when they must have been about three weeks old, to my

boatman to rear in his house. They remained healthy, but I am

sure from subsequent experiences that he did not give them the

amount of food that they would have obtained under natural con-

ditions. They grew much more slowly than the free pair also

under observation, and when about 7 weeks old were only as large

as the latter had been at 5 weeks. Nevertheless, they flew, though

still rather stunted, about ten days later.

Demigretta sacra sacra (Gmel.). Eastern Reef Heron

This bird occurs on both Christmas Island and the Cocos-Keel-

ing Islands. It is not plentiful on the former, and is confined to a

few suitable points on the east and north coasts. On the Cocos-

Keeling Islands it occurs on both the main atoll and North Keeling.

The breeding population on the main atoll was about 40-50 pairs.

About one-third of these were dark phase birds, and the remainder

white. They mixed freely, and in three instances dark and light

birds were found breeding together. There can be no question of

these phrases being dependent on age, as nestlings acquiring their

first feathers were found exhibiting both colour patterns. This bird

appears to be strictly resident on both islands.

Situation. — Only one nest was definitely located on Christmas

Island. It was a low, rather untidy pile of dried weed, dead

Scaevola leaves and a few sticks, situated on a rock shelf in a cleft

of the sea cliff, about 25 feet above the water. On the main atoll

of the Cocos-Keeling Islands the birds were nesting in small

colonies in the crowns of coconut palms. The majority were at

the south end of the lagoon, on a small island known as Pulo

Belanchi, and at the point of West Island (Pulo Panjang) nearest

to it. There were also a few pairs at the north end, on Direction

Island (Pulo Tikus) and Horsburgh (Pulo Luar).

Nest. — On the main atoll of the Cocos-Keeling Islands the.

birds were building fairly broad, untidy nests of dead sticks and

222 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

Tournefortia leaves. These were about 20 to 25 inches across,

and 5 inches deep. The material was only loosely worked together,

and in the older nests was held in position largely by the guano.

Eggs. — Twelve nests were examined. Seven had clutches of

three eggs, three of four and two of two, but in nearly all cases

the birds reared only two chicks. The egg is a pointed oval in

shape, with a rough surface. The shell is rather thick. The

colour is a uniform light glaucous blue, appearing sea-green when

viewed from the inside against the light. Twenty-four examples

were measured. They ranged from 42 to 48 mm. in length, and

33 to 36 mm. in width with an average of 46x34.5 mm.

Breeding Season. — On the Cocos-Keeling Islands the majority

of the eggs were being laid between December and February : the

Pulo Belanchi colony was certainly being used for roosting only,

from June to November. One fresh nest was found on Direction

Island in April. Wood-Jones mentions eggs taken in January,

but does not say from which part of the atoll they were obtained

(1912 : 342). The Christmas Island nest contained eggs when first

discovered in August.

Incubation. — The eggs are probably laid at intervals of 24 to

48 hours. One clutch of four was not completed for 8 days. Both

parents incubate. The full period was timed in only three cases.

In two of these it was found to be 24 (zhi) days from the appear-

ance of the last egg, and in one 25 ( it 1) days.

Feeding of Young.- — The young are fed by both parents. It

was not observed in the case of very young chicks. From the time

that the nestling is about three weeks old it raises a considerable

clamour when the adult alights near it. This is continued until

the bird finally settles on the edge of the nest. The youngsters

then move over to it, and as the adult begins to regurgitate, pull

its bill down towards them and take the food from it. Much of

the food regurgitated during this process falls into the nest, and

apparently only a small proportion of the latter is gathered and

eaten. The diet of the adult seems to consist chiefly of small fish

and various reef Crustacea. This material, partially digested, was

being fed to the young. On Christmas Island the adults were also

occasionally seen searching for grasshoppers and other insects, and

one stomach that was examined contained the remains of three

large larval Locus ta migratoides and the elytra of two beetles.

Fledging. — The young bird emerges from the egg almost naked

with faintly suggested lines of pre-pennate down along the feather

tracts. The feet and skin are greenish yellow, and the bill a dull

dark grey. The down becomes rather more prominent as the

feathers begin to thrust their way through the skin, but the chick is

never adequately covered. The first feathers to appear are on the

dorsal and humeral tracts, followed shortly by those on the flanks

and wings. The earliest of these pierce the skin between the

seventeenth and twenty-first day. By the time that the chick is

nearly four weeks old the emerging quills are prominent along all

the tracts, and the shoulder feathers are about 20 mm. long. By

NESTING HABITS OF REPRESENT ATIV E TROPICAL SEA BIRDS 223

the end of the sixth week the chick is well feathered over the back

and wings with scraggy feathering on the head and neck. By the

end of the next week the head and neck are well covered, except

for the superciliary regions. At this stage the feathers on the

crown and rump still carry a fair amount of down, and the feather-

ing is deficient at the elbows ; this appears to be the last area to be

covered adequately. By the tenth week, when the young bird is

capable of limited flight, the plumage is complete, except in this,

region, though the feathers have not reached their full length.

Three chicks, of which one died at the fourth week, were

measured at intervals of four days. The figures obtained from

one of the survivors are given below : all measurements are in mm.

The time of emergence was not known to within 46 hours. The

first line of measurements, given as 1 day old, should therefore be

taken as 1 i 1 : the others follow at regular intervals from it.

Both the surviving birds were far from full grown when last seen

at the nest. Thirteen adults, both sexes, from the Cocos-Keeling

Islands gave the following figures: total length, 545-592, av. 568;

gape, 93-105, av. 98; exposed culmen, 76-90, av. 81; wing flat,

252-284, av. 272; tail, 87-104, av. 95.

Sula leucogaster plotus (Forst.) Brown Booby

The Brown Booby occurs on both Christmas Island and the

Cocos-Keeling Islands. In both places it appears to be strictly

resident, and curiously enough was not met with at distances of

more than 30 or 40 miles from the land. The population on Christ-

mas Island in 1940 was in the neighbourhood of 5,000-6,500 breed-

ing pairs. These occurred fairly evenly spaced all round the coast.

224 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48.

On the Cocos-Keeling Islands the birds were confined to North

Keeling, where in 1941 there were about 75-100 pairs.

Situation. — On Christmas Island the birds were breeding mostly

on or near the summit of the sea cliff, and they were seldom seen

over the land. A few pairs were making use of suitable ledges on

the face of the inland cliff, but they normally flew straight to and

from their nests, in marked contrast to the Redfooted Booby which

could often be seen gliding up and down above the trees on the

shore terrace. The birds on North Keeling were breeding in much

the same situation as the Noddies there, the summit of the low

shingle ridge between the beach and the beginning of the vegetation

on the south and east sides of the island.

Nest. — On both islands the size of the nest varied considerably.

In some cases it was as much as 5 or 6 inches high, and over 3 feet

across at the base, with a central depression 2 inches deep. In

others it consisted only of a sparse lining to a shallow depression

scraped in the ground. The materials used were mostly dried twigs

and dead leaves, frequently from the Tournefortia tree. These

were not woven together, but were merely arranged in an untidy

heap with which the sitting bird fidgetted repeatedly when agitated.

Eggs . — On Christmas Island the majority of the birds were

laying only one egg, but in a count of 50 nests 16, that is 32%,

were found to contain two. The second egg would seem to be laid

at least two days after the first, and in one instance it was as late as

six. The egg is elliptical in shape. The shell is thick with a

rough surface. The colour is a uniform bluish white or bluish

glaucous, but it is normally covered with a thick coating of lime

which rapidly becomes mud-stained and dirty. The size is very

variable. Ten eggs on Christmas Island ranged from 56 to 65 mm

in length and 37 to 45 mm. in breadth. An equal number from

North Keeling ranged from 51 to 63 mm. in length and 36.5 to

44 in breadth.

Breeding Season. — On Christmas Island the breeding season is

indeterminate. Data suggested that the bird may nest in any

month, and that different points on the coast have their peak period

at different times. The least popular months for eggs appeared to

be October to January, and the most popular months between March

and May. Individual nesting sites in a number of cases were being

used annually between the same dates. In two instances it is

certain that the sites were occupied for three successive seasons by

the same pair of birds. On North Keeling eggs and chicks of vary-

ing ages were found in January and July. The data collected by

Murphy (1936: 856-7) give a similar general picture: apparently,

within the tropics at least, the populations of this species do not

exhibit unanimous breeding seasons.

Incubation. — Both parents incubate, sitting with the feet over

the egg or eggs in the manner of the Gannet. It was not possible

to time the length of the shifts. The birds remain tenaciously on

the nest when approached, and often stand their ground until

pushed away from it. Unattended eggs are : seldom seen, though

NESTING HABITS OF REPRESENTATIVE TROPICAL SEA BIRDS 225

occasionally on very hot days the adult stands by the nest on the

sunward side, instead of sitting- normally. The incubation period

was timed to within twelve hours in six cases. It lasted for

between 40 and 43 days. In the cases where there are two eggs

the birds usually begin sitting soon after the appearance of the

first, and stop as soon as it hatches. The second chick therefore

seldom emerges. In the few instances where it was known to do

so it did not appear until three to four days after the first youngster,

and died within a week. It is probable that its late start resulted

in its getting a disproportionately small share of the food available.

Chapman (1908 : 141), who investigated a large colony in the

Bahamas, suggests that a high proportion of the second eggs are

infertile, but this did not appear to be the case on Christmas Island.

Feeding of Young. — The young are fed by partial regurgita-

tion. The parent brings the food up into its gullet and the chick

puts its head into the adult’s open beak to take it. For the first

few weeks the material passed over is well digested and almost

formless. Later it consists of whole fish, barely affected by the

adult’s gastric juices. By the twelfth week the fish passed over

may be as long as 9 to 11 inches. The adult feeds largely on flying

fish, on Christmas Island most of the specimens examined were

Cypsilurus bahiensis (Ranz.), and to an appreciably smaller extent

on squids. No other material was identified with certainty in eleven

stomachs examined.

Fledging. — The chick emerges naked and with its eyes closed.

The eyes open about the third day, and by the eighth the nestling

is thickly covered with a fine, white, pre-plumule down. The

earliest contour feathers appear through the skin at about the

beginning of the fifth week, in the form of two plaques in the

scapular region. By the middle of the sixth week the most ad-

vanced of these are approximately 35 to 40 mm. long, and the re-

miges and rectrices, which emerge about the same time, are both

approximately 25 mm. The secondaries project beyond the down on

the wing during the eighth week, and by the beginning of the ninth

the scapular patches have united in the midline, and the rectrices

are sufficiently developed to form a good, strong fan. By this time

the down is growing thin behind the eyes and over the breast. By

the twelfth week it survives only on the head, neck, thighs, flanks

and, in fragments, among the secondaries. The remaining down

disappears during the next two weeks, the last to go usually being*

a small tuft on the crown of the head, like the lock of hair by which

the Irvingites hoped to be lifted to heaven. -By the fourteenth to

fifteenth week the young bird is practically full-grown and capable

of a limited flight. At this point it makes occasional experimental

excursions, gliding back to its nest to wait, to be fed at the end

of them. During the next two weeks these flights become longer

and more frequent, until ultimately the young bird is away for so

long that the adults lose interest in the site. Thus the young

Brown Booby, like the young Gannet, may be said to abandon its

parents, rather than to be abandoned by them.

226 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

Four chicks were measured at intervals of seven days up to

about the fifteenth week. The figures obtained were all broadly

similar, except that the difference of size due to sex became ap-

parent between the fifth and seventh weeks. The figures obtained

from one of these, a young male, are given below:

Sula sula rubripes (Gould) Redfooted Booby

The Redfooted Booby occurs on both Christmas Island and the

Cocos-Keeling Islands. In both places it appears to be strictly

resident, but it may be met with at distances of nearly 300 miles

from the land. The population on Christmas Island in 1940 was

about 4,500-6,000 breeding pairs. On the Cocos-Keeling Islands

the birds are confined to North Keeling, where in 1941 there were

about 3,500-4,000 pairs.

Situation. — On Christmas Island this bird occurs mostly on the

north and east coasts. Unlike the preceding species it spreads

widely over the shore terrace, and it may even roost in trees on the

lower slopes of the inland cliff. The nests are invariably placed in

trees. In the neighbourhood of the beaches and above the sea cliff

'it usually makes use of Tournefortia trees, building at a height of

15 to 25 ft. from the ground. A little further inland it often nests

in much larger trees, sometimes sharing them with colonies of the

Christmas Island Frigate-bird. In this situation the trees chosen

are usually Gyrocarpus americanus and Terminalia catappa, and

the nests 50 to 80 feet above the ground. On North Keeling the

mests are mostly in Tournefortia trees overlooking the lagoon, and

at a height of 15 to 25 feet.

Nest. — On both islands the nest is an untidy platform, about

12 to 15 inches across, of dried twigs, sparsely covered with dead

leaves. The central depression is usually less than two inches

deep. The whole structure is carelessly built and loosely knit, and

begins to disintegrate before the egg hatches. Frequently it is

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate III

Chick of the Red-footed Booby, aged about 42 days

Photos C. A. Gibson-Hill

Chick of the Least Frigate-bird, aged about 20 days, with an adult male.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate IV

Chick of the Christmas Island Frigate-bird, aged about 55 days.

Photos

C. A. Gibson-Hill

Male Least Frigate-bird, with pouch distended.

NESTING HABITS OF REPRESENTATIVE TROPICAL SEA BIRDS 227

represented by only a few sticks by the time that the chick is fully

fledged.

Eggs. — On both islands this bird lays only one egg to a clutch.

The eggs are similar in shape and colour to those of the Brown

Booby. Ten examples measured on Christmas Island ranged from

56 to 59 mm. in length, and 36 to 40 mm. in breadth. Ten on North

Keeling, of which five were taken, ranged from 56 to 62 mm. in

length, and 37.5 to 40 mm. in breadth; average 58.81X38.3 mm.

Breeding Season. — Unlike the Brown Booby this bird has a

limited and definite breeding season on both islands. On Christmas

Island nests are built from the middle of April to the beginning of

June, and the eggs mostly laid from the last week of May to the

end of June. The majority of the young birds start to fly in October

and November. On North Keeling there were no signs of repro-

ductive activity in January; in July most of the pairs had nests

containing well incubated eggs or young birds, placing the egg-

laying period from the beginning of April to early June.

Incubation. — Both parents incubate, and seldom leave the egg

unattended voluntarily. The incubation period was timed to within

48 hours in five cases. It lasted for 39-42 (zfzi) days from the

appearance of the egg. Campbell (1901), writing of birds off the

Australian Coast, gives 45 days.

Feeding of Young. — The feeding of the young is very similar

to that in the Brown Booby, except that it was most noticeable

that parents returning to the colony before they were ready to

regurgitate would perch on a neighbouring branch six to ten feet

from the nest. The diet of the adults, and therefore of the chick,

is the same as in the Brown Booby, except that these birds take

a much higher proportion of squids. Fifteen stomachs were

examined on Christmas and the Cocos-Keeling Islands and only

five of them contained the remains of freshly digested fish. In all

cases the remaining substances were apparently cephalopods.

Fledging. — Post-oval development is broadly similar to that in

the Brown Booby, but rather slower in the initial stages. A further

small difference would seem to be that the scapular feathers appear

later, and also grow more slowly at first. The young bird often

adopts a peculiar posture on the nest from quite an early age, lying

flat on its belly with its neck stretched out, and its head and bill

projecting over the edge. Juveniles can sometimes be seen

balancing on branches in a similar position. Four chicks were

measured at intervals of seven days from within one or two days of

hatching, and a further eight from the fifth to seventh weeks on-

wards. The figures obtained displayed no marked differences. One

of the longer series is given below: all measurements are in mm.

This bird was near the nest site on the 114th day, but it was not

identified subsequently. Two birds were seen as late as their

seventeenth and nineteenth weeks, but in no case was it possible

to catch one for examination after the sixteenth week. The chicks

were only marked with rings of coloured string, and it is of course

possible that these were lost soon after they began to fly.

228 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

This bird occurs only on Christmas Island, where it is accom-

panied by the typical race of the Lesser Frigate-bird, Fregata

minor minor (Gmel.). Two Frigate-birds also occur on North

Keeling, races of F. minor and of the Least Frigate-bird, Fregata

ariel (G. R. Grey), the sub-specific designation of which has not

yet been determined. In 1940 there were about 1,000 to 1,500

breeding pairs of F. andrewsi and 2,000 to 3,000 pairs of F\ m.

minor on Christmas Island. No previous field notes appear to have

been made on F. andrewsi, other than those given in the short ac-

count by Andrews (1900 : 42-4).

Situation. — The distribution of F. andrewsi on Christmas Island

follows that of the Redfooted Booby. It is most plentiful on the

north coast and the northern portion of the east coast. It is re-

latively scarce on the south and west side of the island, where to

a large extent its place is taken by the Lesser Frigate-bird. It

roosts and breeds almost entirely in the tall trees on the outer

portion of the shore terrace. It seldom penetrates further inland,

and it is rarely seen over the plateau. The greater number of the

nests are in Terminalia catappa Linn. It also breeds to a lesser

extent in a species of Grewia and, more rarely, Gyrocarpus ameri-

canus auctt. The birds are gregarious and one usually finds bet-

ween three and ten pairs close together in the same tree. Fre-

quently a site is used year after year, and the new nest built on

the guano-cemented remains of the old one.

Nest. — The finished nest is an untidy, flat platform of dead

sticks and pieces of dried creeper, 15 to 20 inches across, with a

shallow central depression. The construction is loose and careless,

and often the fresh material is represented by less than a dozen

sticks by the time that the chick is fully fledged. The material is

obtained by the birds picking dead twigs and leaves from the trees

as they glide or hover over them. The urge to do this appears to

be deeply rooted in the bird’s behaviour pattern, and one often saw

small groups of juveniles following each other over a tree, and

attempting to remove a particular leaf as they passed. It seems

NESTING HABITS OF REPRESENTATIVE TROPICAL SEA BIRDS 229

probable that work on the nest is begun by the male before the

oirds have paired. As, however, these pieces are easy to move, the

additions are oiten stolen by neighbouring birds as soon as it leaves

the site. After the birds have paired the male remains for long

periods on the nest, which it guards, and the female brings back

occasional sticks when returning to it.

Eggs. — The Christmas Island Frigate-bird lays only one egg,

and it would appear that if it is destroyed it is not replaced. It is

similar in shape and colour to those of the other members of the

genus. No examples were measured. Stuart Baker (1929 : 296)

gives a fuller description, presumably based on specimens collected

by Andrews in 1908^

Breeding Season. — This bird has a fairly definite breeding

season. On Christmas Island courtship, among the more precocious

birds, begins at the end of January, and nest building during the

following month or early in March. Eggs are laid between the end

of April and the beginning of June. The majority of the nests

contain a downy chick by the middle of July. The oldest of these

start to fly in October, and the remainder in November and early

December.

Incubation. — The male bird does the greater part of the incuba-

ting, but the female also broods to an extent which shows consider-

able individual variation. In two nests which I observed the female

was present more often than the male. During the first two to

three weeks of incubation the male often sits with his gular pouch

fully distended. When the female arrives to relieve him there may

be a considerable display of bill clopping and mutual preening.

Later the pouch begins to atrophy, and by the time that the egg

hatch it is no longer inflated, and is usually represented externally

by only a thick wattlelike dewlap. Incubation was not timed in its

entirety, but the period is certainly over 40 days.

Feeding of Young,. — For the first few weeks the young chick

is guarded carefully. If left unattended for any length of time birds

from the neighbouring nests may attempt to dispose of it. Initially

the guarding is done mostly by the male, while the female brings

the greater part of the food. As in the boobies this is carried in the

crop and regurgitated into the gullet when suitably digested. The

young bird puts its bill and head into the parent’s bill to take it.

. The adults take some time to arrive at a state in which they are

willing or able to bring the food up. They could sometimes be

seen sitting on a branch near the nest, gulping ineffectually at

1 This is only a presumption. Andrews does not appear to have collected

any eggs, which are extremely difficult to reach, during his first visit to the

island. On the other hand, Stuart Baker’s notes on nidification, quoted below,

are so inaccurate that he may have confused this species with another from a

different island.

‘The Christmas Island Frigate-bird breeds in large- colonies, making a

rough nest of sticks and weeds, which it places either actually on the ground,

or within a few inches of it in the scrubby growth on the shores above high-

water mark. The eggs number one or two and are all pure white, in shape

like those of the Gannet but without any chalky covering and decidedly more

fragile. They measure about 70.4x50.4 mm. but a larger series than mine

would probably give much smaller measurements.’

230 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

intervals, for over an hour. When ready they move to the nest,

and are immediately attacked by the chick, which calls clamorously,'

with a rather ratlike squeak, throughout its wait.

When the chick is very hungry it will pester the bird sitting by

it as though it had brought food. Probably partly as a result of

this the male becomes increasingly less attentive as the youngster

grows older. At first he spends some time sitting near the nest,

but out of reach of the chick. Later his periods even near the nest

decrease in length, until finally towards the end of the fledging

period he appears only as an occasional visitor. The female, on

the other hand, continues to bring food regularly, and though she

is assisted to some extent by the male when he is not guarding the

chick, she does the greater part of the work.

Fledging. — The chick emerges naked, but rapidly develops a

thick covering of long, fine, pre-plumule down. Initially this is

white, but later it is replaced by a rather coarser plumule down

which is a pale smoky grey on the dorsal surface, the back of the

neck and the sides of the breast. The earliest contour feathers, in

the form of two scapular plaques, begin to thrust through the skin at

the same time as the down, and thus the chick never has a complete

covering of down only, as in the young boobies. Also in the latter

birds the earliest remiges and the rectrices appear with the mantle

feathers, or may even begin to emerge before them. Here there

is a long interval between the two groups. The scapular feathers

grow rapidly and the patches extend, so that by the fifth week

there are two parallel bars of dark feathers down the back and a

cluster at each shoulder. The greater coverts of the outer second-

aries appear during the sixth week, and those of the inner primaries

during the seventh. It is interesting to note again that these

coverts long precede the appearance of the remiges themselves,

and are about 75 mm. in length before the latter pierce the skin.

From this period onwards, while the greater development of the

remiges is taking place, the chick normally rests with its wings

drooping so that the terminal portion is supported on the nest.

During the twelfth week the lesser coverts along the anterior

margin of the wing appear at the wrist, and start to work inwards,,

completing their course by the sixteenth week. At the thirteenth

or fourteenth week the chick still has the belly, chest, rump and

greater part of the body of the wings covered with down. The

saddle-shaped area of olive-brown feathers, which appeared first

in the scapular region, has spread to cover the whole of the back

and is advancing towards the nape of the neck. During the next

two weeks feathers appear on the sides of the breast and begin to

work medially towards the midline. By the twentieth week down

remains, in an appreciable amount, only on the lower breast and

belly, though there is still some present among the wing coverts.

At this stage the wing and tail measurements of the chick are only

10-15% less than those of an adult of the same sex, while the bony

structure as represented by the tarsus and skull, is virtually full-

grown. The young bird, however, though there is probably little

of the nest left, is reluctant to fly, and may not do so until as late

as the twenty-second or even twenty-third week. The young of

NESTING HABITS OF REPRESENTATIVE TROPICAL SEA BIRDS 231

F. andrewsi do not therefore take to the air voluntarily until their

wings and tail are nearly complete. Even then the parents con-

tinue to feed them for several weeks.

Growth measurements at intervals of seven days were begun on

three chicks when they were approximately 30, 40 and 45 days old,

but it was only possible to follow the youngest of these to the point

at which the bird left the nest. The measurements obtained are

given in mm. below.

The Redtailed Tropic-bird occurs on both Christmas Island and

the Cocos-Keeling Islands. It is fairly plentiful on the former,

and in 1940 there were about 400 to 600 breeding pairs. It is^

relatively scarce on the Cocos-Keeling Islands, and was only seen

at fairly wide intervals : one nest was found, on Horsburgh Island.

On Christmas Island at least the adult birds are apparently re-

sident, and there is no appreciable seasonal variation in their

numbers. They may, however, be met with anywhere over the

open sea between the two islands, and as far north as Java Head.

On Christmas Island they fly fairly freely over the land, though

they are not seen above the central plateau as often as P. lepturus

julvus Brandt. The young birds go out to sea when they leave their

nests and no examples in immature plumage were seen in the

vicinity of the island.

Situation. — On Christmas Island nests were found only on ledges

on the steep portions of the inland cliff, or on the crest of the cliff

itself, at heights of 200 to nearly 600 ft. above sea level. Some of

these nests were set fairly deeply in small crannies into which the

birds could barely penetrate. Others were on more open ledges,

but in these cases they were usually under the shelter of a bush or

an overhanging rock. The single nest on the main atoll of the

Qocos-Keeling Islands was on the ground, under the shelter of a

bush, among coconut palms about 50 yards from the sea.

Nest. — The single egg is deposited in a slight depression in the

earth. There is usually no lining. The birds appear to make no

232 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

attempt to gather twigs or leaves, but if there are a few pieces lying

on the ledge itself they may be arranged to form a bed tor the egg.

Eggs. — Only one egg is laid to a clutch. It has a thick shell,

with a fine matt surface. Five examples taken on Christmas Island

ranged from 68 to 71 mm. in length, and 47.5 to 50 mm. in breadth.

The Cocos-Keeling egg measures 63.5 by 44.5 mm. The colour is

variable. It may be a very pale terre verte, with a few fine purplish

black smudges, like smuts, mostly at the broader end, or pink,

covered thickly or thinly with dark purplish horn or purplish black

streaks and specks. Stuart Baker (1929: 293) quotes two eggs

in his collection ‘from an Island near Mauritius’, the typical race,

as 64.6x49.3 and 70.8x49.3 mm.

Breeding Season. — The breeding season on Christmas Island is

definite but extended. The majority of the eggs are laid in May

and June, with a few stragglers carrying on until the first half of

September. Most of the nests contained downy chicks in July, and

juveniles in full speckled plumage in September. The majority of

the young leave the nests during October. The single egg from

the Cocos-Keeling Islands was taken on 20 September.

Incubation. — There is no doubt that both parents incubate, but

it was unfortunately not possible to time the length of the shifts.

The egg is not normally left unattended for long. The birds not

sitting spend a great part of the afternoon flying overhead in the

neighbourhood of the nests, calling to their mates each time that

they pass. Sometimes the latter answer, but frequently the sitting

birds spend the greater part of the time asleep. The full incubation

period was not recorded, owing to the difficulty of locating a nest

site before the appearance of the egg, but in one case it was over

36 days, and in another over 44 days. Gross (1912) gives 28 days

for the allied P. lepturus catesbyi Brandt in the Bermudas ; Plath

(1912: 558) obtained the same figure for catesbyi from an egg

hatched in an incubator.

Feeding of Young. — The young chick is fed by regurgitation,

the adult inserting the tip, and later almost the whole, of its bill

into the chick’s gullet to do so. For the first three to four weeks

the parents visit the young bird frequently, and at all times of the

day. Food given at this stage is well digested and semi-fluid.

Later more solid material is brought, and feeding takes place

largely shortly after sunrise. Judging from the material vomited

by recently fed youngsters their diet consists chiefly of cephalapods,

and only a small proportion of fish fragments (Gibson-Hill, 1947a:

658-61).

Fledging. — The young chick emerges covered with a fine,

white, powder-puff down. This differs from the down in the young

Fregata and Sula in being, age, for age, longer and softer, and pre-

pennate not pre-plumule. The first contour feathers start to sprout

in the scapular region at the end of the third week and are followed

soon afterwards by the outer primaries. The next feathers to appear

are the rectrices, and then the secondaries and greater coverts, all

of which are visible by the fifth week. It is interesting to note that

in contrast to Fregata the remiges appear before their coverts, and

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate V

Young chick of the Red-tailed Tropic-bird, aged about 15 days with an adult bird.

Photos C. A. Gibson-Hill

Chick of the Red-tailed Tropic-bird, aged about 60 days.

.

2 WESTING HABITS OF REPRESENTATIVE TROPICAL SEA BIRDS 233

the outer primaries before the inner , ones. From the beginning of

the sixth week the coverts spread along the wing, ana by about

the middle of the ninth week the young bird is almost entirely

feathered on its upper surface. Down, however, still remains on

the belly, flanks, axillary regions and along the anterior edge of

the wing. Within the next two weeks, that is by about the

eleventh week, most of the remaining down disappears, except

for fragments among the wing coverts and the feathers of the

lower breast, belly and flanks. In the latter situation it is not

•conspicuous, but may remain for several weeks. The young bird

is now virtually in the complete immature plumage, but it does

not usually leave the nest for a further three to four weeks or

•even longer.

Unlike Fregata and Sula the young bird is abandoned by its

parents. Three chicks that I was watching were certainly not

visited in the last 8 to 12 days before they themselves disappeared

from the nest. It would seem that the chicks are usually about

1 2 weeks old when the parents leave them, and 13 to 14 weeks

when they themselves fly for the first time. Juvenile birds move out

to sea as soon as they leave their nest, and remain there until

mature. There was a fairly large colony within a mile of the

bungalow in which I lived for over two years, and I never once

saw an immature bird in flight over or near the island.

Six chicks were measured at intervals of seven days to within

a week of their leaving their nests. The figures obtained were

broadly similar, and one series is given below: all measurements

are in mm.

An analysis of these figures shows that the bill grows fairly rapidly

during the first 4 or 5 weeks, and then slows down as the feathers

begin to appear. By between the seventh and eighth week the

ratio, between the gape and culmen is within 10% of the adult

figure. This development results in an interesting change in the

shape of the bill, which initially is rather like a squat version of

that of the Gullbilled Tern. The only significant difference between

this race and the typical race P.r. rubricauda is in the greater

length of the exposed culmen in the latter. Fourteen adults of

P.r. westralis from Christmas Island have a range of 58 to 65 mm.

3

234

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

while^ according to Mathews (see Chasen, 1933 : 77) examples of

P.r. rubricauda range from 76 to 80 mm. Since, apparently,,

development of the bill in front of the nostril virtually ceases when

feathering gets well under way, it might be said that the difference

between the two races is really determined either by the point in

time at which feathering starts, or the rate of the chick’s growth

before it begins. It could therefore be merely due to the diet,,

in that if the chick were to grow slowly owing to a shortage of

food for the first 4 or 5 weeks, its culmen would be shorter when

growth in that region stopped than if it had been fed lavishly.

References

Andrews, C. W. (1900). ‘A Monograph of Christmas Island (Indian Ocean)’.

London.

Bent, A. C. (1921). ‘Life Histories of North American Gulls and Terns’,

Bull., U. S. Nat. Mus., 113 : 1-345.

Bent, A. C. (1922). ‘Life Histories of North American Petrels and Pelicans

and their Allies’. Bull., U. S. Nat. Mus., 121: 1-343.

Campbell, A. J. (1901). ‘Nests and Eggs of Australian Birds. . . . . . r

2 vols. Sheffield (Not seen ; quoted from Bent, 1922 : 212).

Chapman, F. M. (1908). ‘A contribution to the life histories of the Booby

(Sula leucogastra ) and Man-o’-War Bird ( Fregata aquila)\ papers from the

Tortugas Laboratory of Carnegie Inst., 2 : 139-151.

Chasen, F. N. (1933). ‘Notes’ on the Birds oL Christmas Island, Indian

Ocean’, Bull. Raff. Mus., 8 : 55-87.

Gibson-Hill, C. A. (1947a). ‘The Normal Food of Tropic-birds ( Phaethon

spp.)’, Ibis, 89 : 658-661.

Gibson-Hill, C. A. (1947&). ‘Field Notes on the Birds of Christmas Island,

(Indian Ocean)’. Bull. Raff, i. Mus., 18: 87-165.

Gibson-Hill, C. A. (1948). ‘The Island of l^orth Keeling.’ Journal,

Malay Branch R. A. S., 21 (1) : 68-103.

Gibson-Hill, C. A. (1949). ‘The Birds of the Cocos-Keeling Islands (Indian

Ocean) ’, Ibis, 91 : 221-243.

Gross, Dr. A. O. (1912). ‘Observations on ' the Yellowbilled Tropic-bird

/ Phaethon americanus Grant) at the Bermuda Islands’, Auk, 29 : 49-71.*

Moreau, R. E. (1931). ‘Some Birds on a Voyage’, Ibi$, (13) 1 : 778-781.

Murphy, Dr.R. C. (1936). ‘Oceanic Birds of South America’, New York.

Plath, K. (1914). ‘With the Tropic-birds in Bermuda’, Ibis, (10) 2: 552-559..

Stuart Baker, E. C. (1929). ‘Fauna of British India, Birds’, 2nd Edition,

Vol. 6, London.

Van Bemmel, A. C. W. & Hoogerwerf, A. (1940). ‘The Birds of Goenoeng

Api.’ Treubia, 17 (5): 421-472.

Vesey-Fitzgerald, D. (1941). ‘Further Contributions to the Ornithology of

the Seychells Islands’, Ibis, (14) 5: 518-531.

Watson, J. B. (1908). ‘The Behaviour of Noddy and Sooty Terns’, papers

from the Tortugas Laboratory of Carnegie Inst. 2 : 187-225.

Wood-Jones, ,F. (1912). ‘Coral and Atolls’, London.

A NOTE ON THE MEASUREMENTS

The measurements given at the ends of the sections on fledging in this paper

are in each case those of a single individual chick. I am not satisfied that this

provides sufficient information, and I would have preferred to have been able

to list all the measurements taken. Unfortunately this is not possible now.

All my field notes, ! except for two notebooks, were left hidden in the Raffles

Museum when I went into internment in February 194?. They were discovered

and removed during the occupation. None of the material has come to light

since the end of the war, ’except for the draft of an earlier paper on the birds

of Christmas Island (1947b), the selected data quoted in this paper, and the

majority:: of the collected specimens. Accordingly this paper, like my others on

the fauna of, these two islands, has been written with only a portion of the

original material in front of me, and I now have little data beyond that contain-

ed in it. • - - '

NESTING HABITS OF REPRESENTATIVE TROPICAL SEA BIRDS 235

It is, of course, also doubtful if any detailed series of measurements can

be regarded as representative, no matter how many birds are used. Chicks of

the sea birds often vomit when they are being examined, and accordingly those

which are measured regularly at short intervals receive rather less food than

those that are never molested. The total effect is not likely to be considerable,

but I think that if a series of such chicks were measured once only, at a known

number of days after hatching, they would be found to be about 5%. larger than

in the instances quoted. While I was on the Cocos-Keeling Islands I gave

young chicks of Demigretta s. sacra and the frigate-birds to my boatman to

feed and bring up in the compound of his house. I am sure that he did not

underfeed them intentionally, but there is no doubt that they completed their

feathering while their bony measurements were still between 15 and 10% below

that of an average free-flying juvenile. It is possible that this factor, relative

shortage of food, was responsible for the apparent slowing down of develop-

ment recorded in the two chicks of Gygis alba monte during their fourth and

fifth weeks. The two birds were developing simultaneously, and bad weather

during this period may have reduced the fishing activities of their parents.

Unfortunately I no longer have either my weather records or the dates to show

exactly when the measurements were taken.

A NOTE ON THE PLATES

1. A Noddy chick, aged about 23 days, on the nest site, with one of its

parents standing by it. By this stage the down is represented only by a few

fluffy fragments adhering to the feathers of the belly, wing coverts and gular

area. (Christmas Island.)

2. A chick of the White Tern, aged about 35 days. (Horsburgh Island,

Cocos-Keeling Islands.)

3. A chick of the Brown Booby, aged about 4 days, on its jiest. (Christmas

Island.)

4. A chick of the Brown Booby, about 65 days old. The down is beginning

to disappear from the forehead and behind the eyes, and is growing thin at

the sides of the breast. (Christmas Island.)

5. A chick of the Redfooted Booby, aged about 42 days, with one of its

parents. The young bird is bowing down in agitation, as it usually does when

the nest site is approached. The pose is characteristic of the species, and does

not occur in the ground-nesting Brown Booby.

6. A young chick of the Least Frigate-bird, with the male parent perched

by it: probable age about 20 days. The picture shows the shape and early

development of the patch of mantle feathers. (North Keeling.)

7. A chick of the Christmas Island Frigate-bird, about 55 days old. The

picture shows the great development of the mantle feathers, and the

characteristic resting posture at this age, with the wing drooping and its

terminal portion resting on the nest.

8. Adult male of the Least Frigate-bird sitting on the nest site with its

gular pouch fully distended. (North Keeling.)

9. A young chick of the Redtailed Tropic-bird, with one of its parents.

The chick is still in the powder-puff down stage, and about 15 days olcf

(Christmas Island.) ;

10. The same chick, aged about 60 days.

Summary

A short account is given of the nesting’ habits of seven repre-

sentative tropical sea and coastal birds, covering the genera Anous,

Gygis , Demigretta, Sula, Fregata and Phaetlion, as observed on

Christmas Island and the Cocos-Keeling Islands (both in the east-

ern Indian Ocean). The data are arranged in sections devoted to

the situation of the nest, nature of the -fieSf, eggs, breeding season,

incubation period, feeding of the young, and fledging.; Reference

is made to relevant data from other tropical islands where they

appeared to be of interest in relation to the original observations

recorded here.

• v . . • ■ >ri ■ 1 1

!

THE INMAN CADDIS FLIES ( TR1 CHOP TER A) .

BY

The late Martin E. Mosely, f.r.e.s., f.z.s.

Part IX

{With 14 plates).

( Continued from page .781 of Volume xlii, No. 4, 1941).

SERICO STOMATID A:E McLachlan. ( Continued .).

Lepidostomatinae Ulmer {Continued.).

[My colleague, Martin E. Mosely died in August, 1948, at the

age of 71, and having been associated with him in his work for a

long time, I have been asked to prepare for press his unpublished

manuscripts. His work on the Indian Caddis Flies was completed

to the end of the Sericostomatidae some years ago, but the

publication was delayed by the war and lack of funds. There is

now little likelihood of the series being continued for a long time,

but the publication to the end of the Sericostomatidae completes

the suborder Inaequipalpia, and thus rounds off the work already

done, and with the eight parts already issued provides a workable

text book to part of the Indian Caddis Flies.

D. E. Kimmins,

Dept, of Entomology , British Museum, Nat. Hist.]

Adinarthrurn gen. n.

Spurs, 2, 4, 4. In the d , basal joint of the antenna rather

short and stout, with a single process towards the base. Maxillary

palpi two-jointed, joints varying in proportion in the species.

Wings clothed with hairs and scales; in the anterior, post-costal

fold about half the length of the wing, with only two cells between

it and the lower margin of the wing. Penis sheaths long. Inferior

appendages apparently two-jointed, terminal joint short, simple in

most species but furcate in A. iamha ; the upright branch at the

base of the appendage very slender.

Genotype. — A. hurseum sp. n.

Adinarthrurn iamba sp. n. Figs. 1-7.

Insect brown; antenna with basal joint not very long, armed

with a single process near the base; the process is large, broad

at the base and hooked; it is directed inwards and upwards, taper-

ing to an acute claw; above the process, the joint is somewhat

ioiirn., H<nu buy Nat. Hist. Soc«

Plate l

Figs. 1-7. Adinarthrum iamba sp. n. 1, head from side. 2, g wings.

3, c? genitalia, lateral. 4, £ genitalia, dorsal. 5, $ ninth segm( nt and inferior

appendages, ventral. 6, $ wings. 7, ^ genitalia, ventral.

journ., Bombay Nat, Hist, Soc,

Pt ate II

Figs. 8-13. Adinarthrum kurseum sp.n. rf. 8, head from side. 9, anterior

tibia of type. 10, wings. 11, genitalia, lateral. 12, genitalia, dorsal. 13, penis

and sheaths, dorsal.

THE INDIAN CADDIS FLIES ( TRICHOPTERA )

237

hollowed on its inner surface; the vertex of the head is raised in a

triangular prominence between the bases of the antennae; maxillary

palpi two-jointed, membranous, clothed with the usual thickened

hairs, basal joint long, terminal joint short; labial palpi with the

first and second joints approximately equal and scarcely half the

length of the third; wings clothed with hairs and scales, anterior

with no median groove, post-costal fold terminating in a rather

small cell; discoidal cell long and narrow; fork No. 1 sessile but

not overlapping the discoidal cell; in the posterior wing, fork No. 1

with no median groove, post-costal fold terminating in a rather

further inwards than the basal angle of the discoidal cell.

Genitalia <$-. — Ninth tergite produced in a large triangle,

beyond which is a dorsal plate consisting of a pair of broad plates

set on edge and separated by a narrow excision; these plates, from

the side, are very deep, apical margins truncate, slightly excised

and with small, rounded processes arising from the lower margin,

somewhat outstanding, so that they are visible from above; penis

broad, curving downwards with a pair of short sheaths set very

far back towards its base; inferior appendages two-jointed, basal

joint very stout and curved, with a short, upwardly and distallv

directed branch arising from its upper margin towards the base;

terminal joint short and broad, bifurcate, upper fork broader than

the lower and superimposed above it; from above, the lower fork

bears a rounded excision on its inner margin, leaving a projecting

spur.

Length of the anterior wing 6 mm., 9 ^75 mm.

Length of the basal joint of the antenna S 0-88 mm.

N.-E. Burma: Kambaiti. 6,800-7,000 ft., 4, 6, 10, 30. iv,

C, 11, 12. v. 1934, B. Malaise.

Type S in the collection of the Stockholm Museum. Para-

types S and 9 in the Stockholm and the British Museum

collections.

Figures of the 9 genitalia and wings appear in this description

but it must be stated that the association of the sexes is based

merely on the relative numbers of the examples of the two sexes

collected on a particular day in a particular locality.

Adinarthrum kurseum sp. n. Figs. 8-13.

General appearance dark brown; in the male, basal joint of

the antenna rather short, with a stout basal projection terminating

in a transparent finger, bent at right angles, with an obliquely

truncate apex; beyond this distally, the margin is first widely

excised and then produced in a triangular projection; second joint

about half the length of the third, remaining joints broken away

I in the type; maxillary palpi two-jointed, basal joint rather more

than twice the length of the terminal joint, both densely covered

with thickened hairs; labial palpi with the second joint longer

than the first and shorter than the third; legs, each fore-tibia in

the type aberrantly notched on its upper surface (normal in the

paratype); spurs 2, 4, 4; anterior wing clothed with hairs and scales,

a fold running parallel with the post-costa, discoidal cell long and

238 JOURNAL ; BOMBAY NATURAL HIST ... SOCIETY , Vol 48

narrow; in the posterior wing, fork no. 1 with a foot-stalk, diseoidal

cell stout and triangular; in the paratype, from , the Khasia Hills,

the diseoidal cell is apparently open.

Genitalia $ — rThe ninth dorsal segment is produced in a broad

triangle, beyond which, is a dorsal plate divided by a narrow

excision at its produced centre, and with the outer angles ; each

produced in a pair of short, blunt forks; the form of these outer

angles appears to be? variable and in the paratype, the outer angles

are produced in single processes ; penis slender and downcurved,

sheaths symmetrically crossing at their apices; inferior appendages

two-jointed and branched; from above and beneath, the appendages

are caliper-shaped, apex of the basal joint projecting on the inner

side to make a small, rounded branch; seen from the side, there

is a slender, upwardly directed branch arising from towards the

base on the Upper margin.

Length of the anterior wring S 7-5 mm.

Length of the basal joint of the .6 antenna 1*3 mm.

Sikkim: Kurseong, 5,000 ft., 21. iv. 1922, Fletcher coll. (Type)

Assam: Khasi Hills, McLaehlan coll.

Type and paratype d d in the collection of the British

Museum.

Adinarthrum moulmina sp. n. Figs. 14-19.

Insect light brown. In the d, basal joint of the antenna

comparatively short, very stout, basal branch stout with a terminal,

semi-transparent plate; just beyond its centre, the inner-upper

margin is strongly dilated to form a triangular projection, lower

margin straight; maxillary palpi two-jointed, basal joint sinuous,

terminal joint long and stout; wings covered with hairs and scales,

costa not folded; post-costal fold slightly longer than half the wing,

terminating in a large cellule and with only one large cellule

between it and the posterior margin, a smaller, narrow cellule

towards the base; diseoidal cell much shorter than its footstalk,

wanting in the posterior wing.

Genitalia d — The apical margin of the ninth segment produced

in a wide triangle; dorsal plate with a pair of short, somewhat

rounded central lobes, separated from wide triangular projections

of the lateral angles by deep, rounded excisions ; penis slender

and down-curved; sheaths long, apices crossing; inferior appendages

branched and two-jointed; a branch arising from the upper, basal

margin, slender, directed upwards, slightly curved; basal joint of

the appendage long and slender from the side, terminal joint very

short.

Length of the anterior wing ^ about 7 mm. (incomplete)

Length of the basal joint of the antenna 1-2 mm.

Tenasserim: Sukli, 75 km. E. of Moulmein, 600 m., 27-31.

x. 1934, K. Malaise (Type).

S. Shan States: Koad 40 km. E. of Taunggyi, 25. ix — 13. x.

1934, c B. Malaise.

Assam: Khasi Hills, McLaehlan collection.

Type in the collection of the Stockholm Museum. Paratypes

in the British Miuseum collection.

jouiii., Bombay Nat, Hist. tfoc.

Plate III

Figs. 14-19. Adinarthrum moulmina sp.n. <$. 14, base of antenna from

side. 15, maxillary palpus, lateral. 16, wings. 17, genitalia, lateral. 18, geni-

talia, dorsal. 19, penis and sheaths, dorsal.

ioum,, Bombay 2M, Mist loes

Plate IV

Figs. 20-24. Adinarthrum tciunggya sp.n. A • 20, base of antenna from

side. 21, anterior wing. 22, genitalia, lateral. 23, genitalia, dorsal. 24, penis

and sheaths, dorsal.

iotnu., Bombay Nat, Hist. S06.

Plate V

journ,, Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate VI

Figs. 32-35. Agoerodes differens sp.n. <$. 32, wings. 33, genitalia, lateral.

34, genitalia, dorsal. 35, penis and sheaths, dorsal.

THE INDIAN, CADDIS FLIES (TRICH OPT ERA) 239

Adinarthrum taunggya sp. n. Pigs. 20-24.

Insect dark reddish-brown. In the A.,. basal joint of the

.antenna comparatively short, dilated towards . the apex,, basal

branch short, stout, with a terminal, semi-transparent plate; wings

covered with hairs and scales; 'in anterior, costa not folded; post-

costal fold about half the length of the wing, terminating in a

.small cellule and with two long, narrow cellules between it and

the posterior margin; discoidal cell long, narrow, about as long

■or slightly longer than its footstalk.

Genitalia 6 — Apical margin of the ninth tergite strongly

produced; dorsal plate with the centre produced in a triangle' which

is narrowly excised at its apex, lateral angles long and slender

from the side, longer than the central triangle,; penis strongly

.arched; sheaths slender and parallel; inferior appendages branched

and two-jointed, basal branch, which arises from the upper basal

margin, slender and directed upward; basal joint long, terminal

joint very short.

Length of the anterior wing rf 7 mm.

Length of the basal joint, of the antenna 1*2 mm.

S. Shan States: Load 40 km. E. of Taunggyi, 18. x. 1934,

E. Malaise.

Type d in the collection of the Stockholm Museum. This

species is very closely related to A. moulmina.

Agoerodes gen. n.

Spurs, 2, 4, 4. In the d , the basal joint of the antenna

varying in length, without processes. Maxillary palpi two-jointed,

Ihe proportions and shape of the joints varying in the species.

Wings clothed with hairs and scales; post-costal fold varying in

length and position; in the anterior, discoidal cell long and narrow,

except in A. sika. Penis-sheaths present* Inferior appendages

furcate at their apices and bearing 6rect branches at their bases.

Genotype- — A. convdlutum sp. n.

This genus is not very satisfactory and will probably be sub-

divided when more knowledge, particularly of the larvae, becomes

available.

Agoerodes convolutum sp. n. Figs. 25-31.

Insect brown; wings covered with hairs and scales, the latter

long and narrow; anterior, discoidal cell very long and narrow;

a groove along the centre of the wing; post-costal fold extending

to the anastomosis; distal post-costal cellule broad, the next much

the largest; the triangular cellule between the two and the post-

eostal fold small; posterior wing, fork No. 1 with a short foot-

stalk; basal joint of the antenna very long, somewhat twisted,

with large bunches of hair at the base and towards the apex;

maxillary palpi two-jointed, basal joint curved, terminal joint rather

less than half the length of the basal.

Genitalia S — -The margin of the ninth dorsal segment strongly

produced at its centre; dorsal plate with the centre produced

240 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

in a pair of processes separated by an excision, outer angles

forming short, curving horns; penis short, sheaths long and slender,

apices crossing in the type; inferior appendages single-jointed

caliper-shaped, three-branched, basal branch very short and in-

conspicuous, directed upwards; upper terminal branch, from the

side, long, slender and cylindrical, longer than the lower which,,

from above and beneath, has an enormously dilated, truncate apex.

Length of the anterior wing 3 6 mm.

Length of the basal joint of the antenna 1*56 mm.

N.-E. Burma: Kambaiti, 7,000 ft., ll-v-1934, B. Malaise.

Type 3 and paratypes 3 in the collection of the Stockholm.

Museum. Paratypes 6 in the collection of the British Museum.

Agoerodes differens sp. n. Figs. 32-35.

Insect small and yellowish; in the 3 basal joint of the antenna

about as long as the width of the head with the oculi; maxillary

palpi two-jointed, basal joint long and broad from in front, terminal

joint very short; anterior wing clothed with hairs and scales, with

a short post-costal fold terminating distally in a broad cell, with

a still larger cell followed by a small narrow cell towards the

base; discoidal cell long and narrow; in the posterior wing, fork

no. 1 has a footstalk.

Genitalia 3- — The margin of the ninth tergite is produced and

triangular; dorsal plate shield-shaped with a deep, narrow excision

at the centre of its apical margin; penis short and down-curved,

concealed from above, with a pair of parallel sheaths nearly as-

long as itself; inferior appendages branched; basal branch arising

from thfe upper margin near the base, directed upward, apex

clavate; apex of the appendage bifurcate, the inner fork from

above, broad and rounded, the outer claw-shaped, dilated and

irregular from the side; from this aspect, there is an angular

projection of the lower margin of the appendage at its base.

Length of the anterior wing 3 5 mm.

N.-E. Burma: Kambaiti, 23-vi-1934, B. Malaise.

Type 3 in the collection of the Stockholm Museum.

Agoerodes fusca sp. n. Figs. 36-42.

Insect brown; wings broad, covered with hairs and scales;

anterior, discoidal cell long and narrow, cellula thyridii wide with

a false and broken nervure towards the distal end; post-costal

fold rather short, apical cellule No. 7 at which it terminates, large;

posterior wing with fork No. 1 sessile; discoidal cell short and

rather broad; basal joint of the antenna short, scarcely longer than

the head with the oculi; maxillary palpi two-jointed, pigmented,

dark fuscous, very stout, terminal joint less than half the length

of the' basal joint.

Genitalia 3— Dorsal plate displaying three pairs of processes,

twx> at the centre of its apical margin, one pair very short and

raised above the lower pair of processes, which are stout and

rather widely separated; the third pair forms the produced outer

angles of the plate and, from above, are slender and outstretched;

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate VII

Figs. 36-42. Agoerodes fuzca sp.n, d*. 36, wings. 37, base of antenna

from above. 38, maxillary palpus from in front. 39, labial palpus, lateral.

4°> genitalia, lateral. 41, genitalia, dorsal. 42, penis and sheaths, dorsal.

Journ,, Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc,

Plate VIII

Figs. 43-47. Agoerodes "malaisei sp.n. <^. 43, base of antenna from side.

44, maxillary and labial palpi, lateral. 45, wings. 46, genitalia, lateral. 47,

genitalia, dorsal.

THE INDIAN CADDIS FLIES ( TRICHOPTERA )

241

penis short; sheaths long and stout from the side, apices acute,

crossing each other in the type ; inferior appendages single-jointed

and three-branched, basal branch blender, directed upwards, second

branch short with a truncate apex, arising towards the apex of

the third branch which is dilated at its apex.

Length of the anterior wing 3 9 mm.

Length of the basal joint of the antenna 1*3 mm.

N.-E. Burma: Kambaiti, 30-iv-1934, R. Malaise.

Type 3 in the collection of the Stockholm Museum. Paratypes

3 in the collections of the Stockholm and the British Museums.

Agoerodes malaisei sp. n. Figs. 43-47.

Insects brown in colour; antenna with the basal joint long, slight-

ly curved towards the apex which is dilated, particularly on its

under surface, where there is a large cluster of stout brown hairs;

there is a large cluster of stout black hairs at the base; maxillary

palpi with the basal joint strongly curved, about twice as long as

the terminal joint; wings with a clothing of hairs and scales;

discoidal cell in both wings long and narrow; anterior with a

fringe of long hairs at the base of the costa and with a longitudinal

groove along the centre of the wing and a long post-costal fold

extending nearly to the apical margin, lined with upright hairs;

three large cellules along the posterior border, the middlje one the

largest, the apical cellule very wide and shallow; all forks sessile;

posterior wing, fork No. 1 with a short foot-stalk; fourth apical

cellule extending not so far inward as the basal angle of the discoidal

cell; one spur of the anterior tibia very small.

Genitalia <3 — Ninth tergite produced in a triangle beyond which

is a large dorsal plate, apical margin strongly produced at its

centre and excised to make two large, triangular projections, the

sides of which are directed downwards so that the plate, as seen

from the side, is rather deep; lateral angles produced in short

processes; penis short, sheaths symmetrically directed tailward,

broad, incurving, narrowing abruptly to acute apices ; inferior

appendages single- jointed, rather broad, bifurcate at their apices*

both forks short, the lower fork wider and shorter than the upper.

Length of the anterior wing 3 5-5 mm.

Length of the basal joint of the 3 antenna 1-70 mm.

N.-E. Burma; Kambaiti, 6,300-7,000 ft., 31-iii. , 7, 30-iv.,

12-vi'-1934, R. Malaise.

Type 3 in the collection of the Stockholm Museum. Paratypes

3 in the collections of the Stockholm and the British Museum.

Agoerodes margula sp. n. Figs. 48-53.

Insects brownish. Description of the 3 : first joint of the antenna

very long, with a membranous area before the apex, where the

joint is very pliable; maxillary palpi membranous, two-jointe.c[ »

basal about twice the length of the terminal joint; wings clothed

with hairs and scales; anterior, with the costal margin bent over

at the extreme base; discoidal cell long and narrow; the post-costal

fold somewhat modified and groove-like, certainly more open than

^42 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

a true fold; it carries a fringe of long hairs directed upward and

terminates in three large apical cellules; posterior wings both

aberrant, with a small Cell enclosing the corneus point below the

discoidal cell; fourth apical cellule extending very slightly further

inward than the basal angle of the discoidal cell.

Genitaiia 8 — Ninth dorsal segment produced at the centre of

its apical margin in a large bifurcate dorsal plate, each fork with

a large rounded excision of its apical margin, leaving a rather stout,

produced, inner angle and a narrow, produced and acute, outer

•angle; immediately beneath the centre of this plate is a pair of

short and, from the side, broad penis-sheaths; penis very short

-and retracted, apex dilated; inferior appendages two-jointed and

branched, first joint rather stout, with the inner margin strongly

•dilated towards the apex, where there are 'two or three very strong

spines, two of which are stout and peg-like, the other much finer;

terminal joint short; a branch arising from the upper margin near

the base is entirely enclosed within the genital capsule and only

visible in a balsam preparation; it has the usual slender stem and

.a somewhat dilated apex ; ventral margin of the segment with a

•broad shallow excision.

Length of the anterior wing 8 8*5 mm.

Length of the basal joint of the S antenna 2-75 mm.

Kashmir: Gulmarg, 8,500 ft., 17-24. vii. 1923, Fletcher collection.

Type d in the collection of the British Museum.

Agoerodes oriental is sp. n. Figs. 54-59.

Insect brown; wings clothed with hairs and scales; in the

anterior the costal margin is slightly folded; radius thickened in

the basal two-thirds; discoidal cell long and narrow; post-costal

fold reaching only to the anastomosis ; only three conspicuous

•cellules in the post-costal area, the middle the largest; the triangular

cellule between this and the distal cellule minute; in the posterior

wing, fork No. 1 sessile; maxillary palpi two-jointed, basal joint

from in front, broad, terminal joint small; basal joint of the antenna

•only slightly longer than the width of the head with the oculi.

Genitalia S — Dorsal plate complex; the centre is produced in

a pair of processes separated from each other by a well defined

excision; these processes are deep, and from the side, the lower

margins are seen to extend downward; on each side of these

processes, from above, is a short, rounded projection of the margin,

while the lateral angles of the plate are produced downwTards in

long branches with bifurcate apices, varying in shape in individuals;

penis short; sheaths long and straight; inferior appendages single-

jointed, four-branched; basal branch short, directed upwards, arising

from the inner basal margin; second and third branches arising

from a stout base, lower branch, from the side, sinuous and nearly

twice as long as the upper; fourth branches arising from the ventral

margins on the inner sides, long, rod-like and diverging.

Length of the anterior wing 8 7 mm.

Length of the basal joint of the antenna 8 1 mm.

N.-E. Burma: Kambaiti, 30-iv-1934, R. Malaise.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate IX

Figs. 48-53. Agoerodes margula sp.n. rf. 48, head, lateral. 49, wings. 50,

genitalia, lateral. 51, ninth segment and dorsal plate, dorsal. 52, ninth seg-

ment, inferior appendages, penis and sheaths, ventral. 53, apex of penis from

behind.

Journ,, Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate X

Figs. 54-59. Agoerodes orientalis sp.n. 54, wings. 55, maxillary and

labial palpi, lateral. 56, base of antenna from side. 57, genitalia, lateral.

58, genitalia dorsal. 59, genitalia, ventral, dorsal plate omitted.

lourn,* Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate XI

Figs. 60-65. Agoerodes sika sp.n. <$. 60, base- of antenna, lateral. 61,

maxillary and labial palpi, lateral. 6s, wings. 63, genitalia, lateral. 64, geni-

talia, dorsal. 65, ninth segment and inferior appendages, ventral.

Joum., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate XII

THE INDIAN CADDIS FLIES ( TRICHOPTERA ) 243

■Type and paratypes d in the collection of the Stockholm..

Museum . Further paratypes » <S in the collection of the British

Museum. :

Agoerodes sika sp. n. Figs. 60-65.

Insect brownish. In the S basal joint of the antenna about

as long as the head with the oculi ; , maxillary palpi Two- jpinted,

basal joint broad, terminal joint broad at its base, tapering strongly

to its apex; anterior wing clothed with hairs and scales; costa

folded over for nearly its entire length,; disposal; cell short; post-

costal fold situated rather towards the middle of the wing and

terminating along the upper margin of a triangular cellule beneath

which is a large cellule with a smaller one towards the base of ■: the

wing; neuration of the posterior wing regular.

Genitalia d — The apical margin of The ninth tergile is;

produced in a large plate, deeply and widely excised at the centre

of its apical margin to leave two, large, triangular projections which,

from the side, appear as Mender, sinuous processes with hooked

apices; outer angles also produced in shorter processes with rounded

apices, truncate from the side; penis straight, rather slender, apex

dilated; penis sheaths long and asymmetric; inferior appendages

three-branched; from above and beneath, the main branch is long,

produced to a tine, spine-like apex; second branch shorter, apex

obliquely truncate, from the side, separated from the main branch

by a deep, parallel-sided excision; third branch arises from a ridge

at the base of the appendage at the middle of its upper surface

and is short with a very strongly dilated apex, as seen from beneath;

from this aspect, the appendages are indented at the bases of their

inner margins.

Length of the anterior wing S 9 mm.

Length of the basal joint of the antenna 1*02 mm.

Sikkim : Pucheng, vi. 1896, from the MacLachlan collection.

Type S in the collection of the British Museum.

Agoerodes simuSans sp. n. Figs. 66-71.

Insect brown; wings much denuded and now showing scales

only on the radius of the anterior; in this wing, discoidal cell

long and narrow, slightly shorter than its footstalk; post-costal fold

extending to the anastomosis; posterior wing, fork No. 1 with a

short footstalk; basal joint of the antenna slightly shorter than

the width of the head with the oculi; maxillary palpi two-jointed,

basal joint broad, terminal joint small.

Genitalia S — Ninth tergite produced in a dorsal plate of winch

the centre of the apical margin carries a pair of stout, parallel

processes, the lateral angles strongly produced in incurving branches

with rounded dilatations at the bases and abruptly acute apices;

penis short and curved; sheaths stout and parallel, lying above

the penis, apices directed upwards aw^ay from the penis; inferior

appendages single-jointed, four-branched, basal branch arising from

the upper margin, short and concealed, directed upwards, second

and third branches arising from a stout base and, from thp side,

244 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

thej lower is long and sinuous, nearly twice the length of the upper

which terminates in a truncate apex; fourth branches from beneath,

arise from the inner margins at the base and are rod-like, widely

divergent, inner margins serrate.

Length of the anterior wing 3 7 mm.

Length of the basal joint of the antenna 0*72 mm.

N.-E. Burma: Kambaiti, 6,300 ft.. 12-vii-1934, R. Malaise.

Type 3 in the collection of the Stockholm Museum. Para types

3 in the collections of the Stockholm and the British Museums.

Agoerodes squamosa sp. n. Pigs. 72-78.

Insect dark brown, both wings rounded and very densely

clothed with hairs and scales, the membrane, when denuded,

extremely punctate; anterior with the costa folded over along its.

basal half; discoidal cell long and narrow; a white line beneath it

perhaps indicating a central groove; post-costal fold or groove only

faintly indicated, cells between it and the posterior margin narrow;

an indication of an obsolete vein in the area below the cellula

thyridii; in the posterior wing, fork No. 1 sessile; discoidal cell

moderately long; basal joint of the antenna of about the same

length as the width of the head with the oculi; maxillary palpi

bearing particularly dense tufts of black hair; when denuded,

they are seen to be twro-jointed, joints flat, basal slightly longer

than the terminal and strongly pigmented in a round patch at

its base; spurs of the anterior tibiae conspicuous.

Genitalia 3 — -The apical margin of the ninth tergite produced

in a crown-shaped plate with the middle processes separated by

an excision; penis short, arching slightly dowmwards; sheaths lying’'

above it, parallel with acute apices; inferior appendages single-

jointed and three-branched; branch at the base of the upper margin

stout, directed upwards; the appendage terminates in a large branch

with a broadened apex from above and with a short branch arising

from a shoulder on its under surface towards the apex; the whole

appendage is covered with very long, stiff bristles arising mainly

on the under surface.

Length of the anterior wing 3 8 mm.

Length of the basal joint of the antenna 1*06 mm.

N.-E. Burma: Kambaiti, 6,500-7,000 ft., 5-iv., 24-v., 12-17-vi.,

12-vii-1934, 2,000 m., 15-V-1934, R. Malaise.

Type 3 in the collection of the Stockholm Museum. Paratypes

3 in the collections of the Stockholm and the British Museums.

Agoerodes volutum sp. n. Eigs. 79-84.

Insect browm; wings clothed with hairs and scales, the latter

long and narrow; anterior, discoidal cell long and narrow; a groove

along the centre of the wing; fold in the post-costal area reaching

beyond the anastomosis with four large cellules between it and

the posterior border; of these, the distal cellule is wide and shallow*,

the next triangular, the middle cellule by far the largest and the

basal cellule about the same size as the distal; posterior, fork No. 1

sessile; basal joint of the antenna about twice as long as the-

Journ,, Bombay Nat, Hist, Soc.

Plate XIII

Figs. 72-78. Agoercdes squamosa sp.n. 72, wings. 73, base of antenna,

lateral. 74, maxillary palpus from in front. 75, labial palpus, lateral. 76,

genitalia, lateral. 77, genitalia, dorsal. 78, penis and sheaths, dorsal.

■ Jouni,, Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate XIV

Figs. 79-84. Agosrodes volutum sp.n. 79, wings. 80, base of antenna,

lateral. 81, maxillary and labial palpi, lateral. 82, genitalia, lateral. 83, genitalia,

dorsal. 84, penis sheaths, dorsal.

THE INDIAN CADDIS FLIES ( TRICHOPTERA )

245

breadth of the head with the oculi, rather stout and sinuous;

maxillary palpi two-jointed, basal joint curved, terminal very short.

Genitalia S — -The centre of the apical margin of the ninth

tergite strongly produced; dorsal plate strongly produced at the

centre of its apical margin to form a shield-like projection narrowly

excised at its centre, lateral angles produced in long, sinuous

processes, apices clavate from the side; penis short, sheaths strongly

chitinised and sloping downwards, extreme apices directed abruptly

outward; inferior appendages single-jointed, three-branched, basal

branch small and concealed, directed upwards, terminal branches

nearly equal in length, the lower rather dilated before its apex.

Length of the anterior wing S' 6*5 mm.

Length of the basal joint of the antenna 1*32 mm.

N.-E-. Burma: Kambaiti, 30-iv-1934, ll-v-1934, B. Malaise.

Type and 2)aratypes S in the collection of the Stockholm

Museum. Paratypes 6 in the collection of the British Museum.

(To be continued)

THE NILGIRIS REVISITED

by

M. A. Wynter-Blyth, m.a. (cantab.), f.r.e.s.

(With a map and two plates )

The country to the west and south-west of Ootacamund is a

high plateau, of which the greater part is untouched by man and

remains in its primeval state — a lumpy, uninhabited wilderness of

grassy hills and hillocks, clothed here and there with patches of

thick forest.

Although I had lived in Ketti for four and a half years, that was

during the war and I had had little opportunity of exploring this

region — an omission I was determined to make good during my

stay in Ooty last spring.

Consequently, in May I planned a short trip that was to take me

first to Bangi Tappal and thence via Nanjanad and Hodgson’s Hut

to Mukerti Peak, a route which would give me a good cross section

of the country and could easily be covered in a week.

I arranged for coolies to carry my baggage and food, and was

lucky enough to engage a good local servant, so that this year I

was fed well and lived in comfort. Don Quixote,3 who was only

a temporary appendage of mine, had been left among his native

snows, unmourned but unforgotten.

* * * *

Early on the morning of May 25th we arrived at Ithalar, having

covered the first stage of our journey by bus, a perilous under-

taking as the heavy rains of the night before had made the newly

repaired surface of the road very treacherous. However, although

our driver proceeded at great speed, he displayed admirable control

of the machine in moments of crisis and we reached our destination

unscathed. On arrival at the village we extricated ourselves with

difficulty, for the entire population (or so it seemed), stormed into

the bus for the return journey to Ooty before anyone had time to

descend. In the end we were rescued by some person of authority,

and Sheba, myself, and the coolie carrying my bedding, set off

across the fields for Bangi Tappal.

The morning was brilliantly fine and humid, promising rain in

the afternoon. Indeed clouds were already beginning to form

when we reached the Emerald Valley. After crossing the Kundah

river the road bears to the left over the lower slopes of the big hill

that divides this valley from the next, and begins to descend two

miles further on to the ford over the Avalanche stream. Much of

the left hand side of the road is planted with Acacia decurrens, a

mimosa with a pale yellow blossom, that is extensively cultivated

1 See An Expedition to Sangla in Kunawar in Vol. 47, No. 4, pp. 565-585.

Jonrn., Bombay Nat. Hist.

Sketch Map of the Nilgai Plateau. Scale 1" = about 4 miles.

THE NILGIRIS REVISITED

247

for its tannin-yielding bark and also as a shade-tree for tea. To

the right the hillside is dotted with a thin straggling growth of

St. John’s wort (ia) and clumps of yellow broom (52). But on the

whole there were few flowers, probably because of the prolonged

drought earlier in the year. On the other hand this was the only

part of the trip where butterflies were at all numerous. Indian

cabbage whites (2), red admirals (3), painted ladies (4), Indian

fritillaries (5), Nilgiri tigers (16), Nilgiri four-rings (7), ajid pea-

blues (8) were common, together with the occasional hedgeblue and

common white albatross (9). Further on I met a congregation of

common bluebottle butterflies (10) (an unfortunate name; they bear

no resemblance to the bluebottle fly)1 drinking thirstily from the

edges of a small pool, and a red Helen (11), that stately black

swallow-tail with the prominent white patch on the hindwing, was

hovering about for the same purpose. She is a wary creature and I

had to wait patiently for her to group herself with the others so

that I could photograph them.;

It is only at the foot of the ghats and on the lower slopes of

the Nilgiris that butterflies are really abundant. As one climbs,

their numbers decrease until on the high plateau they are definitely

scarce. This raises an interesting problem, for almost the reverse

is true of the Western Himalayas where butterflies are plentiful

(subject, of course, to the seasons) to quite 15,000 ft. elevation.

Some of those found on the plateau are of considerable interest

as they are palaearctic species that were marooned here in bygone

ages. One is led to believe that many years ago there was an era

during which the climate of peninsular India was temperate with a

fauna and flora to match. With the onset of warmer weather this

flora and fauna receded to cooler regions, during which process

various insects, plants and animals became isolated on the temper-

ate heights of the southern hills, where they are now in some cases

separated by hundreds of miles of hot plains from their nearest re-

latives. In this category are the Indian cabbage white, the plain

hedgeblue (12) and the pale clouded yellow (13) which are also

found in the Himalayas, but nowhere nearer. Of the others the

red, and blue (14) admirals and the Indian fritillary inhabit most

of the Indian hill ranges, but the Nilgiri tiger, the Nilgiri four-ring,

the white-disc hedgeblue (15), the white hedgeblue (16), the Palni

dart (17) and the red-eye bushbrown (18) are peculiar to the

southern uplands.2

But this does not explain why there are so few butterflies on

the plateau, especially when they are so common lower down. As

it is, apart from the palaearctics already mentioned, the majority

of butterflies found are tough species such as the peablue and the

painted lady, which seem able to exist almost anywhere, and rov-

ing, strong-flying insects like the wanderers ( Catopsilia ) which have

1 So called from the glassy bottle-blue or .green band across the wings.

2 The Annamallais, Palnis and other high ranges to the south of the Nilgiris

have two species not' found elsewhere — the red-disc bushbrown (M. oculus ) &

the Palni four-ring (Y. ypthimoides). .

248 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol 48

strayed in from lower elevations. The truth of the matter is, 1

think, that the windswept and rain-drenched plateau with its thick

patches of forest is quite unsuited to all butterfly life except the

hardiest and the true palaearctics. One can understand that there

may well be few of the latter because they are so isolated, and

consequently quite beyond the aid of immigration in the case of

local disaster.1

As I possessed no map that covered this part of the hills I asked

the way of the resthouse keeper at Avalanche. Unfortunately he

neglected to tell me that he was directing us along a short cut, an

omission that was presently to cause disaster.

Avalanche takes its name from an extensive landslide that

occurred in this valley during the year 1824. In that year ‘for 8

days before the slip occurred there were heavy and continuous rains,

accompanied by heavy rolling thunder and a tempestuous wind.

So thick, too, was the darkness brooding over that part of the hills,

that none of the natives durst venture from their homes. When the

gloom cleared away it was found that the river had swept away a

vast portion of the mountain side which descended with its woods

into the valley’.2 The traces of this event are now completely

obliterated.

So we began the steep climb towards the head of the Avalanche

valley and were soon well above the thick forest that borders the

stream and finally broadens out to clothe almost the entire region

of its source.

These forests, or sholas as they are called in the south, are one

of the most characteristic features of the Nilgiris. When seen

from above they are a lovely patchwork of grey and shades of

green, but their main attraction is the way in which they hug the

watercourses and folds of the hills, more often than not in long

narrow strips, and give the impression that they have been poured

into the valleys and have then congealed, an effect that is enhanced

by the uniform height of all the trees and the clear-cut edges of the

forest strips. Nilgiri sholas are in effect stream-lined and grow

along the valleys and in the folds of the hills not so much because

there is water in such places as because they are sheltered from

the monsoon gales.

In due course we reached the pass at the head of the valley and

paused to look at the view in front of us — green rounded hills,

shallow valleys, and an occasional isolated patch of trees — little

•else but the wind whistling over the grass and a kestrel hovering

overhead — a lonely prospect of one of the loneliest parts of India.

Carrying out instructions we took the middle of three paths

and followed a charming stream that descends by a chain of little

waterfalls and deep pools to join a more considerable river (the

1 The curious distribution of the Lepcha bushbrown (M. lepcha) seems

to me evidence of such a disaster. It is found in the Himalayas, the Central

Provinces and Orissa, and the Palnis and Annamafl/ais, but not in the

iVilgiris.

2 Murray’s Hand-bopk of India, 1859.

THE NILGIRIS REVISITED

249

Bhawani) some three miles further on. Here the path vanished

and after an hour’s fruitless exploration I had to admit that, as

far as Bangi Tappal was concerned, we were completely lost. And

so there was no alternative but to make our way back to Avalanche.

This would mean a night without bedding, as 1 had lost touch with

my coolie, and possibly without food, for I had sent on my supplies

to Bangi Tappal the day before, but these hardships were, 1 felt,

better than being benighted in this inhospitable spot and drenched

in the thunderstorm that was fast approaching.

As it turned out things were not as bad as I had expected for

the storm did not break until we were within a mile of the bungalow,

and the resthouse keeper provided us with food — coarse, thick

chupatties of home ground wheat with jam, coffee tasting of soup

flavoured with treacle, and an excellent egg curry — admirable and

sustaining fare for a very tired man and his dog. There was a

wood fire to dry ourselves at and my raincoat to keep us warm at

night. Life was not so bad after all.

* -X- * *

Very early next morning we set off again, this time taking a

guide to put us on the way. At the head of the valley he set us

on the right hand path which, he said, led direct to Bangi Tappal.

,This track is the old Ooty — Calicut road, which fell into disuse

many years ago when the route through Gudalur was opened to

wheeled traffic. In the middle of the last century it was second in

importance only to the road up the Sigur Ghat! — the one road then

fit for bullock carts — and was the route used by all travellers from

Bombay and the west coast. It is now only a ghost of its former

self, for, although here and there roughly paved stretches still re-

main to show traces of its old importance, much of it has become

a mere channel for the monsoon rains or has been engulfed by the

swamps that lie in the valleys.

After winding tortuously in and out among the hills it descends

to the Bhawani, just a mile above where we had lost ourselves the

afternoon before, crosses the river, and runs up a long*, rounded

almost level valley, bordered on both sides by ranges of low hills.

This is wonderful grazing land, the tussocky grass growing

lush and thick, but there were no herds of buffaloes or cattle, neither

had I seen any since close to Avalanche. Nearer to Ooty such herds

are common but never as abundant as the nature of the country

would lead one to expect. Why this is so in such an apparently

favoured region is a matter for conjecture. I am told that the

periodic droughts of early spring take great toll of the young ones,

and that this is the reason why they do not increase. This, how-

1 ‘Travellers coming by the Sigur Pass from Bengalur should send a

message to some friend on the hills by electric telegraph so as to ensure

supplies at Kilpatti. By this pass communication is kept up with Bengalur,

Madras and all places to the north ; and the chief bulk of the European

supplies and heavy luggage is brought by it to Utakamund.’ Murray’s Hand-

book of India, 1859.

4

250 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

ever, does not seem a satisfactory solution, for, even though exten-

sive fires often destroy large tracts of grass, the streams never dry

up, and there is always grazing to be had, especially in the

many marshy places. Whatever may be the reasons (if, indeed*

any exist) against this land supporting large numbers ot cattle and

buffaloes, there seem to be no grounds for assuming that such

reasons should be insuperable, and the fact remains that here are

many thousands of unoccupied acres of wonderful grazing land — a

fact that the Madras Government might well bear in mind.

At the watershed between east and west India, just beyond

where the Bhawani, now a tiny stream, has its source, and where

another stream rises to flow westwards, to my intense satisfaction

we were met by two of my coolies bearing breakfast. They had

been out searching for me until late the night before.

Two miles further on we came at long last to the Bangi Tappal

rest house,1 tucked away into the hillside on the left. Mist was

already beginning to pour through a gap in the hills facing the

bungalow and shortly after our arrival completely enveloped the

valley. When it had partly cleared later on I walked to the gap

in the opposite side of the valley and discovered that the little

stream ran through this to descend by a series of cataracts into a

sinister mist-enshrouded abyss, for Bangi Tappal is at the edge of

the Nilgiris and only the low range of hills in front of the bungalow

separates it from the precipitous western slopes.

That Bangi Tappal is a place of very heavy rainfall is evident

from the rank, coarse grass and the long- beards of lichenous moss

that festoon the trees. An unidentifiable plant (19) with lanceolate*

leathery leaves and pale purple racemes was massed everywhere

in the wetter places, self-heal (20) — a handsome, purple labiate — and

the slender Nilgiri buttercup (21) were common enough among the

grass, but on the whole the place gave the impression of being too

bleak and windswept for many flowers.

There, too, and throughout the plateau, there seem to be few

birds, but this impression is false, for although the open grassland

harbours little but larks (22) and pipits (23), with swallows (24)

swooping overhead, and bulbuls (25) and stonechats (26) among the

bushes, there are birds enough within the protection of the sholas.

In them are found the green woodpecker (27) and the fine Nilgiri

woodpigeon (28), small birds that keep to the trees2 such as fly-

catchers, white eyes and flowerpeckers, and skulkers like the grey

junglefowl (29) and the red spurfowl (30).

Of accomplished songsters there is but one, the Nilgiri black-

bird (31), whose liquid notes are little inferior to those of his

European counterpart. Another bird whose two calls compel notice

1 Which by the way, was as deserted as the countryside. There was no

chowkidar and it showed signs of having been unoccupied for a very long time.

2 Of these the commonest at this time of the year are possibly the Nilgiri

flowerpecker ( Dicaeum minullum), the Nilgiri * Blue Flycatcher ( Eumyias

albicaudata ), the Black & Orange Flycatcher ( Ochromela nigrorufa ) the Grey

headed Flycatcher ( Culiciapa ceylonensis) and the White-eye ( Zosterops palpe-

brosa).

The old Calicut Roa

near Bangi Tappal

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate II

251

THE NILGIRIS REVISITED

is the Nilgiri laughing- thrush (32). Although it is seldom satis-

factory to translate the cries of birds into words, these have been

fairly adequately rendered as Pee-ko-ko and ko-ko-ko-ko-ko ,

both expressed with such a curious jocular accent that they are quite

unmistakable, and are among the most characteristic sounds of the

Nilgiris. As the bird itself keeps much to the undergrowth it is

seldom seen, and more’s the pity, for it is a handsome olive brown

creature with a very pronounced white eye stripe. Another curious

call is that of the grey junglefowl — an awkward, halting, grating

kuk-ka-kurra-kuk that may be heard around the sholas early in

the morning and at dusk.

At Bangi T appal, as at all the bungalows in which I stayed, as

soon as darkness fell, the fireflies (33) began their nightly dance.

This has so often been likened to the activities of fairies and elves

with lamps and torches and what not, that I shall refrain from

simile and content myself with stating that to watch these animated

sparks of cold green light on a damp, dull night (the weather they

like best) gives me as much pleasure as any spectacle in Nature.

Early next morning I climbed the hill facing the bungalow.

The western escarpment of the Nilgiris is very abrupt, dropping

vertically from the top for some two thousand feet, and then de-

scending at an acute angle through dense forest to join a belt of

jungle at its base. As the hilltop upon which I stood was exactly

at the edge of the escarpment it is easy to understand that the view

confronting me was very fine, especially as the sun was low and

many of the steeper slopes still lay in purple shadow.

The edge of the plateau here runs in a north-easterly direction

for perhaps ten miles to beyond Mukerti Peak where it is joined by

a shoulder from the west, towards the end of which, quite apart

from the main mass of the mountains, and straight in front of the

hill I had climbed, is placed the great bulk of Nilgiri Peak. Be-

tween and below us lay the jungle-filled bay of the Amarambalam

Reserve.

Tradition has it that the Nilgiri Peak (8,500') has never been

climbed and, indeed, is unclimbable, for although it does not appear

to present many formidable obstacles, the rock that composes its

precipices is supposed to be rotten. My personal opinion is that it

would present no difficulty at all to an experienced mountaineer. It

is, however, the finest mountain in India south of the Himalayas.

Having gazed our fill we continued on our way. The morning

was brilliantly fine and the bright sunshine had brought out such

butterflies as there were — of which (to my surprise for it is usually

a plains or jungle insect) the commonest of all was the beautiful

little dark blue cerulean (34). But the sunshine had also brought out

in strength the one real pest of the uplands — -the fly in the ointment,

so to speak — a horse fly, Tab anus haematopota, and never was fly

more aptly named.

Elsewhere1 I have discoursed at length on those two pests of

the Simla Hills, a kind of house fly and the large Himalayan horse

1 See ‘An Expedition to Sangla in Kunawar’, Vol. 47, No. 4.

2c 2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

fly — the house fly because of its incredible abundance and the horse

fly because of its vicious habits. The latter blunders noisily through

the air, settles on any exposed piece of flesh, and, an operation that

causes considerable pain, plunges its proboscis into the skin and

quaffs a great draught of blood. Our Nilgiri tabanid, which is a

much smaller species with wings and eyes prettily flecked with

brown, eschews such direct methods and gains its objective by

stealth. The flight is silent and the bite painless, so that often

the only indication that it has been present is a drop of blood on

the flesh or the slight irritation set up by the bite.

I had concluded that the females of this fly (for although I have

been referring to the species in general terms, the males are in-

offensive creatures feeding on honey dew and the juices of flowers)

must live a hungry life as there is so little for them to bite in these

deserted regions of the plateau, until I discovered that they also

have the same habits as the males if they cannot get blood.

As 1 now knew the lie of the country I took the short cut by

the side of the river. The Bhawani here runs through a sheltered

valley where there were flowers in plenty. Anemones (35) were

everywhere and the grass was dotted with the pale blue bells of

Wahlenbergia (36) and the deep blue stars of gentians (37). Here

and there were small scrubby growths of the yellow jasmine (38),

and St. John’s wort (16) grew in masses along the river bank.

Near the water too, were clumps of both the large and small hatpin

flowers (39), so called from their compact white flower heads and

long stems.

After following the river bank for a mile we turned up the little

valley we had already traversed twice.

* *

Just before arriving at Avalanche I came across a young horse-

shoe viper (40) coiled up on the path. It was a mere six and a

half inches long, but in spite of its minute size it displayed a most

vicious nature and struck repeatedly at the edge of my butterfly

net when I disturbed it. It was a drab-looking little creature of a

darkish brown colour with a chain of black blotches down the

middle of its back and another smaller one along each side. Its

venom differs from that of other vipers in that it causes no swelling

around the bite. There is immediate intense pain, followed by a

local wet gangrene, which in due course sloughs away. There are

no other symptoms, and the bite is seldom, if ever, dangerous.

I saw six other snakes during the trip, of which five were green

keelbacks (41) and the sixth an earthsnake (42) that was valiantly

trying to swallow a worm of almost its own size. The green keel-

back, which is very common on the plateau, is a bright green,

rather slim snake, of a family that is characterised by a ridge

down the middle of each scale. Although, as a rule, keelbacks are

found near water, the green keelback is just as common away

from it. It also ascends higher than others of the family, and I

saw one at 8,400', just below the summit of Mukerti Peak. On

the whole it is a placid snake and does not greatly resent being

handled .

THE NILGIRIS REVISITED

253

A party of Nilgiri langurs (43), much to Sheba’s annoyance, had

taken up temporary residence in the trees behind the bungalow.

Although she displayed every sign of intense displeasure at their

presence, it interested me to note that she made no attempt to

chase them — a remarkable reversal of her usual behaviour. Possib-

ly this was because, when fully grown, these white-faced black

creatures are of a formidable size and aspect, or it may have been

due to the alarming noises they produce — a rude chattering which

breaks into a deep whoop \-whoop ! -whoop ! and resounds through

the forest to be heard a mile away.

Close to the river below the rest house I first examined the large,

coarse thistles (44) that are so common in the Nilgiri valleys, and

found that their heads support quite a remarkable insect population.

Ants were there, tiny beetles and spiders, bees, an evil-smelling

shield-bug, and in particular a host of weevils. Of these the

commonest was the Nilgiri weevil (45), a trim little black creature

with five yellow spots on its wing covers and an edging of the same

colour to its thorax. Males and females were present in large

numbers, each head supporting several, both in the act of mating,

which in the weevil family takes place often and lasts for a long

time, and crawling in and out among the florets. Doubtless, like

the species of the genus Larinus of which Fabre has written in his

inimitable way, the female deposits her eggs in a little hole she

makes for them in the thalamus that supports the florets, and the

grubs hatch out and have their being there.

Two other weevils were also present, but in much smaller

numbers, one a drab dark brown insect with two obscure paler

lines down the wing cases, and the other of a powdery ochreous

colour. That I could not identify them is perhaps not surprising

as it is estimated that there are possibly 200,000 species of weevil

existing at the present day, of which only 60,000 or 70,000 have

been described !

I had already noticed in the Himalayas that thistles are parti

cularly attractive to certain butterflies, Papilio especially, and there

it is no unusual spectacle to see a congregation of them, gorged

with honey and half stupefied, hanging from the heads of a single

plant. We must not forget too, that the thistle for some obscure

reason has been chosen as the national emblem of the Scots — per-

haps because it is impossible to sit on either !

There was the usual evening thunderstorm which cleared away

as night fell, and the green tree-frogs (46), which are in their

hundreds here, began their nightly chorus. Their cry, or call or

whatever may be a suitable term for the curious metallic tap-tap-

tapping note they produce, is one of the most familiar wet weather

sounds of the Nilgiris. Nevertheless it is not surprising that few

people connect it with a frog, for a more unfroglike sound is hard

to imagine, and the little creatures themselves, though so common,

are seldom seen because they are of a vivid green hue that renders

them almost invisible among the foliage they inhabit. Their toes

are curiously flattened and bear suckers on the undersides to en-

able them to climb and to hang on to leaves and branches.

254 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

The next morning-, after our usual early start, we followed the

road by whidh we had first come, until as far as its junction with the

Ithalar path, at which point we continued along- the Ooty road and

two miles further on branched off to Nanjapad at the top of a steep

hill.

Nanjanad is a Badaga village and the largest in this part of the

Nilgiris. The intense building activity here was eloquent testi-

mony of the period of prosperity through which these cultivators of

potatoes are passing. In them skill in agriculture is combined to a

truly remarkable degree with an acute money sense.

Beyond the village, over a valley, and stretching up the opposite

hillside, is the government potato farm with its small rest house

at the far side — in a bleak uninviting spot open to the four winds,

but, nevertheless, with a good view down over the farm to the

cultivated valley below, remarkable like all the cultivated parts of

the Nilgiris for the vivid contrast between the greens of growing

crops and the red of the soil.

I did not explore the farm, for, after all, one plot of potatoes is

much like another, and the only thing of interest I saw during an

evening stroll was an experimental plantation of pyrethrum, in

which each row of plants had undergone some different form of

cultivation, or treatment, with (apparently) an equal lack of success

in all cases. Perhaps the Nilgiris are not the answer to the pyre-

thrum grower’s prayer.

The rest house was in no way remarkable, except for large

numbers of flies, but it had a pleasant enclosed verandah which en-

abled me to watch next morning’s dawn over Dodabetta from the

comfort of my bed.

There is a lumpy complicated piece of country between the farm

and Hodgson’s Hut, but as I knew very well the general direction

in which to go, by taking such paths as seemed to lead roughly

towards my objective, I managed to cross it with a fair measure of

success, ultimately joining the path from Ooty only half a mile

from the hut.

Hodgson’s Hut is charmingly placed near the Krurmund

stream in a meadow studded with white anemone (35) flowers. The

valley here is narrow but the river broadens out to form a shallow

pool in front of the bungalow before taking a sharp turn to the

north-west. Above and below the pool the river hastens down the

valley among boulders and over stones and small waterfalls after

the fashion of mountain streams the world over. Behind the hut

is a small shola, and on the one side is a grove of cypress trees :

on the other was a mass of Buddleia in full bloom.

The hut, although only a small tin building, has comfort and

character, and is notable for its remarkable fishing book, in which

fishermen have recorded their catches and what is more have

drawn them. The illustrations depict many monsters, though,

let me add, few of monstrous size.

A mile below the hut, on the edge of an area marked on my

map as the Never-Never Land, are the pretty Krurmund falls,

THE NILGIRIS REVISITED

255

close to which is a stone cairn in memory of one Capt. Preston,

M.F.H. of the Ooty Hunt, who was drowned there in the late ‘8o’s.

Some of the names on the map1; are intriguing- and redolent

of an English country side. For example, between Hodgson’s

Hut and Ooty lie High Havens, Parson’s Valley, Marky’s Bog,

Andy Corner and Cocky’s Course. Close by is Shepherd’s Bush,

and near Nanjanad Hookham-Snivey ! The Never-Never Land is

appropriately named as most of it is now submerged beneath the

waters of the Mukerti Dam.

On the.. 29th we set off even earlier than usual to reach the top

of Mukerti Peak before it was obscured by clouds.

The path runs up and down, across the line of the small

valleys leading to the Mukerti Dam., passing Mukerti Hut after

four miles. Thereafter it continues along the side of the lake,

though some distance above it.

From here Mukerti (8,402^ , has a quaint conical little peak,

but when seen from the Mysore road, where the. slightly undercut

precipice that forms its northern face is in, full view, its resemblance

to a tooth or fang is quite remarkable. It is a satisfactory

mountain to climb, for its ascent, though steep, is not long enough

to be exhausting, and the summit holds a very considerable ele-

ment of surprise.

After climbing for thirty-five minutes we passed through a

small wood just below the crags of the pointed , peak itself, and

here Sheba put up a jackal, , disturbing at the same time a group

of seven Nilgiri tahr (47) that were standing motionless about

fifty yards away. Without undue concern they cantered slowly

away over the ridge in front of us.

The Nilgiri tahr or saddleback (often misnamed the Nilgiri

Ibex) is in appearance a super-goat. For most of the year it

keeps to the higher and more lonely parts of the hills, moving

about among the rocks and precipices with the usual agility of the

goat family, but in spring, during periods of drought, it descends

with other game into the lower jungles in search of food. I my-

self have seen it in early May near Kallar, at an altitude of only

1,350 feet.

Likb some of the butterflies already mentioned it was marooned

on the southern hills ages ago by a change of climate and now

its nearest relative, the Himalayan tahr (48), is found no nearer

than the mountains whose name it bears.

As for jackals, they are common enough all over the Nilgiris,

even in parts where carrion is very scarce. There they must live

largely on frogs and lizards, and, so I’m told, on crabs, for there

can be little else for them to eat. Such a diet seems to suit them,

as those that I saw were healthy animals with fine coats.

A stiff scramble up a very steep slope ends on the little plat-

form that is the summit. This is perhaps ten yards long and

three broad, , of which the whole northern side drops vertically into

space, how far I cannot say, as a bank of broken cloud

1 The Ooty Hunt map.

2£G JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST * SOCIETY , FoZ. 48

some 1,500' below us stretched to the north and west as far as

the eye could reach; Above the clouds and straight in front the

solid mass of the Nilgiri Peak reared itself, to the west there were

glimpses of the sea, and behind and below us lay the whole ex-

panse of the very bumpy country between us and Ootacamund.

Murray’s Hand-book of India (1859) gives a description of this

peak which I cannot refrain from quoting in full. ‘From the

source of the Paikari (Pykara river) an easy ascent of i| mile

leads to the summit of the peak; and here, should the mist and

aouds fortunately roll away, a grand and awful scene will present

itself to the view. The W. (?) side of the mountain is a terrific

and perfectly perpendicular precipice of at least 7,000 ft. The

mountain seems to have been cut sheer through the centre, leav-

ing not the slightest shelve or ledge between the pinnacle on which

the traveller stands and the level of the plains below. To add to-

the terror of this sublime view, the spot on which the gazer places

his feet is a mouldering precipice ( !), the ground being so unstable

that, with a touch, large masses are hurled down the prodigious

height into the barrier forest at the foot of the hills, which looks

at such a distance like moss’ !

Although the worthy Mr. Murray exaggerates, it was not

without relief that I left this somewhat alarming place.

Soon after my return to Hodgson’s Hut it was announced to

me that a tiger had just killed one of the chowkidar’s calves

close by. I immediately went with the chowkidar up the hill

behind the bungalow to a place above the kill. Three hundred

yards away, beyond a small marsh and at the edge of a long shola,

stood the tiger looking at us. I watched him for about ten minutes

but he did not move, even when I shouted at him and clapped my

hands. He seemed on the small size and very pale in colour, but

as dusk was falling I could not see clearly. By this time the chow-

kidar’s nostrils were dilating in a startling manner and his eyes

were nearly popping out with fright, so we returned to the hut.

At dawn next morning I sent a message over to Mukerti Hut,

where a friend of mine, a keen shikari, was staying. I myself

visited the kill before breakfast but the tiger had eaten none of

it during' the night. The chowkidar, whom I persuaded to ac-

company me again, declared that he saw the beast disappear into

a patch of jungle close by, but this I doubted, as by then he was

in such a state of alarm that he might well have seen a tiger in

every bush. Still, he may have been there, as Sheba, whom I had

taken along as a sort of barometer (like taking a canary down a

coalmine) began to show distinct signs of unrest. All I saw was

a jungle sheep trotting unconcernedly across the hill-side in front.

My friend sat up for the tiger that evening, but without success,,

for although, according to his shikari, the beast approached within

twenty yards of the machan before deciding that all was not as

it should be, it was on the concealed side, and he never saw him.

Tigers are not uncommon on the Nilgiri plateau and may be

found throughout the year, except when drought drives the game

lower down. There were reports of four other tigers during my

THE NILGIRIS REVISITED

257

stay in Ooty — two at Avalanche, of which one was shot, and a

tigress and cub that the hunt surprised one morning- at Andy

Corner. They are not unknown in Ooty itself and it is not many

years ago that one was shot in the garden of West Lake.

Having delayed our start for a while in the hopes that my

shikari friend might turn up before we left, we climbed over into

Parson’s Valley and set off on our return to Ooty.

* 4:- -x- *

At the head of Parson’s valley one is back in the country where

eucalyptus and other trees introduced from Australia are such a

characteristic feature of the landscape. In particular the com-

mon eucalyptus or blue gum (49), is planted in great numbers, as

it is unsurpassed as firewood and thrives in this climate. In addi-

tion, as the tree grows quickly, it may economically be felled after

ten years, and coppiced two or three times after that. Eucalyptus

oil, which is extracted from the leaves, is a valuable by-product,

but gives rise to the pernicious custom of stripping the living trees

of their foliage, all the branches being removed except the top-

most ones. The result is often picturesque, as a stripped tree

develops a tall slender trunk crowned with an attractive tuft of

leaves, but the action is indefensible for stripping retards growth

by 50%. When allowed to mature unchecked the blue gum is the

finest of all Nilgiri trees.

Of other introduced trees the commonest are kinds of cypress

and acacia. Of the latter Acacia dealbata (the common mimosa

that is to be seen everywhere), though its dense heads of bright

yellow blossom are attractive, is of no commercial value and is,

indeed, something of a pest, for so agreeable does it find the

Nilgiri climate, that it often invades fallow land with a thick

growth of stunted saplings that is almost impossible to eradicate.

Another common acacia is the Australian blackwood (50), a

melancholy species that does not flourish as it is heavily parasitized

by various kinds of Loranthus. There is, however, one point of

interest about this tree, for it is only in its early stages that it

bears the typical bipinnate acacia leaves. As it grows older these

are replaced by ‘phyllodes’, or flattenings of the leaf stems, an

arrangement to reduce evaporation of sap in the hot sunshine.

This arrangement is paralleled in Eucalyptus, whose broad up-

right primary leaves are later replaced by long narrow hanging

secondary leaves, a development which is supposed to be the

result of adjustment to a gradual change from a cool to a hot,

dry climate in its native land.

Two other hardy and attractive exotics to be seen around

Ooty, both of which have been introduced from England, are

gorse (51) and broom (52).

Having joined the road that runs from Nanjanad farm to

Ooty, we continued along if for a couple of miles before turning

to the left along a track that took us over a stream on whose

banks grew masses of wild arums, and onto the golf course.

Some mention of the natural history of the Ooty golf course

2E8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

will perhaps not be out of place, for, of all the Nilgiris except the

Ketti Valley, this is the part I know best.

Though from the naturalist’s point of view I can record few

remarkable events from the course, and no exciting ones, perhaps

the incident that took place this year when my opponent killed a

Nilgiri skylark (22) in flight with his drive from the 13th tee is

unique, and the occasion when a tiger killed three times in one

night (or, as an unlikely alternative, three tigers each killed once)

is worthy of note. However, tigers on the course (whether feline

or human) are very much the exception, as are any other of the

larger kinds of game, and the most the early riser can hope to

see (apart from jackals) is an occasional wild pig or an even more

occasional sambar or jungle sheep. Perhaps after all the wildest

forms of life are the players themselves, for they are often very

wild indeed.

Nevertheless though larger game may be conspicuously absent,

some of the more lowly creatures are not without interest.

On a sunny May morning after a heavy fall of rain the golfer

may be surprised to see thousands of large bronzy-brown longicorn

beetles (53) blundering about the course in a clumsy way. In the

afternoon almost all have gone but the ground is littered with their

mutilated remains. Tradition has it (quite wrongly) that a butter-

fly lives only for a day, but this insect, unless very fortunate, lives

(in its final stage) for an even shorter period.

A little observation will show what happens. The crows, of

which there is an abundance, devour many of them (and, to the

golfer’s delight, in so doing lose their appetite for golf balls), but

the chief villain of the piece is the Nilgiri tiger beetle (54), a con-

siderably smaller creature with its black wing covers marked with

a golden hue. The agility of this insect on the ground and its

speed through the air outmanoeuvre its clumsy opponent to such

an extent that the latter is completely at its mercy and is often

literally vivisected by it. It is no uncommon sight to see one of

these longicorns (which, if helpless against their enemies, are at

least tenacious of life) walking briskly about though entirely dis-

embowelled.^

Because of its transitory existence this beetle must complete

the business of reproduction as quickly as possible, so immediate-

ly after emergence early in the morning the male seeks the female

and they mate. Having done so, the latter goes off to lay her

eggs, or oviposit, as entomologists who love ugly words will have

it. This is a simple speedy business for, moving rapidly from

place to place, she uses the spade-shaped end of her abdomen

to dig a series of rough holes in the ground, in each of which

she places an egg, and this is why these beetles always emerge

after heavy rain. If the soil were hard the process of laying would

be delayed, or the eggs would have to be left unprotected.

1 To quote once more from Murray, ‘Black Bear are numerous, especially

in the early part of the monsoon when they ascend the hills in pursuit of a

large brown beetle, their favourite food’ !

THE NILGIRIS REVISITED

259

Another common beetle that may be seen in May is a beautiful

metallic green chafer (55), whose appearance belies its habits, for

it works great havoc on our rose bushes.

Of butterflies the golf course has no great abundance though

individual species may be common enough, especially the little

peablue (8), which can be seen everywhere during most of the year,

and the Tamil grass-dart (56), a tiny yellow-spotted brown skipper,

which swarms over the grass in April and May. Of rarities I

know only one, the plain puffin (57), which (somewhat to my

annoyance as a butterfly net is not a usual part of my golfing

equipment) I have often seen flying over the course in May, on

migration, I think, as its food plant ( Capparis ?) grows nowhere

near.

And for the rest it would be hard to surpass the quiet beauty

of these grassyj downs with their distant background of high

peaks. Along the south-western boundary of the course runs a

magnificent avenue of eucalyptus trees, and on the course itself

are many patches and strips of yellow-blossomed gorse (51), be-

loved as a nesting place by the stonechat. Hidden in the grass

grow bright blue gentians (37) and pale blue harebells (36), and

the tiny little Amaryllis known so aptly as the yellow ground

star (58).

We walked up the 17th and 18th fairways to the clubhouse and

our journey was at an end.:

APPENDIX

A LIST OF SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF SPECIES MENTIONED IN THE TEXT

la. Hypericum mysorense Heyne.

lb. Hypericum wightianum Nall.

2. Pier is canidia canis Evans.

3. Vanessa indica pholoe Fruh.

4. Vanessa cardui Linn.

5. Argynnis hyperbius hybrida Evans.

6. Danais nilgiriensis Moore.

7. Ypthima chenui Guer.

8. Lampides boeticus Linn.-,

9. Appias albina darada (C. & R. Felder).

10. Graphium sarpedon teredon (C. & R. Felder).

11. Papilio helenus daksha (Hampson).

12. Lycaenopsis lavendularis limbata Moore.

13. Cvlias erate nilgiriensis (C. & R. Felder).

14. Vanessa canace viridis Evans.

15. Lycaenopsis albidisca Moore.

16. Lycaenopsis akasa mavisa Fruh.

17. Padraona palnia palnia Evans.

18. Mycalesis adolphei Guer.

19- Unidentifiable by me. Local experts declare that it is Swertia decussata

((Gentianaceae).

20. Brunella vulgaris Linn.

21. Ranunculus reniformis Wallich.

22. Alauda gulgula australis (Brooks), The Small Nilgiri Skylark.

23. Anthus nilgiriensis Sharpe, The Nilgiri Pipit, and Anthus richardi

rufulus (Vieill.), The Indian Pipit.

24. Hirundo javancia domicola (Jerdon), The Nilgiri House Swallow.

25. Otocompsa emeria fuscicaudata (Gould), The Red-whiskered Bulbul.

76, Saxicola caprata nilgiriensis Whist. The Nilgiri Stonechat.

260 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Vol 48

27. Picus xanthopygaeus (Gray). The Little ScalyJbellied Woodpecker.

28. Columba elphinstonii Sykes.

29. Gallus sonneratii Temm.

30. Galloperdix spadicea ssp.

31. T urdus merula simillimus (Jerdon).

32. Trochalopteron cachinnans cachinnans (Jerdon).

33. Lucina genus. A beetle, of course, belonging ic the Lampyridae.

34. Jamides bochus bochus Cr., The Dark Cerulean.

35. Anemone rivularis Hamilton.

36. Wahlenbergia gracilis D.C., The Nilgiri Harebell.

37. Gentiana quadrifolia Bl.

38. Jasminum bignoniaceum Wall, Golden Trumpet.

39. Eriocaulon species. Identification of the genus is difficult. The two

mentioned here are probably E. nilagiriense Steud. and E. collinum Hook,

respectively.

40. Lachesis strigatus.

41. Macropisthodon plumbicolor.

42. Uropeltidae sp.

43. Kasi johnii (Fiisch.).

44. Cnicus wallichii D.C.

45. Baris nilgiriensis.

46. Rhacophorus pleurostictus or Ixalus variabilis. Probably both.

47. Hemitragus hylocrius Blyth.

48. Hemitragus jemlahicus H. S.M.

49. Eucalyptus globulus Lab.

50. Acacia melanoxylon R. Br.

51. Ulex europeus Linn.

52. Cytisus scoparius Link.

53. Dorysthenes montanus.

54. Cicindela aurofasciata.

55. Anomala regina.

56. Taractrocera ceramas ceramas Hew.

57. Appias indr a shiva Swinhoe.

58. Curculigo orchioides Gaertn.

THE BIONOMICS OF RIBBON FISHES ( TRICHIURUS SPP.)

AND THEIR FISHERY ON THE WEST COAST OF

MADRAS PROVINCE 1

BY

P. K. Jacob, b.a., m.sc.

Assistant Director of Fisheries ( Marine Biology ) , Marine Biological

Station , West Hill.

( With a text figure )

Regarding the Ribbon fishes ( Trichiurus spp.) which abound in the inshore

regions of Indian waters, Day (2) stated * Along the 'coasts of India they are

■esteemed mostly because being thin and ribbon shaped, they can be dried

without salting.’ However, these are extensively salt-cured on the West Coast

of Madras. They form an economically important fishery on this coast, as can

toe seen from the table below which shows the ranking of ribbon fishes among the

chief fisheries here.2

Nutritive value :

Recently it has been estimated that the iron content in the ribbon fish,

Trichiurus savala is 13.89 mgm. per 100 gm., which is the highest among

the 29 common food fishes analysed by the technological section of the

Madras Fisheries. The fat content is above average, being 3.25% while the

phosphorous and caicium contents are 1.51% and 0.47% respectively. These

compare very well with those of other fishes. Even though the ribbon fish is

not regarded as a prime table fish by the well-to-do, actual analysis has proved

its high nutritive value.

The three species, Trichiurus savala, Trichiurus haumela and Trichiurus

muticus , constitute the Ribbon fish fishery of the West Coast. Of these, the

former two predominate in catches. Trichiurus muticus appears only rarely.

Each species shoals separately.

1 Published with the kind permission of the Director of Industries and Com-

merce, Madras.

2 The computation is according to the fisheries year beginning with July

and ending with June.

262 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

Season of the fishery :

Table showing the landings of the Ribbon fishes on the West Coast

for the past ten years in maunds.

From the above table it is seen that the fishing season is from April to

October. The peak of the fishery is from July to October.

Spawning season :

Of the three hundred and twenty-one specimens of Trichiurus savala

examined from time to time, ripe specimens were available in the months of

April, May and October, while out of the two hundred and fifty specimens of

Trichiurus hciiimelay mature specimens were available from February to April

and also in October. Whether these two periods constitute two distinct spaw-

ning seasons, or one prolonged spawning season, is yet to be confirmed by exami-

ning a large number of adult specimens of both the species all through the

year. Eggs of Ribbon fishes were obtained from the plankton in the month of

October 1939.

In Ribbon fishes, it has been observed that the right ovary and the right

testis are much better developed than the left ones. On one occasion a ripe

specimen with the right ovary one and a half times more developed than the

left was noted. But the ova in both the lobes were equally well developed.

Devanesen and John (4) have mentioned the case of Kowala thoracato in

which the left gonad is better developed .

Spawning season coincides with the fishing season. This overlapping is

likely to have a deleterious effect on the fishery as a whole. Further work is

needed to decide the peak of the spawning period of this fish and if this peak is

found to coincide with the peak of the fishery, measures may have to be adopted

to prevent the depletion of the fishery by enforcing a closed season during the

peak period. But the question as to how far the overfishing of this predatory

fish, can deplete the fishery as a whole is yet another problem to be solved by

the fisheries scientist.

The fluctuation of the Ribbon fish fishery :

The fishery , shows a very irregular fluctuation. The overlapping of the

fishing season with the spawning season, together with the overfishing of the

immature Ribbon fishes as on the East Coast (1) possibly cause these fluc-

tuations. According to Meek (5) hydrographical changes may cause the

migration in Ribbon fishes of Cape Town and South Africa, where too,

considerable fluctuation in this fishery has been observed. Ribbon fishes being

predatory on other economically important fishes, their overfishing can hardly

do harm to the fisheries as a whole.

THE BIONOMICS OF RIBBON FISHES

263

1 925 — 26

1926— 27

1927— 28

1928— 29

1929— 30

1930— 31

1931— *— 32

1932— 33

1933— 34

1934— 35

1935— 36

1936— 37

1937— 38

1938— 39

1939— 40

1940— 41

1941 — 42

1942— 43

1943— 44

1944— 45

1 a 3 <■ s

Fig. 1.

Chart showing the landings of Ribbon fish fishery for the

years 1925-45, in ten thousands of maunds.

Food of Ribbon fishes :

Venkataraman (6) has recorded the carnivorous feeding habits of Ribbon

fishes. According to him Ribbon fishes not only prey upon Sardinella spp., the

sardines, Caranx spp. the horse mackerels, Leiognathus spp. the silver bellies.

Cytioglossus semifasciatus the Malabar soles, Lactarius lacfarius the Big- jawed,

Jumper, Dussumieria hasseltii , the rainbow sardines, Ambassis spp. the glass

fishes, Engraulis spp. the Anchovies and the Sciaenids the Jew fishes, but they

are also noticed to swallow fish eggs, thus playing havoc on other fisheries.

The two pairs of large canines in the upper jaw and one pair in the lower,

help it to prey on other fishes. The alimentary canal consists of one straight

tube without the convolutions met with in herbivorous fishes. Prawns and

white-baits form the favourite food of the Ribbon fishes as in the case of Jew

fishes and Big-jawed Jumper.

Enemies of Ribbon fishes :

Man who hauls these fishes in millions may be considered to be one of their

enemies. These pugnacious creatures are reported to bite fishermen severely and

also to destroy nets turning them into shreads with their sharp teeth. Hence

only old nets are usually used in the capture of these fishes for fear of spoiling

new ones.

It is interesting to observe that these degenerate voracious creatures preying

mercilessly on other fishes are not themselves free from the still more voracious

sabre-fish Chirocentrus dorab. The thread fin, Polynemus tetradactylus and

Big-jawed Jumper, Lactarius lactarius are also known to feed on young Ribbon

fishes.

Methods of capture :

The following nets are used

Seine nets :

Paithu vala

Odam vala

Vakku vala

Nool vala

Thalayan vala

to catch Ribbon fishes : —

Drift nets :

Chala vala

Ozhukku vala

Kolli vala

Sravu vala

264 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

Cast net : Veechti vala.

Shore seine : Rarapini net.

Vadakkan vala, vatta vala, sravu vala.

Fishes caught along with Ribbon Fishes :

Prawns, white baits ( Stotephorus spp.) Oil sardines ( Sardinella longiceps ),

Silver bellies (Leiognathus spp.) Mackerel ( Rastreiliger kanagurta ), white

sardine ( Kowala thoracata ), Sardinella fimbriata , Pomfrets ( Stromateus spp.),

Big-jawed Jumper ( Lactarius lactarius) and the Malabar sole ( Cy no gloss us

semifasciatus ) .

Fishing Centres :

Gangoli, Malpe, Madai, Cannanore, Tellicherry, Badagara, Quilandy,

Calicut, Parappanangady, Tanur, Paravanna, Kootayi and Ponnani.

Summary:

From the five hundred and sixty-two specimens of Ribbon fishes examined

during the past ten years at the Marine Biological Station, West Hill, and the

statistics of fish landed on the West Coast, this note on the bionomics of ribbon

fishes and their fishery has been drafted. The rankings of Ribbon fishes among

the important fisheries on the West Coast for the past twenty years to 1945 are

given, the species constituting the fishery are described, the season of the fishery,

their spawning season, the fluctuation of the fishery, the food and the enemies

of ribbon fishes are indicated. A chart showing the fluctuation of ribbon fishes

is also given.

Acknowledgments

The data on Ribbon fishes gathered at the Marine Biological Station, West

Hill during the past decade by various research workers helped me to draft

this note. I am grateful to all of them. But the opinions expressed thereon

and the conclusions arrived at are my own. 1 am also grateful to Dr. H. Sreeni-

vasa Rao, d.sc., f.a.Sc., f.n.i. and Mr P. I. Cbacko, b sc. (Hons.), f.z.s. for

kindly going through the manuscript and for their valuable suggestions.

References

1. Ayer, R. G., 1943: Sharks and shark-liver oil. Cur. Sc. Vol. 2.

No. 3, p. 78.

2. Day, F., 1889: Fauna of British India, Fishes. Vol. 2, p. 133.

3. Chidambaram, K. & Venkataraman, R. S., 1946 : A tabulated state-

ment on the Natural History of certain Marine food fishes of the Madras

Presidency —West Coast. A Madras Govt, publication, p. 15.

4. Devanesen, D. W. & John, V., 1941 : On the Natural History of Kowala

thoracata. Rec. Ind. Mus. Vol 43, p. 216.

5. Meek, A., 1916 : The Migration of Fish. — Arnold — p. 331.

6. Venkataraman, R. S., 1944: Food of Ribbon fishes. Cur. Sc. Vol. 13,

No. 9, p. 239.

A SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF THE FOOD-PLANTS OF TH3§

INDIAN BOMBYCID^E, AG ARISTIDE AND NOCTUIDAE

BY

D. G. SEVASTOPULO, F.R E.S.

Since writing the first two papers in this series, On the Food-plants of Indian

Bombyces ( Heterocera ) (1940, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xli, 817-27) and

On the Food plants of Indian Agaristidae and Noctuidae (1941, ibid, 421-30),

I have collected a fair amount of further data. Much of this is from Gardner’s

papers, some from Lefroy’s Indian Insect Life , and some again from my own

observations and from sundry publications.

I have used the same abbreviations as in the original papers with the addi-

tion of ‘ Lefroy for Indian Insect Life and ‘ Gardner i, ii, etc.’ for his papers

as under: —

i — 1938, Indian Forest Records , iii, 187-212.

ii — 1941, Indian Forest Records , vi, 253-296.

iii — 1941, Indian Forest Records , vi, 299-309.

iv — 1942, Indian Forest Records, vii, 155-161.

v — Indian Journal of Entomology , v., 89-102.

vi — 1946, Trans. R. ent. Soc. Lond , 96, 61-72.

ZYGAENID^E

PHAUDINiE

Phauda Wlk.

P. flammans Wlk. — Ficus spp. (Gardner, iv).

Chalcosiin^e

Trypanophora Koll.

T. semihyalina Koll. — -Rose, Castor, Gardenia, Carissa carandas (mihi),

Lagerstroemia spp., Shorea robusta, Terminalia catappa, T. tomentosa, Bar-

ringtonia acutangula (Gardner, iv) .

Cyclosia Hbn.

C. papilionaris Drury — Dipterocarpus aporosa, D. tuberculatus (Gardner,

iv).

Histia Hbn

H. rhodope Cr. — Bischofia javanica (Gardner, iv).

Campylotes Westw.

C. histrionicus Westw. — Pieris ovalifolia, Rhododendron sp. (Gardner, iv).

Erasmia Hope.

E. pidchella Hope — Buddleia sp. (Gardner, iv).

Eterusia Hope.

E. pulchella Koll. — Rubus macilentus (Jones, Journ., Bomb . Nat. Hist. Soc.,

xl, 578) , Rubus sp., Melastoma normale, Lagerstroemia indica, Rose (mihi).

E. aedea L., cingala Moore — Tea (Gardner, iv).

E. aedea L., edocla Dbl. — Camelia (mihi).

Chalcosia Hbn.

C . pectinicornis L. — Symplocos cratacgoides (Gardner, iv).

ZYGAENIN.E

Artona Wlk.

A. discivitta Wlk. — Grasses (Gardner, iv).

Tasema Wlk.

T. bipars Wlk. — Quercus incana (Gardner, iv).

5

266 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 48

SYNTOMID^E

Amata F. (Syntomis O.)

A . cyssea Stoll. — Oats, Corrvolvulacese, Sweet Potato (Lefroy), Dahlia,

Cosmos, preferring the flowers fmihi).

A. sperbius F.— Oats, Convolvulaceae, Sweet Potato (Lefroy).

A. passalis F. — Beans (Lefroy), Dahlia, Orange Cosmos (mihi).

ARCTIID^E

Nolin^e

Nola Leach.

N. distributa Wlk. — Terminalia belerica (Gardner v).

N. fuscibasalis Hamps. — Zizyphus jujuba (mihi) .

Roeselia Hbn.

R. Tola Swinh. — Terminalia catappa (Lefroy).

R. lignifera Wlk. — Terminalia tomentosa (Gardner, v)

L1THOSIIN.E

Siccia Wlk.

■S’, taprobanis Wik. — Lichens on walls (mihi).

HypSin^:

Asota Hbn. (Hypsa Hbn).

A. alciphron Cr. — Ficus hispida, F. palmata, Broussonetia papyrifera

(G «j-dner, ii).

Digama Moore.

D. hearseyana Moore — Carissa spinarum (Gardner, ii).

Arctiin^e

Diacrisia Hbn.

D. obliqua Wlk. — Heliotropium iudicum, Urticaceae spp., Castor (mihi).

Amsacta Wlk.

A. albistriga Wlk. — Groundnuts (Lefroy).

A. moorei Btlr. — Jowar, Maize, Bajra (Trehan & Pingle, Journ ,. Bomb. Nat.

Hist. Soc., xlvi, 141).

A. lineola F. — Orange Cosmos, Lettuce (mihi).

Creatonotus Hbn.

C. transients Wlk. — Grasses (mihi) .

Pericallia Hbn.

P. ricini F. — Cucurbitaceae (Lefroy), Banana (Trehan & Pingle, Journ.

Bomb., Nat. Hist. Soc ., xlvi, 153), Impatiens sp. (mihi).

Utetheisa Hbn.

U. pulchella L. — Crotalaria (Lefroy ; Trehan & Pingle, Journ., Bomb. Nat.

Hist. Soc. , xlvi 145) .

U. lotrix Cr. — Heliotropium indicum (mihi).

U. pulchelloides Hamps. — Tournefortia argentea (Lep. Phal). ssp. vaga

Jord. — Heliotropium indicum (mihi).

Argina Hbn.

A. cribraria Clerck — Crotalaria (Lefroy).

Callimorphin^e

Callimorpha Latr.

C. plagiaia Wlk. — Ferns, low plants (mihi).

LYMANTRIIDAL

Dasychira Stepb .

D. dalbergiae Moore — Dalbergia latifolia, Eugenia jambolana, Mangifera

indica, Shorea robusta, Cassia tora, Ricinus communis (Gardner, i).

D. grotei Moore — Shorea robusta, Tectona grandis, Lagerstroemia flos-

reginae. Psidium guava (Gardner, i), Rubus sp., Quercus sp , Polygonum sp.,

Acacia dealbata, Apple (mihi).

A SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OP TtiE FOOD-PLANTS

26?

D. pennatula F. ( securis Hbn.) — Grasses, Crucifers (Lefroy), Grasses

(Gardner iii;mibi).

D. mendosa Hbn.— Zea mays, Shcrea robusta (Gardner, i) , Potato (Lefroy),

Sunflower, Castor, Wistaria, Lagerstroemia thorelli (mihi).

D. horsfieldi Saund. — Shorea robusta, Schleichera trijuga (Indian Lac

Research Institute Bulletin).

D. tenebrosa Wlk. — Vine, Virginia Creeper (mihi).

D. feminula Hamps. — Vine, Virginia Creeper (mihi).

Orgyia O.

O. pottica Wlk. — Lagerstroemia flos-reginae (Gardner, i), Rose, Geranium

(mihi).

Laelia Steph.

L. umbrina Moore — Grass (Gardner, i).

L. devestita Wlk. — Grass (Gardner, iii).

L. exclamaiionis Koll.— Grass (Gardner, iii ; mihi).

L . lilura Wlk. — Unidentified weeds (Gardner, i).

Leucoma Steph.

L. submarginata Wlk. — Lagerstroemia flos-reginae (mihi).

Caragola Moore.

C. cygna Moore— Cinnamomum camphora, Phoebe lanceolata, Alseodaphne

owdenii (Gardner, i).

C. ochripes Moore — Litsaea polyantha, L. sebifera, Phoebe lanceolata

(Gardner, i).

C. sericea Moore — Laurineae (mihi).

Redoa Wlk.

R. Phrika Collnt. — Shorea robusta (Gardner, i).

Pantana Wlk.

P. bicolor Wlk. — Grass (mihi).

Thiacidas Wlk.

T. vilis Wlk.— Acacia catechu, Prosopis spinigera (Gardner, iii).

Lymantria Hbn.

L. nigra Moore — Mangifera indica (Gardner, i ; mihi).

L. semicincta Wlk. — Shorea robusta (Gardner, i).

L. obfuscata Wlk. — Alnus nitidus, Salix babylonica (Gardner, i).

L.mathura Moore — Shorea robusta, Quercas serrata, Terminalia arjuna,

T. myriocarpa (Gardner, i) .

L. concolor Wlk— Quercus serrata, Q. incana (Gardner, i).

L. incerta Wlk.— Terminalia myriocarpa (Gardner, iii), Ficus religiosa,

Zizyphus jujuba (Lefroy).

L. ampla Wlk.— Terminalia oatappa, Ficus religiosa (Lefroy), Castor, Cassia

fistula, Lagerstroemia thorelli (mihi).

L. biviitata Moore — Quercus semiserrata (mihi).

Perina Wlk.

P. nuda F.- Ficus glomerata (Gardner, i), Artocarpus integrifolia (mihi).

Porthesia Steph.

P. scintillans Wlk.— Linseed, Hibiscus esculentus, Bajra Mango, Terminalia

catappa (Lefroy), Mangifera indica, Ficus glomerata, Shorea robusta, Aesculus

indica (Gardner, i), Ricinus communis, Lantana se’lowiana, Zizyphus jujuba,

Capparis sp., Orange Cosmos, Clerodendron infortunatum, Lagerstroemia

thorelli, Kleinhovia hospita (mihi) ssp. limbata Btlr. — Melastoma normale

(mihi) .

P. xantkorrhoea Koll. — Sugarcane, Juar, Bajra, Eleusine corocana, Guinea

Grass, other cereals (Lefroy), Weeds (Gardner, i), Lagerstroemia indica

(mihi).

Euproctis Hbn.

E. icilia Stoll. — Loranthus (Lefroy).

E. fraterna Moore. — Mangifera indica, Terminalia tomentosa, Shorea

robusta, Ricinus communis (Gardner, i), Pomegranate (Caius, Journ ., Bomb.

Nat. Hisl.'Soc., xlii, 26).

268 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

E. guttata Wlk.-— Maesa indica, Mallotus philippensis, Shorea robusta,

Lantana camara (Gardner, i), Zizyphus jujuba, Carissa carandas (mihi).

E. bipartita Moore — Shorea robusta (Gardner, i).

E. inconcisa Wlk. — Melastoma normale (mihi).

E. divisa Wlk. — Rose, Apple, Engelhardtia acerifolia (mihi).

E. digramma Guer. — Melastoma normale (mihi).

E. dana Swinb. — Blumea balsamifera (Lefroy).

E. Tlavinata Wlk. — Melastoma normale (mihi).

E. bipunctapex Hamps. — Shorea robusta, Terminalia tomentosa, T. myrio-

carpa, Eugenia jambolana (Gardner, i).

E. sulphurescens Moore — Lantana camara (Gardner, i).

E. lunata Wlk. — Acacia arabica, Zizyphus jujuba, Rosa (Lefroy), Termi-

nalia tomentosa, Cinnamomum camphora (Gardner, i), Carissa carandas

(mihi) .

E . subfasciata Wlk. — Quisqualis indica (mihi).

T H AUMETOPOEIDiE

Thaumetopoea Hbn.

T.cheela Moore.— Rhus cotinus (Gardner, v).

LASIOCAMPIDiE

Paralebeda Auriv.

P. plagifera Wlk. — Maesa chisia, Alseodaphne semicarpifolia in captivity

(mihi).

Suana Wlk.

S. concolor Wlk. — Shorea robusta (Lefroy), Shorea robusta, Litsaea

polyantha (Gardner, iii).

Bhima Moore.

B. undulosa Wlk. — Quercus incana (Gardner, iii).

Taragama Moore.

T. dorsalis Wlk.— Butea frondosa, Zizyphus jujuba (Bulletin Lac Research

Institute) .

T. siva Lef. — Rose, Zizyphus jujuba, Acacia arabica (Lefroy), Butea fron-

dosa, Zizyphus jujuba (Bulletin Lac Research Institute).

Metanastria Hbn.

M. latipennis Wlk. — Shorea robusta (Gardner, iii).

M. lidderdalii Btlr. — Pine (mihi).

M.hyrtaca Cr. — Eugenia jambos (Aiyar, Journ ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc.t

xliii, 673).

Arguda Moore.

A . bheroba Moore. — Rubus sp., Melastoma normale (mihi).

Chilena Wlk.

C. similis Wlk. — Acacia catechu (Gardner, iii).

Malacosoma Hbn.

M. indica Wlk. — Quercus dilatata (Gardner, iii) .

Trabala Wlk.

T. vishnu Lef. -Quercus incana, Terminalia tomentosa, Shorea robusta,

Eugenia jambolana (Gardner, iii), Lagerstroemia thorelli (mihi).

Estigena Moore.

E. pardalis Wlk. — Carissa carandas (mihi).

Cosmotriche Hbn.

C. laeta Wlk.— Grasses, Dalbergia sissoo (Gardner, iii).

C. pyriformis Moore — Grasses (mihi).

eupterotim;

Eupterote Hbn.

E. undata Blanch.— Quisqualis indica, Lantana camara, Alseodaphne semi-

carpifolia, Palms (mihi).

E. geminata Wlk. — Lagerstroemia indica (mihi).

A SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF THE FOOD-PLANTS

269

BOMBYCIDiE

Mustilia Wlk.

M. falcipennis Wlk. — Symplocos sp. (mihi).

Andraca Wlk.

A. bipuncta'a Wlk.— Symplocos sp. (mihi) .

DREPANID^E

Macrauzata Btlr.

M. fenestraria Moore— Quercus lineata (mihi).

Phalacra Wlk.

P. vidhisara Wlk. — Phoenix sylvestris (Lefroy), Dates (Seitz).

Albara Wlk.

A. argenticeps Warr. — Rubus sp., Quercus lineata (mihi).

SATURNIIDJE

Actias Hbn.

A.selene Hbn. — Lagerstroemia indica (Parsons, Journ., Bomb . Nat. Hist.

Soc., xlii, 209).

Sarnia Hbn.

5*. cynthia Drury— Laurineae sp., Rutaceae spp. (mihi).

Loepa Moore.

L. katinka Westw.— Salix babylonica (Parsons, Journ ., Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc.,

xlii, 209) Impatiens sp., Polygonum sp., Ampelopsis sp. (mihi).

Antheraea Hbn.

A. paphia L. — Shorea robusta, Lagerstroemia indica (Lefroy).

Dictyoploca Jord.

D. Simla Westw. — Laurineae sp. (mihi).

NOTODONTID^l

Phalera Hbn.

P. sangana Moore, stigmifera Btlr. — Erythrina suberosa (Gardner, v).

Gargetta Wlk.

G. costigera Wlk.— Bridelia retusa (Gardner, v).

G. curvaria Hamps. — Bischofia javanica (Gardner, v).

G. in gens Wlk. — Antidesma diandrum (Gardner, v) .

Stenadonta Hamps,

5. radialis Gaede — Dendrocalamus hamiltonii (Gardner, v).

Ramesa Wlk.

An unidentified species on Grass (mihi) .

Stauropus Germ.

alternus Wlk. — Cassia glauca, C. fistula, C. javanica (Gardner, v),

Ougeinia dalbergoides (Bulletin Lac Research Institute), Cassia fistula, Ricinus

communis (mihi).

Cerura Schrank.

C. liturata Wlk. — Flacourtia cataphracta (Gardner, v).

C. wisei Swinh. — Salix, Populus ciliata (Gardner, v).

C. prasana Moore. — Casearia tomentosa (Gardner, v) .

Neopheosia Mats.

N. excurvata Hamps. — Anogeissus latifolia (Gardner, v).

Teleclita Trnr.

T. strigata Moore — Terminalia cliebula (Gardner, v).

Notodonta O.

An unidentified species on Bauhinia purpurea (Gardner, v).

Spataloides Mats.

5. argentifera Wlk. — Ougeinia dalbergoides (Gardner, v),

270 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

Pygaera O,

P. fulgurita Wlk. — Elaeodendron glaucum, Flacourtia ramontchi, Xylosma

longifolium (Gardner, v).

P. restitura Wlk. — Casearia tomentosa (Gardner, v).

P . cupreata Btlr. — Flacourtia ramontchi (Gardrer, v).

Gazalina Wlk.

G. apsara Moore, — Quercus dilatata (Gardner, v).

LIMACODID^E

Cheromettia Moore.

C. apicata Moore ( laleana Moore) — Schieichera trijuga (Bulletin Lac

Research Institute).

Narosa Wlk.

N. doenia Moore — Castor (mihi) .

Altha Wlk.

A. nivea Wlk. — Ricinus communis, Tinospora cordifolia, Orange, Poly-

althea longifolia (mihi) .

A. melanopsis Strand.— Tea (C.M. Inglis in litt.).

Miresa Wlk.

M. albipuncta H. — Schaff. — Butea frondosa (Lefroy).

Mambarilla Herring.

M. narosides Herring — Pear (mihi).

Parasa Moore.

P. lepida Cr. — Palms, Padauk Lagerstroemia flos-reginae, Cassia fistula

(mihi), Castor, Nephelium longana, Terminalia catappa (Lefroy).

Thosea Wlk.

T. loesa Moore — Palms, Carissa carandas (mihi).

T.cana Wlk. — Castor (Lefroy), Cassia fistula (mihi).

T. tripartita Moore — Palas (Lefroy), Zizyphus jujuba, Castor (mihi).

Natada Wlk.

N. suffusa Moore — Castor, Carissa carandas (mihi).

Phocoderma Btlr.

P‘ velutina Koll. — Mango (Lefroy).

PSYCH IDJE

Mahasena Moore.

M. graminivora Hamps. — Rice (Lefroy).

Chalia Moore.

C. doubleaayi Westw. — Cassia fistula (Lefroy).

Chalioides Hamps.

C. vitrea Hamps. — Mango (Lefroy), Tamarind (Brahmachari Journ .,

Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc ., xl, 56), Quisqualis indica, Wattle (mihi).

Pteroma Hamps.

P . plagiophleps Hamps. — Tamarind (Brahmachari, Journ., Bomb. Nat.

Hist. Soc., xl, 56).

Amatissa Wlk.

A. cuprea Moore — Lagerstroemia indica, Ipomoea palmala (mihi).

A. moorei Heyl. — Lagerstroemia indica (Lefroy).

THYRIDID^E

Strigiina Guen.

5. scitaria Wlk. — Phaseolus sp. (mihi).

1 NDARBELI DM

Indarbela Fletcher.

Lichi, Bair, Mango, Guava, Orange and other fruit trees (Lefroy).

/. tetraonis Moore — Pomegranate (Caius, Journ., Bamb. Nat. Hist. Soc.,

xlii, 26), Guava, Mango (Trehan <S? Pingle. ibid , xlvi 151),

A SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF THE FOOD-PLANTS

271

cossidje

Cossus F.

C. caiambae Moore — Teak (Lefroy).

Zeuzera Latr.

Z. coffeae Nietn. — Santalum album (Lefroy).

Xyleutes Hbn.

X. leuconotus Wlk. — In the trunks of Cassia fistula (mihi).

Azygophleps Hamps.

A. scalaris F. — -Sesbania grandiflora, S. aegyptica (Lefroy)

AGARISTID^E

Aegocera Latr.

A. venulia Cr. — Trianthema, Boerhavia (Gardner, ii).

Seudyra Stretch.

5. venosa Moore — Vitis trifolii (Lefroy).

NOCTUID^

Acronictisle

Acronicta Treit.

A. pruinosa Guen. — Eleagnus latifolia (Gardner, ii).

A. indica Moore — Plantago sp., Rose, Salvia sp., Melastoma normale,

Garden Geranium (mihi).

A. rubiginosa Wlk.— Terminalia myriocarpa (Gardner, ii).

Simyra Treit.

S. conspersa Moore — Lotus (Gardner, vi).

Mominjec

Moma Hbn

M. champa Moore — Pyrus communis, Prunus communis (Gardner, ii),

Pyrus pashia (Gardner, vi), Rose (mihi).

Euxoinje

Rhyacia Hbn.

R, ypsilon Rott. — Tobacco, Potato, Gram (Trehan & Pingle, Journ .,

Bomb . Nat. Hist. Soc., xlvi, 146).

H ADENINE

Polia Treit.

P. consanguis Guen. — Grasses (mihi).

Tiracola Moore.

T. plagiata Wlk.— Polygonum sp. , Menispermaceae sp. and a number of

unidentified low plants (mihi).

Brithys Hbn.

B. crini F. — Lilies (Lefroy), Zephyranthes sp. (mihi).

Polytela Guen.

P. gloriosae F. — Liliaceae and Amaryllidacea?, species of Zephyranthes

being specially favoured (Gardner, 11).

Hyphilare Hbn.

H. loreyi Dup. — Cereals (Lefroy).

Sideridis Hbn.

S. albistigma Moore — Grasses (Cherian & Anantanarayanan Journ. , Bomb.

Nat. Hist. Soc., xlii, 611), Paddy (Trehan & Pingle, ibid, xlvi, 143).

S. fragilis Btlr. — Wheat (Lefroy).

S. unipuncta Haw. — Rice, Maize, Juar (Lefroy), Sugarcane, Jowar,

Maize, Bajra (Trehan & Pingle, Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xlvi. 140)

X. j/«Guen. — Grasses (mihi).

S. venalba Moore — Rice (Lefroy), Grasses (mihi).

.S’, irregularis 'Wlk. — Grasses (mihi).

272 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

Amphipyrin^e

Stenopterygia Hbn.

subcurva Wlk. — Ochna squarrosa (Gardner, ii).

Conservula Grote.

6’. indica Moore — Bracken (mihi).

Eriopus Treit.

E. repleta Wlk. — Bracken, ferns (mihi).

Cetola Wlk..

C. dentata Wlk. — Cordia myx a (Gardner, vi).

Prodenia Guen.

P. litura F. — Cotton, Bersin, Lucerne, Maize, Pea-nut, Beet, Sweet Potato.

Colocasia, Potato, Leaf Beet, Mallow, Jews Mallow, French Bean, Hibiscus

esculentus, Til, Red Pepper, Tomato, Vine, Orange, Plum, Mulberry, Chrysan-

themum, Wheat, Rice, Soya Bean, Fenugreek, Egg Plant, Water Melon, Cuc-

urbit, Cabbage, Onion, Mandarin, Guava, Fig, Poplar, Banana, Rose, Mint,

Viola, Tobacco, Agathi, Jute, Indigo, Elephant Yam, Pea, Grass, Eugenia

malaccensis, Carissa carandas, Moringa pterygosperma, Ficus religiosa, Celery,

Cauliflower, Shaddock, Radish, Apple, Pear, Clitorea ternatea, Cestrum noctur-

num, Thuya orientalis, Anona squamosa, Papaya, Mango, Glycosmis penta-

phylla (Basu, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist, Soc., xliv, 278), Tobacco, Cruciferous

vegetables, Peas, Banana (Trehan & Pingle, ibid, xlvi, 146), Teak (Gardner, ii),

Dahlia. Argemone mexicana (mihi).

Spodoptera Guen.

5. mauritia Bsd. — Paddy (Trehan & Pingle, Journ ., Bomb. Nat. Hist, Soc.,

xlvi, 143).

Laphygma Guen.

L. exigua Hpn.— Jowar, Cotton, Chillies, Cruciferous vegetables, Peas

(Trehan & Pingle, Journ., Bomb* Nat. Hist. Soc., xlvi, 141).

Condica Wlk.

C. indistans Guen.— Weeds (Gardner, ii) .

Prospalta Wlk.

P. capensis Guen. — Niger, Jute, Safflower, Coreopsis (Lefroy), Bidens

pilosa (Gardner, ii).

P. pallidipennis Warr.— A garden Knapweed (mihi).

Pyrrnia Hbn.

P. umbra Hufn.— Rhododendron arboreum (Gardner, vi).

Elydna Wlk.

E. Uansversa Wlk.- Schleichera trijuga (Gardner, vi).

Androlymnia Hamps.

A. emarginata Hamps.— Grewia laevigata (Gardner, vij.

Sesamia Guen.

S. inferens Wlk.— Sugarcane, Jowar, Maize, Wheat, Bajra, Paddy (Trehan

& Pingle, Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xlvi, 141), Grasses (mihi).

S. uniformis Dudg. — Wheat, Sugarcane, Maize, Rice, Juar, Guinea Grass

(Lefro).

Chasmina Wlk.

C. tibialis F. — Grewia disperma (Gardner, vi).

C. judicata Wlk. — Helicteres isora (Gardner, vi).

Erastrtan^e

Coccidiphaga Spul.

C. scitula Rmbr.— Mealy bugs (Lefroy) .

Porphyrinia Hbn.

P. trifasciata Moore — Rivea^sp, (Lefroy).

Autoba Wlk.

A. olivacea Wlk.— Solanaceae (Gardner, ii), Brinjal (Lefroy; Trehan &

Pingle, Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xlvi, 147 (mihi).

A. silicula Swinh.— Witches broom on Mangifera indica (Gardner, ii ) .

A SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF THE FOOD-PLANTS

273

Corgatha Wlk.

C. zonalis Wlk. —-Lichen on palm trees (mihi).

Hiccoda Moore.

H. dosaroides Moore — Grass (Gardner, ii) .

Ozarba Wlk.

O. brunnea Liech — Grass (Gardner, ii).

Amyna Guen.

A. punctum F.- Croton (Lefroy).

Ilattia Wlk.

I. octo Guen. — Sweet Potato (Lefroy), Chenopodium album (Gardner, ii)

Amaranthus sp. (mihi).

Berresa Wlk.

B. natalis Wlk.— Sida rhombifolia (Gardner, ii).

Maliattha Wlk.

M. signifera Wlk.— Rice (Lefroy), Grass (Gardner, iij.

Xanthograpta Hamps.

X. trilatalis Wlk.— Grass (Gardner, ii).

Naranga Moore.

A T. diffusa Wlk.— Rice (Lefroy) .

Hoplotarache Hamps.

H. lunana F.— Sida rhombifolia (Gardner, ii).

Tarache Hbn,

T. marmoralis F. — Sida rhombifolia (Gardner, ii ; Lefroy).

T. crocata Guen.— Jute (Lefroy).

T. nitidula F.— Cotton (Trehan & Pingle, Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soi

xlvi, 144).

T. notabilis Wlk. — Cotton, Wild Malvaceae (Lefroy).

T. opalinoides Guen. — Abutilon indicum (Lefroy).

Melicleptriin^e

Chloridea Westw.

C. obsoleta F. — Albizzia procera, Dalbergia sissoo, Lantana, agricultural

crops (Gardner, ii), Tur, Gram, Peas (Trehan & Pingle, Journ.. Bomb. Nat.

Hist. Soc., xlvi, 150).

Adisura Moore.

A. atkinsoni Moore— Fruits of Hibiscus mutabilis (Gardner, vi).

Eutelian^e

Bombotelia Hamps.

B. delatrix Guen, — Eugenia jambos (Aiyar, Journ. , Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc.

xliii, 673), Eugenia jambolana (mihi).

Chlumetia Wlk.

C. transversa Wlk.— Mango. Litchi (Lefroy), bores in Mango shoots (Trehan

& Pingle, Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist . Soc., xlvi, 151).

Anigraea Wlk.

A. albomaculata Hamps. — Garuga pinnata, Bursera serrata (Gardner, ii).

Sarrothripin^e

Symitha Wlk.

5. nolalella Wlk.— Lagerstroemia flos-reginae, L. indica (mihi).

Giaura Wik.

G. sceptica Swinh. — Velvet Beans (Lefroy).

Selepa Moore.

S.celtis Moore— Litchi, Ficus glomerata, Terminalia catappa (Lefroy),

Shorea robusta, Terminalia tomentosa, Careya arborea, Eugenia jambolana,*

etc. (Gardner, ii), Schleichera trijuga (Bulletin Lac Research Institute)*

Lagerstroemia indica (mihi).

274

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

5. docilis Btlr. — Solanum melongena, S. xanthocarpum, S. torvum (Gardner,

ii).

5. nephelotis Meyr. — Brinjal (Lefroy) .

Baras a Wlk.

B. alopha Hamps.— Terminalia chebula (Gardner, vi) (Gardner considers

this species to belong to the Nolinae).

Risoba Moore.

R. basalis Moore— Osbeckia, Melastoma normale (mihi).

R, obstructa Moore — Lagerstroemia flos-reginae (Gardner, ii).

ACONTIIN.E

Earias Hbn.

E fabia Stoll. — Hibiscus esculentus, Cotton (Lefroy).

E. insulana Bsd. — Hibiscus esculentus, Cotton (Lefroy).

E. cupreoviridis Wlk. — Cultivated Hibiscus, Jute (Lefroy), Sida rhombi-

folia (Gardner, ii) .

Pseudelydna Hamps.

P. rufoflava Wlk. — Terminalia tomentosa, T. myriocarpa (Gardner, ii).

Carea Wlk.

C. subtilis Wlk. — Eugenia jambolana (Gardner, Ii) .

C. nitida Hamps.— Eugenia sp. (mihi).

Maurilia Moschl.

M. iconica Wlk. — Shorea robusta, Tectona grandis, Anogeissus lati folia

(Gardner, ii).

Churia Moore.

C. nigrisigna Moore— Grewia laevigata (Gardner, ii).

Westermannia Hbn.

W. coelisigna Hamps. — Terminalia belerica (Gardner, ii).

Acontia O .

A. transversa Guen. — Urena lobata (Gardner, ii).

A. inter septa Guen — Kydia calycina, Urena lobata, Hibiscus sp. (Gard-

ner, ii).

A. vrnlvae Esp. — Abutilon bidentatum (Gardner, ii).

Catocalin^e

Anua Wlk.

A. tirhaca Cr. — Guava (Lefroy).

A. triphaenoides Wlk. — Shorea robusta (Gardner, ii).

Achaea Hbn.

A. janata L. — Ricinus communis (Gardner, ii), Castor, Pomegranate

(Trehan & Pingle, Journ ., Bo?nb. Nat. Hist. 5£?c.,xlvi, 148), Schleichera trijuga,

Zizyphus jujuba, Acacia farnesiana (Bulletin Lac Research Institute).

Parallelia Hbn.

P . crameri Moore — Phyllanthus emblica (Gardner, ii).

Attatha Moore.

A. regalis Moore — Ficus religiosa (Gardner, ii).

A. ino Drury — Ficus religiosa (mihij.

Grammodes Guen .

G. geometrica F. — Rice (Lefroy).

Chalciope Hbn.

C. hyppasia Cr.— Leguminosae (Lefroy).

Mocis Hbn.

M. frugalis F. — Rice, Juar, other Gramineae (Lefroy), Grass (Gardner

mihi).

M . undata F. — Leguminosae (Lefroy), Rhynchosia minima (mihi)

Pericyma Herr.— Schaff.

P. umbrina Guen. — Acacia catechu (Gardner, ii).

A SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF THE FOOD-PLANTS

275

Phytometrin.®

Phytoraetra Haw.

P. ?ri Hbn. — Opium, Cabbage, Safflower (Lefroy).

P. limbirena Guen. —Indigo (Lefroy).

P. tarassota Hamps. — Garden Geranium (mihi)

P. daubeiBsti. — Mint (Lefroy).

P. chalcytes Esp. — Mint, Sann Hemp, Cultivated pulses, Geranium (Letroy),

Lantana aculeata, Solanum pubescens (Gardner, ii).

P. eriosoma Dbl. — Garden Hollyhock (mihi).

P. signata F. — Cabbage (Lefroy).

P. nigrisigna Wlk. — Gram, Lucerne, Peas (Lefroy).

P. orichalcea F. — Crucifers (Lefroy), Dalbergia sissoo, Butea frondosa,

Eugenia jambolana (Gardner, ii), Garden Geranium (mihi).

Noctuin<e

Cosmophila Bsd.

C. sabuhfera Guen. — Jute (Lefroy), Grewia tiliaefolia, G. elastica, G. laevi-

gata, Eriolaena hookeriana (Gardner, ii), Thespesia populnea (mihi).

C. mesogona Wlk.— Rubus lasiocarpus (Gardner, ii), Rubusspp. (mihi).

C. fulvida Guen. — Abutilon avicennae (Lefroy), Kydia calycina (Gard-

ner, ii).

C. erosa Hbn. — Cotton, Sida rhombifolia, Malachra capitata (Lefroy),

Urena lobata, Hibiscus esculentus, Cotton (Gardner, ii).

C. indica Guen.— Cotton (Trehan & Pingle, Journ ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc.,

xlvi, 144)

Sypna Guen.

S. curvilinea Moore — Rubus sp.

S. latifasciata — Rub us s p .

Ophideres Bsd.

O. fullonica L. — Cocculus laurifolia (Gardner, ii).

Adris Moore.

A. tyrannus Guen. — Menisperinaceae sp, (mihi).

Pandesma Guen.

P. quenavadi Guen. — Acacia catechu (Gardner, ii).

Polydesma Bsd.

P. umbricola Bsd. — Albizzia stipulata (mihi).

Ericeia Wlk.

E. inangulata Guen. — Cassia fistula (mihi).

Catephia O.

C. inquieta Wlk. — Sweet Potato (Lefroy).

Sphingomorpha Cr.

S. chtorea Cr.— Acacia (Lefroy).

Fodina Guen.

F. stola Guen.— Holarrhena antidysenterica (Gardner, ii).

Azazia Wlk.

A. rubricans Bsd. — Leguminosae (Lefroy).

Episparis Wlk.

E. tortuosalis Moore — Chukrassia tabularis (Gardner, ii).

Hypocala Guen.

H. rostrata F. — Diospyros montana, D. melanura (Gardner, ii).

Plecoptera Guen.

P. reflexa Guen. — Dalbergia sissoo (Gardner, ii).

Oraesia Guen.

O. emarginata F.— Cissampelos pareira (Gardner, ii).

Boccula.

B . hypenoides Moore— Grewia disperma (Gardner, vi).

276 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

Sympis Guen.

5. rufibasis Guen. — Litchi (Lefroy).

Pasipeda Wlk.

P. haemorrhoa Guen. — Barleria crislata (Gardner, ii).

Hypenin^e

Raparna Moore.

R. nebulosa Moore— Indigo (Lefroy).

Simplicia Guen.

5. robustalis Guen. — Dry leaves of Dalbergia sissoo (Lefroy).

Dichromia Guen.

D. orosiaCx. — Tylophora birsuta (Gardner, vi).

D. quadralis Wlk. — Boehmeria sp. (mihi).

D. trigonalis Guen. — Boehmeria platyphylla (Gardner, vi).

Rhynchina Guen.

R. abducalis Wlk. — Ougeinia dalbergoides (Gardner, vi).

Hypena Schrank.

H. proboscidalis L., indicalis Guen. — Girardinia heterophylla (Gardner, vi)

H. iconicalis Wlk. — Desmodimn gangeticum (Gardner, ii), Butea frondosa

(Gardner, vi).

H. rectivittalis Moore — Desmodium gangeticum (Gardner, vi).

H. conscitalis Wlk. — Desmodium gangeticum (Gardner, vi).

H. ignoialis Wlk.— Lantana aculeata (Gardner, ii), Lantana camara

(Gardner, vi).

H uniformis Hamps. — Indigofera pulchella (Gardner, vi).

H. sublividalis Snell. — Desmodium gangeticum (Gardner, vi) .

H. aurotincta Hamps. — Abrus precatorius (Gardner, ii).

Bomolocha Hbn.

B. occata Moore— Boehmeria platyphylla (Gardner, vi).

B . tnangularis Moore — Boehmeria platyphylla (Gardner, vi)

Hyblaein^:

Hyblaea.

H. puera Cr.— Tectona grandis (Lefroy).

H. constellata Guen. — Tectona grandis (Lefroy).

ARTIFICIAL KEY TO THE PAPILIONACE^E OF

BOMBAY PROVINCE

BY

H. Santapau, s.j.

The following is an artificial key covering one of the most difficult groups

of Bombay plants ; the system followed here is the same as that of the ‘ Artifi-

cial Key to the Compositae of Bombay Presidency ’ published in the first

number of the Indian Ecologist , in April 1946.

This key is primarily based on the colour and other obvious characters of

the plants in question. Colour is not an important feature of the flower for the

serious taxonomist ; but experience with botany students has convinced me that

colours are readily distinguished even by beginners and can, therefore, be of

considerable help in tracing at least the genus of a given plant.

As to the method of using this key, the first step is to try and trace the

colour of the flower. For this purpose it is important that fresh flowers be

employed, that is to say, flowers which are fully open and have not yet withered.

It often happens that of the flowers on a given spike or raceme, the uppermost

are still in bud or at least are not yet fully expanded, whilst the lowest

may be already wilting. In both cases, that is to say, with very old or with very

young flowers, the colours are often considerably distorted as compared with

those of the flowers about the middle of the spike or raceme. This is

particularly the case with plants with pink or blue or lilac flowers, such as

those belonging to the genera Desmodmm, Alysicarpus , etc.

Once the colour of the flower has been ascertained, consult the key, and

make sure of examining all the alternatives in the key ; see the lines or para-

graphs headed by the same number, they are all alternative among themselves.

A particular genus may come under various headings ; this means that

some species of the said genus have flowers of one colour, whilst other species

of the same genus may have flowers of quite a different colour.

A possible source of doubt may be that on one and the same flower there

may be more than one colour. In such cases take the most prominent colour

as typical of the plant. If there are variations in the colour of the petals, take

that of the standard as the proper colour of the flower, and if the inner and

outer colours differ, take that of the inner surface of the standard as the correct

one. If, however, the standard is missing or is inconspicuous, make use of the

colour of the wings for the identification of the plant.

After the colours, attention is to be paid to the arrangement of the stamens

in the flower ; in examining the stamens, however, care must be taken, or the

free stamen or stamens may be damaged in the process. In general the stamens

are grouped according to three clear patterns : ( a ) Stamens 5 + 5, that is to say,

the androecium is divided into two sections, each of 5 stamens with filaments

partly united at the base. (6) Stamens 9 + 1, the lower 9 stamens having their

filaments united partly from the base, the upper stamen being free or nearly so

for its whole length. ( c ) Stamens 10 or fewer, but not definitely arranged

according to the two previous groups.

For the rest this key is meant to cover most of the genera as given by Cooke.

Two genera are excluded, Stylosanthes and Eleiotis ; I have been unable to

see any living specimen of these two genera or find any precise reference to the

colour of these plants. No account has been taken in the preparation of this

key of any paper or book published after Cooke’s Flora ; the latter is the standard

book among students in Bombay and for practical purposes is the most

complete work on the flora of this Province.

As in the case of the previous key, the present one is published with the

hope that it may be useful to students and others interested in the very large

Pea-flower family. Corrections and suggestions will be gratefully received by

the author.

1. Flowers white :

2. Stamens 5 + 5 ... Dalbergia.

2. Stamens less than 5 :

3. Trees or large scandent shrubs ... Dalbergia.

3. Slender, herbaceous climbers ... Abrus.

278

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

2. Stamens 10, connate or free, but not 9 + 1 :

4. Trees :

5. Pods winged along sutures

5. Pods not winged ;

6. Pods thin, flat & oblong, not woody

6. Pods woody, obliquely oblong

4. Erect shrubs or undershrubs

4. Herbs :

7. Twiners or climbers

7. Erect herbs

7. Small, trailing herbs (sometimes prostrate or

diffuse

4. Climbing shrubs :

8. Pods few-seeded, up to 1' 5 eras, long :

9. Leaflets distinctly alternate

9. Leaflets opposite

8. Pods many- seeded (more than 4 seeds), over

7'5 cms. long :

10. Style bearded below the stigma

10. Style not bearded below the stigma :

11. Leaflets 11 — 15

12. Leaflets 3-6

2. Stamens 10, diadelphous (i.e. 9 + 1)

12. Trees :

13. Leaves trifoliate

13. 1. eaves 5 — 9 — foliate

12. Erect shrubs or undershrubs :

14. Bracts large, 12 — 24 mm. long, usually broader

than long

14. Bracts small and narrower than long

12. Climbing shrubs :

15. Leaflets 3

15. Leaflets 5 — 9

15. Leaflets 11 — 15

12. Herbs :

16. Erect

16. Trailing or prostrate

16. Climbing or twining

1. Flowers orange or salmon-coloured

1. Flowers yellow'.

17. Stamens 9, or at least less than 10

17. Stamens in two bundles of 5 each (i.e. 5+5) :

18. Trees

18. Herbs or small shrubs:

19. Pods variously twisted, enclosed in calyx

19. Pods straight, exerted from calyx

17. Stamens 10, connate or free, but not 9+1:

20. Large trees

20. Large, woody climbers

20. Erect shrubs or undershrubs :

21. Leaflets 15—15

Derris.

Dalbergia.

Pongamia.

Desmodium.

Clitoria.

Crotalaria.

Desmodium

Dalbergia .

Derris.

Clitoria.

Milletia.

Canavallia.

Ougenia

Pongamia

Flemingia.

Desmodium.

Cylista.

Derris.

Milletia ,

M el li lotus

Desmodium.

Clitoria.

Butea.

Dalbergia.

Pterocarpus.

Smithia.

Aeschynomene.

Pterocarpus.

Milletia .

Sophora

ARTIFICIAL KEY TO BOMBAY PAPILION ACEJE

279

21. Leaflets 1—7 :

22. Seed 1 : leaves trifoliate

22. Seeds usually many; when seed only 1,

leaves often simple

20. Herbs (erect, prostrate or climbing) :

23. Anthers uniform :

24. Leaflets 4

24. Leaflets 3

Psoralea.

Crotalaria.

Geissaspis .

Rothia.

23. Anthers dimorphous :

25. Leaves 2-foliate

25. Leaves not 2-foliate :

26. Pods flattened

26. Pods turgid

.. Zornia.

... Heylandia.

... Crotalaria.

17. Stamens diadelphous, i.e. 9 + 1 ;

27. Climbing shrubs :

28. Leaves gland-dotted beneath:

29. Seeds 3 or more :

30. Corolla up to 18 mm. long; pods

with deep lines between the seeds,...

30. Corolla 25 mm. or longer ; pods with

faint lines between the seeds

29. Seeds 1 — 2 :

31. Calyx teeth accrescent

31. Calyx teeth not accrescent

28. Leaves not gland-dotted beneath :

32. Leaflets 11 — 15

32. Leaflets 4 — 5

27. Erect shrubs or undershrubs :

33. Leafllets 7—11

33. Leaflets 15 — 50

33. Leaflets 3:

34. Seeds 8—10

Atylosia.

Dumbaria.

Cylista.

Rhynchosia.

Milletia ,

Mucuna.

Indigofera.

Sesbania.

Phaseolus.

34. Seed 1 :

35. Leaves under 7.5 cms. long

35. Leaves 7*5 to 18 cms. long

34. Seeds 2—3 :

36. Lateral leaflets distinctly oblique

36. Lateral leaflets not or very slightly

oblique

27. Herbs:

37. Leaves simple

37. Leaflets 15 — 20 pairs

37. Leaflets 3:

38. Pods 25 mm. or more in length :

39. Diffuse, prostrate or erect

Psoralea.

Desmodium.

Desniodium .

Atylosia.

Tephrosia .

Sesbania.

Phaseolus.

39. Twining or climbing :

40. Style bearded below the stigma ... Phaseolus.

40. Style not bearded below the stigma :

41. Leaves gland-dotted beneath:

42. Ovules 3 or more ... Atylosia.

42. Ovules 2 — 1 ... Rhynchosia.

41 . Leaves not gland-dotted

beneath ... Dumasia.

280 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vot 48

38. Pods under 25 mm. long :

43. Erect herbs

43. Prostrate or diffuse herbs

43. Trailing or twining herbs

1. Flowers pink , purple , violet , blue or lilac :

44 . Erect trees :

45. Leaflets 17 — 23

45. Leaflets 3—15 (generally 4 — 7) :

46. Leaflets distinctly alternate

46. Leaflets opposite

45. Leaflets 3 :

47. Trunk armed with conical prickles

47. Trunk unarmed :

48. Flowers rose-coloured, pods 3 — 7'5 x

1.6 — 2'5 cms.

48. Flowers orange or salmon coloured ; pods

12 — 20 x 2’5 — 5 cms.

44 . Climbing shrubs :

49. Leaflets 5 — 7 :

50. Leaflets distinctly alternate

50. Leaflets opposite

49. Leaflets 9-21 :

51. Leaflets distinctly alternate

51. Leaflets opposite :

52. Leaves abruptly pinnate

52. Leaves imparipinnate

49. Leaflets 3 :

53. Leaves gland-dotted beneath

53. Leaves not gland-dotted beneath :

54. Style hearded below the stigma :

55. Pods subterete

55. Pods flattened

54. Style not bearded :

56. Stamens monadelphous :

57. Pods with silky, long brown hairs.

57. Pods more or less glabrous

56. Stamens diadelphous :

58. Petals very unequal

58. Petals equal :

59. Flowers small, panicled

59. Flowers large racemose

44. Erect shrubs or undershrubs :

60. Stamens connate or free, 10

60 . Stamens 9+1, diadelphous :

61. Shrubs armed with auxiliary spines

61. Unarmed shrubs :

62. Leaves 1 — and 3— foliate on the same

plant

62. Leaves unifoliate or simple :

63. Bracts 18 mm. long, broader

than long

63. Bracts linear or subulate

Mellilotus.

T rigonella .

Rhynchosia .

Mundulea.

Dalbergia.

Pongamia.

Etythrina .

Ougenia.

Butea.

Dalbergia .

Derr is.

Dalbergia.

Abrus.

Derr is.

Dunbaria.

Vigna.

Dolichos.

Pueraria.

Canavallia.

Mncuna.

Spatholobus.

Butea.

Taverniera.

Alhagi.

Desmodium.

F'lemingia .

Desmodium .

ARTIFICIAL KEY TO BOMBAY P API LI ON ACE fE

281

62. Leaves trifoliate :

64. Pods over 5 cms. long

64, Pods less than 5 cms. long :

65. Pods distinctly jointed.

65. Pods not clearly jointed :

66. Pods turgid

66. Pods flattened

62. Leaflets 3—21 :

67. Pods distinctly jointed, joints

folded on one another

67. Pods flattened, continuous or

scarcely septate

67. Pods turgid, cylindric, septate

44. Herbs :

68. Erect, prostrate or diffuse, but not climbing :

69. Stamens in two bundles of 5 each

69. Stamens connate or free, but not 9 +■ 1 :

70. Leaves simple :

71. Stem and branches glandular

71. Stem and branches more or less

hairy, but not glandular

70. Leaves trifoliate :

72. Pods thick, fleshy, subtetragonal

72. Pods narrow, linear, flattened

70. Leaves 5-foliate

69. Stamens 9 + 1:

73. Leaflets 2

73. Leaflets 1 and 3 on the same plant :

74. Joints of pods turgid

74. Joints of pods flattened

73. Leaves simple :

75. Anthers apiculate

75. Anthers not apiculate :

76. Podsaone-seeded

76. Pods many-seeded :

77. Pods turgid

77. Pods flattened :

78. Pods continuous or scarcely

septate, dehiscent

78. Pods jointed, separating

into indehiscent joints ,3.

73. Leaflets 3 — 21 •

82. Anthers apiculate

82. Antheis not apiculate :

83. Flowers in leaf-opposed or

terminal racemes

83. Flowers in axillary, 2-flowered

racemes

68. Climbing or twining.

84. Leaves 1 -foliate

Phaseolus.

Desmodium.

Pycnospora .

Pseudarthria .

Ur aria.

T ephrosia .

Indigo f era.

Smiihia .

Psoralea .

Crotalaria.

Cyamopsis.

Rothia.

Cliioria.

Lathy r us.

Alysicarpus.

Desmodium

Indigofera.

Psoralea.

Alysicarpus

T ephrosia.

Desmodium

Indigofera.

T ephrosia.

Clitoria.

Grona.

<5

282 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

84. Leaves with more than 3 leaflets :

85. Corolla uniform in colour, 6 mm. long ...

85. Corolla blue with orange centre 3'5— 5

cms. long

84 . Leaves trifoliate :

86. Style bearded below the stigma

86. Style not bearded below the stigma :

87. Stamens monadelphous :

88. Alternate anthers sterile, very

small

88 . Anthers uniform :

89. Corolla under 6-mm. long ...

89. Corolla over 2*5 cms. long ...

87 . Stamens diadelphous :

90. Anthers dimorphous

90. Anthers uniform :

91. Calyx teeth distinct

91. Calyx teeth not distinct

Glycine .

Clitoria

Vigna.

Ter (Minus .

Glycine.

Canavallia .

Mucun a .

Shuteria.

Galactia

WILD LIFE EE SELVES IN INDIA:

BIHAR PROVINCE

BY

Jamal Aba

(With a map and two tables)

Active wild life protection is a policy of recent origin in Bihar.

There is no sanctuary which has been in existence for 20 years,

and hence the only animals in whose case protection has helped

multiplication acre wild elephants. These have received adequate

protection for the last 40 years in the Singhbhum forests where

they have now become so numerous that some amount of control

(either by trapping for sale or by transferring to other forests where

elephants are not found) has become locally necessary.

At present there are 5 sanctuaries in the Bihar forests, occupying

an aggregate area of 272 square miles. This aggregate figure

represents 10 per cent of the total Government-owned Reserved

and Protected Forests. The total forest area in Bihar, however,

is over 10,000 square miles, and the sanctuary area is therefore

reduced to 2-5 per cent of the total forest area. That is a fractional

figure and does not contribute to wild life protection to any appreci-

able extent. Since the first sanctuary was created only in 1932

and two others have been notified as such only during the last

two years, noticeable multiplication of wild life cannot be expected.

Any assessment on this account is premature.

Shooting control has existed in the 2,000 square miles of Govern-

ment-owned forests for a number of years and this has of course

prevented the extinction of many animals, particularly deer. As

all the Government-owned forests have been located in Chota Nagpur

(i.e. southern districts of Bihar), animals in northern districts have

not profitted from shooting control protection. Private owners of

forests have not exercised any systematic control of shooting; in

fact till all the private-owned forests were taken over by the Pro-

vincial Government by legislation last year, owners and others

used to resort to massacres of animals by shooting by spot-light at

night from automobiles. The position has, however, changed for the

better. Since the Government took over 8,000 square miles of

privately-owned forests under their own management by the enaction

of the Bihar Private Forests A.ct, 1946, shooting control has been

extended to ail those forests now constituted as Private Protected

Forests under that Act. As demarcation of 8,000 square miles of scat-

tered private forests has not been easy, the enforcement of the shoot-

ing rules has not been possible so far. The existence of the rules,

however, is a great improvement, and their enforcement can be

expected in due course when demarcation is completed and proper

forest administration established. It is expected that it will take

another two to three years before such conditions would obtain and

284 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

then about 13 per cent of the total area of the province (the entire

forested area) will have the benefit of some measure of wild life

protection.

The present Minister for Forests in the Government of Bihar,

Mr. Krishnabaliabh Sahay, is very keen on a progressive forest

policy, and he has publicly declared his intention to afforest

another 5,000 square miles of tree-denuded wastes to give to the

province a forest acreage about one-fifth its total area. Shooting

oontrol is expected to be extended to that entire forest area and

within a decade an appreciable amount of tree cover and shooting

protection for the wild life of Bihar can be expected.

While the future is one of promise, the present conditions are

only better than what they were in the past, yet very unsatis-

factory. As was stated earlier very little wild life has survived,

and just ordinary shooting rules cannot be expected to yield results.

There must be an increase in the area in which all kind of shooting,

trapping and destruction of wild animals is totally prohibited.

That is, there must be more sanctuaries, and bigger ones. A

desirable target figure would be to put 10 per cent of the present

forest area (both state-owned and Private Protected) under

permanent sanctuaries. Another practical means to secure protec-

tion of wild life would be to declare each Forest Division (about 250

square miles) a sanctuary for ten years in rotation. Areas like

Champaran, Hazaribagh, Palamau, Monghyr and Banchi which

have been much shot over in the past may be the first forest areas

put under such notified prohibition of shooting.

Poaching is, of course, a problem that will have to be

contended with. In the absence of a Game Department

the tackling of this problem is difficult. The ordinary Forest

Department staff is too small to deal with sylvicultural as well as

wild life protection duties. The number of persons exempted from

obtaining a licence for shooting even in Deserved Forests is legion.

Almost all officials are so exempt, and so are the numerous owners

of private forests now under protection. If exemption was

abolished sufficient revenue could be raised to maintain a small

Game staff, by converting all the present temporary and seasonal

Fire Patrol staff into permanent employees charged with reporting

both fire occurrences and offences against the shooting rules. As

the fire patrols have no sylvicultural duties such an arrangement

would be feasible.

The main problem that will confront those undertaking

conservation of wild life in Bihar will be of game management or

multiplication of the severely reduced stocks. Some species are

very near to extinction. The rhinoceros of Champaran, the wild

buff aloe of Purnea, and the black buck of Shahabad are the

species in the most precarious condition. Even now a lone animal

of these three species can be met, but unless sanctuaries are created

in their habitat areas immediately any measure of protection might

be too late.

So far the sanctuaries have not given any definite indication

of the animals responding to protection, except in the case of

elephants. Other animals have not multiplied nor is it possible to

uNi y

iuriio, Bombay Nat. Hist, §©c,

WEST

BENGAL

CENTRAL

ROVINCES

~TH

vey to |

etching L

ORISSA

= Areas With some tree-cover and some

shooting control

= Areas with no tree*cover and

no shooting Control

. — J Reference to Numbers

SANCTUARIES! Animals

l.Bamiabur^ __ Sambhar

2. Sonera _

S.Sasangda „ Elephant

4. Baresand _ Bison

5. Kodarma _ Deer

AREAS NEEDING

SANCTUARIES

URGE NT LY *

6.SHAHABAD __ BlackWk

7. CHAM PA RAM __ Rhinoceros

8-PURNEA _ WHd Buffalo

BIHAR

Showing

WILD LIFE RESERVES

Scale l" = About 90 Miles

WILD LIFE RESERVES IN INDIA : BIHAR PROVINCE

285-

report that they have become less shy than what they were before

the sanctuaries were created. Forest Officers are subject to frequent

transfers and are not able to observe the animals as well as they

might like to. The position in the sanctuaries would improve if

for each sanctuary a Game Forester could be appointed and trained

to look after the wild life. Such an incumbent could also be trained

into elementary management to secure the optimum conditions for

the multiplication of the animals under special protection.

However, the value of sanctuaries is great. While the

rhinoceros has received protection for about the same period as

the wild elephant it has not multiplied in Bihar on account of

the absence of any sanctuary in its habitat. On the other hand

in Assam, where the Kaziranga sanctuary was established in

1906, the rhinoceros is claimed to have multiplied from a dozen to

over 400. In the Duras of North Bengal also, the Jaldapara sanctu-

ary was established in 1932 to give protection to. about 30 rhino

which have now increased to over 60. The last rhino definitely

seen in Bihar was shot in Champ aran in 1939 by a man who

obtained permission on the plea that the animal had been already

wounded by a poacher. Occasional rhinos do wander into Champaran

and Purnea from the Nepal Terai where they are still in some

number (under a protection law similar to that existing in Bihar

but more effective on account of the smaller number of ff re-arms

in that country) and a sanctuary might start a process of multipli-

cation. It might be mentioned in this regard that wild elephants

in Singhbhum had become very scarce and multiplication began

again when the sanctuaries were started by a pair straggling in

from the adjoining Orissa States.

The shooting rules also need amendment. The exemption

provisions must be abolished, and the Forest Officer in charge of

an area must alone be considered competent to declare an animal

dangerous and fit for destruction. At present there is much abuse

of the District Civil Officer’s powers in this regard to bye-pass

shooting restrictions and licence fees. Tigers have suffered most

from this lacuna in the shooting rules, and many animals innocent

even of the blood of any cattle have been shot on trumped-up

charges in the Deserves. During the thirties two tiger censuses

were held by the Bihar Forest Department in the district of Palamau

(considered best populated with tigers) and each time the number

was less than 40. From the actual count of that single district

it can be calculated that there are less than a hundred tigers in

the entire province, and unless better protection is afforded to

them in a few decades the species might be locally exterminated.

The shooting licence generally does not put a limit on the

number of birds shot. Ground birds like pea-fowl, spur fowl,

partridges, quails and the red jungle fowl which are found all over

the Bihar forests have suffered very badly on account of the

absence of any limit. Birds with arboreal habits have not suffered

so badly, but the Purple Wood Pigeon ( Alsocomus puniceus) believed

to have become extinct in this area was re-discovered by Mooney

in the Singhbhum forests in 1934, and has been frequently observed

since then obviously benefiting from the creation of the Bamiaburu

286 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

and Sasangdaburu sanctuaries. The birds of the plains regions

do not get any protection, and are trapped and shot in vast

numbers every year. There is a definite necessity for converting

one of the jheels of North Bihar into a bird sanctuary. Similarly

there is urgent necessity for creation of sanctuaries in Champaran,

Purnea and Shahabad districts for the protection of rhinoceros,

wild buff aloe, and black buck respectively. As forest Divisions

are in process of creation in Champaran and Shahabad, the creation

of sanctuaries in those districts can be expected at an early date,

but in Purnea special measures would be necessary. There are

still 4 patches of forest in that district aggregating a little over

100 square miles. These have not been notified yet under the

Bihar Private Forests Act. If they are notified some protection to

the wild buffalo might accrue, as two of the patches border Nepal

Terai and the Bengal Duars.

No special measures have been taken in any of the sanctuaries

for the benefit of the animals inhabiting them, except the impound-

ing of the waters of a stream in the Sasangdaburu sanctuary in

1938 to provide water for the rapidly expanding population of

elephants and sambar. In the Bamiaburu sanctuary a fish pond

and a swimming pool were constructed close to two major

salt licks. The history of the creation of these sanctuaries is

obscure; generally they were the work of individual forest officers

rather than the carrying out of any settled Government policy. In the

absence of a definite policy the progress has been patchy. Even now

the Santal Parganas, one of the oldest Reserves area, has no

sanctuary, and till 1946 in the Baresand block restrictions were

placed only on driving and beating of game. One of the admini-

strative difficulties in the creation of sanctuaries has been the

rights of hunting (including an annual religious hunt) enjoyed by

the aboriginal tribes, in which killing of animals is done each

spring (month of Magh by the Hindu calendar) without any discri-

mination as to species, sex, age, size or gestative state of the

game. This religious right has prevented the functioning of

Parasnath Hill as a sanctuary. This is a well-forested tract of

over 200 square miles, reaching a height of 4,480 feet and one of the

rainiest areas of the Province with more than 85 inches of annual

precipitation. The hill being a holy spot of the Jain community,

the latter obtained over 40 years ago a judicial decision that no kill-

ing of animals should be permitted. That decision has been respected

generally except by the aboriginal, tribes and the poachers, and

in regard to the latter the management of the Jain temple had

no adequate staff to prevent poaching. Now that those forests are

being managed according to a scientific system prepared by the

Forest Department, there should be adequate staff to prevent

poaching. But at the same time declaration of the area as a

sanctuary would further help protection of wild life.

Religious sentiment has also so far secured the survival in some

numbers of the nilgai , which live mostly in the cultivated plains

region of the Ganges valley. It is, however, doubtful howT long

such protection would continue considering that the animals do a

certain amount of damage to crops and that the religious feeling

WILD LIFE RESERVES IN INDIA : BIHAR PROVINCE

287

is entirely based upon the local nomenclature of this antelope which

mistakenly classes it as a ‘cow’. A sanctuary in the plains region

for this graceful animal would soon be necessary, though some

measure of protection may be available to it should the reserves for

the rhinoceros, black buck and wild buffalo be formed at an early

date.

The funds for sanctuary development have so far been very small.

In the past a few forest Divisions used to get a budgetted amount

of Rs. 100 per year for expenditure on ‘Game Improvement’.

Since this year the amount in a few Divisions has been raised to

Rs. 500 per year, but still the total budget provision under this

head for the entire province is less than Rs. 8,500 in spite of the

lact that the total Forest Revenue exceeds 50 lakhs of rupees.

TABLE I

Average number of animals shot per year during the period 1935-1942

IN THE 2,000 SQ. MILES STATE-OWNED FOREST OF BlHAR

Average annual revenue from shooting fees Rs. 603

,, ,, expenditure on game preservation Rs. 624

) Period 1935-

f 1942.

N.B. — The average number shot is only for the State-owned forests. More

animals per year were shot in the private forests, but the figures give an idea

how poor the Bihar forests have become in wild livestock.

Particulars of Wild life Sanctuaries in Bihar

288

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

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C-I'Ph PL| J

TABLE II

Elephant and

unusual to find

sarabar grazing in

the compound of

the F.R.H. at Kum-

The bison alone

seems to have pro-

fitted from protec-

quently seen on the

adjoining Netarhat

plateau ; still very

shy.

Abstract of Table 11

Total number of sanctuaries

Total area of sanctuaries

Percentage of sanctuary area in relation to forest area

Percentage of sanctuary area in relation to total area of Province

Longest period for which sanctuary has been in existence

5

272 square miles.

2'5

0*4%

WILD LIFE RESERVES IN INDIA : BIHAR PROVINCE

PRESERVATION OE WILD LIFE IN INDIA:

Supplement to the article published in vol. 47, pp. 602-62*2

OF THIS JOURNAL

BY

Lieut. -Col. R. W. Burton, i.a. (Retd.)

In its flora and fauna Nature has endowed this country with

a magnificent asset which cannot fail to be appreciated by the

people when they have been taught to realize what they possess,

and the need for both conservation and protection. A considerable

effort to that end was made in May this year (1948) through a 24

page pamphlet widely distributed by the Bombay Natural History

Society in government and official circles in both Dominions, and

publicized through the Press.

Although there has been almost no response from the public,

there are indications that the Central and Provincial Governments

now recognize that something should be done to conserve the

varied fauna of the Indian forests to save it from the gradual

extinction with which it is threatened.

But this is not sufficient. There is, it is submitted, urgent

need in India for creating and stimulating, among the educated

classes in particular, a real interest in the wild life of their country.

Some people are even saying that wild animals are a nuisance

and should receive no mercy.

2. Some Aspects of Conservation

Preservation of wild life has many aspects. Unreasoning insis-

tence on the sanctity of all wild life will serve no useful purpose,

since real human interests must prevail whenever these are in

conflict with wild life. But all over the country, outside the reserved

and other forests, there is much wild bird and animal life urgently

in need of protection. Sanctuaries and National Parks are all

very well for satisfaction of what little public feeling there may be

in regard to wild life, but these alone cannot adequately conserve

the wild creatures of this great country. It is essential to take a

long view and introduce in all primary and secondary schools in-

struction of the children on intelligent lines; for it is the youth

of today who have to be the conservationists of tomorrow, and

without the support of public opinion in the future no efforts by

governments will give lasting results.

3. India’s Story

‘It is through our great culture, religion and art that India’s

story spread far and wide in the past’ said the Prime Minister of

India in April this year, and it is in those fields the people have

now to vindicate their political freedom. But not least among the

causes for the former renown of India has been that wonderful

PRESERVATION OF WILD LIFE IN INDIA

291

variety of wild life which is now the vanishing inheritance of the

people of today. It is the obvious duty of the governments and

the people to guard and preserve this asset for posterity.

4. Value of Wild Life

Apart from consideration of profit to the national finances and

of national pride, the spectacle of wild birds and animals in their

natural surroundings is one of the greatest joys of civilized man.

The study of them and of the marvellous flora of this land of

Hind can, and should, give healthy interest and recreation to all

classes.

In power politics a well informed public opinion is the world’s

greatest security. So also in regard to wild life; real and correctly

informed interest on the part of the public is its greatest protection.

5. Duty of the Public and the- Governments

Improvement in the fields of public health, of growing more

food, of preventing erosion, of drink prohibition, of conservation

of fish supplies and many other aspects of public life cannot be

satisfactorily achieved by government efforts alone. The public

also have their responsibilities, and unless these are discharged by

the people no amount of effort on the part of the government

can have adequate results. So also in this matter of wild life

protection and preservation.

It is the obvious duty of both Central and Provincial Govern-

ments to employ all possible means of propaganda for the instruction

and enlightenment of the people in their responsibilities such as

outlined above.

6. Vanishing Assets

Much of the wild life of India, a large part of which is found

in no other country in the world, is fading away and will certainly

disappear unless adequately protected and conserved. In the more

open and inhabited areas, it is the common people who have

mostly to be relied upon to stay the hand of destruction. In the

reserved forests and more remote tracks it is the man in the

wilds who has to be taught and trusted to prevent the larger

species from being reduced to that narrow margin which spells

eventual extinction; and it is the weighty responsibility of the

departments in control to protect the fauna and flora of those

areas.

This responsibility cannot be satisfactorily discharged in either

remote or accessible areas unless the executive staff of both the

Forest Department and the Wild Life Department (if formed)

consists of wholly trustworthy and impeccable subordinates.

Therein lies the success or failure of wild life protection and

preservation in this or any other country.

7. Value of Wild Life

In all countries the encouragement of tourist traffic is recognized

as being of both direct and indirect value to the State. In India

there is much for the people of other lands to see and admire.

292 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 48

There is almost no end to the list of archaeological treasures, of

customs and habits of humanity which could be cited to illustrate

the inexhaustible interest of India as a panorama of the past; there

are endless subjects for the artist and photographer in scenery, in

portraiture, in sculpture; but prominent among the magnets for

attracting tourists is the spectacle of wild life, and its abundant

attraction for all classes of sportsmen and sightseers.

8. Forestry and Wild Life

The claims of forestry and wild life are often in conflict. The

system that has hitherto obtained, which combines forestry with

wild life preservation and protection, is unsatisfactory. India owes

a great debt of gratitude to the many officers of the Imperial

Forest Service who, throughout their service, worked continually

and persistently to enforce wild life protection laws and rules, and

to have them perfected. To them is due such stock of the larger

animals — fleer in particular — <as existed at the time of the transfer

of power in 1947, and has been already, in a number of areas, so

woefully reduced.

True preservation can never go hand in hand with true forestry.

This has been proved in practice in many countries where it has

been soon found that the objects and ideals of the twTo are some-

times antagonistic.

Protection and preservation are not synonymous. Protection

alone may, in time, do definite harm if preservation is ignored.

To continue the protection and preservation of wild life which

includes the organization and management of all National Parks,

Sanctuaries, Eeserves as the duty of a department already over-

worked, and none of whose officers have been trained in the

required methods, is not practicable and should give way to better

arrangements.

9. Necessity for a Wild Life Department

In other countries, which have tackled the problems of wild

life protection and preservation with conspicuous success, forestry

is under separate management, the two departments working in

liaison when and where necessary.

A Wild Life Department means that continuity of purpose with-

out which all endeavour is of no avail.

‘Adequate and comprehensive laws are on our Statute books.

These laws are not being adhered to and enforced owing to the

responsible department being given dual duties, their other

duties coming first and game preservation second. The immediate

need of a special Game or Wild Life Department cannot be

overstressed.’ (Editorial in June 1948 issue of the Journal of

the Ceylon Game and Fauna Protection Society).

This is the situation in India at the present time.

10. Duties of Wild Life Departmental Wardens

It is the first duty of a Wild Life Department to do everything

possible to prevent conflict between game and human interests.

PRESERVATION OF WILD LIFE IN INDIA 293

In Reserves and Sanctuaries, where such are necessary, in addition

to the ordinary requirements of the Forest 'Department, roads, cart

tracks and paths have to be kept in repair and others opened as

found necessary. Boundaries have to be kept clean. Animals

soon get to know these so well that they learn not to cross them

during the shooting season in the contiguous Reserve. Rest

camps and staff quarters have to be built and kept in good

order, with wholesome water supply ensured; patches of jungle

have to be cleared for grazing and then burnt off periodically ; salt

licks and water supplies have to be improved or provided. Detailed

maps and plans have to be prepared. Animals in the Parks,

Sanctuaries or Reserves have to be observed, local habits noted,

and a near census taken and plotted on suitable maps for periodical

review. Supervision of these activities are the duties of the

Wardens.

Other Duties. A Warden has to be a trained observer,

able to train and educate his staff, also to inspire them with

enthusiasm and real pride in the well-being of the creatures under

their charge.

From this it is obvious that all members of the staff have to

be most carefully selected. They must be keen on the work before

them; lovers of wild life; of sound health and good physique;

amenable to discipline ; trustworthy, and as far as possible un-

related to neighbouring population.

In the upper grades they should be able to read and under-

stand the wild life literature, which should be provided.

A manual should be compiled for their general guidance.

Guards and watchers should be well paid, clothed, housed and

cared for at all times and seasons.

11. Field Duties

The main activities of wardens lie in the field. They have to

be most carefully selected from among applicants who have a

real interest in wild life. When approved, they should be seconded

to other countries to acquire knowledge of principles, methods,

and all useful details. Besides field work there will be much office

work such as mapping of areas; receiving and tabulating reports;

directing enquiry into cases of ordinary poaching, spotlight shoot-

ing and other malpractices, and of alleged damage by animals;

ordering and directing the destruction of proclaimed animals ;

issuing of licenses and permits, suggesting and aiding publicity

work; general administration of the staff; dealing with correspond-

ence and returns and all sorts of other business.

(a) One of the most important duties is the need to gain the

willing co-operation of village headmen to whom, on his recommenda-

tion, rewards should be granted for good work and correct influence.

Unless village officers and revenue officials, the police, the

subordinates of the Forest Department and the general public

co-operate with the two departments and the Government, poach-

ing cannot be held in check.

( b ) A suggested check to curb night shooting from cars on

roads passing through forests is (i) to appoint a couple of Ranger

294 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

road patrols, provided with jeeps or motor cycles, to make surprise

visits to the haunts of such marauders; (ii) instruct constables on

duty at certain key points to take numbers of all motor vehicles

entering or emerging from jungle roads, and inspect them if need

be; (iii) erect road barriers at night on selected roads, where motor

vehicles can be stopped, inspected, and have their numbers taken.

Necessary powers could be provided for this.

(c) As aid for enforcing laws and preventing wild life ex-

ploitation there should be close co-operation between the Police

and Customs, and of both of these with the Wild Life Depart-

ment.

Is it not apparent that the Forest Department by itself can-

not be expected to deal efficiently with all these matters, besides

carrying out the multifarious duties pertaining to forest adminis-

tration in all its branches? Can there be any doubt in the matter?

12. People’s Parks

These already exist in, or near, a number of cities and larger

municipalities, and are of several kinds. A park of this descrip-

tion has been recently formed near Bombay and styled a National

Park. In course of time many more People’s Parks will be

established; and in view of the greatly increasing demand for land,

for all purposes, near fast-growing towns it is necessary that

speedy steps be taken to acquire land for these greatly needed

parks. By reason of their situation all such existing parks, and

those to be formed in the future will be sanctuaries for wild birds

and small animals. The lay-out of future People’s Parks should

be planned with this in mind.

(a) In many People’s Parks there could be museums to house

archaeological, botanical, geological, natural history and zoological

exhibits; to show pictures of birds, animals, snakes and insects

for the interest and instruction of the public.

Assembly of the people in these parks would afford suitable

opportunity for loud-speaker talks by means of propaganda vans

on wild life and kindred subjects. This is one of the many ways

in which paragraph 5 above could be implemented.

13. National Parks

The more general meaning of ‘National Park’ is ‘An area

dedicated by statute to the preservation, not of this or that animal,

but a community of animals, in fact, of Nature which means

Nature militant, Nature maintaining the balance through the law

of tooth and claw. ’ (H. G. Maurice). These areas are thus

inalienably . established for the preservation of the flora and fauna

in all its aspects, and dedicated for all time to, and for, the people.

(i) Of the famous National Parks of the world, one such is

the Yellowstone National Park in America and another the Kruger

National Park in Africa which has an area of 8,000 square miles

and was in existence for thirty years before public access to it

was permitted.

PRESERVATION OF WILD LIFE IN INDIA

29 5

(ii) In India there is the Hailey National Park in the Kalagarh

Forest Division of the United Provinces, the precise area and

design of which is not known to the writer. In Assam steps have

been recently taken through notification in the Provincial Gazette

to set aside an area of 800 square miles in the Tirap Frontier

Tract to be known as ‘The Frontier National Park’ of which part

of the boundary is the Indo-Burma frontier.

(iii) Some people think that once National Parks are in being

the game in the rest of the country can go, and the sooner the

better. In Kenya the strong Game Policy Committee of 6 unofficial

and 4 official members, with an unofficial chairman, appointed in

1939, held a directly opposite view, viz., ‘the formation of

National Parks will justify still further intensification of game

control measures, where necessary, but will certainly not justify

any policy of laxity or uncontrolled slaughter. Recommendations

of the Committee were held up by the War, but early in 1945 the

necessary ordinance was enacted.

14. Sanctuaries

Sanctuaries are of several kinds. There are sanctuaries for the

preservation of a particular species of animal, or for a special bird

or group of birds; for general purposes such as areas of Deserved

Forest in which no shooting is permitted for a year, or a series of

years. In India there is a sanctuary in Bengal for the preservation

of the Great One-horned Bhinoceros, and several for the same

species and also for the wild buffalo in Assam.

General purpose sanctuaries have been formed in Reserved

Forests of most of the provinces, and in a number of states.

(a) There are also strict .Natural Reserves and Intermediate

Zones which are not so designated in India. They have these in

Ceylon. In the last named only, which corresponds with what we

know as Reserved Forests, is shooting allowed under rules and

conditions of licences.

( b ) It is necessary for the well being of Parks and Sanctuaries

that reserved forest should be contiguous with these on all sides

so thgl the surplus stock of animals may overflow, risk of cattle

disease be lessened and guarding made less difficult.

‘All indigenous species of fauna and flora ought to be represented,

but the introduction of exotic types of either should be religiously

avoided. ’ (Stevenson-Hamilton.)

(c) Importation of cattle diseases into National Parks,

Sanctuaries and contiguous Reserves should be guarded against in

every possible way. Besides conveying disease, grazing cattle eat

and trample down all vegetation, break stream banks and start gully

erosion. Sand and silt work into pools stifling fish and aquatic

life. The balance of nature is disturbed, the food supply of animals

greatly lessened, and much damage done to struggling saplings.

Goats, as is well known, are deadly enemies to forest growth and

silviculture.

296 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

15. Bird Sanctuaries

In Ceylon, there are 21 sanctuaries chiefly for the preservation

of bird life. In India there are none, so far as known to the writer

(except one on a small scale at Seringapatam in Mysore State)

specially for the protection of birds. In some parts of the country

these are urgently needed for protection of. egrets and other

beneficial birds.

In India, iall matters concerning the protection of wild life

are regulated by ‘The Wild Birds and Animals Protection Act, VIII’

of 1912, and by Notifications and Buies under that Act and the

Indian Forest Act, XIV of 1927, and other measures enacted by

Provincial Governments such as the Game Act of ' the Central

Provinces.

It is the opinion of the writer of this note that schedules

to the various Notifications and Buies under the above, should only

specify species of birds which may be shot (no snaring or other

methods) during prescribed open seasons. They should declare

birds of all other species to be absolutely protected throughout the

year. This would tend to uniformity throughout the country in

all the provinces, states and unions, and would much simplify

matters for the public and the administration. It would greatly

benefit the cause of wild life. There is a note on the subject in

the August number of the Bombay Natural Plistory Society’s

Journal (Vol. 47, p. 602).

Section 8 of Act VIII of 1912 provides for bona-fide defence of

property; and in the Ceylon Ordinance of 1937 section 58 makes

a similar provision.

16. Ceylon Ordinance

‘An Ordinance to provide for the protection of the Fauna and

Flora of Ceylon’ became law on the 10th March 1937. This

ordinance embodies practically all the Begulations and Principles

of the epoch-making Africa Convention of 1933. It is a

comprehensive and well-thought-out Act and, if it is continually

and effectively enforced should ensure the survival of Ceylon wild

life for all time.

Although this ordinance has existed for over 11 years it is

the opinion of all in close touch with the question that wild life

in the island is doomed unless a Wild Life Department is created

to enforce the laws.

17. Action Bequired

It is suggested that the Central Board of Forestry outlined in

paragraph 12-D. of the Proceedings of the All-India Conference of

6th September 1948, should pass this note in review, as also the

contents of the 24-page pamphlet referred to earlier on in this

note, and make such representations as are found necessary or

advisable for India as a whole, and for each of the provinces, states

and unions.

(a) It is hoped that the snaring of game birds, hares, antelope

and gazelle will be wholly prohibited at all seasons throughout the

PRESERVATION OF WILD LIFE IN INDIA

297

country, for the time has long gone by when snarers should be

allowed to earn a livelihood in that way.

18. Formation of Sanctuaries and National Parks

In the formation of these much forethought is necessary. They

have to be considered with the ultimate object clearly in view.

Some will be just sanctuaries, and some will be intended to pass

through the stages of strict Natural Reserves before achieving the

status of National Parks. Others will be designed, from the

commencement, as National Parks and, in such cases, action would

be taken after the most mature consideration from every point of

view. All animals depend for their existence upon a suitable

environment, and this should be preserved, as far as may be, intact

for wild birds and animals.

(a) Water. ‘Ordinarily, game will not graze more than six

miles away from drinking places in the course of a day.’ (Kruger

Park).

Where there are perennial streams, lakes, marshy places, etc.,

no problems arise. Rut in some parts of India seasonal streams

cease to flow; pools form and dry up; animals have to dig in the

sand for water. At such times animals suffer much. They

become a more easy prey to carnivora and the ubiquitous poacher.

Not so many years ago, at time of a famine in the Central

Provinces, animals — -even tigers — were found drowned in wells

adjacent to villages.

In the Kruger National Park, at the present time (1948), the

question of water supply is a serious problem to the park authori-

ties. As much as a quarter of the park area is . hardly ever

grazed in any year, and in dry years extensive parts of the park

are untouched.

Here is an object lesson as to need for a very long view regard-

ing the vital question of water supply in all parts of the area.

( b ) Food. Needs of all the species in the area have to be

considered. It may be necessary to de-forest selected level

patches of jungle to provide grazing. In these, and in jungle

valleys, annual grass-burning is a necessity, for neglect in this

allows excessive growth of bush and thorny scrub which comes

up with rapidity, blocks the glades, and through increasing denseness

of the vegetation causes migration from the area of animals such

as sambar and chital.

To promote prosperous breeding seasons there must be plenty

of grass and water.

The needs of bison and buffalo have also to be thought of and

improved if necessary. For some of the animals, and for birds,

squirrels, monkeys and other creatures fruit-bearing trees and

shrubs may have to be planted. In fact, the question of food

also has to be considered in all its aspects.

(c) Wild Buffalo. It is desirable to foster the restoration of

herds of these fine animals to something approaching their former

number in the forests of South-east Chanda, Bastar, Jeypur and

other parts of the erstwhile Eastern States area.

7

298 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

(cl) The Sloth Bear. This animal — peculiar to Ceylon, India

and Assam — is no longer found in some i parts where once common,

and is in need of both protection and preservation. Hitherto it

has not been protected in any area of its habitat in this country.

It should receive protection in a number of areas from which it is

fast disappearing; and should be preserved in all parks and

sanctuaries situated within its natural habitat.

(e) Beasts of Prey other than wild dogs, should be allowed

in each park or reserve where they at present exist. So long as

their numbers do not become excessive, tiger's and panthers have

a useful place in nature. If one animal is stressed at the expense

of another the balance of nature is upset and disastrous results

may follow. The policy should be not to interfere with nature,

unless shown by periodical censuses to be absolutely necessary.

When tigers and/or panthers are unduly killed off, deer greatly

increase, also wild pig. The deer take to barking trees in forest

plantations, and both species encroach on cultivation, for which

they will travel long distances.

Surplus deer population, should that arise, can be controlled

by shooting of hinds, which is a well known practice in all deer

forests in Europe and has been found necessary in some states of

the U.S.A. In most forests in India the carnivora exercise the

necessary and natural control.

The obverse is also true. In many parts of this country at

the present time deer have been so much killed oh that tigers

increasingly prey upon the cattle and not infrequently take to man-

eating.

19. Conditions Governing the Formation of Sanctuaries

Sanctuaries, if they are to be effective, must, among other

considerations : — -

1. be suitably sited with sufficiently well distributed and per-

manent wafer supplies for the several species;

2. be sufficiently large to allow animals to live in them all the

year round without inducement to wander outside. About 300

square miles may be taken as a minimum.

3. contain no human habitations or cultivation;

4. comprise natural game country having abundant water, food

and cover;

5. be free from grazing rights, since domestic cattle spread

disease besides reducing the food and water supplies; they also

disturb the forest and give opportunities for poaching;

6. be undisturbed by timber extraction and other forest works;

7. possess security of tenure and not be liable to sudden changes

of constitution or control;

8. be sufficiently inaccessible to prevent the animals being

molested and harassed by villagers and others encroaching upon

their boundaries;

9. be sufficiently accessible to permit of frequent inspection

by responsible officers and their staff. To facilitate this they

must have necessary motorable roads, cart-tracks, and riding or

foot paths. ■

PRESERVATION OF WILD LIFE IN INDIA

299

For each sanctuary one or more riding elephants are essential

to facilitate proper inspection of the area at all seasons. In many

forests this work is otherwise too exhausting to be thorough.

20. Sportsmen

It is most desirable that sportsmen of the right type should

be given every encouragement to visit the contiguous reserves, as

also the more remote forests. They should be asked to endeavour,

by precept and example, to teach the villagers to take more

interest in the local fauna and its protection.

Permit holders should be invited to enter, in the form provided

on reverse, both positive and negative information as regards the

numbers and conditions of game in the Shooting Block by replies

to listed questions such as ‘How many of each species of game

did you see? How many tigers, panthers, bears do you think

were in your block? Did you see any signs of illicit shooting such

as pits, machins, hides near water or salt licks? Did you hear

shots fired by day or by night and, if so, in what locality.?’

Remarks on headmen and shikaris would be appreciated; also

any unusual incidents.

21. Conclusion

Without a Wild Life Department as suggested herein the

survival of much of the wonderful wild life of India is .inconceivable

and a great national asset will disappear, never to be regained as

the majority of the unique species will become extinct.

Acknowledgment for use of material is made to the editors

of the Journal of the Society for the Preservation of the Fauna of

the Empire, the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society,

the Journal of the Ceylon Game and Fauna Protection Society;

also to contributors to the above for use of their writings, which

have been of much assistance.

MICRO COS BLATTAEFOLIA (Corner) SESHAGIRI RAO, Nov. Comb.

BY

R. Seshagiri Rao

The Herbarium, Royal Botanic Garden, Calcutta.

= Grewia latifolia Mast. F.B.l. I, 392 (1874) non G. latifolia Muell. ex

Benth. FI. Austral. I, 271 (1863).

= Microcos latifolia (Mast.) Burret, Notizblatt Bot. Gart. Mus. Berl. IX,

601 & 757 (1926).

= Grewia blattaefolia Corner, nom. nov., Gard. Bull. Straits Settlements

X, 262 (1939).

Linnaeus in Species Flantarum (1753) described Microcos as a genus distinct

from Grewia. But, later workers like Jussieu (1804) and Roxburgh (1832) sunk

Microcos into Grewia, though the former genus was recognised and maintained

as a distinct one by Willdenow and Smith (1819) William Jack (1830) and

G. Don (1831). Later, in 1862, Bentham and Hooker described Microcos as

one of the sections under the genus Grewia, and this was followed by

Masters and subsequent flora writers. In 1926, Burret separated the two

sections, Omphacarpus and Microcos from the genus Grewia and relegated

all the species of the two sections to the genus Microcos Linn, on the basis

of many distinct floral characters. Hence, he changed the nomenclature of

several African, and Malayan species of Grewia which possessed the character-

istic features of the genus Microcos Linn. This view was later supported by

Merrill, Ridley, Tanaka and quite recently by Masamune. But in .1939, Corner

disagreed with Burret, on the plea that as the difference between the two genera,

Grewia Linn, and Microcos Linn, was not so great as to raise the latter to

a generic rank, he would follow the customary interpretation of Grewia.

Corner however had changed Microcos latifolia (Mast.) Burret to Grewia blattae-

folia Corner, a nomen novum , as Master’s name G. latifolia Mast, cannot stand

either in Grewia or in Microcos, being a later homonym to G. latifolia Muell.

ex Benth. ( wide : Art. 61 of the Int. rules of Bot. Nomenclature). Corner's

new name G. blattaefolia referred to the leaf shape : like a cockroach’s wing.

The writer, during the course of his study on the Indo-Burmese species of

Grewia, has examined many Malayan and African species of Grewia which

have been changed to Microcos by Burret. He found it difficult to combine

Microcos with Grewia due to the striking dissimilarity of appearance of all

the species of Microcos with those of Grewia and other features peculiar to them

as given in the description below.

Therefore, the writer agrees perfectly with Burret in raising the two sections,

Omphacarpus and Microcos to generic rank under Microcos, Linn, and as such,

Grewia blattaefolia Corner is therefore transferred to Microcos renamed as

Microcos blattaefolia (Corner) Seshagiri Rao, nov. comb.

Description :

Tree 6-24 meters high with spreading branches ; Stem 45-60 cm. in diameter,

tender branches ferruginous, stellate hairy ; Leaves dull dark green, 15-25 cm.

long 7-13 cm. broad, alternate, petiolate, 1.5 cm. -2. 5 cm., rusty tomentose, leaf

base sub-unequal, nearly ovate (blattae-form), entire, abruptly obtusely acuminate

or sometimes obtuse, coreaceous, glaucous on the dorsal and finely hairy on

the ventral, 3-nerved at base, pinnately reticulate with nerves prominent and

running more or less parallel on the ventral ; Cymose panicles large, compact,

usually terminal, sometimes axillary, peduncle and pedicles thickly covered with

stellate hairs, light rusty-red ; Cyme 3-flowered, covered by 3 outer large tri-

fid bracts and 3 inner thin, narrow bracts alternating the outer, stellate hairy ;

Flower pale green with a silvery tinge ; very short-stalked (appearing as sessile),

actinomorphic, hermaphr odite, hypogynous ; Sepals 5, free1, valvate, margins

incurved, stellate hairy ; Petals 5, free, imbricate, hairy, apex slightly dissected,

nectary on the inner oval hollowed base fringed by fine hairs; Stamens numerous,

Joiirn., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc

MICROCOS BLA TT AEFOL1A, SESHAGIRI RAO, NOV. COMB. 301

free, light yellow, on a short disc-like androgynophore ; filaments long, hairy ;

anthers dithecous, introrse, versatile, dehisce by. longitudinal slits; Ovary

superior, monocarpellary, hairy on a short androgynophore ; Style short, slender ;

Stigma punctiform ; Ovule solitary, basal; Drupe obovate, smooth with leathery

epicarp, fibrous mesocarp and stony endocarp; Seed small, albuminous.

Distribution :

This species is mostly confined to the Malayan Peninsula and the Malayan

Archipelago. It is seen commonly growing in dense or open hilly jungles at

different altitudes ranging from ioo feet to 1000 feet. (30-300 metres).

Material examined :

Malayan Peninsula : Larut, Perak (King’s Collector Nos. 3302 ! 4162 ! 4268 !

4501! 4749! 6197 ! 6697 ! 7762! 7950! 10177 ! 10429!); (Kunstler 3302! 6697!);

(Scortechini No. 195 b !) Salama, Perak (Kunstler 3129 1) Malacca (Griffith

No. 638/1 !) ; (Maingay 245! 1576 A!); Botanic garden, Singapore (King collected

on 8th Sept., 1879!) (Nur, Singapore Herbarium No. 18189!); Bukit Timah,

Singapore (Ngadiman, Singapore Herb. No. 34971 !) (Ridley 4943 !) Tdriglin,

Singapore (? 10645!); 5th Kota Tinggi, Mawai Road, Johore (Corner,

Singapore Herb. No. 31500 !)

Malayan Archipelago : Sarawak, Near Kuching, Borneo (Haviland and Hose

1685 !)

Summary :

(1) The species of Grewia under the two sections, Omphacarpus and Micro-

cos are now transferred to the genus, Microcos Linn., and hence Grewia blattae-

folia Corner is changed to Microcos blattaefolia (Corner) Seshagiri Rao, nov.

comb.

(2) The species is described in detail.

Acknowledgments : The writer wishes to express his thanks to Dr. K. Biswas

ment. (much enlarged)

Fig. 10. Sepal showing inner surface with the margins incurved x 8.

Fig. 11. Petal showing dissected top and nectariferous inner hollowed

base X 15.

Fig. 12. Androecium and gynoecium on androgynophore (a) showing long,,

smooth filaments, hirsute ovary and punctiform stigma (much enlarged).

Fig. 13. Drupe with wrinkled epicarp (nat. size).

Fig. 14. Longitudinal section of drupe showing its three walls and a seed

(nat. size).

Bibliography.

1. Bentham, G. — Flora Australiensis I, 271 (1863)

2. Bentham, G. & Hooker, J. D. Genera Plantarum 7, 233 (1862).

3. Burret, M. — Notizblatt des Botanischen Gartens und Museums, IX, (1926).

4. Camp, W. H. & others International rules of Botanical Nomenclature

in Brittonia, VI, No. I. (Reprint of 1935 Edition.)

302 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

5. Corner, E. J. H. Gardens Bulletin, Straits Settlements, X, 262 (1940).

6. Don, G. General system of gardening and Botany I, 551 (1831).

7. Gangnepain, F. Lecomte Notueae Systematicae I, 132 (1910).

8. Jussieu, A. de. Annales du Museum National d J Historite Naturelle,

IV, (1804)

9. King, G. Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal LX, Pt. II, .1.12 (1891).

10. Linnaeus, C. Species Plantarum, Ed. I, Vol. I, 514, (1753),

11. Masamune, G. Enumeratio Phanerogamarum Bornearum, 449-450 (1942).

12. Masters, M. T. Hooker’s Flora of British India, I, 392 (1874).

13. Merrill, E. D. Plantae Elmerianae Borneenses University of California

Publications in Botany, XV (1929).

14. Ridley, H. N. Flora of Malayan Peninsula I (1922).

15. Ridley, H. N. Kew Bulletin 490 (1933) & 228-229 (1938).

16. Roxburgh, W. Flora Indica II (1832).

17. Smith Ree’s Cyclopaedia, XVII, 23 (1819).

18. Tanaka et Odashima, K. Journal of Society of Tropical Agriculture,

X (4) 374 (I938)-

19. William Jack Hooker’s Botanical Miscellany I, 281-282, tab. LX, (1830).

20. Index Kewensis (with supplements).

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS

BY

James Hornell, f.l.s., f.r.a.i., (Deceased)

Part I

(With 28 text figures)

The commonest objects on Indian sea-beaches are the shells of

those soft-bodied animals called by zoologists mollusca and popularly

known as shellfish. These names appear at first sight to be con-

tradictory, for while the scientific term signifies that the animals

are soft-bodied, the popular name implies that they are encased

in a hard, protective covering, the shell. Combining the two ideas

we get a fairly clear comprehension of their outstanding and obvious

characteristics — soft-bodied animals protected by an outer casing

or armour, usually hard, composed of some form of limy or calcareous

material, and without any internal skeleton except in very excep-

tional instances of which the cuttlefishes are examples; sometimes

both external and internal skeletons are wanting — -of these many

garden slugs are familiar instances ; others are the naked-gilled sea-

slugs (Nudibranchs), often of brilliant colouring and fantastic form.

The shells of mollusca are extremely diversified in shape, size

and colouring. Each may consist of two parts or valves as in the

oyster and the mussel ( Bivalves , Lamellibranchia or Pelecypoda) ;

of a series of plates as in Chiton, the ‘coat-of-mail shell’

(Amphineura) , or of a single piece, in most cases spirally twisted

( Gastropoda ) ; finally come the highest of the group, the Cephalo-

poda, comprising the most active and intelligent of all the mollusca-—

the octopus, cuttlefishes and squids, together with the pearly

nautilus and the great hosts of fossil ammonites and belemnites.

A division ( Scaphopoda ) has to be made to receive the Elephant-

tusk shells, a small number of peculiar forms with long tapered

shells well described by their common name.

The body of a mollusc as seen among typical gastropods con-

sists of four regions, anterior, posterior, dorsal and ventral. The

anterior one, marked out as a distinct head, bears the mouth, tentacles

and the chief organs of sense — touch, sight and smell. Behind this is

a swollen dorsal mass, the visceral sac, containing the stomach,

intestine, liver and reproductive organs. The outer integument of

this region is the mantle and this is generally disposed in a fold

reflected over the back of the animal. The outer surface of the

mantle secretes the shell ; in bivalves the mantle is double, formed

of a free fold or flap on either side of the body, thereby orginating

the two valves or half-shells characteristic of these molluscs. On

the ventral aspect of the body below the visceral mass is a large

and muscular organ, the foot, flattened and specifically adapted for

crawling in the gastropods and chitons ; generally small and in-

significant and usually tongue-shaped among bivalves — sometimes

virtually absent, so small and vestigial is it; among cephalopods it

304 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 48

is split up into a number of mobile arms beset with scores or even

hundreds of button-shaped suckers.

The mollusca are a difficult problem for the evolutionist ; they

appear in groups generically distinct and as fully differentiated in

the lower Palaeozoic strata as they are at the present day ; gastro-

pods and lamellibranchs are found in the Cambrian and the

remaining classes in the Ordovician or Lower Silurian. There is

no geological sequence to help us to a decision. We have there-

fore to see what assistance embryology can afford ; here we get a

definite hint from study of the larval history of certain groups. We

often find that at a particular stage in the development of many

molluscs a characteristic larval form occurs having a tiny globular

body furnished with a circlet of cilia round the middle; the lashing

of the cilia causes it to spin top-wise through the water. This larva

is termed a trochosphere ; it is practically identical with the larvae

of the bristle-worms ( Polychaeta ), which when adult usually develop

a head bearing tentacles and eyes and which in many families have

both horny jaws and a gullet armed with a series of horny teeth.

Now, with the exception of the lamellibranchs, the other classes of

molluscs (again with the usual qualification of ‘ exception ’ that meets

us at every turn in the study of zoology) possess a ribbon-shaped

tongue or radula, set with rows of microscopically small teeth ; these

molluscs generally possess a definite head, bearing eyes and other

sensory organs.

If therefore the larval history of molluscs points directly to an

ancestry common to those marine worms which are typically

furnished with a well-marked head and often have pharyngeal teeth,

we are justified in concluding that those molluscs with a head region

and a radula are nearer akin to the ancestral form than are the

lamellibranchs, which have diverged in a major degree in order

to fit themselves for a sedentary life. This change has led to

the loss of a specialized head region and of the toothset radula.

In specializing, they have become degenerate in several vitallv

important directions (Fig. i).

Class I.— AMPHINEURA

The Chitons or Coat-of-mail shells are the only members of

this class that need concern us. As among the gastropods proper the

foot is well developed as a crarvling organ, flattened and extending

the whole length of the elliptical body. The species most common

in Indian waters grow to a length of ij to 2 inches. They live

among rocks, generally between tide-marks and often may be

seen adhering to the sides of rock pools on the Bombay and

Malabar coasts and on the shore reef at Rameswaram.

They are readily recognized by the jointed shell protecting the

back. It is made up of eight distinct plates fitted to overlap one

another like a series of roof tiles. When detached from their foot-

hold, chitons roll up into a ball like the short millipede or like the

armadillo and the hedgehog. All our Indian chitons are sluggish

creatures feeding on the smaller seaweeds clothing the adjacent

rock surfaces. One outstanding interest they possess is the fact

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS

305

that some species have developed very minute eyes, complete with

lens, retina and pigment, upon the surface of the shell plates.

Often these number thousands in a single individual, always most

numerous on the most anterior plate. Chitons have no economic

importance in India.

Unlike the g-astropods proper, the body and organs of chitons

are bilaterally symmetric, that is, the right side of the body is

exactly like the left. The head is at the front end, and the gullet,

stomach, and intestine form a straight tube through the body,

ending in an anus at the hinder end. The breathing organs are a

series of plate-like gills arranged on each side, between the muscular

foot and the edge of the thick leathery mantle in which are sunk

the eight plates that form the shell. Like the alimentary canal,

the heart is straight and tubular as in the ancestors of the bristle-

worms from which the mollusca may also have been derived. These

points are important to remember for we shall find in the gastropods

striking divergences from these simple and probably ancestral

characters.

Class II.— GASTROPODA

Sub-class l.—STREPTONEURA

Order I. — Diotocardia or Aspidobranchia

The Limpets (Patellidae)

Fig. i. — A common Indian Limpet — Cellana.

The most primitive and simplest of the molluscs included in this

order show distinct kinship with the Chitons and serve to bridge

the gap between them and the spirally-coiled shells distinctive of

the great majority of the gastropods. Of such primitive forms are

the Limpets. In these molluscs the shell is conical and forms

a stony cap under which the animal lives secure. As among the

chitons the limpets have a broad sole-like foot. This gives them

power to cling tenaciously to the rocks on which they have their

home; the broad muscular foot-disc functions after the manner of

a boy’s leather sucker; by the total exclusion of air from beneath

it, atmospheric pressure comes into play and has to be overcome

before the limpet can be pulled away from its foothold. As atmos-

pheric pressure at sea-level amounts to 15 pounds to the square inch

and as the conical shape of the shell affords no grip to the fingers,

it is well nigh hopeless to try to detach a limpet from its rock

30G JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

unless we can take it unawares; then when the edges of the shell

are raised slightly, a knife slipped deftly underneath will effect

dislodgment of the animal by a sudden wrench, before contrac-

tion of the foot muscles enables it to create a vacuum beneath.

Limpets live between tide-marks on rocky coasts. They are not

very abundant in India and are usually small. When suitable rocks

occur they are often to be found so near to high-tide level that

the sea leaves them high and dry for several hours twice a day.

They feed upon the smaller seaweeds covering rock surfaces in

a thin, velvety mantle. On coasts where limpets abound I have

often heard a continuous low rasping hum rising from the rocks

around. It was meal-time with the limpets; a multitude were brows-

ing on the tiny weeds growing on the rocks, the noise arising from

the file-like action of myriads of minute teeth. The radula or

dental ribbon of the limpet is longer than the animal’s whole body.

In the common British limpet nearly 2000 teeth have been counted

on the radula, set in about 160 rows of 12 teeth each. The

hinder part lies coiled up like a watch spring. New teeth are con-

tinually being formed at the inner end and the ribbon unrolls a

little as required to make good the waste going on at the front

end from the wearing down of the teeth in use. Limpets have a

well-marked homing instinct and though they may crawl several

feet away from their home, they return there regularly from their

foraging expeditions. In soft rocks they rasp out quite a deep

pit at the place they choose for a home ; on hard rocks this spot is

recognizable by its smoothness and may even be a little lower than

the surrounding surface.

In Europe the poorer classes in several countries — France, Italy,

Ireland — value the limpet as a cheap delicacy; very large quantities

are collected and eaten. In India their food importance is almost

negligible ; so far as I know it is only at Covelong, on the Madras

coast, where they are more numerous than I have seen anywhere

else in India, that some of the poorer people are accustomed to

collect them to eke out their meagre diet. They are known there

as Unai in Tamil.

The common Indian species are Cellana radiata and a race of

€. cemica (Fig. 1).

The Key=hole limpets and Slit limpets ( Fissurellidae )

In shape their shells resemble closely the true limpets, but

have either a perforation at the apex or a tiny slit in the front

margin of the shell. The use of these apertures is to ensure the

removal of foul matter. Pure water is admitted to the gills through

the space between the edge of the shell and the rock surface beneath

and then is passed out through a tubular fold of the mantle dis-

charging at the apical hole or at the notch in the front edge, wash-

ing out at the same time any excreta that require removal. Indian

species are all small and consist of a few species of the key-hole

limpet ( Diodora ) and of the rarer and smaller Emarginula, one of

the slit limpets. These live below low-tide line and are seldom

found except by dredging. Dead and worn shells are occasionally

cast up on the beaches.

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS

307

Ear-shells (. Haliotidae )

Closely allied to the preceding families are the Ear-shells or

Haliotidae. A common Indian species is Haliotis varia, found

attached, limpet-fashion, to rocks and boulders at and below low

tide level. This species is quite a small one, seldom exceeding

inch in length — a poor representative of the family. In other

lands, in France, Japan, New Zealand and California, ear-shells

attain a length of 4 to 6 inches, and vie with the rainbow in the

gorgeous colouration of the mother-of-pearl lining of the shell.

As a consequence it is extensively used for pearl inlay. A notable

instance was brought to my notice some years ago when a P.W.D.

officer in the north of India sent me a fragment of iridescent pearl

shell with the request that I would tell him where it could be

matched. It came, he said, from a beautiful mosaic inlay in the

interior of that gem of architecture, the tomb of the Muhammadan

saint, Selim Chisti, built within the courtyard of Akbar’s mosque

at Futehpur Sikri. The fragment proved to be a piece of a large

Haliotis shell, of a species not found in India but common in

Chinese seas whence it must have reached India in trade.

Pearls are not uncommon in the mantle but their value is low,

for coloured pearls are little in demand.

Wherever it is found, the ear-shell is valued highly as food ;

its great muscular foot is a delicious morsel when properly prepared

and cooked. The Chinese especially value it and great quantities

are exported to China from Japan and California. It may either

be cured dry or put up in tins — the abalone of Californian markets.

In shape Haliotis looks like a huge flattened limpet with a row

of holes piercing the shell along the left margin. The function of

these is more specialized than is the apical hole in the key-hole

limpet, for here it is only the most posterior one which is used

as an anal funnel to get rid of impure water and debris, whereas

the others, several in number, are used to admit water to the gills —

inhalant apertures.

In the ear-shells, although the general shape is flattened, the

essentially spiral form is clearly apparent at the hinder end where

a short but distinct shell-coil is seen when examined carefully.

In the vast majority of gastropods this spiral twist is greatly

emphasized and in the next family to be described, the Top-shells,

this characteristic is fully established. Molluscs of this type are

said to be highly asymmetrical ; however, this lack of symmetry is

confined mainly to the visceral mass ; the mantle, the shell

and the gills are also affected by this twisting. The foot and the

head with its sensory organs usually remain as symmetrical as in

the Chitons. In other words the ‘back’ of these animals has been

twisted and coiled into a spire, and the shell has to conform to

this modified shape as it is formed by shell-forming secretions

poured out by the fold of integument covering the viscera.

Top-shells ( Trochidae ) and Turban-shells ( Turbinidae )

These may conveniently be taken together. They are much alike

in appearance, both comprising some of the commonest of our littoral

shells. In shape they are conical and are beautifully pearly within.

308 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

Fig. 2. — Turbo argyrostomus with a view of

the inner surface of the operculum, xi.

The larger kinds are commercially valuable; the widely spread

‘Trocas’ shell of trade ( Trochus niLoticus) and the even more valu-

able ‘Green Snail’ ( Turbo marmoratus) of Eastern seas are in great

demand for pearl button manufacture.

The two families are easily distinguished by the nature of the

operculum, a flattened hard structure found upon the upper surface

of the tail end of the

foot in many gastropods.

When the animal, alarm-

ed or attacked, retires

into its shell, the oper-

culum serves as a door

to close the mouth and

to keep the intruder out.

In the Top-shells it is

horny and marked with

a closely set spiral ; in

the Turban-shells it is

stout, massive and

plano-convex in shape,

the rounded side outer —

some are so large as to

be heavy enough for use

as paper weights, quite

two inches in diameter. The opercula of one species, T. petholatus ,

found in the South Seas, vividly mottled with flushes of green and

brown, are worked in Fiji into fancy jewellery, very attractive when

artistically mounted in gold or tortoiseshell; in former days the

Maoris of New Zealand used these opercula as eyes for their idols.

Even in India the opercula of Turbo have value. They find place

with all sorts of local shells and marine curiosities in booths within

the main entrance to Rameswaram temple, for sale to the pilgrims

and devotees who flock there in thousands from all parts of India.

The perfect ones are retailed at eight annas a thousand, sea worn

ones at considerably less. The Tamil name is ambiliman , ‘the disc

of the moon’. The flesh of Turbo is eaten by the island people

(Valayans) but that of Trochus is not esteemed owing to the small

size of the local species.

All our species of Turbo and Trochus are small except a few

in the Laccadive Islands where a commercial ‘Trocas’ (T. pyramis )

is sometimes found, together with some fairly large Turbos ( Turbo

argyrostomus). Sometimes on overturning a boulder in the scrub

near the beach in these islands, a score or more of big Hermit-

crabs scurry away, the majority hiding their soft tail in a big Turbo

shell (Fig. 2).

A rather pretty Top-shell ( Clanculus clanguloides) is not uncom-

mon in the Pamban neighbourhood. Like other species the sides of

the body are fringed with a number of long and slender tentacle-

like filaments.

Most common of all the Trochidae is the beautifully variegated

and polished shell of Umbonium ( Rotella ) vestiarium, a little species

that occurs at the mouths of sandy backwaters in enormous num-

bers. It is one of the most dainty of little shells. Usually about

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS 309

a quarter of an inch across, its low depressed spiral shell is stippled

and marbled in dozens of variations and in a range of colour from

pink to brown. Some are nearly white, so few and pale are the

markings, while others are deep chestnut, so closely set are the

spots. Millions must be exported to Europe, for this shell is one

of the chief of those used in the ornamentation of shell-boxes sold

at every watering place in England.

Grouped with the Turbos are the Pheasant-shells ( Phasianella

spp.), prettily patterned tiny shells that occupy to the Turbos much

the same relation as the handsome Umbonium does to the true Top-

shells. Their polished shells are to be found on rocky shores at

the edge of pools and in sheltered crevices.. They are gregarious,

and, like Umbonium , the patterns and tints of their colouration

vary enormously.

Nerites

The Nerites show unusual adaptability to varying conditions.

Nerita lives in the sea, on rocky shores and reefs and can be

picked up just below high-tide level. The closely allied Neritina

is a fresh-water genus, though it may also be found in brackish

estuaries. A third genus, Septaria ( = Navicella ), is still farther

removed from the ancestral marine form, for it has actually acquired

the habit of living in places on the banks of streams where it is

only kept damp by spray or the lapping of water on the rock or

tree root or trunk to which it adheres. The series of transition forms

seen here is an excellent illustration of how fresh-water faunas

have arisen and how, from these, the land molluscs may in turn

have evolved.

Considering their size — barely three-quarters of an inch in length

— the shells of Neritas are extremely massive. They live at the

edge of the sea and are often tumbled off their lodgement on the

rocks by waves ; were they less strongly built their shells would be

broken and destroyed.

The shells show externally distinct spiral markings on one side,

the apex; internally in adults the whole cavity is simple and rounded.

Study of the life history of Nerita shows that it begins life with

a shell furnished with a well-marked spire wound round a central

column, the columella. As growth proceeds the columella and

whorl partitions are gradually absorbed. It would seem that the

animal has to be so busy with strengthening the external wall of

its dwelling that it can spare no limy material for interior deco-

ration. The shell is often prettily marked — it varies greatly — and

in old ones the surface is much corroded and pitted ; here it is

appropriate to mention that mollusc shells are normally protected

against damage by a horny skin, the periostracum, or else by folds

of the mantle wrapped over them; if the periostracum be worn

away, the exposed limy shell beneath is liable to chemical corrosion,

especially in shells often exposed by the receding tide.

As in the Turbos the operculum in the whole family of the Nerites

is stony. Usually it is semi-lunar in shape. At one end is a

finger-like projection that hitches behind the columellar lip and

forms a locking device, giving additional security. A peculiar little

Hermit-crab ( Coenobita rugosa) that frequents the upper beach and

310 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

lives almost entirely out of water, finds the empty shell of Nerita

just ideal to its wants; indeed it has adapted the shape of its big

claw so precisely to the form of the mouth of the shell that when

it withdraws inside, the big claw closes the aperture as perfectly

as did the operculum of the original owner.

In the fresh-water Neritina the shell is thinner and the spire

even less evident ; finally in Septaria the spire is so completely lost

that the shell may easily be mistaken for that of a small and narrow

limpet. Internally the columellar lip persists as a thin ledge and

there still remains a little operculum, too small to fit the aperture

and more or less embedded in the foot. Neritina crepidularia is a

common species in the Bombay area.

Order II. — Monotocardia or Pecttnibranchia

In these gastropods the heart has a single auricle; the gill is

also single, with a single row of plates (monopectinate). The body

is greatly twisted ; this has the result of causing the shell to be

drawn out in many cases into an elongated spire. There is practi-

cally no vestige of the bilateral symmetry traceable in some organs

in the Diotocardia even when their shells are spirally coiled as in

the Top-shells. The order is an exceedingly large and varied one

and includes some 76 families. Many are extremely specialized

for life under abnormal conditions; some have adopted a pelagic

life on the high seas, swimming or passively floating; others have

migrated to the land and to fresh-water pools ; a number have

become parasites or live as messmates or commensals ; they may be

carnivorous and even possess poison glands, or they may be veget-

arian; some move with considerable celerity, others attach

their shells to rocks and simulate the appearance of tube-building

worms. Owing to this high specialization it is difficult to arrange

their relationship in any reasoned sequence. We can form groups

readily seen to possess mutual affinities, but these groups stand

apart from others, and it is practically impossible to arrange them

in any satisfactory order that will indicate the line of descent or

degree of specialization. They represent the terminal twigs of a

great branch, and, while they acknowledge a common ancestry,

they stand to one another as cousins of varying degree.

Sub-order I. — T AENIOGLOSSA.

Fresh-water Snails

If we follow the sequence of Pelseneer, one of the most thorough

of authorities upon the mollusca, we take first two families living

in fresh- water, the Viviparidae and the Pilidae. The former

is represented in India by the common fresh-water snail, Viviparus,

so called because it is viviparous — the young develop within the

parent and are born as tiny miniatures of the adult and ready at

once to begin life independently. The shell is thin and comparatively

fragile, covered with thick, olive-green periostracum ; the shape

is that of a Turbo, hence this form of shell is said to be turbinate,

‘coiled like a turban’. It lives in tanks and streams and is occasion-

ally eaten by low-caste people.

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS

311

Even more common is the larger Apple-Snail, Pila globosa ,

formerly known as Ampullaria globosa. It grows to a compara-

tively great size and may even attain two

inches in diameter. The shell is nearly

globular, with a low spire and a very large

mouth opening. In appearance it resembles

a big globular Viviparus ; the two are often

found together in ponds and paddy-fields,

but Pila appears to be the more hardy ; it

has the advantage over Viviparus of having

an air-breathing organ or rudimentary lung,

in addition to a gill for use under water.

This combination enables it to withstand

successfully all the vicissitudes of a tropical

climate; it enjoys life when the rains flood

the fields and it can live in comfort for

some time even when out of water; it can

also lie hidden in soft mud and still obtain

air by pushing upward to the surface of the

mud the end of a long muscular tube, which passes air down to the

lung chamber. Pila is also prepared for the complete drying up of

a the mud during the dry

Fig. 3. — Shell of Pila

globosa Swainson.

Fig. 4. — Life appearance of Pila globosa. x §.

It has climbed to the surface of the water

up the leaves of a water-plant and is in-

haling air. Note the large expanse of the

foot and the wide inhalant siphon.

season ; as the water drains

away, it withdraws its

whole body into the shell,

closes the opening- behind

it with a strong calcareous

operculum and remains dor-

mant till the rains come

again, when the caked mud.

enveloping it softens and

becomes liquid once more.

Its eggs are large and at-

tached together in masses.

In several localities, as

in the Tanjore and Tinne-

velly districts of South In-

dia, the Apple-Snail is regu-

larly collected by poor

people who use it to eke

out their ordinary meals. It

is also used medicinally as

an application for sore eyes.

In the Philippine Islands it

is a regular market com-

modity.

Periwinkles ( Littorinidae )

Periwinkles are found on rocky shores in all parts of the world.

They have small turbo-like shells but differ from Turbos in having

no pearly lining; the operculum is horny. These molluscs appear

312 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

to be closely related to the fresh-water snails Viviparus and Pila

for they are able to live a long time out of water especially on

coasts where the rise and fall of the tide is great. In some species

this sub-aerial habit is so highly developed that individuals may be

found living so high on the littoral as to be reached only by sea

spray at high tide. In these species the internal surface of the

mantle is undergoing modification on the lines seen in the lung cham-

ber of Pila ; another demonstration is here afforded of how land

gastropods have been evolved in the past. It is significant also that

the operculated land snails and pond snails (Viviparidae) agree with

the periwinkles in the arrangement of the teeth on the radula — in

each row a broad median tooth is flanked by three somewhat similar

ones on each side. In the periwinkles the radula is notably long,

the hinder part coiled up like a spare rope in a pocket at one side

of the gullet.

In Europe great quantities are used as food, but in India they

are put to no useful purpose. They are common on rocky shores

on both the Bombay and Madras coasts. An allied Indian genus,

Ctemnoconchus, has entirely abandoned life in the sea; it has taken

permanently to the land.

Horn-Shells ( Centhiidae ).

The next family, that of the Horn-Shells or Centhiidae , is

another with a marked tendency to migrate from the sea to the

Fig. 5. — Three common Horn Shells. A. Potamides cingulatus Gmelin. x

B. Potamides palustris L. Xf C. Telescopium telescopium L.

land. All have the apex of the shell drawn out into an elongated

spire, simulating the appearance of the true Turret-shell yet to be

described, but differing therefrom in having the mouth aperture

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS

313

widely channelled and with the lip thickened and everted ; the whorls

are usually ornamented with small tubercles or with varicose ridges

marking the position of the lip at different seasonal stages during

growth.

The marine species are mostly littoral. Cerithium obeliscus is

one of the biggest of several common in sheltered bays and saline

backwaters. A small species, Potamides cingulatus (Fig. 5, A.) is

often found in multitudes on mud-flats and at the edge of the tide,

playing the part of humble scavengers; lime-kiln women collect

them at Tuticorin, to be burned in specially small kilns into the best

quality of lime for whitewashing. This species closely resembles

Cerithium in the ornamentation of the shell and is common in

the neighbourhood of Bombay. Two large species, the Horn-

shells proper, belonging to the genus Potamides, and undoubtedly

derived from a species of marine Cerithium, are found in abundance

crawling' in the mud in the mangrove swamps of the Kistna and

Godaveri deltas as well as in those of the Konkan coast, more

often out of the water than in it. These shells are also used for

lime burning. One of them, Telescopium telescopium (Fig. 5, C), is

easily recognized ; it is obviously a large Cerithium ; the other,

often called Telescopium fuscum , has a smooth shell without

tubercles or ridges. It may grow to four inches in length

and village boys in the Godaveri hamlets use it as a spinning top,

a feat requiring great skill to perform. In the Philippines the

flesh of the Horn-shells is esteemed a wholesome food ; the shells

are thrown upon wood fires and when sufficiently cooked, the apex

of the spire is broken off and the animal sucked out through the

broken end. In India, in purely fresh-water conditions, the Horn-

shells are replaced by the little Thiara, a tuberculated shell much

like Cerithium but without the deeply channelled aperture character-

istic of the latter. T. tuberculata is the usual Bombay species.

Worm-Shells ( Vermetidae ).

Peculiarly aberrant in habit are the

Worm Shells or Vermetidae; in adult

life they are always found attached to

rocks or embedded in sponges. In early

life, however, they are free and their

shells are regularly spiral ; after they

settle down and become sedentary the

spiral becomes lax and distorted as it

grows in length and may be readily mis-

taken by the tyro for that of Serpula, one

of the marine tube-building worms.

Having abandoned a roving life a foot

for crawling is no longer needed ; it is

reduced to a mere vestige and serves

merely as a support for the strong, horny

operculum. Two genera are common in

Indian seas, Vermetus and Siliquaria ;

the first has an entire tube; the second has a narrow slit or else a

314-

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY , Vol. 48

series of perforations running" along" one side for the whole length

of the gill chamber. Their respective habitats are distinctive; Ver-

metus cements its tube to rocks and boulders, Siliquaria lives com-

mensal with sponges, its coils sunk within the mass of the sponge,

to which it gives useful rigidity ; probably the presence of the hard

tubes of the mollusc affords its host, the sponge, some protection

against enemies which otherwise would browse upon it.

As Vermetus increases in girth it vacates the hindmost portion

of its shell, cutting off the disused portion by means of a transverse

partition. This procedure, repeated frequently, gives rise to a

series of partitioned chambers at the inner end of the interior of

the vermiform shell.

The reefs at extreme low water in the Gulf of Kutch are often

so encrusted with the tubes of Vermetus that walking barefoot

becomes dangerous ; they are also found fairly abundant on rocky

ground in the Gulf of Mannar, where Siliquaria is also common.

The Screw-Shells ( Turritellidae ) have elegantly tapered shells

of the general appearance of a very elongate and slender Horn-

shell. They grow sometimes to a length of four inches. The

mouth aperture is thin and simple, without any suggestion of the

thickened or everted lip often seen in the Horn-shells. Like Ver-

metus, the Screw-shells find the first whorls of their shell too

narrow to accommodate the apex of the body as they grow larger,

and have adopted the same habit of partitioning off a narrow, dis-

used portion from time to time. They live in moderate depths in

muddy sands. Their shells are cast upon the beach on all our

sandy coasts and are often quite common. The only ornamentation

consists of spiral ridges ; there is never any trace of tubercles or

varices. Turritella duplicata is a common species everywhere.

The Wing=Shells ( Strombidae ) include some of the largest of

Indian gastropods; many are most interesting species. The family

is an extensive one, with a great range in

outward appearance. Three genera are

common in Indian waters — Strombus,

Lambis and Tibia. The first two have

short, conical spires ; the outer lip is

dilated into a stout wing-like expansion

which in Lambis is armed with enormous-

ly stout finger-like processes.

The most common Strombus in India

is S. canariumf a small and massive species

with a wide wing, strongly thickened along

the edge (Fig. 7). It is abundant m

the shallows of Palk Bay and the Gulf of

Mannar. The poorer coast people collect

them when gathering other shells for food

and sometimes cook them along with more

esteemed shellfish. The shells have value

independently of this; very large numbers

are used annually at Kilakarai by shell-

ring cutters in their trade. These men, who belong to the Sangu

vettian Muhammadan community, pursue the most primitive of

Kig. 7. — The commonest

Indian Strombus (S.

canarium L.). xi,

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS 315

methods, such as prehistoric men are likely to have employed for

the same purpose. The two ends of the shell are first broken down

by means of hammer blows, and then the resultant rough-edged

middle portion is ground down laboriously upon a stone. Except

a hammer, a chisel, and a file to smooth the edges, no other tool

is employed. These rings, known as Sangn mo diram, are exten-

sively used as finger rings throughout the Tamil country as a

specific for skin disease. In the Malabar and Kanara districts certain

classes of the poorer population — Pulayas, Holayas and some

Mukkuvans — use these rings in the making of necklaces for their

women and children.

The Stromb is a remarkably active gastropod ; its foot is narrow

and arched with the hinder part elongated and armed with a

peculiarly long, claw-shaped operculum, strongly serrate along one

side. The Strombs generally progress by a sort of leaping move-

ment; they are reputed to be carrion feeders and whatever may

be their powers of smell, their sight is remarkably acute. Holding

one in the hand, the watchful and alert look in the two prominent

eyes, each at the tip of a long eye-stalk, is so different from the

impression of sluggishness given by most other molluscs, that one

has no difficulty in giving the Strombs credit for comparatively high

intelligence. Cautious handling is necessary, for they have a deceit^

ful habit of lying quiescent for a few moments, watching an oppor-

tunity, and of suddenly wrenching themselves clear with a quick

and unexpected jerk, accompanied by a vicious lash of the saw-

like opercular claw; a nasty wound can be made by this weapon in

the case of the larger species.

Strombus gibberulus, S. lentiginosus and S. auris-dianae are

species found in the Laccadive Islands; the first is common around

Bombay.

The Scorpion-shell or Five-fingered Chank, Larnbis lambis,

is the most common species of its genus in Indian waters (Fig. 8).

It is found on both coasts but in the faunistically rich weedy shallows

316 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

of Palk Bay it is extraordinarily abundant. The size when fully

grown is considerable; a length of seven inches is quite common,

while the width, if we include the long oral ‘fingers’, is fully half

this measure. In the immature condition the shell looks like an

ordinary Stromb ; only when it begins to assume adult form does

it commence to put forth the great fingers which are so characteristic.

In the immature condition these are channelled on the ventral side,

processes of the mantle lining the channels ; with approach to the

adult form when further growth is arrested, the channels close and

the fingers become solid (Fig. 9).

Fig. 9. — Growth changes in the shell of Lambis chiragra L. In the younger

stages no ‘fingers’ are present. They appear later as wide, channelled pro-

jections.

From low water to a depth of two fathoms this shell is often

numerous on weedy bottom, in Palk Bay. Some are collected by

shore people by wading in at low tide, but the great majority are

taken either by beche-de-mer divers or accidentally in nets set for

crabs; of these nets many miles’ length are shot daily during the

season. The shells serve a variety of purposes; for food they are

broken open and the flesh extracted ; as net sinkers they have the

fingers broken off, the shells perforated and then tied at inter-

vals along the ground rope of nets ; by burning, whitewash lime

is made ; lastly, they are used as traps for octopus. To fit them

for the last named use, the apex of each shell is broken off to-

gether with the fingers, and each is then tied at the end of short line

which in turn is made fast to a main rope. These branch lines are

attached at intervals of 5 or 6 feet; as many as 30 shells may be

tied to one rope. For use a number of ropes are strung end to

end and laid in shallow water overnight ; when raised the next

morning a number of small octopus are found sheltering in the

cavities of some of the shells. These are used as bait when the

fishermen go lining for such fish as seer, parai, dogfish and rays.

Hundreds of such shell-trap bait-lines are in daily use on the

Ramnad coast from Devipatam northwards. In Japan and in Italy

a device on the same principle is employed for a similar purpose ;

B

C

D

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS

317

is place of Lambis shells the Japanese and Italians use narrow-

necked vase-shaped earthenware pots, tied by the neck to the

main line.

Several other species of Lambis are found in our seas, notably

the grotesque L. chiragra , common in the Laccadive Islands. In

this shell the aperture is armed with six crooked fingers so irregularly

twisted as to impart a deformed appearance to the shell (Fig. 9).

Beak-Shells (Tibia).

The third Indian genus of the Strombs is Tibia , comprising

the Beak-Shells. In these the shell has a finitely tapered spiral

form, smooth and brown; the mouth whorl expands into a wide

wing armed with several short and stout spines along the margin

and with the anterior end prolonged into a slender, semi-tubular

rostrum or beak. Tibia curta is rare in the Gulf of Mannar but

off the Bombay and Malabar coasts it is often abundant in depths

between 10 and 30 fathoms (Fig. 10).

Fig. io.; — Living appearance of Tibia curta Sowerby. From 25 fathoms, off

Malabar, x §.

Closely related but very different in outward form is Xenophora,

a shell not uncommon in deep water in company with Tibia ,

off the West Coast. Its form is trochiform (‘like a Trochus ’) but

more depressed and wider in proportion and rather fragile. The

animal is very like a Stromb but with the eyes near the base of

the slender tentacles instead of being at the summit of long eye-

stalks ; the foot is even more conspicuously divided into two parts

and equally obviously intended for scrambling over the ground at

a rapid rate. The operculum is fan-shaped and prettily sculptured

with radiating lines. These molluscs are remarkable for the charac-

teristic way they have of disguising themselves by cementing small

dead shells to the upper whorls of the spire — -the last whorl in

adult shells is usually without this decoration. This masking device

is intended to deceive possible enemies; the trick must be effective

for Xenophora is common at its own particular horizon — a depth

of 12 to 30 fathoms — in spite of its shell being thin and easily crush-

ed. In one species the margin of the whorls is beautifully stellate;

in others it is thin and foliaceous. On account of the singular

habit of collecting shells to conceal their habitations, the Xeno-

phoridae have sometimes been termed ‘Conchologists’ ; those that

use fragments of stone being ‘Mineralogists’ ! They are usually

found on level muddy bottom where the surface is strewn with

dead and broken shells.

318 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

False-Limpets

Of habit wholly different are the two families of False-Limpets,

Capulidae and Calyptraeidae. The former includes the Bonnet.

Limpets ( Capulus and Amathina). Capulus has a conical shell

not unlike the Cap of Liberty, the apex slightly recurved. In

Indian waters the common species is Amathina tricostata, a small

shell with the apex toward the hinder end and without any trace

of the recurved point seen in Capulus. Three stout ribs pass from

the apex to the anterior margin, rendering identification easy. It

seldom grows to more than an inch in length and is generally

found attached to the valves of pearl-oysters on muddy sand in

five to six fathoms in Palk Bay ; on the cleaner bottom of the

pearl-banks in the Gulf of Mannar this mollusc is absent.

Another interesting Indian Capulid is the little Thyca ectoconcha,

parasitic on the under side of the long arms of the starfish Linckia.

A muscular plate grips the surface of the starfish and through a

hole in this the pharynx of the parasite works its way into the

tissues of its host.

Cup-and-Saucer Limpets and Slipper-Limpets

The Calyptraeidae include the Cup-and-Saucer Limpets (Calyp-

traea) and the Slipper- Limpets (Crepidula). The former are

small and conical, the latter, as their English name implies,

oval and much flattened. In both an internal plate or shelf occurs,

the remains of the original spire of the shell. In Calyptraea this

plate has a half-cup shape, whence has come its popular name.

These small shells are not uncommon in fairly shallow water; on

hard bottom C. pellucida usually adheres to stones ; where it is muddy,

to any shells that manage to survive there, particularly to the

Window-pane Oyster ( Placenta placenta ), common in muddy bays

and inlets in Sind, the Gulf of Kutch and the Bombay coast. The

exterior of the shell is rough and irregular and always white, in

marked contrast to the pale yellow tint of the body within.

The shape of the Slipper-Limpets (Crepidula) is well expressed

by the name — -a long oval, much flattened, with a shelf-like pro-

jection within across the posterior half, exactly like the toe end of

a slipper. They show a remarkable resemblance in the form of the

shell to Septaria, the fresh-water Nerite; the internal ledge is,

however, not the remains of the lip of the columella but a purchase

for the attachment of the adductor muscles.

Under favourable conditions Slipper-Limpets may increase so

prodigiously as to become a danger to the prosperity of the edible

oyster industry. An example of this is the damage done to valu-

able oyster beds on the east coast of England by the American

Slipper-Limpet (Crepidula fornicata ), imported inadvertently with a

consignment of oysters from the United States. The intruder found

conditions so favourable that now a dredge sometimes brings up as

many slipper-limpets as oysters ; their consumption of the available

food is so great that the oysters, which live on the same organisms

as the limpets, have insufficient food and do not fatten and thrive

as they should.

319

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS

The Naticidae are active, sand-burrowing molluscs. In the genus

Natica the shell is strong, handsome and highly polished, usually

Fig. ii. — Life appearance of Natica, showing the shell sunk within the lobes of

the foot. xf.

almost globular but in some cases with a mouth whorl so expanded

as to appear roughly ear-shaped. The whorls are few, the spire

small and obtuse. The columella is often much thickened. Naticas

are predaceous in habit and exceedingly voracious. The foot is

enormously enlarged, and developed within it is a system of water

canals that enables it to burrow with remarkable celerity — a most

ingenious hydraulic mechanism ; being carnivorous this facility of

being able to drive plough-like through sand is of immense impor-

tance to the animal in its search for the molluscs upon which it

feeds. Lobes of the foot rise over the shell before and behind

and completely enfold it, protecting it from abrasion (Fig. ii). As

the burrowing habit renders sight valueless, we find eyes in the

Naticas either absent or buried in the integument.

Fig. 12. — View from above of Natica seen crawling, xf. The shell and the

lobes are pure white in colour save for the yellowish anterior margin of the

propodium.

The black-mouthed Natica melanostoma and the snowy white

N. mammilla are two Indian species abundant on sandy shores where

they live upon the burrowing bivalves that abound there. Having

found a shell, Natica seizes it and settles down to bore a hole

through one of the valves. This it performs neatly and much more

quickly than one would think possible.. When completed, the long

320

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

retractile proboscis is inserted through the aperture and the flesh

of the victim eaten out. The peculiar egg-mass of Natica in the

form of a broad spiral sandy ribbon is quite common during the

breeding season on sand flats and in shallows at the mouths of

our rivers. The eggs are minute and so mixed and agglutinated

with sand grains that fewr people ever suspect that these sandy

ribbons, looking like rolls of coarse sandpaper, enclose thousands of

eggs of a little gastropod (Fig. 13).

A less common

Indian genus is Siga-

retus. Here the foot

is even more greatly

developed than in

Natica , particularly at

the fore end where it

assumes the form and

function of a plough-

share to push the

sand away on both

sides as it burrows. In these molluscs the shell is ear-shaped with

a very wide aperture; the operculum is minute and of no protective

value to its owner.

Violet Snails

Here for convenience are usually placed the Violet-snails

(. lanthinidae ) although they do not fit in any more satisfactorily

than in any other of the kindred sub-orders of the Pectinibranchs,

for the teeth on the radula are pointed and

neither pectinate, serrate nor pronged ; neither

is there a central or rhachidian tooth. Their

habit is characteristic ; they are purely pelagic,

floating at the mercy of the currents in all

warm seas. Particularly common in the In-

dian Ocean, their beautiful violet-tinted snail-

shaped shells, thin and fragile, are often

thrown up on our beaches after long continued

onshore winds. Sometimes they are cast

ashore alive and if we put one into a bowl

of sea water we see how cleverly they have

overcome the difficulty of keeping afloat. Un-

der natural conditions they float with the spire

of the shell downwards; to the hinder end of the small upturned

foot is attached a long, tongue-shaped frothy float, composed of

a multitude of air-bubbles entangled in a transparent secretion of

the foot (Fig. 15). Each bubble is formed separately by the foot

and added to the near end of the float ; the secretion forming the

envelope of the bubble coagulates on contact with the water and

hardens into a delicate but tough membrane.

Strangely enough in animals that lead a free life, eyes are absent.

Neither have they any operculum. Several species are found in

Indian seas. ' \ :

Fig. 14. — Shell of

Ianthina roseola

Reeve, x 1.

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS

321

lanthinids are gregarious and float about in shoals, feeding upon

oceanic Jellyfishes (Siphonophores), usually tinted violet like them-

Fig. 15. — Living appearance of lanthina with its frothy float attached to the foot.

A freshly formed ‘bubble’ is held in the curved tip of the foot, ready to be

added to the float, x 1

selves. The females of some species attach their egg-capsules to

the under side of the float; others bring forth their young alive.

The Wentle=Traps

The Wentle-Traps ( Epitonium

spp.) are closely allied. They

have a superficial resemblance

to Turritella , from which the

shells are distinguished by the

closely set ribs or varices orna-

menting all the whorls.

Fig. 16. — A Wentle-trap Shell ( Epitonium ).

The Cowries

The Cowries ( Cypraeidae ) are amongst the best known of Indian

molluscs; the beauty and the variety of the colouring of their

splendidly polished shells render them conspicuous and valuable.

The adult shell differs in form from any other ; to understand its

structure we must examine the stages by which it changes from the

immature condition to the perfect shell. The young form is elong-

ated, with a prominent conical spire, and a long wide mouth aper-

ture bounded by a thin, sharp outer lip. A delicate periostracum

covers the surface. As the animal approaches maturity, the mantle

flap from each side expands and becomes reflected over the back of

the shell, the edges meeting a little to one side. The periostracum

becomes absorbed and in its place the inner surface of the mantle

lobes deposits a highly polished enamel of variegated colouring upon

the shell ; this deposit extends over the spire as well and ends by

obliterating and concealing its coils. A line, usually of paler colour,

down the back indicates where the mantle lobes meet. Coincident

with this, the outer lip turns inwards, thickens and assumes the

furrowed appearance so characteristic of the lip in adult cowries ; the

edge of the columella or inner lip also thickens and assumes a similar-

ly furrowed appearance. In the end the aperture becomes quite nar-

322 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 4b

row, with a well-marked short canal at each end. The mantle and

foot are even more vividly coloured than the shell and few objects are

more beautiful than a large cowry crawling in a coral reef pool,

the mantle bright with scarlet and yellow and beset with grace-

fully branched filaments. The foot is without an operculum ; though

large it can be retracted, together with the great mantle lobes,

wholly within the shell. Cowries live on rocky ground, particularly

in and about coral reefs. They are often found hiding under

boulders at low tide and appear limited to shallow water.

The little Money Cowry ( Cypraea moneta) is

abundant on the reefs near Pamban at the western

end of Adam’s Bridge,

where it attains a larger

size than those brought from the Maidive Islands

in the course of trade; the Indian variety is distinctly

more intense in colouring, being a dark yellow.

Even yet these cowries are employed as small

Fig. 1 7.— Cypraea change in country bazaars and enormous quantities

annulus L., a are in circulation in West Africa. In India it is

species closely esteemed as an ornament and as an amulet to avert

related to the the effects of the evil eye; the lore of the money

oney owry. cowry in India, alone would fill a bulky volume.

Another small species common on rocky ground and on coral

reefs is the Eyed Cowry (C. ocellata ), the back dotted with tiny

greenish spots ringed round with yellow, the ocelli. Larger species

comprise the Tiger Cowry (C. tigris) covered with large, bordered

spots; the Black Cowry (C. mauritiana ), a most handsome and

elegant form; the Mole Cowry ( C . talpa) ; the Serpent’s-head Cowry

(C. caput-serpentis ), the Arabian Cowry (C. arabica) and several

others less well known. The Laccadive Islands are particularly

rich in species of this genus. At least seven species are found in

the Bombay area.

Egg Cowries

In the Amphiperatidae, only the outer lip is furrowed or crenu-

lated, the columella remaining smooth

and rounded. The best known is the

big Egg Cowry (Amphiperas ovum)

used in New Guinea and the islands to

the east as a personal ornament and

as a decoration of everything the

natives value. It is snow white and

is a striking ornament when a number

are worn as a fillet bound round the

forehead.

Smaller forms, the Ovulas, are com-

mon in Indian seas living as commen-

sals with the Sea-fans (Gorgonids).

These Sea-fans are usually brown,

yellow or red and the little Ovulas

{ Primovula frumentum ) always agree

in colour with their host’s hue; a yel-

low Ovula is never found on a red Gorgonid nor a red Ovula on a

Fig. 18. — The Tun-shell ( Tonna

dolium L.). xj.

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS

323

yellow Gorgonid. The colour of the mollusc resides in the

mantle only ; the shell is not coloured. Even more beautiful is a

species of cowry living upon the cauliflower-like Spongodes, one

of the soft corals. In this case the host is either pink or orange

in general colour, but this is confined mainly to the terminal parts

of the branches bearing polyps ; the main stem and the main branches

are generally white. Hence the little cowry that lives there has

the mantle blotched yellow or red as the case may be ; this harmonizes

with the general colour of the host much better than if the mollusc

were self-coloured. The foot is narrow and admirably adapted for

climbing along the round branches of its host. In size these little

commensal cowries seldom exceed an inch in length.

Fig. 19. : — Life appearance of Pyrula ficus L. ; note the large flattened foot and

the mantle folds enwrapping the shell. (After Owen.)

They are active in habit and get about nearly as quickly as the

red or yellow spotted commensal crabs that have the same protective

colouring and live the same kind of life among the branches of the

Spongodes host. The reefs in the Gulf of Kutch, around the Lacca-

dive Islands and in the Gulf of Mannar are their chief habitats in

India.

Triton=ShelIs

None of the large species used as shell-trumpets in Polynesia

and the Mediterranean is seen in Indian waters except in the Lacca-

dives ; their place for this purpose is commonly taken by the Chank

or Sankha ( Xancus pyrum). Species found in the Laccadives are

Cymatium tuberosum and C. lotorium.

Small related forms belonging to the genus Bursa are, how-

ever, common on the mainland coast as well as in the Laccadives.

These shells, commonly known as Frog-shells, are short and with

a stout strengthening ridge or varix continuous along the whole

length of each side ; each varix in each whorl represents a seasonal

arrest of growth accompanied by a thickening of the lip. The

intervening space is tuberculated ; the lip corrugated. These

molluscs live in shallow water on rough bottom and well deserve

324 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

their common name for they have an absurd likeness to tiny tree-

frogs squatting head up, ready for a leap. Bursa foliata and B.

granularis are common species on the mainland coast, with B. buf-

onia- and B. rub eta also in the Laccadives. They serve as useful

scavengers, swarming in crowds upon dead fish thrown ashore.

The larger lie! met shells ( Cassididae ) are represented in India

by two species, the Great Helmet-shell, Cassis cornuta, and the Red

Helmet, Cassis rufa. The former is the largest and heaviest of

Indian gastropods, its shell weighing several pounds. In shape it

is not unlike a monstrous knobbed Strombus but with the outer lip

much thickened and the inner one expanded horizontally over the

columellar region of the body whorl to form a flat polished surface

in the fully grown condition. These great shells are rare and are

usually found at a depth of eight to ten fathoms on the pearl banks

in the Gulf of Mannar and in the same depth in the neighbourhood

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS

325

of the Laccadives. The smaller species, C. ruja, growing to about

six inches in length, is a Laccadive species. It is of a reddish

tint with the prominent spines seen in C. cornuta here represented

by low blunt knobs. C. canaliculata is a common shore species of

small size.

The shell substance of the large Helmet-shells consists of differ-

ently coloured layers, a peculiarity taken advantage of by the cameo-

workers of Naples and Torre del Greco, who employ Cassis rufa for

cameos requiring a dark ground. Other species give a purplish

blue ground, the carved figure appearing in white relief.

The Tonnidae are familiar objects thrown ashore on all sandy

beaches on Indian coasts. All these shells have a widely expanded

( ventricose ) body whorl with quite a short spire. Two genera are

common, Tonna, the Tun-Shell (Fig. 18) and Pyrula , the Fig-shell.

Tonna is remarkable for its globose form and the many narrow ribs

that revolve round the shell from mouth to apex. It is fragile but so

light and so round that dead shells seldom get damaged when

they drift ashore. Four species are recognized as Indian — Tonna

maculata, T. ole aria, T. pomum and T. perdix.

The Fig-shells ( Pyrula ) are so named because of their shape.

Their habits are the same as those of the Tun-shells — they live on

sandy bottom not far below low-tide mark ; to enable them to

crawl rapidly and comfortably over soft, unstable sand, the foot

in both is very wide, forming a broad flat sole. In Pyrula (Fig. 19)

this is particularly wide and both the upper surface of this foot and the

mantle folds that more or less enwrap the back of the shell as in

the cowries, are beautifully veined. (In the case of Tonna the

dorsal folds are not present).

Dead examples of the Staircase=ShelI, Architectonica} are fairly

common on sandy beaches around our coasts after storms. The

shell has a handsome low spiral form and is not unlike Xenophora

in general appearance; in outline it is orbicular when viewed from

above, the last whorl angular at the outer edge ; a deep pit

or umbilicus passes down the centre of the columella opening on

the under side of the shell. The projecting inner edges of the

whorls seen on the sides of the umbilicus have been fancifully

compared to the windings of a spiral staircase.

A strange peculiarity of Architectonica is that the embryonic shell

is sinistral but in the course of growth becomes inverted and hidden

under the succeeding whorls, all except the base.

Sub-order II. — STENOGLOSSA.

Trtbe i.--Rhachig!ossa

The gastropods in this group are all marine, with a long

extensile proboscis and a long radula armed with three teeth in

each of many rows, one central or rhachidial and one lateral on

each side. They deposit their eggs in horny capsules.

Of the various families represented, the Turbinellidae is the one

of special interest in India for a member of the type genus Turbinella

(now unfortunately renamed Xancus by an overstrict adherence to

certain rules of nomenclature) is the Sankha or Chank, a shell

around which has gathered more legend and folk-lore than around

326 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

any other in the world. Other important genera in this family

are Cynodonta and Melortgena.

Chank

The ( Xancus [ Turbinella ] pyrum) is a species strictly confined

tc Indian waters, occurring nowhere else in Asia. There are several

local varieties or sub-species; these appear to have originated when

numbers of the parent type became separated from the main body of

the species and exposed to changed environment conditions.

The central or type form, found only in the Gulf of Mannar

and on the Kathiawar coast, is distinctly fusiform or spindle-shaped,

with a handsome, well-balanced spire (Fig. 20). The mouth is

wide and is prolonged anteriorly into a long, deep canal lodging

the great siphon used in sensing the presence of the worms on

which it feeds. The columella bears three or sometimes four strong

ridges to which the very strong columellar retractor muscles are

attached. Individuals living in shallow water, where they are

exposed to the influence of strong currents during the south-west

monsoon, have these ridges particularly strong and prominent in

order to afford increased purchase to the muscles connecting the

foot with the shell. The exterior is covered with a thick velvety

coating of golden-brown periostracum, completely hiding the snowy

white porcellaneous shell beneath.

The chank is gregarious and its haunts form distinct beds. It

prefers a sandy bottom where tube worms abound ; these constitute

its chief food. The most prolific beds occur in depths of 8 to 10

fathoms in the Gulf of Mannar; in Palk Bay to the north of Adam’s

Bridge the local race or variety rapa ( X . pyrum var. rapa) occurs

in beds at a lesser depth in sand much mixed with mud ; this

environment has resulted in the formation of a race showing signs

of retarded growth, the most obvious being a reduction in the

height of the spire. In the Andamans a race is found so distinctive

in its characters that it is desirable to consider it as a separate

species ( Xancus fusus ). The anterior canal is much elongated and

distinct remains of knobs are present along the shoulders of the

whorls, an ancestral feature all but obliterated in the chanks of

the mainland waters.

The larval development of the chank is typical of that of many

of the gastropods of this group, and is almost identical with that

of the European whelk ( Buccinum ). The ova are deposited in a

many-chambered stiff parchment-like egg-capsule of striking

appearance. The general form is an elongated, loosely spiral

annulated cylinder, each annulation representing one capsule unit;

the whole looks like a miniature ram’s horn, corrugated and twisted,

set point downward in the sand (Fig. 20). When newly formed

it is pale opaque yellow in colour; with age it darkens and becomes

covered with low growths of algae. It stands upright on the sea

bottom ; the lower and first formed end rooted in the sand by

means of a broad, flange-shaped anchoring disc. The lower end

is narrow and neck-like, the chambers small; these gradually in-

crease in size as they ascend till at a point about one half of the

length from the base they attain maximum size which is thence

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS

327

maintained to the abruptly truncate summit. The total height is

from 7 to io inches.

This case is a compound capsule consisting of a number, 25 to

30 or even more, of discoidal capsules attached at one point to the

edge of a broad basement band that runs along one side of the case

from base to summit (Fig. 20). Without this knowledge it would be

difficult to understand the complicated structure. The various cap-

sules are closely set, the roof of one practically touching the floor of

the one above. In the floor of each capsule is a crescentic slit parallel

with the front edge, hence when the case sways to the current,

the partition walls of the individual capsules gape slightly and so

allow a circulation of sea-water to provide the aeration needed

by the larvae. The horizontal partitions are much thinner than

the outer wall.

In each chamber or capsule a considerable number of fertilized

ova are deposited, embedded in a transparent, colourless, albumin-

ous nutritive jelly, completely filling the interior. In this matrix

the embryos go quickly through the trochosphere stage and then

assume a modified veliger form characterized by the possession of

a spiral larval shell. This is quite different from that of the adult

and is distinguished by the term protoconch. When fully developed

it reaches a length of about a quarter of an inch ; the whorls are

all nearly the same diameter, so that it appears as a cylindrical coil

of about 2 to 3 turns. During the earlier larval period fratricidal

war occurs among the brood, ending in the disappearance of the

weaker among them, till only some half dozen remain alive to com-

plete their development within each chamber. The change to the im-

mature semblance of the adult takes place suddenly ; there is no

gradation from the cylindrical form of the protoconch into that of

the young adult form marked by the expansion of the mouth whorl,

an expansion that widens continuously to keep pace with the rapid

increase in size of the young chank. Differences of colour and

surface also take place; from the white, smooth surface of the

protoconch, the newer part of the shell becomes brown-flecked,

with a distinctly angular shoulder bearing low knobs.

By the time the young chanks attain a length of rather over

half an inch, all the nutritive contents of the capsule have been

exhausted ; this and the fact that they are no longer able to

devour one another because of the increased stoutness of their

shell combine to compel the ravenous young to leave home in search

of food. Their first step is to eat through the partitions dividing

the separate chambers, a proceeding which results in the bringing

together of the whole surviving family, numbering usually from

200 to 250 in all. The stronger next either eat a way through the

outer wall or force their way out between the capsules. The whole

brood follow, to scatter over the adjacent sea bottom to lead

independent lives. It is noteworthy that in the chank, the pro-

toconch persists through life, accidents excepted, at the apex of

the shell.

The breeding season when the capsules are fashioned and rooted

in the sand, extends throughout January, February and the first

half of March. The sexes are separate.;

328 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

The chank is an excellent instance of the acquisition through

eiatural selection of characters which appear, for all practical pur-

poses, absolutely perfect to enable it to hold its own with ease

in its struggle for existence. The massive strength of its shell

protects it from the attacks of all ordinary fishes; the density

and thickness of its periostracum give, during youth and maturity,

adequate protection against the insidious attacks of the boring

sponge Cliona and its shell-tunnelling congeners ; the strong capsule

which it constructs for its young gives them protection till they

reach a self-supporting stage, endowed even at this early period

with a fairly strong and resistant shell. Its semi-burrowing habit

gives it defence against those fishes which are accustomed to snap

off the protruded feet of gastropods.

As chanks grow old their resisting powers diminish and the

protecting periostracum receives damage, thereby permitting the

burrowing Cliona to obtain a lodgement in the shell substance.

Once there it speedily runs its branching tunnels everywhere, con-

verting the solid shell into a honeycombed mass.

The chank fisheries of India and Ceylon produce on an average

over 2,000,000 shells per annum. In some years the number may

rise to about three millions but of these the greater number are

‘dead’ or sub-fossil shells dug out of the mud of the Jaffna lagoons

in Ceylon where they have lain for hundreds of years, covered in

an ever increasing deposit of silt.

The bulk of the shells fished are exported to Bengal where they

are sawn and carved into bangles used universally in that province

by Hindu women of all castes. In the Tamil districts of Madras

great numbers of small ones are used as amulets to protect against

the evil eye, especially in respect of draug'ht bullocks and cows

in milk.

Among the chanks fished each year are usually a few sinistral

or left-handed examples in which the whorls of the shell instead

of twisting clockwise from left to right when the shell is held

with its mouth or anterior end pointing forwards, are reversed and

twist from left to right. On account of their rarity these abnormal

shells are accounted by Hindus and Buddhists of great religious

value. A sinistral chank is one of the emblems of Vishnu and

such shells are amongst the most important of the treasures of

the great Hindu temples. In Tibet the Lamaistic monasteries

treasure similar objects, gorgeously mounted in silver, richly

embossed. At one time the value of sinistral chanks is said to

have been assessed at their weight in gold. Good shells are still

assessed by weight, the price per tola increasing greatly as the

shell becomes heavier.1

1 For works dealing exhaustively with the Sacred Chank, consult the

following : —

Hornell, J., ‘The Chank Bangle Industry : its Antiquity and present Con-

dition’, Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. Ill, pp. 407-448, 4 pi.

Calcutta, 1913.

Hornell, J., ‘The Indian Varieties and Races of the Genus Turbinella’ ,

Memoirs of the Indian Museum, vol. vi, pp. m-122, with 12 plates and 4 figs.

Calcutta, 1916.

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS

329

Dog Chanks

A near relative of the Sacred Chank is the Dog-Chank, Vasum

(Cynodonta) cornigerum, a strong, murex-like shell covered with

stout knobs ; like the true chank strong ridges are present on the

columella. It is found on rocky ground, rarely in the Gulf of

Mannar, more frequently in the Laccadive Islands.

Melongena vespertilio is common at the mouths of backwaters.

It has a distinct resemblance to the Andaman chank, having a

well-marked shoulder from which short conical knobs project at

regular intervals. The spire is short and the canal long. The sur-

face is covered with a velvety, yellowish-brown periostracum.

There are no plicae on the columella.

Knobbed Chanks

The Knobbed Chanks, Fasdolariidae, often grow to a great size,

particularly Fusus ( Hemifusus ) colosseus which reaches a length of

about 14 inches. In India the largest common species is the Fascio-

laria trapezium , a chank-like shell, often four inches long with a

short spire armed with stout knobs. The columella lip anteriorly

is ridged into several oblique folds. A thick brown periostracum

protects the shell. It lives on the same ground as the true chank

but in comparison is much scarcer. The eggs are laid in numer-

ous small vase-shaped capsules.

A smaller species is

the dark brown F. fda-

mentosa , with sculptur-

ing reduced to faint

spiral ribbing and the

merest vestige of knob-

bing on the shoulder.

Much more elegant

is our Spindle-Shell, p.

Fusinus coins. No shell

could be named more appropriately for it is typically fusiform

or spindle-shaped, the spire drawn out very long and the canal

extremely long and narrow. The body whorl is comparatively

small; the well-defined angular shoulder to the whorls is beset

with wide rounded ridges.

The genus Latirus is also represented in Indian waters; its

species are small and less well-known than other members of the

Fasdolariidae. L. craticulatus and L. smaragdulus are recorded

from the Laccadives and probably occur on the Bombay coast.

Both Fasciolaria and Latirus are distinguished by oblique plicae

on the columella, a feature absent in Fusinus.

-Shell of a typical Fasciolaria. xf.

Mitre-Shells

The Mitre-Shells ( Mitridae ) are handsome, brightly coloured

shells, much sought after by collectors. Unfortunately the finer

Hornell, J., ‘The Indian Conch (Turbinella pyrum) and its Relation to

Hindu Life and Religion’, Report to the Government of Baroda on the Mar.

Zoology of Okhamandel in Kathiawar, vol. ii, pp. 1-78, with 7 plates and

z text-figs. London, 1916.

9

330 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

species are rare in Indian waters. The commonest is the Bishop’s

Mitre (Miira episcopalis ) found on sand stretches in sheltered bays ;

it is a particularly beautiful shell, the shape that of a stoutly

elongate spindle with the surface ornamented with spiral rows of

blotches and spots of bright scarlet. The mouth is rather narrow

and like that of the chank is distinguished by the presence of

several pleats or folds on the columellar lip. It is a sluggish creature,

burying itself in the sand when not on the prowl for food.

The Mitres are almost exclusively confined to the waters of

warm latitudes.

Whelks

The next family, the Whelks or Buccinidae , conversely to the

Mitres, are characteristically northern in their habitat so far as

regards their most typical and common genera.

Fig. 22. — Babylonia spirata L., crawling over sand.

The only conspicuous Indian genus is Babylonia. Its species

are stout whelk-like shells, solid and smooth, the white shell usually

spotted or blotched with red, obscured during life by a thin dirty

brownish periostracum. A very characteristic feature is the rec-

tangular form of the suture dividing the whorls. In the young an

umbilicus is present; with age the inner lip becomes thickened

and eventually spreads over the umbilical opening.

The common Indian species

are Babylonia spirata and B.

zeylanica ; neither has any

economic value, but a whelk of

an allied genus, Pollia ( P . spi-

ralis), is a mihor sea product

collected for food on the Kon-

kan coast.

Neptunea antiqua is an ex-

tremely abundant species in

Western Europe; apart from

Fig. 23 -Oral view of shell of its considerable value as food,

Babylonia spirata L. . .. ,

a point of great interest is that

a separate race or variety arose in Pliocene times distinguished by

its reversed or sinistral twist. In the Indian chank this abnormal

form is extremely rare but even here the majority occur in one

restricted locality, indicating that there is in this place a family

(using the word in the limited popular sense) distinguished by this

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS

331

peculiarity, just as there are occasionally families among men where

six fingers are commonly inherited instead of the normal five. In

Pliocene days such a family of Neptunea antiqua evidently competed

successfully with their normally shaped relatives and established a

race that became temporarily dominant ; to-day this sinistral variety

still survives on the coast of Spain, but on the British coasts the

normal (dextral) form has regained its original dominance and has

ousted almost completely the abnormal sinistral variety.

Dog Whelks

The family of the Dog-Whelks (Nassariidae) are all small and

often tiny shells of the outline of the chank in miniature, usually

covered with many rows of tiny tubercles ; the mouth aperture is

constricted, with the outer lip thickened and often armed with

prominent ‘teeth’ as may also be the inner lip formed by the growth

of a strong callous deposited upon the end of the columella. The

foot is long and broad and sometimes bifurcated behind. The

siphon is long and conspicuous. The Nassariids are in the main

scavengers, living upon carrion ; their sense of smell is extremely

acute and they may be trapped in numbers by laying down a dead

crab or a piece of decaying meat in shallows or in a rock pool.

If Nassariids abound it will not be long before they are seen troop-

ing from all sides, each with its siphon extended in front, waving

enquiringly from side to side, trying to locate the source of the

odour they smell. They cluster round and over a dead mollusc or

a dead crab exactly as ants do over a dead insect that they have

found, but instead of dragging it away to their nest as ants would

do, the Nassariids devour their find there and then. They are great

enemies of small bivalve molluscs, seeking them out by burrowing

through the sand.

Common Indian species are Nassarius papillosus, N. monile and

Arcularia australis and A. thersites t all found in shallow water,

often between tide-marks.

Mur ices

The family of the Muricidae has a world-wide distribution;

tropical species are numerous and include many very handsome and

peculiar forms, ornamented in many instances with prominent

growth ridges (varices) fantastically armed with thickly set spines

(Fig. 24): The shells are stoutly built, variable in form — -some-

times fusiform, but more often with a shortened spire and wide body

whorl. In many species the anterior canal is very long and narrow,

with sides so incurved as to become almost closed and tubular ; a

posterior canal is absent. The foot is cut off abruptly in front. The

proboscis is long and retractile, armed with a long and narrow

radula having three teeth in each transverse row; the central tooth

has three short spines and several denticles, while each lateral one

is simple and talon-shaped. With this armature the mollusc is

able to bore circular holes in other shells in a manner similar to

that employed by Natica and Thais. All Murices are carnivorous;

living free on the bottom they fill towards the non-burrowing

332 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

bivalves a role similar to that of Natica in respect of those that

live buried in sand ; they are capable of great damage and some

of the smaller species, Ur o salpinx sp. and others, together with

the Purpurid Drupa, cause havoc on the pearl banks in the Gulf

of Mannar when the pearl oysters are young and thin-shelled.

From some of the Murices the Phoenicians obtained their famous

Tyrian purple dye; the animal was extracted whole from large

shells, small ones were broken in a mortar. Vestiges of this industry

still exist on the eastern coasts of the Mediterranean in heaps of

broken Mur ex shells and in cauldron-like holes in the rocks.

The handsome long-

spined Murex tenuispina is

often brought ashore by

Madras fishermen, en-

tangled by its spines in

their trawl nets ; the same

species and the closely

allied M. ternispina are

common on the Bombay

and Malabar coasts in mo-

derately deep water. Both

these have extremely long

beaks beset with spines ;

the Woodcock-Shell, Murex

haustellum , has an equally

long beak but no spines ; it

bears a fantastic resem-

blance to the head of a

woodcock, hence the popu-

lar name. It is common on

muddy sand on both the East and West Coasts. Of short-beaked

small forms, M. palmiferus is peculiarly handsome, the spines stout

and branched. It occurs in the Gulf of Mannar.

Largest of all the

Indian Murices is M.

ramosus. This shell is

found associated with

the rather larger Horn-

ed Helmet-shells ( Cas-

sis cornuta) in deep

water (io fathoms) on

the pearl-banks of the

Gulf of Mannar. By

the Tamil fishermen it

is called Ani sangu ot Fig. 25. — Egg capsule of a Murex.

Elephant Chank. The

shell is short and massive, the beak quite short and wide and the

whole surface is beset with powerful spines, slightly curved. Closely

related is Murex anguliferus, a small edition of the Elephant Chank.

So alike are they that the smaller one has been supposed by some

to be the young of the larger. The spines in the immature are less

developed than in the adult and in this condition the angular shape

is obvious. It is common on the Coromandel Coast and at the

Fig. 24. — Murex tenuispina Lam. and

M. palma-rosae Lam.

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS

333

Hindu temple at Tirukalikkunram this shell appears sometimes to

take the place of a real chank in the miracle enacted periodically at

this place which lies between Chingleput and Mahabalipuram. Here,

at intervals of several years, a chank shell rises to the surface of the

temple tank and among the shells thus miraculously produced and now

kept in the temple treasury, I have seen two of Murex anguliferus .1

The Purples

The Purples ( Thaididae ) are littoral shells of small size found on

all coasts.

Fig. 26. — Two Common Purpurids, Thais rudolphi Lam. and Thais bufo Lam.

X i.

The two commonest Indian species, Thais bufo and T. rudolphi ,

are barely two inches in length, thick shelled and stoutly built,

with a short spire and a fairly wide body-whorl and large aperture

(Fig. 26, A and B). They live on rocks between tide-marks and,

along with Turbo , on stone-strewn

shoals; they are occasionally eaten by

the shore people in Tamil districts in

South India, while around Bombay

Thais carinifera is collected in consi-

derable quantities. T. pica is recorded

from the Laccadives.

In habits the Purples closely re-

semble the Murices ; they prey on other

molluscs, obtaining access to the soft

bodies of their victims by the same ex-

pedient of boring holes through their

shells ; they also secrete a fluid which

turns to a dull crimson colour when

exposed to light and which was used

by the ancients for dyeing.

Rapana bulbosa is another common

Indian species and a spiny little Drupa

is a depredator on pearl-oyster brood.

27. — Rapana bulbosa

Solander.

1 Hornell, J., ‘The Sacred Chank of India’, Madras Fisheries Bulletin ,

vol. vii, p. 184. Madras, 1914.

334

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

Coral Shells

The closely allied family of Coral Shells (Coralliophilidae) com-

prises a curious group of molluscs of more or less sedentary habit

that live on coral reefs, intimately associated with the living corals.

Coralliophila madreporarum attach-

es itself to corals, but Magilus when

adult lives wholly embedded in the

living coral. When it settles down

within a crevice of growing coral at

the end of its free-swimming stage it

assumes the appearance of a thin-

shelled Thais (Fig. 28, B) ; as the coral

continues its growth the shell gradu-

ally becomes surrounded and then

imbedded in it until, to prevent being

cut off and completely entombed,

Magilus changes the growth of its shell

from the spiral to the straight, length-

ening the tube as the coral increases

in thickness (Fig. 28, A). As this

lengthening process goes on, the

mollusc fills up the spiral portion of its tube with solid material. An

operculum is retained.

Fig. 28. — Magilus, showing the

larval form of the shell (B),

and the abnormal form as-

sumed when adult (A).

(To be continued)

IDENTITY OF MICROBRACON BREVICORNIS WESM.

AND MICROBRACON HEBETOR SAY.

BY

M. C. Cherian and V. Margabandhu.

Agricultural Research Institute, Coimbatore.

Microbracon brevicornis Wesm., and Microbracon hebetor Say are two widely

known species of world-wide distribution and are parasites chiefly of several

Lepidoptera. A vast amount of literature has developed around these both

in Europe and America on their biology, ecology, systematics including their

synonymy. But the validity of these two being two distinct species is doubted

and there are two groups of opinion, one group considering the two as distinct,

the other considering them as one and the same species. The object of this

paper is to review the position as it stands now and to present a few points

on this aspect of study.

Microbracon brevicornis Wesm. — This is a well-known parasite of the

European corn borer Pyrausta nubilalis Hbn., in Europe and is imported into

North America to control the same there ; in Egypt and elsewhere it is a

parasite* of the pink bollworm of cotton Platyedra gossypiella Saund. ; in Russia

intensive studies are being carried out on the ecology of this parasite for

utilising it in the control of the cotton Noctuid Heliothis armigera Hbn; and

in India it is a parasite of the coconut caterpillar Nephantis serinopa M. and of

the moringa borer Noorda moringae. Richards and Thomson (1932) give a

list of hosts as follows :■ — Dioryctia abietella F., Pectinophora ( Gelechia )

gossypiella Saund., Pyrodercess simplex Wlsm., Ephestia cautella Wlk.,

Earias insulana Boisd., Batrachedra amydraula Meyr., Phycita infusella,

Nephopteryx sp., Pyrausta nubilalis Tbn., Diparopsis castanea Hmpsn., Sesamia

cretica Led., V anessaio L. They also mention tha.t this parasite can be bred

on E. kuhniella., Acrobasis obliqua Z., Carpocapsa splendana Tr,, Diatraea

zeacolella F., Leucanja zeae Dup., Nothris senticella Stdg., Phthorimaea

operculella Z., Sesamia nonagrinoides Lef., Tortrix viridana L., and Grapholitha

rufillana Stt.

Microbracon hebetor Say. — Richards and Thomson (1932) mention the host

of this parasite as follows '.—Ephestia kuhniella, E. eleutella, E. cautella, Galleria

mellonella L.s Paralipsa ( Aphomia ) gularis Zell., Vitula adamondsii Pack.,

Sitotroga cerealella Ol., the most common ones being Plodia and species of

Ephestia. Ayyar (1934) has recorded it on Corcyra cephalonica. Glover and

Chatterjee (1936) state (1) that they have recorded M. hebetor for the first time

in North India, (2) that in India its usual host has not been discovered, (3) that

it has been bred in the laboratory on Eublemma amabilis and Holcocera pulverea,

and (4) that it being rare in North India had to be imported to Ranchi from

Ceylon. They, also give the hosts from Ceylon as follows : — Ephestia kuhniella,

E. cautella, Sitotroga cerealella a'nd Corcyra cephalonica. Ghulam Ullah

(1939) contradicts the statement of Glover that this is rare in North India and

gives the occurrence of this around Delhi attacking caterpillars of Antigastra

catalaunalis in large numbers and he has also induced it to parasites

Platyedra gossypiella, Earias fabia, E. insulana, Laphygma sp., and Phthorimaea

operculella Z.

Thus the above host records for the two parasites show that Microbracon

brevicornis is mostly a parasite of field pests and M. hebtor is a parasite of

stored product pests, and this aspect has been well brought out.

With this as the back-ground, the next point to consider is their nomenclature.

Richards and Thomson (1932) give the synonyms for M. brevicornis as follows:

vernalis, kitchneri, lefroyi ; and for M. hebetor as follows : honestor, brevicornis

and juglandis and these authors give references in extenso which show the con-

fusion regarding the identity of these two. There is no mention of these two

parasites by Ramakrishna Ayyar (1928) and Richards and Thomson go to the

336 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

extent of saying that several of Ramakrishna Ayyar’s species of Microbracon

described by him may after all prove to be either of these. Cushman (1914)

gives the synonymy with the relevant literature and shows the confusion

prevailing. Lai (1941) puts this question of the relationship of M. hebetor and

M. brevicornis to the fore and considers (1) that the two are identical

(2) that some intermediate and aberrant forms exist in specimens reared from

various hosts at New Delhi, and (3) that for the present these may be allowed

to remain distinct, and (4) that later on these have to be considered as a

biological or geographical race of the same species. But unfortunately Lai

has not hinted at the manner of his studies morphological or otherwise.

Studies cut Coimbatore. — Corcyra cephalonica is bred from Sorghum in

large numbers in the Entomological Laboratory, Coimbatore, for mass breed-

ing of Tricho gramma parasites for liberation against the cane borers. But the

larvae are found parasitised by M. hebetor in very large numbers and this

material was used for the studies. It was found that the color of different

individuals in the lot varied from pure honey yellow to dark with intermediate

shades of varying depths on the thorax and abdomen and legs. The variations

were wide. Therefore individual females constituting different grades of color

shades were collected in July — August 1942 and separately reared. In the first

few days all the progenies gave rise to individuals of different shades but later

on only to dark ones. It is interesting to note that the purely honey-yellow

ones also gave rise to black ones. In some instances breeding was carried on to

3 or 4 generations and even then dark adults continued to be obtained. Not

only was there variation in color but there was variaton in size also especially

of abdomen and thorax. Therefore these trials showed that color and size are

of no value in determining the identity of these two species. In this connection

references may be made to Whiting (1921) and Geniyes (1922) who have worked

on these two species and studied the physiology of color variation ; they indi-

cate that color is governed by temperature.

Therefore another character, viz., the number of antennal joints was studied.

With regard to this aspect Cushman’s papers (1922) may be referred.

Cushman has analysed the point well and states that (1) Wesmaels’ (1839)

description of his species M. brevicornis is based on an insect having 17 joints

of antennae in the female and 20 to 26 joints in the male, (2) that Marshall

(1885) has brought all British specimens having 14 jointed antennae in the

female and 21-23 in the male under brevicornis. Cushman would appear to

have examined a large number of Marshall’s specimens for the female antennae

and in no case' was there more than 15 joints and the male antennae never

more than 22. Curiously enough he has also found that the species as thus

determined is apparently invariably parasitic on lepidopterous larvae such as

Ephestia, Plodia and Galleria infesting stored products. He also mentions

that examination of the parasites of the European corn borer ( Pyrausta nubilalis

Hbn.) imported into North America from Europe has shown that the large

number of female specimens reared had only 17 jointed and the males 21-27

jointed antennae and that this species from Europe is the true brevicornis Wesm.,

and these though very closely allied to that of Marshall’s in other respects

differ in this particular respect.

The present authors have before them a large number of parasites reared

from corcyra cephalonica at Coimbator and examination of these shows that the

antennal joints in the females vary between 14-16 joints and in no case

are they more than 16. Based on the observations of Cushman it may

be definitely stated that these are not brevicornis but may be M. hebetor

Say. Male and female specimens of M. hebetor recently obtained from

Ranchi and examined by the authors showed that females had only 14

joints and males 21. Four female specimens were also obtained from the

Imperial Entomologist. Of the two specimens reared from Earias and named

as hebetor one had 15 joints and the other 16. The other two specimens

reared from Antigastra catalaunalis and named brevicornis had 21 joints. Both

determinations were by Lai. In the case of Antigastra catalaunalis, as the

parasite has 21 joints, the species can never be M. hebetor.

Cushman’s analysis makes it clear that the number of antennal joints has

to be considered to distinguish the two species of Microbracon. In the present

state of our knowledge it seiems better to keep these two species separate

337

IDENTITY OF MICROBRACON BREVICORNIS WESM.

till further light is thrown on the subject. Cushman had the advantage of

having Westmael’s description of brevicornis, Marshall’s specimens from

Britain, specimens in the United States National Museum and the ones from

Europe from the European corn borer.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank the Imperial Entomologist, New Delhi and the

Entomologist, Lac Research Institute1, Namkum, for sending specimens for

their studies.

References

1. Krishna Ayyar, P. N. 1934, Bull., Ent. Res. xxv.

2. Ramakrishna Ayyar, T. V., 1928, Mem. Dept. Agr. Ind., x : 41-51.

3. Cushman, A. R., 1922, Proc., Ent. Soc. Wash., 16 : 122-123.

4. Geniyes, P., 1925, Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer., xviii : 143-202.

5. Ghulam Ullah, 1939, Ind. J. Ent. i : 111-112.

6. Glover, P. M., and Chatterjee, K. C., 1936, Proc. Ind. Acad.

Sc., iii : 195-211.

7. Lai, K. B., 1941, Proc. 28 th Ind. Sc. Congress, Benares, 201-202.

8. Marshall, 24 : 1885, Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond.

9. Richards and Thomson, 1932, Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 80 : 225-227.

10. Wesmael, 1939 Nouv. Mem. Ac. Sc. Bruxelles, ii : 23.

11. Whiting, P. W., 1921, The Journal of Heredity, xii : 262-266.

SWEET FLAG (ACORUS CALAMUS)— A POTENTIAL SOURCE OF

VALUABLE INSECTICIDE

BY

T. V. SUBRAMANIAM, B.A., ENTOMOLOGIST

A corns calamus, known as the Sweet flag in English, as Vasambu in Tamil,

as Vayambu in Malay alam, and as Fassa in Telugu, is a semi-aquatic plant,

perennial in nature, belonging to the Natural Order Aroideae. It is regarded

as a native of Asia and (introduced into other parts of the world because of its

high medicinal value. Mention is made of this plant in ancient Ayurvedic

literature. It is seen growing wild in all marshy parts of the Western Ghats

round about the Nilgirtis and in the plains in some places. It is cultivated

on a small scale in the court-yards of houses near wells or other waterlogged

places mainly for its medicinal use. Attempts were made to cultivate this on a

field scale by the Madras Agricultural Department at the Palur Agricultural Re-

search Station during 1933-34. The crop came up well, took one year to

mature, and yielded about 3420 lbs. of dry rhizome per acre and fetched nearly

Rs. 400 at the then rate of Rs. 3 per maund. The crop requires only low-

lying waterlogged marshy places, unfit for any other more economic crop,

for its cultivation, and does not demand much attention. Moreover, it is

free from pests and diseases, and can easily be grown, if the natural sources

of supply are found insufficient.

Leaves contain an essential oil used in England by perfumers in the manu-

facture of hair powder. From the rhizome a pale or yellow dark oil with a

strong odour and an aromatic bitter burning flavour (due to the presence of

a glucocide known as Acorin) is obtained. The rhizome is very largely used

in medicine dn all parts of the world for various diseases. In our province,

and probably in other parts of India too, there is a common practice, of

administering the dry rhizome rubbed in honey to babies in arms as a tonic.

It is made into an infusion in water and used to wash new-born calves as

a protection against vermin.

Though mention is made casually in literature about the insecticidal pro-

perties of the plant no definite attempts seem to have been made to assay

the real value in this direction till very recently. Probably the first earnest

attempt in this line was made at the entomological laboratory of the Agri-

cultural College and Research Institute, Coimbatore, about the year 1938.

This was continued for some years with the result that the rhizome of the

plant has been proved to possess definite insecticidal properties against a

variety of insects affecting field crops, stored grains, clothing, and other

household articles.

The most important use for the insecticide is in the preservation of grains

in the granary free from the damage by insects. This aspect received consider-

able attention from the year 1938 onwards. After more than a dozen trials

conducted during the period 1938-1947 it can definitely be claimed that it is

possible to preserve grains like cholam, paddy, rice and pulses free from

any appreciable damage from insects for sufficiently long periods,, say for

eight months or even a year. The grains are thoroughly mixed with finely

powdered rhizome at the rate of 2 lbs. for every 100 lbs. of the grains (at the

most) before storage. Lower doses, even when diluted with an inert powder

like china clay, have been found to be efficient. Taking the cost of the

powder to be about four annas a pound, it may be possible to protect the

grains at an average cost of about eight to twelve annas a bag for sufficiently

long periods. Considering the large quantity of food stuffs that are reported

to get deteriorated during storage in these days of food shortage this is de-

cidedly better than the remedial measures like cleaning and reconditioning or

fumigation of grains after the damage is over — not to mention the cost and

danger attending these operations. This treatment is certainly one that has

to receive attention at the hands of the food department. The appendix gives

details of two of a series of trials conducted in the preservation of grains with

Acorns.

A POTENTIAL SOURCE OF VALUABLE INSECTICIDE

339

‘Trials made with the rhizome and leaves of Sweet flag as dry powder and

as water infusion have proved their efficacy against crop pests like 'plant

lice and grubs of beetles. But it has to be remembered that the treatments

are effective only when a small quantity of soap is added to the infusion.

The strength of the infusion is only one ounce per gallon of water, prepared

by steeping the material in water for a day or boiling it in water for about

45 minutes and cooling.

The following laboratory trials with the powder give sufficient indication

of its effectiveness in the control of house flies : —

(1) A large number of flies were enclosed in a glass jar covered with muslin

and dusted over with Acorus powder at 8-30 a.m. in the morning and all

were found dead by 11 a.m. The flies in the untreated lot were all alive.

(2) Adult flies were enclosed in four glass jars with muslin covers ; two

of these had the flies dusted over with Acorus powder while the flies in the other

two jars were left untreated ; the flies in all the jars were fed with honey.

At the end of 24 hours the mortality in both the treated jars was 100 per cent;

but it was only 3J per cent and 2 per cent in the two controls.

(3) Four glass jars were each filled with one pound of fresh cowdung. In

two jars the material was mixed with quarte'r of a pound of Acorus powder

while the dung in the other two was left untreated. All the jars were covered

with muslin after the introduction of 100 fliies in each. On the third day

when all the flies were dead they were removed and the dung kept under

observation. On the sixth day maggots were seen in the control lots and

flies began to emerge by the tenth day while in the treated lots maggots were

not seen at all and no flies emerged. On the whole 227 and 497 flies emerged

from the two control lots. This indicates that mixing of Acorus powder with

cowdung will prevent house flies from breeding in it.

(4) Two pounds of fresh cowdung was put in two jars and a thin layer of

Acorus powder dusted on the top. (1/16 oz. of the powder was used for

covering an area of 28 sq. inches). Two similar lots were left untreated.

50 adult flies were left in each jar and the jars closed with muslin ; the flies

were fed with honey. Flies in tihe treated jars died the same evening while

those in the untreated jars lived for two or three days. Maggots began to

appear tin the control jars from the seventh day and flies began to emerge

later on. While the controls yielded 266 and 56 adults respectively in the

two jars, there was no breeding at all in the treated jars.

In a casual trial against the grubs of the coconut beetle ( Oryctes rhino-

ceros) the result was promising. In two jars cowdung manure with 12 grubs

of the beetle were put in and enclosed with muslin. The dung in one lot was

mixed with acorus powder at the rate of one ounce per pound of manure

while the dung in the other jar was left untreated. The grubs in the treated

manure began to feel uneasy from the beginning and died in the course of

18 days while the grubs in the control lot were hale and healthy.

Acorus powder also promises to be useful against clothes moths. In two

small trials it was found that the moths died in the course of a few hours

when the flannel pieces on which they were left were dusted with the powder,

while the moths on the untreated material were thriving for a number

of days and laid eggs and caterpillars hatched and flourished well.

The powder appears to be toxic to bed bugs too. When dusted over the

bugs it killed the insects in the course of a few hours; though it had no

effect on the eggs, the nymphs died as soon as they were hatched and came

in contact with the powder.

The effect of the powder against lice on fowl was tested on two occasions

with convincing results. In one case two badly infested birds were enclosed

separately in two cages with white paper spread on the floor. One bird was

well dusted with acorus powder while the other was left untreated as con-

trol. Half an ounce of the powder was required for a fairly big

sized bird. The next morning, i.e., after 12 hours the two birds were well

shaken to dislodge the lice on them on the paper below and it was found

that 505 dead lice were recovered from the treated bird, but not a single one

was obtained from the untreated bird. After renewing the paper flooring in

the two cages the birds were kept again for another day and the next morning

10 more dead lice were recovered from the treated bird and none from the

control. Repetition of the process on the third day gave 6 more dead lice

340 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

from the treated bird with none from the control, making up a total of 521

dead • lice from the treated bird with none from the control. On the fourth

day the control bird was similarly dusted and left in its cage and the next

morning 343 dead lice were recovered from it. Thus the effect of the treat-

ment is very striking. A few small chicken were dusted with the powder to

see if the treatment affected them adversely and it was found to be safe.

From the various trials enumerated above it is clear that Acorus promises

to be an almost ideal insecticide. It is cheap, simple and effective ; it is readily

available and can be easily cultivated ; it is toxic to a wide range of insects

both of the biting and sucking type, but is absolutely harmless to higher

animals and man. It does not scorch the plants when applied to crops in

the field and does not adversely affect the germination or the eating quality

of grains when mixed with them. From the promising nature of the insecti-

cide it deserves the attention of entomologists for further detailed investigation

and the attention of the Government for encouraging the use of 'it, especially

when it gives such great promise in the preservation of food grains which

is a vital point in these days of food shortage and when every grain saved

is an asset to the country.

APPENDIX

Experiment No. 1.

In this experiment which was started in October 1938 the following substances

were used to test their efficacy in protecting grain from insects : leaves of Neem,

Pungam and Tulsi, lime powder to which creosote was added at the' rate of

\ oz. per pound, paracide, powdered rhizomes of Acorus , powdered flowers

of Pyrethrum , and powdered roots of Derris. The grains were paddy and

cholam. 192-200 lbs. of cholam and 150-180 lbs. of paddy were stored in each

bag after mixing the grains with Acorus powder at the rate) of 2 lbs. for

every 100 lbs. of the grains. Every month a random sample of one pound

of the grain was taken from each bag and the incidence of calandra beetles

in it recorded and the grain with the live beetles put back in the respective

bags. After a year, in December 1939 the whole quantity of grains in all the

bags were examined and the insects and the final loss of grains recorded.

A perusal of the figures given below will show that Acorus prevents insect

damage to. a great extent. Curiously enough the number of insects at the

final count is larger in acorus lot than in the control ; but most of them were

dead.

Experiment No. 2.

Experiment No. 1 was repeated again in June 1940 using 170 lbs. of

cholam per bag and 100 lbs. of paddy per bag. Final counts were taken in

September 1941.

The figures here also show a greater number of beetles in the final exa-

mination in the Acorus treated lot as before consisting of a large proportion

of dead ones, in cholam; the insect population during the various months is

lower. The insect population in paddy is as in the previous experiment lower

A POTENTIAL SOURCE OF VALUABLE INSECTICIDE

341

in the treated lot. The final loss in both cholam and paddy is very much

lower in the Acorus lots than in the controls.

REVIEWS

1. JOURNAL OF THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF INDIA, Vol. I,

No. 1— January 1949. Edited by K. N. Bahl, D. Phil., D. Sc. (Oxon.), F.N.I.— •

Price Rs. 10 (inland) ; Rs. 11 (foreign).

The Zoological Society of India has just issued the first number of their

journal from Calcutta. It comprises of 70 pages with 22 pen and ink illustra-

tions and a plate of photographic reproductions. ‘ The journal has been priced

at Rs. 20 per volume of 2 half-yearly issues’ and taking the present one as a

standard, the price is justified. The editor is Dr. Bahl, Professor of Zoology,

Lucknow, who is a well-known zoologist, even beyond the regions of this

country. Contributors to scientific journals in India have suffered from want

of respect to merit. As in politics, the editors have their parties and mutual

admirers without whose blessings no article can be accepted for publication.

Prof. Bahl is well respected for being above all such politics and it is hoped

that the journal will offer encouragement to many a budding zoologist. In

the past the dissenters could find a chance of publishing their articles only in

foreign journals but war conditions have greatly minimised such opportunities.

A journal under Prof. Bahl’s editorship can be depended upon to extend hos-

pitality to all meritorious workers irrespective of their scientific caste or

zoological creed. The printers are the well-known ‘ Catholic Press ’ of Ranchi

wnich already prints the journal 1 Scientific and Industrial Research New

Delhi. The printing leaves nothing to be desired.

The journal opens with a contribution by the Director, Zoological Survey of

India, which is as it should be. Dr. Hora makes a masterly contribution on

his special subject Fish fauna, with observations on zoogeography and

paleography of the Rihand river, in Mirzapore, U. P. Major Roonwal’s

address before the Zoological Society of India, at Patna, January 1948,

appears as a great contrast to the previous article, as the treatment is thoroughly

philosophical, with a reference to ‘Ethics of Zoology ’ by Annand ale and a

quotation in German from Schopenhauer. However, we would like to point out,

incidentally, how well he surveys the work of Indian zoologists. He says

* Last year we published 300 zoological papers in the country. . . . 150 were

Indian Science Congress abstracts which did not go beyond the “ abstract ”

stage . . . and alas ! only 20 were large and critical monographic works on

morphology and systematics ’. Every editor is a benefactor in a way and

unless merit is recognised and the writer encouraged, no solid work can be

carried out. The want of a proper organ for zoological publications has

greatly discouraged such work as Major Roonwal rightly misses. Three

separate articles by Loos of the Tea Research Institute of Ceylon deal with

Nematodes and are well illustrated. Bioluminescence is so attractive a

phenomenon that we wonder why so little has been written on the subject from

India. K. S. Misra’s note on Scopelus (Lampanyctus) pyrosobolus , is also of

the category of ‘ write short notes on ’ and offers room for a monographic

study to be taken later on.

As a contrast to morphological papers, S.V. Ganapati of Madras has an

interesting paper on the role of blood-worm Chironomus plumosm , as observed

in sand filters of the Madras Water Works and another on abnormal surface

congregations of fishes. There are two papers on insects: on a Dermestid

Beetle by K. S. Pradhan and on Potato Moth, by A. K. Mukerji. Birds, which

form the most favourite subject of study amongst zoologists elsewhere, are not

given the attention they deserve in India. They are conspicuously absent in

the issue of the journal of the Zoological Society of India, under review.

G. Mathai has a note on cleaning insects preserved in a museum, damaged by

flood which left silt upon the specimens. Two publications have been reviewed,

one signed by Roonwal. The obituary notice of Dr. Bhalerao appears rather

short in our view, considering his achievements and his popularity.

We extend the journal a warm welcome and would be happy to co-operate

in furthering a cause which is equally dear to us.

S. M.

343

REVIEWS

2. WILDLIFE FOR AMERICA : THE STORY OF WILDLIFE CON-

SERVATION. By Eward H. Graham and William R. Van Dersal. Pp. 109.

Illustrated. Size 9i" x 6f". New York— Oxford University Press, 1949.

Price $2-50.

The appearance of this superbly illustrated and informative little book could

not have been more opportune. We in Iudia have just woken up to a realiz-

ation of the same serious problems as confronted America after the early settlers

had established themselves : namely the evil consequences of upsetting the

balance of nature by thoughtless destruction of natural resources. Trappers

explored remote parts of the country for furs. Settlers followed in their wake

and cleared the forests for cultivation. The originally abundant wildlife was

killed off in the greed for gold which the fur and feather trade provided, or as

food for the settlers, through sheer blood-lust or as wholesale reprisal for alleged

destruction to livestock and cultivated crops.

Some of the animals were destroyed directly by human agency, others

perished through drastically altered conditions many which could have been

avoided by the exercise of a little forethought.

Large areas were denuded of forest, exposing the ground to the full force of

the rain by the removal of the intervening canopy. The matting of rotting

leaves on the forest floor which soaks up the rain water like a sponge and pre-

vents it from running off in swift flowing channels was destroyed causing

erosion of the soil. Overgrazing by many more cattle than the land was

capable of supporting destroyed the soil binding grass and caused erosion of the

pasture land. Marshy land was drained and dry land was irrigated for raising

crops. The landscape changed completely, and with it the native wildlife.

Some species changed their habits to suit the new conditions, others went under

altogether or in varying degrees.

Passenger Pigeons, the last example of which died in Cincinnati Zoo in 1914,

were so abundant till less than a hundred years ago that it seemed no amount of

killing could affect their numbers. They were slaughtered by cartloads, in

hundreds of thousands, as food for the settlers. Buffalo once estimated at 60

million head, were so mercilessly persecuted for their hides that they would all

be gone by now but for the protection afforded by comparatively recent

National Parks where a very few still remain. Thirty other kinds or Ameri-

can wildlife have now become so scarce as to be listed among vanishing species.

With the growing insufficiency of food for a teeming population that conti-

nues to increase at the alarming rate of about 5 millions a year, it is not surpris-

ing that in India a demand is sometimes made even by people of normal but

ill-informed intelligence that all areas capable of supporting any food crops be

thrown open and cleared of the forest growth that now gives refuge to wildlife,

and that all wildlife wherever it comes in the least conflict with human inter-

ests be destroyed. Little do such people realize the essential role that wildlife

plays in the scheme of nature. For inconsistent as it may seem experience in

the U.S. — 85% of whose total land is used for farming or ranching— has shown

that with proper scientific management, farming and ranching are actually

made better if wildlife is present, and that agriculture, forestry and wildlife go

best hand in hand.

Under the rapidly changing conditions in India and with public opinion so

inadequately informed on the subject there is little realization of the fact that

wildlife is a priceless national asset which is steadily vanishing through wanton

destruction. Once lost, it can never be replaced ; therefore it is essential that

every medium of propaganda at our disposal should be harnessed in order to

spread accurate knowledge and create an appreciation of the wonderful wild-

life that we happily still possess and which it is our duty to preserve and hand

down to posterity.

A moral responsibility for moulding the correct attitude towards nature rests

upon the teachers of the young. For the youth of to-day will be the citizen of

to-morrow; and among the many attributes we expect in the good citizen is

an understanding attitude towards wildlife, an attitude which will concede to

it the conditions necessary for unpersecuted existence.

‘ Wildlife for America ’ is an admirable attempt to provide the basic facts

concerning the important position wildlife occupies in nature’s economy, and

by telling us in simple language and by eloquent picture what has been, and

is being done in the U.S. to guard and imprpve this heritage provides pointed

suggestions for what may be achieved in our country and how.

S. A,

344 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

3. ADVENTURES WITH A NATURALIST. By Roy Bedichek. London—

Victor Gollancz Ltd. 1948. Price 125. 6 d.

This book covers a series of more or less disconnected observations on

varied aspects of natural history, mostly with reference to Texas It therefore

does not meet the promise held out by the title but is interesting from a different

angle.

The essays wander over many subjects and observations, ranging from the

courtship of a flycatcher and the extermination of the golden eagle, to the in-

fluence of fencing upon wildlife and the truly American statement that it is

estimated that Texas has paid thirty million tons of humus laden soil for

every bale of cotton she has ever marketed.

Though some of the items are of local interest, many general observations,

particularly with the reference to the preservation and protection of the fauna

and flora of the country are of topical value to us. America has lost some of

its original wildlife, but subsequent action has placed an appreciable amount

on a safe footing. In India, we are still losing and only time will tell if the

efforts of the Bombay Natural History Society, with its very limited resources,

will be effective.

When the railroads were being built in America, the various companies

acquired rights of way extending right across the country in every direction ;

many of these have been unused and have left long stretches of indigenous

vegetation, together with a part of its fauna in cross section form. The late

President Roosevelt also suggested that if super-highways were to be built

across the country from coast to coast, a strip of land a mile wide on each

side should be held under government control providing innumerable opportu-

nities for parks, arboreta, wildlife preserves, natural scenery, sanctuaries and

other amenities for the nature-conscious. We wish our government would also

think on similar lines and not calculate how many chawls can be built on every

square foot of open land along the roadside.

For the preservation of wildlife, the first essential is to know the habits

of the animals it is intended to preserve. When motor cars were first introduced

there was great consternation among the horses, and many carts were wrecked

and necks broken. Horses have become used to them but many animals both

wild and domestic, which depend upon speed for their safety will run down the

track in front of an approaching train or car, until they are killed, because

they are unable to learn that the oncoming vehicle cannot leave the track which

is built for it. The jack rabbit is an example. The armadillo has another difficulty.

At the strange noise of an approaching car, it stands up on its hind legs and

sways his body from side to side to try and verify his possible enemy by smell.

This results in his being hit on the head by the bumper and killed.

Fortunately for everybody including ourselves in India, the fashion in egret

plumes has passed and this drain on wildlife has stopped. Much of folklore

and naturelore current is critically examined by the author. In India where we

have a glut of mythical beliefs about the use and value of animals and plants,

a similar detailed and authoritative commentary would be invaluable. A large

number of pseudo-medical and similar beliefs prejudicial to many species would

be exploded, e.g., aphrodisiacal value of the rhino horn, which has brought the

animal to the verge of extinction.

Reference is made to a film showing that the European cuckoo does carry its

egg to the fosterer’s nest in its beak. We thought that this theory had long

been buried, and also repudiated by cine-photographs. Some stories do die

hard.

Though it belies its name, the book is interesting and of a kind which might

be profitably attempted in India to arouse interest in the innumerable facets of

our wildlife.

H. A.

4. THE PARASITIC CUCKOOS OF AFRICA. By Herbert Friedmann.

10 plates. Pp. viii + 204. Size 9"x6". Washington Academy of Sciences,

Washington, D.C. — 1948.

The Washington Academy of Sciences is to be congratulated on its plan to

publish a series of monographs, of which the present is the opening number,

and we hope the model.

Dr. Herbert Friedmann, Curator of Birds, U. S. National Museum, won

international fame as an ornithologist by his monumental and almost classic

RE VIE WS

345

work on the American Cowbirds, published in 1923. The subtitle of that

work ‘A Study in the Biology of Social Parasitism’ is an indication of

the trend of his particular interest which he was later enabled to pursue in

Africa by extensive field studies. In The Parasitic Cuckoos of Africa he

has marshalled, — and in some cases analysed and discussed — all the data either

obtained by himself personally or so far recorded by other competent observers

on the life histories of African cuckoos, particularly bearing on the habit known

as nest-parasitism or brood-parasitism.

Of the many species and topics discussed which carry a direct appeal

to bird students in this country, perhaps the section on the genus Clamator

(pp. 1-52) is ot the greatest interest. Particularly illuminating is that portion

of it which deals with the Pied Crested Cuckoo {Clamator jacobinus) , a bird

which comes into prominence in many parts of India during the monsoon

months through its plaintive metallic calls. The typical race of this cuckoo

(C. j. jacobinus) is a resident of Ceylon and a portion of Madras Province.

The rest of India is inhabited by a larger race C. j. pica which is believed to

spend the winter in Africa. Indeed the rather extraordinary suggestion has

been put forward that contrary to all known precedents this bird breeds both in

its residential and in its migratory areas laying a blue egg in Iniia and a

white egg in Africa !

We gather from the author that apparently the only authentic evidence of a

white egg being laid by this cuckoo in Africa rests on the finding of one such egg

in the oviduct of a female shot in Kenya Colony and identified on reliable

authority as belonging to the race pica .

In this connection it is pointed out that in Africa there are 3 types of

Clamator jacobinus which must all be considered as belonging to the same

species : No. 2 is a proper race by itself, while 1 and 3 are merely colour phases

of the same race and not two separate races of C. jacobinus.

Type 1 : Completely black, with white wing patches ... serratus

Type 2 : Like above but with white underparts ... pica

Type 3; Like 2, but with dusky underparts and greyish

throat and breast ... ... ... hypopinarus

The race pica breeds in the Asiatic portion of its range (i.e. , in Arabia, Iran

Baluchistan, Afghanistan and northwest India) laying the well-known

greenish blue egg. It also breeds in portions of its African range (in Ethiopia,

Sudan, and parts of the Belgian Congo and Kenya Colony) laying the same

typical greenish blue egg. Such records as exist of the occurrence of pica

farther south in Africa (i.e., in the residential range of hypopinarus ) relate to

migrant and wintering birds only.

Dr. Friedmann feels that the only conceivable explanation for the white egg

taken from the oviduct of an alleged pica in Kenya Colony, is that although

birds from equatorial Africa (the boundary zone between the 2 races) may

be morphologically like pica , yet they may in fact ‘physiologically’ be

hypopinarus which is characterised by laying pure white eggs. This is

certainly one explanation, but it shows how much room there still is for

confirmatory evidence. Also from the identical calls and habits of serratus

and hypopinarus , as well as from their completety over-lapping breeding

ranges, their identical white eggs, hosts, ecological distribution and food habits,

supported further by the fact that the two types have been observed mating

with each other, he is convinced that serratus and hypopinarus are merely

colour phases of a single form.

Considering the large numbers of Pied Crested Cuckoos which arrive to

breed in north and central India during the south-west monsoon season every

year, it is deplorable that so little is known of their movements. Whether this

influx is merely from western Asiatic countries, or in fact from Africa as has

been suggested, can only be ascertained by the ringing method. In spite of

obvious difficulties in the way of trapping adequate numbers of adult Pied

Crested Cuckoos for the purpose, or of finding a reasonable quantity of their

nestlings, it is nevertheless a line of field work which holds important possibili-

ties and one that can be earnestly commended to those with the necessary

opportunities.

By bringing together in one volume the wealth of relevant African cuckoo

literature that lay scattered pell-mell among the pages of numerous journals,

Dr. Friedmann has rendered a service to ornithologists the true extent of which

10

346 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

can be more fully appreciated only by those who like himself are specially

interested in this branch of ornithology and have experienced »the difficulties of

access to references.

* The Parasitic Cuckoos of Africa ’ forms an important addition to the

literature on this interesting group of birds; it is a book that no serious

ornithologist can afford to do without.

S. A.

5. ANIMAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA (MAMMALS). By Leo Wender. Pp.

266. Line illustrations. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd. 1948. Price:

12s. 6 d. nett.

In reviewing this book one can do little better than quote from the dust

cover : —

‘ This book is unique. It is nothing less than a complete dictionary of

mammals containing the essential facts about the habits and characteristics of

every known mammal in all its varieties. Never before has so much informa-

tion on this subject been presented concisely in one volume. In this remarkable

work not only can the layman discover easily all he wants to know about

animals he may have observed in the Zoo, but the student of Zoology will find

it an essential reference book.’

It is really a remarkable work in which is included an enormous amount of

miscellaneous information about well-known animals and also those which are

mere names to most of us. Many of them like Anoa, Arui, Coati-mundi,.

Cuscus, Indri, Nyala, Vicugna, Wallaroo and Wanderoo, are unfamiliar and

startling and few would know where to look for information pertaining to them.

This is a very comprehensive dictionary which tells you the family to which the

animal belongs and also the places where it is found. We would again quote

from the Foreword by Martin A. C. Hinton of the British Museum : —

* We hand over The Animal Encyclopaedia to the reader and friend

of Nature with the firm conviction that it will become a useful handbook

to everybody for everyday use.’

H. A.

The following books have been added to the Society’s Library since

February 1949 : —

1. WONDERS OF THE GREAT BARRIER REEF. By T. C. Roughley

(Angus and Robertson. 1948).

2. BIRD DISPLAY — an introduction to the study of bird

psychology. By Edward A. Armstrong (Cambridge University Press, 1942).

3. A GUIDE TO BIRD WATCHING. By Joseph J. Hickey (Oxford

University Press, 1943).

4. ANIMALS — the nature library. By Ernest Thompson Seton

(Doubleday, Doran & Company Inc., 1926).

5. BIRDS— the nature library. By Neltje Blanchan (Doubleday,

Doran & Company Inc., 1926).

6. BUTTERFLIES— the nature library. By Clarence M. Weed

(Doubleday, Doran & Company Inc., 1926).

7. GARDEN FLOWERS— the nature library. By Robert

M. McCurdy (Doubleday, Doran & Company Inc., 1928).

8. WILD FLOWERS — the nature library. By Neltje Blanchan &

S. A. Don Dickin. (Doubleday, Doran & Company Inc., 1926).

9. TREES — the nature library. By Julia Ellen Rogers (Doubleday,

Doran & Company Inc., 1926).

10. THE AUK — a quarterly journal of ornithology. (Published

by the American Ornithologists’ Union — commencing from Vol. 61).

11. WILDLIFE FOR AMERICA — the story of wildlife conser-

vation. ' By Edward H. Graham & William R. Van Dersal (Oxford University

Press 1949)*

12. GIANT FISHES, WHALES & DOLPHINS. By J. R. Norman &

F. C. Fraser (Putnam, London, 1948).

13. BIG GAME HUNTING IN INDIA & THE GAME ANIMALS OF

INDIA (Government of India, 1948).’

OBITUARY

C. G. WEBB-PEPLOE

Charles Godfrey Webb-Peploe died on February 19th last at the

age of 47. He was educated at Weymouth College and St. Cathe-

rine’s College, Cambridge, taking an Honours degree in History and

English. After a period of service as a young people’s missionary

in China he came to India in 1926 and became a member of the

Dohnavur Fellowship, Dohnavur, Tinnevelly District. At first he

was responsible for the work among the boys, and subsequently for

the general direction of the Fellowship in co-operation with Miss

Amy Carmichael, its founder.

Both children and grown-ups benefited greatly from his love of

natural history, a hobby to which he brought the same careful and

painstaking thoroughness that characterised his whole life. He saw

the Creator in all His creation, and delighted to show Him to others.

J. E. R.

[Mr. Webb-Peploe contributed the following interesting notes and articles to

the Journal : —

Articles : 1. Field Notes on the Mammals of South Tinnevelly, S. India

(Vol. 46, No. 4, p. 629).

2. A Census of Nests in a Private Bird-Sanctuary. (Vol. 47,

No. 4, p 676).

Notes : 1. Breeding Habits of the Common Krait. (Vol. 45, No. 3, p. 437).

2. Notes on a few birds from the south of the Tinnevelly District.

(Vol. 45, No. 3, p. 425).

3. Dawn Chorus in a South Indian Forest. (Vol. 46, No. 4, p. 732)

—EDS.]

F. E. BHARUCHA

In the death of Mr. F. E. Bharucha on 1st July 1948 the Bombay

Natural History Society has lost a valued friend and the science of

natural history as such mourns the loss of a keen student. He was

born in Nagpur on the 29th April 1891.

After doing his M. A. in history from Bombay university he

studied law and obtained the LL. B. degree in 1917. Although

natural sciences did not figure in his academic record, from an early

age he had taken a liking to the study of Botany and perseveringly

built up a collection of orchids which at present is valued high for

its variety and rarities. Both at Poona and Bombay he took keen

interest in his gardens, spent a lot of time and money on them and

devoted himself keenly to many experiments. He did not practise

at the bar but pursued a commercial career with his father-in-law, the

late Sir Phiroze C. Sethna. He was a director of many commercial

concerns and was a busy man, but these distractions did not prevent

him from cultivating his creative tastes. Besides possessing a very

distinguished library of books he made a retnarkable collection of

rare old prints of Bombay which is valued very highly. He was

also a connoisseur in music. He himself played first violin for a long

348 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

period in the amateur orchestra of Mr. Behr and contributed some

articles in the Illustrated Weekly of India on the subject of apprecia-

tion of music. He was a member of the Society from 1926 to 1948

and also a member of the Executive Committee from 1933 until his

death.

D. N. M.

JAMES HORNELL

(1865—1949)

In the death of James Hornell, f.ls., f.r.a.i. which occurred in

England on the 24th of February this year, the world lost a great

international figure who had made a name not only as a practical

fishery expert but also as an eminent scientist in the fields of marine

biology and anthropology. We in India have good cause to remember

him with gratitude, for his excellent pioneering work in the field of

fishery development and his innumerable publications — veritable

mines of information and invaluable guides, to fishery workers for all

time. Also for his sustained interest, till the very end, in his life-

work — attempts to focus attention on fisheries as a valuable national

asset. This is shown by his sending to Dr. Hora as lately as 1946

well-thought-out suggestions, couched in his characteristic clear and

inimitable style, for the development of marine fisheries in India and

the industries dependent thereon.

Hornell was born 84 years ago in Scotland ; he was intended for

the medical profession but circumstances forced him into a commer-

cial career at Liverpool. His natural proclivities could not however

be suppressed and erelong he turned in earnest to science, thanks

largely to the friendship and encouragement of Professors Marshall,

Hurst and Herdman. Under the direction of the last his early re-

search work was done resulting in his first publication — a systematic

report on a collection of marine worms for ‘ The Fauna of Liverpool

Bay’. Thus began his lifelong association with marine zoology and

he spent several fruitful years in the Channel islands in tackling

fishery problems as well. As a partner in the famous firm of suppliers

of biological material ‘Sinel and Hornell ’ which on the death of his

father-in-law Sinel, become ‘ Hornell & Co., Jersey ’ his name was

familiar to students of natural science all over Europe. Years later

in Tuticorin he started similar work and thus enabled students of

zoology in Indian Universities to handle and study for the first time

the various faunal constituents of our seas.

Hornell who came first to Ceylon in 1901 with Professor Herd-

man of Liverpool, to investigate the famous pearl fisheries of the

island rendered meritorious service to the Ceylon Government as the

Marine Biologist and Inspector of Pearl Banks. In 1903 he redis-

covered a bed of pearl oysters previously lost, and in 1905 conducted

a fishery with such phenomenal success as to net in over Rs. 25 lakhs

from the sale of oysters. In 1906 the Ceylon Company of Pearl

Fishers Ltd. which took over the control of the pearl banks for 20

years engaged Hornell as their biologists and surveyor. Though

in 1906 and 1907 Hornell conducted 2 pearl fisheries which brought

in a substantial income to the Company, by 1908 all hopes of early

OBITUARY

349

resumption of pearl fisheries vanished and so Hornell resigned to

join at Tuticorin the Madras Fisheries department. He became the

Director in 1918, and retired from the post in 1923. He had previ-

ously, in 1904 when in Ceylon service, inspected the Madura and

Tinnevelly pearl banks and submitted a valuable report to the

Madras Government. In 1905 at the request of the Baroda Durbar,

the Ceylon Government deputed Hornell to investigate the marine

resources of Okhamandal, particularly its pearl fishery possibilities.

He visited Baroda again in 1917 and in 1929. In 1909 Hornell,

inspected at the request of the Bombay Government the Edible

oyster beds near Karachi and reported on 1 the present depletion of

oyster beds in Sind ’. Two items of work done by Hornell when in

Ceylon are of interest to us in India ; one was his successful pearl-

inducing experiments and the other the cruise of the Company’s

trawler * Violet’ which located extensive trawling grounds opposite

Cape Comorin and off the Tanjore coast. The former led to the

Madras scheme of pearl farming in Krusadai island biological

station and the other to the deepsea fishing experiments intensively

undertaken by the Madras Government recently. It was because of

his presence in the Madras Fisheries that the department took over

the management of the pearl and chank fisheries in 1909 and that of

the Madras Marine Aquarium in 1919.

Hornell always kept himself abreast of modern developments by

utilising his leave to study fishery practice in other lands. In 1909

he visited France (Arcachon), Italy (Comacchio) and Scotland. In

1920 he visited Denmark and Norway and as a result recommended

the introduction into India of the Danish cutter and the Danish seine.

Hornell’s advice was sought on fishery matters by various govern-

ments in the East from Mauritius, Seychelles, and Sierra Leone to

Fiji. The Colonial Office engaged him to reorganise fisheries in

Palestine, Malta, West Africa, Indonesia and the Pacific. He took

an active part in a number of fisheries conferences and meetings in-

cluding the Colonial Fisheries Conference held in England in 1946.

Hornell’s contributions on marine biology have been very many

and he dealt with all animals of economic importance. His studies

on fishing boats, tackle and methods led him into the interesting

borderland between history and anthropology. His studies on the

relationship and origins of Eastern seacraftwith his conclusions which

shed great light on the relationship of the coast populations of

the East were widely appreciated and were continued when he went

on the South Sea Expedition financed by the Scientific Expedition

Research Association and a grant from the Percy Sladen Trust

Memorial Fund. With all this material collected he gave the world

in 1946 the classic and monumental book ‘ Water transport : Origins

and Early Evolution.’ Photography was a hobby of his and he

illustrated his articles, etc. with his own photographs which added

to their value immensely.

His prolific writings stand as a monument to his industry and

zeal. A list of his classified publications is given below

Pearl Fisheries :

1. 5 volumes of reports to the Government of Ceylon, on the Pearl Fisheries

of Ceylon, published by the Royal Society, London.

350

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

2. Explanation of the irregularly cyclic character of the Pearl fisheries in

the Gulf of Mannar, Madras Fisheries Bulletin No. viii, 1916.

3. Report on the Pearl fishery held at Tondi, 1914. M.F.B. No. viii,

1916.

4. Professor Huxley and the Ceylon Peatl fishery with a note on the cultu-

ral production of fine spherical pearls. M.F.B. No. viii, 1916.

5. Pearl formation in the Indian Pear] Oyster. Journal and Proceedings of

the Asiatic Society of Bengal , New Series, Vol. XVIII, 2, 1922.

6. Report on the Indian Pearl fisheries of the Gulf of Mannar, Madras 1905

{M.F.B. No. xvi, 1922).

7. Report on the inspection of pearl banks in Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay

in March and April, 1923, M.F.B. No. xvii, 6. 1923 .

Oyster Culture:

1. Report on the suitability of Pulicat Lake for oyster culture. M.F.B. No.

iv, 1908.

2. Note on an attempt to ascertain the principal determining factor in

Oyster spawning in Madras Backwaters. M.F.B. No. iv, 1908.

3. The practice of Oyster culture at Arcachon and its lessons for India.

M.F.B. No. v, 1910.

4. The present depletion of the Oyster beds of Sind ; its causes and the

remedies. Report to the Government of Bombay, 1910.

5. A note on the Edible Oyster written for the benefit of the Madras public.

M.F.B. No. viii, 1916.

Chanks and Chank Fishery :

1. The Chank bangle industry. Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,

Vol. iii, No. 5, Calcutta, 1913.

2. The Sacred Chank of India. M.F.B. No. vii, 1914.

3. The Indian Conch (Turbinella) and its relation to Hindu life and Reli-

gion. Marine Zoology of Okhamandal, Part II, 1916.

4. The Indian varieties and races of the genus Turbinella (Chank) . Memoirs

of the Indian Mueum , Vol. vi, 1916.

Other Mollusc a:

1. The anatomy of the Windowpane Oyster (Placuna) . M.Z. of Okhamandal,

Part I, 1909.

2. The utilisation of corals and shells for limeburning in the Madras Presi-

dency. M.F.B. No. viii, 1916.

3. The edible Molluscs of the Madras Presidency. M. F. B. No. xi,

^^4’ A review of the Indian species of Meretrix (one of the Clams). Records

of the Indian Museum , Vol. xiii, Part iii, 1917.

5. The common Molluscs of South India. M.F.B , No. xiv, 1921,

Fishes and Fishing :

1. Report on the feasibility of operating deepsea fishing boats on the coasts

of Madras Presidency. M.F.B. No. iv, 1908.

2 The results of a fishing cruise along the Malabar coast and the Laccadive

islands in 1908. M. F.B. No. iv, 1908.

3 Report to the Government of Baroda on the Marine Zoology of Okha-

mandal, 2 vol, 1909 and 1916.

4. Marine Fishfarming for India. M.F.B. No. vi, 1911.

5* Note upon two exploratory cruises in search of trawl grounds of the

Indian and Ceylon coasts. M.F.B. No, viii, 1916.

6. A new Protozoan cause of widespread mortality among marine fishes.

M.F.B. No. xi, 1917.

7. A statistical analysis of the fishing industry of Tuticorin. M. F. B.

No. xi, 1917.

8. The Indian Bechdemer industry, its history and recent revival. M.F.B.

No. xi, 1917 .

9. Report on the further development of the fishery resources of

Baroda

State, 1918.

10. The Fisheries of Norway and Denmark.

M.F.B. No. xiv, 1921.

OBITUARY

351

1]. The flying-fish fishery of the Coromandel coast and the spawning habits

of Cypsilurus. M.F.B. No. xv, 1922.

12. A contribution to the lifehistory of the Indian Sardine (jointly with

M. Ramaswamy Nayudu). M.F.B. No. xvii, 1923.

13. The fishing methods of the Madras Presidency.

Part 1 — The Coromandel coast. M F.B. No. xviii, 1924.

Part II — The Malabar Coast. M.F.B. No. xxvii, 1938.

14. Report on the marine fisheries of Baroda State with suggestions for

further development, 1930.

Fishing Boats :

1. The Affinities of East African canoes. Man , 1919.

2. Les Piroques a Balancier de Madagascar et des 1’afrique Orientale.

La Geographic , Vol. xxxiv, No. 3, Paris, 19'0.

3. The common origin cf outrigger canoes of Madagascar and East Africa.

Man, Vol. xx. No. 9, 1920.

4. The outrigger canoes of Indonesia. M.F.B. No. xii, 1920.

5. The origin and ethnological significance of Indian boat designs.

Memoirs of the A.S. of Bengal. Vol. vii, No. 3, 1920.

6. Catamarans and reed rafts. Man in India , Vol. i, 1921.

7. The origin of the Chinese Junk and Sampan. Man in India , Vol. ii,

1922.

8. The Boats of the Ganges and fishing methods. Memoirs of the A.S B .,

8, 1924.

9. Water transport: Origins and Early Evolution. Cambridge University

Press, 1946.

Miscellaneous :

1. Three new Indian Cestodes. Records of the Indian Museum , Vol. vii, part

ii, No. 18, 1912.

2. Description of a new species of Pinnotheres. M. Z. of Okhamandal,

Part ii, 1916.

3. A Guide to the Madras Marine Aquarium, 1919. 2nd edition (enlarged)

1920 and IVth edition (revised), 1921.

4. The Madras Marine Aquarium. M.F.B. No. xiv, 1921.

5. The Madras Aquarium. Journal of the Bombay Natural History

Society , Vol. xxviii, Part iii, 1922.

6. Some Commensals of Indian Alcyonarians and Crabs. J. B. N. H. S.,

Vol. xxviii, Part iv, 1922.

7. Aims and achievements of Madras Fisheries department. M.F.B . No

xv, 5, 1922.

8. Some Biological problems of Marine Zoology in South India — Madras

Handbook of the Indian Science Congress, 1922.

9. The use of fishmeal as food for livestock — a publicity leaflet.

10. Indian Boomerangs, Blowguns and Crossbows. Journal of the Royal

Anthropological Institute , 44, 1924.

11. String figures of Gujarat and Kathiawar. Memoirs of the Asiatic

Society of Bengal , 11, 4, 1932.

S. T. MOSES.

[In this issue appears the first part of Hornell’s useful paper on the Study

of Indian Molluscs which he wrote for the Journal some years ago and

revised completely and shortly before his death — Eds.]

PROF. J. F. R. D’ALMEIDA

J. F. R. D’Almeiaa joined the biology staff of St. Xavier’s

College in 1915 during the time of the late Fr. E. Blatter, and has

since been actively associated with botanical activities in Bombay.

At his death he was the senior professor of the College and recog-

nised by the Bombay University as a teacher in botany tor M.Sc

and Ph. D. students. He was also an examiner in I Sc., B.A., B.Sc.,

352 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

M.Sc., Chairman of the Faculty of Science and a Member of the

Senate of Bombay University, in 1949, he was elected Vice-President

of the Indian Science Congress, and has also been the President of

the local centre of the Indian Ecological Society.

Outside botanical circles, Prof. D’Almeida did a lot of useful

public work. For many years he served as a Municipal Councillor in

Bandra and was Chairman of the Standing Committee. He was a

member of the Bandra School Board, the District Local School

Board, an Honorary Presidency Magistrate and a Justice of the

Peace, etc., etc.

In 1917 he toured the High Wavy Mountains with the old stal-

warts of the Society like Fr. Blatter and Mr, S. H. Prater for the

collection of botanical material. His special interest in ferns and

marsh plants is testified by the list of his publications appended.

His numerous ex-students, and all those who had the privilege of

working with him in Bombay will realize that Indian botany is

distinctly the poorer by his death.

H. A.

Publications of Prof. J. F. R. D’Almeida *

1. The Ferns of Bombay (jointly with Fr. Blatter).

2. The Indian Ophicglossums Journ. Ind. Bot. Dee. 1922.

3. A new species of fern from the High Wavy Mountains. Journ. Ind. Bot.

Soc ., 5(1), 1926.

4. Ferns of the High Wavy Mountains. Ibid. 5(2), 1926.

5. A new species of Nephrolepis. Ibid. 5(2), 1926.

6. Some notes on the structure and life-history of Nymphaea pubescens

Willd. Ibid. 5(2), 1926.

7. On the shoot morphology of Limnanthemum. Ibid, 7(1), 1928.

8. Ferns of Waziristan. Ibid. 13(2), 1934.

9. On the occurrence of Gymnogramne calomeianos Kaulf. in India. Ibid.

14(3), 1935.

10. On the occurrence of adhesive tendrils in Bignonia venusta Ker-Gawl.

Jour. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc.t 38, 1936.

11. A contribution to the study of the biology and physiological anatomy

of Indian Marsh and aquatic plants. Journ . Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. Part I in

vol. 42, 1941 ; Part II in vol. 43, 1942.

12. A contribution to the study of the ecological foliar anatomy of Indian

Plants (jointly with J. L. Desai). Journ. Bomb. Univ. 10, 1912.

13. A study of the stem anatomy of certain Indian climbing plants

(jointly with P. Patil) Ibid. 14 (N.S.) Nov. 1945 and March 1946.

14. On the aerenchyma of Sesbania aculeata Poir. Ind. Ecol. 1, 1946.

15. Observations on the ecology of Jussiaea suffritucosa L. and Ludwigia

parviflora L. Ibid. 2, 1947.

16. A contribut on to the study of ecological anatomy of Indian Cyperaceae

(jointly with C. S. Ramaswamy). Bomb. Univ. monogr. (in press 1948).

17. Root habits and anatomy (jointly with J. P. Correa, M.Sc. thesis

1945).

18. Extrastelar formations in plants (jointly with Mrs. Homai J. Moos,

M.Sc. thesis 1947.

19 Anatomy of Cucurbitaceae (jointly with Miss Narges J, Khansaheb,

M.Sc. thesis), 1947.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1.— TIGER EATING PANTHER?

A friend informs me that while beating for woodcock in January

1946 beyond Hodgson’s Hut on the Nilgiri Plateau, he came

across a freshly killed female panther about two-thirds grown, from

which a little had been eaten near the tail. Close by were the

remains of a sambar stag with 30-inch horns which had apparently

been killed by a tiger. On the panther were several claw marks,

and when the skin was removed the carcase was found to be

badly bruised. In addition she had received a heavy blow on the

side of the head. The presumption is that the tiger returning to

its kill had found the panther on it, and that the latter paid the

penalty for her intrusion . It is a pity that further corroborative

details are lacking, but on the face of it there does not seem much

doubt as to what happened.

Kalhatti, Nilgiris, E. G. PHYTHIAN-ADAMS,

14 th February 1949. Lt.-C'ol.

2.— CHARGE BY UNWOUNDED BISON

Many years ago, I was endeavouring to obtain photos of a small

herd of bison in the Mudumalai forest, and my very inadequate

hand-camera necessitated so close an approach that at each at-

tempt the animals were alarmed and bolted before I could secure

a picture. After three abortive attempts my old Kurumba shikari

Kempa advised me to give it up. ‘You may move bison twice

and sometimes three times without trouble’, he said, ‘but if you

go on worrying them, they will turn nasty’. The old man’s

knowledge of wild animals was unrivalled, and I never knew’ him

wrong, so rather unwillingly I abandoned further attempts to

obtain photographs.

Since then I have repeatedly come across bison and have always

found them timid and inoffensive — eo much so that I have not

the least hesitation in walking straight towards them in the open,

and their re-action has invariably been to bolt after a good look.

An example of this appears on page 326 of Yol. xl. But one

never ceases to learn in the jungle, and on 2nd December 1943

an incident occurred which proved that old Kempa was perfectly

correct, and that a bull may prove aggressive even though not

fired at.

At the time we were after small game some 6 miles dowmstream

of Anaikatti in the low country of the Nilgiris. The covert to be

beaten was an isolated patch of jungle not of great extent, but

heavily bushed. I was the centre gun and an open glade some

20 yards broad ran in a straight line on either side of me. Soon

354 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

after the beat started a peahen came out past the left gun who

fired both barrels at it, and I then heard the beaters, who wTere

still some 100 yards away, shouting that a bison was coming

towards us. A few minutes later I heard it moving through the

bushes in front. My rifle was lying on the ground close by, but

I did not trouble to pick it up, as I had no reason to expect trouble,

and so far as I knew there was no really fine head in that area.

I did however, as a precautionary measure, move back a few

yards towards a tree, at the foot of which my shikari Kunmada,

and my chokra were sitting. Suddenly the bull’s head appeared

from the bushes about 25 yards away on my right front, I expected

him to break past me on the right as he could easily have done.

But after a good look at me he swung round, put down his head

and charged straight at me. I nipped back behind the tree just in

time and as he dashed past saw him make a vicious sweep with

his horns, but luckily we were all under cover. Having made

his point he carried on and disappeared. He was a young bull

of deep chocolate colour, and his horns had a spread of not more

than 30 inches if as much, but his bulk was very imposing as

he rushed past literally within arm’s length. A,s he charged,

Kunmada shouted loudly at him, but without the least effect.

This was no affair of a startled animal making a blind rush, such

as any sportsman of experience will have seen time and again,

but a deliberate head-down charge. He could have got away

straight to his front, or to his left, without coming any nearer to us,

but I suppose he thought that with the beaters shouting behind

he was cornered. That seems to be the only explanation and it

shows how the unexpected may occur in the jungle at any time — -

Kunmada told me that he had never known a similar case. It

was extremely lucky for me that I had the tree handy. As it was,

though he had to cover 25 yards to my 5, he nearly beat me to it!

I have heard this peculiar sound twice, and in each case the

tiger was dying from a liver shot.

The first was on the Nilgiri Plateau not far from Ootacamund

in August 1929. A tigress had been wounded the day before by a

friend who asked for my assistance in finishing her off. After a

long search we located her in a very dense thicket of goatweed

and brambles, in places over one’s head and some 70 yards across.

While my 2 dogs were baying her we endeavoured to find a way

in but it was far too thick, so I climbed up a tree outside the

thicket, and fired a number of 12 bore cartridges loaded with

S. G. at the spot, not 25 yards distant, where the tigress appeared

to be lying, so wiell as I could judge, in the hope of moving her.

She answered to one of my shots — -this was about 2-30 p.m. We

Kalhatti, Nilgiri s,

14th February, 1949.

E. G. PH YTHIAN- AH AMS ,

Lt.-Col.

3.— ‘DEATH CBY’ OE TIGEB

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

355

then withdrew a short distance to await the arrival of a herd of

buffaloes which I had sent for, and about 3 p.m., S. and I heard

a peculiar moaning noise come from the thicket, but as it was not

repeated, we thought no more of it at the time. Half an hour

later a Forest Guard arrived with the news that no buffaloes were

available and suggested that as the tigress had not moved since

10 a.m. when we first found her, and was probably by now dead

(she was believed to have received 2 body shots on the previous

day from a *500 H.Y. rifle), he and 2 other men should cut a wTay

into the thicket while we covered them. I did not much like the

idea but there seemed no alternative. I first sent the dog in again

(the other had been killed by the tigress earlier) and there were

now no growls in answer to his furious barking, though the tops

of the goatweed continued to move for some time after he became

silent, and it seemed probable that he was worrying the body.

So, to make a long story short we cut our way in, and found the

tigress dead with a hind foot in her mouth bitten clean through.

A post-mortem revealed that death was due to 3 buckshot which

had entered her liver, and there can be no doubt that the curious

noise we heard was her death cry. Of the shots fired the day

before one had broken her right foreleg low dowm, and the other

had inflicted a mere flesh wound in the left shoulder neither would

of course have proved fatal, and the wonder is that a broken leg-

had anchored her to one spot for so long.

The second case was at Anaikatti in the Nilgiris low country

in June 1940. The tiger, an old male of a very crusty disposition,

refused to come out to the gun and broke back through the beaters.

G, who was with them, fired as he passed hitting far back, and

the tiger then entered some thick stuff before he had time for a

second shot. Ten minutes later I heard what my diary describes

as a ‘prolonged moaning roar’ and when I followed up after a

standfast for half an hour, I found the tiger lying dead, and al-

ready covered with flies. The bullet, a soft nosed -423, had

entered far back, passed through the liver and was nicely mush-

roomed under the skin on the opposite side.

It is perhaps worth noting that in both cases death was due

to a liver shot.

Kalhatti, Nilgiris, E. G. PHYTHIAN-ADAMS,

14 th February , 1949. Lt.-Col.

4.— FEEDING HABITS OF THE NILGIRI MARTEN

[CHARRONIA GW ATKIN SI (HORSFIELD)]

I was walking along a jungle path when I heard a slight sound

and saw a marten going up a tree as hard as it could go. On

looking at the foot of the tree I found the remains of a Malabar

Squirrel ( Ratufa indica) which had been dead for about a couple

of days.

356 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

From marks on the skin and especially about the neck it is

clear that the marten had killed it and was going to get every

bit of meat off it.

The interesting thing about it was that the intestines of the

squirrel had been neatly removed and lay about 6 feet away from

it and the head also lay with them.

It is a known fact that martens kill small mammals but is it

not unusual for one to (a) return to the same ‘kill’ even after tw~o

days had passed, and ( b ) to neatly remove the intestines and place

them at a distance, presumably with the idea of the meat keeping

longer without them ?

I wonder if any of your readers have had a similar experience.

Martens are not uncommon in the High Wavy Mountains and

I know of three pairs in one. small area. In the Annamalai Hills

however I have only once seen one late in the evening but cannot

be sure about its identity as it may have been a Jerdon’s Palm

Civet ( Paradoxurus jerdoni).

Injiparai Estate,

via Pollachi, A. F. HUTTON.

18th February, 1949.

5. — -‘AN ELEPHANT 170 YEARS OLD’

(Correction of a note published on p. 618, vol. 39 of the Journal.)

What age do elephants reach?

An answer to this question is contained in a recent article in

the P.Z.S. vol 117, Pt. 4, pp. 680-88. (1948) by the late Major

Stanley S. Flower, where he has come to the conclusion that ‘there

is not a single well authenticated record of either Indian or African

elephants reaching the age of 70 years in spite of the many popular

and journalistic exaggerations about the longevity of these

elephants’.

In this study, Major Flowrer has gone into the available evidence

in regard to the ages of well-known elephants such as ‘Jumbo’

and ‘Alice’ of the London Zoological Society, Napoleon’s elephant

‘Siam’, ‘Princess Alice’ of Australia, all alleged to have lived for

more than a hundred years. In every instance, the actual age

as verified by him has been found to fall far short of the fantastic

age quoted in the press and approximate rather to the ‘throe score

and ten’ average for Man.

‘Jumbo’ and ‘Alice’ said to have carried generations of London

children were found to be actually 22-24 years of age. Besides, the

names ‘Jumbo’ and ‘Alice’ have been associated by popular journal-

ism in the last fifty years with individual elephants in menageries

in Europe, America, Africa and Australia which have all been

assumed to be identical with the original Jumbo and Alice of the

London Zoo. ‘Princess Alice’ the popular Sydney circus elephant

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

357

claimed to have been 150 years old was only 23 on death when

the facts were checked by Major Flower. Similarly ‘Siam’ the

male Asiatic elephant, long believed to have been presented to

Napoleon by a Turkish Pasha and who subsequently made it over

to the Budapest Zoological Gardens is now established, on the

evidence of Mr. F. A. Cerva, the well-known Hungarian ornitho-

logist, Prof. 0. Antonius, Director of the Schonbrunn Menagerie

at Vienna and Dr. Tilly Edinger of the Museum of Comparative

Zoology, Harvard, U.S.A., to have come direct to Vienna from

Siam on 11-11-1897 as ‘at most’ a five-year old calf. Thus the

report of its having belonged to Napoleon and attained an age of

150 years is a further example of journalistic exaggeration.

The case of ‘Or'tela’ the 170-year old elephant from Ceylon,

published in the Times, London of April 21, 1931 by Captain

G. Dollman and reprinted in this journal was also investigated

by Major Flower and is recorded as ‘age unknown’ in his table of

alleged and actual ages given at the end of his present paper.

‘Ortela’ was a fully adult animal in 1656, according to Joao Bibeiro,

author of ‘Ceilao’ (translated by Dr. Peiris) and was stated by

Sir J. E. Tennent in his ‘Natural History of Ceylon’ (1861) as

alive ‘when the British flag was hoisted in Colombo in 1796’.

Commenting on a passage later on in the same work that ‘amongst

the Singhalese the ancient fable of the elephant attaining to the

age of 2 or 300 years still prevails; but the Europeans and those

in immediate charge of tame ones entertain the opinion that the

duration of life for about 70 years is common to both man and the

elephant’, Major Flower remarks that ‘Tennent evidently regarded

the great ages alleged to have been reached by some elephants as

rare exceptions from the general rule, for he (Tennent) adds “of

138 elephants belonging to the Ceylon Government which died in

the years 1831-1856 whose duration of life in captivity was recorded,

only one reached the age in captivity of between 19 and 20 years’’.

Again, Tennent is quoted as mentioning an elephant of ‘prodigious

age, having been in the service of the Dutch and English Govern-

ments in succession for upwards of a century which died at Colombo

in 1848. Her skeleton is now in the museum of the Natural

History Society at Belfast’. With the help of this clue Major

Flower was able to trace this skeleton, which was evidently Ortela’s,

and got Profs. A. J. E. Cave and Thomas Walmsley to examine

it. The latter reported that the skeleton belonged to ‘a female

(from its general size and the size of the tusk holes; one tusk

remains, but it is badly eroded)’. From the dentition and other

skeletal details he concluded that she was not an aged beast.

Ortela’s age of over 170 years does not thus seem to have any

scientific basis and cannot be taken as established.

Bombay Natural History Society

114, Apollo Street, Fort, N. G. PILLAI,

Bombay, Curator.

10 th April, 1949.

358

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

6. — -A WHALE NEAR BOMBAY

An immature specimen of a rorqual, Balaenoptera sp. about

20y in length was caught by fishermen on April 12, 1949, off the

coast of Bombay and towed ashore to the Mahim Beach where it

was exhibited to an interested public for a whole day and then

returned to the sea as it was still alive.

The animal was of a bluish black hue above from snout to

flukes, but pale white, below. The baleen, visible through the

gape was flesh coloured in places. The upper lip appeared triangular

from above and the eyes with their dark pupils were suggestive

of a bullock’s. An open sore about 3" long and an inch wide

was noticeable on the right lobe of the flukes which were

kept covered by a rag. The fishermen emptied a bucket of cold

water on to its back every now and then when the blowholes

would bestir themselves into activity and let out deep breaths of

air.

Rorquals, described to be the largest of all living animals, are

whales which have whale-bone or baleen in place of teeth. Another

group of whales called the right whales are also equipped with

baleen, but the rorquals are readily distinguishable by their dorsal

fins and the series of parallel grooves on the underside of their

throat and chin, both of which are absent in the right whales.

The name rorqual means ‘the whale having folds or pleats’.

The baleen consists of a series of horny plates, roughly

triangular in shape and a third of an inch thick, inserted by their

short side along the lower edge of the palate at quarter inch

intervals, at right angles to the long axis of the head. The inner

side of each plate is frayed out and the frayed edges project into

the mouth cavity where, all combined, they form an effective

sieve for straining the water charged with food organisms.

Of the whales recorded from Indian waters, the rorqual has

been the commonest. Adults reach a length of 100y, the largest

one from the Indian coast being a 94-foot specimen from

near Cherai, Cochin in November 1927. The present specimen

is the third whale record for Bombay, according to the very useful

list of cetaceans stranded on the coast of India, prepared by

Dr. S. T. Moses of Baroda and published on page 378, (Vol. 47,

No. 2) of this journal, and the second rorqual to be reported from

this coast.

The rorquals are about 20-24 ft. when they are born, but grow

very rapidly and attain a size of 60-65 ft. in three years becoming

sexually mature at this age. The pairing season extends over several

months and one to three calves are born at a time. The period

of gestation is believed to be about 360 days.

Bombay Natural History Society N. G. PILLAI,

114, Apollo St., Fort, Curator.

Bombay,

14 th April , 1949.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

359

7. — -UNRECORDED NESTING SITES OE THE GREY-HEADED

FLYCATCHER [ GULIGIGAPA CEYLONENSIS CEYLONENSIS

(SWAINSON)] .

In 1944, Mrs. Hayne of Halashana Tea Estate (alt. 5,000 ft.

Nilgiris) a very keen bird watcher, and a friend saw one of these

flycatchers in the tea flitting about the bushes and trees and then

flying to a bank on the side of a path through the tea. After

watching for about ten minutes they saw the bird disappear into

the bank. The nest was very difficult to find as it resembled, very

closely, the moss and lichen on the bank. It was about 3 feet

from the ground and contained 3 eggs which duly hatched out. I

was shown the exact spot where the nest was found. On one

side of the path was a strip of low tree and bush jungle bordering

a stream and on the other the bank and tea. Stuart Baker

mentions nests being fixed to rocks but nothing about them being

built in banks.

In view of what Stuart Baker and others have written, it may

be of interest to record that on the same tea estate we saw a

typical nest fastened to the trunk of a large rubber tree ( Ficus

elastica Roxb.) about 20 feet up, but quite close to the bungalow.

The owners came and went to and from the nest quite regardless

of the many people watching it.

Kenilworth,

Coonoor, Nilgiris,

7th April, 1949.

[It seems strange that this habit of nesting near human

habitations should have been overlooked in previous descriptions.

The Grey-headed Flycatcher is a familiar little bird at most

W. Himalayan hill-stations, e.g-, Mussoorie, and is commonly found

nesting against the moss and lichen covered trunks of hill-oak

and other trees in the compounds, frequently in the close proximity

of inhabited bungalows. — Eds.]

CHAS. M. INGLIS,

F.Z.S., B.E.M.B.O.U.

8. —NIGHT JARS

I was interested to read, lately, Mr. Humayun Abdulali’s letter,

in No. 4 of Volume 47, of the Journal. Here, in Ceylon, we have

three species of nightjars, all of which are attracted to the roads —

both tarmac and unmetalled — in the hills as well as in the low-

lands— though chiefly in the latter.

Personally, I am inclined to the belief that the chief reason

for these nightjars haunting the roads is that the roads provide

extended, open fields of view and nice level surfaces, away from

cover, on which to settle and from which to make sorties, after

night-flying insects.

Not only do nightjars haunt motor or cart roads but they may

also be found on wide tracks and footpaths — -for the same reason.

360

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 48

I think. Where roads pass through jungle and scrub, they form

long open glades which attract moths and other night-flying insects

and they afford to the nightjars long avenues up and down or

over which they may fly while obtaining their food more easily

than in places obstructed by bushes and undergrowth.

Many a time, I have watched nightjars alight on a road, sit

for a few minutes and then fly up and over, presumably catching

insects, before resettling in the vicinity of the place that they

had just left. In fact, they behave in somewhat similar manner

to a flycatcher, hawking insects from a favourite perch. It is a

curious fact, which I have not seen recorded previously, that while

the Indian Nightjar [Caprimulgus asiaticus minor) generally perches

in the road, or on the tarmac, Horsfield’s Ceylon Jungle Nightjar

(0. macrurus aequabilis) usually sits on a stump, stone or dead

branch at the side of the road and rarely settles on the middle or

on the tarmac, if an alternative perch is available. Horsfield’s

Nightjar is rather the larger of the two and is a little less active — ?

I have walked up to one dazzled by an electric-torch and grabbed

it before it could fly away.

If there is too much traffic on a road, the nightjars will quickly

desert it and seek a nearby glade or clearing on the boundary of

the jungle or scrub, returning to the road when conditions are

quieter. They always appear to gravitate to roads in the very early

mornings, just as dawn is breaking, and to sit and call loudly for

ten or fifteen minutes before retiring to their roosting places, in

the scrub.

Only a few months ago, while I was working in my office at

about 6.45 p.m. one evening, I observed a Ceylon Highland Night-

jar (C. indicus kelaarti) fly past the windows. On going outside,

I found that it had settled close by on the newly-spread, fine quartz

gravel and was pecking round it, presumably picking up minute

grains of the gravel on which it was sitting. It would seem probable,

therefore, that some of our nightjars habitually pick up small

particles of grit from the roads, with which to aid their digestion.

Possibly this is the explanation of why they resort to the roads

just before settling down to roost during the day.

Although the majority of our nightjars are credited with roost-

ing on the ground, some appear to roost, sometimes, on the limbs

of large trees. Some months ago, while examining through field

glasses a small bird in a large gnarled tree growing in hillside

‘park’ land, I noticed a Highland Nightjar ( G . indicus kelaarti)

roosting along a large horizontal branch some 20 feet from the

ground. The plumage of this nightjar blended in a remarkable

manner with the rough, gnarled bark of the tree, making it almost

impossible to distinguish it from above, although it was easy to see

it when silhouetted against the foliage. Having found this nightjar

on its roost, I looked for it each time I passed that way and for

the next three weeks I found it — -sometimes in the usual spot and

sometimes roosting on a stump jutting out from another stout

bough close by.

So, it would appear that sometimes, at any rate, this species

of nightjar roosts on the upper side of large boughs in large trees

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

361

which possibly accounts, in part, for Legge’s remark (Birds of

Ceylon 1880 — page 339). ‘It is, however, more rarely flushed during

the day than either of the following species, as it lies very close

and does not repose in open spots like the Common Nightjar’.

Galapitakande Estate,

Namunuktjla, Ceylon, W. W. A. PHILLIPS

13 th January, 1949.

9 . — L U MIN I SCENT OWLS

The following account of a visit to a lake in Anatolia 30 years

ago is from ‘Forbidden Valley’ by John Welman (Blackwood’s

Magazine, September 1948):

‘A luminous blob appeared on a hillside far away and wavered

fitfully like a bicycle lamp seen at a distance on a windy night. . .

It swung round a clump of trees about 200 yards away, and came

winging, swiftly and silently, towards us. It w~as a bird. At

least, it had the shape of a bird, and flew; but surely no mortal

bird ever glowed, as this one did, with the incandescence of a

gas-mantle. It looked enormous, though I do not say it was;

such sudden brilliance rushing headlong at one out of the ambient

dark, may have exaggerated its real size. That it flew like a

bird and shone like a lamp were more certain impressions accepted

by my startled mind. And when it came nearer, I saw that every

feather of its plumage glittered with tiny points of light, a kind of

frosted fire which, without the power to dazzle, was bright enough

to illuminate the branches of a tree through . which it passed. Its

wide, luminous wings seemed to beat the air without disturbing

it, for they made no sound whatever. I found myself gripping

Merrick’s arm and cowering down as it approached looming bigger

and brighter every instant, until, seeming about to fly right in among

us, it swerved aside and shot up in an arc to pass above our heads.’

As a postscript to this it is said that even in England luminous

Bam Owls have been known and reference is made to The Zoologist

Vol- 66 of 1908 and Transactions of the Norfolk Naturalists’ Society

Vol. 8 of 1904-09.

The explanation given is that certain trees, particularly hollow" ash

trees are quite often infected by a phosphorescent fungus — Armillaria

mellea or Ploney Tuft. The feathers of a bird inhabiting such a

hollow and infected tree become impregnated with fine particles

of the decaying wood and so become luminous.

This is also recorded in ‘The Handbook of British Birds’ 3rd

edition, Vol. II, p. 343 which reads — ‘rare but well authenticated

instances of Barn Owls appearing luminous in dark are presumably

due to luminous bacteria on feathers derived from decayed wood

of hollow trees.’

This simple explanation of an apparently fantastic sight may

lead us to hope that many of the equally and even more fantastic

happenings recorded in India may be similarly explained. There

is a lot of interesting information about luminiscence in living

11

362 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

creatures in -Living Light’ by E. Newton Harvey (Princeton

University Press, 1940) in which reference is also made to old

records of human and civet-cat urine being luminous. Any

information from members on this subject would be interesting.

c/o Eaiz & Co.,

75, Abdul Rehman Street,

Bombay 3, HUMAYUN ABDULALI

loth January, 1949.

10. — WILSON’S STORM-PETREL ( OCEANITES OCEANICUS )

IN THE GULF OE ADEN

In his article ‘The Storm-Petrels occurring in the Northern

Indian Ocean and Adjacent Seas’ in the J.B.N.H.S. Yol. 47, No. 3,

Mr. Gibson-Hill states with reference to Wilson’s Petrel that ‘There

are no certain records for the Indian Ocean proper north of latitude

40° South for November, except for a bird captured off Ceylon by

Captain Fletcher in 1908, and it would seem that the main body

of the migration has already passed below 50° south latitude’.

On 21st November 1935, I saw many of these birds in the Gulf

of Aden not far from Cape Guardafui wliile on a course from the

Straits of Perim to the Minicoy Channel, and I feel that the record

is of such large numbers and the identification so satisfactory that

it should be taken into account wdien trying to work out the move-

ments of this species. The following is from my diary:- —

‘The mountains of Italian Somaliland could be seen through

the haze on the starboard bow and we were eventually close enough

to the barren-looking coast to be able to see a few palm trees

and habitations. There was practically no wind and the sky was

mainly overcast. It was a remarkable day as probably more birds

were seen today than' during the whole of the preceding part of

the voyage. (We were then on the 20th day out of Liverpool).

Wilson’s Petrels were the commonest — many thousands being seen

in the middle of the day whjen we were closest to the coast. It is

difficult to explain why there were so many, as at this time they

should be at their southern breeding stations. They w<ere all

drifting in a leisurely manner in a direction between east and

north-east. Possibly they wrere birds from the Bed Sea and Gulf

of Aden gathered together to round Cape Guardafui on their w~ay

south (or even non-breeding birds) concentrated upon good feeding

grounds. The latter idea is perhaps supported by the following: —

There were many other birds present at the same time. Owing

probably to currents going round the Cape the surface of the

water was disturbed. The temperature of the sea water fell seven

degrees and rose seven degrees in two hours during the forenoon

suggesting that currents were forcing the deeper and colder waters

to the surface causing an unusual concentration of marine life.

Fish of alll sorts were abundant on the surface ranging from

‘boilings’ of small things up to what the ship’s officers termed

‘dolphins, swordfish, giant squids, pilot fish and sharks’.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

363

The Wilson’s Petrels were not easy to identify. Only on about

half a dozen occasions did I distinctly see the legs projecting beyond

the tail although often I imagined that this was so. Once 1

actually saw the yellow webs when the bird was treading the surface

directly below me and almost under the ship’s cutwater. Often

the birds would actually stand upright on the sea fanning their

wings gently. When all in a big flock did this at the same time,

as often happened, they looked at a distance like a party of much

larger birds.

The next most common bird was a Phalarope, presumably the

Red-necked Lobipes lobatus. Great compact flocks of these with

numbers varying from 50 to several hundred were well distributed.

Quite a number of Dusky Shearwaters Puffinus assimilis were

seen while Wedge-tailed Shearwaters Puffiinus pacificus wei^e not

so numerous. About thirty or forty Blue-faced Boobies Sula

dactylatra were seen flying towards Socotra and after the Cape

about twenty or thirty Socotra Cormorants Phalacrocorax

nigrogularis wTere also seen flying towards that Island. Un-

identified birds were a party of terns and two gulls.

Thus until the afternoon when Cape Guardafui vanished from

sight and the only land to be seen was a few islands on the horizon

stretching away to Socotra, the surface of the sea was alive with

birds.

The weather continued fine next day but in complete contrast

not a single bird could be found^and no more storm-petrels w'ere

seen on the rest of the voyage round Ceylon to the Hoogli River.

It is perhaps worth adding that on a voyage between the

Straits of Perim and Bombay (when the ship’s course keeps to the

northern half of the Gulf of Aden) not a single Wilson’s Petrel

was seen. On this occasion we passed Aden on the 27th of

November 1939 and arrived in Bombay on 2nd December so that

apart from being right away from the turbulent waters around

Cape Guardafui, we were also later in the season.

The nomenclature used is that of W. B. Alexander’s ‘Birds of

the Ocean’ (1928).

20 Inverleith Place,

Edinburgh, A. G. S. BRYSON.

15 th December , 1948.

[Mr. C- A. Gibson-Hill comments on the above note as follows:- —

‘Mr. Bryson’s record is most interesting. The value of

summaries of existing published data is that they bring to light

information not previously made public. This observation almost

certainly discloses birds remaining in winter quarters during the

southern summer. I suggest this possibility in the third paragraph

on 0. oceanicus in my paper, when trying to account for Maclaren’s

(1945) and my (1947) February records for the water north of

Socotra. At the same time, in putting the idea forward, I did

not feel that I could be too positive about it, in view of the

extreme paucity of available records for the period. It may be

that we have not heard more of Wilson’s Petrel from the north-

western corner of the Indian Ocean because it normally gets into

364 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

territory away from the usual steamer route. Presumably these

birds were drawn to the neighbourhood of Cape Guardafui by the

production of a good feeding ground. Thousands is unusual even

for the months of maximum concentration. I remember noticing

when off South Georgia, in J anuary -March 1946, that though one

usually saw a few petrels at all times, there were occasions on the

whaling grounds wdien one wTould suddenly come on very great

numbers, so that they seemed “as thick in the air as falling snow-

flakes’’. An interesting point in connection with this is how well

they really do fare under normal conditions in tropical waters.

Possibly they run rather short of food, and to some extent subsist

on their reserves, unless they come upon patches unusually rich

in plankton. The general concensus of opinion is that the

Whalebone Whales losie fat while in these seas. I do not think

that Mr. Bryson’s birds are likely to have been still on their

way south. 21 November is late for them to be so far from their

nearest breeding ground. In addition the clockwise circle round

the Atlantic Ocean is so well authenticated that it must be accepted

as the normal movement there, and from it one would expect

something similar to be happening in the Indian Ocean. Such

records as we have for the coasts of India and Ceylon (see also

Humayun Abdulali, J.B N.H.S., Yol. 47, No. 3, p. 550) certainly

support this.’ — Eds.]

11.— OCCUBBENCE OE THE BAB-HEADED GOOSE

ANSER INDICUS (LATHAM) IN BOMBAY.

I was out walking with my dog about 8.30 a.m. on the morning

of December 4th and went to the patch of beach by the Port

Trust Flats in Colaba. As I was going down the incline to the

beach I saw just about to settle by some mangrove bushes a

large bird which I thought was a goose, and sure enough it was.

I put my dog on the lead and got to within about 20 37ards, close

enough to see its eyes and head markings very clearly indeed. I

stayed still for quite a few minutes and was able to have a very

good look at the goose. It then rose slowly in the air and flew

in my direction, quite close to me, and wTent off seawards round

the end Port Trust Flats in the direction of Sassoon Dock. I

went home and at once looked up my plates of Indian geese and

duck, published by the Natural History Society and it was with-

out doubt a Bar-headed Goose.

Colaba, Bombay, (Mrs.) KAY NIXOxN BLUNDELL

9th December, 1948.

[The Bar-headed Goose has not been recorded before from

Bombay or along the West Coast. It is however fairly generally

distributed in the Deccan and goes as far south as Mysore, Coorg

and Coimbatore. The species has been seen on the Godavari Biver

near Nasik (Salim Ali, J .B.N.H.S. xxxvii, p. 454).-— Eds.]

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

365

12.— OCCURRENCE OF THE WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE

ANSER ALBIFRONS SCOP. IN ORISSA

On the 12th December I shot a goose on Nalban Island in the

Chilka Lakes which according to Stuart Baker, Finn, Pitman and

illustrations from Peter Scott is undoubtedly the White-front.

The bird agreed entirely with the description and the following

details were noted at the time : — -

1. Bill : Orange with a white bill nail. White mask starting

about f inch above the bill and continuing down to below lower

jaw.

2. Chest and abdome?i : Much darker and prominent lateral

markings than those of the Grey Lag.

3. Head, shoulders and back : Darker than a Grey Lag.

4. Legs : Orange red and more orange than a Grey Lag.

5. Size : Smaller than a Grey Lag.

I have subsequently had a look at the sketches of the White-front

and the Dwarf Goose in the Journal , Vol. 47, page 478, and my bird

was certainly the White-front.

The bird was one of a pair that passed over me in the afternoon

and was coming into Nalban island after the innumerable large

gaggles of Grey Lags had left the island consequent to the morning’s

shooting. In a bag of 23 Grey Lags it was conspicuously different

in size and colour.

These 2 birds and 2 Bar-heads were the only geese I saw come

into the island after midday by which time all the Grey Lags had

betaken themselves to safer places.

Subsequent to this I have been again to the Chilka and it may be

of interest to record that the thousands of Grey Lags that were on

Nalban in mid-December had dwindled to a few gaggles by early

January and their numbers had been replaced, but not quite to the

same extent, by Bar-head of which species there were a mere

handful on the first occasion.

Another (to me) interesting fact was that whereas the duck that

predominated on Nalban was the Wigeon, on another island less than

a mile away, shot next day, there was hardly a Wigeon to be seen

and Gadwall formed the majority of the bag. Our ubiquitous friend

the Shoveller was in large quantities on both. The two islands

seemed exactly alike as to the soil and growth thereon.

Looking up old game books I notice that up to 15 years ago

Pintail predominated in the bag on Chilka. Among 350 duck shot

on the Chilka during this and the past season only 14 Pintail are

recorded and we generally have a sweep on the first Pintail ! !

1, Woodburn Road, L. A. CRAVEN

Calcutta 20,

19 th January , 1943.

[The White-fronted Goose breeds from Lapland through

Northern Europe to Western Siberia. In winter it migrates south

to all Europe, Northern Africa, India, Burma and China. In India,

it appears in the north-west (now Pakistan) almost every year in

366 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

small numbers, and also across Northern India to Assam and

Manipur. One of five was shot on the Ganges, near Kanpur, U.P.

on 25th January 1908 ( [J.B.N.H.S. , xviii, p. 683). Mr. Craven’s

record from Orissa is the southernmost in India.

Mr. Craven’s remarks regarding the relative abundance of Grey-

lags and Bar-heads were passed on to Sir Edward Benthali who has

recorded his experiences with geese at the Chiika Lake in the

Journal , Vol. 47, p. 168. He writes ‘ I have certainly noticed

variationsbetween the populations of Grey-lags and Bar-headed geese

in different years, but if anything, my evidence is rather contrary to

that of Mr. Craven ’. He agrees that more information should be

obtained before any definite statement can be made regarding the

movements of these geese.

The predominance of different species of duck at different butts

is well-known. The gun near a shallow and weedy pool is likely to

have a larger percentage of common teal and shovellers in his bag,

than another stationed on an islet in the midst of deep water. Our

knowledge of the food and feeding habits of duck in India is very

limited, and any definite information in this respect would be

valuable. — Eds.]

13.— THE BRONZE-CAPPED TEAL IN ASSAM

The editors’ note on Mr. Robey’s record of the Bronze-capped

Teal (. Ru7ietta falcata) at p. 749 of Vol. 47 of the Journal tends

to exaggerate its rarity in Assam. It is certainly a straggler, but a

not uncommon one. Between December, 1908, and February, 1943,

I saw 82 shot, on 53 occasions.

The majority of these birds, 67 in number, were obtained in

Manipur. There they figured in the bag in 18 years. The best bag

in any one year was 13, in 1932-33, and the best day was 8, out of

a total bag of 187, in February, 1941. The Assam Valley, where I

shot far less often, provided 14 birds, from ten different localities, in

the districts of Lakhimpur, Sibsagar, Nowgong and Kamrup. In

the Surma Valley, where I only shot duck twice, I bagged 1 (out of

80 duck) in the Sylhet district.

In Manipur the Bronze-capped teal formed 0T6 per cent of the

total bag of duck, or 1 in 600 ; in the Assam Valley, 0*33 per cent

or 1 in 300.

Males in full plumage are uncommon, with the result that many

of this species must be overlooked when the bag is examined. I

only identified my first through wondering why a Gadwall duck

should have grey legs and proceeding to investigate further with the

help of Stuart Baker’s book.

Alford,

Lincolnshire,

23rd January , 1949, J. C. HIGGINS

[The Crested or Falcated Teal has the upper and lower tail-

coverts very long, extending beyond the tips of the rectrices. The

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

367

females of this and the Gadwal look very much alike ; but the

former species has fourteen tail feathers, the latter sixteen.

Other distinguishing characters are : —

Gadwal

(a) Legs and feet yellow.

(b) Visible portions of inner secondaries pure white.

Falcated Teal

(a) Legs olive-grey or olive-brown ; feet black.

( b ) Visible portions of inner secondaries black with white

edges. —Eds.]

14.*— THE TUFTED DUCK [AYTHYA FULIGULA (LINN.)]:

AN INTERESTING ADDITION TO THE AVIFAUNA OF

CEYLON

I have received from Mr. H. G. Pandittesekera, of Chilaw, the

wing of a drake Tufted Duck, shot by him on 4th February

1949, at Amanapahua Tank, near Dandagamuwa in the North

Western Province of Ceylon. It was one of the 30 or 40 feeding, in

scattered parties of 10 or 12, on the tank which was partially covered

with lotuses, waterlilies and sedges.

This forms a most interesting record ; the Tufted Duck has never

hitherto been recorded from Ceylon and it is of rare occurrence even

in South India.

Galapitakande Estate, W. W. A. PHILLIPS

Namunukula,

18/^ February 1949.

15.—THE GREAT CRESTED GREBE

[. PODICEPS CR1 STATUS (LINN.)] IN ORISSA

During the last week of December 1946 I was staying in Puri,

and on three occasions I visited a large freshwater pool not much

more than a mile from the sea, which is the haunt of ducks, terns and

other waterfowl. Among the most conspicuous swimming birds were

several Great Crested Grebes, some eight or ten in all. They did not

keep together, but they were usually swimming and diving near the

bank and they did not take alarm when duck were being shot at. It

would be interesting to know if they are regular visitors to this pool.

The latitude seems to be nearly the same as, or even a little farther

south than, the recently recorded Great Crested Grebes in Kathiawar

(see J. B. N. H \ 5 ., antea, Vol. 47, p. 385).

24, Rajpur Road, H. G. ALEXANDER

Delhi,

2§th February 1949.

368 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

[The above constitutes the southernmost record of the species in

peninsular India, though it comes down to about the same latitude

(ca 20°N.) in the Southern Shan States, Burma. — Eds.]

16. — ‘ THE BIRDS OF DELHI AND DISTRICT’

Mr. N. F. Frome in his article in your issue Vol. 47, No. 2

invites additional data to his most interesting paper. I succeeded to

Sir Andrew Clow’s garden in 1942 and was resident there until

1946, revisiting the area in 1947. I send herewith notes on a few

species not recorded in the area and some very brief remarks on

others mentioned by Mr. Frome.

Otocompsa jocosa (Linnaeus). Red-whiskered Bulbul.

This species was certainly commoner in 1946 than in 1942.

Muscicapa parva (Bechstein). Red-breasted Flycatcher.

My latest record was April 7th.

Tchitrea paradisi (Linnaeus). Paradise Flycatcher.

Nested in the Safdar Jang Horticultural Gardens.

Lusciniola melanopogon (Temm. and Laug.)

Moustached Sedge- Warbler. I watched a pair of birds in my garden on May

9th for some minutes, obviously migrating, and could only identify them as

this species. The record is, however, probably doubtful.

Munia malacca (Linnaeus). Chestnut-bellied Munia.

A pair were watched for twenty minutes eating grass seeds in company with

a party of White-throated Munias in my garden on July 8th, 1945.

Gymnorhis xanthocollis (Burton). Yellow=throated Sparrow.

Used to visit kikar trees in my garden in considerable flocks in mid-June and

July each year, individuals hawking for flies. (Observed with Mr. J. D.

Michael). Similar flocks seen on the Lodi Golf Course.

[P. S. — I watched these birds for many hours when they collected

towards dusk in the kikar trees, but although they corresponded in every

respect to the yellow-throated sparrow, I was not able for certain to observe

the yellow, throat. On some specimens I imagined I saw this but should not

care to swear to it owing to the yellow light of the evening. Neither

Mr. Michael nor I could identify them as anything else.]

Megalaima zeylanicus (Gmelin). Green Barbet.

Nested in 1945 and 1946 in a tree-hole in my garden, the nest hole being

subsequently occupied in July of 1945 by a pair of Brahmany mynahs.

Caprimulgus monficolus (Franklin). Franklin’s Nightjar.

A large number noted on May 18th near Surajkund.

Hieragtus fasciatus (Vieillot). Bonelli’s Eagle.

One was shot for pigeon marauding by a householder in New Delhi.

Crocopus phoenicopferus (Latham). Common Green Pigeon.

A pair nested at the top of a kikar in my garden from May 29th to June 1 1th .

It was a mystery how the sitting bird could keep her seat as the loo blew

strongly, and eventually the nest was blown out.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

369

Porphyrio poliocephalus (Latham). Purple Moorhen.

Seen on February 2nd at the Horseshoe Jhil. Others seen in the neighbour-

nood but outside the 30 mile circle.

Coturnix coromandelicus (Gmelin). Rain Quail.

A pair, which I hoped might nest, spent a week in the dried-up flower beds

on my lawn from June 8th to : 5th.

Perdicula asiatica ( Latham) . Jungle Bush Quail.

Two shot near Sohna on November 26th.

Francolinus francolinus (Linnaeus). Black Partridge.

Common in a marshy area below Okhla in June in 1946 and 1947 where

none seen in the winter.

Porzana pusilla (Pallas). Baillon’s Crake.

Seen not infrequently in snipe jhils. One picked up dead on Oct. 22na.

Burhinus oedicnemus (Linnaeus). Stone Curlew.

I should have said were fairly common or common. A pair hatched two

chicks after 18 days’ minimum incubation and reared one in my garden.

Esacus recurvirostris (Cuvier). Great Stone Plover.

Nested two years on islands in the Jumna.

Giareola maldivarum (Forster). Large Indian Pratincole.

Seen fairly frequently on the Jumna. On June 15th. 1946 I approached to

within 15 yards of a flock of about 300 Large and 3 Little Indian Pratincoles.

Recurvirostra avosetta (Linnaeus). Avocet.

Commoner than reported by Mr. Frome. In 1946 seen April 7th (one)

May 12th (seven), May 26th (one) and June 22nd (two) on the Jumna.

Limosa limosa (Linnaeus). Black-tailed God wit.

One record on May 26th

Tringa nebularia (Gunnerus). Greenshank .

One record as late as May 26th.

Philomachus pugnax (Linnaeus). Ruff and Reeve.

Seen not infrequently ; one in May.

Eroiia alpina (Linnaeus) . Dunlin.

Latest date seen May 17th.

Leptoptilos dubius (Gmelin). Adjutant.

Four feeding with White-backed Vultures on a carcase at Loni on October

1st, 1944, pecking with great deliberation over the backs of the vultures.

Ixobrychus cinnaroomeus (Gmelin). Chestnut Bittern.

Solitary bird seen twice in marsh below Okhla in June.

Dendrocygna javanica (Horsfield) Lesser Whistling Teal.

I saw one shot on November 2nd at Shahdara.

Casarca ferruginea (Pallas). Ruddy Sheldrake .

Latest date seen May 12th .

Marmaronetta angustirostris (Menetries). Marbled Teal.

I shot a solitary bird on the Horseshoe Jhil on January 25th, 1947. This was

identified by several people as I was specially interested, not having seen the

bird in Northern India before.

370

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

Anas querquedula (Linnaeus). Garganey Teal.

I should say very common at times on migration. In, I think, early October

1942 there were large numbers, nearly all males, on Gurgaon Jhil ; I saw also

on this occasion about 200 netted birds, hardly any of which were females. As

late as March 29th, 1943, there were large numbers of males and females on a

jhil near Nuh. I have also records as late as May 2nd (one) and June 15th

(nine) on the Jumna.

Spatula clypeata (Linnaeus). Shoveller.

A solitary male noted on Jumna on May 5th and 2 males and 4 females on

May 12th.

Aythya rufa (Linnaeus). White-eyed Pochard.

Common at times on jhils near Delhi (outside the 30-mile circle), but only

once observed within the circle, on March 15th near Okhla.

Aythya fuligula (Linnaeus). Tufted Pochard.

Only record on March 15th near Okhla, at the same time and place as the

above.

Calcutta, E. C. BENTHALL,

23 rd February , 1949. k.c.s.i.

During the past three years I have spent in the aggregate several

months in Delhi, at various seasons of the year and have done a

certain amount of bird-watching, all of it in the immediate vicinity

of the city, apart from occasional visits to Okhla. The following

notes supplement the valuable compilation by N. F. Frome published

in the Journal (Vol. 47, pp. 277-300) and the supplementary notes

in the August (1948) number, p. 751-

I divide this note into two sections : the first deals with species

not included in Mr. Frome’ s list ; the second with notes that seem

to modify or supplement his statements about the status of certain

species.

1. The following are the species I have identified satisfactorily

that are not in the list :

Acrocephalus agricola Jerdon. Paddyfield Warbler.

Seen in rushes by Jumna, 20 April 1949. Very like A. scirpaceas of Europe,

but its reddish tinge is diagnostic.

Franklinia gracilis (Franklin). Franklin’s Wren-Warbler.

It is perhaps the commonest Wren-Warbler on the Ridge at Old Delhi, but I

have not noted it elsewhere.

Prinia sylvatica Jerdon. Jungle Wren-Warbler.

I have noted in tall sarpat grass in July near New Delhi ; also, more doubt-

fully, on the Ridge.

[Phylloscopus neglectus Hume. Plain Willow Warbler.

Twice (in March 1928 and in November 1946^ I have seen a small brown

phylloscopus in company with P. colly bita which appeared to be shorter in

the tail and slightly different in coloration. P. neglectus seems to be indicated,

but I do not know the species, so it is probably wiser to keep the square

bracket. J

Eissemurus paradiseus (Linn.). Racket-tailed Drongo.

Captain Ronald saw one in late February or early March 1949 in New

Delhi.

Pitta brachyura (Linn). Common Pitta.

Has recently (Feb. 1949) been seen by several observers in New Delhi.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

371

Etaberiza huttoni Blyth. Grey-necked Banting.

Saw a small party on the Ridge at Old Delhi in April 1949.

Motacilla feldegg Mich. Black -headed yellow Wagtail.

Noted in March.

Alauda arvensis Linn. Skylark.

Several were flying about near the river below Humayun’s tomb on Jan.

1st, 1948.

Circus pygargus Linn. Montagu’s Harrier.

Identified near the Jumna in April.

Larus brunueieophalus Jerdon. Brown-headed Gull.

One on Jumna sand bank, April 18th, 1947.

Sterna hirundo Linn. Common Tern.

Several with other terns over flood water north of Delhi, Sept. 12th, 1948.

Subspecies uncertain.

Gelochelidon nilotica (Gmelin). Gull-billed Tern.

One by the river below Humayun’s Tomb, April 18th, 1947.

Charadrius leschenaultii Lesson. Large Sand Plover.

One by River Jumna, 8 May 1949.

2. The following amplifications of Mr. Frome’s papers appear to

be worth publishing :

Saxicola torquata (Linn.). Stone-chat.

Recorded by Frome from mid-November. I saw one on 1st September 1948.

Musicapa parva Bechstein. Red-breasted Flycatcher.

Frome records it as 4 not at all common’. In my experience it is fairly

plentiful as a passage migrant, in November and in March-April, but it is

easily overlooked unless one is familiar with its unmusical little trill.

Acrocephalus dumetorutn Blyth. Blyth ’s Reed- Warbler.

In my experience a common passage migrant in April and September.

llippolais caligata Licht. Booted Warbler.

Also an abundant passage migrant, at least in spring (February to April).

On 18 April 1947, as on 20 April 1949, the small hedges by the river were alive

with them.

Sylvia hortensis (Gmelin). Orphean Warbler.

Noted on New Delhi golf course, 1st January 1948.

Phylloscopus griseolus Blyth. Olivaceous Willow-Warbler.

One at Old Delhi, September 10th, 1948.

Phylloscopus homii (Brooks). Hume’s Willow-Warbler.

Abundant throughout the winter.

Phyiioscopus trochiloides (Sundevall). Greenish Willow-Warbler.

Abundant on migration, especially in September, when its song can some-

times be heard.

Ploceus bengalensis (Linn.). Black-throated Weaver Bird.

The colony at Okhla, referred to as P. manyer is in fact of this species.

This colony was first shown to me by Mr. R. S. Symons in 1946. In 1948 I

visited it again in August, and had very good views of the birds.

372

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

Amandava amandava (Linn.). Red Munia.

I saw large parties going to roost north of Okhla in August 1948.

Emberiza steward Blyth. White-capped Banting.

I have seen a few on the Ridge between November and April.

Falco chicquera Daudin. Red-headed Merlin.

Seen in August and other months on the Ridge.

Circus tnacrourus (S. G. Gmelin). Pale Harrier.

One, 25th September 1948.

Circus aeruginosus (Linn.). Marsh Harrier.

One, 12th September 1948.

Turnix dussumieri (Temm. and Laug.). Little Button Quail.

I have twice walked into one near the Jumna in April.

Recurvirostra avosetta (Linn.). Avocet.

Single birds noted several times by the Jumna.

Limosa limosa (Linn.). Black-tailed Godwit.

Probably a regular visitor. Noted by the Jumna in May 1946, some fifty by

flood water north of Delhi, September. 13th, 1948 ; ten flying up and down the

river at Okhla, February 18th, 1949.

Philomachus pugnax (Linn.). Ruff.

Noted in April, May and September.

Erolia temmincki (Leisler). Temtninck’s Stint.

A common passage migrant in September and April.

Ixobrychus cianamomeus (Gmelin). Chestnut Bittern.

Seen on a swamp near Okhla in June, 1946. This and one or two of the

other records here noted in May and June 1946 were seen in the company of Sir

E. Benthall.

24 Rajpur Road, Delhi H. G. ALEXANDER

2 Qth February , 1949.

17.— THE DAWN CHORUS IN INDIA

There is some justification for the popular assertion that in

comparison with the English countryside the plains of India lack

bird-song. Though certainly fewer really beautiful songsters are to

be heard, the volume and variety of sounds produced in the early

summer mornings are as great as ever at home, as these notes made

just before I left the country will show. I was sleeping then in

a small mango grove in a typical part of the United Provinces. The

monsoon was about to break, and night temperatures used not to fall

below 90°F.

0420 (I. S.T.). King-crows start chattering.

0425 ,, Koels and House-crows call in the distance.

0430 ,, A Golden Oriole whistles a few bars.

0432 ,, The family of Spotted Owlets which lives in the

mango-grove squabbles softly before retiring

for the day.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

373

0434 (I.S.T.)

0435

0436

0437

0440

0445

0450

0452

0502

0515

0520

0525

0535

0540

Red-vented Bulbuls sing.

A Crow-pheasant mounts a mango-tree and

begins its coop-coop-coop.

Common Mynahs burst into loud gossip.

The Golden Oriole’s charming whistle is drowned

by the donkeys in the transport lines braying to

be watered.

Increased noise from the house-crows, mynahs,

koels, bulbuls and crow-pheasants.

Two Night Herons squawking loudly return to

roost above my bed.

Rose-ringed Paroquets call preparatory to flying

out to feed.

A Tickell’s Golden-backed Woodpecker laughs

rudely :rom a tree-trunk within a tew feet of

my bed.

A Tailor-bird sings a note or two from near its

nest high in the mango-tree.

The mynahs fly off to forage, still chattering

ceaselessly.

The hadhud-hudhud of a Hoopoe breaks

through the persistent cawing of the crows.

A party of Seven Sisters (Babblers) trails past my

bed, maintaining contact by low cries and

mutterings.

Sun-up.

The mynahs, orioles, crows and koels are by

now well awake and preparing for another

noisy day.

4‘ Loenweth ”

St. Feock, Truro, P. I. R. MACLAREN,

Cornwall, England. m.b.o.u.

18.— BIRD NOTES FROM KUTCH

About the middle of January 1949, while shooting Houbara in the

dunes of Mundra District in Luni we saw masses of duck in the open

shallow stretch of coast in the Gulf of Kutch. Owing to the slush and

mud we could not get nearer than about a thousand yards but

watched them carefully through binoculars. They were teal and

heavy duck. We could not identify the species. Normally this is

not a migration period and ordinarily duck here are not known to

settle in such large numbers in the open sea. Mr. S. A. D. Naoroji

and Major S. A. Azim were shooting with me that day.

Records by former Political Agents mention Imperial Grouse as

having been seen and shot in the western districts of Kutch.

Records kept by my grand-father and father for close on a century

indicate that they have not been known as regular winter visitors in

the western half of Kutch but only in eastern districts. My own

experience extending over a number of years shows that they are

374 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , FoZ. 48

gradually receding further east. In the last 10 years since the

famine year of 1939-40, I have only found them trickling into the

easternmost parts of Kutch in winter. I hope like the Grey-lag geese

they will not by-pass Kutch altogether in years to come.

Bhuj, MAHARAO MADANSINHJI

7th February 1949.

19.— HERPETOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN ASSAM

AND BENGAL (1944)

The following are some records and notes based on observations

made during my military service, the writing up of which, I regret,

has been long delayed. The period of my stay in each of the places

mentioned below did not exceed about two months and, in addition,

opportunities for observations of this kind were restricted. In view

of this, therefore, it does not necessarily follow that, in cases where

only one specimen was found, the species is uncommon or rare in

that particular locality.

Reptilia — Sauria

Calotes mystaceus Dum. and Bibr.

Locality: Near Kohima (Naga Hills), Assam.

A single specimen taken on 8th June, 1944. Although known to

occur in Burma (Smith, 1935), this appears to be the first record of

the species in Assam.

Ptyctol&mus gularis Peters.

Locality : Near Kohima (Naga Hills), Assam.

A single specimen taken on 27th May, 1944. Wall (according to

Smith, 1935) records it common round about Shillong in the Khasi

Hills at 4,500 feet. Its occurrence in the Naga Hills, therefore, is to

be expected, though I am not aware of any previous records.

Reptilia— Serpentes

Matrix xcnura (Wall) Smith.

Locality : Near Kohima (Naga Hills), Assam.

A single specimen taken on 30th May, 1944. This is a very rare

snake in collections and only four other specimens are known, three

of which came from Cherrapunji in the Khasi Hills, Assam, the type

having been lost (Smith, 1943). Details of the specimen in my

collection have already been published (Romer, 1945).

Amphibia — Salientia

Philautus ( Ixalus ) vittatus (Boulenger).

Locality : Near Kohima (Naga Hills), Assam.

A number of specimens observed in June, 1944. These frogs

were found sitting on rushes, a small patch of which were growing

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

375

in shallow water on some cultivated land. The rushes grew to about

three feet in height and the frogs, when closely approached, had a

tendency to jump downward towards the water. 'When forced to do

so they swam quite well, though did not seem keen to enter the

water. Observations were made only during daylight hours, how-

ever, and the frogs may have been more aquatic in habit after dark.

Two females taken on 7th June, 1944 each contained a mass of eggs

which could be seen through the very thin and transparent abdominal

wall. The larger of these measured 25 mm. from snout to vent.

The only reference to this species at present available to me

(Boulenger, 1890) gives the habitat merely as ‘Bhamo, Upper

Burma/

Rana leptoglossa (Cope) Boulenger.

Locality: Mymensingh, Eastern Bengal.

About a dozen of these frogs, all of which were males, were

encountered during August, 1944 on some wet ground where water

had collected to a depth of several inches ; they were all in the same

spot, within a few feet of each other. The ground was well covered

with grass and other vegetation which provided good cover for

small amphibia. My attention was drawn to these frogs by their

croaking, which was heard continually, night after night, and sounded

somewhat like the noise made by a few quick strokes with a file or

rasp, this being emitted at regular intervals of a few seconds.

This species was known to occur in Assam, Burma, Tenasserim,

Siam and Tonkin (Boulenger, 1920), though apparently not in

Bengal.

Bufo melanostictus Schneider.

Locality : Near Kohima (Naga Hills), Assam.

One pair found in amplexus and the female depositing spawn in

an irrigation ditch on 18th May, 1944. Length, snout to

vent : 60 mm. ; $ 108 mm.

There is no doubt that the breeding season of this species may

be very protracted. The following quotation (McCann, 1932) is of

particular interest in this respect : — ‘ In the Naga Hills (Assam), I

found these creatures breeding from January to March/

Kaloula pulchra Gray.

Locality : (r Jogandranagar) near Mymensingh, Eastern Bengal.

Two interesting specimens were taken on 6th July, 1944 from

amongst the vegetation by the side of a small stagnant pool. In

combination of morphological characters and coloration neither of

these conformed with either of the two subspecies, i.e., pulchra and

taprobanica , described by Parker (1934). In one specimen the dark

median dorsal area which covers most of the back is broken up by

large, irregularly shaped markings of a yellowish red colour, bordered

with black (as in taprobanica ), yet the web between the third and

fourth toes does not extend distally beyond the level of the proximal

subarticular tubercle of the fourth toe (as in pulchra ). In the other

specimen the above is reversed, i.e. the dark median dorsal area is

not broken up by lighter markings, yet the web between the third

376 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

and fourth toes extends beyond the proximal subarticular tubercle of

the fourth toe. These two specimens are now in the British Museum

(Natural History).

It has already been pointed out by Parker (1934), writing of

taprobanica , that : ‘ Specimens from Calcutta appear to be inter-

mediate between this race and the typical form ; the webbing of the

toes is similar to that of Siamese specimens but the colour pattern

is that of the Ceylon subspecies.’ Since the geographical range of

each subspecies extends to Bengal, it is not really surprising that

intermediate forms are to be found there, but it would be interesting

to know over how great an area such forms occur.

Literature cited.

Bouienger, G. A.— Fauna of British India (Reptilia and Batrachia). 1890.

A Monograph of the South Asian, Papuan, Melanesian and

Australian Frogs of the Genus Rana. Records of the Indian Museum ,

Vol. XX. 1920.

Parker, H. W. 1934. — A Monograph of the frogs of the Family Microhylidas.

Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.).

Romer, J. D. (1945). — A New Record of a Rare Snake ( Natrix xenura )

from Assam. J. B. N. H. S ., Vol. 45, No. 3.

Smith, M. A. 1935. — Fauna of British India (Reptilia and Amphibia)

20.— EXTENSION OF RANGE OF THE EARTH SNAKE

UROPELTIS R UBR 0 LINE A TUS (GUNTHER)

In September 1948 I obtained an earth snake at Bhimshankar in

the Wesiern Ghats, (alt. 2,500 feet) about 80 miles north-east of

Poona. As it did not fit the identification key (‘ventral scales

165-172 ’) given by Dr. Malcolm Smith in his revision of the Fauna

of British India series on Reptilia and Amphibia (Vol. iii, 1943,

p. 82), the specimen was forwarded to him for confirmation.

He writes :

‘ The Uropelt of your letter to me of October 1, is undoub-

tedly U. rubrolineatus . My description in the Fauna is drawn up

from 3 specimens and no doubt a larger series would show a bigger

variation in the ventral count. The specimen you sent has 135 — a

big drop — and it may be that specimens from the Poona district may

have a lower ventral count ’.

The distribution as given in the Fauna is : ‘ India. Western

Ghats, south of the Palghat Gap, Anaimalai and Travancore Hills’.

The present locality therefore marks a considerable northward

extension.

33 Pali Hill, Bandra, SALIM ALI

Bombay 20,

14 th February , 1949.

MISCELLANEOUS notes

3 11

21.— FREvSH WATER SHARK ( WALLAGONIA A TTU)

SWALLOWING A COOT

Fishing in Lake Beale, Nasik Dt., in February 1949 I caught, on

a plug, a wallago. It was 4' 2J" long and although I was unable

to weigh it, the weight may be taken as in the region of 20 lbs.

The fish had a large bulge in its stomach and on opening it up

I found inside a full-grown coot, recently swallowed.

The voracious appetite of the wallago is well-known, but I had

not previously heard of its including waterfowl in its diet.

Macmillan Building,

276, Hornby Road, R. S. COOPER

Bombay,

11/// February , 1949.

[Several sportsmen shooting regularly on Lake Beale have

complained of dead duck disappearing before they could be picked

up from the water. The culprit would now seem to have been

traced.

Jordan (‘Fishes’, 1925, p. 401) mentions a record of a small

child swallowed whole by another member of this voracious family

of Old World Catfishes, namely the Sheatfish or Weis ( Silurus

giants) of Europe, which attains a weight of 300 to 400 lb.— Eds.]

22.— ACCIDENTAL ASPHYXIATION OF A

FRINGE-LIPPED CARP ( LABEO FIMBRIATUS) 1

On 7-10-1946, at about 9 a.m., a large specimen of the common

carp, Labeo fimbrialus , was found dead in one of the ponds in the

Chetput Fish Farm, Madras. The fish was lying on its side among

the marginal grass, fully under water, with the head towards the

margin. A closer examination showed that a specimen of the pond

catfish Mystus vittatus — also dead — was stuck up in its mouth. The

carp measured 24 inches in total length, 7 inches in height of body

and weighed 6 pounds and 12 ounces — an excellent size and weight

for the species. It was a male with the testes in the third stage, was

in fine condition, and the fresh appearance and healthy bright red

colour of the gills indicated that it was not long since death took

place.

The head and pectoral fins of the catfish were inside the mouth

of the Labeo , with the hinder part of the body projecting out. It

measured 4-5 inches in length and weighed 15 gms. The bright

colour of its gills indicated that it was also dead only since a short

While. The strong dorsal spine of the catfish had pierced the upper

lip of the carp anteriorly and from inside. Similarly the right

pectoral spine had deeply pierced the anterior part of the left cheek

of the carp, also from inside. The left pectoral spine was free, but it

1 Published with the kind permission of the. Director of Industries and

Commerce, Madras.

12

378 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fof. 48

got stuck up when an attempt was made to take out the catfish by a

gentle pull from behind.

While it is difficult to say how exactly the catfish came to find

itself in the above predicament, the habits of the two fish seem to

suggest what actually could have taken place. Both the fish are

non-predators. The carp L. fimbriatus frequents the bottom and

marginal areas, nibbling at debris and ooze. The catfish M. viitatus

also generally confines itself to the bottom and has the characteristic

habit of moving about very actively in all directions. It is likely that

while the carp was feeding at the bottom it suddenly came upon the

catfish, which, caught unawares and probably frightened, made a wild

rush to get away in the direction which, unfortunately for both,

happened to be towards the carp which received it straight into its

mouth. The subsequent frantic struggles of the catfish to extricate

itself and the carp’s attempts to eject the intruder would easily result

in the spines of the catfish becoming embedded in the mouth parts

of the carp. Normal respiration would thus have become impossible

and in a short while the carp would have died of asphyxiation. The

catfish, in its desperate attempts to extricate itself from the unnatural

position, would have also soon died of exhaustion.

Catfish spines are reported to be poisonous.1 However,

instances are on record where the pectoral spines of the allied species

M. gulio have been found to have pierced the stomach of fish but

without any poisonous effects.2 It is therefore, likely that the

spines of M< vittatus are also not poisonous and that in the present

instance the death of the carp was really a case of asphyxiation, which

is noteworthy owing to the extraordinary circumstances under

which it took place.

K. H. ALIKUNHI

Freshwater Biological Research Station,

Government Fisheries, Madras,

24 th August , 1948.

[Fatalities due to suffocation among fish endeavouring to swallow

other fish are not uncommon and there are innumerable instances of

fish dying in this manner. The present case resulting in the death

of a non-predaceous fish may be an accident as suggested.— -Eds.]

23.— THE BUTTERFLY GENUS DELIAS

With reference to Mr. Parsons’ remark in his note on Delias

descombesi ieucacantha (1948, Journal Bombay Natural History Society ,

47 : 555) that the species’s immunity from attack in all stages may be

due to the distasteful qualities of the food-plant, there are records of

polyphagous larvae having been found to be distasteful to predators

when feeding on ivy and palatable when feeding on other plants, but

1 Bhimachar, B.S„ Proc. Ind. Acad Sci., 19, B, 1944, pp. 65-70.

2 Menon, P.M.G., Curr. Set., 17, (5), 1948, pp. 155-157.

MISCELLANEOUS notes

379

there are not, so far as I am aware, any records of such immunity

being carried through to the imago. I am at present separated

from my library and so cannot give any references.

There are several species of Lycaenidae and also of Hemitheid

Geometers which are also Loranthus-ieeders, and these are almost

certainly readily attacked as imagines. The Pieridae in general,

and the genus Delias and the closely allied African Mylothris Hbn. in

particular, are usually thought to be protected species, the two genera

Delias and Mylothris providing a number of models for mimicry

associations. The members of Mylothris , incidentally, are mostly

Loranthus-feedeics.

My own experience with a batch of D. descombesi pupae, also

found in Shillong, was similar to Mr. Parsons’, a large proportion of

them dying. It must be remembered that lepidopterous larvae

often suffer severely from virus diseases, and that, whilst aposematic

larvae such as Delias gain in protection from their increased

conspicuousness when gregarious, they have to pay the price by

running a greater risk from virus disease due to this same

gregariousness.

Finally I would draw Mr. Parsons’ attention to my series of

papers on the Early Stages of Indian Lepidoptera, in one part of

which he will find a detailed description of the pupa of D . des-

combesi leucacantha. The pupae of both Delias berinda berinda and

D. berinda boyleae are described in other parts.

24.— ADDITIONAL NOTES ON ARAKAN BUTTERFLIES

I feel that Major Emmet has admirably amplified my own work

on Arakan Butterflies. What a pity that he and I should not

have met except in the pages of this journal !

It appears that much of our work was complementary, for

between us we have worked the country through every month of the

year and while I concentrated mainly on the low-lying coastal strip,

Major Emmet seems to have spent more time in the hills and the

jungle that clothes them. It is not surprising that many of the

butterflies in the additional list are essentially jungle species, or

those occurring only from July to November.

There are some surprising gaps in these lists. For instance,

neither of us met Precis orithya ocyale Hub., or Vanessa cardui L.,

both easily recognised and elsewhere widely distributed and com-

mon ; nor were Eurema libythea F , and Eurema laeta sikkima M.,

recorded. The yellows might have been overlooked while flying

with others of the genus, but particular attention was paid to all the

Euremae seen, resulting in the discovery of the E. lacieola

sarinoides Fruh., and several interesting specimens of E. hecabe

hecabe L. Were we to spend another year in Arakan working in

co-operation, not independently as before, these and other questions

might be answered and the list brought nearer to completion.

Nairobi,

19 th October , 1948.

D. G. SEVASTOPULO,

F.R.E.S.

380 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

I append some additional notes on points arising from Major

Emmet’s list and from further study of my own specimens.

(6) A 4-2. Papilio memnon agenor L.

I cannot agree that November sees the last of this butterfly; indeed, my

own acquaintance with the species is restricted to the period November to June,

during which it was continually observed although the females were little in

evidence.

My experience of P. memnon memnon L., in Java, although not strictly

relevant, is of a rapid succession of generations, with but five to six weeks

interval between the laying of the egg and the emergence of the imago.

‘Staggered’ ovipositing, coupled with this shortlife cycle, combined to make

emergence a daily occurrence throughout the months February to May covered

by my breeding experiments. I found three 5 forms, roughly corresponding to

those mentioned by Evans, of which the tailed form represented about half the

total $$. The total number of $$ emerging in my cages was about equal to

that of

11. A 4-27 0. Papilio demoleus malayanus Wall.

Talbot, (Fauna of British India, Vol. 1, 2nd edition) says that intermediate

forms between demuleus and malaynus occur where the ranges of the two overlap.

My specimens from Ramree Island and also those from Rangoon, appear to

refer to malayanus and are in no way intermediate in form. Those from

farther north are identical with specimens from Peninsular India. Major Emmet

has encountered only demoleus but it would be interesting to know whether he

noticed any development towards malayanus .

(19) B 6-11. Delias descombesi leucacantha Fruh.

Mr. Parsons’ description of descombesi , (Vol. 47, No. 3, p. 554) was most in-

teresting although no mention was made of the relative frequency of the £ and $.

The species that I bred in Java was not descombesi , but the very similar

D. belisama belisama Cr. The early stages and habits of descombesi as described

by Mr. Parsons are identical with those of the Javanese belisama ; they even

seem to die from similar causes !

(170) C 3-77 Euploea core vermiculata But.

(45) C 3-7 3 Eupioea core layardi Druce.

My specimens of E. core shew a wide variation in the development of the

spots upf. There may be a full set of prominent post-discal and sub-marginal

spots as in E core coro Cr., from Peninsular India. At the other extreme the

sub-marginal spots are obsolete from 4 to the apex, the post-discal much

reduced, with those in 4 and 5 obsolescent. In all forms the apical post-discal

spots are approximately equal in size.

All have the basal 2/3 upf dark velvety brown with a very faint purple-blue

gloss, the outer 1/3 being paler and not glossed, with traces of discal spots on

the costa and base 3.

These specimens are from Teknaf and Ramree Island and would all seem to

refer to E. core layardi Druce.

(50) C 3-17 0 Euploea klugii klugii M.

This species is also very variable in the upperside markings. Upf discal

spots may be prominent or obsolescent and vary in number from none to a full

set. Post-discal spots may be complete, or obsolete either apically or tornally.

Sub-marginal spots complete, or obsolete apically. Uph spots aie small and

usually obsolescent. In $$ the ttrmen is nearly straight ; in prominently

convex in the region of the brand.

(63) F 2-2 7. Eriboea athamas athamas Dr.

(188) F 2 3 Eriboea arja Fd.

I find, with dismay, that my specimens of athamas are, in fact, examples of

E. arja . As they were all taken in low-lying ground, Major Emmet’s remarks

on the distribution of these species is in no way contradicted.

Manchester, England,

1 2th November , 1948. JOHN C. GLADMAN,

B.SC.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

381

25. — THE BUTTERFLY DANA C/S CHRYSIPPUS IN

CALCUTTA

On p. 771 of the August (1948) issue of the Journal in the article

‘The Biology of Danaus chrysippus . L.’ I see that Mr. Sevastopulo

mentions that he never found the imago of either f alcippus Gr. or

dorippus Klug. in Calcutta. I was an amateur butterfly collector as

a lad and certainly had four specimens with very definite white lower

wings which Mr. E. P. Stebbing at the Indian Museum identified as

form alcippus. I collected these in the Society’s garden at Alipore.

These four specimens were obtained over a period of five or six

years and then, as I lost my collection through the carelessness of a

servant and the voracious appetites of the red ant, I discontinued

collecting.

S. PERCY-LANCASTER,

Secretary.

The Royal Agri-Horticultural Society of India,

1, Alipore Road, Alipore, Calcutta,

15 th December , 1948.

[Mr. Sevastopulo comments on the above as follows :

‘The alcippus form of Danaus chrysippus has been recorded

from India in the past and is quite unmistakable; it just happens that

I have never come across it, in spite of the fact that I must have

bred and caught the species in hundreds, if not in thousands.

Mr. Lancaster’s record is obviously a fairly old one and it is

quite possible that alcippus , which is always rare in India, may have

had a colony in the Alipore gardens, which has since become extinct.

I am not sure of the genetic relationship between alcippus and the

type form, but I expect it is recessive, and there may be some

antipathy between the two forms so that cross-pairings are rare;

under such circumstances it is easy to understand that a small colony

of the mutation might rapidly disappear.’ — Eds.]

26. — CHIRONOMID MIDGES IN SOUTHERN TIBET

( With a photograph )

Between 9th and 14th May 1946 I collected a number of midges

beside Hram Tso (lake), at 14,700' on the treaty route from Phari

Dzong to Gyantse and Lhasa.

Theinsects were hatchingin vastquantities in the extensive marshes

south and east of the lake, and were blown across the water to the

opposite shore, where for miles on end they formed banks up to

thirty yards wide and one to two inches deep, (vide accompanying

photograph). Up to two hundred yards from the water millions of

insects lay in the shelter of every stone and depression, and rose in

swarms around passing men and animals.

Specimens were submitted to the British Museum (Natural

History), where the Keeper of Insects reported that they belonged

382 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 48

to an apparently undescribed species of Chironomus very similar to

the European C. pilicornis Fab. The species was mentioned in the

literature by Dr. F. W. Edwards in 1928 in his account of some

Nematocera from Yunnan and Tibet (Ann. Mag. N. Hist. (10) 1 : 684)

but his specimens could not be traced. As those which I sent to

the British Museum were damaged in transit, travellers on the Lhasa

route should be on the watch for this insect ; they would perform a

useful service by collecting further specimens so as to allow

the species to be properly described.

Fisheries Station, P. I. R. MACLAREN

Lagos, Nigeria.

27. BEE V. SCORPION

On 11th October 1942, a friend and I were beating for small

game up the Magadi Road, some 10 miles out of Bangalore. I was

sitting down waiting for a beat to commence, when my attention was

drawn to a large bee repeatedly diving at the short grass in front of a

lantana bush a few yards away. On investigation I found that the

object of attack was a large scorpion, whose claws would be seen

working above the grass. It did not appear to be feeding on

anything, so I imagine it was merely trying to protect itself from the

attacks of the bee. But I have often wondered what possible bone

of contention could have existed between two such unlikely

antagonists. Perhaps some reader may be able to offer a solution ?

E. G. PHYTHIAN-ADAMS,

Lt.-Col.

Kalhatti, Nilgiris,

14 th February , 1949.

CATALOGUE OF BOOKS IN THE BOMBAY NATURAL

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Hume, Allan

do.

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do.

Hume, A. O.

Huxley, Julian

Inglis, C. M.

do.

Jabouille, P.

Jardine, William

do.

Jerdon, T. C.

do.

Jourdain, Rev. F. C.R.

Kinnear, N. B., Whis-

tler, Hugh & Ali,

Salim

Kirke Swann, H.

Stray Feathers, A Journal of

Ornithology for India and its

Dependencies, Vol. VI, 1878.

Chubb, Charles).

The Game Birds of India,

Burma & Ceylon, Vol. I, 1879.

do. Vol. II, 1880.

do. Vol. Ill, 1881.

do. Vol. I, 1879.

do. Vol. II, 1880.

do. Vol. Ill, 1881.

Contributions to Indian Orni-

thology No. 1, Cashmere,

Ladak, Yarkand, 1873.

Bird-Watching & Bird Behavi-

our, 1930.

( See Baker, Lt.-Col. H. R. &

Inglis, C. M.)

(See Fletcher, T. B. & Inglis,

C. M.)

( See Delacour, J. & Jabouille,

P.)

The Natural History of

of India, 1864.

The Game Birds & Wild Fowl

of India, 1884.

(See Witherby, H. F., Jourdain,

Rev. F. C. R., Ticehurst,

Norman F. & Tucker, Bernard,

W.)

Ornithological Survey of

Eastern Ghats, Hyderabad,

Travancore & Cochin, bound

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NOTICE

The Second Country Life International Exhibi-

tion of Nature Photography will be held at the

Central Hall, Westminster, London, from March 17

to April 3, 1950.

The Exhibition will be confined to birds, mam-

mals, insects and fish (presumably also reptiles — Eds.)

in their wild state. It is open to amateurs as well as

professionals and there is no entrance fee.

Any number of photographs with suitable title and

other particulars may be entered. The prints should

not exceed 16" x 20" in size, and should preferably

be mounted on light coloured or white mounts.

A special section will be devoted to colour trans-

parencies.

The latest date for receiving entries in London is

30 November 1949.

Further particulars may be had from the Organiz-

ing Secretary :

Miss Phyllis Barclay-Smith, c/o Country Life ,

2-10 Tavistock Street, Covent Garden, London, WC2,

England.

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS,

l8 CHURCH ROAD. VEPERY, MADRAS. — 23-7»49. C9468

EDITORS: sCLIM ALI, AND S. B. SETNA, XI4 APOLLO STREET. FORT, BOMBAY

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the

editors by observing the following instructions :

1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for publica-

tion to other journals or periodicals, or have already been published

elsewhere, should not be submitted.

2. The MS should preferably be typed (double spacing) on

one side of a sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered.

3. All scientific names, to be printed in italics, should be under-

lined. Both in zoological and in botanical references only the initial

letter of the genus is capitalized. The specific and sub-specific names

always begin with a small letter even if they refer to a person or a

place, e.g. Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni or Streptopelia chinensis suratensis

or Dimer ia blatteri.

4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where

identification has been authentically established by comparison of

specimens actually collected. In all other cases, or where identification

is based merely on sight, binomials should be used.

5. Photographs for reproduction must be clear and show good

contrast. Prints must be of a size not smaller than 3J x z\ inches

(No. 2 Brownie) and on glossy glazed paper.

' 6. Text figures, line drawings and maps should be in Indian ink,

preferably on Bristol board.

7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the

paper, alphabetically arranged under author's name with the abridged

titles of journals or periodicals underlined (italics), and titles of books

not underlined (roman type), thus ;

Roepke, W. (1949); The Genus Nyctemera Hubner. Transent.

Soc. Lond ., 100 (2) ; 47-70.

Prater, S. H. (1948) ; The Book of Indian Animals, Bombay. Titles

of papers should not be underlined.

8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting

the author’s name and year of publication, thus ; (Roepke, 1949).

9. Synopsis ; As recommended by the Royal Society Scientific In-

formation Conference (July 1948), the editors consider it desirable that

each scientific paper be accompanied by a synopsis appearing at the

beginning, immediately after the title. The synopsis should be factual.

It should convey briefly the content of the paper draw attention to

all new information and to the author’s main conclusions. It should

also indicate newly observed facts, the method and conclusions of an

experiment, and if possible the essential points of any new finding,

theory or technique. It should be concise and normally not exceed

200 words.

When the synopsis is complete it should be carefully revised by

the author to clarify obscurities, and further compressed wherever

possible without detracting from its usefulness.

1 14, Apollo Street, Fort, Editors,

Bombay 1. Journal of the Bombay Natural

History Society.

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THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society'

INDEX AND TITLE PAGE

VOL. 48

NOS. 3 & 4

Price Rs. 3-0-0

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1952

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following order when they are being bound : —

Title page ... ... ...

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Index to illustrations

Bitfatai,., x ..

Index to species'

~ -I i I .1 tit! ;/

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THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

ombay Natural History Society

EDITED BY

SALIM ALI, S. B. SETNA, Ph.D,, and H. SANTAPAU, S.J.

VOL. 48

Nos. 3 & 4

Containing 44 black and white plates, 3 photos,

6 maps and 57 text figures

Dates of Publication

Part 3a (Pages 399 to 644) ... August, 1949

„ 4. ( ,, 645 to 816) ... December 1949

LONDON AGENTS

DAVID NUTT (A. G. BERRY)

212 Shaftesbury Avenue,

LONDON, W.C. 2.

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS

1952

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 48

No. 3

Page

The Merbal Glen and some Birds of the Pir Panjal.

By Lieut.-Col. R. S. P. Bates, m.b.o.u., i.a. (Retd.). ( With

a sketch map and three plates ) 399

The Indian Caddis Flies (Trichoptera). PartX. By

the late Martin E. Mosely. ( With 12 plates) 412

Sex Ratios in Indian Bats. By Humayun Abdulali 423

Speciation in the Group of Great Reed-Warblers.

By E. Stresemann and J. Arnold. ( With a plate and 6

text figures). 428

Bombay Fishermen’s Ingenuity. Age old Methods of

Capture not yet outdated. By S. B. Setna, m.sc.,

ph.D. (Cantab.), f.n.i. ( With 1 plate and 5 text figures). 444

Notes on the Snakes and Mammals of the High Wavy

Mountains, Madura District, S. India. Part I—

Snakes. By Angus F. Hutton. (With a text figure)... 454

Jungle Memories. Part III — Panthers. By Lt.-Col.

E. G. Phythian-Adams, o.b.e., f.z.s., i.a. (Retd.). ( With

two plates) 461

Notes on the Gesneriaceae of Bombay. By H. Santa-

pau, s.J., f.l.s 489

The Gir Forest and its Lions. By M. A. Wynter-Blyth,

m.a. (Cantab.), f.r.e.s. ( With a sketch map ),.... 493

Notes on Birds of the Irrigated area of Shwebo

District, Burma. By W. L. Roseveare, i.s.e. (Retd.). 'N

(With a sketch map)........ 515

Fishes of the Kumaon Himalayas. By A. G. K. Menon,

m.a. (With a text figure) 535

The Study of Indian Molluscs. Part II. By James

Hornell, f.l.s., f.r.a.i. (Deceased). (With 23 text

figures) 543

A Bird Count in Dehra Dun. By (Mrs.) M. D. Wright.

(With a sketch map and a table)... 570

Reviews : —

1. Indian Hill Birds. (Ernst May r,)...... 573

2. Book of Bays. (H. A.) 573

Additions to the Society’s Library since July, 1949 574

I A n 1 n -ir»r-

Page

Iv CONTENTS OF VOLUME 48

Miscellaneous Notes : —

1. Pariah Dogs killing Tiger. By K. M. Kirkpatrick. 575

2. A tame Fox. By C. H. Donald, f.z.s 575

3. A diseased Gaur. By Randolph C. Morris 578

4. Charge by unwounded Bison. By Randolph

C. Morris , 578

5. Naturally occurring albinism in a specimen of

Rattus ?torvegicusBevkenhouL By J. D. Romer,

f.z.s 579

6. How long does the Giant Squirrel ( Ratufa ) live ?

By P. S. Sundara Raj 580

7. The Bine-bearded Bee-eater ( Alcemerops ather-

toni Jard. & Selby) on the Nilgiris. By Chas.

M. Inglis, f.z.s., c.m.b.o.u... 581

8. Change in habits of the Ceylon Hawk-cuckoo

( Hierococcyx varius ciceliae Phillips). By Cicely

Lushington 582

9. Green Pigeons in a Swamp. By J. K. Stanford. 584

10. Woodcock out at Sea. By A. E. G. Best 584

11. Occurrence of the Woodcock ( Scolopax rusticola

L.) at Mount Abu. By Y. S. Shivrajkumar. 585

12. Mergansers fishing. By Humayun Abdulali 585

13. Bird Migration in India. By Editors 586

14. Field identification of Birds. By Editors 587

15. Preservation of Wild Life. By M. D, Chaturvedi,

b.sc. (Oxon), i.f.s 588

16. What are the causes of the disappearance or

reduction of fauna species from certain areas ?

By Randolph C. Morris 592

17. Freak shots. By A. St. J. Macdonald............ 593

18. Gleanings......... 594

19. ‘Aggressive demonstration by Russell’s Viper.’

By K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji 595

20. A new species of Pit Viper from South India:

Trimeresurus huttoni sp. nov. By Malcolm

A. Smith 596

21. Notes on a second specimen of the Skink Dasia

subcaerulea from Southern India. By Malcolm

A. Smith........... 596

22. Egg-laying by the Indian Python in Captivity.

By C. Leigh, s.J 597

23. A possible cause of blank days when Mahseer

fishing. By E. P. Gee.. 598

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 48 v

Page

24. Moonstruck — Fish or Anglers ? By A. St. J. Mac-

donald. {With a graph) 601

25. On the culture of Grey Mullets in association

with commercial carps in freshwater tanks

in Bengal. By T. V. R. Pillay. {With a

photo)... 601

26. Some observations on Aplocheilus lineatus (Cuv.

& Val.j in Madras Province. By P. I. Chacko &

S. V. Ganapati 604

27. Food organisms of the Carp Labeo boggut (Sykes).

By P. I. Chacko & (Miss) Sharada Subra-

manian 606

28. A remarkable aberration of a Papilio polytes

romulus Cram. By M. Suter, d.sc. ( With a

photo) :.. 607

29. The egg mass of a Doliid gastropod mollusc

from Krusadai Island. By N. K. Panikkar

and P. R. S. Tampi. ( With a plate) 608

30. The ‘Victory Plant’. By A. R. Rao. {With a

photo and two text figures) 610

31. Bougainvilleas at hill-stations. By Chas. M.

Inglis, f.z.s., c.m.b.o.u 612

32. The genus Ceropegia : Further comments.

By R. Sheshagiri Rao 612

33. The genus Ceropegia: Still further com-

ments. By H. Santapau, s.J 613

31. Mass flowering of Strobilanthes kunthianus on

the High Wavy Mts., in August, 1948. By

A. F. Hutton 614

Annual Report of the Bombay Natural History Society

for the year ending 31st December, 1948... 615

Minutes of the Annual General Meeting of the Bombay

Natural History Society held in the Lecture Rooms of the

B.E.S. & T. Committee, Electric House, Ormiston Road,

Bombay, on Thursday, the 4th August, 1949, at 6 p.m. 630

Catalogue of Books in the Bombay Natural History

Society’s Library, Part III. Reptiles, Amphibians &

Fishes 631

No. 4

Jungle Memories. Part IV — Wild Dogs and Wolves,

etc. By Lt'-Col. E. G. Phythian-Adams, o.b.e., f.z.s., i.a.

(Retd.)... 645

VI

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 48

Page

A South Indian Pelicanry. By K. K. Neelakantan, b.a.

(Hods.) ( With a plate and map )..... 656

Some interesting Plants from Orissa. By M. B. Raizada. 667

Notes on the Snakes and Mammals of the High Wavy

Mountains, Madura District, South India. Part II

■—Mammals. By Angus F. Hutton. {With one plate)...

Some Notes on the Birds of the Nepal Valley. By

Mrs. Desiree Proud. {With a sketch jnap and a plate)

The Insect Fauna of a Cotton Field at Lyallpur. By

Abdul Hameed Khan, m.sc. (Agr.). {With a plate)

Bombay Crop Pests Calendar and a Seasonal Schedule

of their Control by Modern Insecticides. By

E. J. Vevai, b.a., ph.D. (Wales), Assoc, i.a.r.i. (New

Delhi) and G. M. Talgeri, b.sc. (Agri.) Hons

Notes on Birds of the Irrigated area of Shwebo

District, Burma, Part II. By W. L. Roseveare, i.s.e,

(Retd.)

The Study of Indian Molluscs. Part III. By James

Hornell, f.l.s., f.r.a.i. (Deceased). {With 19 text

figures)..

The Inland Fisheries of Kodinar in Kathiawar. By

T. V. R. Pillay and J. S. Shaw. {With a plate)

The Indian Caddis Flies (Trichoptera). Part XL By

the late Martin E. Mosely. {With 13 plates)

On a Collection of Fish from Travancore. By

E. G. Silas, b.sc. {With a sketch map in text)

Reviews ; —

1 . Animal Life. (N. N. Murti)

2. Popular Handbook of Indian Birds. (S.A.)

3. The All-in-One Shikar Book. (E.G.P.-A.)

4. Insect Dietary. (J. I. Alfrey)

Miscellaneous Notes

3. Tiger eating Panther. By Col. R. C. Morris

2. Ambush to capture Crows by Yellow-throated

Marten {Charronia gwatkinsi). By C. J.

Gouldsbury

3. Charge by unwounded Bison. By Col. R. C.

Morris......

4. How do predators kill Porcupines ? By Editors.

681

695

720

725

729

750

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 48 vii

Page

5. Notes on the Indian Pangolin (Maniscrassic.au-

data , Geoffry St. Hilaire). By Angus

F. Hutton 805

6. White-capped Redstart [ Chaimarrhornis leucoce -

phalus ( Vigors)] feeding on berries. By

H. G. Alexander 806

7. The validity of Harpactes fasciatus legerli Koelz

By Salim Ali 806

8. The Indian Button Quail ( Turnix maculatus) : A

new record for Bombay. By Doris Ferreira.. 808

9. Kentish Plover [Leucopolius alexandrinus

(Linn.)], breeding on west coast of Saurash-

tra. By K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji 809

10. Occurrence of the Black Stork Ciconia nigra

(Linn.) in Tibet. By Editors 810

11. ‘Peculiar behaviour of the Darter ( Anhinga

melanogaster Pennant) \ By Lt.-Coh R. S. P.

Bates....... 810

12. 1 The Birds of Delhi and District \ By Editors. 811

13. A Cobra’s strange meal. By Editors 812

14. A note on the occurrence of a Giant Balano-

glossid at Krusadai Island. By P. John

Sundara Rao and S. Ranga Rao 813

15. ‘ A Honey-Bee in the nest of a Mason- Wasp \

By K. Boswell.. 8L3

16. Note on the larva of Amblypodia centaurus. By

T. Norman.... 814

17. Observations on Aphis asclepiadis Passerni

(Aphididae : Hemiptera). By B. K. Behura. 815

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

VOLUME 48

Nos. 3 and 4

Alexander, H. G., White-cap-

ped Redstart \Chaimarrhor-

nis leucocephalus (Vigors)]

feeding on berries 806

Ali, SAlim, The validity of

Harpactes fascialus legerli

Koelz 806

Arnold, J., see Stresemann, E.

Bates, Lt.-Col. R. S. P.,

m.b.o.u.., i. a. (Retd.), The

Merbal Glen and some Birds

of the Pir Panjal. ( With a

sketch map and 3 plates') ... 399

— , * Peculiar behaviour

of the Darter ( Anhinga me-

lanogaster Pennant)’ ... 810

Behura, B. K., Observations

on Aphis asclepiadis Passerni

(Aphididae : Hemiptera ... 815

Best, A.E.G. Woodcock out at

Sea 584

Boswell, K., ‘A Honey-Bee

in the nest of a Mason-Wasp ’ 813

Chacko, P. I., and Ganapati,

S. V., Some observations on

Aplocheilus lineatus (Cuv . and

Val.) in the Madras Pro-

vince 604

— , and SUBRAMANIAN,

(Miss) Sharada, Fcod organ-

isms of the Carp Labeo bog gut

(Sykes) 606

Chaturvedi, M. D., Preserva-

tion of Wild Life 588

Dharmakumarsinhji, K. S.,

‘ Aggressive demonstration

by Russell’s Viper.'...

Page

Dharmakumarsinhji, K. S.,

Kentish Plover [LeucoPoliusal-

exandrinus (Linn.)], breeding

on west coast of Saurashtra. 809

Donald, C. H., A tame Fox ... 575

Editors, Bird Migration in

India 586

, Field identification of

Birds ... 587

, How do predators kill

Porcupines ? 804

— Occurrence of the

Black Stork Ciconia nigra

(Linn.) in Tibet 810

, ‘ The Birds of Delhi

District ’ 811

, A Cobra’s strange

meal 812

Ferreira, Doris, The Indian

Button Quail ( Turnix macu-

latus) 80 8

Ganapati, S. V. see Chacko,

P. I.

Gee, E. P., A possible cause of

blank days when Mahaseer

fishing ... 598

Gouldsbury, C. J., Ambush to

capture crows by Yellow-

throated Marten ( Charronia

gwatkinsi) 80

Hornell, James, f.l.s., f.r.

a. i. (Deceased), The Study of

Indian Molluscs, Part II. ( With

23 text figures) 543

, Part III. {With 19

text figures) . ... ... ... 750

Hutton, A. F., Notes on the

Snakes and Mammals of the

High Wavy Mts., Madura

District, S. India, Part I —

Snakes. {With a text figure) . 454

, Mass flowering of

Strobilanthes kunthianus on

595

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

ix

Page

the High Wavy Mts. in

August 1948 614

Hutton, A. F. Notes on the

Snakes and Mammals of the

High Wavy Mts. Madura

District, S. India, Part II —

Mammals. ( With a plate ) ... 681

- — , Notes on the Pango-

lin ( Manis crassicaudata

Geoffry St. Hilaire) ... 805

Inglis, Chas. M., The Blue-

bearded bee-eater ( Alceme -

rops athertoni Jard. & Selby)

on the Nilgiris 581

— , Bougainvilleas at

hill-stations 612

Khan, Abdul Hameed, m.sc.,

The Insect Fauna of a Cot-

ton Field at Lyallpur. ( With

a plate ) 720

Kirkpatrick, K. M., Pariah

Dogs killing Tiger ... ... 575

Leigh, C., Egg-laying by the

Python in captivity 597

Lushington, Cicely, Change

in the habits of the Ceylon

H awk-cucko o ( Hierococcyx

varius ciceliae Philips) ... .582

Macdonald, A. St. J., Freak

Shots 593

— — , Moonstruck — Fish

or Anglers ? ( With a graph ) . 601

Menon, A. G. K., m.a., Fishes

of the Kumaon Himalayas.

( With a text figure ) ... 535

Morris, Randolph, C., A dis.-

eased Gaur 578

* , Charge by unwounded

Bison 57

, What are the causes of

the disappearance or reduc-

tion of fauna species from

certain areas ? 592

, Tiger eating Panther. 802

, Charge by unwounded

Bison 803

Mosely, The late Martin E.,

Indian Caddis Flies (Tri-

choptera) , Part X. ( With

12 plates ) 412

Page

Indian Caddis Flies (Trichop-

tera), Part XI. ( With 13

plates ) 782

Neelakantan, K. K., b.a.

(Hons.), A South Indian

Pelicanry. ( With a plate and

a map ) 656

Norman, T., Note on the larva

of Ambly podia centaurus ... 814

Panikkar, N. K., and Tampi,

P. R. S., The egg mass of

Doliid gastropod mollusc from

Krusadai Island. ( With a

plate) 608

Phythian Adams, Lt.-Col.

E. G., O.B.E., F.Z.S., I. A.

(Retd.), Jungle Memories,

Part III— Panthers. ( With

two plates ) 461

— , Jungle Me-

mories, Part IV— Wild Dogs

and Wolves, etc 645

Pillay, T.V.R., On the culture

of Grey Mullets in association

with commercial Carps in

freshwater tanks in Bengal.

( With a photo) 601

— — — -- — — ■ and Shaw, J.

S., The Inland Fisheries of

Kodinar in Kathiawar. ( With

a plate) 775

Proud, Mrs. Desiree, Some

Notes on the Birds of the

Nepal Valley. ( With a Plate

and a sketch map) 695

Raizada, M. B., Some interest-

ing Plants from Orissa ... 667

Raj, P. S. Sundara, How long

does the Giant Squirrel ( Ra -

tufa) live ? 580

Rao, A. R., The ‘ Victory.

Plant’ ( With a photo and 2

text figures) 610

Rao, P. John Sundara and

Rao, S. Ranga, A note

on the occurrence of a Giant

Balanoglossid at Krusadai

Island ... ... 813

Rao, R. SeShagiri, The genus

Ceropegia : Further com-

ments 612

The

X

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Page

Rao, S. Ranga, see Rao, P.

John Sundara

Romer, J. D., Naturally occur-

ring albinism in a specimen

of Rattus norvegicus Berken-

hout 579

RoSeveare, W. L., i.s.e.

(Retd.), Notes on Birds of the

Irrigated Area of Shwebo

District, Burma. Part I.

{With a sketch map) ... 515

, Notes on Birds of

the Irrigated Area of Shwebo

District, Burma. Part II ... 729

SANTAPAU, H,, S. J., F.L.S.,

Notes on the Gesneriaceae

of Bombay 489

, The genus Cerope-

gia : Still further comments. 613

Setna, S. B., m.sc., ph.D.,

f.n.i., Bombay Fishermen’s

Ingenuity. ( With a ptate and

5 text figures) 444

Shaw, J. S., see Pillay, T.V.R.

Shivrajkumar, Y. S. Occur-

rence of the Woodcock {Sco-

lopax rusticola L.) at Mount

Abu 585

Silas, E. G., b.sc., On a Collec-

tion of Fish from Travancore

( With a sketch map) ... 792

Smith, Malcolm A., A new spe-

cies of Pit Viper from South

India : Trimeresurus huttoni

sp. nov. ... 596

Page

Smith, Malcolm A., Notes on a

second specimen of the Skink

Dasia subcaerulea from South-

ern India 596

Stanford, J. K., Green Pigeons

in a Swamp 584

Stresemann, E., and Arnold,

J. , Speciation in the Group of

Great Reed-Warblers. {With

a plate and 6 figures in

text ) 428

Subram anian, (Miss) Shara-

da, see Chacko, P. I.

Suter, M., A remarkable

aberration of a Papilio polytes

romulus Cram. ( With a

photo) 607

Talgeri, G. M., b.sc., see

VEVAI, J., B.A., ph.D., I.A.R.I.

Tampi, P. R. S., see Panikkar,

N. K.

VEVAI, E. J., B.A., ph.D. I. A.

r.i., and Talgeri, G. M.,

b.sc., Bombay Crop Pests Cal-

endar and a Seasonal Sched-

ule of their Control by

Modern Insecticides 725

Wright, Mrs. M. D., A Bird

Count in Dehra Dun. ( With

a sketch map and a table) ... 570

Wynter-Blyth, M. A., m.a.,

f.r.e.S. , The Gir Forest and

its Lions. ( With a sketch

map) ... ... ... ... 493

LIST OF PLATES

VOLUME 48

Nos. 3 and 4

Page

The Merbal Glen and Some Birds of the Pir Panjal.

Plate I. Plumbeous Redstart (male)

Western Spotted Forktail ... ... ... 402

Plate II. Young Kashmir Martins.

Dark Grey Bush-chat (male) ... ... ... 403

Plate III. Western Variegated Laughing-Thrush.

Himalayan Mistle-Thrush on nest ... ... 406

The Indian Caddis Flies (Trichoptera) .

Plate I. Figs. 85- 92. Anacrunoecia as satnensis sp.n. ... 412

Plate II. Figs. 93- 99. — — atania sp. n. ... 413

Plate III. Figs. 100-105. digitata sp. n. $ ... 414

Plate IV. Figs. 106-111. timbaka sp. n. g ... 415

Plate V. Figs. 112-116. Dinarthrella betteni Mart. ^ ... 416

Plate VI. Figs. 117-122. ■ destructa (Ulmer) £ ... 417

Plate VII. Figs. 123-128. Ulmerodes armaia { Ulmer) ^ ... 418

Plate VIII- Figs. 129-133. palpalis sp. n. ... 419

Plate IX. Figs. 134-138. tibama sp. n. ^ ... 420

Plate X. Figs. 139-144. Goerodella cornuta sp. n. ^ ... 421

Plate XI. Figs. 145-151. ramosa sp. n. ^ ... 422

Plate XII. Figs. 152-156. - tesarum sp. n. £ ... 423

Speciation in the Group of Great Reed- Warblers.

Plate : Indian Great Reed- Warbler ( Acrocephalus stentoreus brunnes-

cens) on nest ... ... ... ... ... 43-1

Bombay Fishermen’s Ingenuity. Age old methods of capture not yet

outdated

Plate: Drift net fishing ... ... ... ... 450

Jungle Memories. Part III — Panthers.

Plate I. A panther sights the tie up ... ... ... 462

Plate II. A big male shot at Anaikatti.

An Anaikatti panther with Kasabas ... ... 463

The egg mass of a Doliid gastropod mollusc from Krusadai Island.

Plate : 1. General view of egg-ribbon of Dolium sp,

2. A few of the capsules enlarged showing the numerous

veligers inside ... ... ... ... 608

A South Indian Pelicanry.

Plate : Rain trees and palmyras on canal bund.

Fallen chicks resting under trees waiting for feeding to begin

on nests above them ... ... ... ... 661

Notes on the Snakes and Mammals of the High Wavy Mountains, Madura

District, South India. Part II— Mammals.

Plate : Two views of typical Ibex country in the High Wavy Mts.

Evergreen forest with large rocky patches.

Our Lion-tailed Monkey with its friend the black cat. .,. 682

LIST OF PLATES

Kll

Some Notes on the Birds of the Nepal Valley.

Plate : The Road to Katmandu.

View from Sisagarhi Pass.

Type of vegetation — Sheopuri Lekh. '

Bhadgaon with the snows of the Jugal Himal beyond

The Insect Fauna of a Cotton Field at Lyallpur.

Plate : Fig. 1. Empoasca denasfens.

Fig. 2. Bemesia gossy piperda .

Fig. 3. Eraias insulana.

Fig. 4. Platyedra gossy piella.

Fig. 5. Myllocerus pustulatus.

Fig 6. Dysdercus cingulatus

The Inland Fisheries of Kodinar in Kathiawar.

Plate : The operation of the ‘ Vedi Jal ’ — Diagrammatic.

The Indian Caddis Flies (Trichoptera).

Goerodes khasiana sp. n.

palnia sp. n. ^

piscina £ ... bet.

punda sp. n. <$

Goerodinci dubitans sp. n. £

serrata sp. n. bet.

Paraphlegopteryx brunneus sp. n.

compo situs (g

^ bet.

normalis sp. n.

bet.

— ruftis sp. n.

Page

708

Kodala lane a sp. n. $

Indocrunoecia heterolepidia $

722

... 776

... 783

784

784/785

... 785

786/787

787

.. 788

788/789

c?

788/789

c? 789

... 790

... 791

Index to illustrations

VOLUME 48

Nos. 3 & 4

Page

Chlamys senatovia

Text fig. 50

Conus monile

Text fig. 33 ...

Cuttlefish and a cluster of its

black grape-like eggs.

Text fig. 68

Delichon urbica cashmeriensis

Plate II

Dinarthrella betUni £

Plate V. Figs. 112-116 ...

— destvucta C

Plate VI. Figs. 117-122...

Doliid Gastropod Mollusc

from Krusadai, The Egg

Mass of a

Plate : (1) and (2)

Donax scortum

Text fig. 57

Dysdercus cingulatus

Plate : Fig. 6 ...

Earias insulana

Plate : Fig. 3 ...

Empoasca devastens

Plate : Fig. 1

Enicurus maculatus maculaiUs

Plate I

Fish from Travancore, On a

Collection of

Map : Vembanad Lake...

Fisheries of Kodinar in Kat-

hiawar, The Inland

Plate : Operation of * Vedi

Jal ’ diagramatic

! Garra gotyla

Text fig. 1. a, b, c.

Gir Forest and its Lions

Map.

; Goerodella ccrnuta sp. n.

| Plate X. Figs. 139-144...

j ramosa sp. n . g

Plate XI. Figs. 145-151...

I — — tesarum sp. n. J

I Plate XII. Figs. 152-156.

568

546

771

403

416

417

608

757

722

402

794

o 776

541

500

421

422

423

XIV

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

Pac4e

The Merbal Glen and some

Birds of the Pir Panjal.

Map.

Meretrix casta

Text fig. 60. A and B ...

meretrix

Text fig. 60. D

Text fig. 61

ovum

Text fig. 60. C

Mistle-Thrush on nest, Hima-

layan

Plate III

Modiolus , A typical

Text fig, 45. A

Moonstruck — Fish or Anglers ?

Graph

Myllocerus pustulatus

Plate : Fig. 5

Mytilus viridis

Text fig. 45. B

Nautilus, The Pearly

Text fig. 70

Notarchus

Text fig. 39

Text fig. 40

Octopus herdmani

Text fig. 66

Oliva gibbosa

Text fig. 30

Ostrea crenulifera

Text fig. 52 ...

Papilio polytes romulus

Photos :

Paraphlegopteryx brunneus

sp. n.

Plate VII. Figs. 191-197.

— — . compositus £

400

759

760

759

406

561

601

722

561

773

550

551

768

544

751

608

787

788

Plate VIII. Figs. 198-199.

Plate IX. Figs. 200-205.

bet. 788/789

_ rufus sp. n. $

Plate X. Figs 210-213

— norm a l is

789

sp, n. cf

Plate X. Figs. 206-209.

bet. 788/789

Pelicanry, A South Indian

Map.

Plate

657

661

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

xv

Philine , Living appearance of

Text fig. 37

Pholas orientalis

Text fig. 46. A

Pinctada vulgaris

Text fig. 47

Pinna atropurpurea

Text fig. 53

Platyedra gossypiella

Plate : Fig. 4 ...

Pteria inquinata

Text fig. 49

* radial a

Text fig. 48 ...

Rhodophila ferrea ferrea

Plate II

Rhyacornis f. fuliginosa

Plate I

Scintilla hanleyi

Text fig. 55

Siliqua radiata

Text fig, 64

Snakes and Mammals of the

High Wavy Mountains, Ma-

dura District, South India.

Plate

Spirtda peroni

Text fig. 69

Spondylus sp.

Text fig. 51

Page

548

563

564

752

722

566

403

402

754

764

682

772

508

Squid, The Common

Text fig. 67

Sunetta meroe

Text fig. 63

Surcula javana

Text fig. 34

Teredo extracted from its

burrow.

Text fig. 65. A

Ttimeresurus macrolepis

Text figs.

Trisidos tortuosa

Text fig. 44 .A

TrochaloPteron variegatum

simile

Plate III

Ulmer odes armata <$

Plate VII. Figs. 123-128.

palpalis sp. n. g

Plate VIII. Figs. 129-133.

tibama sp. n.

Plate IX. Figs. 134-138.

1 Victory Plant *

Photo

Text figs. 1 & 2

Villorita cochinensis

Text fig. 60. E

Xestina bistrialis

Text fig. 41

Page

770

762

547

766

459

560

406

418

419

420

610

611

759

553

ERRATA

Notes on Birds of the Irrigated Area of the Shwebo District,

Burma, Part I — Vol. 48, No. 3.

Page 5J 5, Corvus macrorhynchos. Habits, for solitary in pairs read

solitary or in pairs.

„ ,, Denirocitta vagabunda. Status, for between March.

and 4 August read between 10 March and 4 August.

Sketch-map facing p. 516. Approx, scale : for 13 miles to 1

inch, read 10 miles to 1 inch.

The channel between and parallel to the R. Mu and

the railway should be named SHWEBO CANAL.

Page 518, for Cullcicapa read Culicicapa .

„ 523, for Sur nopastor read Stur no pastor.

}J 529, Cynniris asiatica. Habits, 1.5. for hawking insects

read hunting insects.

„ 531, Hierococcyx Uigax> 1.2. for grass Owl read Grass Owl

Notes on Birds of the Irrigated Area of the Shwebo District*

Burma, Part II — Vol, 48, No. 4.

Page 730, Gyps indicus . Habits, for long-billed vultures, read

white-backed vultures.

,, 737, Sterna aurantia , Habits, 6th line, for frequently read

several times.

,, 741, Phalacrocorax javanicus. Habits, for usually seen

perched read usually, when perched.

,, 748, Anas poecilorhyncha. Habits, 6th line, substitute full

stop for comma after ‘ 16 March 1933

INDEX OF SPECIES

Acacia arabica

catechu ...

ferruginea

leucophlaea

pennata

suma

Acantholepis frauenfeldi

Acanthoptila nipalensis

Acanthospermum hispidum

Accipiter badius

nisus

virgatus

Achaea janata

achaeus, (A)

Achatina

Achatina fulica

Achnanthidium

acida, (S)

Acridotheres ginginianus

tristis

Acrocephalus

Acrocephalus agricola ...

Page t

... 499 j

... 499 !

499,501 j

... 500 I

... 499 j

... 815 j

... 699 |

... 672 |

... 733 |

718, 733 I

572a, 733 i

- arundinaceu ... 429, 430, 438>

439

— — (arundina-

ceus 9- zarudnyi + orientalis) ... 428

scens

zarudnyi ...

australis

caerulescens

duraetorum

orientalis

stentoreus

(? or arundina-

ceus)

— (brunne-

429

) griseldis 433, 438

329

428

708

430, 433, 439

... 430, 433, 439

520

443

brunnescens) ...

Actitis hypoleucos

acuta, (A.)

, (T.)

Adenosma microcephalum

2

brunnescens ...

(stentoreus -t-

428

572 A, 718, 739

... 586

546

674

xviii

INDEX OF SPECIES

Page

[

INDEX OF SPECIES

Coryllis vernalis

Cosmarium

Coturnix cororaandelica

Crassocephalum crepidioides

Cremastogaster dorhni

crenulata, (T.)

crenulifera, (O.)

Greseis

Crista ervcina

crista-galli, (Ostrea) ...

cristatellus , (AE)

cristatus, (Sus)

Crocidura perrotteii

Crocopus phcenicopterus

Crossochilus latius

Crotalaria retusa

umbell at a

Crucigenia

Crunobiodes

Crunoeciella

Crypsirbina cucullata ...

Cryptodon vesicula

Cuculus canorus

micro p ter us

■ optatus

.ilicicapa ceylonensis ...

ion alpinus

ipressus macrocarpa ...

itia nipalensis

[ttackensis, (O. gryphoides)

/anosylvia svecica

rclops

^clotella ...

fclotermes obesus

/lichna

dichna cylindracea ...

/mbella

^nometra mimosoides

ynopterus sphinx

yornis rubeculoides

- superciliaris

— tricolor

psiurus parvus

'enidae

nais ehrysippus

nio aequipinuatus

sia subcaerulea

sychira securis

tura

umbens, (G.) ...

ichon urbica

Page

799

607

734

672

815

547

751

549

758

752

522

617

694

572a, 733

539

669

604

782

516

753

31, 572a, 714

572a, 714

... 714

... 518

... 688

... 683

... 700

... 750

572a, 702

... 604

604, 606

... 727

... 548

... 547

... 606

... 670

426, 694

... 704

.’. 534

... 754

... 722

... 793

... 596

... 727

... 620

... 675

... 526

Delichon urbica cashmerien;

Dendrocitta formosae

— vagabunda

Dendrocygna fulva

javanica

Dendronanthus indicus

Dental ium

Dentalium octogonum ...

Desmidium

Desmodium

Desmodium parvifiorum

rotundifolium

rotundifolius

destructa, (D.)

Diacrisia obliqua

Diaphanosoma

D.aptomus

Dicaeum cruentatum

erythrorh>nchos

Dicaeum ignipectum

Dichrocephala latifolia

Dicrurus leucophaeus

macrocercus ...

Didymocarpus

Didymccarpus cristata

— — — hamosa

Dimeria

Dimeria lehmanni

mooneyi

Dinarthrella

Dinar thrella betteni

destructa

— sp. ...

Dinarthrodes armata .

Mosely .

Dinarthrum

Dinarthrum armatum

Dinopium javanense

shorii

Diospyros melanoxylon

Dipcadi montanuin

Diplacrum caricinum .

dispersa, (G.)

Disphinctus maesarum .

Dissemnrus paradiseus .

Dissoura episcopa

episcopus

divaricata, (C.)

Dolabella

Dolium

Dolium cumingii

Page

... 405

... 698

515, 572 A

... 747

... 528

... 557

... 607

... 670

.415, 416, 417

... 726

... 604

... 529

... 713

... 672

520, 707

519, 572A, 707

489, 490, 491

490

667

679

415

415, 417

416, 417

... 416

... 418

416, 422

... 418

... 530

499, 501

... 677

... 679

... 675

... 726

... 520

719, 742

57 2A

... 761

... 550

... 609

INDEX OF SPECIES

xxii

xxiv

INDEX OF SPECIES

incana, (Q.)

indicus. (Caprimulgus) ...

Indigofera trifoliata

— wightii

Indocrunoecia

Indocrunoecia heterolepidia

Indoplanorbis exustus ...

Isanthera

Isanthera permollis

ispidula, (O.)

Ixobrychus cinnamomeus

sinensis

Ixulus flavicollis

lynx torquilla

Jatropha heterophylla ...

Kasi johnii

Kerivoula picta

Klugia

Klugia notoniana

scabra

Kodala

Kodala lanca

Labeo boggut

— dero

dyocheilus

Lagerstroemia flos-reginae

Lalage melaschista

Lambis

lambis, (L.)

Lamellidens marginalis ...

lanca, (K.)

Lanius colluroides

— — -- cristatus

— nasutus ...

— nigriceps

sehach

— — — tephronotus

— — — vittatus ...

Lantana

Laponicteris kachensis ...

Lams brunnicephalus ...

Lecanthus wightii

legerli, (Harpactes f.) ...

Leioptila capistrata

Leiothrix lutea

Lepidocephalus guntea ...

Lepidostomatinae

Leptispa pygmaea

Leptocentrus tannus

Leptoptilos dubius

javanicus ...

Page

... 707

... 573

... 669

... 669-

... 791

... 556

... 489

... 492

... 544

... 746

... 700

530, 572A

... 676

... 689

... 694

... 489

490, 491

... 490

... 790

606, 779

... 539

53', 539

... 814

19.572A, 709

... 769

754, 755

... 790

... 518

519, 707

... 519

... 7C6

... 572A

... 707

... 572A

... 681

... 426

... 736

... 677

807, 808

... 700

537, 539

... 417

... 726

... 722

..." 742

... 742

- — ■

INDEX Ot<

XXVI

INDEX OF SPEC! EE

INDEX OF SPECIES

xxviii INDEX OF SPECIES

INDEX OF SPECIES

XXIX

Page

Rhynchoglossum obliquum ... 490, 491

var. parviflora

XXX

INDEX OF SPEC/ES

!

scripta, (C.)

Securidaca inappendiculpata ...

Seicercus burkii

xanthoschistos

Semnopithecus en tell us

semperi, (C.) ...

Sepia spp.

Sepiola

Serranus lanceolatus

serrata, (G.)

Sesuvium portulacastrum

Siliquaria

Siliqua radiata

sinensis, (S )

sinuatus, (0.)

Siphiaparva 5

— — strophiata

Sitophilus oryzae

Sitotroga cerealella

Sitta castaneiventris

himalayensis

Siva cyanouroptera

— — strigula

Skimmia

smyrnensis, (H )

Solanum

Solen corneus

Solenidae

vSoletellina diphos

Sonneratia

Sonneratia alba ...

spathaceus, (A.)

Spatula clypeata

speigleri, (M.)

Sphenocercus sphenurus

Spilornis cheela

Spindasis eliraa

Spirogyra

Spirula

Spirilla peronii ...

Spirulina

Spizaetuscirrhatus

Spodopteria mauritia

Spondylidae

Spondylus

Sporobolus piliferus

Stachyridopsis pyrrhops 699

Stauronsis ... 606

stentoreus, (A.) 430, 431, 432, 433, 436, 438

, (A.s.) ... 440

, (A. stentoreus) ... 434, 435, 439

Page

... 761

... 668

... 709

... 689

... 652

... 771

... 772

... 777

... 786

... 671

... 567

... 764

... 7,78

... 542

7, 572A, 704

... 704

... 728

... 698

... 799

700, 799

... 404

... 619

... 620

... 764

... 763

... 671

... 670

... 679

... 749

602, 603

... 584

717, 731

... 501

... 607

... 772

604, 606

... 731

... 727

... 763

555, 568

INDEX OE SPECIES

Pagb

xxxii

INDEX OF SPECIES

viridis, (M.)

vittata, (H.)

Viverricula indica

Viviparus

Voluta lapponica

Vulpes bengalensis

Vulsella

Vulsella rugosa ...

Wrightia tincioria

Wulfenia intermedia

notoniana

obliqua

Xenorhynchus asiaticus

Xestina bistrialis

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS — 5-1-1952. C4122

AUGUST, 1949

Price Rs. 15 ?iet.

Vol. 48, No. 3.

THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society

EDITED BY

sAlim all s. b. setna, PH.D. 8c h. santapau. s.j.

PUBLISHED BY

THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

114 Apollo Street, Bombay.

London Agents :

DAVID NUTT, (A. G. EERRY).

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CONTENTS OF VOLUME 48, No. 3

Page

The Merbal Glen and Some Birds of the Pir Panjal. By

Lt.-Col. R. S. P. Bates, m.b.o.u., i.a. (Retd.). ( With a sketch map

and 3 plates ) .. ... ... ... ... ... 399

The Indian Caddis Flies ( Trichoptev a ), PartX. By the late Martin

E. Mosely. (With 12 plates) ... ... ... ... 412

Sex Ratios in Indian Bats. By Humayun Abdulali ... ... 423

Speciation in the Group of Great Reed- Warblers. By E.

Stresemann and J. Arnold. (With a plate and 6 figures in text) ...

Bombay Fishermen’s Ingenuity. By S. B. Setna, m.sc., ph.D., f.n.i.

( With a plate and 5 text- figures ) ...

Notes on the Snakes and Mammals of the High Wavy Mts.,

Madura District, S. India, Part I — Snakes. ByrA. F. Hatton.

(With a text- figure)

Jungle Memories, Part ill. By Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian-Adams,

0. b.e., f.z S.j i.a. (Retd.). (With 2 plates) ...

Notes on the Gesneriaceae of Bombay. By H. Santapau, s.j.,

F. L.S.

The Gir Forest and its Lions. By M. A. Wynter-Blyth, m.a., f.r.e s

(With a sketch map ) ...

Notes on Birds of the Irrigated Area of Shwebo District,

Burma. Part I. By W. L. Roseveare, i.s.e. (Retd.). (With a

sketch map) ...

Fishes of the Kumaon Himalayas. By A. G. K. Me non, m.a.

(With a text-figure)

The Study of Indian Molluscs, Part II. By James Hornell, f.l.s.,

f.r.a.i. (Deceased). (With 23 text- figures)

A Bird Count in Dehra Dun. By Mrs. M. D. Wright. (With a

sketch map and a table )

Reviews

1. Indian Hill Birds. (Ernst Mayr) ... ... ... 573

2. Book of Bays. (H. A.) ... ... ... ... 573

Additions to the Society’s Library ... ... ... 574

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES:—

1. Pariah Dogs killing Tiger. By K. M. Kirkpatrick (p. 575). 2. A tame

Fos. By C. H. Donald (p. 575). 3. A diseased Gaur. By Randolph

C. Morris (p. 578). 4. Charge by unwounded Bison. By Randolph C.

Morris (p. 578). 5. Naturally occurring albinism in a specimen of Rattus

norvegicus Berkenhout. By J.'D. Romer (p. 579). 6. How long does the

Giant Squirrel (Ratufa) live? By P. S. Sundara Raj (p. 580). 7. The Blue-

bearded Bee-eater (Alcemerops athertoni Jard. & Selby) on the Nilgiris. By

535

543

570

493

515

428

444

454

461

489

ii

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 48, No. 3

Chas. M. Inglis (p. 581). 8. Change in habits of the Ceylon Hawk-Cuckoo

( Hierococcyx varius ciceliae Phillips). By Cicely Lushington (p. 582).

9. Green Pigeons in a Swamp. By J. K. Stanford (p. 584). 10. Woodcock

out at sea. By A. E. G. Best (p. 584). 11. Occurrence of the Woodcock

(Scolopax rusticola L.) at Mount Abu. By Y. S. Shivrajkumar (p. 585).

12. Mergansers fishing. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 585). 13. Bird migra-

tion in India. By Editors (p. 586). 14. Field identification of Birds. By

Editors (p. 587). 15. Preservation of Wild Life. By M. D. Chaturvedi

(p. 588). 16. What are the causes of the disappearance or reduction of fauna

species from certain areas? By R. C. Morris (p. 592). 17. Freak shots.

By A. St. J. Macdonald (p. 593). 18. Gleanings (p. 594). 19. ‘Aggres-

sive demonstration by Russell’s Viper ’. By K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji (p. 595).

20. A new species of Pit Viper from South India: Trimeresurus hutionisQ. nov.

By Malcolm A. Smith (p. 596). 21. Notes on a second specimen of the Skink

Dasia subcaerulea from Southern India. By Malcolm A. Smith (p. 596).

22. Egg-laying by the Indian Python in captivity. By C. Leigh (p. 597).

23. A possible cause of blank days when mahseer fishing. By E. P. Gee

(p. 598). 24. Moonstruck— fish or anglers ? ( With a graph). By A. St. J.

Macdonald (p. 601). 25. On the culture of Grey Mullets in association with

commercial carps in freshwater tanks in Bengal ( With a photo). By T. V. R.

Pillay (p. 601). 26. Some observations on Aplocheilus lineatus (Cuv. and Val.)

in the Madras Province. By P. I. Chacko and S. V. Ganapati (p. 604).

27. Food organisms of the carp Labeo boggnt (Sykes). By P. I. Chacko and

Miss Sharada Subramanian (p. 606). 28. A remarkable aberration of a

Papilio polytes romulus Cram. ( With a photo). By M. Suter (p. 607).

29. The egg mass of a Doliid gastropod mollusc from Krusadai Island

(With a plate). By N. K. Panikkar and P. R. S. Tampi (p. 608). 30. The

‘Victory Plant’ ( With a photo and 2 text-figures). By A. R. Rao (p. 610).

31. Bougainvilleas at hill-stations. By Chas. M. Inglis (p. 612). 32. The

genus Ceropegia : Further comments. By R. Seshagiri Rao (p. 612). 33. The

genus Ceropegia: Still further comments. ByH. Santapau (p. 613). 34. Mass

flowering of Strobilanthes kunt'hianus on the High Wavy Mts., in August

1948. By A. F. Hutton (p. 614).

Page

Annual Report of the Bombay Natural History Society for the year

ending 31st December 1948 ... ... ... ... ... 615

The Honorary Secretary’s Report for the year .1948 ... ... 616

Appendix to the Honorary Secretary’s Report covering the period

January to July 1949 ... ... ... ... ... 622

Statements of Accounts of the Bombay Natural History Society ... 627

Minutes of the Annual General Meeting ... ... ... 630

Catalogue of books in the Society’s library, Part III— Reptiles,

Amphibians and Fish ... ... ... ... ... 631

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society

1949 Vol. 48 No. 3

THE MERBAL GLEN AND SOME BIRDS OF THE

PIR PANJAL

BY

Lieut. -Col. R. S. P. Bates, m.b.o.u., i.a. (Retd.)

( With a sketch map and three plates )

Karabuduran is perhaps an ugly name but this upland meadow

lies at the head of the Merbal Glen, a short valley which has

nothing ugly about it at all. The Merbal Glen, with the Singpur

Gali near its head, a pass which leads direct to Kishtwar, has

many points in Ls favour. Its views are not staggering, but

its climate is cool and refreshing in June and July just when the

Vale is stoking up. And its most convenient camp-site can, if

necessary, be reached from Srinagar in one day ; that is, of course,

provided that a sufficiently long-suffering bus-driver can be found

to risk his springs on the so-called fair weather motor road. From

Achabal the trail follows the Bringh, that stream beloved of fisher-

men who catch in its well-stocked pools perhaps the best trout

in Kashmir. At a point where the river bends abruptly north-

wards towards the Naubug Valley, the real test commences. Here

a bone-shaking track d.verges south into the Ahlan Nullah, a

track which our driver — evidently very proud of his aged conveyance

spouting steam from every pore — described quite seriously as ‘not

fit for a lorry, only fit for a car.’ Seven miles upstream one’s

remains are deposited at a Forest Rest House. It is from near

here on the west bank that the Merbal Glen takes off. This so-

called glen is a short nullah, about eight milrs long, running

from 7,000 feet at its confluence with the Ahlan Valley to round

about 13,000 feet, with the Singpur Gali crossing a col on its

southern flank a couple of miles short of its head. On the Survey

maps the height of this pass is given as 11,709 feet. The view

from its summit is one of the most extensive I have seen and

must include a considerable slice of Kishtwar. Lacking the

grandeur of the usual snowy colossi of this region, its beauty lies

jftNl.21988

400 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fob 48

in the succession of ridge upon ridge, their spurs becoming ever

bluer and more hazed as the almost straight valley, from which

they radiate like ribs, recedes into the furthest distance. But the

story of that summit comes later in this tale.

In June 1942 I managed to put in a month’s leave and chose

to visit the Merbal Glen for two reasons. In those uncertain

days sudden recall had to be considered. Secondly, I felt that

in that area I might have a chance of meeting with the larger of

the only two laughing-thrushes which Kashmir possesses in any

numbers, namely the handsome Western Variegated Laughing-

Thrush, Trochalopteron variegat.um simile Hume. The smaller rat-

like Simla Streaked Laughing-Thrush is common enough in and

all around the Vale at low elevations, but the Variegated is locally

distributed and in the breeding season withdraws to higher altitudes.

In all my summers in Kashmir I have but once come across it

away from the Pir Panjal mountains, though it is said to occur

sparingly on the north side of the Vale on the main Himalayan range.

I have a doubtful record for the vicinity of Pahlgam, and a certainty

from the slopes below the Margan Pass, but the mountains enclosing

the latter must surely be included in the Pir Panjal system.

I had a further reason for choosing the Ahlan and Merbal area

for this trip. I find there is little on record about the birds to be

found on the Pir Panjal side of the Vale, B. B. Osmaston’s list

of the birds of Gulmarg being the only comprehensive account of

a part of the area. In it he also includes observations as far east

as Toshamaidan. The birds of the inner slopes of these mountains

are not very different from those found in the valleys running into

the Great Himalayan Range, but a number of migrants from India

prefer to penetrate further into the system than the Pir Panjal

mountains. On the Other hand, some birds find the slightly warmer

and certainly wetter climate more to their liking. For in climate

there is indeed a subtle difference.

Ahlan F. R. H. is approximately 7,500 feet above sea level and

we arrived there on June 21st. The party consisted of Mr. and Mrs.

Lowther and our two selves. Bob Lowther needs no introduction

to members of the Society. His beautiful photographs, which

have graced the pages of the journal for so long, speak for

themselves. This is the sole occasion upon which we have been

able to join forces and even then our leaves did not quite coincide ;

to our great regret the Lowthers left the Merbal Glen just before

I ran the Laughing-Thrushes to earth.

Only half the rest-house being fit for occupation, my wife and

I pitched our camp in the shade of some trees about 200 yards

away. By 3 p.m. the temperature inside our tent ran well into

the 8o’s. The climate struck us as considerably milder than that

of Pahlgam, due presumably to the absence of snowy massifs and

glaciers in the vicinity and to the restricted nature of the smaller

valleys. Of birds there were plenty in variety but not in numbers,

except for certain species such as the Large Crowned and Hume’s

Willow-Warblers. Our list soon included most, if not all, of the

species noted at Pahlgam, but in lesser numbers. Dark-grey

Bushchats swarmed and Willow-Warblers, as already stated, were

)NJ7 0 7VZU3W

x. s. r. 3.

THE .VERBAL GLEN AND SOME BIRDS OF THE PIR FANJAL 401

very numerous. Grey Tits too were common enough, and we

soon had two nests to choose from, one between the boards of

the rest house wall. I obtained a full, and as I thought, good

series of negatives of the latter, but tne enlargements irom mem

are disappointing. These tits were feeding small young ones on

grubs and caterpillars, and in most cases the grubs have obscured

and apparently distorted the bill.

My next victims, on June 27th, were two Western Dark-grey

Bushchats, Rhodophila jerrea jerrea (Gray). This pair had newly-

hatched young in a nest concealed in the longer grass and clover

at the edge of a small spinney. The soft waving grasses made

photos at the nest well-nigh impossible, so I resorted to the well-

worn but, m my view, unsatismciory trick of providing a nearby

perch. No matter how one tries to conceal the fact, such perches

always manage to look out of place. On this occasion I made no

attempt to conceal its nature, for the male refused to play, going

round it, and under it, and fluttering over it. After I had shifted

it nan a aozen times, he eventually condescended to use it on bis

way out. His lady on the other hand took to it at once and never

failed to take advanage of it at every visit.

It seemed to me that a real difference in the bird-life from that

of rivers on the northern side of the Vale showed itself down by

the stream. Sandpipers there were, but in small numbers, one

or perhaps two pairs to the mile. The same goes for the Plumbeous

Redstarts, so amazingly common on the lower and middle reaches

of all the rivers from the Madmatti to the Lidar. There were a

few more of them up the Merbal Glen as indeed there were of the

White-capped Redstarts, but subsequently I came to the conclusion

that both these species show a decided preference for streams run-

ning nico the Vale from the mam Himalayan range. Brown Dippers

were also scarcer. The Black-eared Kite was, I think, a resident,

though an uncommon one. A pair was seen wheeling overhead

wb w we were searching for a sandpiper’s nest. Lower down the

valley were a few more.

Of unexpected visitors we had three. One morning a Pallas’s

Fishing-Eagle winged its way upstream and was shortly after-

wards seen returning in the direction of the Bringh. The. odd birds

make forays far up the side rivers at times, but I doubt that they

remain for more than a few hours before returning to the lakes,

marshes, and sluggish waters of the Vale. Eastern Herons on the

other hand, once their nesting is over, regularly visit the middle

stre ches or the side rivers up to some 7,000 or 8,000 feet, Pahlgam

always having one or two throughout the summer. Nor do they

coniine themselves strictly to the larger waters, for I have seen

the odd heron well up small tributaries running through the forests.

Here we saw one only, which was standing in the shallows fishing-

for trout. The last visitor was a Common Myna, the only one

seen at Ahlan though there were a few, probably residents, a little

lower down the nullah. Later, in the first week of July, a small

flock of five appeared on the Karabuduran marg at over 9,000 feet.

I wonder if this virile pest is still extending its range? Late in

the season eruptions of small parties to quite high altitudes are

403 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST .. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

not infrequent, though I only know them as residents in the Vale

and along the Jhelum Valley road, except for a colony at Tithwal

in the Kishenganga Valley.

1 was itcmng to move into the Merbal Glen but before doing

so spent a morning in the hide at a Western Spotted Forktail's

(. Emcurus maculatus maculatus Vigors) nest. This was an unwontedly

open one on a rock ledge amongst the exposed roots of a tree

overhanging the south bank of a side stream. Observation showed

that bodi birds in their passage to the nest often paused on a

boulder in the torrent six feet directly below it, so the hide was

placed to face this rock. Unior innately the bird which und it most,

presumably the female, had a worn tail and a dejected air, traits

not at all in keeping with the usual fairylike daintiness of this

species. The light under the bank proved very deceptive, necessitat-

ing exposures as slow as i/2oth to 1/50T1 sec. with the lens stopped

down to only F 5.6. I would have preferred a much smaller snp

to increase the depth of focus, but the Spoited Forktails are rest-

less birds with their long tails for ever on the move like those of

the wagtail but in slower time. My photographs of this bird

were beiow par but I’m glad to say Bob Low Tier got some better

resuLs next day.

Eventually we moved off on the morning of June 30th. Logging

operations were in progress somewhere on the steep hillside and

sawn sleepers were being sent down the beck. The head of water

appeared far too small to be made use of, but the Forest Depart-

ment has its own methods for dealing with such trifling difficulties.

Long runways of sleepers had been placed in a V in the stream bed.

The shallow trickle in the apex of the V cunningly lubricated the

runway, so that the slippery pine-logs glided gently down the slope,

even taking corners in a series of slight jerks like a tram-car on

its rails. Any logs sticking required but a push to start them off

again. The wdiole runway crept slowly downstream, for logs taken

from the top end as the supply ran out there, were added to the

bottom. But what a tedious business it is ; those sleepers must

take weeks, perhaps months, to reach the wood depots around

Jhelum, for even in the raging main river below Baramullah they

are often held up in eddies and on islands.

At approximately 8,700 feet we came to a green lawn. A pine-

covered bank sloped down to the torrent on the one hand, while

a low ridge overlooked it from the north side of the track. It

was not the real beginning of the Karabuduran marg, which lay

a few hundred yards further on across a tumbling stream margined

with kingcups and mauve lousewort, but it provided a charming

and sheltered camping-ground. Indeed it proved later to be the best

centre we could have chosen, not only for the Merbal Glen but

for exploring three short side nullahs running off it in a northerly

direction.

During that first night a rakish dead pine, whose g'aunt fingers,

twisted fantastically against a starlit sky, bore at intervals the

silhouette of Scully’s Wood Owls. Their eerie hoots brought

back vivid boyhood memories of the Tawny Owls at home to wh.ch

their calls, though variable, are often similar. On July 8th two

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate I

Plumbeous Redstart ( male )

Photos R. S. P. Bates

Western Spotted Forktail

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate II

Young Kashmir Martins Dark Grey Bush-chat (male)

THE HERBAL GLEN AND SOME BIRDS OF THE PIR PANJAL 403

newly fledged young ones took up their station in the same place.

They kept up a monotonous wheezing all night long, broken only

by an occasional crescendo of excited squeaks which usually marked

the arrival of a parent.

The same evening I became aware of another noise, seemingly

emanating from the servants5 camp. Banteringly I asked the

bearer where he had got his baby chickens. It transpired that

a family of Western Himalayan Collared Pigmy Owlets— -what a

name lor so small a bird — were in occupation of a thick fir over-

hanging his tent. From their mingled chirps I was unable to sort

out any song pattern of adults or chicks. Osmaston describes

Gulmarg birds as having a four-noted bell-like whistle. On the

other hand, when on my way up to Kashmir, I had been lucky

enough to catch sight of one in the Dak Bungalow compound at

Domel, observing it for some minutes in the beam from my torch.

It was tonking away as monotonously as a Coppersmith, bobbing

Its head from side to side at every note which gave its voice a

ventriloquial effect. The calls were definitely not in series of four

notes but in long sequences of more or less evenly-spaced squeaks,

which I can only describe as midway between the high-pitched squeak

of a bat and that of a tree-rat.

Next day? when I was looking into the fir tree to see if I could

spot the owlets at roost, a family of Brook’s Nuthatches trickled

one after the other into an adjacent pine. The fledglings sat across

a horizontal bough in the way normal to the majority of perching

birds, and seemed quite averse to moving like their parents up

and down the bark and on the undersides of sloping- branches.

Before commencing the search for Laughing-Thrushes and other

higher altitude birds, I felt I must have a morning with a pair of

Plumbeous Redstarts, Rhyacornis /. fuliginosa (Vigors). Eventually

1 had to devote a second day to their photography, but it was time

well spent. The nest, in a rift in a huge fallen log at the water’s

edge not far below our tents, was well lighted, giving me a good

chance to portray the female’s characteristic tail, the constant fanning

of which, combined with a ceaseless up and down waving, results in

a flickering effect through the periodic covering and uncovering of

the increasing white on the outer rectrices by the brown terminal

wedge. Is this flicker a signal to the male, a quick pointer to her

whereabouts amongst the spray-covered boulders of the raging

torrents, for the scintillating effect certainly catches the eye? Or is

it a warning to others of the species that here is an occupied area?

The Plumbeous Redstarts are intensely jealous of their territory,

chasing away intruders with extreme energy quite irrespective of sex.

On my way back to camp I disturbed a Little Forktail at the

junction with a small stream tumbling abruptly from the wooded

slopes below Sultan Singh Mandu. This steeply falling nullah with

its frequent falls and shaded rifts was typical of this forktaiPs

habutat. A pair of Red-browed Finches was also seen, and at almost

the same instant a larger secretive bird dived from a pine into some

Viburnum scrub. This glimpse was sufficient to direct my attention

to the possibility of finding the nest of the Western Variegated

Laughing-Thrush within easy reach of camp. The following day.

404 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

therefore, was spent in a search along* the forest edge up the left

bank of the main stream to well beyond the limits of the Karabuduran

marg. The undergrowth fringing the trees was composed largely

of Skimmia, the steep bank falling thence to the bed of the stream

being covered with Viburnum and other bushes and young firs.

In spite of the seemingly favourable terrain we drew a blank, our

sole find being one disused nest, an interesting nest which I am

sure had been built by these thrushes, it was composed of a

substantial circlet of coarse grass filled in with many sheets of

papery birch bark, layer upon layer, a few of the pieces being

nearly 8 inches long and 3 inches wide at their broadest. Inside

this pad of bark was a thin lining of fine grass and tenuous roots.

It was well concealed about three feet -from the ground in one of

the young firs.

Notwithstanding the poor beginning, the day ended with promise.

Returning down the marg on the main track, we passed a large

patch of Viburnum from the middle of which protruded a lonely

and conspicuous sapling. From nearby there flew two laughing-

thrushes. Their flight was like that of the Seven Sisters or Jungle

Babblers of the plains, low to the ground with rapid wing-beats

Interspersed with unsteady glides. The tail was well spread showing

the row of white spots at the end. In some ways, perhaps owing

to the preponderance of olive-brown in the plumage, they looked

not unlike very large White-cheeked Bulbuls without the crest. In

the first fork of the sapling was an untidy grass nest, easily spotted

at some distance as it was above the general level of the Viburnum

scrub. Though empty it warranted further inspection. As we hunted

about, the birds called loudly from the farther bank we had so

lately searched, 1 veet-a-weer weet-a-weer, a far-reaching and quite

unmistakable cry.

By July 8th the nest held two eggs, and on the 9th when we

went to erect the hiding tent on the platform of logs we had already

built up, one of the birds was sitting on three eggs and continued

to sit while we worked within 9 feet of her. In spite of the washed-

out blue-green ground colour, the blunt eggs were rather handsome,

for they were boldly blotched with rich reddish brown — Whistler,

I see, calls it liver-red — and some underlying purplish spots. They

were large eggs: the average measurements are given as 27.8 X

21.0 mm. Next morning I set off with great eagerness with all

the bird-photographer’s stock-in-trade, only to find the nest awry

and no signs of eggs or birds.

It was another week before I was permitted to succeed with

this species. First I tried a small nullah half a mile below camp.

It took off in a northerly direction, its east flank dotted with tall

trees amongst rank vegetation and patches of bushes. But the

most striking features of that sharp slope were clumps of tall Kashmir

Mallows in full flower and whole regiments of the withering

stems of Crown Imperial lilies. What a sight that hillside must

have been in May. Now the dishevelled wands were surmounted

by bursting capsules, some of which had already spilled their seeds,

but others rattled so invitingly that, before leaving the glen, we

filled two marmalade jars with their flaky contents. In these favour-

THE HERBAL GLEN AND SOME BIRDS OF THE PIR PANJAL 40&

able surroundings we saw two pairs of laughing-thrushes but could

find no nest. I noticed that these birds readily ascended the isolated

trees but dived for cover on our nearer approach.

I next tried the Mojipal nullah. The lower end, where

there is a village of sorts, is not pleasing country, but higher up

it proved to be our happiest hunting-ground and soon produced

a couple of laughing-thrushes’ nests which each contained two

young ones. These nests were at an elevation of approximately

10,200 feet as opposed to the Karabuduran nest’s 9,000 feet.

Both were 4 feet from the ground in Viburnum scrub with no large

trees in their immediate vicinity. They were 200 yards apart

on opposite sides of the nullah. The owners were very secretive,

and both nests were found only after diligent searching and not

by watching the birds. I chose to work the one which was on level

ground, the other being on a steep bank above the stream which

would have necessitated facing the lens into the sun. On the 13th

and 14th mornings I got the photos I so desired. The parents

proved to be tame enough and soon became used to the hide. They

were fairly noisy, shouting across the nullah to one another weet-a-

weer, weet-a-woo-weer , while they also indulged in much squealing in

the thick cover to the left of the hide, making subdued noises which

sounded just like a nestful of quite small chicks.

During our first morning in the Mojipal nullah, a gujar informed

me that a number of small birds were nesting low down on the

face of a cliff near the nullah-head. While I was dealing with

the laughing-thrushes^ I sent my shikari, Khalik Khan, to in-

vestigate. He returned with good news. It turned out that an

hour’s walk away, at an elevation of about 11,000 feet, there was

a small cliff with the lower part scooped out so that in wet weather

by standing close to the face the rain did not reach one. Immediately

I saw it, it reminded me forcibly of Kilnsev Crag in my native Dale.

Here and there beneath the overhang numbers of Kashmir Martins,

Deiichon nrbica cashmeriensis Gould, were busy nesting. I counted

16 nests straight off and I believe there were more. A few could

actually be reached by standing on tiptoe ; more could be investigated

from another man’s shoulders, while none was above 15 or 20 feet

from the ground. But what intrigued me most was how variable

they were in construction. Few of them were the neat inverted

bee-hives’ one sees under the eaves and in the window-corners of

houses and barns in Britain — not more than four. The majority

had been constructed ingeniously to accord with the requirements

of the their sites. Those in narrow slits had the slits cemented in

for some distance above and below the entrance hole. Others in

water-worn cups merely had the doorways reduced in size. One

or two had practically no mud-work at all, just a few straws and

feathers laid within the cup. Yet again, I noted nests under a snug

ledge which might easily have been taken for those of Crag Martins,

had it not been for the rows of dark brown and white neat heads

peeping over the rims soliciting food. At least 5 nests contained

young large enough to fly at any moment, but close to the one I

decided to photograph, a pair was building a new nest on the

foundations of a structure which had collapsed. There were two

406 JOURNAL t BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Fot, 4S

to three young in each nest, though I seem to recollect that one

actually held four ; I would not like to record this as a certainty,

however. The parents spent but a fraction of a second at the nests,

often transferring food into a wide-open gape without alighting at

all. The arrival of a parent caused me much amusement, for it

was a signal for a pair of heads to appear at every hole, the lot

turning in unison as the bird flew along the cliff face. Two heads

were all that the normal hole would admit at a time, though occasion-

ally a third managed to squeeze itself into the opening.

As the direct afternoon sun could not reach my chosen nest,

I hoped for a cloudless sky, and indeed the appointed day started

well. Before the camera was in position, however, the sky had

become overcast, and within half an hour a continuous drizzle was

falling. When I left the hide, drifts of cloud obscured the summits

of the pines and water dripped steadily from the cliff’s overhang.

It is hardly surprising that my photographs were far from successful

since I had to attempt exposures of i / 20th of a second and slower

with a wide stop on birds which arrived, usually without warning,

to pass over their catches without pausing even to fold their wings.

Wreathing mists in the cheerless upper regions of the glen affected

one with a strange feeling of isolation, but as I entered the wider

space where the laughing-thrushes were skulking in the Viburnum,

the sun came out, and I found myself taking notice of a little

nature’s garden by the stream. Pinky white Morina was pushing

its way between the blue-grey stones, a neat and pleasing plant in

spite of its thistle-like appearance and narrow prickly leaves. The

sweet scent of the Yellow Morina makes it the more notable plant,

but the coarser foliage and straggling flowers render it too untidy

to compare favourably in appearance with this pink variety. A

giant ragwort, with huge basal leaves well over a foot across and

close-packed flowers in a tight raceme on a stem four feet high,

also caused me to linger.

The pause disturbed a White-capped Redstart, Chaimarrkornis

leucocephalus (Vigors), with its biff packed with flies for four small

young in a nest under a boulder close to the stream. As it turned

out, an unfortunate find this, since it caused me to spend an hour

or two the next afternoon trying to depict the characteristic poise

of this brilliant morsel, in particular the upright stance with wings

adroop and black-tipped flame of a tail flicked vertically upright,.

Two exposures seemed to me to portend success, but, alas, in one

the bird appears to possess no tail whatsoever, so rapidly has the

flick occurred. The other, a backview ’which hardly does it justice,

is spoilt by out-of-focus blobs in the middle distance. The time

would have been better spent with the Martins again, since the

day was a brilliant one.

With the exception of the Plumbeous Redstarts and the laugh-

ing-thrushes, my photographs on that expedition were far from

good but in many other ways the Merbal Glen repaid us for the

visit in good measure. A climb one morning to the top of the pass

is more than worthy of record. One zigzags up a rather bare

slope for 1,500 feet, an easy climb and one which might become

boring since the views are nothing to shout about. But, after

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate III

Western Variegated Laughing-Thrush

Photos

R. S. P. Bates

Himalayan Mistle-Thrush on nest

*

the merbal glen and some birds of the PIR PANJAL 407

passing through the scattered trees not far above the stream where

Salvia hyans was much in evidence, patches of dwarf rhododendron

appeared, the flowering season now over. These, however, were

backed by large bushes of Rhododendron campanulatum ia full

flower. Here and there beside the path were dainty hairbells and

potentillas, while, topping the ranker grasses, were large mauve

asters with narrow shaggy petals like many radiating spokes, the

hub of the wheel yellow, the rim white. Though the valley below

us was dank with smoky cloud, the drizzle cleared as we came to the

summit of the col to disclose a view of great beauty. So far could

we see through the clear washed air that the number of ridges

appeared infinite, becoming a more hazy blue as they faded into

a lavender distance. No snow-capped giants, no threatening cliffs

of ice, but a friendly vista of tree-clad spurs radiated like ribs from

the straight valley at whose very head we s.ood. A lark was

singing to the. left and a buzzard spiralled up from the Kishtwar

side to sail lazily over our heads. A single Blue Rock-Thrush traversed

the pass, and from far below could be heard the tapping of a wood-

pecker. We lazed in the shelter of a boulder eating a haversack

lunch. So happy were we that we assayed the pass for a second

time the very next day* It rained with unremitting zeal while

we climbed through a thick fog. At the top we quaffed hot dal

soup from the thermos while waiting vainly for the clouds to disperse.

Our sole visitor this time was once again the Blue Rock-Thrush.

In a dismal drizzle we turned for home. The narrow Karabudurun

marg and its flanking pines, a couple of thousand feet below,

appeared at intervals through rifts in the swirling mists. It was

an eerie scene but not without beauty, and by no means a bad ending

to my leave.

II

As a further article I have in mind has nothing to do with the

Fir Panjal side of the Vale, I would like to add some notes relat-

ing to the Gulmarg area, since in the following year we spent a

few days at Gogaldara and a week on Killenmarg. Arriving on

June 3rd at Tangmarg, we crossed the Ferozpur nullah to pitch

camp at the edge of some pines fringinga steep slope down to the river.

The two days wait there, forced upon us by the delayed arrival

from Lahore of some of our kit, was not altogether wasted, for I

had dealings with three interesting birds.

The first morning, as we were breakfasting in the open door-

way of the tent, a Western Collared Pigmy Owlet, Glaucidium

hrodiei brodiei Burton, snatched up a lethargic cicada almost at

my feet and proceeded to devour it close by on a low branch of a

pine. Standing on one foot, it conveyed the insect to its bill in

the other, pulling fragments off it after the manner of a parakeet

dealing with a nut. It then flew to a medium-sized chestnut tree

on the fringe of the wood where it disappeared into a woodpecker’s

boring about 15 feet from the ground. As I peered into the hole,

the owl’s head slowly came up to investigate . the disturbance. I

could not help laughing at it. Well back in the gloom and neatly

408 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vdl. 48

framed in the circular opening-, it looked for all the world like a!

wizened old man with Dundreary whiskers. It stared solemnly and'

sadly at me for at least half a minute and then just as slowly sank;

again out of sight. The hole, being that of a Pied Woodpecker,

was too small to admit even my wife’s hand, so I failed to ascertain the

contents. We left it in peace, and had the satisfaction of sharing

the half-light of our shady pines on two or three occasions before

we left, for it was not altogether nocturnal, being on the move some-

times up to about 9 o’clock.

Down the hillside a pair of kestrels was extremely noisy.

They had a nest, an appropriated jungle Crow’s I at first thought

it to be, some 40 feet up close to the main trunk of a large pine.

Twice I saw coition take place, but it was not until the morning

we left, June 6th, that the first egg was deposited. On our way

back from Killenmarg to Srinagar on the 20th, I made a point of

slipping across the nullah to see how these birds were faring.

Confusion reigned. They appeared to be at loggerheads with a

sparrow-hawk, which twice approached the nest while I was stand-

ing at the foot of the tree. I considered this behaviour sufficiently

strange, but when I saw the nest’s contents my curiosity was vastly

increased. There were now three eggs, two of them the dull mottled

red of the kestrel’s showing little or no ground colour. The third

had a flat blue-wdiite ground and some large blotches of a somewhat

richer red-brown scattered chiefly at the smaller end, if smaller

end it can be termed, for in truth there was little to choose between

either extremity- This egg, in fact, agreed with many sparrow-

hawk’s eggs I have seen, but with no kestrel’s egg it has ever

been my lot to examine. After photographing the eggs in the

nest, which, incidentally, was made almost entirely of sticks, finer

ones in the cup, I removed them. As I suspected, those of the

kestrel type were none too easy to blow, having been incubated for

some 12 to 14 days, but the third egg was absolutely fresh. Could

this egg have been laid by the sparrow-hawk I encountered that

morning? Is it not possible that the nest was used originally by

the sparrow-hawks, who, having turned up to reclaim it were

now engaged in battle with the kestrels, a battle which they

appeared to be winning ! It is impossible to say with certainty

that such is the case, but I give this solution for what it is worth.

A point which perhaps militates against it, is that I see Stuart

Baker states in the Nidification that the sparrow-hawk does not

normally use a nest for more than the one season. Subsequently 1

sent the eggs to the Prince of Wales’s Museum, Bombay, where

no doubt any member who wishes to see them can run them to earth.

Prior to leaving the Ferozpur nullah for Gogaldara, I spent

a couple of hours in the hide photographing a Simla Black Tit,

Lophophanes r. rufonuchalis Blyth. As usual its nest, containing

young ones, was in a hole in the ground. This ran horizontally

into a grassy bank. I have at times found them in tunnels, often

amongst tree roots, entering the ground at so steep an angle that

the bird literally fell in head first from some overhanging twig or

foliage. I know the Nidification has it that holes in and near the

ground are the exception rather than the rule, but I am convinced

THE MERBAL GLEN AND SOME BIRDS OF t-H'E PlR FAN JAL 409

that at least in Kashmir the position is actually the reverse of

this. The majority of nests are in holes, often rat-holes, in grassy

banks, under the roots of trees, and sometimes in walls. I once

saw a bird disappear down a small hole in the very middle of a

well-used path made up of hard-trodden earth from which all

vegetation had been worn away. It was taking moss down to a

cavity some inches below the surface. Perhaps it liked the sound

of tramping feet ! It is the Crested Black Tits Lophophanes

melanolophus Vigors, slightly smaller and with an inconspicuous

row of spots on the wing, which patronizes the tree sites between

say three and 20 feet. But to revert to my Ferozpur bird. Just

as I was warming to the task, after one of the birds had arrived

with a Large White butterfly in its bill, an unusual occurrence to say

the least of it, a troupe of Rhesus monkeys reached the vicinity and

made such nuisances of themselves that I had to leave the hide.

I’m afraid that I did not find the Fir Panjal forests around

Gogaldara particularly birdy ; in fact they were disappointing in

comparison with those on the north side of the Vale, but all the

same I was struck by the comparatively large numbers of hobbies.

During the few days we occupied the F.R.H. there, June 6th to

14th, I marked down three pairs of these little falcons which appeared

already to have commenced nesting. All had their nests high

up in pines, not in isolated ones, but in localities where the trees

were dotted about in clumps which could hardly be described as

true forest. I have seen them in the same type of country on the

other side of the Vale ; for example, in the Erin nullah and at

Aru in the Lidar Valley. They also nest within the fringes of

the heavier woods. I could only reach one of these nests. It was

still empty, even when we left, but that did not save me from being

repeatedly dive-bombed on the 7th while I was climbing up to it.

In Kashmir the hobbies appear to lay a little later than the other

falcons; usually round about the end of June and in July.

The Gogaldara Rest-house, and a barn close by, had been

patronized by a pair of Himalayan Whistling-Thrushes. There

were two compact but old nests under the gable ends of the former,

while a newer one was on a tie-beam inside the out-house. As I

came out through the barn door, I almost collided with a young

turtle-dove which swerved in to escape a pursuing Jungle Crow,

for the terrified fledgling was still weak on the wing. I considered

it best to shut it up inside for a spell. When I returned, an hour

or so later that villainous crow was still on guard. As I opened

the door, the dove flew from underneath the hut — it had found

a way through some broken floor boards. The crow overhauled

it within a hundred yards, forced it down behind some bushes, and

as I panted to its rescue, cruelly beheaded the poor thing before

my very eyes, and flew off with its ill-gotten prize, leaving the warm

gorey body twitching on the ground. Jungle Crows are appallingly

destructive of eggs and young, but I had not previously seen one

pursue an active fledgling with such persistence.

On June 7th I found a Mistle-Thrush’s nest containing 3 fresh

eggs, the clutch being completed to 4 the following day. It was

built near the end of a drooping fir branch not very well screened

410 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

and only 7 feet from the ground. It was overhanging the edge

of a path leading through the forest from some cultivation lower

down the hill-side. 1 watched the bird sitting quite peacefully

as a couple of men walked underneath the nest, utterly unconscious

of her presence. A few days later I roped the branch to one a

little higher up, as a man with a tall load bumped an egg to the

ground. The wood here was of open character with some deciduous

trees in it as well as the pines. Mistle-Thrushes were well distributed

over these hill-sides, for their loud song, which carries well from

the higher tree summits which they invariably choose for singing-

posts, was borne to us every morning from most points of the

compass. I found one other new, but as yet empty, nest in an

almost identical situation. Their nests are at times seen close

to the tree-trunks ? and occasionally in the forks of small saplings,

but I think this drooping-branch site is a highly favoured one.

Both these nests were typical, a copious grass lining over a certain

amount of clay, the outer parts consisting of coarse twigs well

covered with lichen and mosses.

. I had no difficulty whatsoever in getting the Mistie-ThruslTs

photograph. She wanted to return to the nest long before I was

ready for her, and indeed did so. Perhaps this was why I made

the mistake of completing the erection of the tent and —I must

confess it — its quite unnecessary camouflaging, before ascertaining

the best distance at which to place the camera. I found I was too

close for comfort, the depth of focus being too narrow and the

field too restricted. Using the small plates (3J" X 2\") insufficient

surroundings to the nest were shown, and I had to content myself

with well-stopped-down portraits of her Ladyship incubating. As

she insisted on getting* well down into the cup, I was unable to

show to advantage the bold spotting of the underparts. It is

most important first to get the camera correctly positioned and then

to build up the hide around it.

Tickell’s Willow-Warbler is the last bird about which I wish to

write. We encountered it, of course, after moving up to Killenmarg.

Where the slopes steepen beyond the skiing hut, where dwarf

rhododendrons and the large Rhododendron campanulatum with

delicately tinted mauve and pale blue flowers, make their appearance,

this little bird became evident. It was here, on the morning of

June, 16th, at a little above 11,000 feet, that I saw a Tickell’s

Willow-Warbler, Phyllo scopus affinis (Tickell), with a short length

of grass in its bill. Which of the two untidy beginnings, 18 inches

from the ground in a small patch of juniper, was to become the

finished article, I could not say, nor did the bird seem to have quite

made up its mind. After tea we went up again, taking the hide with

us. There was then no doubt about their plans. These minute war-

blers, choosing to nest from 11,000 feet up to the permanent snowline,

have of necessity to crowd their nesting into a short space of time. We

found them feverishly at work on a structure which was already

taking shape. So intent were the}* on their important work that

1 believe the tent was quite unnecessary ; a simple screen would

have sufficed, for, except when I was kneeling directly between

the tent and the nest with my feet close to the fasUgrowing untidy

THE MERBAL GLEN AND SOME BIRDS OF THE PIR PANJAL All

ball, their visits never ceased. Both birds were hard at it, finding

all the material they required around the, immediate bush in which

they were building.

I was in the hide next morning soon after 7 a.m. They were

building in furious bursts lasting about quarter of an hour, still

finding their lengths of dry grass within a small radius from the

nest. This was quite conspicuous — it often is — being wedged into

the dark outer foliage of a low juniper bush with winch the' almost

white straws contrasted strongly. It looked to me as if they would

soon start bringing the featners with which they so thickly line

the envelope for protection against the bitter nights. I was a little

too soon for that. At the end of each burst they flew 50 yards or

so down the hill-side to feed quietly for a few minutes before resum-

ing operations. Altogether 1 used 16 plates on them, varying the

exposure and stop between F8 and 1/ 200th and F16 and i/4oth.

The light even in the early morning was very strong. I was able

to tell the birds apart by the way in which one of them

jumped at each clap of the shutter, raising its wings slightly as

it did so. But whether the nervous one was the male or the female

I cannot say. I suspect it was the male for its visits were the less

frequent of the two and the female is generally the bolder at the

nest. For the fast exposures I was perforce using the focal plane

shutter, but, even when employing the silent Luc shutter, I had

few failures, only three of the negatives showing movement.

Shortly before 10 o’clock I packed up. Variegated Laughing-

Thrushes were calling in some tall bushes on the edge of the marg,

and somewhere beyond a stony ridge a Central Asian Blackbird

was nest-building, repeatedly flying over my head with quantities

of material in its bill. Unfortunately I failed to locate the site

for it became very cautious as soon as I entered its territory.

THE INDIAN CADDIS FLIES ( TRICHOPTERA )

BY

The late Martin E. Mosely

(Dept, of Entomology, British Museum , Nat. Hist.)

Part X

(With 12 plates)

(Continued from page 245 of this volume)

SERICOSTOMATIDAE McLachlan ( continued )

Anacrunoecia gen. n.

Spurs, 2, 4, 4. In the S , the basal joint of the antenna armed

with a furcate process at its base. In some species there is an

additional small branch placed very close to the main furcate pro-

cess ; no process towards the middle of the joint. Maxillary palpi

two-jointed, varying in shape in the species. Wings clothed with

hairs and scales ; post-costal fold very long, situated towards the

centre of the wing, with three large cellules between it and the

lower margin, (four in A. assamensis). Inferior appendages

generally furcate at the apices, with an erect branch at the base.

Genotype, — A. atania sp- n.

Anacrunoecia assamensis sp. n. Figs. 85-92.

Insect warm chestnut brown ; description of the g ; basal joint

of the antenna not very long, a single branch towards the base,

its margin fringed with long, peg-like spines or teeth ; this branch

carries a subsidiary branch or wart on its inner basal margin ;

above the branch, the basal joint is somewhat hollowed out, the

surface of this hollowed portion being set with transverse ridges ;

maxillary palpi membranous and two-jointed, basal joint elbowed,

terminal joint broad, much dilated ; wings clothed with hairs, and

with a few scales at the basal end of the central groove, none on

the posterior wing ; costal margin of the anterior wing with the

extreme edge folded over ; discoidal cell rather long, a groove

through the middle of the wing nearly to the apex, a fold just

beneath it; four cellules along the posterior margin, of which the

second from the base is the largest; in the posterior wing, the base

of the fourth apical cellule extends further inwards than the base

of the discoidal cell; in the $, fork no. 5 present in the posterior

wing. Genitalia S • — Ninth dorsal segment produced at its centre

in a broad triangle beyond which is a dorsal plate, produced at

its centre and excised to make a pair of large angular projections;

the outer angles of the plate are produced in finger-like processes

directed tailward and separated from the central triangles by

rounded excisions; each of these processes bears a small finger

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate I

Figs. 85-92. Anacrunoecia assamensis sp.n. 85, d1 head from side. 86, £ wings.

87, J genitalia, lateral. 88, ninth segment and dorsal plate, dorsal. 89,

d* ninth segment, inferior appendages and penis, ventral. 90, penis and

sheaths, lateral. 91, penis and sheaths, dorsal. 92, ¥ wings.

Jonrn., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate II

Figs. 93-99. Ana.runoeda atania sp.n. 93, base of antenna, inner

surface. 94, maxillary and labial palpi, lateral. 95, wings. 96, genitalia,

lateral. 97, genitalia, dorsal. 98, penis and sheaths, dorsal. 99, genitalia,

ventral, dorsal plate omitted.

THE INDIAN CADDIS FLtES (TRICHOPTERA) 413

directed downward on its under surface; penis straight, from above

and beneath, with a narrow stem and dilated apex ; sheaths short

and symmetrical, lying side by side over the base of the stem,

inferior appendages single-jointed, branched, the main stem short

and stout with the lower angle produced in a long, slightly up-

turving, fringed finger with an acute apex; this finger is rather

more than twice the length of the base, of which the outer angle

is slightly produced and rounded ; on the inner side of this rounded

angle arises another long branch, which is constricted in the

middle, gradually expanding to a rounded apex, from beneath,

caliper-shaped ; this branch is rather more than half the length of

the fringed finger ; a third and rather shorter branch arises from

within the upper margin of the appendage at its base and is

directed upward, gradually dilating to a roughly truncate apex ;

ventral margin of ninth segment produced at its centre, leaving

two pa:rs of triangular processes.

Length of anterior wing d 9 mm.

Length of anterior wing 9 IO mm.

Length of basal joint of <$ antenna 1.75 mm.

Assam: Cherrapunji.

Type d and paratypes cf 9 i*1 the collection of the British

Museum (N.H.)

Anacrunoecia atanfa sp. n. Figs- 93-99.

Insect brown in colour ; basal joint of the antenna in the d ,

long and broad from the side ; at its base, on the upper surface,

i ; a stout, inturned, trifurcate claw, fringed with the usual spine-

like hairs and with the centre fork the longest ; maxillary palpi

two-jointed, basal joint long and curved, terminal joint very small;

labial palpi, terminal joint very long and slender, about twice the

length of the second, which is half as long again as the first; a

spur on the posterior leg unusually thickened ; wings clothed with

ha:rs and . scales, the latter mainly confined to the nervures, all

forks and cellules sessile; anterior with a deep costal fringe attach-

ed to a narrow edge of the costa, which is turned over along the

subcosta ; a median groove and a post-costal fold very close be-

neath it ; four cellules along the posterior border, of which the

second from the base is the largest and the third is triangular and

is connected to the border of the wing by a nervure ; neuration very

aberrant; posterior wing with a normal neuration, fourth apical

cellule extending only slightly further inwards than the basal angle

of the discoida! cell.

Genitalia d • — Ninth tergite produced in a wide triangle; be-

yond it is a large dorsal plate bearing two pairs of processes, the

middle pair long and rather broad and separated by a narrow exci-

sion; the outer, slender, constricted at the middle and dilated at the

ap:ces; from the side, the base of this process is roundly excised

with a small knob on the lower margin ; penis short, directed

downward with two spine-like sheaths crossing each other above

it; inferior appendages single-iointed, four-branched; the upper

branch broad and spatulate, directed upward and then slightly

distally and situated at the base of the appendage towards its

41* JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 48

upper margin ; the second and third branches arising from a stout,

base, the lower very long and sinuous, about twice the length of

the upper, which is directed inwards with a clavate apex ; another

long and slender branch arises from each lower margin at the

inner basal angle as seen from beneath.

Length of the anterior wing 3 9.5 mm.

Length of the basal joint of 3 antenna 1.61 mm.

N.-E. burma: ixamLam, 12. vii. 1934, 6,300 ft. R. Malaise.

Type 6 in the collection of the Stockholm Museum. Paratypes

in the Stockholm and the British Museum collections.

Anazrunoecia digitata sp. n. Figs. 100-105.

Insect brown. In the d , wings covered w:th hairs and scales;

anterior with the costa narrowly folded for almost its entire length;

post-costal fold situated nearly as tar up as the centre of the wing,

long, extending practically to the apex, fringed with a very dense

row of thickened hairs ; in the post-costal area are three large

cells, the upper triangular, the other two of about the same area;

d:scoidal cell long and narrow; all the apical cellules very long

and narrow, except the third which is long but broadened at its

base ; posterior wing with the neuration regular. Basal joint of

the antenna about as long as the width of the head with the oculi,

very stout, w:th a strong branch at its base, apex furcate, small

irregular processes situated on the inner surface of the joint; the

lower margin at the base, deeply indented. Maxillary palpi two-

jointed, basal joint stout, terminal about the same length but more

slender and covered with a furry vestiture ; labial palpi with a

long terminal joint.

Gen:talia <3 . — The apical margin of the ninth tergite is pro-

duced in three long processes of which the central is excised nearly

to its base, leaving a pair of long, slender fingers, sparsely clothed

with bristles; from the side, the lateral processes are very deep,

the central fingers projecting beyond them ; penis short, apparently

without sheaths ; inferior appendages with a single short branch,

only visib’e from the side, arising at the base from the upper sur-

face and directed upward ; apex of the appendage produced in what

may be a second joint or the vestige of one, welded to the basal

joint; lower surface very heavily clothed with thickened hairs.

Length of the anterior wing 3 11 mm.

Length of the basal joint of the antenna 1 mm.

Assam : Khasi Hills, from the McLachlan collection.

Type and paratype 3 in the collection of the British Museum.

Anacruncecia timfoaka sp. n. Figs. 106-1x1.

Insect brown. In the 3 , antennae with the basal joint short,

very stout, with a stout, hooked process at its base, on which is

seated a pair of short bars, parallel with each other ; maxillary

palpi densely clothed w:th hairs, difficult to make out. probably

wdth two broad joints; wings covered with hairs and small, whitish

scales; post-costal fold very conspicuous, fringed with long hairs

Journ. , Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate III

Figs. 100-105. Anacrunoecia digitata sp.n. 100, wings. 101, base of

antenna, inner surface. 102, maxillary and labial palpi, lateral. 103, genitalia,

lateral. 104, genitalia, dorsal, penis omitted. 105, genitalia, ventral, dorsal

plate omitted.

Joui'n., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate IV

Figs. 106-111. Anacrunoecia timbaka sp.n. d". 106, base of antenna,

inner surface. 107, process at base of antenna from another aspect. 108,

wings. 109, genitalia, lateral. no, genitalia, dorsal. in, genitalia,

ventral.

THE INDIAN CADDIS FLIES (TRICHOPTERA) 415

and extending considerably more than half-way along the wing,

three large cellules between it and the posterior border-

Genitalia d .—Apical margin of the ninth tergite much pro-

duced; dorsal plate broad, centre forming a raised V-shaped pro-

cess ; immediately beneath the centre of the plate is a slender-

stemmed process, possibly an upper penis-cover with a dilated and

excised apex; no apparent penis-sheaths; penis short and sinuous;

inferior appendages branched and single-jointed, a branch with a

dilated apex arising from the upper margin near the base and

partially concealed within the segment; apex bifurcate, upper fork,

from above and from the side, with a much dilated apex of com-

plicated shape; lower fork slender, slightly, shorter than the upper;

from beneath, there are angular projections of the lower margin of

the appendages about midway; ventral margin of the ninth sternite

sinuous and excised.

Length of the anterior wing d 9 mm.

Length of the basal joint of the antenna 1.8 mm.

N.-E. Burma: Kambaiti, 4-8. vL 1934, R. Malaise:

Burma: Ruby Mines, 5,500-7,000 ft., 1890.

Type d (Kambaiti) in the Stockholm Museum, paratype d

(Ruby Mines) in the British Museum collection.

Dinar thn 11 1 Ulmer.

Dinarthrella Ulm., Genera Insect., fasc. boa, p. 108, 1907.

Spurs, 2, 4, 4. In the d , basal joint of the antennae long,

armed with a single and simple branch, sometimes rudimentary,

situated at its base. Maxillary palpi two-jointed, basal joint stout

and curved, terminal joint very small. Martynov’s figure of D.

betteni shows only one. joint curved up in front of the face. Wings

clothed with hairs and scales; in the anterior there is a fold but

scarcely in the post-costal region. It passes through the centre

of the wing so that it is completely separated from the lower

marginal cellules which form a parallel and diminishing series from

the base to the apex. Inferior appendage branched at its apex, the

branch arising at the base is directed distally rather than upwards-

Genotype.— -D. destructa Ulm.

Dinarthrella betteni Martynov. Figs. 112-116.

Dinarthrella betteni Mart., Rec. Ind. Mus-, 38, pp. 286-288,

%s. 57-59 a-c, 1936.

T d. Eastern Himalayas, Pashok, Darjeeling district, 3,500

ft., 1-12. x. 17, F. H. Gravely (in spirit).’

‘The specimen is young and pale; colouring in fully' adult

specimens would be darker.’

‘Head pale, clothed with dense pale, greyish-yellow hairs, with

some adm’xture of brownish ones near the eyes. Basal joint of

the antennae as long as the thorax, slender, sinuate from the side,

pale, densely clothed above and beneath with dense, slender, erect,

rufous brownish hairs; on the distal portion the hairs become paler,

yellowish-grey; basal portion of the joint ending in a short tri-

angular process or projection ; thread pale, yellow/

2

416 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL 48

‘Maxillary palpi long, pale,, adjacent to the head, curved up-

wards, their ends are situated between the bases of antennae and

bear here a dense tuft of brownish-yellow hairs., Labial palpi long;

3rd joint longer than 2nd, which in its turn is longer than first.

Thorax yellow, mesonotum elongated, twice longer than the

metanotum, brownish, with two rounded pale marks bearing tufts

of pale erect hairs; behind them two more small whitish spots.

Metanotum brownish- Legs pale yellowish. Anterior wings pale,

narrow; costa thick; subcosta running near to it, in its basal part

apparently uniting with it with dense series of yellowish hairs

turned backwards; this series is continuous with the hairs arising

from costa. R straight, thick; RS originating early from it and

forming a narrow and short discoidal cell, concealed by hairs,

starting from M and therefore not easily distinguished. Only the

basal part of M may be discerned, since its further part is con-

cealed by a long and distinct anal fold, extending from the base up

to the end of Mx ; from the base of M and from the fold arise for-

wards dense series of brownish-grey hairs as in Dinarthrella des-

tnicta Ulm. Venation behind this fold is much disturbed as in

D. destructa; three branches of M, CuAj, CuA2 and CuP connected

basally and forming series - of parallel (except CuP) veins ; in the

proximal part of wing' there is only which is oblique, straight;

jugal lobe rounded. Venation in posterior wings similiar to that in

Dinarthrella sp. Betten, 1909. ’

‘Abdomen pale brownish, tergites provided with dark trans-

verse (slender) thickenings at their anterior edges ; 1st tergite

broad, brownish.’

‘ d Side pieces of 9th segment with straight hind edges ;

sternite narrow with a small median projection; tergite forming a

broad projection narrowed behind and reaching the base of the

median excision of 10th segment, broad both from above and from

the side ; one may distinguish here, as in Dinarthrnm , one median

and two lateral portions; side portions short, irregular, hairy,

separated from the median by two broad excisions, in which two

more minute processes may be seen. Median portion also short, but

with a rounded excision divided into two irregular projections,

broad from side, narrower from above.’

‘Pedes genitales broad from the side, hairy, divided near the

middle into two branches, upper and lower, the lower being more

slender and bearing beneath dense greyish brown hairs ; seen from

beneath the pedes g'enitales are dilated in the middle, then attenuat-

ed (lower branch); apices ending in two or three tubercles. From

the bases of the pedes genitales arise two pale sabre-shaped pro-

cesses, reaching the base of the upper branch. Penis short; above

it two titillators, acute at ends.’

‘Length of body 6 mm.’

'Remarks . — Dinarthrella sp. briefly described and figured by

C. Betten (Rec. Ind. Mus., 3, p. 241, pi. 18, figs. 10-12, 1909) be-

longs probably to this species, although there is some difference

in the shape of the basal joint of antennae and in the venation of

the fore wings. DC and its branches are almost invisible in our

specimen, but it is young, Rs and M are here very pale and weak

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate V

Figs. 112-116. Dinarthrella betteni Mart. d*. 1 1 2, anterior wing. 1 13, head

from side. 114, genitalia, lateral. 115, genitalia, dorsal. 116, genitalia,

ventral. (All after Martynov).

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate VI

Figs. 117-122. Dincirthrella destructa (Ulmer). 117, head from side.

n», wings. 1 19, genitalia, lateral. 120, ninth segment, dorsal plate and

penis sheaths, dorsal. 121, inferior appendage, dorsal. 122, genitalia.

THE INDMN CADDIS FLIES .{T RICH OPT ERA),

417

and therefore indistinct; Betten’s figure of the basal joint of anten-

nae is perhaps not quite correct (Betten’s specimen was in bad

condition). Dinarthrella betteni Mart- is evidently allied to D.

destructa Ulm. from Darjeeling, but distinct.’

Dinarthrella destructa Ulmer. Figs. 117-122.

Manicoheura destructa Ulm., Notes Leyd. Mus., XXVIII,

pp. 28-29, figs. 35-36, 1906.

Dinarthrella destructa Ulm., Gen. Insect., fasc. 60a, p. 108,

pi. 15, fig. 130, 1907.

The type, in the Paris Museum, is in very poor condition and

it was necessary to pass the head and abdomen through caustic

potash before an examination could be made. One pair of wings

was removed and denuded for the purpose of this re-description

and this procedure no doubt accounts for any discrepancies between

the figures here given and those of Dr. Ulmer, made from the un-

denuded wing.

Insect brownish. Description of the <S ; basal joint of the

antenna, long, slightly elbowed midway, without any processes but

with a strong angular projection at the base carrying* three or four

long spines ; there is a second but smaller angular projection at the

point where the joint is elbowed ; maxillary palpi membranous,

with a long basal joint sharply bent and somewhat dilated rather

beyond midway ; beyond the bend, the joint is constricted, making

a slender Terminal portion followed by a very small second joint;

wings, anterior with a narrow rim at the costa bent over onto the

subcosta; the anterior part of the wing* is clothed with scales and

hairs; through the centre of the wing there is a heavy fringed fold,

somewhat of a different character to folds in other species of the

Lepidostomatinae and approaching* the formation of a groove ;, be-

neath the fold, the neuration is very abnormal and the vestifure is

confined to hairs with no apparent scales; posterior wing* with

normal neuration; fourth apical cellule extending* not quite so far

inward as the basal angle of the discoidal cell.

Genitalia <3.. — Ninth dorsal segment produced in a triangular

prominence, beneath which is a broad dorsal plate bearing two

broad outer wings, with sinuous outer margins as seen from above,

and truncate apices, of which the inner apical angles are Slightly

produced; from the side these angles appear as triangular processes

with acute apices directed downward ; between the outer wings

is a pair of diverging plates set on edge, from the side shaped

like a blunt foot, toes directed downward, the sole of the foot

forming an obliquely truncate apex ; penis short, directed down-

ward with a pair of long, sinuous, asymmetrically-twisted sheaths ;

inferior appendages single-jointed but three-branched, from the

side, with a stout base terminating in two branches somewhat re-

sembling a lobster’s rather slender claw; the third branch, which

from above has a dilated and serrated inner margin, is seen, from

the side, to arise from the upper margin of the appendage towards

the base.

Length of anterior wing d about 9 mm.

Length of basal joint of the <5 antenna 2.8 mm-

418 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Yol. 48

Darjeeling: Harm and, 1890.

Type d in the collection of the Paris Museum.

I am much indebted to Dr. L. Borland, of the Paris Museum,

who kindly allowed me to make preparations of the various parts

of the type for the purpose of this description.

An example from N. E. Burma, Kambaiti, 6,800 ft., 8. iv.

1934, R. Malaise, belongs here.

U I m erodes gen- nov.

Dinarthrodes Mosely nec Ulmer, /., Bombay Nat. His. Soc ., 41,

P- 334, ^939-

Spurs 2. 4, 4. In the male, the basal joint of the antenna

armed with two processes, one at the base, the other towards the

middle. Maxillary palpi two-jointed, basal joint generally curved,

terminal long and slender. Wings clothed with hairs and scales;

in anterior wing, discoidal cell long and narrow; post-costal fold

about half the length of the wing, sometimes less. Penis sheaths

present. Inferior appendages trifurcate at the apices, with an

upright branch arising at the base.

Genotype. — Dinarthrum arm alum Ulmer.

USmerodes armata (Ulmer) Figs. 123-128-

Dinarthrum armatum Ulmer, Ann. Naturh. Mus. Wien, 20,

p. 69, figs. 28-30, 1905.

Dinarthrodes armata Ulmer, Gen. Insect, fasc. 60a, p. 106, 1907,

Insect brownish. In the d , wings clothed w'th hairs and

scales; post-costal fold short, less than half the length of the wing;

only two cellules between it and the posterior margin, the distal

the longer; basal joint of the antenna long with two processes, the

longer at the base, the shorter about midwray ; maxillary palpi two-

jointed, first joint with a sharp elbow, second slender, longer than

the first-

Gemtalia d . — Dorsal plate produced in three slender processes

of about the same length, one at each angle and the third at the

centre; the lateral are set at a lower level than the central process

and, seen from the side, have sharply elbowed bends towards their

bases ; the central process arises from a wide base whose lateral

margins are produced downward in deep keels ; penis short and

curved; sheaths straight, parallel, with very acute apices; inferior

appendages branched, a short, upright branch on the upper margin

at the base; apex of the appendage trifurcate, the upper fork short,

curved and slender, the lower pair of about the same length, lying

parallel, the lower, from the side, the stouter.

Length of the anterior wing d 9 mm.

Length of the basal joint of the antenna d 2 mm.

Assam.

Type d in the collection of the Vienna Museum.

I am indebted to Dr. Zerny for permission to examine and

refigure the type.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate VII

Figs. 123-128. Ulmerodes armata (Ulmer). 123, wings. 124, base of

antenna. 125, maxillary and labial palpi, lateral. 126, genitalia, lateral. 127,

genitalia, dorsal. 128, penis sheaths, dorsal.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate VIII

Figs. 129-133. Ulmerodes palpalis sp.n. <$. 129, wings. 130, base of

antenna. 13 1, maxillary and labial palpi, lateral. 132, genitalia, lateral. 133,

genitalia, dorsal.

THE INDIAN CADDIS FLIES (TRI CH OPT ERA). 419

Ulmerodes palpalis sp.n. Fig’s.. 129-133.

Insect brown; wings broad, clothed with hairs and scales;

anterior with the discoidal cell very long and narrow, longer than

its footstalk; post-costal fold reaching as far as the middle of the

discoidal cell and terminating at the border of the large seventh

apical cellule; posterior wing with fork No. 1 sessile; basal joint

of the antenna moderately long, longer than the width of the

head with the oculi and armed with a pair of stout processes, the

one at the base longer than the second, which is situated about

halfway up ; maxillary palpi unusually long, longer than the basal

joint of the antenna, two-jointed, slender, basal joint elbowed and

perhaps a little longer than the terminal ; spurs of the anterior

tibiae prominent-

Genitalia d - — The apical margin of the ninth tergite slightly

produced at its centre ; beyond it, from above, is a coronet-shaped

plate, middle process rather stout, intermediate processes produced

in downcurving spines, outer processes short and directed outward;

penis short ; sheaths long and slender, parallel, ly;ng* well above the.

penis; inferior appendages single-jointed and four-branched, basal

branch long and slender, concealed, arising from the upper margin

at the base, directed upward ; the three other branches are all at

the extremity of the appendage and from beneath, the lower is the

broadest.

Length of the anterior wing d 8 mm.

Length of the basal joint of the antenna 1.84 mm.

N.-E. Burma: Kambaiti, 30. iv, 25. v., 1. vi- 1934, R. Malaise.

Upper Burma: Nam Tamai Valley, 16. viii, v. 1938, R.

Kaulback.

Type d (Upper Burma) in the collection of the British Museum,

other d paratypes in the Stockholm and British Museum collec-

tions.

Ulmerodes tibama sp. n. Figs. 134-138,

Insects brown. In the d, wings covered with hairs and

scales; in the anterior, the post-costal fold rather more than half

the length of the wing, with only two conspicuous cellules between

it and the posterior margin, the distal cellule the larger ; antenna

with the basal joint long, two processes at its base, the distal the

shorter and situated slightly before the middle ; maxillary palpi

two-jointed, joints about equal in length, basal joint irregular in

shape, terminal arising before its apex.

Genhalia d • — Dorsal plate with the centre strongly produced

in a pair of finger-like processes almost touching each other, apices

slightly dilated and rounded ; they arise from the centre of a wide,

rectangular plate with a sinuous apical margin ; lateral margins

sloping to a lower level than the central, and with the angles form-

ing small, linger-like projections directed distally; lower margin

produced in a narrow, downwardly pointing plate with an obliquely

truncate apex; the base of each of the central processes of the plate

is produced at its lower margin in a deep keel; penis short and

straight, sheaths long, apices divergent ; inferior appendages

420 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

branched, a slender branch arising from the upper margin near the

base, directed upward ; apex of the appendage trifurcate, lower

fork triangular with an acute apex, middle fork slender, outer

rather stouter and strongly fringed.

Length of the anterior wing- <$ 9 mm.

Length of the basal joint of the antenna d 2.44 mm.

N.-E. Burma: Kambaiti, 7,000 ft., 1. vi. 1934, 11. v. 1934

24. v. 1934, R. Malaise.

Type d, in the collection of the Stockholm Museum. Paratypes

Id1 in the British Museum collection.

Goerodella gen. n>

Spurs, 2, 4, 4- In the d , basal joint of the antenna long with

either a simple branch at its base or else the rudiments of such a

branch. Maxillary palpi two-jointed, the basal joint sometimes

with a membranous branch or swelling at its apex, terminal joint

slender. Wings clothed with hairs and scales ; in the anterior,

post-costal fold very short, about a third the length of the wing;

in some species the costa is folded over the wing for nearly its

entire length. Penis sheaths long-. Inferior appendage furcate at

its apex and with a basal branch less erect than usual, practically

directed distally.

Genotype, G. tesarum sp. n.

Goerodella cornuta sp. n. Figs. 139-144-

The species is very similar to Goerodella tesarum , but with

slight differences in neuration, particularly in the post-costal fold

area. The membranous maxillary palpi are difficult to make out

and may possibly differ slightly in the two species. Small differ-

ences are also apparent in the form of the basal joint of the antenna.

In the d genitalia, the claw-shaped lateral angles of the dorsal

plate are more accentuated in cornuta and, viewed from the side,

there is a serrate ridge proceeding downward from the centre of

the dorsal plate. Other parts are very similar in the two species

which I consider, nevertheless, to be distinct.

Length of the anterior wing d 10 mm.

Length of the basal joint of the antenna 3.3 mm.

N.-E. Burma: Kambaiti, 9. iv. 1934, 6,800 ft.; 30- iv., 24. vi.,,

12. vii., 1934, 6,300 ft., R. Malaise.

Type d (30. iv. 1934) in the collection of the Stockholm

Museum. Paratype d in the British Museum collection.

Goerodella ramosa sp. n. Figs- 145-151.

Insects yellowish brown. In the d , wings covered with hairs

and scales; anterior with a short post-costal fold, less than half

the length of the wing, with one large cellule beneath it, besides a

smaller in the anal region; fork No. 2 extending beneath the dis-

coidal cell nearly halfway ; no central fold ; costa not folded over ;

basal joint of the antenna not very long, with a stout branch to-

wards the base, whose apex is - truncate with the lower apical angle

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate IX

Figs. 134-138. Ulmerodes tibama sp.n. d*. 134, wings. 135, base of

antenna. 136, maxillary and labial palpi, lateral. 137, genitalia, lateral.

138, genitalia, dorsal.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Ilist. Soc.

Plate X

Figs. 139-144. Goerodella cornuta sp.n. <$. 139, wings. 140, base of

antenna. 141, maxillary and labial palpi, lateral. 142, genitalia, lateral.

143, penis and sheaths, lateral. 144, genitalia, dorsal.

421

TIIE INDIAN CADDIS FLIES (1 HIGH OFFER A) \.

(from above) produced in a short claw ; maxillary palpi membran-

ous, rather narrow, apparently two-jointed but there is no very

definite joining- point; the second joint appears rather as a mem-

branous extension of the centre of the basal joint towards its apex ;

there is a slig-ht dilatation of the membrane at the extreme apex of

the second joint, possibly the rudiments of a third.

Genitalia d • — Dorsal plate with the centre of its apical margin

raised in a pair of ridges which, from above, appear as small central

processes ; at the base of these ridges, the plate is broadly extended

on each side, apical margin circularly excised, outer angles form-

ing acute claws, inner, triangular processes whose lower margins

are produced to form acute, down-pointing spurs as seen from the

side; penis short and rather retracted in the type; sheaths long,

acute and parallel ; inferior appendages branched, a slender branch

arising from the upper margin towards the base, directed upward ;

apex of the appendage bifurcate, upper fork with its apex con-

cave, lower fork more slender and finger-like.

Length of the anterior wing d 8 mm.

Length of the basal joint of the antenna d 1.7 mm.

N.-E. Burma: Kambaiti, 7,000 ft., 24. v. 1934; 25. v. 1934;

12-17. V1- J934> R- Malaise.

Type d in the collection of the Stockholm Museum. Paratypes

d in the British Museum collection.

(joerodeiia tesarum so. n. Figs. 152-156.

Description of the male ; general appearance fuscous ; basal

joint of the antennae fuscous, slightly elbowed midway, without

any processes at the base, but with a strong, angular projection

carrying three or four large spines or spurs at the place where pro-

cesses, when present, are generally situated ; there are two other

patches of spines on the inner surface of the base of the joint, the

patch nearer the base, short, the second patch, long and slender;

apex of the basal joint slightly dilated, terminal joints ochraceous ;

maxillary palpi two-jointed, basal joint long*, dilated in a mem-

branous sac towards the apex; beyond this the joint is sharply

bent, second joint short; labial palpi, basal joint short and stout,

second longer but shorter than the third ; wings fuscous, with

dark scales mainly confined to the nervures ; anterior with no

central longitudinal groove, costa folded over the sub-costa along

its entire length; the fold in the post-costal region short, curving-

sharply upward, three cellules along the posterior border, the basal

cellule the smallest and the median, the largest; in the posterior

wing, the fourth apical cellule extends further inwards than the

base of the discoidal cell ; a long pencil of yellow, silky hairs aris-

ing from the anal angle legs ochraceous-

Genitalai d • — Ninth tergite produced at its centre in a broad -

based triangle, beyond which is a wide, dorsal plate produced and

excised at the centre to make a pair of triangular processes, outer

angles produced and triangular, with the apices of the triangles

produced again in long, downwardly directed spines or spurs; penis

short, straight; sheaths asymmetric but not directed to one side

42 2 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 48

as in the Dinarthrum species; inferior appendages single-jointed,

bifurcate from about midway, upper fork rather more slender than

the lower, about equal in length, apex clavate, lower fork with the

apex sinuous; a third branch arising from the inner surface towards

the base ; lower margin of the ninth segment with a central ex-

cision, and a triangular projection opposite the base of each append-

age.

i Length of the anterior wing d io mm.

Length of the basal joint of the antenna 3.3 mm.

l£umaon: Muktesar, 7,500 ft., 29. ix. 1922, Fletcher Collec-

tion.

; Type d in the collection of the British Museum.

(To be continued)

Joiii’n., Bombay Nat, Hist, Soc, Plate XI

148, genitalia, lateral. 149* genitalia, dorsal. 150* penis and sheaths, lateral.

1 5 1, penis sheaths, dorsal.

«Joum., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate XII

SEX RATIOS IN INDIAN BATS

BY

Humayun Abdulali

In Vol. 47 of the Journal (No, 3, p. 522), I wrote a note on bat

migration in India and referred to the book by Norbert Casteret

which prompted the enquiry. I have now had access to a new book

by the same author ‘My Caves’ (J. M. Dent & Sons Ltd., London,

1947) in which the last chapter is called ‘Three Years With The

Bats’ and contains some additional information which should be

of interest to naturalists in this country.

Reference is made to some caves on the French side of the

Pyrenees, where three species of bats exist ; Rhinolophus (Horse-

shoe hati), Mini opt erus (probably M. schreibersi) (Long-winged bat)

and the larger My oils my oils (Mouse-eared bat) which is the mainstay

of his study. These three species are a little confused in the English

translation and we have- only been able to sort them out with the

assistance of Mr. R. W. Hayman of the British Museum.

Casteret’s observations were lirst undertaken in November when

there were a dozen Rhinblophs or Horse-shoe bats which remained

in the caves through the winter months in a state of almost absolute

torpor. ’ On 5th April numbers of the larger Mouse-eared bat arrived

and 225 bats, captured with butterfly nets, were ringed with

aluminium cylinders slit on one side, which were gently closed over

the bat’s fore-legs (probably mis-translation for fore-arms) so that

they could still slide up and down. With the arrival of migrants

the Rhinolophs almost disappeared.

In the evenings, the Mouse-eared bats did not leave , the cave

all together like a flock of birds, but the first exit was noted about

20 minutes after sunset, five bats leaving in five minutes. Subsequent

departures were counted over 5-minute periods and one set of

figures recorded is 5, 11, 14, 25, 63, 135, 197 and 260. After

reaching this maximum the rate diminished to 131, 58, 16 and 4;

the; last 4 left 55 minutes after the first.

It is Suggested that bats exude oil from their nose glands which

they rub on to their wings as protection against climatic epndit|ons.

This process is impracticable while in their crowded roosting (day)

positions. It has to be gone through when the ‘swarm’ breaks up

in the evening and the individuals have more room to move about

and apply their toilette. It is said that one bat, hanging head down-

wards as usual, was seen to go through a lengthy process of folding

and unfolding its membranous wings and drawing them with a

slow sweeping movement across its nose.

These bats stay till August and their numbers vary between

400 and 1,000 — the larger the number the longer it took to empty

the cave, which really remained completely deserted only for two

hours. Their return was spread over a much longer period than

424

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

the exit time, probably depending upon their success in hunting-

insects.

They are sensitive to changes of weather. Cold, wind and rain

may restrict or completely suspend their exodus. Every year at

the beginning of June they leave their homes earlier in the evenings

in some cases only io minutes after sunset.

Of the thousands of Myotis handled and ringed over several years,

Mr. Casteret did not come across a single male and believes that

the mating* must have taken place in autumn at some other place,

gestation commencing only in spring. ‘The caves in the Pyrenees

are therefore a maternity home where the young ones are born

at the same time, almost all on the same day. ... In the swarm,

the young can sometimes be seen crawling over the tangle of

bodies, burrowing into the mass with plaintive squeaks, in order

to be fed by other females. So highly developed is the herd instinct

in these bats that the mothers appear to have no recognized off-

spring. It is difficult to accept the view that hundreds of nurses

on their return from hunting can recognise their own babies in

the swarm of small bodies. ... I have often separated babes

from mothers and entrusted them to other females and the adoption

has followed at once.’

It is recorded that when the young are 25 to 30 days old ‘the

mothers cannot fly about with so heavy a burden and when night

comes they bite their babies to make them let go. The latter protest

loudly and the din is deafening. At last when they have been

duly chastened, that is to say nipped, they cling to the corrugations

of the roof and the mothers go off on their nightly flight alone.

For two or three hours the cave then contains nothing but the

infant population. They are a rowdy lot and keep up a continual

chirping like that of chicks.’

Males born in the caves never come back while the young

females will return every year with their mothers and, later with

their daughters, the same individuals having returned to the caves

for three years.

While the spring arrival is spread over six or seven days, a

general departure in a_ single night seems to take place about 20th

August.

Their arrival coincides with that of the first swallows and it

is suggested that they fly with the birds. The following instances

are quoted :

‘A German naturalist, Otto Hepp, had noticed on a fine

autumn afternoon in 1890 a number of bats among a flight

of swallows crossing the river Main about two hundred feel

above it. Otto Hepp was a serious student but a very old

man. No one doubted his sincerity, but it was thought his

eyes had played him false.

‘However, on 25th September 1933 two other German

naturalists, von Finkenstein and Schafer, were amazed to see a

similar phenomenon near the small lake of LJllersdorf in Upper

Lusatia. In an hour and a half they counted some five hundred

bats flying with some house-martins towards the south.’

SEX RATIOS IN INDIAN BATS

425

‘Finally, in October 1935, M. G. Hugues, son of the eminent

and late-lamented French naturalist, Albert Hugues, detected

bats flying- with swallows against a dark sky at Romans

in Drome.’

As. further evidence of their migration 165 bats were ringed

at a place about 10 miles from the cave in a direct line and

individuals from this flight obtained at the caves on the following

morning. A further release of 65 Myotis from a distance of 22-f

miles also resulted in 8 of these being recovered at the caves three

days later. A third release of 120 bats at a distance of 60 miles

yielded no result for some time, but a month later several ‘returns’

were collected. Several other releases were made at varying

distances and the furthest return was over a distance of 165 miles

in a straight line. The time between release and return is not

however indicated but these interesting facts will only go to show'

how much is still unknown about the habits and movements of

these small mammals which are so near to us.

There is of course more information about European bats (e.g.

in ‘A History of British Mammals, by G. E. H. Barrett-Hamilton)

but the material from the Caves book is summarised merely to give

readers in India an indication of possibilities of work in our area.

Except for a few notes in Blanford’s Fauna, our information is

non-existent. Blanford states that in ‘temperate regions bats

hibernate in winter, a number of them being frequently found

huddled together. Some observers have supposed that no hiber-

nation takes place in India but the insectivorous forms in Northern

India at all events, are but rarely seen abroad during- the cold season

though the Pteropodidae are as active as at other times k Subsequent

to this, under several species e.g. Rhinolophus Indus and affinis, Capt.

Hutton is quoted as stating that ‘in Mussoorie they appear onlv

during the warmer months of summer, remaining in a semi-torpid

state during the winter.’

The haunts of bats are usually well marked, and regular notes

kept over any length of time in different places should give us some

information, though of course .the ringing- method would always

be the most reliable.

Mr. Casteret’s reference to the absence of males in the caves

examined by him has prompted me to go through the records of the

Mammal Survey conducted by the Bombay Natural Flistory Societv

many years ago. An analysis has been made of the specimens

obtained during this survey and we find that of a total of 5609

specimens collected only 39% were males. A detailed statement

of the same is appended herewith. It will be noticed that in 25

species the males are in a minority ranging from 14.7 to- 47%

wrhile the average of various species (consisting mostly of those

forms of which less than 10 specimens were obtained) the male

percentage is also only 42.8.

In only two species i.e. Hipposideros lanhadeva and Taphozons

melanopogon d o the males exceed the females. In the last species

the figures appear to be clear that there is ahvays a preponderance

of males, and it is curious that this is the only species in which there is

429

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 48

a marked external sexual .'difference between the sexes i.e. the

beard ; of the male. ■■ : :

The specimens were obtained over a large number of camps

(about 50 separate collections are listed) ranging from Ceylon,

through Kanara, Mysore, Poona, Gujerat, Kathiawar & C.P. into

the Kumaon and Eastern Himalayas and then down into Burma. ,

I n the following , table the first figure in parenthesis after the

name Indicates the number of different camps from which this

SEX RATIO IN SPECIES OF BATS OBTAINED* BY THE SOCIETY’S

species- Was collected, and the second the number of occasions on

which The males exceeded the females. This is indicated only when

the total of specimens of : a species from a camp is over 5. The

various species listed are from all the four sub-families of bats

SEX RATIOS IN INDIAN BATS

427

represented in the Old Fauna and this preponderance of females

seems to be a condition which affects, the, whole family.. . A further

investigation into the habits and social livds of the many species,

particularly of Taphozous melanopogori (there is a colony in the

main cave at Kanheri, near Bombay) would be of considerable

interest.

Hodgson is reported to have observed that in Lyroderma lyra

the males greatly exceed the females, but in view of our figures

(obtained over 24 camps) it is perhaps permissible to assume that

his collections were made from male colonies. It is apparently

customary for the two sexes in many bats to live apart except in

the pairing season (Old Fauna p.258)L

After compiling the above we have noticed a passage on page

39 of 4 A History of British Mammals’ reading:

‘Many naturalists, from Spallanzani downwards, have referred

to a supposed preponderance in number of the female sex. On

this point no satisfactory evidence is forthcoming, but the apparently

superfluous size and capacity of the male generative organs would

be accounted for if it could be shown that bats are polygamous.’

SPEC I AT I ON IN THE GROUP OF GREAT

REED-WARBLERS

BY

E. Stresemann and J. Arnold

( With a plate and 6 text-figures)

The Problem

Many difficulties involved in the classification of closely similar

forms have disappeared after the eminent importance of isolation

as a factor in evolution had been correctly Understood- The for-

mula ‘similar^ coupled with geographical separation’ has since

been accepted as the touchstone of trinomialism by an increasing-

number of taxonomists, and whenever that condition is fulfilled

two compared forms are considered members of the same species

or ‘ Rassenkreis ’ . 1

In contrast to ‘geographical separation’, the concept of ‘simi-

larity’ is a very elastic one, and there have been, in recent years,

quite a number of authors who indulged in its utmost extension,

because they wanted to reduce the number of species as much as

possible. By employing this method they expected to serve the

demand for simplification of the system. Simplification has in

fact been the result, simplification however at the expense of

incontestability. The fundament of the judgment thus attained,

often rather airy, cannot be based on precise facts, but merely on

the hypothesis that the two compared forms, separated by a dis-

tributional gap, would probably hybridize if meeting each other.

When wanting to support such a theory one should, however, not

only point to the similarity of the forms in question, but it seems

of equal importance to emphasize the characters by which they

differ, and to examine the biological value of these differences,

not only of colour and structure, but also of ecology, behaviour,

food, moult, migration, and so on. Many large ‘circles of races’

which have been constructed within the last ten or twenty years

will shrink again when ornithologists become better acquainted

with the biology of the forms at present connected by taxonomists

for convenience only.

Assertions cannot be disproved by assertions. Such cases

therefore deserve to be treated in some detail for which it can be

shown that the principle of simplification has been overdone.

An example of that kind is furnished by the Great Reed War-

blers which range from the Baltic Sea and the Amur river down

to Australia. These were divided in 1909 by Hartert into three

species : (1) Acrocephalus arundinacens ( arundinaceus + zarudnyi

4- orientalis) ; (2) Acrocephalus stentoreus ( stentoreus + brunnes-

cens) ; (3) Acrocephalus australis. In 1924 however, when recon-

sidering the matter, Hartert came to the following result: (1) A.

1 Rassen = races, Kreis = circle.

SPECIAL ION IN THE GROUP OF GREAT REED-WARBLERS 429

arundinaceus ( arundinaceus + zarudnyi) , (2) A. stentoreus ( sten -

toreus 4- brunnescens + orientalis 4- australis and the rest of the

Indonesian forms).

Soon afterwards Salomonsen (1929), progressing in the same

direction, merged all these forms into one single ‘Rassenkreis’

which had to bear the name Acrocephalus arundinaceus- His view

has been accepted by Hartert and Steinbaeher (1934), by Dement-

jew (1935), by Stresemann (1940) and quite recently by Mayr (1948).

In spite of this consensus of experienced taxonomists the

arrangement proposed by Dr. Salomonsen cannot be maintained,

as shown by our map from which it becomes apparent that two

forms are co-existing along the eastern border of Lake Aral and

its affluent, the Lower Syr Darya. Though this fact, emphasized

by its discoverer Sarudny in 1916 already, has been mentioned by

Salomonsen, he seems to have known it from second hand only ;

otherwise his map of distribution and his systematic conclusions

would have been in better accord with reality. Sarudny had taken

a small boat to explore the eastern shores and islands of Lake

Aral after reaching it by the delta of Syr Darya. From 28 June

to 26 July, 1914, he collected birds at many spots down to his

turning point, the mouth Of the Dshany-darya. He condensed

his experiences in the following* notes :

‘Acrocephalus arundinaceus zarudnyi is one of the commonest

birds in the reeds covering the delta of the Syr Darya. He occurs

in great numbers at lake Kamyshly-bash and lake Tshe-bash. We

found him equally frequent among the reed thickets of Kuiljus.

Further southwards we met him along* the eastern shore of Lake

Aral and the opposite islands as far as the estuary of the Dshany-

darya; but beginning with the reeds of the islands Dambaly,

Silyawa, Dshurpass, and Menshikow he becomes far less frequent

than A. a. brunnescens, and in the estuary of the Dshany-darya

(25-26. vii.) he seems to be rare.

Acrocephalus arundinaceus brunnescens. During our voyage

from north to south along the eastern shore of Lake Aral, this

form was first met with by us in the reeds of the delta of the Syr-

Darya (28. vi.), where it breeds in very insignificant numbers,

hardly making itself apparent amidst the masses of A. . a. zarudnyi.

Further to the south it becomes more and more frequent, being*

already common on the island Atalyk, though still outnumbered by

A. a. zarudnyi ■ But starting with the islands Dambaly, Dshurpass

a

Fig. 1 (for explanation see p. 439)

430 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

arid Menshikow, besides on Uyaly and Usun-Kain, the reverse

becomes true more and more, to the effect that A. a. zarudnyi has

to be considered here of rare and (perhaps) casual occurrence.’

These remarks ougnt to have torced Dr. Salomonsen to accept

at least two species of Great Reed Warblers instead of a single

one ohly. Our distrust, once awoken, did not stop at this point.

We thought it advisable to examine anew the relations of all forms

Fig. 2 (explanation on p. 439)

to their geographic neighbours. The result is herewith presented

to the judgment of ornithologists.

It may be stated in advance that we consider certain differ-

ences of wing structure to be of considerable phylogenetic age, i.e.

those which are shown in our figures 2 A and 2 B. Accordingly

we feel induced to accept three species of Great Reed- Warblers :

(1) Acrocephalus arundinaceus, with the races amndinaceus ,

zarudnyi and griseldis.

(2) Acrocephalus stentoreus , with the races stentoreus, brun-

nescens and the Indonesian group.

(3) Acrocephalus orientalis.

Wing Structure

The wing structure is best shown by expanding the fore l’/nb.

If through this procedure the quills are given their functional

position, the real meaning of certain specific differences will be-

come apparent, d:fferences which have been discovered many

decades ago when they were registered by the name of ‘wing

formula’, i.e. of the reciprocal distance of the tips of the primaries

in the folded wing.1

The average wing formula reads in :

A . arundinaceus : 3>2>4>>5>-6>7

A. stentoreus : 3 = 4>5>2>6>7

A . orientalis : 3 2 :>• 4 5 :> 6 > 7

1 As far as we know, the German ornithologist J. H. Blasius (1840) was

the first ' author to use the wing formula as a diagnostic character in birds.

SPECIAT10N IN THE GROUP OF GREAT REED-WARBLERS 431

The outline of the expanded wing* of A. arundinaceus, A. sten-

toreus and A. orientalis is shown in the fig'ures. For this purpose

three specimens were selected which agreed in tarsal length and,,

therefore, may have been of equal body weight.1 The wing area

of these three specimens is almost the same, the outline however

different, A • arundinaceus having a longer wing tip and shorter

secondaries if compared with A. stentoreus. In this regard, A.

orientalis stands between the two other species.

Fig. 3 shows the difference in formation of ‘slots’.2 Let us

first examine the outer web of the distal primaries. In A. arun-

3

i

dinaceus it is only the 3rd primary which is distinctly emarginated/-

in its distal third and thus becomes a ‘finger’, while it is the 3rd

and 4th in A. stentoreus. Functionally linked with this difference

is the difference in outline of the inner web. The occurrence of a

(more or less distinct) notch of the inner web is restricted to the

2nd primary in A. arundinaceus, while it occurs on the 2nd and 3rd

in A. stentoreus • A. orientalis represents an intermediate stage in

this respect also.

In order to understand the meaning of these structures it is

indispensable to call to mind what is known about the dynamics

of a wing stroke (for details see Graham, 1930 and Sick, 1937).

During the down-beat of the expanded wing all distal primaries

become pronated passively, and their tips bent upward, as clearly

shown in K. Zimmer’s slow motion film (Zimmer 1943, tab. xiv).

In Passeriformes it is the 2nd primary which is most exposed to

the twisting air forces, because it can lean itself at the rear only

and not in front. This seems to be the reason why the 2nd pri-

mary tends to be shorter than the 3rd even in ‘pointed’ wings; the

latter, supported by two neighbours, being better fitted for be-

coming the longest primary of the wing. The advantage of a

‘blunt’ wing, in which the 5th or 6th primary surpasses the 2nd,

3rd and 4th, probably consists in its greater stability during the

1 The body weight of Great Reed-Warblers seems to be unrecorded, with the

exception of A. arundinaceus arundinaceus.

2 This term has been adopted here from Graham, 1930, q. v.

3

432 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

down-beat; this advantage however is gained at the expense of

propulsory effect.

Passive twisting of the free ‘fingers’ offers an aerodynamic

advantage: for ‘fingers’ rigidly projecting from the wing plane

would not fail to cause aerial eddies counteracting the propulsory

forces. Only if twisted in pronatory manner do they attain a posi-

tion relative to the passing air in which both useful components,

the uplifting as well as the propulsory force, are greatest (Zimmer

r943) %• 8).

It is significant that only the tip of the wing, broken up into

individual ‘fingers’, becomes subject to these aerodynamically

favourable torsions, without involving the whole structure of the

wing plane. This has been attained with the help of certain

supplementary devices : the emargination of the outer web, and,

to some degree, of the inner web, in both cases within the distal

portion of the primary only, starting with the point where the

respective feather begins to project from the wing plane like a

finger- This fact explains why the notch of the inner web of a

given primary corresponds to the point wrhere the outer web of its

proximal neighbour starts to become emarginated; for from this

mark onward the feather may project into the air without touching

its neighbours, and is capable of becoming twisted towards the line

of the air-stream without any restraint.

In Passeriformes the 2nd primary always lacks the emargina-

tion of its outer web, because there is no distal neighbour to lean

on. It is only from the 3rd onward that this device is found. In

migratory species it tends to be best developed in the 3rd and 4th,

and in such a case the inner web of the 2nd and 3rd shows a

‘notch’, besides being more or less distinctly emarginated.

We consider all differences of wing structure which have been

found to exist between A . arundinaceus and A . stentoreus to be

morphological expressions of differences in the use of the wing.

This interrelation seems obvious with regard to the difference of

outline. All races of A. arundinaceus are known to be true migrants

which cover great distances twice a year, while the races of A.

stentoreus are either sedentary or migrants to a far lesser degree

only. The former group had therefore to develop a more ‘pointed’

wing: In connection with increased need for propulsory efficiency

of its beat the wing' had to become longer- The simplest means of

meeting this demand consists in increasing the length not of the

distal wing bones, but of the distal primaries (2nd to 4th), which

thus become a longer propulsing lever. Apparently this is a re-

versible process : if less intensely used again, the wing tip tends

to become more rounded, with the 5th and 6th primary increasing

in length at the expense of their distal neighbours.

It seems probable that some functional explanation will one day

be given also for the other differences, that exist between the wings

of A. arundinaceus and A. stentoreus — differences not only of the

number of ‘slots’, but also of their length. Such a theory will

have to be supported by the study of analogous cases which are

furnished by other species of well-known habits.

SPECIATION IN THE GROUP OF GREAT REED- WARBLERS 433

Systematic Position of the Forms griseldis, orientalis

and the Indonesian Group.

(1) griseldis. (We have not been able to examine a specimen

nnd therefore are compelled to rely on literature only). This form,

though agreeing with arundinaceus in wing structure, shoves so

many differences in other respects that Ticehurst (19) decided to

treat it as a separate species. It lacks the faint striping of the

throat, the tail is shorter and more graduated, the bill longer, the

colour and relative size of the eggs, and in addition the shape of

the nest, are said to be quite distinct from arundinaceus . The

breeding range seems isolated from that of other Great Reed-

Warblers. We feel inclined to consider griseldis an early offshoot

of the arundinaceus — branch, and therefore employ the symbol

Acrocephalus ( arundinaceus ) griseldis-

(2) orientalis has been judged by earlier authors, including

Hartert 1909, to be a subspecies of arundinaceus; in 1924 however

Hartert treated it as a member of the ‘Rassenkreis’ stentoreus.

With regard to structure it stands between A. arundinaceus and

A , stentoreus brunnescens , while in colour of plumage it hardly

deviates from A. arundinaceus. The colour of the feet is said to

differ from A. arundinaceus as well as from A. stentoreus , by being

more bluish or lead gray, less brownish gray. Whereas Stegmann

(1929) claims its song to be absolutely the same as that of 'A.

.arundinaceus , it has been declared by Jahn (1942, p. 158), from his

experiences in Japan, to differ considerably, chiefly by lacking the

trenchant Karre-kiet component.

The breeding range of orientalis seems to be isolated from both

its neighbours A. arundinaceus zarudnyi and A- stentoreus brun-

nescens. For lack of nature’s experiment we think it advisable to

leave the question of affinity undecided and to give this form the

rank of a separate species, Acrocephalus orientalis.

(3) The Indonesian forms. A group ranging from the Philip-

pines to Southern Australia and New Britain. All Indonesian

Reed-Warblers are closely related to each other, differing chiefly in

size and relative length of bill. 3rd and 4th primary emarginated

as in A. stentoreus. Wing very ‘blunt’, the primaries 3, 4, 5 being

equal in length and longer than the 6th, 2nd, 7th.

This assemblage may be regarded as an offshoot of the sten-

toreus-branch which reached the Philippines via Formosa and

thence spread to Celebes, the Lesser Sunda Islands, Australia, etc.

(see map).

Complete isolation of many small populations has favoured the

evolution of races, which however tend to be rather faintly differen-

tiated. From this fact it may be concluded that the Great Reed-

Warbler started its conquest of Indonesia not earlier than during

late Pleistocene times, after having given rise to some ancestral

form which, owing to the effect of tropical climate, had decreased

in size and, owing to its strictly sedentary habits, had acquired

a rounded wing.

We agree with previous authors (Hartert 1924, Stresemann

1924) in judging all Indonesian races to be members of the species

Acrocephalus stentoreus •

434 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL 48

Migration

The forms treated in this article are partly sedentary, partly

migratory .

All Reed- Warblers breeding within the tropical zone are strictly

sedentary, i.e. most forms of the Indonesian group and the south-

ern populations of A. stentoreus brunnescens. Besides, A. si en-

ter eus stentoreus stays all the year round in Palestine and Egypt.

The northern populations of A. stentoreus brunnescens differ

in this respect from the more southern ones by performing migra-

tions to distances of 1,000 km (or even more). The same seems to

hold true in Australia, where the southern populations of the local

Reed-Warbler are known to leave their breeding* range in autumn.

In both cases the wing structure of migratory and non-migratorv

populations is still the same. We may argue from this fact that

the difference in habits is of relatively short tradition.

A . orientalis and all subspecies of A. arundinaceus (including

griseldis) are true migrants which pass the off-season in some

rather distant tropical area (see fig. 4).

In order to reach their winter quarters the European populations

of A. arundinaceus seem to migrate in a southern direction3, while

1 Our map (fig. 4) shows two points of the migration route of a specimen^

ringed on 1. vii. 1935 in Geppersdorf (Silesia) and secured 5. iv. 1937 Nbasi .

(Nigeria), 5,280 km. distant. (Creutz, 1937).

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist, Soc.

Photo R. S. P. Bates

Indian Great Reed- Warbler ( Acrocephaliis stentoreus brunnescens) on nest

SPECIATION IN THE GROUP OF GREAT REED-WARBLERS 435

the Asiatic populations have to follow a more or less southwesterly

course. A remarkable crossing- of flight lines takes place in the

Amu Darya region and Persia, where A. arundinaceus zarudnyi ,

arriving from the Tarim basin and tending towards East Africa,

meets A. stentoreus brimnescens which directs its flight to the

Mekran coast or N.W. India.

Moult

The general moulting* scheme followed by all Great Reed-Warb-

lers seems to be :

Nestling plumage (followed by body moult at the age of a few

weeks, beginning soon after leaving the nest), first autumn plu-

mage (followed by first complete moult at the age of about 6

months), first annual plumage (followed by second complete moult

at the age of about ij years), second annual plumage, etc.

All migratory forms apparently undergo the first complete

: moult in winter quarters ; as a rule, this moult seems to take place

at a later date than the complete moult of adult specimens. Ac-

cording to Whistler (in Ali and Whistler, 1936) brimnescens

changes all the plumage only once a year, from September to

November- The same may be true for A. arundinaceus and A.

< orientalis , though this assumption is not in accordance with that

of Witherby (1938) who supposes A. arundinaceus to undergo two

complete moults in Africa, one after arriving there and a second

'before spring* migration. The matter needs to be studied anew.

Ecology

AH Great Reed-Warblers agree in the construction of the nest

fa very deep cup with strong walls, the edges of which are slightly

hent inward) which may be regarded as an adaptation to the effect

of wind in reed belts. (Plate) They are typical inhabitants of the

latter, favouring the reeds even in winter quarters. There are ex-

ceptions, however.

In Lower Egypt and in Southern Palestine A. stentoreus sten-

toreus may be found in Papyrus swamps, and on islands in the

southern Red Sea even in mangroves. Heuglin (/. /. O. 1868,

p- 136) discovered a nest in the fork of a mangrove bush ( Avicennia

vfficinalis L.) at the height of 1 meter, its cup being somewhat

shallower than in the case of reed-nesting A. arundinaceus. The

same ecological change has been recorded from the Mekran coast,

where A. stentoreus brimnescens has become an inhabitant of man-

grove forests and been supposed to construct its nest in the branches

(Ticehurst, Ibis 19 22, p. 549). The tertium comparationis between

reed belt and mangrove forest consists in the presence of water

covering the ground .

Originally the reverse process seems to have given rise to the

ecological specialisation of the Reed- Warblers, for they are in all

probability descendants of some group of bush-haunting warblers

(closely related to the present genus Hippolais) which show some

degree of preadaptation to nesting within the reed belt by their

.method of fastening the nest to branches or stalks.

436 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

History of Dispersal

The original home of the true Reed-Warblers ( A . arundinaceus

A. stentoreus, A. orientalis, A. scirpaceus) may have been some

region which, by being poor in bushes and rich in reeds, offered

special advantage to certain pre-adapted species which were able

to settle in that still unoccupied ecological niche- Such type of

vegetation is characteristic of the borders of great deserts ; in

our day it is to be found along Lake Aral and its affluents,1 in

the Kirghise steppe, round the Gobi desert, etc. We may there-

fore assume the very ancient dry area of Central Asia to have been

the cradle of the first ‘Reed- Warblers’ whence they spread in various

directions, founding isolated colonies of reed-haunting species.

If one wants to date the origin of the group of Great Reed-

Warblers, the following considerations may be of some help.

The dispersal of the Indonesian branch of A. stentoreus, from

the Philippines down to Australia and New Guinea, must have

taken place during Pleistocene times (exactly like that of Cisticola

exilis, Tyto longimembris , Turnix sylvatica, etc.). The time elapsed

since Australia was reached by Acrocephalus has been long enough

for allowing an increase in body size from north to south which

follows ‘Bergmann’s rule’ (Mayr 1948).

If we assume that Acrocephalus settled in Australia during late

Pleistocene we are forced to the conclusion that A. stentoreus had

already emigrated from the Continent to Indonesia (the Philippines)

in early Pleistocene, for the Indonesian branch is far more differen-

tiated from the continental one than the South Australian popula-

tions are from the North Australian ones. On the other hand, the

morphological distance between A. arundinaceus and A. stentoreus

seems to be still greater than the distance separating the tips of

the two main branches of A • stentoreus. This being true the bi-

furcation of the genealogical tree into a stentoreus- branch and an

arundinaceus- branch must have taken place in late Tertiary times

already, and its splitting-up into those branches which gave rise

to several now widely distinct species (like arundinaceus , scirpaceus ,

scirpaceus, baeticatus, agri-

cola ) at an even earlier period,

(see fig. 5).

Calculations like this one

are, however, rather inaccu-

rate, in as much as the rate

of differentiation may be large-

ly influenced by the size of the

population, being highest in

very small ones.

Distribution

The ranges of the present

forms of Great Reed- Warb-

lers are restricted by bound-

1 In this region a second genus of birds, Remiz, consisting of tree- and

bush-haunting species, has been increased by the development of a specialized

reed-dweller : Remiz macronyx .

Fig. 5 (explanation on p. 439)

SPECIATION IN THE GROUP OF GREAT REED-IVARBLERS 437

aries which mostly seem to be set by ecological factors and may

therefore be regarded as more or less stable. In northwestern

Europe, however (and probably at other places too), matters are

Fig. 6 (numbers refer to list of localities)

different. A. arundinaceus arundinaceus proves, by still expanding

its range to the northwest, to be a late immigrant to that area.

This bird has failed to reach England, where A. scirpaceus is of

common occurrence in the reed belts. The Cimbric peninsula and

the Danish islands have been settled by Great Reed-Warblers after

1850 only, and southernmost Sweden not before the present century.

438

JOURNAL , B0MB4Y NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 48

Our map of distribution (Fig'. 6) shows the fact that at several

places the range of two forms, though approaching each other

rather closely, are still separated by an area not inhabited by any

of them. A. arundinaceus zarudnyi and A. stentoreus brunnescens

are prevented from meeting' each other by ecological barriers (the

high Tianshan range and, at other places, deserts), except for the

borders of Lake: Aral, which could easily be reached by the former

from the north, and by the latter from the south (via the course

of Amu Darya). We failed to find any record of Great Reed-

Warblers breeding in the vast reed belts at the S.W. corner of the

Caspian Sea ; one would not be surprised by the discovery in that

region of two forms, A. arundinaceus arundmaceus and A. sten-

toreus brunnescens. Other crucial spots of the map are firstly the

swampy country round Lob-nor, where A. arundinaceus zarudnyi

as well as A. orientalis may have met already, without hitherto hav-

ing been collected, and secondly the region bordering the Persian

Gulf between Fao and Bushir, which possibly has been settled al-

ready by either A. stentoreus brunnescens or A ■ ( arundinaceus )

griseidis, or even by both.

Remarks Concerning the Map of Distribution

The authors have refrained from using different symbols for

A, arundinaceus arundinaceus and A. arundmaceus zarudnyi. Both

these subspecies differ to a very slight degree only and apparently

intergrade in a large belt. It seems probable that the range of

A. arundinaceus arundinaceus extends across northern Asia Minor

and Transcaucasia to the Bay of Enzeli, while A. arundinaceus

zarudnyi inhabits the region between southwestern Siberia and

Lake Aral. This assumption, differing' from Salomonsen’s (1929),

needs being tested with the help of adequate material.

The populations of A. stentoreus breeding in Southern China

(Yunnan, Kwangsi, Kwang'tung') have been united with the sub-

species brunnescens only provisionally. Comparison may prove

them to be subspecifically different.

Summary

The small group formed by the Great Reed-Warblers proved to

be well-suited for the study of speciation problems.

Since 1929 all Great Reed- Warblers have generally been con-

sidered to belong to the same species, called Acrocephalus arundin-

aceus. This view cannot be maintained because of the coexistence

of two non-hybridizing forms ( brunnescens and zarudnyi) along the

eastern border of Lake Aral and the Lower Amu Darya.

At least two species, A. arundinaceus and A. stentoreus, will

have to be accepted. The authors decided to propose even a third

species, A. orientalis, which forms the link between the two others,

while the form griseidis has been (provisionally) attached by them

to the species A. arundinaceus and the Indonesian group of races

to the species A. stentoreus.

The chief morphological differences of the various species are

to be found in the wing formula and the emargination of the distal

SPECIA TI ON IN THE GROUP OF GREAT REED-WARBLERS 439

primaries, differences for which a functional explanation is offered

on p. 431.

Migration, moult, ecology, history of dispersal and present

distribution are briefly discussed.

The Great Reed- Warblers seem to be descendants of bush-

haunting birds (related to Hippolais ) which, forced by ecological

pressure, specialized for a life in reed belts- This shift of habit may

have taken place during- Tertiary times on the outskirts of Central

Asiatic deserts. That this may be a reversible process is suggested

by A. stentoreus stentoreus and A. stentoreus brunnescens , certain

populations of which have settled in mangroves (Avicennia), thus

reassuming what may be considered the habit of a very remote

..ancestry.

Explanation of Figures

1. a. The wrong conception : three races forming one single species.

b. The facts and <tihe problem : two or three different species?

2. Difference in shape of wing between (2 A) Acroceph. a. arundinaceus

(solid line) and Acroceph. s. brunnescens (dotted line) and between

(2 B) Acroceph. orientalis (solid line) and Acroceph. s. brunnescens

(dotted line).

3. Differences of emargation between Acroceph. a. arundinaceus (above)

and Acroceph. s. brunnescens (below).

4. Map of Summer and Winter Range.

Acroceph. a. arundinaceus + zarudnyi + griseldis.

Acroceph. orientalis.

— . — . — .- — Acroceph. s. brunnescens.

Acroceph. s. stentoreus.

Winter Range shaded.

5. Phylogeny of Reed- Warblers.

a baeticatus

b griseldis

c arundinaceus arundinaceus

c a. zarudnyi

d orientalis

e s. brunnescens

e s. stentoreus

f-g Indonesian forms

h scirpaceus

1 palustris

H = Holocene

PI = Pleistocene

T = Tertiary

bush haunting

reed haunting

■3. Map of distribution. (Numbers refer to list of localities.)

List of Localities

A. a. arundinaceus -j- zarudnyi.

1. Lower Loire, Olphe-Galliard (1891).

2. Lower Seine, Olphe-Galliard (1891).

3. Holland, ten Kate (1937).

4. North Jutland. Skovgaard (1932).

5. Iddingen in Shonen, Hermanson (1943).

s6. Esthonia : Nuckoe Isle, Matzahl-Wieck, O. Koch (1911).

‘7. Distr. Pskov, Dementiev (1935).

440

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

8. ,, Smolensk, Pleske (1891).

9. ,, Tula, ,, .

10. ,, Tambov, ,, ,,

11. Bugurusslan, ,, ,,

12. Shadrinsk, ,, ,,

13. Kokchetav, Dementiev (1935).

14. Kainsk, Sushkin (1938).

15. Lake Kulunda, Johansen (1904).

16. Tarbagatai, Dementiev (1935).

17. Saissan-Nor, Pleske (1891).

18. Juldus and Tarim valley. Pleske (1891).

19. Yarkand, Hellmayr (1929).

20. Kashgar, Ludlow and Kinnear (1933).

21. Maralbashi, Hellmayr (1929).

22. Aksu, Hellmayr (1929).

23. Ala-Kul, Brehm (1882).

24. Lepsa-Mouth, Nikolski (1883).

25. Ili valley, Nikolski (1883).

26. Distr. Perovsk, Dementiev (1935).

27. Tshe-Bash, Sarudny (1916).

28. Ft. Alexandrovsk, Pleske (1891).

29. Enseli, Buxton (1921).

29 a. Resht, Witherby (1910).

30. Lenkoran, Radde (1884).

31. Aralych (Ararat), Sushkin (1914).

32. Lake of Antioch, Meinertzhagen (1935).

33. Crete, Stresemann (1943).

34. Peloponnesus, Niethammer (1943).

35. Lentini-Lake, Stresemann (1943).

36. Oud-el-Hatob, Withacker (1905).

37. Fetzara-Lake, Loche (1867).

A. a. griseldis.

38. Lake Akkarkuf (near Bagdad), Ticehurst (1922).

39. Gurmut Ali, Medina-marshes, Ticehurst (1926).

40. Fao distr., Bubian, Ticehurst (1926).

A . orientalis.

41. Tola valley, Kozlov (1933).

42. Tarei-Nor, Onon river, Stegmann (1929).

43. Argun river, Pleske (1891).

44. Seja, Stegmann (1931).

45. Ussuri, Stegmann (1931).

46. Hokkaido, Jahn (1942).

47. Kiushu, Jahn (1942).

48. Lower Yang-tse-kiang, La Touche (1925).

49. Shasi near Ichang, La Touche (1922).

50. Kantshu, Stresemann, Meise, Schoenwetter (1937).

51. Ssatsu, Pleske (1889).

52. Oasis Chami, Pleske (1889).

A. s. stentoreus.

53. Lake Huleh, Meinertzhagen (1930).

54. Near Suez, Meinertzhagen (1930).

55. Fayum and Wadi Natrum, Meinertzhagen (1930).

56. Massaua, Heuglin (1869).

A. s. brunnescens.

57. Achal-plain and Atrek-river. Sarudny (1896).

58. Geok-Tepe, Sarudny (1896).

59. Amu Darya, Moltchanov (1912).

SPECIATION IN THE GROUP OF GREAT REED-WARBLERS 441.

60. Merv, Sarudny (1896).

61. Chardjui, Sarudny (1896).

62. Karatau-Mts., Dementiev (1935).

63. Leninabad, Ivanov (1940).

64. Hissar, Ivanov (1940).

65. Daraut-Kurgan, Ivanov (1940).

a. Goultcha, Stolzmann (1896).

66. Bamian, Whistler (1945).

67. Kabul, Whistler (1945).

68. Srinuggar, Oates (1889).

69. Gurdaspur, Currie (1916).

70. Delhi, Whistler (1931).

71. Moradabad, Whistler (1931).

72. Bahraich Distr., Whymper (1907).

73. Gorakhpur, Osmaston (19x3).

74. North Lakhimpur, Stevens (1914).

75. Taunggyi, Wickham (1929).

76. Chiang Mai Plain, Deignan (1945).

77. Mongtze, Uchida and Kuroda (1916).

78. Too-Yuen (Kwei-chow), Yen (1934).

79. Yao-shan (Kwangsi), Yen (1930).

80. Kandahar, Ticehurst (1926).

81. Quetta, Ticehurst (1926).

82. Pali (Jehol), Whistler (1938).

83. Bombay, Sdlim Ali (1937).

84. Eastern Nara, Oates (1889).

85. Karachi, Ticehurst (1922).

8'6. Jask, Ticehurst (1926).

87. Shiraz, Blanford (1876).

88. Zagross Mountains, Witherby (1903).

89. Ceylon, Whistler (1944).

Literature

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sette ; /. Bomb. N.H. Soc. xxxix, p. 679.

Ali, Sdlim and Whistler H. (1936). The Ornithology of Travancore and

Cochin, Pt. IV ; /. Bomb. N.H. Soc. xxxviii, No. 3.

Blanford, W. T. (1876). Eastern Persia. London p. 194.

Brehm, A. (1882). Am Ala Kul in Turkestan ; Ornithol. Centralblatt 1882'

p. 98.

Buxton, P. A. (1921). Notes on Birds from Northern and Western Persia ;

/. Bomb. N.H. Soc. xxvii, p. 95.

Creutz, G. (1937). Die bisherigen Beringungsergebnisse bei der Gattung

Acrocephalus Naum.; Berichte d. V ereins Schles. Orn. 22, 1937, p. 55 ff.

Currie, A. J. (1916). Some Birds found in the Gurdaspur District, Punjab ;

/. Bomb. N.H. Soc. xxiv, p. 602.

Deignan, H. G. (1945). The Birds of Northern Thailand ; U.S. Nat. Mus.

Bull 186, p. 483.

Dementive ; G. P. (1935). Systema avium rossicarum Vol. I, Paris 1935.

Graham, R. R. (1930). Safety Devices in Wings of Birds ; Brit. Birds 24.

Hartert, E. (1909). Die Vogel der palaarktischen Fauna I. Berlin, p. 556.

(1924). Uber einige neue Vogel aus dem indo-australischen Archipel ;

Treubia VI, 1, pp. 20-25.

u. F. Steinbacher (1934). Die Vogel der palaarkfischen Fauna.

Erganzungsband, p, 265.

Hellmayr, C. (1929). Birds of the James Simpson-Roosevelt Asiatic Ex-

pedition ; Field Museum of Nat. Hist. Publ. 263, p. 96.

Hermanson, W. (1943). De bada Acrocephalus- arterna i Skane ; Fauna och

Flora 1943, p. 252.

v. Heuglin, M.Th. (1869). Ornithol ogie Nordost-Afrikas ; Kassel Bd. I.

1 Abt., p. 287 ff.

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Ivanov, A. J. (1940). Birds of Tadjikistan. Ed. of the Acad, of Science

SSSR. Moscow — Leningrad 1940, p. 221 (fuss.)

Jahn, H. (1942). Zur Oekologie und Biologie der Vogel Japans; J. f. Om.

90, p. 156-158.

Johansen, H. (1904). Vorlaufiger Bericht fiber eine im Sommer 1902 in die

Ivulundinische Steppe und die angrenzenden Teile des Ssemipalatinsker Gebiets

unternommene Reise. Orn. Jahrb. xv, p. 181.

Kate, C. G. B. ten (1937). De Nederlandsche Vogels. I, 1937, p. 239.

Koch, O. (1911). Ubersicht fiber die Vogel Estlands ; Reval — Leipzig 1911,

p. 73.

Kozlow, E. (1933). The birds of South-West Transbaikalia, Northern Mon-

golia and Central Gobi. Ibis 1933, p. 312.

La Touche, J. D. D. (1922). The Birds of the Province Hupeh. Ibis 1922,

p. 453.

La Touche, J. D. D. (1925). Handbook of the Birds of Eastern China. I.

London, p. 211.

Loche, (1867). Les Oiseaux d’Algerie. Paris p. 256.

Ludlow, F. and N. B. Kinnear (1933). A Contribution of the Ornithology of

Chinese Turkestan. Ibis 1933, p. 468.

Mayr, E. (1948). Geographic Variation in the Reed-Warbler ; The Emu 47,

pp. 205-210.

Meinertzhagen, R. (1930). Nicoll’s Birds of Egypt. London, I. p. 206.

Meinertzhagen, R. (1935). Ornithological Results of a trip to Syria and

adjacent Countries in 1933. Ibis. 1935, p. 131.

Moltshanov, L. A. (1912). The breeding birds of the delta of the Amu-

Darya. Poljakows Mess. Orn. 1912, No. 4, p. 269. (russ.)

Niethammer, G. (1943). Die Brutvogel des Pelcponnes. Journ. f. Orn. 91,

;p. 210.

Nikolski, A. M. (1883). Reise in die Altaiberge in Sommer 1831. Trudy d.

Petersbg. Naturf. Ges. T. xiv, Lfg. 1 Petersburg.

Oates, E. W. (1889). Fauna of British India, Vol. I. London ; p. 356.

Oates, E. W. (1889). Hume’s Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds. Vol. I.

London p. 224.

Olphe-Galliard, L. (1891). Faune Ornithologique. Paris 1891.

Osmaston, B. B. (1913). The Birds of Gorakhpur. /. Bomb. N.H. Soc.

xxii, p. 535.

Pleske, Th. (1889). Wissenschaftliche Resultate der von N.M. Przevalski

uiach Central-Asien unternommenen Reisen. Zool. Teil, Bd. II, St. Petersburg

1889 p. 125.

Pleske, Th. (1891). Ornithographia Rossica. II. Sylviinae. St. Petersburg

1891 p. 473.

Radde, G. (1884). Ornis Caucasica. Kassel p. 228.

Salomonsen, F. (1929). Bemerkungen iiber die Gruppe Acrocephalus arun-

dinaceus L. J.f. Orn. Erg. Bd. II (Festschrift E. Hartert).

Sarudny, N. A. (1896). The birds of the Transcaspian province : Mat. z.

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^(russ.)

Sarudny, N. A. (1916). The Birds of Lake Aral. (In Russian). Proc.

( Iswestija ) of the Turkestan Branch of the Imp. Russ. Geogr. Soc. Vol. xii. 1.

Taschkent 1916.

Sick, H. (1937). Morphologisch-funktionelle Untersuchungen iiber die Fein-

Struktur der Vogelfeder. /. f. Orn. 85, pp. 206-372.

Skovgaard, P. (1932). Fuglenes Forekomst og Udbredelse som Ynglefugle i

Danmark. Danske-Fugle 1932 ; iv.

Stegmann, B. (1929). Die Vogel Siidost-Transbaikaliens. Ann. Mus. Zool.

Ac. Sci. URSS, Vol. 29, ‘1928’.

Stegmann, B. (1931). Die Vogel des dauro-mandschurischen Ubergangs-

-gebietes. /. f. Orn. 79, p. 196.

Stevens, H. (1914). Notes on the Birds of Upper Assam; /. Bomb. N.FI.

Soc. xxiii, p. 247.

Stolzmann, Y. (1896). Oiseaux de la Ferghana. Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Mos-

cow, 1896.

SPECIATION IN THE GROUP OP GREAT REED-WARBLERS 443.

Stresemann, E. (1924). Die Gattung Acrocephalus im indo-australischen

Archipel ; Orn. Mber. 32, pp. 167-168.

Stresemann, E. (1937). vV. Meise und M. Schonwetter. Aves Beickianae.

/./. Orn. 85, p. 537.

Stresemann, E. (1940;. Die Vogel von Celebes. Teil III, 1 • J f Orn 88

p. 105. J '

Stresemann, E. (1943). Ufoerblick iiber die A bg'el Kretas und den Vogelzug

in der Aegaeis. J.f. Orn. 91, p. 484.

Stresemann, E. (1943). Die Brutvogel des Sees von Lentini, Sizilien. Orn.

Mber. 51, p. 116.

Sushkin, P. (1914). Zur Vogelfauna des Ivaukasus. Mess. Orn. 5, p. 38.

Sushkin, P. (1938). Birds of Soviet Altai and adjacent parts of North-

Western Mongolia. Vol. II ; Moscow-Leningrad 1938 p. 166. (russ.)

Ticehurst, C. B. (1922). The Birds of Mesopotamia. J. Bomb. N.H. Soc.

xxviii, p. 275.

Ticehurst, C. B. (1922). The Birds of Sind. Ibis 1922, p. 548.

Ticehurst, C. B. (1926). Additional Notes on the Avifauna of Iraq. /. Bomb.

N.H. Soc. xxxi, p. 100.

Ticehurst, C. B. (1926). The Birds of British Baluchistan; /. Bomb. N.H .

Soc. xxxi, p. 696.

Uchida, S. and Kuroda, N. (1916). Some new Additions to the Avifauna of

Yunnan ; Annot. Zoolog. Japon. Vol. ix, p. 139.

Wickham, P. F. (1929). Notes on the Birds of the Upper Burma Hills.

/. Bom. N.H. Soc. xxxiii, p. 824.

Withaker, J. J. S. (1905). The Birds of Tunesia. London 1905. Vol. I.

p. 114.

Witherby, H. F. (1903). An Ornithological Journey in Fars, South-West

Persia. Ibis. 1903, p.543.

Witherby H. F. (1910). On a collection of Birds from the South coast of

the Caspian Sea and the Elbruz Mountains. Ibis 1910, p. 502.

Witherby, H. F. (1938). The Handbook of British Birds. Vol. II. London.

Whymper, S. L. (1908). Nesting of the great Reed-Warbler in India.

J. Bomb. N.H. Soc. xviii, p. 491.

Whistler, H. (1931). The Indian Great Reed-Warbler ( Acrocephalus sten-

toreus brunnescens Jerd.). /. Bomb. N.H. Soc. xxxv, p. 450.

Whistler, H. (1938). The Ornithological Survey of Jodhpur State. J. Bomb.

N.H. Soc. xxxx, p. 220.

Whistler, H. (1944). The Avifaunal 'Survey of Ceylon conducted jointly by

the British and Colombo Museums. Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. 23, part. 3 + 4,

p. 171.

Whistler, H. (1945). Materials for the Ornithology of Afghanistan; Part ;

III. J. Bomb. N.H. Soc. xxxxv, p. 106.

Whitehead, C. H. T. (1909). On the Birds of Kohat and Kurram. Ibis 1909, .

p. 119.

Yen, K. Y. (1930). Birds from Yao-shan, Kwangsi. Bull, of Dep. of Biol. .

Kanton 1930, p. 17.

Yen, K. Y. (1934). Fine Vogelsammlung aus Kwei-chow. (China) ; J.f. .

Orn. 82, p. 389.

Zimmer, K. (1943). Der Flug des Nektarvogels ( Cinnyris ). J.f. Orn. 91, „

pp. 371-387.

BOMBAY FISHERMEN’S INGENUITY.

AGE OLD METHODS OF CAPTURE NOT YET OUTDATED

BY

S. B. Setna, m.sc., ph. d. (Cantab), f.n.i.

Director of Fisheries , Bombay.

( With i plate and 5 text figures )

A charge generally levelled against fishing in our country is

the primitiveness of the methods employed in its pursuit. The

main target of criticism is the comparative inefficiency of the nets

used, as well as the manner in which they are employed. The

charge is, to a great extent, baseless as will be readily apparent

from even a superficial study of the nets used along our coast.

The nets have been evolved after a long process of trial and error,

so as to secure the maximum catch for the outlay of the considerable

amount of labour employed.

Adepts in Craft

Fishermen are generally supposed to be ignorant. Their

ignorance is relative, inasmuch as it may pertain to a lack of

knowledge of the work-a-day world. Their complete proficiency

in matters affecting their own industry is unquestioned. Their

knowledge in this respect is truly amazing. It might not be

grounded on scientific principles, but it is extremely efficient and

discloses an intimate acquaintance with the fundamental concepts

of biology, physics, state of the weather and movements of the

tides. Their knowledge of these highly technical subjects is

empirical, but it is, nevertheless, sound ^ as all the various methods

of fishing practised on our coast — pelagic and deep-sea — incorporate

awareness of one or the other of the fundamental principles which

form the bases of these highly developed fields of study.

The results achieved by our fishermen are truly remarkable, not-

withstanding the numerous handicaps under which they labour.

They would certainly show results worthy of comparison with those

achieved in the West or in Japan only if their economic resources

permitted the use of engined craft. They have shown endless

ingenuity in their ability to devise various types of nets for the

capture of fish of different sizes and inhabiting varying layers of

the sea. The fishermen, it is commonly said, are conservative, but

their conservativeness springs from their penury. There is not

the least doubt that if power-propelled vessels were placed within

their reach, they would be able to adapt their existing types of

nets to the capture of the various fish that occur in divergent layers

of the seas washing our coasts.

BOMBAY FISHERMEN’S INGENUITY

445

Lessons of Recent Years

The success that has attended1 the use of launches for the

transport of fish in Bombay has furnished conclusive proof that

our fishermen are not averse to the adoption of new ideas provided

that the reforms are both beneficial and within their reach. The

formation of fishermen’s co-operative societies for the acquisition

of launches to transport fish shows that they are capable of following

progressive principles. The imagination of our fishermen has been

caught not only by the advantages of power craft for the transport

of fish but they have also been greatly impressed by the satisfactory

results that have accompanied the experiments to use power craft

for the capture of fish. There is a vast and promising future

before the industry, but all depends on our approach to the various

problems.

Importation of trawlers, purse seiners and Danish seines is

excellent as far as it goes, but they will need, apart from expert

technical skill, vast outlay of capital, which our fishermen can

ill afford in their present impoverished state. They will go in,

in the fullness of time, for these super-vessels of the industry. The

paramount problem today is mechanization of the existing sailing

craft. The pace of their conversion into power-propelled vessels

should be greatly accelerated if the industry must progress and

yield the fruitful results of which it already holds enormous promise.

Line of Advance

The first step would be to assess thoroughly the various

advantages and disadvantages of the existing methods of capture

and discover whether improvements are not possible in the different

types of fishing — drift-net, long line, bag* net (dol) etc. — now

extensively used along one stretch . or another of our extensive

coastline. Thus, the principle underlying the use of drift-net $

whether in Britain or in India, is the same. There are, however,

differences in the length and depth of the net. The use of larger

drift-nets is possible only on larger vessels if they are equipped

with power and other mechanical devices for the rapid paving

and hauling' of the net. If our vessels using the drift-net were

run on power, they would, most certainly, be able to extend the

range of their operation. At present, they cannot venture very

far out to sea and have to skirt, as it were, the coastline, so that

they can make for shore as quickly as possible at the least sign

of bad weather or to prevent deterioration of their Catch.

Drift-netting: — Though the drift-net is one of the most effect-

ive contrivances for the capture of fish, it is nevertheless, subject

to certain limitations. Tropical seas, as is wellknown, abound

with sharks, They are an ever-present menace to our fisher-

men ? who fear them not so much for themselves as for

the extensive depredations they make on their catch. The fish

gilled in the drift-net present sharks with a tempting and

immovable target on which they eagerly pounce. The fishermen

are sorely stricken when the sharks, in getting at their quarry

tear vast rents and sometimes, even swallow big segments of their

MG

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

nets. For some time then the fishermen are jobless at their

craft, until they have repaired their net. Thuis, the everlurk-

ing- menace of sharks is a factor compelling- restriction on the

size of the net. It must, therefore, be handy in size, — the netting,

being 2000 fathoms in length and 2 fathoms in depth — so that not

only can it be quickly manipulated but also the netted fish can be

pulled aboard in anticipation of the attacks from sharks. In fact,

fishermen at the fishing fields almost throughout the night row up

and down the length of the net pulling it up and stowing away the

netted fish and again dropping it in order to avoid presenting

sitting targets for sharks and thus to save their nets from the

vicious destruction caused by them.

Fishermen in the temperate zones are? on the other hand,

spared such perils, for the simple reason that sharks are not usually

denizens of their waters. Nets are shot at dusk and hauling

begins shortly before dawn. The net is paved at right angles to

the incoming or outgoing- current, so that it hangs in the water

about a fathom below the surface, and is kept in position by floats.

A British drifter will shoot anything up to 100 nets, each net being

about 60 yards long by 10 yards deep. Thus a wall of netting

about two miles in length is laid by the drifter. The fish moving

with the tide get enmeshed. The un- anchored vessel, to which the

net is attached at one end, drifts a while, may be for five or six

miles in the night, according to the current. At dawn the fisher-

men merely gather up the net and hie with it to port.

The implied line of reform is obvious, so far as fishing with

drift nets in our waters is concerned. The menace of sharks may

be, to a great extent, overcome if not entirely eliminated, if our

fishermen were to employ, instead of sail boats as now, powered

craft to gain the fishing grounds and pave out the net.

The great waste of human effort now involved by reason of

constant trips up and down the length of the net by a

dinghy, may be obviated if a powdered skiff were used as an adjunct

to the parent vessel instead of the row boat as at present. This.

BOMBAY FISHERMEN'S INGENUITY

447

could cruise up and down the length of the net throughout the night

in order to collect the gilled fish, as well as to stave off the

depredations of sharks.

Line fishing : — Line fishing- is another method of capture which

holds promise of fruitful results. Already our fishermen practise

line fishing extensively all along the coast for particular varieties

of fish, but their efforts are not attended by striking success. Their

unsatisfactory catches are due to limitations inherent in the type

or vessel used. Their sailing boats do not enable them to go far

out to sea, as the paramount consideration is quick return to

shore. Moreover ? the smallness of their craft precludes the

use of a large enough number of hooks. These obvious

handicaps would be greatly minimised, if not surmounted, with

the use of power-propelled vessels, the greatest advantage of which

would be that they would be able to fish anywhere and make

straig'htway, within a comparatively brief period, for the large

consuming centres. This sailing boats are unable to do. The}^

have first to get to their bases and then await expeditious transport,

either by trucks or power vessels to convey their hauls, The vast

potentialities for line fishing- are borne out by the discovery about

ioo miles off Ratnag-iri of a great field of red snappers (perches)

which can be taken on line and hooks. Preliminary surveys reveal

that this particular field — Angria bank lying- in latitude i6°

30' N. and longitude 72 0 E.^ — is an extensive one and is cap-

able of yielding fruitful results for the appropriate outlay.

It is also the considered opinion of those who discovered

the field that there must be equally rich fishing banks elsewhere

along our coast, though there is no knowledge of theny because

they have never been approached. Such fishing- banks are utterly

beyond the reach of our sailing boats. Even power-propelled vessels

are reluctant to approach them individually on account of the

legitimate fear of the unknown at so great a distance off-shore.

4

448 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

Successful working" of such banks at so g'reat a distance can be

undertaken by our present power-propelled vessels only if they

work in teams, or if they have the confidence that if any one of

them sallies forth individually to the bank there is the assurance

that other vessels will also be expected to operate in the same region.

The use of power vessels to capture sharks has been amply

demonstrated in our waters, and our efforts show that there is

a great future for this particular industry.

Japan’s Example

Japan’s example shows that mechanization of the fishing fleet

can be rapidly achieved provided there is not only the proper spirit

of enterprise but a determination and willingness to disregard age-

old methods in favour of those that will yield better results. What

our fishermen need is that a lead must be given to them. Pilot

experiments with existing nets used, not from sailing boats as

at present, but from power vessels, must be undertaken on an in-

tensive scale at the more important fishing centres along India’s

coastline. The length of nets that may be used from power-propelled

vessels is large, and there is not the least doubt that our fisher-

men will be resourceful enough to exhibit their traditional ingenuity

in the skilful adaptation of their present devices to the altered environ-

ment of engined craft.

One example alone will suffice to illustrate not only the originality

but also the power of adaptation of our fishermen to suit the peculiar

conditions of their industry. Perhaps, this remarkable gift and

instinctive genius of our fishermen may well be proved by a

BOMBAY FISHERMEN’S INGENUITY

449

description of the ‘dole’ net, which is extensively used by them 20

miles oft' the shore, with the coastline completely invisible.

Description of net : — The ‘dole’ is conical in shape, the base,

which is the open end, being- rectang-ular. The leng-th of the net

from the rim of the base to the tapering closed end is about 150

feet, with a circumference at the mouth varying from 180 to 265

feet. Although the net resembles a huge trawl, it, nevertheless,

differs from it in being stationary, and, unlike the trawl s it captures

surface fish at a depth of a few fathoms.

Tidal energy exploited: — The net is worked entirely by the force

of the tide. It is set in the water so as to face the incoming

current. As the tide starts to recede, the position of the net is

reversed, the open end facing the opposite direction. The object

in both positions is propulsion of fish into the net by the force

of the current.

The dole net is capable of being employed in two different

fashions. The first method (Sus fishery) is employed from Kathiawar

in the north to Revdanda in the south. The second method (Khunt

fishery) is employed from Revdanda (the port for Alibag) to Versova.

The main characteristic of both the methods is the technique

used to anchor the net and to keep its mouth open. The mouth

of the net is kept in position by means of ropes from each of its

four extremities, fastened securely to two enormous wooden spikes

‘moke’ embedded in the muddy floor of the sea. The upper lip

of the net is prevented from sagging by means of three floats,

two of which are at the extremity of the lip, and one is in the

centre. The lower lip of the net hangs freely, the pressure of the

rushing current and the two bottom ropes keeping the mouth wide

open. The position of the net when it is fully set is illustrated

in diagram I.

Pile driving at sea: — The spike itself is driven into the floor

of the sea by an ingenious method. The spike is, in reality, detach-

able part of a lengthy stake, the lower end of which has an iron

socket into which the upper end of the spike fits firmly. The

ever present risk of irretrievable loss of the spikes when the stake

450 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

is being- lowered is prevented by tw7o ropes tied to the spike below

the iron rod inserted laterally across each spike.

The operation (diagram 2) involves at low tide the use of two

boats, which on their arrival at the fishing field cast four anchors,

two ahead arid two astern. The two boats are then linked to each

other by means of a log across, which is made fast by means of

ropes tied to the broadest cross beam in each vessel. The most

important phase of the entire operation now begins. The upper

end of the spike is inserted into the iron socket of the ‘Pyale’ or

stake (diagram 3), which is levered to the centre of the log. The

upper end of the ‘Pyale’ is connected by a rope to a pulley arrange-

ment at the mast head of the two vessels. The ‘Pyale’ is raised

till it is upright when it is lowered into the sea. A stout rope

is looped round the upper part of the ‘Pyale’, and each end of the

rope drawn under the log is taken into either vessel. The boats

are manned by a crew of seven in each. The rise and fall in the

level of the water acts as a powerful hammer to drive the pile into

the sea-bed. The two ends of the rope have a certain amount of

slack which as the boat rides on the crest of a wave is absorbed

by the men pulling it as taut as possible. This tautness, coupled

with the fall of the vessels into the trough of the waters, exerts

a powerful downward thrust on the spike which automatically

drives the spike down deeper and deeper. The process of the

surge and recession of the waves eventually thrusts the spike to the

required depth in the sea floor. The ropes from the mast head

to the lateral log linking the two vessels serve to maintain tension

which keeps the stake upright and prevents its drifting.

The ‘Pyale’, which has all the while served, as it were, as

a pile driver to ram the spike into the sea floor, is then effortlessly

detached and levered up from the base of the spike, which all the

while had been held in position by the pull exerted on the ropes

tied to the spikes below the iron rod inserted laterally across the

spike, as already referred to above. The loose ends of both ropes

are fastened to a float. The float serves roughly as an indication

enabling the fishermen to determine the distance at which the second

spike must be driven in. Anchors are cast, in order to render the

boats immovable at their station, and once more the whole process

of driving the spike is repeated at this new location. The distance

between the two spikes is 150 feet. The top ends of the ropes,

two from each spike, are tied to the. four extremities of the mouth

of the net, so that it remains open. The loose ends of the ropes

from each spike are secured to buoys after the net has been hauled

aboard for repairs or for dyeing. The buoys serve as indicators to

the location of the spikes, so that no time is lost when the fishermen

desire to set the net.

Pylons in the sea: — The net is also set by another method, which

differs but slightly from the one just described. The second method

is known as ‘khunt’ fishery (diagram 4). The difference between

the two methods lies in the manner of fixation of the net. Whereas

buoys and ropes are employed, in the first instance to keep the

mouth open, stout pylons (palisades or upright posts), each about

125 feet in length are used for setting the net in the second method.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Drift net Fishing

Many types of sailing craft, all of them primitive, are used along our coast

to catch fish. The vessel in the picture is used for fishing in deep waters.

Though primitive, the boat uses a drift-net, one of the most modern fishing

nets for the capture of surface fish. The department is now endeavouring to

induce fishermen to use these very nets in conjunction with power vessels.

The bag end of a ‘dole’ net crammed with Bombay Duck is seen here

being hauled aboard a row-boat at the fishing fields, about 20 miles off the

shore of one of Bombay’s suburbs.

BOMBAY FISHERMEN’S INGENUITY

451

Each pylon consists of usually three ( sometimes four, enormous

trunks of trees, khunt 60 feet, parka 45 feet, damke 35 feet, bound

one to another by ligatures. The pylon is driven about 24 feet

into the sea floor while it projects about 10 feet above the surface

of the water at the highest tide. Each pylon costs Rs. 1,000.

The method of fixation of the pylon is almost identical to that

of the insertion of the spike into the sea in the first method. The

‘Pyale’ of the first method is replaced by the pylons or upright

posts, which are towed to the fishing- fields by a boat apiece. Each

pylon is driven separately. The same principle of pressure

exerted by the rise and fall of the waves is observed in order to

pound the pylon into position (diagram 2).

To each of the pylons is fixed a peculiar contraption known as

the ‘khora’, a part of which is of wood and the other of iron. The

wooden part is a U-shaped contrivance, resembling very much the

wooden part of a bow when fully drawn. The intervening- space

between the two tips is 4 to 6 feet. Round one tip is wound

an iron rod? which is looped, the loose end being* wound

round the other extremity. Two of these contraptions are slung

over each pylon, a rope of the depth of the mouth linking the two

iron bars at their junctions. Through the loops themselves is passed

another length of rope to the lower end of which is suspended a

weight or a large stone weighing about a maund (diagram 5).

The upper end of the rope is wound round the part of the pylon

projecting above the surface of the water. Likewise, two other U-

shaped contraptions of wood with iron loops are passed over the

other pylon, together with a rope weighted at one end being- passed

through the loops. The pylon and the U-shaped wooden pieces

form as it were the foundation on which the net is laid when it is

to be in operation. Each end of the lower lip of the net is fastened

to each of the bottom loops, likewise each end of the upper lip is

attached to each of the top loops. The net is now ready to be slid

down into position. The mouth of the net can be raised and lowered

along the pylons according to the movements of fish. The mouth

itself is also capable of contraction by a reduction in the length

of the ropes linking each set of loops. The object of contraction

of the mouth is to narrow the area of resistance when the stress

of the tide is excessive. Generations of experience have made

the fishermen such adepts that they are able To sense almost

instinctively the precise occasion when the mouth of the net must

be contracted. The precaution is essential in view of the costliness-

of the net and the immense labour involved in the manufacture

of one. If such a net is seriously damaged the fishermen are

likely to be out of the fishing fields for a considerable time, with

consequent great loss in their earnings.

Upward leverage : — The method of extraction of the pylons

at the end of the fishing season is no less ingenious than the

technique followed in their fixation in the sea. The boats come

to their stations equipped in the same manner with pulleys and logs

as they did at the start of the season. The boats are arranged

as in diagram 6 and recourse is had once more to the power or force

generated bv the rise and fall of the waves. The energy of the restless

452 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 48

motion of the waters is now used to lever out, instead of levering

into, the stakes from their sockets in the sea bed. With the

arrival of the boats at their station, a loop is thrown round the

pylon, each loose end being gathered into each boat respectively.

The loop is lowered to a certain depth when it is made tort by

upward pulls on the loose ends. The tautness is increased every

time the boats sink in the trough of the waves, the resultant

tension acting as a sort of jack to prise the pylon out from the

sea floor where it lies embedded. This process, which usually

lasts about 3 hours continues until the entire pylon is pulled clear

out of the sea bed. Likewise, the spikes are extracted from the

sea bed. Their position is known because of the buoys to which

they are fastened by ropes.

Construction of net: — No less ingenious than the method of

fixation of the net (dole) is the construction of the net itself. The

net measures 150 feet in length when it is fully extended. The size

of the mesh diminishes as the net tapers to its extremity so that

towards the rear it is almost a completely impenetrable bag. The

net consists of a number of segments, each bearing its distinctive

name, and each formed from twine of varying ply.

A feature of the net is its bag end which can be hauled up

and the trapped fish can be stowed away on deck, while the main

mouth is wide agape. The fish are channelled into the tapering end,

the opening there being closed with a rope knotted round it. .The

rope is long enough to enable the log to rest on the sea floor. The

fishermen are present on the ground during the fishing operations

and usually take a location in proximity to the bag end. To protect

the boat being* swept away from its locale a rope is tied from the

bow of the boat to one of the fixed side buoys.

Both the aforesaid methods have been practised for generations.

They reveal, as already stated,, not only extraordinary ingenuit}^

but also a thorough knowledge of the movements of the fishes

when they approach our shores. The technique employed in both

methods is particularly noteworthy. The most remarkable feature

of the entire operation is not only the great economy of man-power

employed but the fishermen’s realisation and application of the

principle of gravity, to pile into the floor of the sea a stake without

the use of such modern appliances as winches and cranes. The

untutored fishermen, ignorant of all knowledge of theories of physics,

have been practising this effective method for unnumbered

generations.

The empirical method, based on no other knowledge than that

derived from experience, has been accompanied by such striking-

success that it has emboldened the fishermen to increase steadily

the radius of operation from the shore. They have ventured so

far afield into the sea that the fi(xed pylons'* are a real

obstacle in the fairway through which ships regularly ply. In

fact, the menace of these obstructions has assumed such proportions

as to have compelled the authorities to draw up charts indicating

the precise positions in the sea where the pylons may be fixed.

The net is not selective but multi-purpose inasmuch as it does

not discriminate among* the fish which it is intended to trap. The

BOMBAY FISHERMEN'S INGENUITY

453

haul of such nets includes fish so diverse as: — Harpodon nehereus

(bombil) ; Stromateus cinereus (serga) ; Trichiurus sauala (wakati) ;

Trichiurus haumela (wagti) ; Sciaena sina and Sciaena diacanthus

(ghol) ; Coilia dussumieri (mandeli) ; Sciaenoides pama (kala droma) ;

Minous monodactylus (dhoma) ; Chirocentrus dorab (karli, dantal) ;

Cidpea fimbriata (pedwa) ; Ambassis sp. (kepta) ; shrimps,

prawns, crabs, sharks, skates and rays.

Superimposed net : — Even more ingenious than the net itself

and the manner of its laying is the clever device (known in Marathi

as the khuda) to foil onslaughts by sharks and other predatory

fish on the ready target afforded by the silvery sheen of the fish

secured in the bag ends. The device # which looks very much like

an open skylight (diagrams i and 4), consists of a subsidiary oval

bag net tied to the bag end. Predatory fish get entangled there.

A light pole at the upper edge of the subsidiary net ensures that

it remains open.

The catches made by the ‘dole’ represent, perhaps, the pre-

ponderant value of the total haul of all other types of nets put

together. Monetarily, the total quantity of fish caught by this

method is estimated at over a crore of rupees.

NOTES ON THE SNAKES AND MAMMALS OF

THE HIGH WAVY MOUNTAINS, MADURA DISTRICT,

S. INDIA

BY

Angus F. Hutton

Part I — Snakes

{With a text-figure )

The High Wavy Mountains are situated in the S. W. corner of

Madura District on the Travancore frontier. They consist of an

undulating plateau, approximately 17 sq. miles in area, with an

average elevation of 5,100 ft. though the highest point (Brooks Peak)

is over 6,400 ft. high.

The plateau is covered with dense evergreen forest, with the

exception of a grass covered ridge overlooking the plains. There

are quite a number of rocky patches in the jungle which are covered

with grass, and the borders consist of hill-bamboo ( Ochlandra

travancoricci) or Eeta as it is known locally. It is also found along the

river banks and on the windswept ridges. A small area is under

tea, cinchona and cardamon cultivation. The slopes of the mountain

rise very steeply from the plains and can be divided into two belts ;

the first (l,20Q'-3,000') consists of light deciduous forest with a dense

growth of elephant grass and the whole area contains huge scattered

rocks and boulders. The second belt is of bare rocky grassland,

devoid of trees, but with considerable patches of Stroblianthes kun-

thianus . This belt continues up to 4,000' where the evergreen forest

begins.

With the exception of the B.N.H. Society’s expedition in 1917,

(described in the Journal , Vol. 25, No. 2 ; Vol. 27, No. 3; and Vol.

35, No. 3) these hills were entirely unexplored and uninhabited until

1929, and even since then only a small area was really known. In

view of this it is not surprising that there should be some interesting

records.

These notes are written with reference to ‘ The Fauna of British

India’, Vol. 3 (Reptiles and Amphibians), by Dr. Malcolm A. Smith,

and I have followed the order used by him.

Family : Uropeltidae

Melanophidium punctatum. (Tamil : Manalli Pambu.)

One specimen taken in the evergreen forest. Apparently not common. In life

it is a beautiful snake. At the time of writing, I have one in captivity, which

spends most of the day curled up asleep in its drinking water, and only comes

out at night.

Melanophidium sp. ? Three specimens were found altogether. The first was

very badly damaged, dried and quite useless for identification purposes, and was

discarded. The second was a perfect specimen and was sent to Bombay for

identification but unfortunately it got lost in the post. Luckily I kept a rough

SNAKES AND MAMMALS OF THE HIGH WAVY MOUNTAINS 455

description with me and this agreed exactly with my third specimen — a skin

which was sent to me, and which I have sent on to Dr. Malcolm Smith. The

description below is fairly accurate, and will suffice until further specimens can

be found .

Snout obtuse ; rostral small ; internasals slightly larger than adjacent

scales ; parietal shields twice as long as broad ; frontal shield touching the top

of the eye. The eye within the ocular shield. No supraocular or temporal

shield. A mental groove. Tail slightly compressed ; terminal scute with two

superior ridges ending in two small points.

Scales in 15 rows, the 3 dorsal rows faintly keeled. Laterals smooth.

Ventrals 131 four times as broad as adjacent scales. Caudals 26, divided and

decreasing in size towards the end of the tail. Anal shield divided.

Colour : iridescent brown above and below, with a black or dark stripe down

the back covering the three rows of keeled scales.

Length : head and body 225 mm. ; tail 37 mm.

Piectrurus perroteti.

One specimen taken in the evergreen forest. Not very common. Total

length 370 mm.

Uropeltls eliioti . 5 specimens were collected in the evergreen forest, where it

is fairly common. It seems to prefer damp localities, such as swamps and

river banks. One female in captivity produced 4 young. The markings on

the belly of the newly-born young are white and only change to yellow after a

week or more. I have noticed this in U. pulneyensis also. Total length,

average 210 mm. Young are 55 to 72 mm.

UropeStis wood-masoni. Three specimens were taken in the evergreen forest ;

two were normal in colour and the other was much darker with the belly

entirely black. Total length : average 231 mm.

Uropelfis arcticeps. One specimen taken on the plains at the foot of the hills

at 1,200' altitude. In scale counts it resembles madurensis. V 148 & C. 6,

otherwise the description agrees with arcticeps. Total length 300 mm.

UropeUis pulneyensis . This is the commonest snake in these hills ,* 53

specimens were examined, and I have had ample opportunity for studying its

habits. The majority of my specimens were released after examination as

they do useful work in the garden controlling pests such as cutworms, and

certain insects, which from a few dissected specimens seem to be their main

diet apart from worms. The majority of my specimens were caught on the

roads, and in the tea nurseries during the early part of the S. W. Monsoon.

Young ones are frequently seen at this time also. It may be due to their

burrows being flooded out that forces them above ground. Decayed fallen

trees, stumps and heaps of stones are favourite homes for them during the

rains, and I have often, found two or three sharing a hollow, and sometimes

young ones, too. They^ were usually in a very lethargic condition which leads

me to believe that they hibernate at this time of the year. With regard to their

breeding habits I once found a pair in copula during May. I kept them in capti-

vity and at the end of July the female produced 8 young. The markings on the

belly were white and took 7 to 10 days to turn yellow. They averaged 63 mm.

in total length at birth. The young have voracious appetites, and some of mine

swallowed worms almost as big as themselves. One exceptionally large female

measuring 450 mm. in length and 18 mm. in diameter produced 17 young in

captivity. This seems to be most unusual both as regards size and numbers.

(Smith, Fauna Brit. Ind., p. 64, ‘ 3 to 8 young at a time’ and p. 85 ‘ total

length 380 mm. and diameter 12 mm.’). The average length of all my speci-

mens was 237 mm.

Rhinophis sanguineus.

Three specimens were taken from the deciduous belt where it is fairly com-

mon. One juvenile measuring 150 mm. was also taken; the red on the under-

part of its tail was not so bright as in the adult specimens.

458 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vo!. 48

Rhinophis travancoricus.

One specimen collected in the foothills at about 1500 ft. Does not appear to

be common. Total length 150 mm.

Family: Boidae

Python molurus, (Tamil : Mallay Pambu.)

No specimens were taken but it seems to be fairly common up to about

5,500 ft. Some years ago, I am told, it offen used to be seen in young tea

clearings, in the evergreen forest. Prater, in a letter to me records meeting

one in these hills in May 1917. Two local skins were examined and measured,

one of 12 ft. and the other of 17 ft. in length, though the latter had been stretch-

ed in the curing. In the deciduous belt I once saw one on a rock, but it escaped

before I could capture it.

Family : Colubrinae

Elaphe helena (Tamil: Kattu Pambu.)

A common snake in the deciduous and rocky grassland belts. Seven speci-

mens were taken. The largest was 1200 mm. in length and very dark in

colour and had very few of the rings rouud it visible. Average length 670 mm.

Ptyas mucosus. (Tamil : Sara Pambu.)

Very common in all the belts. Those from the evergreen forest are consi-

derably darker than the others. Fourteen specimens were taken, the largest

2475 mm. in length. The fat surrounding the intestines is used by the local

people as a remedy for skin complaints; they apply the melted fat onto the

affected parts. I am informed that unless the fat is removed immediately the

snake is killed it loses its medicinal (?) properties and is useless !

Coluber fasciolatus.

Three specimens were taken in the deciduous forest belt, where they are

fairly common. It is an aggressive snake and will make no attempt to escape,

but it will stand its ground and bite readily with loud explosive hisses and this

plus its habit of inflating its neck makes it closely resemble a cobra. In spite

of its viciousness it is surprising how soon it becomes tame in captivity. One

female I had laid 7 eggs and shed its skin at the same time during March .

Oligodon venustus.

Fairly common ; five specimens were obtained in the evergreen forest and

rocky grassland belt. Average length 362 mm.

Oligodon travancoricus.

Also fairly common in the evergreen forest, which it rarely leaves. It is

more shy in its habits than the other snakes of this genus. Five specimens were

taken, including two juveniles (in April) ; the latter measured 100 mm. and

120 mm. in length. Their bellies were white with black spots compared to the

yellow of the adults. The adults averaged 387 mm. in length.

Oligodon taeniolatus.

A very common species preferring the higher elevations of the evergreen

forest. It is very fond of basking in the sun on rocks or on grass. My dog

caught two or three on the lawn when they were thus engaged. I captured a

few in my garden where they lived in stone revetments. One female I tried to

catch in April, retreated into a hole in the revetment just out of reach, and so I

removed some stones to get at her, and disclosed a cavity, in which were 9 ova

and the snake. On being picked up she bravely defended herself and her eggs,

and inflicted several bites on my fingers. The sensation was one as if cut by a

razor blade. In all eighteen specimens were taken, including a young one in

May which measured 75 mm. The average length of the adults was 390 mm.

SNAKES AND MAMMALS OF THE HIGH WAVY MOUNTAINS 457

Oligodon brevicauda.

One specimen only was taken in the evergreen forest ; the belly of it was more

orange than red in colour, I think it must have recently shed its skin, as it had

a beautiful sheen all ever it. This probably explains the orange colour. It

measured 393 mm. in length.

Lycodon travancoricus. (Tamil: Kattu Vyrian Pambu.)

Common in the evergeen forest near human habitations which it often enters.

Four of my five specimens were caught in my bungalow at night. They seem

to like a diet of cockroaches. Both the specimens I dissected contained their

remains, also those of other insects. They do, therefore, a certain amount of

good. Their average length was 420 mm.

Lycodon striatus.

Uncommon, only one specimen 185 mm. in length was taken in the deciduous

belt at about 3,000'.

Dryocalamus nympha. (Tamil: Kattu Vyrian Pambu.)

Three specimens were caught in my bungalow at night. Fairly common.

Their diet and habits are similar to the last genus. Average length 211 mm.

Natrix piscator melanzostus. (Tamil : Tanni Pambu.)

Two specimens were taken with a butterfly net whilst crossing a river. Two

others which evaded capture were seen in a large waterhole where they were

busy catching tadpoles. They were a joy to watch, they seemed so completely

in their element in the water, they dived beneath the surface and would swim

twenty yards or more before coming to the surface for breath. Under water they

seem able to swim faster than they can on the surface. One specimen 1 dissected

contained four tadpoles and two small fish 2" in length. They seem fairly

common in the evergreen forest. Average length 580 mm.

Natrix stolata.

Two specimens were taken in the deciduous belt where it is not uncommon

near streams. One of my specimens was found when half-eaten by a cobra

which I killed. The skin of this specimen, when stretched, disclosed a beautiful

brick-red colour beneath the scales. Average length 607 mm.

Macropisthodon plumbicolor. (Tamil: Pacha Pambu.)

Fairly common in the deciduous belt near water. I never saw one above

4,000 ft. Four specimens were taken including a young one 100 mm. in length (in

May). Average length 520 mm.

Atretium schistosum.

One specimen was taken in the deciduous belt. It does not appear

to be common. My specimen did not exhibit the red stripe down the body

in scale rows 5 and 6, which according to Wall (Fauna Brit. Ind., p. 320), speci-

mens from S. India should have. Perhaps it was due to its size as it only

measured 300 mm. in length.

Boiga ceylonensis. (Tamil : Komberi Mooken Pambu.)

This beautiful snake is very common in the evergreen forest and in the

deciduous belt. Fifteen specimens were taken. The females in every case were

smaller than the males, and were more orange than yellow in ground colour,

especially about the neck. This colour of course disappears after the specimen

is placed in spirit. Many of my specimens were found whilst sleeping in the

pandals of tea nurseries. One was found in the bungalow at night on the

picture rail ; how it got there I cannot imagine. Picking this snake up by the

tail to avoid being bitten (for it is very aggressive and bites readily) is quite

useless, as it rapidly climbs up its own body and inflicts a painful bite on the

band that holds it. I found this out with one of my first specimens, a female, I

had extracted from a hole in a tree, by its tail. After being bitten, I grabbed its

4~8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

neck with the other hand whereupon it promptly laid 7 eggs in my hand ! This

incident occurred in April. If pursued in a brush or pandal it can travel amaz-

ingly quickly, and can jump out a good distance onto the ground. They are

excellent climbers ; I once saw the shed skin of one wedged into the bark of

a tree over 15 feet up, its owner was a little lower down on a branch. Their

main diet consists of frogs, tree lizards, and other snakes and insects of various

kinds. They are also partial to small birds -; one specimen I dissected contained

the feathers of some bird it had eaten. Sometimes if handled by the neck it

can eject a stream of evil-smelling fluid from the anus yellow and white in

colour, which is most unpleasant, and the smell is difficult to get rid of. I have

noticed this habit in some of the Uropeltidae also. Their average lengths were :

males 970 mm and females 760 mm.

Dryophis dispar. (Tamil: Pachelli Pambu.)

Very common in the evergreen forest and in the deciduous belt. Thirteen

specimens were taken. One found in March in a hollow log had just deposited

11 ova, which seems most unusual as this species is known to be viviparous. I

can only put it down to a case of premature birth as the young were fully formed

in the ova and were able to make good their escape when I cut the ova open.

They measured 70 to 90 mm. The average length of the adults was 785 mm.

Dryophis perroteti.

Two specimens were taken in the deciduous belt. It does not appear to be

common. ' One of my specimens was more olive-brown in colour than the usual

o-reen. One young one was also taken (in May) which measured 340 mm.

The adults averaged 650 mm.

Dryophis pulverulentus. Uncommon. Only one specimen taken in the decidu-

ous belt. The brown stripes on the sides of the head were very indistinct.

Length 672 mm.

Callophis nigrescens.

One specimen was taken in the deciduous belt whilst shedding its skin on a

rock. The new skin was bright scarlet though the unshed part w-as quite dull.

It seems to be rare in this area as none of the local people had ever seen one

befoie.

Naja naja r.aja. (Tamil: Nalla Pambu.)

Seven specimens were taken in the deciduous belt where it is fairly

common up to 2,500 ft. One male specimen measuring 7 '6" in length (2,250 mm.)

was one of the so-called Black Cobras which are rather rare in the South. The

spectacle markings were hardly visible ; the lower part of the hood being

jet-black. The lower jaw and underneath the hood was yellowish, and changed

^nto one* narrow and two broad black bars with brown in between, about 9"

from the head. The tail was jet black above and lighter below. On being

examined, the fangs were found to be missing and the surrounding areas rather

sore. There were' two reserve fangs on each side, but these had not come into

use ' It must have lost them in attempting to kill some animal, which escaped,

though no doubt died later on. This specimen is probably exceptional as

regards size. Wall records one V in length from Ceylon. One female specimen

was killed whilst devouring a Green Keelback. Their average was 1,400 mm.

Naja hanna. (Tamil : Raj Naga Pambu.)

Not very common. Some years ago one was shot in the deciduous forest at

2 000 ft. and measured 16' in length. This is the only record I have of one

being seen in this area.

Family : Viperidae.

Vipera russelli. (Tamil : Kanna Vyrian Pambu.)

Two small specimens were taken in the lower part of the deciduous belt.

Both were much lighter in colour than usual. They averaged 640 mm. in

length. They are uncommon in this area. ■

SNAKES AND MAMMALS OF THE HIGH WAVY MOUNTAINS 459

Trimeresurus macrolepis. (Tamil : Chatti Thaela Pambu.)

This species is very common though confined entirely to the evergreen

forest. It is often found in the loose leaves at the base of clumps of ^Eeta.

After having seen three broods of young ranging from 4 to 7 in number, among

the leaves at the base of these clumps (in October) I have come to the conclu-

sion that they are born there, and only venture out after they have attained a

size of 8" or more. On danger approaching, the young hurry back to the

protection of the leaves and completely bury themselves in them. I never

found an adult accompanying these broods. Colour variations in this species

are considerable, and range from dark-green (almost black) in the wet weather

to light yellowish-green in the dry weather. Ferguson (Fauna Brit. Ind., p. 513)

has noted similar seasonal colour changes in T . malabaricus . A number of the

specimens caught had two fangs on either side in use and both were capable of

injecting venom. One dissected specimen had 6 and 7 reserve fangs, in addition

to 2 on each side already in use. They ranged from 3 to 15 mm. in length.

Several specimens had damaged vertebrae. They are often met with in the

monsoon lying on top of tea bushes, where they are aimbst invisible. We had

three cases of pluckers being bitten on the hands. None of them were fatal

though intense swelling took place and the patients’ temperature went up to

over 100°. The swelling usually subsided after 2 to 4 days, and finally after a

week or so patches of skin surrounding the wound would slough. 1 was told

that some years ago ' a two-month old baby was bitten on the neck by one and

in spite of medical attention it died within 24 hours. This snake must do a lot

of good in controlling rats, as many of the specimens caught had rats in their

stomachs. One had swallowed three full-sized ones, and was extremely

sluggish and made no attempt to defend itself on being picked up. The largest

specimen taken measured 1,0C0 mm. but the average size was 570 mm. Out of

37 specimens caught, 15 had the two small scales, between the supraocular and

frontal shields (fig. 1). Smith (Fauna Brit. Ind., p. 505) mentions this charac-

teristic to be rare, but in these hills at any rate it is very common, as the above

figures show. I have two specimens which exhibit only one small scale on one

side only (fig. 2).

•Fig

Normal

Nig. 2

Head of Trimeresurus macrolepis showing extra scales

(After Smith)

Trimeresurus malabaricus. (Tamil: Vyrian Pambu. )

Two small specimens were taken in the tea area. It does not appear to

be' common. They averaged 480 mm. in length.

- Trimeresurus gramiueus. Only one specimen taken at the far S.W. end of the

hills in evergreen forest at about 3,800" . Not common. It measured 420 mm.

in length.

460 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

Trimeresurus button! sp. nov. Two juveniles belonging to the same

brood were taken from beneath an Eeta clump in the evergreen forest. A

search failed to reveal others in the vicinity. This species has been fully

described by Dr. Malcolm Smith elsewhere in this number of the Jotirnal fp. 596.)

In concluding these notes I would like to express my gratitude

to Dr. Malcolm Smith of the British Museum (Natural History) for

his valuable help and suggestions, and to the Curator and staff of the

B.N.H. Society, who have helped me with many of the identifica-

tions ; to those of my friends who have helped me with the collect-

ing I also wish to express my thanks.

The majority of the snakes mentioned in these notes are in my

own collection, some I am giving to the B.N.H.S. museum and some

to the British Museum (Natural History). Most of my live speci-

mens, which were duplicates, were released after examination.

(To be continued)

JUNGLE MEMORIES

BY

Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian- Adams, o.b.e., f.z.s., i.a. (Retd.)

Part III — Panthers1

( With two plates )

‘A panther looks what he really is, a. perfect swine,’ says Col.

A. E. Stewart in his very instructive book Tiger and other Game.

But while every sportsman will most certainly agre,e with his

description of the tiger (man-eaters of course excepted), as ‘a

contented gentleman or an angry one, but always a gentleman’,

I do not think that many will accept his definition of the panther.

After all the latter is only a smaller edition of the tiger, and that

he lacks nobility is due solely to his lack of inches — in courage

and grace he compares very favourably with his larger cousin.

Cunning he most certainly is to the nth degree, but that makes

him all the more difficult to bag, and to outwit him on his own

ground needs the most careful attention to detail.

Some people reg-ard panthers as vermin, and admittedly they

can be at times a very serious nuisance, but on the other side

of the account must be placed their destruction of wild pigs, which

cause so much damage to cultivation that Government have found it

necessary to pay a reward for them in areas where panthers have

been shot out.

‘Beauty is in the eye of the beholder,’ according to an Arab

proverb and so opinions necessarily differ, but personally I can-

not see any reason for disparaging such a fine sporting animal,

whose skin makes a very handsome trophy, and whose pursuit

involves that risk of danger which is the essence of big game

shikar. It is not every one who can afford to go after tiger,

but the needy sportsman will find the panther a very passable

substitute.

Since the panther is in fact a miniature edition of the tiger,

the methods by which he may be brought to bag are much the

same as in the case of ‘Tom Puss’, but for all practical purposes

they may be divided into three heads — beating, sitting up, and chance-

met.

Beating for panthers is seldom successful, as they can run up

a tree like a cat, or lie low in a bush not much bigger than a

teapot and so remain unseen when the beaters pass, while if they

are driven forward the chances are that they will pass unnoticed

1 To avoid confusion with the Cheetah or Hunting Leopard, I have through-

out used the name Panther in preference to Leopard, but there is, of course, no

difference whatever between the two names.

462 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 48

unless the stops are very carefully placed and the guns are well

concealed. For the same reasons chance encounters are no more

frequent than in the case of tigers, and the normal method of

bringing a panther bag is by sitting up, either in a tree or on the

ground over a bait, which may be the remains of an animal already

killed or, as is more usually the case, over a live goat, whose

bleating serves to attract the panther. Generally speaking I have

found that sitting up over an animal already killed is more likely

to produce results than the latter method, owing to the fact that

the panther is already located, whereas with a goat he may not be

within hearing. But it would be a great mistake to suppose that

either method is infallible — even with the greatest attention to

detail the result is by no means a certainty, while without that

attention, sitting up is largely waste of time. I certainly sat up

more than 20 times before I saw a panther at all, largely due,

as I now’ realise, to lack of elementary precautions, and the lessons

1 have learnt are now being passed on for the benefit of others.

It is of course impossible to guarantee success, but after all who

wants more than a reasonable chance? ‘Sport reduced to a certainty

is sport robbed of its essence,’ saying Thomas in The Rod in India,

and that applies as much to shooting* as it does to fishing.

My First Panther

There is no truer saying as regards shikar than ‘C’est le premier

pas qui coute’. In the first 5 years of my service in India I had

shot tiger, bear, oorial, gooral, black buck, chinkara & kakur, but

I simply could not get a panther. Following the advice of other

sportsmen I sat up again and again, but without result, and it

seemed as if I was fated never to see a panther. Then in 1909

my luck at last turned, and after that I had no further difficulty.

During divisional manouevres near Poona I noticed some hills

north of Khadkala railway station which were said always to hold

panther, so as soon as work permitted I obtained 3 days leave,

and went into camp near the village of Somawrie. On arrival

I was informed that a panther was lying up not far away, so the

following day was spent in beating the slopes, but no panther

appeared though I bagged a kakur, and a pig for the villagers.

Next morning I started about 9 a.m. to honk the slopes above Jamboli,

when a man ran up with news of a panther just seen to enter

some thick jungle at the foot of a long spur, so I hurried off in the

new direction. My first position was on the top of the steep bank

of a nullah running uphill — the latter was about 100 yards broad

and covered with jungle, and as I could not command the whole, I

put a man in a tree opposite me on the far side. Not long after

the beat commenced he signalled silently that the panther had passeo

below him, so I doubled about 400 yards uphill as hard as I could

go fo a place where the nullah was much narrower and I could

command the whole. About 10 minutes later I heard something

moving in the bushes and the panther came out some 50 yards away,

quite unconscious of my presence though I was sitting in the open

on a bare sloping rock not more than 15 feet above it. I fired at

its shoulder with my No. 2 Express and knocked it over — it got up

Ph0l0 H. H, Maharao of Kotah

A panther sights the tie-up.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate ii

I'hot^s

A big male shot at Anaikatti.

An Anaikatti panther with Kasaba:

Author

JUNGLE MEMORIES

463

again however with a roar and rushed uphill, when I got in another

shot, a little low. Finding the hill too steep for its broken shoulder

it turned back and lay up in the middle of a patch of thick cover

some 50 yards long by 30 across in the bed of the nullah. Mean-

while the beaters had come up, so I ringed the place with some

men up trees while the rest tried to stone it out towards me, but

beyond extracting some savage growls and moving the brute 5

yards their efforts had no result. Knowing that the panther was

badly wounded 1 called a stand-fast for half an hour — the monotony

of waiting being relieved by a black pye dog which rushed into

the cover and came out a lot quicker than he went in. Shortly

.after, a Bhil on the other side of the nullah who had partly descended

the steep bank, said he could see the panther, and let fly with an

.arrow— she was out after him like a flash with a roar of rage and

with the arrow sticking in her flank. The man dropped his bow

and bolted uphill, and everyone roared with laughter. She was

too crippled to follow him and withdrew to the thicket before I could

get a shot in. Obviously the next move devolved on me so I

crossed the nullah higher up and went down to where the Bhil

had been. After some minutes I made out a patch of skin and

fired, hitting as I afterwards found about the shoulder — that moved

her a few yards and I then cautiously entered the jungle. At first

I could see nothing in the chequer work of light and shade which

blended so well with her coat, but at last made her out only 10

yards away and gave her a finisher with a shot through the back.

The first 3 shots had all hit on or nearly on the shoulder (440

grain copper tubed bullets) and the vitality she showed was amaz-

ing. I have noticed in other cases that a shot a little off-centre

is often attended with similar results, and that further shots, unless

they hit the bull’s-eye, tend rather to increased resistance — the

explanation is I believe the secretion of adrenaline.

And so all was well and at last I had bagged my first panther —

an old female with a very dark skin — not much in size but that

did not matter ! When skinning her we found the stomach distend-

ed with meat — the beaters had driven her off the carcase of a

Bullock killed overnight, and were delighted at her death, as she

had been giving a lot of trouble. Nearly 40 years have elapsed

but the memory of that day is still clear, and above all I shall never

forget the picture she made as she chased the Bhil with the arrow

sticking in her flank. I don’t know that there is any particular

lesson to be learned from the episode except that no liberties can

be taken even with a badly wounded animal.

Beating

The following extracts from my diary show how disappointing

beating for panthers can be in spite of my initial success: — April

20th. Another panther reported to be lying up over kill in deep glen

N.N.W. of Rakaswadi, so beat for him but he broke out at side

and came across plain to some jungle close to camp. Continued

beating and shot a nice kakur. On return to camp at 5.30 p.m.

heard about panther but decided it was too late to beat — had I

5

464 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

done so I should probably have got him, as he had killed and was

lying- up only 800 yards away.

2 1 st. The man who went to look at goat tied up last night

near camp walked on top of panther which had killed heifer last

evening. We ringed him and I hurried uphill to cover his line

of retreat, but the beat was blank as he had broken back due to>

beaters not keeping line. Went uphill and beat slopes from camp

to Jamboli but saw nothing except a mouse-deer which came under

my tree and at which of course I could not fire. Sat up in

evening over kill but without result.

22nd. Went out before dawn and got on to line of retreat from

kill. At 7 a.m. the shikari and a few others went to kill and made a

little noise — the idea being that the panther would come out to me,

but he had left before I arrived after eating- more of the kill. Sat

up over kill in evening — panther came within 50 yards judging

by the monkeys cursing but would not touch the goat which I had

tied up. Left goat out when I returned to camp at 8 p.m.

23rd. Off before dawn and found panther had again anticipated

us — the goat had been killed and beyond the blood we could find

no trace of it. Collected some men and beat the south hill from

end to end, seeing nothing but fresh pugs of this panther and a

smaller one. Then beat slopes on far side of hill and saw panther

some 400 yards away race along in front of the beaters with his

tail on end — he was just below the crest so they could not see him.

The men beat well but he lay low or broke out somewhere.

24th. Beat the north hills but all we saw was a huge boar

which I missed as he passed me at a gallop in the last beat. On

the following day my leave being up I had to return to Poona.

My lack of success sitting up was due to the machan not being

properly screened, and it was a mistake leaving out at night SO'

small an animal as a goat — a young buffalo or a donkey would

have been better. I see from my diary that beaters then cost only

4 as. per diem — what a contrast with prices today ! I often wonder

what the place is like now — quite probably the area is submerged

by the lake which was formed some years later.

My experiences on that trip convinced me that except under

specially favourable circumstances it, is far better to sit up for

panther, and the great majority of the 62 of which I have records

have been obtained by that method. I have occasionally beaten for

them in the years between, but. do not remember ever getting a

shot except once near Prome (Burma) in 1913, when an animal

rushed past me in knee-high grass and a lucky snapshot rolled it

over. And then I discovered to my regret that it was not the

panther at all but an unfortunate monkey — however the Burmans

ate it so it was not wasted !

Night Shooting

My first success sitting up was during a month’s trip to Raipur

in the Central Provinces in 1910. Some cattle had managed to get

out of the village close to my camp during the night of the 3rd

April, and a panther had killed one and mauled another as they

were eating mhowa. I had a machan erected in a convenient tree,

JUNGLE MEMORIES

465 >

and since there was no moon and the panther could not be expected

till after dark so close to the village, I fixed a small electric lamp

to shine on the kill. I was in position by 6 p.m. but it was npt

till 8.15 than I heard the sound of tearing. I raised my rifle and

completed the circuit of the lamp, and then saw the panther behind

the kill apparently petrified by the light. My shot was answered

by a roar, but the lamp failed and I had to fire the left barrel at

a venture, hitting as I afterwards found, the kill. I followed this

up by a dose of buckshot from the 12 bore which apparently also

missed. Soon after lights appeared from my camp which was

only a few hundred yards away. The men came on carelessly in.

spite of my warning them, and my chokra Karim nearly walked on

the top of the panther. He roared and they all bolted — fortunately

no harm was done. I sent for more lamps and then got down

from the machan and walked the panther up. At 10 yards he roared

again and the lampmen wavered but I encouraged them and went

a bit closer, when I was able to put in a finishing shot. He was

a fine male. The first shot had caught him behind the shoulder high

up and broken his back. I guessed that he was anchored or I

would have left him till next morning. An interesting sequel was

that when skinning him we found a large iron arrow head 4J inches

long by if board under the skin of the head ; the wound had

completely healed, and all that was visible externally was the end.

of the shaft which was turned up at right angles and protruded

near the ear. I have the arrow head still and have often wondered

what happened to the man who loosed it ; the local villagers could

tell me nothing. From my diary I see that after the carcase

had been cleaned up by vultures, one of the latter fell dead from,

the sky about noon close to my tent with a tremendous thud. The

body was burst open from its impact with the ground and there

was nothing- to show the cause of death. I can only imagine that

it had over-eaten and died of apoplexy !

Panther’s Sense of Smell

Hearing that there were always a couple of panthers hanging"

round Visapur fort within easy reach from Poona, I went out there-

for a weekend to reconnoitre. I took only a bivouac tent and as-

little kit as possible, since everything had to be carried up the

bad hill path over the col between the Visapur and Lohodgarh

forts. I pitched my tent under a fig tree close up against the cliff

face of Lohodgarh, and spent the next 2 days with Bandoo the

local shikari exploring the country and the extremely interest-

ing ruins and caves in the vicinity. I found that there were two*

water holes not far from the village — one under the southern slopes

of Lohodgarh and one above the col between the two forts— and I

tied up goats at both by night but without result. I then had to

return to Poona, but left my camp standing with my orderly in

charge and 3 goats to tie up. Some days later I received a pre-

arranged telegram reporting kills, so got 3 days’ leave and went out

again. I sat up at what I named the ‘South water’ and after dark

saw an indistinct shape approach the goat, which when I turned

on my lamp, proved to be a hyena. He and the goat stood nose to

466 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

nose for quite half a minute, when I threw a cartridge at him and

he bolted. I gave it up at 9.30 p.m. ‘being eaten alive by large black

.ants’ according to my diary ! Next night I sat up near the col

not far from camp, below a high bank, and a panther came down-

hill behind and almost on the top of me before he bolted. To shoot

was impossible. If I had had any sense I ought then to have

given it up and returned to camp, but I continued sitting up the

whole night, with of course no result. But I have at least one

memory of that occasion — a magnificent view of Halley’s comet

spread across the sky above the ramparts of Lohodgarh, and a

tree below the cluff face scintillating with hundreds of fireflies.

On the 3rd night the goat at the col was killed and carried off

into some fairly dense but low jungle north of the fort, so I

beat for it, sitting myself at the end of the ‘Scorpions sting’ —

then tried the south side, and then back to camp, but though the

panther was in each beat, I never saw it. I next went and looked

at the kill which had been found in the first beat and put up a

.sapling by a beater. The jungle was so low that I could not find

a tree for the machan nearer than 50 yards from the spot where

the kill had been found, so I had the latter dragged 3 times to and

iro to leave a trail, and finally pegged down in front of me. The

machan was terribly exposed and only 8 feet from the ground (no

higher tree was available) and when I climbed into it at 4 p.m. I

had little hope of success, but there are times when everything goes

right, and this was one of them. At 4.30 p.m. the panther suddenly

materialised where it had left the goat, and then came across the

open towards the machan noising the drag line just like a dog.

When it reached the kill it sat up and licked itself. All the time

I had been sitting rigid, but when it turned its back, only 10 feet

from me, I very slowly raised the rifle and shot it through the spine —

a young female with an abnormally long tail. I see from my diary

that I had to skin it myself as no chamars were available. The

episode is I think of special interest, as it shows that panthers

•do possess far more than a rudimentary sense of smell. The kill

was comparatively fresh and not really ‘fruity’, so there cannot

bave been a great deal of scent, and yet this panther was able

to nose it out and follow the trail. For the rest, it is hard to

say which was the bigger B.F. — myself for sitting up in such an

exposed position or the panther for not spotting me !

Shooting from a Pit

While on recruiting duty in 1915, I heard that a man had been

mauled by a panther near Bommasamudram village about 10 miles

from Vellore, so on the 16th April went out to prospect. Not far

from the village was a long hill covered with scrub jungle, and

with numerous caves formed by huge rocks piled one upon the

other— an ideal place for panther. I spent the morning bombing

some caves with rockets and exploring the larger ones. The latter

sounds rather a foolhardy proceeding but I had read that tigers

were obtained this way in Korea. However, nothing resulted and

as there were no trees for a machan nor bushes thick enough for a

hide, I had a dug-out made in an open field some 100 yards from

JUNGLE MEMORIES

467"

the hill. My diary unfortunately does not give the dimensions of

the pit, but 1 remember that it was big enough to hold myself and

my orderly. It was roofed with poles, bushes and grass over which

earth was spread and levelled out to match the surrounding ground.

There was a small loophole not more than a foot high and about

6 inches broad, and the hole for ingress was closed by a bush.

When completed it was very hard to distinguish even from a

short distance. The bait was a sheep, as no goats could be obtained,

and a small py e-dog was also tied up to add attraction. Nothing

happened the first night though I was pretty sure that the panther

was in the vicinity, and on the second night I put my orderly

in the pit with a single barrel 12 bore while I sat up elsewhere.

About 10 p.m. I heard a shot from the dug-out and shouts, so went

over and found that the panther had killed the sheep and that

the orderly had fired but missed it. I returned to my own hide and

half an hour later heard 2 more shots. This time there was no

mistake and a fine male panther lay dead alongside the sheep ;

the pye puppy — poor little beast — was untouched. This panther

had mauled 3 men and the villagers had been afraid to leave their

houses after dark for some months past, so he was well out of

the way. When skinning I found a lot of prickly-pear thorns

in chest, fore-arms and tail all turned quite black; they cannot have

improved his temper.

The same dug-out was used a month later with equally successful

results, and this method is recommended when the ground is open

and no suitable tree or bush is handy. But the stifling heat is a

drawback, and also the difficulty of firing through such a small

loophole. One has to be very careful too not to get earth down the

barrel of the weapon. Both these panthers were shot with

Destructor bullets from a 12 bore, and were laid out on the spot.

Under such conditions an electric light is out of the question so

the brighter the moon the better. If possible the bait should be

outlined against the sky, and not more than 5 yards away from,

the loophole.

The Ghatkesara Panthers

No further opportunities with panthers occurred till 1921, when

I rejoined my regiment in Secunderabad after its return from

Mesopotamia. From General E. F. Burton’s Indian Olio I knew

that Secunderabad had been a good sporting centre in days gone by,

so as soon as we had settled down I started exploring the various

roads out of the station. One afternoon towards the end of April

I went down the Bhongir road about 14 miles and spotted a very

likely looking hill near the village Ghatkesara. It was the usual

Deccan type of kopje, with a number of thorny bushes scattered

over it, while huge piles of rocks indicated caves. Local enquiries

elicited the information that a panther had killed several goats

recently, so I engaged a Secunderabad shikari and sent him to

make the necessary arrangements. On the 1st May I went out

again and after a very hot run reached the village about 5 p.m.

The shikari had fixed up a hide of bushes (locally known as a

‘mart’) at the edge of a small dry tank at the foot of the hill; and

468 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Vol. 48

the goat was tethered' about 15 yards away. I sat up till 7.30 p.m.

when I gave it up as there was no moon. Next evening when

I reached the village the shikari told me that the panther had

followed us back almost to the road, and later had killed a goat

which he had taken into a small cave in low rocks at the base of

the hill. This time the machan was in a tree and the goat about

7 yards away ; I fixed up the electric lamp and got into position

about 5-30 p.m. At 7.30 there was a sudden rush and the panther

seized the goat, broke the rope and was away up the hill before I

could raise my rifle. I heard him tear the goat open not far offi —

that unmistakable sound of a feline feeding — but it was useless

going after him. So I quietly left my machan in order not to

•disturb him (with a view to future eventualities) and went back to

the men, who were waiting some 400 yards away. With more

experience I should have realised that this was a big male panther

.and not the one I had been trying for till then ; however I Was to

deal with him in due course. Next evening found me sitting up

again, this time in a mart on the ground at the foot of the hill.

Till dusk I kept the rifle handy, but after that changed it for the

1 2 bore with a Lethal bullet in the right and buck-shot in the left.

I had an electric lamp fixed to a bush some yards away from my

hide, and at 8.30 p.m. feeling it was hopeless tp stay longer told

4 he shikari to turn on the light to test it. I saw what looked like

a panther some 30 yards beyond the goat, but the light went

•out before I could be certain. However, when it was turned on again

I saw a small panther walking past behind the goat, and had a

quick shot but missed. After this I determined to give him a

couple of days to get over his scare, but on the 6th May was back

again with a new plan. I felt sure that the goat had been tied

too close on previous occasions and that the panther was shy of

any suspicious looking bush, so ordered the goat to be tethered

70 yards away when the flock was driven past. I watched till

dusk but nothing happened, so I withdrew to a machan previously

prepared, and had the goat fastened within close range. While

we were moving back the shikari told1 me that he had seen the

panther on the rocks and that he was sure to follow us. He did

so, but it was too dark to see him under my tree, and as he refused

the goat I had to give it up. It was disappointing to have spent

so much time and trouble in vain but I felt sure that perseverance

would in due course be rewarded, and next evening was to prove

me right.

I purposely arrived earlier than usual, and by 5 p.m. was

in my hide between two big rocks with the entrance well bushed —

the goat was tethered 70 yards away and called well. At 6.30 p.m.

I saw the panther sitting on the rocks beyond1 staring down at

the goat, and fired at his shoulder, but underestimated the distance

and the bullet struck low, tearing the skin off his chest and the

muscles of his fore-arm, as I found later. At the shot he made

a tremendous bound high in the air, landing some 20 feet down,

and then turned and looked up at the rock he had just left, evidently

wondering where that nasty blow had' come from. I stood up and

fired again but apparently missed, and he turned up the ravine

JUNGLE MEMORIES 46^

sX a slow trot. I jumped on to a rock and had 2 more snapshots

both of which hit him as I knew by his answering- roar. At the

head of the ravine he turned left and tried to get back to his cave,

but a rock he had to climb was too much for him and just before

he reached the top he fell back. A cautious approach showed him

lying dead— a small male with a long tail.

After a couple of days 1 went out again to prospect and found,

as I should have realised before, that there was still another

panther, a big male which had killed 3 goats near a well the night

before. It was then too late to do anything, but next evening

found me at 5.15 p.m. in a mart among the rocks at the foot of

the kopje with the goat 70 yards away. The position was how-

ever badly chosen as I could not see the panther if he came out

of his cave or till he was near the goat. At 6.45 p.m. I got fed

up and whistled up the men, and as we went to untie the goat I

thought I saw something move in the bushes 50 yards away half-

way up the hill, but could not be certain — it might have been a

hare but may have been the panther. Thinking matters over I

felt sure that we were wasting our time working the west side

of the kopje which overlooked both the railway and the main road

not far distant, whereas the east side was towards the open country

and the panther might be expected to emerge earlier. On the 12th

afternoon I therefore occupied a hide overlooking the east slope ; the

hock of goats was driven right over the kopje, and as they passed

one was tethered about 50 yards below me at the foot of the hill.

The flock had not; gone 5 minutes before the panther appeared

in the mouth of the cave about 150 yards away— after a good look

all round and at the goat he lay down and surveyed the country

for a full hour. Satisfied at length t;hat all was well, he then

started to come down the hill and it was a pretty sight watching

the stalk. At one place, evidently out of view of the goat, he sat

down on a sloping rock and slithered down till it became too steep

when he jumped the remainder. He was still too far for a shot,

and by the time he had got within 30 yards of the goat it was

.getting dark and I could hardly distinguish him even with my

glasses. I did not want the goat killed unnecessarily, so quietly

left my hide, unfastened the goat and went downhill whistling

to the men who were some 400 yards away. I neither saw nor

heard the panther go, but of course he did. Evidently he was a

bit puzzled, as after I had left he walked round and round the

place where the goat had been tied, and also rolled in the sand

there.

Next evening saw me in another hide by 5.15 p.m. — this time

at the foot of the rocks at the south end of the kopje. The goat

was below me and about 15 yards away. My position thus covered

from a flank the panther’s probable line of approach. As on the

day before, the flock had not been gone 5 minutes before the

panther came out of the cave. He was hungry for, so far as we

knew, he had killed nothing for 4 days, and within a few minutes

he started to descend. Half way down the hill he turned up a

•cleft of rocks away from me and I nearly fired, but he had bounded

up too quickly. A minute later I saw a bit of him as he took up a

470 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

position in the shade behind a large rock. All I could make out

were his head and paws for the next 45 minutes, and several times

I thought of firing but the shot was a difficult one, and I hoped

that by waiting I might have a better opportunity. Besides making

a general survey of the country he several times stared intently

at the hide, and if I and t,be orderly had not kept absolutely

motionless he would certainly have spotted us ; he had good cause

for suspicion as we found later. At last about 6.30 p.m. his

head was withdrawn and I knew that he would shortly re-appear

in the cleft, so got ready to shoot. Just as he was about to jump

down I fired at his throat. He fell over and for a few seconds was-

motionless, then got up and went behind the rock where he had

been lying so long. I climbed on to a boulder and saw him stand-

ing still, looking very sick, halfway up to the cave. I fired again

but was unsteady and missed, and before I could reload he had

reached the cave. The approach to it up the hill was not pleasant

but there was no other way, so taking the 12 bore loaded with buck-

shot and closely supported by my orderly with the .405 Winchester, I

cautiously advanced. A heavy blood trail led to the cave, inside

which we could hear a deep sound of breathing. The cave mouth

was wide but I could at first see nothing, till the shikari pointed

out the panther lying in a cleft between two rocks about 5 yards

away — he was motionless but still breathing so I brained him.

The first shot had broken the left lower jaw and passed on into

the body, nearly coming out behind the left shoulder, so he would

not have lived long in any case. He was a fine male and had an

old wound on the withers apparently .'from a small bore rifle.

The injury was on both sides of the spine, and must have been

caused by a bullet fired when he was crouching, otherwise his back

must inevitably have been broken. The new hair was just grow-

ing round it — no wonder we had so much trouble bringing him to

bag. I remember that when we got back to my bungalow in

Secunderabad, every dog in the neighbourhood started to bark

furiously, having no doubt got the panther’s scent.

A fortnight later I shot 2 more panthers a few miles further

on, both at the first attempt. One came on to the rocks over-

looking the goat and I killed him with a single shot from the hide.

The second was spotted sunning himself on some rocks on our

way out and a long shot at him missed, but this did not deter

him from following us and rushing the goat at dusk. I fired at

what I thought was the centre of his chest, but the bullet went

through the loose skin of the armpit. He rushed straight down-

hill at us and I had just time to stand up and fire a point blank

shot into his face. I do not for a moment suppose that he was

charging; no doubt he was simply bolting away from the echo

of the shot, and the crack of the bullet on the rock behind him.

But all the same it was closer work than I like and shows how

desirable it is to be above the goat. In this case there was no

alternative to siting the hide downhill.

At the risk of being tedious, I have dealt with the first two

of these panthers at some length, to show how necessary patience

is to circumvent these cunning brutes1.. Altogether it took me-

JUNGLE MEMORIES

4711

nearly a fortnight to bring them both to bag, and I sat up eight

times. With more care in selecting the sites for the hides, time-

would undoubtedly have been saved, but I had my duties to attend.

to in Secunderabad and could not get away till the afternoons,

so had to leave most of the arrangements to my shikari. Even

so, and granting that one of the panthers was unusually suspicious

owing to his former wound, I feel sure that more personal attention;

would have produced a quicker result. Later on I shall give

full details regarding the construction of hides and bandobust:

generally, so will only add here that except in very special cases

it is better to tie up the goat within 15 yards of the hide, and that

70 yards was much too far.

Machan Shooting

Having dealt with sitting up on rocky ground, I will now

select some incidents of shooting from a machan which seem tCK

me of special interest. The first was in December 1929 when

one of my young buffaloes was reported killed on the Sirur road,

about a mile from the Forest Rest House at Anaikatti. I sent

two men to put up a machan, warning them to be particularly

careful to cut the wood some distance away, and also to screen,

the machan all round. News then arrived of a second kill across

the river some miles away in the opposite direction, so I proceeded

there and had several beats which proved blank. I was back at

the bungalow by 2.45 p.m. and after a hurried meal left to sit up

just as a message arrived asking me to hurry since the panther was.

on the move. By 4 p.m. I was in the machan which had been

built in one of a number of close growing trees in the bed of a;

nullah. The kill was about 20 yards distant — all one hind quarter

had been eaten and the whole stomach carefully removed, which

indicated a large panther, as indeed his pugs showed him to be.

He was expected to return either in front or to the right, but I was

not too happy about the nullah behind me, as the machan, in

spite of my instructions, was not well screened on that side. How-

ever there was no time to do anything as a sambar was persistently

belling uphill and the panther was obviously not far off. At 4.30-

p.m. a red mongoose arrived and it was very amusing to watch

her — I say ‘her’ because from the size it was obviously a female

in what is sometimes described as ‘an interesting condition’ ! She

worked round and round the kill and took at least half an hour

to decide that it was safe to approach, when she at last started/

feeding, her mate joining her shortly after. The sambar was again-

belling at 6 p.m. and as 1 calculated that the panther was still some

distance away, I took the opportunity, before the light failed, to*

fit the electric torch to the side of my 12 bore — which of course-

I ought to have done as soon as I got into the machan. I had not

used one before and failed to realise that some noise was inevitable.

However it did not seem to worry the mongooses. Half an hour

later the light went, and at 6.45 p.m. I saw the panther, a grey

nebulous shape, coming from under my machan towards the kill.

I waited till it started eating, and then raised my gun, but in

spite of all my care the torch clinked against the barrel and then-.

472

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

•came off in my left hand, so that I had to fire with the right only.

I felt sure that I had put the charge of buckshot into his shoulder,

but he did not answer the shot and we never saw him again, nor

did a search at dawn reveal any blood or other signs. That I

lost him was entirely my own fault ; I should have seen to the

proper fitting of the torch as soon as I got into the machan, and

it would have been far better to have used the rifle. Buckshot is

all right for close range and especially for following in thick cover,

but it leaves no blood trail as a bullet does.

In September 1936 I was again in camp at Anaikatti, this

time accompanied by a friend. We had two young buffaloes tied

up and the first night one was killed, so having won the toss, I

went to sit up the following evening. The machan was in a fine

tamarind tree overlooking a broad sandy nullah in which lay the

kill some 15 yards distant. Only a little had been eaten off the

buttocks so the panther might be expected early — in fact the man

who was keeping the vultures off told me that it had approached

a short time before but had been driven away by a herd of Badaga

buffaloes grazing in the vicinity. I had the latter shifted some

distance and was settled in the machan by 4 p.m. It was very

comfortable, and well hidden by the broad branches and heavy

foliage of the old tree. By leaning back against the trunk I could

keep an eye on the nullah to the right up which the panther had

retired and by which she would presumably return. Time passed

pleasantly watching a small white-bellied drongo hawking insects,

and a young white-browed fantail flycatcher being fed by its

parents; it was amazingly tame and was often within arm’s reach.

At 5.45 p.m. out of the corner of my eye I saw the panther

behind the tree coming towards the kill and on my left. She

looked a pretty sight with the tip of her tail curled and her beauti-

ful colouring in the evening light. Beneath the machan she. stopped

to look at the kill and under normal conditions I should have

waited till she started feeding before I took the shot. But there

was a path close by up which someone might pass and scare her

away, so I determined to fire at once. Cautiously lifting the

rifle I tried to point it at her and as I did so her hindquarters

.sank down. I feared that she had heard some slight movement

of mine and that I had messed things up, but all was well, and by

craning over I saw that she was sitting up beneath me and still

.gazing to her front. It was a most awkward shot, as I could not

get the butt to my shoulder and had to fire the rifle rather after a

fashion of a two-handed pistol, but the bullet went true, catching

her between the shoulders and passing through the heart — she

-could not have been 12 feet away from the muzzle. After a few

gasps she lay still and I whistled up the men who were delighted

that I had at last broken my run of bad luck in these jungles.

She was an old female with blunted upper canines and taped

£ feet 6 inches between pegs.

We had hardly started back when my driver G. who was

with me, saw a panther’s head peering out of the bushes, so I was

mot surprised to learn next morning that two panthers had visited

4he kill during the night and gorged heavily. It was B.’s turn

JUNGLE MEMORIES 473

.to sit up and I urged him to take a torch as I felt sure that after

such a heavy meal the panthers would not return till after dark,

but he was prejudiced against the use of artificial light (every

one is of course entitled to his own opinion), with the result that

when they arrived he could not see to shoot. The panthers were

very noisy, and were probably trying to intimidate a hyena s which

was shot later the same night by G. who relieved B. at 8 p.m.,

after the latter had given it up as a bad job. If B. had only

taken a torch he would at least have been able to see what was

going on beneath him, and almost certainly have got a shot.

December of the same year found me back again at Anaikatti,

and on the 27th my shikari Kunmada, reported that a large cow

had been killed by a panther the night before, close to the village.

Only a little pf the brisket and some guts had been eaten so an

early return might be expected. The ground was dry and hard,

and the short grass showed no pug marks. The machan was in

a ‘ber’ tree, very low and insecure, with the loophole looking

down at the kill not 10 feet away, and I was not very hopeful as

it was not well screened and the slightest move would be detected.

I was in position by 4.15 p.m. and half an hour later six buffaloes

came down the path and sniffed at the kill. One licked the dead

eye, another blundered into my tree and shook the machan, but

after some snorting the)^ finally cleaned off. Before 5 p.m. I

heard a peafowl trumpet (that sure sign of a feline and quite

different from the normal call) not far away, followed by the

sounds of startled flight — -possibly the panther had made an attempt

at it— next, spotted deer called within 70 yards. Two grey

mongooses appeared and ran round the kill but did not stay, and

tf^en I heard a bird twittering down the path behind me. Cautious-

ly looking over my shoulder I watched that side but could see

nothing, then facing round saw a panther sitting in front looking

at the kill not 15 yards off. A mass of overhanging branches

prevented a shot, so I had to wait, but that did not matter as

there was still plenty of time before dusk. A few minutes later

the panther rose, went back 10 yards and lay down, when a

second appeared on the scene and approached the first, which

greeted its mate by arching its tail over its back. The second

panther then came towards the kill and when only 5 yards away

spotted the machan and gazed at it intently. My loophole was a

large one for night work and I must have been pretty visible; her

eyes met mine and she turned and went off at a fast walk. I

was afraid my chance was gone, but peering over the top of the

screen I saw No. 1 beyond some bushes standing sideways on

about 40 yards away and looking after No. 2. Luckily I had a

clear view of his shoulder so fired. There was a flurry of dust

and he was gone, but I heard him rolling about not far away.

Calling up the men we found a good blood trail but the bullet

had obviously passed through, and as the bushes were very thick

I sent back to the bungalow for my 12 bore and buckshot cartridges.,

and for the dog. On their arrival about 6 p.m. we again advanced

stoning the bushes, and turning a corner saw the panther lying

dead — a male of 6 feet 10 inches but with a long tail. I was

474 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

lucky to get this panther at all, after being spotted in the machan,,

which was my own fault for leaving such a large loophole. 1

should have blocked it with leaves till it was required.

I decided to sit up for the female on the following evening*

and selected another tree for the purpose, but that night hyenas-

completely demolished the kill. In this case it was- obviously

necessary to shift the machan, but it will often happen that the

same one can be used again, as shown in the account of the

panther shot from the tamarind tree. I had a similar experience

in May 1939 when R. sat up over a kill on the 25th and shot a

panther. Another returned to the kill later the same night and I

shot that one over a fresh tie-up on the 27th using the same machan.

In such cases the dried branches must of course be replaced

with fresh ones, not only on account of visibility, but because

withered leaves crackle with the slightest movement. Some books-

on shikar advocate bushing the underside of the machan — this

seems to me not only unnecessary but likely to make it too bulky,

and thus more liable to catch the eye of the approaching animal.

Any ladder must of course be removed ; nothing is more noticeable

than a bamboo with branches cut short for this purpose. The

machan itself must be well bushed all round , high enough to prevent

the occupant being overlooked from higher ground, and thick

enough from base to top to prevent any movement being seen. So

far as possible one should sit motionless, but occasional movement

is unavoidable to counteract stiffness ; a rug and a thick cushion

are aids to comfort. Some people find sitting up boring and take

a book to read. Personally I prefer to watch the birds and the

life of the jungle in general — it is only after dark that one finds

the time drag. Smoking I feel sure is undesirable, since the smell

of tobacco carries so far^ and unmistakably indicates the presence

of man, while the smoke rising above the machan may catch

the animal’s eye by day, or the glow of a cigarette after dark.

It is definitely a privation for a heavy smoker like myself, but

should be endured in a good cause. How long to sit up? If

the panther has not come by 9 p.m., I doubt whether it is worth

staying later. Much of course depends on when the kill took

place and how much has been eaten ; also whether the locality

is a quiet one or liable to disturbance. Generally speaking it is

better to sit up alone, but it is not at all a bad plan at times for

the shikari to sit up with one and for him to leave the machan at

dusk. If the panther has previously had suspicions, the sight of a

man leaving may make him believe that all is clear. I have known

this work on more than one occasion. If you have decided to sit

up after dark, you will of course take with you some citronella oil

or other anti-mosquito preparation, and will have arranged some

form of electric light — either a torch clipped to the barrel of the

rifle, or a small lamp directed to shine on the kill. I have seldom

used these devices myself but cannot see any reasonable objection

to them. The whole object of big game shikar should be to kill as

cleanly as possible, and surely it is far better to use an electric

light and make sure of your shot, than to fire more or less blindly

in the dark and risk losing a wounded animal. One has quite

JUNGLE MEMORIES

475

•enough difficulties to cope with in any case without adding to them.

If you are using a torch clipped to the rifle, your loophole must be

large enough to accommodate both, but during daylight it should

be reduced to minimum dimensions either with leaves or a green

silk handkerchief. A stout bar beneath it will serve as a rifle rest

while waiting, or to steady the weapon when taking a shot. If

the sun is shining towards you, it will be better not to allow the

muzzle of the weapon to project while waiting, lest some glint

from it should catch the panther’s eye.

Some books advocate a supply of stones to drive off the vultures,

which if they have found the kill will quickly finish it, as soon as

your men have withdrawn. I am inclined to think it is better

to leave them undisturbed. Even if only bones remain, the panther

is pretty sure to come and sniff at them to see whether anything

is left, whereas if he finds the birds perched in the trees, he is

liable to be suspicious. Panthers have a habit of approaching a

kill by stages, and if he happens to be watching from a short

distance when a stone is thrown, he will realise that there is

something* uncanny about the spot, and your chance will be gone.

As regards taking the shot, it will be best to take the first suitable

opportunity, as something may occur to disturb the panther and

he may not return. You will of course load your rifle as soon

as you are settled into the machan, and put the safety-catch on —

rifles have before now slipped from the machan and exploded on

reaching the ground. It is equally important to unload your weapon

before descending. All these may seem unnecessary details, but

it is by attention to them that success will be achieved. The most

important point of all is rigid immobility and a minimum of move-

ment. Do not believe because you cannot see in the dark that a

panther is equally hadicapped — his vision is quite as keen by night

as by day.

Sitting up on The Ground

When sitting up over a kill, if no tree is available for the

machan, a hide can be made on the ground by hollowing out and

thickening a bush, and the same method may be adopted when

sitting up over a live goat, as the following case shows.

In November 1930 I was shooting green pigeons down the

-Chamrajnagar road about 3 miles from Gundlupet, when a villager

told me that a panther had killed his cow overnight. Except for

scattered clumps of lantana there was no cover for miles, but a

search revealed a fine animal lying dead in some bushes not 50

yards from the main road. I thought it best not to disturb the

locality by beating, and as the ground did not permit the construct-

ion of a hide covering the kill, I had a bush hollowed out a

short distance away and sat up over a live goat that afternoon.

The men had not left me 3 minutes when there was a rush and

the panther had seized the goat ; a shot through the head finished

the matter. This case shows how a panther may be attracted

by the lure of a live bait, even though its kill is fresh and only

partly eaten.

But such easy success is not often achieved, and though I

have shot many panthers from a hide on the ground, I doubt

476 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

whether this method offers on an average more; than a i in 3

chance, for a variety of reasons. The panther may not be in

the vicinity at all, or he may be too suspicious to take the goat

before dusk (I now never sit up on the ground later than that),

or he may spot the occupant in the hide and refuse to kill, while

the goat may also decline to call, though that can be overcome by

having a second goat handy to answer your tie-up, or if necessary to

replace it. Difficulties however are the essence of sport, and personal-

ly I find this method an extremely attractive one — in fact it has

given me most of my panthers — so I will now select some examples

from my diary.

When I first visited Gundlupet in the Mysore district in 192,6,.

there were a lot of panthers about, constantly killing goats and

cattle, but the local shikaries were simply small-game nien and.

knew nothing about panther shikar. Consequently I had to make

all the bandobust myself, which after all is the most satisfactory

way. On my first visit there was no time to prospect so relying

on information received, I sat up over a goat at the foot of a hill

about one mile from the travellers’ bungalow, but as might be

expected, without result. Next morning I pushed further afield

and found fresh pug marks of panther near the edge of State

Forest beyond the village of Bhimanbid, and the cowherds informed

me that one usually lay up in a thicket close to an old tank — a

very likely spot. A cart track ran past this, and I found that

the only suitable bush was on the far side of it, so constructed

a hide there. I was in position by 5 p.m. with the goat 15 yards

away across the road and close to the thicket. It was not an

ideal place as herds of cattle were continually being driven past

on their way back to the village, but about 6.30 p.m. things got

quieter, and I then heard some birds twittering- in the bushes up-

hill behind me, and later a squirrel in a banyan tree on my left —

obviously the panther was on the wrong side of the road and

not in the tank thicket at all. At 6.40 p.m. a single man passed

hurriedly down the road — we learnt afterwards that he had seen the

panther crossing it. Ten minutes later there was a rush, and

looking through my loophole I saw the panther holding the goat

by the throat. The latter covered the panther’s chest so I had

to wait till it dropped unconscious and then fired a Lethal bullet

from my 12 bore. At the shot the panther sprang forward a couple

of yards, then fell and rolled about evidently badly hit, but I did

not like to fire my left barrel, as his line of retreat would probably

be past the open end of my hide, and I preferred to reserve it

for close quarters ; that is the drawback to a double barrel as

compared with a magazine weapon. However after a few seconds

the panther suddenly picked himself up and dashed away towards

the old tank and my hurried second shot missed. It was now

too dark to follow up, so we had to leave it till next day, when

I spent over 2 hours searching the dense lantana thicket, covered

by heavy stoning, and expecting a charge every second. But to

make a long story short that panther was never retrieved,

though with such a wound in his chest he cannot have gone far.

JUNGLE MEMORIES

477'

A bad start ! but I did have the satisfaction of saving the goat

by dressing the wounds with carbolic.

Next evening, after the usual reconnaissance, I sat up again

about a mile away for another panther. The goat (not the same

one!) was very nervous, and as soon as the men left flung itself

to the ground where it lay tangled up with the rope, and uttering

an occasional feeble bleat. After a few minutes, hearing no sound,.

I looked through the loophole, and saw a yellow spotted heap

behind some low bushes a few yards beyond the goat — this

materialised into a panther which rose and stared at the goat in

some perplexity. This time I was using the rifle, but the shot

was followed by the same performance as the. day before — jump,

tumble, rush and fruitless second shot. But this time I could

see blood on its side as it dashed away, and there was a good

blood trail for about 50 yards into a nasty thicket. I ringed it,,

and finding that the panther had not left, followed up the trail

cautiously and soon saw it lying dead — a lanky female of 6 feet

10 inches.

I then had a run of bad luck and sat up 6 times without

result. On one occasion the goat would not call (I had not then,

thought of having a second goat), and on another, though we had

seen the panther on the rocks that morning, he refused to take-

the goat — quite possibly my topi was visible from the hill over

the top of the hide, which was not high enough. Next morning

he was on the rocks again accompanied by a mate and I tried a

stalk. I might have had a shot at 200 yards but that was a good

deal too far for certainty, so I did not fire, and after they had

gone constructed a new hide in a cleft between two rocks. The

male, whom I named ‘Old Sala’, had done me several times before,,

and as he was such a cunning beast I went out alone very early

in the afternoon with a sari wrapped round me, and pretended to*

be an old woman picking up sticks. It was not very likely that

he would be watching at that hour, but I was not taking any

chances. Approaching the hide slowly and with constant halts*,.

I got into position by 3.30 p.m. and the goat was tied up by 4 p.m.

Soon after I heard birds chirp on the hill and at 4.20 p.m. there*

was a rush. I looked out and saw the goat lying dead and the

panther with his ears laid flat looking all round at every bush and

rock. Before he could spot me I shot him through the shoulder.

He lurched off a couple of yards and then dropped — a very thickset

old male with a head like a small tigress, but owing to a short

tail he taped only 7 feet. Analysis shows that on this trip I sat up’

10 times and got 3 panthers, so I think my estimate of a 1 in 3;.

chance is about correct.

A year later found mfe again sitting up in the hide from

which I had wounded and lost the first panther. As before, cattle-

kept passing towards the village, and at 6 p.m. two men driving

a herd began to beat their beasts vigorously, calling out ‘Ibba —

Ibba’. I knew they had seen the panther, so cautiously peeped

through the loophole and saw its head 30 yards beyond the goat

and staring at it — the latter was still looking in the direction the

cattle had gone and had its back to the panther. I wanted to>

478 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , FoZ. 48

save the goat, so opened the loophole and pushed the rifle out,

and as I did so the panther came forward at a crouching- run,

then sprang and seized the bait before 1 could shoot. I fired

.at the front of the left shoulder near the neck, and it dropped on

the spot with the goat still twitching in its jaws. Not being quite

-certain whether it was dead, and remembering what had happened

previously at the same spot, I stood up and fired again at the

back of the neck and the shock of the bullet made it release the

goat which however was dead. This was an old female with worn

teeth but only 6 feet 5 inches in length. My diary records that

first her head, and later as she advanced, her whole body looked

uniform brown colour, with no sign of spots ; this was in dull

light with no sun. It is extraordinary how their colour appear-

ance varies- — at dawn or dusk they often look grey. No doubt

the light has much to do with it and the angle at which the animal

is seen, but I cannot help thinking there is something still to

•be learnt in connection with the position of the fur, when either

lying flat or partly raised.

I remember some years later shooting from the same hide

a panther which held the goat in such a way that its head covered

the panther’s chest. As I was sitting on the ground and on

the same level as the panther, I did not care to take the head shot,

which was all that offered, since the bullet might so easily glance

off. So I fired at the goat’s head which was of course blown to

pieces; the panther was killed stone dead. Normally however a

shot in the centre of the chest, or if sideways on through the

shoulder and heart, will either lay the animal out on the spot, or

it will be found dead within 50 yards, and generally much less.

One unusual case happened when the bullet must have exploded

on the shoulder, and the panther, a small beast, rushed away

leaving behind the ball and socket joint. With such a wound it

is difficult to believe that any animal could go far, but this one

got away without offering a second chance, though it was found

dead next day. I remember that when following up rather casually

I peered under a thick bush and found myself practically face to

face with the animal, but fortunately it had no thought of retaliation.

For following up I find the best weapon is a 12 bore loaded

with buckshot — it is far handier than a rifle. But I prefer the

latter for shooting from the hide.

As regards method of killing, my experience is that a panther

-seizes the goat by the throat and holds on till strangulation ensues,

but large male panthers often exert such violence that the bait

is killed on the spot. If the panther is shot before the goat is

dead, the wounds in the latter’s neck can be cured by washing out

with carbolic solution. When a dog is tied up it may either be

seized by the throat or killed outright by a bite at the back of

the skull, but personally I never use a dog unless it is unavoidable,

.as the unfortunate beast, unlike a goat, realises only too well

what is likely to happen.

I had an interesting experience in 1933 when two panthers,

both young males, rushed the goat simultaneously. I shot the

larger which was holding the goat, when the second seized it

JUNGLE MEMORIES

479

and stared at the hide only 14 yards away. Quickly reloading I

fired again, when the goat, which incidentally bore no marks of

either teeth or claws, stood up and sniffed at the nearest body.

As my men approached they called out to know why I had fired

twice, and would not believe that I had shot two, panthers till

they saw them lying dead close together. I quote this case to

show that for all practical purposes a magazine rifle is just as

good as a double barrel, and it has the advantage of further rounds

in reserve, whereas the double takes an appreciable time to reload.

As will be seen from the episodes narrated above, by keep-

ing a careful watch it is at times possible to shoot before the

bait is seized. Twice I have seen a big male panther which had

a kill nearby, come and inspect the goat without attacking it. At

one I managed to get a shot and bagged what proved to be my

largest panther, 7 feet 6-| inches between pegs, but the other spotted

the rustle made by the leaves of the loophole as I pushed the rifle

out, and was gone before I could take aim. On another occasion,

a small female came at dusk and jumped several times right over

the goat — she looked like a puff of smoke in the fading light, and

as she gave no chance of a shot I had to collect the goat and

come away. The above incidents are given to; show how important

it. is to be constantly on the alert, but to relate further episodes

of this type of shooting with all its inevitable failures, would

be boring, so let the above suffice and let us now consider how

to set about things.

How TO MAKE A HlDE

We will assume that you have information of cattle or goats

being killed in a certain area, but this is not enough ; you must

so far as possible locate your panther. I find the best plan is

to go out in the morning and to ascertain from villagers and

goat-herds when the last kills took place, and where the panther

is in the habit of lying up. Then by circling' round the spot and

looking for tracks in nullahs and near water, try to locate him

still closer. Unless you do this you will probably be wasting your

time sitting up for a panther which may be miles away. A very

likely place is a small rocky hill with caves, and we will assume

that you have reason to believe the panther is lying up in one.

The next thing is to decide the location of the hide, which postulates

a thick bush about 4 feet high, and an open space to tie up the

goat about 15 yards away, and in view of the hill. This is important t

though in the case of a thickest, the goat’s bleating alone should

suffice. In any case the goat must be up-wind of the hide, or he

will recognise your presence, and fail to do his little bit. The

panther’s probable line of approach must also be considered, and

if you can flank it, so much the better. Make the hide now, and

do not put it off till the afternoon — the less disturbance there is

then, so much the better. Having selected your bush, hollow it

out and thicken the inside with branches and leaves from top to

bottom, not forgetting the lower part, or the movement of your

feet may give you away. Your object is to secure complete protection

from view without altering the external appearance of the bush,

6

480

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 48

so use only those branches and leaves which match it reasonably

w;ell. These should be cut some little distance away, and no clearing-

done in the vicinity except to give you the necessary field of fire.

Do not build up the walls too high or it will make the hide too

conspicuous — besides you may want to stand up and take a shot

over the top if the panther proves aggressive or it becomes necessary

to give him a second shot. The back I generally leave open to

facilitate egress, but if there is any chance of the panther approach-

ing on that side, then it should be built up. When the hide is

finished test the loophole and remove any twigs which obstruct

your view — then blind it with soft leaves which will not rustle when

the rifle is pushed out to shoot, and retain only the smallest

possible peephole through which you may watch the goat. Then

hammer in the goat’s peg (unless a handy root will serve the

purpose) and clear up all loose leaves and branches from the

vicinity. If the peg shows up white rub it with a little earth.

The impression you want to make is that the goat has somehow

got a fore-foot entangled in a root and cannot get free. Return

not later than 4 p.m. and settle into your hide, taking with you

a raincoat, field glasses, waterbottle, and a thick rubber cushion — ■

if likely to be troubled with a cough, take some lozenges too.

Load your rifle and place it in a convenient position inside the

hide. If the muzzle projects, a glint of sunlight off it may give

you away. Then and not till then, have the goats brought up

and one tethered to the peg with a thin but sitout cord, if necessary

doubled. English sash cord is best but seldom obtainable now-

adays. It should be tied low down round the goat’s fore leg

leaving about 12 inches between peg and leg. It is not advisable

to tie the rope round the goat’s neck as the panther will want to

seize it there and may be put off. As your men withdraw; with the

second goat to a pre-arranged spot about 300 yards away, they

should call loudly to the tethered goat, which will almost certainly

start bleating at once. If you can arrange for a flock of goats to be

driven up and one tied up as they pass, so much the better, but

this is seldom possible. The stage is now set and the result will

depend very largely on yourself. You must keep as motionless as

you possibly can, and only take an occasional peep through the

blinded loophole to see that the goat has not broken loose, Or in

case he shows signs of alarm. Listen for warning sounds from

monkeys ? peafowl, small birds or squirrels; you may be able to

get a shot before the panther rushes the goat. When that happens

you will be in no doubt, as the rush is quite unmistakable, but

sometimes a panther will work up close enough to seize the goat

without much noise. No smoking of course, for reasons already

given when dealing with shooting from a machan, which apply

with even greater force to a hide on the ground, when the panther

may be within a few yards. If for any reason it becomes necessary

to change the goat, call up your men by whistle; a panther does

not mind that, whereas shouting- would definitely alarm him if

within hearing, which may be the case. Keep under cover when

the men come up, so as not to give the show away either

to the goat or to the panther. If the peg draws or the cord

JUNGLE MEMORIES

48£

breaks when the panther rushes the goat, follow up cautiously

and you will probably get a shot before you have gone 50 yards —

this has happened to me on two occasions. If a shot from the

hide has knocked the panther over, fire again if he shows the

least sign of life ; an animal which cannot raise its head from

the ground is generally finished, but if you have taken the head-

shot he may be only stunned, so don’t take any chances. If he has

rushed away after the shot, as so often happens, wait a little

before following up ; there will probably be a good blood trail

which your men will puzzle out while you keep ready to shoot —

your position being of course in front. If the hour is late and

the wounded animal has got into a dense thicket, it is far better

to leave him till next morning. Locate him by ringing the spot

and put a man up a tree or on a rock on the far side, then bombard

the place with stones and if this produces no result follow the

trail, keeping all together with yourself leading. A good dog is

invaluable for this sort of work. Let us hope you will find the

panther dead, but if he has sufficient life to charge, a 12-bore with

buckshot will prove far handier than a rifle.

Occasionally it happens that after you have settled into your

hide the shikari returns with news that the panther has just been

seen some little distance away and out of hearing of the goat’s

call. In such a case it is better to abandon your hide, hurry

at once to the new spot with your goat, and take up a fresh

position. There will be no time to make a hide. Get behind a

good thick bush and lie down flat till you hear the rush, then rise

cautiously and take your shot standing — it is an advantage if there

is a tree (even a small one) both to rest your rifle against and to

give you some cover as you stand up.

How long should one sit up in a hide on the ground? Personal-

ly, I come away as soon as it is too dark to see the sights.

The loophole has got to be very large indeed to accommodate both

rifle and torch, and is almost sure to be spotted, while the same

objection applies to an electric lamp fixed outside the hide. You

may of course use a 12-bore and buckshot after dark but my.

experience with this has been unfortunate.

On checking over the above, I find that I have said nothing

about clothing. In my experience the best is a green bush-shirt

(XIVth Army pattern) with long sleeves which can be rolled down

if insects are troublesome, and green trousers or breeches. I

am a great believer in shorts for normal shikar purposes, but they

are definitely unsuitable for sitting up (either in a machan or a

hide), as mosquitoes and ants keep one fidgetting, and immobility

becomes impossible. For footwear nothing can beat soft hide

boots with crepe-rubber soles. Short ankle putties should connect

slacks and boots to prevent ants etc. exploring inside the former.

For headwear use a soft hat which will not make a noise brushing

against a leaf as a topi does.

Chance-met Panthers

Since panthers are so much more numerous than tigers, one

would expect to come across them more frequently by chance, but

482 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoJ. 48

relatively I have not found this to be the case, to any marked

degree. Their smaller size affords them better opportunities of

escaping observation, and the way in which a panther can sink

down and become almost invisible in grass not 6 inches high has

to be seen to be believed. However, in the course of many years

wandering in the jungle I have met quite a number, and have extracted

from my diaries the more interesting of these episodes.

I was in camp in the Sirpur block of the Raipur district in

March 1910, and as I was tying up for tiger, could use only the

.22 to secure birds for the pot. On the 24th morning after finding

my baits untouched, I went over to a tank close by and with a

lucky shot bagged 2 whistling teal. Then, seeing some duck on

the far side, I went round to stalk them, and literally walked on

top of a fine male panther in the long grass — his tail went up

almost in my face. He bolted 50 yards then stood and looked at

us, and I was sorely tempted to try a shot at his brain, as I

knew the sighting of the little .22 bore rifle to an inch, but there

are limits, and I thought I should do better to sit up that evening.

We found close by the remains of a chital doe killed 2 days before,

so I had a machan put up in a tree but the goat refused to call,

so nothing came of it.

I had an extraordinary experience with two panthers at Anaikatti

on 6th May 1937. I had left the forest bungalow as usual before

dawn making for a big rock about a mile distant across the river,

which overlooks a favourite wild dog run. The Onion Rock^ as

it is called, is only about 8 feet high on the uphill side, and as we

approached it in the faint light I could just make out a panther

spread-eagled on the sloping side of the rock with tail up and

head down, very like a mounted skin on the wall. It was only a

few yards distant and drew our attention by growling at us. As

we backed away some yards uphill my shikari Kunmada, whispered

that there was a female at the foot of the rock, but hidden by

some small boulders between. As soon as I could get a clear

shot over the bushes, though my sights were still indistinct, I

fired between his shoulders, and both panthers bolted in different

directions. There was no blood, but by the bullet mark on the rock

were some pieces of fur. How I missed at such close range I cannot

to this day imagine but evidently I had. ‘All hits are history —

all misses mystery’ was only too true in this case — but at least

it was an unforgettable experience. Obviously I had interrupted a

couple mating, and was lucky not to have been charged.

An unusual occurrence at Mudumalai on the 25th April 1940

also deserves mention. I had gone some way down the Benne

road before dawn and branched off at the 4th mile while my driver

George went on towards Pipagadi, a sure find for jungle sheep

and pig. I heard him fire 3 shots, and at 9.30 a.m. he returned

and told me that he had come across a panther stalking a chital

doe at close range, and had fired at it, breaking both front legs

as it crouched on seeing him. It fell over and then rushed into some

long grass, and he had 2 more shots of which one certainly hit.

I ran the car down to the spot and by working round managed to

:get a shot in which finished it — an old male with 3 broken teeth

JUNGLE MEMORIES

483’.

and very lanky, and with only half a tail. And now comes the

interesting* part. In addition to the bullet wounds, I found a

number of deep gashes, and the man whom G. had left up a tree

to watch the spot, said that a boar had come across the wounded

animal and had attacked it, charging 3 or 4 times. The panther

was too badly hit to retaliate, and only growled in answer to the

boar’s grunts and onset, and the latter, presumably realising that

he was finished then left him. The man up the tree thought it

great fun, and never considered that the skin was being spoilt !

One final episode will close this section. In May 1941 I had to

run up from Bangalore to Ootacamund to attend a conference, and

managed to obtain a few days’ leave, Avhich I spent at Anaikatti.

On the 2 1 st morning I went about 2 miles towards the east, and

took up my position on a spur looking south, across a deep ravine

with a parallel ridge opposite. About 7 a.m. a herd of 19 elephants

coming from my left passed in front of me, between the far edge

of the ravine and the opposite ridge — they were about 300 yards

away, and as they moved along feeding, made an interesting spectacle.

Among them was a tiny calf which cannot have been more than

a few days old, with a cow in attendance on each side. About

7.20 a.m. I suddenly saw a large panther coming at a fast walk

along the far edge of the ravine in the opposite direction — he

looked pale grey so long as he was end on to the sun, but when

he turned half away all his lovely coat showed up. Suddenly he

heard the elephants, which were quite close to him but out of sight

owing to the slope of the ground. In a bound he was into the

shade of a large bush, where he was difficult to pick up even with

glasses though less than 300 yards away. He half crouched, then:

peered round in different directions, and finally went off after the

elephants. The trackers said he was after the small calf, but I

think it is more likely that he was simply curious about the noise.

Anyhow a couple of minutes later he re-appeared, still at a fast

walk, and after going some way down the path by which the

elephants had come, turned up to his right over the ridge. I knew

there were some large rocks projecting from it on the far side,,

and hoped that he might lie up on one, so after waiting 10 minutes,

crossed the ravine and followed him. Topping the ridge, Kunmada

who was leading drew back, and then I saw the panther lying on

a ledge about 70 yards away — only part of him showed, but from

the colour I guessed it to be a bit of the shoulder and the back

of his head. A closer approach was impossible so I sat down;

and fired at the very small target which offered, and saw his tail

flick up twice so knew that all was well. By moving a few yards

to the right I could make out a patch of black and white stomach

fur between the rocks, but he was lying on a ledge 10 feet from

the ground, so first we went round by the left to the top of the

ridge and from above with difficulty made him out through the

branches of an overhanging tree. Access that way proved im-

possible, and so we had to retrace our steps and climb up from below

to get him down — a fine old male with a deep orange coat, but only

6 feet 10 J inches in length, as his tail had lost about 6 inches.

The bullet had caught him nicely on the shoulder and was found’,

484 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

inside the brain pan. I always remember this episode with satis-

faction, as it was my own idea that he would lie up on the

rocks — the trackers thought he wTould pass on. The shot I admit

was a lucky one !

Panthers up Trees

In heavy forest, more especially where the grass is long, panthers

not infrequently ascend trees, no doubt to locate deer or pigs with

a view to stalking them. In the Mudumalai forest more than

one has been accounted for in this position, but although I can

recall at least four up trees, I have never been able to get a shot —

they have been far too quick for me. I remember one occasion in

particular — it was during May 1938, when I was on my way back

from Doddakatte to Mudumalai. After topping the rise near

Karadibetta, we turned down into the big swamp, and shortly after

came to a partially burnt area. There was a herd of chital with

several stags feeding out in the open, and I was moving towards

them under cover of the trees, when a movement caught my eye

in a well-leafed sloping teak tree which we were just about to pass.

I looked up and saw a fine male panther cautiously descending,

the sunlight through the leaves making him look green and brown.

There was a quiet concentrated look on his face and he showed

no hurry or alarm, but when I took the rifle from my shikari, he

jumped down and galloped off, his tucked up hindquarters look-

ing very small for such a big animal. In the open I might have

got him, but a few bounds took him into long grass and though

I could have got a snap-shot I did not fire, as my experience is

that in such cases one generally breaks a hind leg and loses the

animal. What may be called a fundamental shot, or a bullet

at the base of the skull, will of course in such cases prove fatal,

but one cannot be certain of either without a steady aim, and

personally I prefer to forego a shot rather than risk losing a

wounded animal. I have seen tiger and boar with one leg missing

as the result of misplaced bullets. The wounds had healed wonder-

fully and were nicely rounded off, but how few animals can recover

in such cases, compared with those which die a lingering death?

Incidently the tree up which I saw this panther was a very low

one, and sloped at an angle of about 6o° for the first 10 feet

.and then flattened out still more.

Panthers and Hyenas

The hyena is generally considered to be a cowardly brute, but

The fact remains that if one discovers a panther’s kill, it will keep

the rightful owner off until it has eaten its full. I have known this

to happen on a number of occasions at Anaikatti, where hyenas

are particularly common, and in not a single instance has the

panther made any attempt to assert its rights beyond growling.

The reason for this is not clear. Possibly the panther realises

the immense strength of a hyena’s jaws and fears being maimed

in a rough and tumble, but that would imply reasoning as apart

from instinct, a subject on which opinions differ. However, the

fact remains that so long as the hyena is on the kill, the panther

JUNGLE MEMORIES

485

will not come out to it, but will wait till the former leaves. A

cartridge thrown at the hyena will sometimes drive it away, as the

human scent will make it suspicious, but if that fails, I think the

only thing to do is to emulate the panther’s patience and wait

till the hyena leaves of its own accord. If the hyena is shot, the

panther certainly will not approach the kill so long as the carcase

is lying there, and any attempt to remove it will almost certainly

give the sportsman away.

While on the subject, I see from my Anaikatti diary of 1939,

that a fine old boar came one night to a panther’s kill (a large

cow) and kept two hyenas off while he ate — he certainly suffered

from no inferiority complex ! He bolted as soon as the light was

put on, as pigs invariably do in my experience, and then no less

than four hyenas appeared and were at the kill till 5.30 a.m.,

taking pieces away and then returning for more. Needless to

say, the panther did not materialise, but it was an interesting

•experience.

Stalking Panthers

If one has sat up overnight without success, it sometimes pays

to stalk the kill at dawn. Just before the last war a couple of

panthers killed a pony at the top of the Sigur ghat, only 300

yards from my bungalow, so I had a hide made in the bushes fring-

ing the road and put a friend in it that evening. It was not a very

hopeful place as there was a certain amount of traffic along the

road, and the panthers, to reach the kill, had to come some way

down the open hillside. A goat tied up near the shola where the

panthers were presumably lyipg up would (have offered better

chances of success, but the shola in question was a sanctuary and

closed to all shooting. As I feared, the panthers did not come before

dusk so B. had to give it up. However he came out again next

morning before dawn, and advancing very cautiously under cover,

found both panthers on the kill ; but by the time there was light

enough for him to see his sights the panthers had gone. It was

(bad luck that the spot was so open as otherwise he would certainly

have got a shot.

An example of stalking a panther on rocks has already been

given, but in my experience this form of shooting is seldom success-

ful. A panther lying down offers an extremely small target, while

..any attempt to rouse him merely results in his vanishing before

a shot can be fired. If one can work round and above him, the

shot will be far more likely to kill him outright, but this is seldom

possible.

It is always worth while investigating when one hears monkeys

^cursing in the jungle — it may be at wild dogs, in which case a

shot is pretty certain, but more likely a panther is the cause. I

must confess that in the latter case I have never got a shot —

the panther has always spotted me first — still it’s well worth trying.

When I was down at Anaikatti in August 1947 a panther hanging

round the bungalow gave me an interesting experience but no

shot. On the first morning we were on our way back from a long

round, when near the Onion Rock I heard a rush about 70 yards

486 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 4S

away, followed by a throaty growling- and the furious barking

of about a dozen chital — obviously a panther had tried to seize one

but failed. It was open scrub jungle with a lot of small bushes

and I hoped for a shot, but in spite of a most cautious approach

failed even to see the panther. That evening sambar belling by

the river showed that she was still in the vicinity, and next

morning I heard monkeys cursing from a tamarind tree in thick

lantana. With my shikari Banta I made a very careful stalk but

could find nothing, and as the monkeys were now silent thought

that the panther had gone. I sat down and had a cigarette and

when we moved on a few minutes later the panther rushed away

with growls — it had been lying* within 20 yards of us all the time.

On reaching the bungalow the waterman told me that he had

met her that morning on his way to the well and that she was

obviously ‘expecting’ — this no doubt was the cause of her reluctance

to move and her previous failure with the chital. Her cubs were

born a day later so I was glad that I had not the opportunity of

a shot. What lesson is there in this episode? None ! It is simply

a jungle memory.

Black Panthers

Living as they do in much denser jungle than is favoured by

the normal type, black panthers are by nature game killers, and so

are seldom shot over a kill. Out of those which I have known

to be bagged in the Nilgiris during the past 24 years only one

met his fate when returning to a bullock which he had killed near

Avalanche, from a dose of buckshot fired from a Badaga hut.

This was a very fine old male which many sportsman had tried

for over a period of years — 14 to my certain knowledge and possibly

longer. But as a rule black panthers are met by chance, and since

they are so uncommon, luck plays a very large part. The only

black panther which I have seen myself was some 8 miles down

the Benne road from Mudumalai 2 years ago. As we turned a

corner one morning my shikari Masty who was leading suddenly

halted and backed, literally speechless with excitement. I peered

round a tree and saw a black panther crossing the forest road

160 yards away, so sat down quickly and fired at her shoulder.

I thought I knew the sighting of my .318 to an inch, and made

allowance for the fact that the cartridges were shooting high —

they were pre-war, and incidently I have not even yet (1948) been

able to get fresh ones ! However the bullet must have gone over,

as she turned and sprang into the long grass, and when we examined

the spot there was no sign of blood or extended claw-marks. So

that was that ! My single chance spoilt by faulty ammunition.

But my driver George has been more fortunate. In June 1939

I sent him down to Mudumalai with a friend who was keen but

had little experience of shikar. On their first morning C. had a

shot at a nice chital stag but missed. The herd went down towards

the swamp, so C. followed but could not get another chance as

the stag was hidden by the does. Suddenly the deer began to

bark and shortly after a cry showed that one had been seized by

a feline. Approaching with great caution through the long grass-

JUNGLE MEMORIES

487,

they saw in a small nullah part of a stag and the hindquarters

of a black panther on it, only io feet away. While they were

peering over a fallen tree to get a better view it spotted them

and bolted- — both fired but missed. A machan was put up and they

sat up all night but it never returned, rather naturally, since it

had been fired at over the kill. George saw another black panther,

a good deal smaller than C.’s the same year down the Benne

road while waiting for me — it passed not far from the car and.

went in the direction which I had taken an hour before, fcut

we did not meet. On another occasion he saw the big male

previously mentioned, at the top of the Avalanche pass, but too

far for a shot. Finally he shot a female at Avalanche, and since

it was a good example of what may be called the luck element

in shikar, I will give the details.

We knew that this particular animal was in the habit of lying

out on a small cliff at the head of the Avalanche river, where

indeed one had been shot some years before, and I spent the

first two days watching the spot, but without success. The third

morning proved equally fruitless, but while sitting there we heard

a tiger roaring far uphill on our left and shortly after caught

sight of him moving towards the head of the Lakkidi pass. It

was then too late to do anything about it, but in the afternoon I

went up the hill hoping to find him on the move again before

dusk — my luck was however out. In the meantime I sent George

upstream to shoot a hind sambar for the. fish hatchery, and he

fired at two but missed. Shortly after he topped the low ridge

from which I had been spying previously, and saw a black

panther about 200 yards away walking across the open between

two sholas. He fired and broke its back — a lucky shot, as if the

bullet had been an inch higher it would have missed. I must confess

that my congratulations were not untinged with envy !

Clouded Panther

Quite a number of skins of the Clouded Leopard (as it is more

generally 'termed) used to be brought into Bhamo by Kachin

shikaries in the old days before the 1st World War, and no doubt

they are still to be found in the dense forests covering those hills.

I was always hoping to come across one, during my jungle outings

from Bhamo, but never had the luck to do so. The large irregular

markings make the skin an especially handsome trophy — finer in

my opinion than that of the black panther. Among a number

which I have handled I found two distinct types — one with the

background greenish, and the other a dull brown shade.

Conclusion

This series of panther episodes has proved a good deal longer

than I had anticipated, in spite of the fact that I have described

only those of special interest, or indicative of methocfs to be adopted

in dealing with this cunning animal. The very full details I

have given regarding sitting up will, I hope, prove useful to others, .

more especially to young sportsmen, and save them wasting time

and money.

488 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

If I were asked which of my panther memories is most vivid.

I should find it hard to answer. The one finished off by lamp

light at Raipur?, ‘Old Sala’ sitting by the dead goat with his

•ears laid back and scrutinising every bush? The spread-eagle on

the Onion Rock? The shot which stopped the blind rush at

Ghatkesara? The pair which rushed the goat together? The one

so carefully descending the tree at Mudumalai? The one which

stalked the elephants and was himself stalked in turn? Besides

these there are others which I have not related : the three seen

stalking a sambar calf far below from the top of Avalanche hill,

while the hind kept them off; and the belated reveller escorted

.across a grass maidan at Doddakatte in broad daylight by a bark-

ing semi-circle of some 60 spotted deer. All these are clear on

the screen of memory, but I think I must give pride of place to

.my first panther, as she came out of the bushes at full stretch

.after the Bhil, with the arrow swaying in her flank. That is a

.memory which can never fade.

Which of my panthers has given me most satisfaction? That

;is easier to answer, because I can honestly say that those which

I ‘ introduced ’ to friends, have given me more pleasure than all

the rest of my own put together.

One final point. I have often wondered why no enterprising

zoologist has counted a panther’s spots, and created subspecies

from the result. Most people know the story of the showman

at the circus, who assured the old lady that a panther has 365

spots, ‘one for every day of the year’, and what his reply was

when asked where the spot for leap-year was situated ! But

seriously, has no one ever tried to count a pahthfcr’s spots?

iHere is a problem still awaiting solution !

(To be continued )

NOTES ON THE GESNERIACEAE OF BOMBAY

BY

H. SANTAPAU, S.J., F.L.S.

Arey to the Gesneriaceae of Bombay (after Cooke and others) :

Seeds with a long hair at each end ; epiphytic shrubby plants :

1 . Aeschynanth us.

Seeds not tipped with long hairs ; ground plants :

Inflorescence cymose, axillary or terminal :

Pedicels adnate to the petioles ... 2. Didymocarpus.

Pedicels not adnate to the petioles :

Small, erect herbs with leaves nearly as broad

as long ; stamens 2

Small undershrubs with stoutish stem ; leaves

oblanceolate. much longer than broad ;

stamens 4 perfect

Inflorescence in elongated racemes :

Stamens 4 ; calyx winged, one wing often

much larger than the rest

Stamens 2 ; calyx not at all, or at least not

prominently winged, all the wings, when

present, being about equal

3. Epithema .

4. lsanthera.

5. Klugia .

6. Rhynchoglossmn.

1. Aeschynanthus Jack

The name Aeschynanthus was first published by Jack in Trans. Linn. Soc.

14 : 42, t. 2, f. 3, 1823, and is one year later than Trichosporum D. Don in

Edinburgh Phil. Journ. 7 : 84, 1822. The name Aeschynanthus , however, is

included in the list of nomina conservanda in the 1947 edit, of the Intern. Rules

of Botanical Nomenclature.

1. Aeschynanthus Perrottetii A. DC. in DC. Prodr. 9 : 261, 1845 ; C. B.

Clarke in DC. Monogr. Phan. 5(1) : 25, 1883 ; id. in Hook, f., FI.

Brit. Ind. 4 : 339 1884 ; Dalz. & Gibs., Bomb. FI., 135 ; Cooke,

2 : 321 ; Gamble, FI. Madr. 985.

Aeschynanthus grandif torus Graham, Cat. 146, 1839 (non Spreng.)

Trichosvorum Perrottetii (A. DC.) O. Kuntze in Rev. Gen. Plant.,

1891.

The habit and leaves of this plant are very similar to those of some of the

Hoyas of Bombay, for which it might easily be taken. The corolla is long,

tubular, somewhat curved, the colour being red or scarlet. The fruit is a long

capsule, very similar to the follicles of the Apocynaceae or Asclepiadaceae.

Among the plants in Kew Herbarium there is a specimen labelled by Dalzell as

1 Hoya pauciflora R. W.’, the identification of which has been corrected by

C. B. Clarke to ‘ Aeschynanthus Perrottetii A. DC. var. malabarica C. B. Clarke ' ;

another specimen, Ritchie 1861, is also labelled as Hoya , but here the mistake

is easily understandable as the specimen is in fruit and locks remarkably like

Hoya Wightii Hook. f. The seeds of Aeschynanthus Perrottetii are typical, as

they are very minute and possess one very long hair at each end.

2. Aeschynanthus Perrottetii A. DC. var. planiculmis C. B. Clarke in DC.

Monogr. Phan. 5(1) : 26, 1883 ; id. in Hook, f., FI. Brit. Ind. 4 : 340

{platyculmis) .

Aeschynanthus planiculmis Gamble, FI. Madr. 985, 1924.

Aeschynanthus ceylanica Wight, Icon. t. 1347 (non Gardn.)

Clarke in the original description of this variety, gives the following charac-

ters: branches compressed; leaves densely approximate, broadly lanceolate

490 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

or elliptic, narrowed at both ends ; umbels 2-4- flowered ; corolla 35-40 mm.

long. Gamble, loc. cit., raised this variety to the rank of a species, and gave as

the distinguishing features of the plant its flattened stems and its very broadly

ovate leaves. Cooke, p. 322, seems inclined to deny recognition to Clarke’s-

variety, as he explains the flattening of the stems as due to the epiphytic charac-

ter of the plant.

Among the specimens at Kew, there are a few with very markedly broad

leaves, whilst others, said to be the typical species by Clarke, have narrow

oblong leaves. Moreover, there seems to be a continuous set of intermediate

stages between the broad and the narrow leaved specimens, sometimes both

types of leaves appearing on one and the same specimen. In my opinion, there

is very little ground for erecting the broad=leaved plants into a variety, much

less so for erecting them into a species.

When Clarke first published the name of his variety in 1883, he called it

planiculmis , and the publication being valid, the name must stand as a legiti-

mate one. In 1884, FI. Brit. Ind. 4 : 340, the name appeared changed into

platyculmis ; moreover, in Kew Herbarium there are numerous sheets with this

amended spellng written in Clarke’s own handwriting ; this shows that Clarke

intended the name to be platyculmis and not planiculmis. It is quite possible that

De Candolle introduced the correction into Clarke’s MS before publication im

the DC. Monogr. Phan., the hybrid name platyculmis being considered offensive

to the ears of a good Latin scholar. Be that as it may, the name was actually and

validly published as planiculmis and this is the spelling that has to be retained.

2, Didymocarpus Wall.

The generic name Didymocarpus Wall, in Edinb. Phil. Journ, 1 : 378, 1819

is nomen conservandum against Roettlera Vahl. Enum., 1 : 87, 1805.

1. Didymocarpus hamosa Wall., Cat. no. 788, 1829, nom. ?iud .

Chirita hamosa (Wall.) R. Br. in Benn. PI. Jav. Rar. 117, 1840 ; Clarke,

in Comm, et Cyrt. Beng. 110, t. 78, 1874; id. in. DC. Monogr. Phan

5(1) : 128, 1883; id. in Hook, f., FI. Brit. Ind. 1 : 360, 1884 ; Cooke

2 : 322.

Didymocarpus cristata Dalz. in Hook. Kew Journ. Bot. 3 ; 225, 1851 ;

Dalz. & Gibs., Bomb. FI. 134.

Roettlera hamosa (Wall.) O. Kuntze, Rev. Gen. PI. 415, 1891 ; Fritsch

in Engler, Pflanzenfam. 4(3b) : 148, 1895.

Wallich published the name of Didvmocarpus hamosa in his Catalogue or

List, but in the absence of a description, the publication was not valid ; the

plant was first described by R. Brown under the name of Chirita hamosa , the

name Didymocarpus hamosa Wall, being cited as a synonym by Brown, the

date 1840 must therefore be considered as the earliest date for the valid publica-

tion of Chirita hamosa as well as Didymocarpus hamosa.

When this plant is in its vegetatives stages, i.e., in full foliage, it is very

similar to Klugia notoniana or Rhynchoglossum obliquum , its leaves are

very oblique, and of about the same size as those of the two plants just mention-

ed. The most typical part of the plant is that the pedicels of the flowers and

fruits are adnate to the petiole of the leaves, in the axil of which they are pro-

duced. After the decay of the leaves, the plant presents a very strange

appearance.

3. Klugia Schlecht.

1. Klugia notoniana (Wall.) A. DC. Prodr. 9 : 276, 1845; Wight, Icon. t.

1353, and Illustr. t, 159 bis ; Bot. Mag. t., 4620; C. B. Clarke, in-

DC. Monogr. Phan. 5(1) : 159, 1883 ; id. in Hook, f., FI. Brit. Ind.

4 : 366, 1884 ; Fritsch in Engl. Pflanzenfam. 4(3b) : 155. f. 71,

1895 : Cooke, 2 : 323.

Wtdfenia notonia?iaNVal\., Tent. FI. Nep. 16, 1826; id. in Cat. 409.

Rhynchoglossum scabrum Dalz. in Kew Journ. Bot. 2: 140, 1850.

Klugia scabra Dalz. and Gibs., Bomb. FI. 134.

Klugia notoniana var. scabra C. B. Clarke, in Kew Herb.

When this plant is neither in flower nor in fruit, it is not possible to

separate it from Rhynchoglossum obliquum or its variety parviflora . When in.

NOTES ON THE GESNERIACEAE OF BOMBAY

491

flower it is quite easy, as its flowers are considerably larger than those oiRhyncho-

,glossum\ its calyx, moreover, is 5-winged, one of the wings being considerably

larger than the rest, at least on many occasions, and even when the wings are

equal they are much larger than those of Rhynchoglossum .

This seems to be a relatively rare plant in Bombay : it is only towards the

south of the Presidency that it becomes tolerably common.

4. Rhynchoglossum Blume

1. Rhynchoglossum obliqimniB\\\va.Q , Bijdr. 741, 1826 ; Clarke in DC. Monogr.

Phan. 5(1) : 161, 1883.

Rhynchoglossum Blumei D C. Prodr. 9: 274, 1845.

Wulfenia intermedia Wall. Cat. 408, 1829.

Loxotis intermedia Benth., Scroph. Ind. 57, 1835.

This is the typical variety, and does not occur in Western India ; it is the

commoner variety in Burma, Java, Sumatra. This species is very similar in

most respects to Klugia notoniana A.DC., from which it differs mainly in

having only two stamens and a plain, not-winged calyx.

2. Rhynchoglossum obliquum Blume, var. parviflora C. B. Clarke in DC.

Monogr. Phan. 5(1) : 163, 1883 ; id. in Hcok. f., FI. Brit. Ind.

] : 367, 1884 ; Cooke, 2 : 324.

Rhynchoglossum obliquum DC. Prodr. 9 : 274. 1845 ; Wight, Illustr. t.

159 bis, f. 7 ; C. B. Clarke, Comm, et Cyrt. Beng., t, 88, 1»74 (non

Blume).

Rhynchoglossum zeylanicum Hook. Bot. Mag. t. 4198.

Rhynchoglossum Rheedei DC. Prodr. 9 : 274, 1845.

Wulfenia obliqua Wall., Tent. FI. Nep. 45, t. 35, 1826; Id. in Cat. 407,

1829,

This is much the commoner form in Western India; Clarke in DC. Monogr.

Phan., loc. cit., states that this plant is found in valleys in subtropical districts

almost everywhere, and that it is about the most widely spread among the plants

belonging to this family.

This variety differs from the typical variety in having its calyx teeth very

acuminate, and the inferior corolla lip narrower than and about twice as long

as the superior lip. In general, flowers of the variety are smaller than those of

the typical plant. Many of the plants which I have collected in Khandala on

the Western Ghauts show the remarkable arrangement of the inflorescence

which was mentioned in the case of Didymocarpusy that is to say, tne inflores-

cence is adnate to the petioles, and there may be as many as four or five racemes

arranged in a row along the petiole of a single leaf.

R. obliquum var. parviflora is a very common plant along the Western

Ghauts ; it is generally found on rocky ground, occasionally on trees or on

-old walls ; the leaves are very thin and hence rather difficult properly to

preserve in herbarium specimens, unless special care is taken in the pressing

process.

5. Epithema Blume

1. Epithema carnosum Benth., Scroph. Ind. 57, 1835 ; Clarke in DC.

Monogr. Phan. 5 (1): 177, 1883.

Aikina carnosa G. Don. Syst. 4 : 665, 1837-1838.

This is an East Himalayan plant, not found in Western India.

2. Epithema carnosum Benth., var. hispida C. B. Clarke, in DC. Monogr.

Phan. loc. cit. 178 ; id. in Hook, f., FI. Brit. Ind. 4 : 369, 1884 ;

Cooke, 2 : 325.

Epithema hispidum Wight, MS. in Herb. Kew.

Epithema pusilla C. B. Clarke MS. in Herb. Kew.

Epithema zeylanicum Wight, Illustr. 159, f. 3 ; it. Icon., y. 1354.

This variety, as indicated by the name, differs from the typical plant in

having hispid leaves and peduncles. It seems to be a fairly rare plant in

Bombay, except in the Southern districts of the Presidency, where it is toler-

ably common. The variety pusilla Clarke appears to be but a young specimen

of var. hispida .

492

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

6. Isanthera Nees

1. Isanthera Permollis Nees in Trans. Linn. Soc. 17 : 82, 1834 ; DC. Prodr,

9: 279, 1845; Wight, Icon. t. 1355; Clarke in Hook, f., FI. Brit.

Ind. 4: 372, 1»84: Fritsch in Engl. Pflanzenfam. 4 (3b): 159,

1895 ; Santapau in Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. 46 ; 380,

1946.

For a full description of this plant, see the last reference, where I gave

the plant as a new record for the Presidency of Bombay. The shape of

the leaves and the habit of the plant is quite distinct from the rest of the

Gesneriaceae of Bombay. It seems to be a fairly common plant in Southern

India; but as for Bombay, I have only seen the specimens mentioned in my

paper in this Journal.

References

Bennet, J. J. & R. Brown : Pla7itae Javanicae Rariores , descriptae

iconibusque illustratae, quas in insula Java legit . . . T. Horsfield : observa-

tions . . . passim adjecit Robertus Brown' 1838-1852

Bentham, G. : Scrophularineae Indicae. 1835.

Blume, C. L. : Biidragen tot de Flora van Nederlandsch Indie., 1325-

1826.

Clarke, C. B. : 1. Comtnelynaceae et Cyrtandraceae Bengalenses (paucis

aliis ex terris adjacentibus adjectis). 1874.

2. Cyrtandraceae ( Gesneracearum tribus). In DC. Monogr. Phan.

5 (1), 1883.

3. Gesneraceae in Hook, f., FI., Brit. Ind., 4 : 336-375, 1884.

Don, G. : A General System of Gardening and Botany . . . 1831-1838.

Fritsch, K. : Gesneriaceae in Engl. & Pr., Pflanzenfam. 4 (3b) : 133’-

185 1895.

Wallich, N.: Tentamen Florae Nepalensis illustratae . „ . 1824-1826.

THE GIR FOREST AND ITS LIONS

BY

M. A. Wynter-Blyth, m.a. (Cantab.), f.r.e.s.

( With a sketch map)

I

The Gir Forest has been so strictly preserved that for many

years it has been a terra incognita except to the very few. The

only authoritative articles written on it and its lions appeared in

the Bombay Natural History Society’s Journal as long ago as 1909

and 1911, and in these their author, Colonel Fenton, wrote of a

period towards the end of the last century. Since then, except for

a short article in 1935 based largely on those of Colonel Fenton,

no news seems to have escaped from behind the iron curtain, as it

were, and the world at large has remained in profound ignorance

about the fate of the Gir lions.

In consequence it was with very considerable interest that I

undertook, on behalf of the Bombay Natural History Society, to

visit the forest and find out all I could about them and their pre-

servation.

The Regional Commissioner, the Administrator, and the Chief

Forest Officer were all most co-operative, with the result that I was

given every help in the way of transport and accommodation, and

carte blanche to find out all I could.

My original plan was to cover the whole area in one tour, but

six inches of most unseasonable rain fell the night before I was

due to leave for the forest and rendered all roads impassable, so

that I had to be content to go to Sasan by train and restrict my

investigations to that neighbourhood, covering it on foot and by

pony. In the end this turned out to my advantage as I had to pay

a second visit to the forest in December, during which I explored

the Jamwala and Jasadhar divisions very thoroughly by car, and!

so was able to complete my programme much more fully than I

originally had expected.

*****

In days gone by lions inhabited suitable parts of all north and

central India, and even until the beginning of the last century

were still common in many parts of this area. In 1822 they were

yet to be found in considerable numbers near Saharanpur and

Ludhiana, and they were also known in northern Rohilkhand and

about Moradabad and Rampur. In 1831 a writer stated that they

had been very numerous in Harriana until a few years previously,

though they were unknown at the time of writing. However, they

were recorded up to 1847 in Sagar and Narbada territory, one

was killed at the 80th mile from Allahabad on the Jubbulpore rail-

way in 1866, and they lingered on much later in Gujerat and Central.

India.

4S4 JOURNAL f BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 48

In the 1830’s they were by no means scarce on the banks of

the Sabarmati river, and round Mount Abu, Ahmedabad and Deesa.

It is recorded that they were hunted on horseback in the last locality

by British officers in 1832. The method adopted is not known but

no doubt it differed from that employed by John Nicholson when

hunting tigers near Rawalpindi some years later. Having found

his tiger, he would gallop around it in ever decreasing circles until

the beast became dizzy and he was able to ride in and finish it with

his sword.

The last lion to be killed in Gujerat was shot at Deesa in 1870.

In Central India they existed even later, one being killed in

1873 and one being seen as late as 1884, but the latter was the last

record of any lion outside Kathiawar.

In Kathiawar lions were to be found in Dhrangadhra, parts of

Jasdan, Chotila and the jungle tract that ran uninterrupted from

the eastern Gir through Girnar1 to the Alech and Barda Hills in

the west. Later they disappeared from northern and central

Kathiawar and this jungle tract became their solitary home. With

the gradual settlement of the country much of the jungle was

destroyed and, when the areas mentioned above became separated

from one another by cultivation, the lions finally retired to the pro-

tection of the Gir Forest, though as late as the end of the last

century parties of them would find their way as far afield as the

Barda Hills. Even to this day they sometimes turn up in the

Girnar.

It is unnecessary to look far for the cause of their extinction

in other parts of India because their fearlessness of man and liking

for fairly open country has always made them an easy mark for

sportsmen and others.

As for the Gir lions themselves, Colonel Fenton, writing about

the forest as he knew it towards the end of the last century, paint-

ed a gloomy picture of their future. Such was the poaching* and

uncontrolled shooting of them that he foretold their speedy ex-

tinction (the which he did his little bit to bring about by killing

four). That this prophesy had nearly been fulfilled was revealed

by Mr. Wallinger, the Chief Forest Officer of Junagadh State,

in 1913, after a tour of the forest lasting for nearly two months,

when he reported that he thought that there were only from sjx

to eight lions left and that there were certainly not more than

twenty. Mr. Brooke-Fox, the Chief Engineer of the State, a keen

shikari and one who knew the forest well, confirmed Wallinger’ s

opinion.

As these were the considered statements of two responsible

persons, it must be assumed that the lions were, at that time, on

the very threshold of extinction.

As a result of this report, Mr. Rendall, the then Administrator,

put a ban on the shooting of lions in Junagadh State and at the

same time urged states adjacent to the Gir to do the same. Baroda

State somewhat naively undertook to drive back any lions found

within their limits !

1 Distinguish between Gir and Girnar. The latter is the mountain behind

Junagadh, some 17 miles away from the Gir Forest.

THE GIR FOREST AND ITS LIONS

495

At a later date, one imagines when the number of lions was

thought to have increased, a limited quota (never more than three

a year) was shot,, and the present rules for their protection were

imposed. These rules, in addition to the control on the number

shot, inter alia, prohibited the shooting of lionesses and cubs, any

-other form of shooting in the forest without special permission,

and shooting from any kind of vehicle.

All this was wonderfully successful and the number of lions

; increased to a remarkable extent.

A census was held in 1936 with the following results: —

-once, but seldom more than once, in the twenty-four hours, it was

held at the end of April when the dry weather had reduced the

number of drinking places to a minimum. To prevent the counting

of any lion more than once the pug marks were measured, length-

and cross- ways, and their sex and direction of departure noted. A

watch was also kept around the drinking places for two days pre-

vious to the count so that the enumerators should have a good

knowledge of the tract allotted to them and some idea of what lions

were about. Early on the day before the count all old marks were

smoothed over, and the fresh ones were reckoned up the following

-morning.

This census covered some 700 square miles, including the four

forest divisions of Sasan, Visavadar, Jamwala and Jasadhar with

their environs, together with Talala Mahal, a region of mixed for-

est and cultivation which the lions inhabit just as freely as the

forest itself. Within these areas the enumerators (who numbered

534) worked in batches each under the supervision of a pagi or

some other suitable forest employee. The results were handed in

for scrutiny and lions that were suspected of having entered the

records more than once were eliminated.

At least this was how it was done in theory, and given a suffi-

cient number of persons competent in junglecraft (and the forest

seems well able to furnish these) such a census when undertaken

conscientiously should produce a tolerably accurate result. But

after making careful enquiries I discovered that certain enumer-

ators, and probably supervisors, added non-existent lions to their

totals, on the assumption that the more lions there were recorded,

the more lion shikar there would be . . . with its attendant oppor-

tunities of baksheesh. So that, although I was assured that the

7

496 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

census was otherwise very carefully carried out, and that the

number of lions so added was very small, the result is, to say the

least, suspect.

Nevertheless, the census figures, accurate or not, together with

the figures given below of lions shot and found dead in the eleven

years following the census, are enough to prove that the protection

policy had been a wonderful success, especially when it is remem-

bered that a considerable proportion of those beasts which die in

the forest will never be found, and some of those that are found

(It should perhaps be noted that the proportion of lions to lionesses

is almost identical in both tables, viz. 1.57 and 1.6 to 1).

* * * *

Indian and African lions seem to differ little either in habits or

appearance nor is there any reason to think that they differ in size.

According to the Journal the record Indian lion measured1 g! 7"

and the African io; 7", but the Indian figure relates to the end of

the last century since which time data have not been generally

available. The Junagadh forest authorities have the record of a

10' 6" beast, but as they also have the record of a fabulous mon-

ster of just under 12 ft., this figure has to be accepted with a certain

amount of reserve. However, it must be remembered that the Gir

is but a tiny territory when compared with the haunts of the African

lion and it would be most unlikely for it to produce any record-

breaking animals. Average measurements compare very well with

those of African lions.

The Indian lion is a more shaggy creature than the African,

with a fuller coat and with a longer tuft of hair at the end of the

tail and on the elbow joints, as well as a fuller fringe along the

belly. In conjunction with these characteristics the lion’s mane is

scantier. Occasionally the mane is blackish, or interspersed with

darker hairs.

The Gir lion is a gregarious creature and often travels about in

parties (though this habit seems now to be less common than

heretofore . . . probably because there are less lions) and hunting

may be done in concert, some of the group separating a beast from

the herd they are attacking and driving it towards the others which

are waiting to kill it.

For food they will kill whatever is most easy to come by, and,

as they show little fear of man and his dwellings, are in consequence

inveterate killers of cattle and buffaloes, which, in fact, as kills

of forest game are seldom found, seem to form much the larger

part of what they eat. In all probability they were first drivem

497

THE GIR FOREST AND ITS LIONS

to this habit during one of the famine years , which reduced the

quantity of game in the forest, and the habit, once contracted, has

continued even when game has increased. They are also prepared,

on the one hand, to kill goats and camels, and, on the other, wild

boarte. They will notv however, attack a buffalo unless it is

separated from the herd.

In the ordinary course of events they like to kill on alternate

days, though when more than two or three lions are associated*

one kill will not suffice them all and they will have to kill more often.

They will not return to a kill the next evening.

Although they avoid human habitations by day they are remark-

ably fearless of man and will allow his near approach before

sauntering off with dignity. They will attack him only under

great provocation (though lionesses with cubs are to be avoidfed !)

and man-eaters are unknown.

During the daytime they lie up at some waterhole or in the

shade of a tree, especially a banyan, to come out at dusk to haunt

the outskirts of a village or nes at the time when the cattle are

driven home. Often the male spends much of the night rohring*

for they are very noisy animals, especially when mating. The

female is more silent. They may also travel a long way at night

and can be found sleeping some miles away from where they have

killed.

During those seasons when there is plenty of water outside

the forest, from July to November, many lions leave the forest for

its outskirts and the cultivated country nearby or even further

afield. In Kathiawar it is almost universally believed that this

is due to the lions’ intense dislike of the swarms of mosquitoes

that inhabit the forest during the wet weather. Although, after

visiting the forest in October, December and January, I have still

to see there a single mosquito, I shall nevertheless accept their

presence, as the whole tract has a most unenviable reputation for

malaria, but that they are in sufficient numbers to drive the lions

from the forest I refuse to believe ! The truth of the matter is,

I think, that it is the nature of lions to wander, but when water

becomes scarce outside they naturally return to the forest where

they can easily find it throughout the year.

Concrete proof that lions do wander well away from the Gir

during the wet season is furnished at the Junagadh zoo by two

lionesses, one of which was caught nearby, whilst the other in

actual fact encaged herself !

For several successive nights during September of last year

(1948) a wild lioness was seen hanging around the cage of an

African lion. She used to arrive after dark in a state of consider-

able excitement and try to enter his cage. At the first signs of

dawn she would slip away to lie up in the neighbouring Girnar

jungles.

It was decided to capture her. Two African lions, including

the one of whom she was enamoured, were placed in two cages

so that there was an empty cage between them. The gate of this

was left open and a young goat, as an added attraction, was tied

up inside it. These cages are very roomy enclosures out in the

'498 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

open, each with a den attached in which the animal may lie hidden

when it feels like it.

The lioness arrived soon after dark and with little hesitation

walked into the middle cage, the gate of which was immediately

shut so that she was imprisoned. She, however, was in such at

state of excitement that she did not seem to notice this, nor did

she pay any attention to the goat until by chance it got in the way

of her frantic pacings up and down the side of her African friend’s

cage. She then, as far as could be seen, gave it a petulant blow

that knocked it over but did little physical damage.

At this point a keeper slipped into the cage and rescued the

goat. It is sad, but hardly surprising, to relate that the goat died

of shock soon afterwards.

The lioness continued her pacings and efforts to reach her

lover until daybreak, but as soon as people began to appear she

became frenzied with fury and alarm (and perhaps frustrated pas-

-sion) and hurled herself repeatedly at the bars of her cage until

she collapsed in an exhausted state with the front of her head

badly damaged.

As the sun rose higher and it became very hot she was urged

.(with the aid of small pebbles) to enter her den. This she did and

the door was shut upon her.

Here she refused to eat for several days, but at the end of

forty-eight hours made no objection to the application of boric

ointment to her wound at the end of a long stick, and, indeed,

afterwards seemed to appreciate it. After a day or two more she

commenced to eat the food offered her (liver and kidneys) and soon

began to recover.

When I saw her in December she looked fit and appeared to

he becoming more or less reconciled to her fate.

Of other local beliefs perhaps the commonest relates to the

lions’ fear of snakes. These, they say, kill many lions . . . instant-

aneously, of course . . . and deaths from this cause rank second

only to those caused by the digestive troubles of old age due to

decayed teeth and the inability to chew bones properly. Put a twist

of blackened rope across a path and lions will avoid it like the

plague. Lions also avoid long grass for the same reason, but

Lest of all is the story that after making a kill the lion looks at

the twitching tail with suspicion, and, because it reminds him of

a snake, tears it out by the roots and lays it aside at a safe distance

before beginning his meal !

I1 only saw one snake and that was a green whip, or tree snake,

a species hardly likely to kill a lion.

However, to leave fiction for fact, the lioness mates at the age

of to 3 years and usually produces two, less often three, four, or

ifive, cubs at intervals of 18 months to two years. October and

November are the chief mating months, presumabty because the

cubs will be born in January and February, the healthiest time of

the year.

According to Prater, the life span of the lion is the same as

that of the tiger, some 30 years.

* ' * * * #

THE GIR FOREST AND ITS LIONS 499*

The Gir Forest is a hilly piece of country situated in southern

Kathiawar, south-east of Junagadh city and perhaps 17 miles from

it at its nearest point.

The Great Trignometrical Survey of 1878 gave its area as 1,200

square miles, but such has been its progressive destruction that it

is now reduced to half its former extent, of which about 500 square

miles are in Junagadh territory.

Much of the central, southern and western parts of the forest

are thick, but on the northern side it quickly degenerates into

scrub jungle before giving way to open country.

The eastern Gir is largely covered with a growth of Acacia,

although there are thick patches of jungle along the rivers and

nalas.

The Junagadh Reserved Forest is divided into four divisions,,

and the so-called sanctuary block of Devalia. There are also ex-

tensive patches of jungle in Talala Mahal, an additional strip in

Baroda territory to the north, and about 40 square miles in the

Jetpur block, which forms a wedge between the Sasan division and

the Devalia sanctuary. This block, as will be seen later, has had

at times an unfortunate effect on preservation within the Juna-

gadh Gir.

At the end of the monsoon, the forest which is of what is-

known as the ‘mixed deciduous type’, presents a most attractive

appearance, as the variety of plants and trees is great and it is

then green and luxuriant. During the hot weather, when the trees

have shed their leaves, it becomes a desolate wilderness.

The trees are somewhat stunted, possibly because rock is.

everywhere near to the surface, and the undergrowth is seldom

dense so that the grazing of cattle and buffaloes can take place

throughout much of the forest. Here and there are open grassy

glades, and, near its edges, patches of cultivation. The forest

itself is much cut up into nalas with rocky beds, and intersected

by low ranges of small hills, the latter often being bare or only

covered with a scanty growth of trees.

By far the commonest tree is teak, often disreputable in

appearance owing to the depredations of the defoliator. After teak

the most noticeable trees are perhaps Wrightia tinctoria , flame of

the forest ( Butea frondosa ), an ebony ( Diospyros melanoxylon ),.

iaurelwood ( Terminalia tomentosa), ber ( Zizyphus jujuba ), Stercu-

lia urens with its broad paper- white trunk and gnarled spreading

branches, the graceful water-loving jambudo (Eugenia jambolana ),

karanj (Pongamia glabra), simul or silk-cotton (Bombax malabari-

cum ), and a variety of Acacias of which the most numerous are

Acacia arabica (babool), and Acacia catechu , though Acacia suma,

Acacia jerruginea, and Acacia leucophlaea are all plentiful. Less

common are Adina cordifoliaJ bael (Aegle marmelos), the Indian

laburnum (Cassia fistula), Phyllanthus emblica , and Bauhinia race -

mosa , though none are rare and the last named is most abundant

round Sasan. Here and there a pipal or banyan overtops all other

trees, the latter, because there are no goats to nibble its pendent

aerial rootlets, growing to a fine tree with the main and subsidiary

trunks often covering many square yards of ground.

£00 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

Of shrubs perhaps the twin-leaved Gymnosporia montana,

Holarrhena antidys enteric a (a name that must be hard to beat), and

1 Helicteres isora are among the commonest, and of climbing plants,

-of which there are not many, Acacia pennata, Zizyphus oenoplia ,

and a plant with palmate leaves that they call the ‘water creeper’.

Although in autumn and winter this forest has great charm,

at no time can it have any professional attraction for the for-

ester. A long tradition of lack of attention, uncontrolled fires,

inefficient felling* and harmful lopping of branches has combined

to produce a forester’s nightmare, a tangled wilderness of twisted,

malformed, and mutilated trees.

(Here I must add in parenthesis that the forest is now under

the control of an experienced officer.)

As the Gir Forest is the only forest of any extent in Kathiawar

it is of considerable importance, not only for its forest products

(which after all are of poor quality), charcoal, and firewood, but

also for its effects on climate and the water table of the surrounding

districts, and, above all, for its excellent grazing lands.

Very large numbers of cattle and buffaloes graze in the forest,

and this year, in addition, some 20,000 head from the famine

areas have been allowed to enter. Large quantities of fodder are

also being exported to other parts of Kathiawar.

Some of the herds are owned by cultivators but the great

majority belongs to professional graziers living in the forest villages,

or nesses as they are named. These little settlements with their

thatched wattle huts, each surrounded by a dense thorn enclosure

within which the stock is kept at night, are quiet places and very

much part of the forest. Their owners are mostly of the rabari

caste, men of fine physique, dark golden-brown skins and digni-

fied features, a race entirely different from any other found in

Kathiawar. Like all the forest dwellers they are courteous and

hospitable, free with their offers of food and drink. I!n the warm

weather they go naked from the waist upwards and the fact that

their bodies are uniformly well covered with flesh bears testimony

:o the quality of the milk that they consume in vast quantities.

The main products of the nesses are, obviously enough, butter

and ghee.

The forester at Sasan, one Sher Mahommed (a remarkable

fellow who knew the Latin name of almost every plant and tree in

the forest and was a veritable encyclopaedia of their various uses),

was my informant about local wild life. As well as lions there

were, he said, ‘tigers’ (panthers), ‘jungle sheep’ (four-horned

antelope)1 and ‘stags’ (sambar), but when he told me that there

were also ‘blue beasts and spotted beasts’ I thought for a moment

that I had discovered that mythical land of heraldry inhabited by

blue boars, red lions, unicorns, white harts, green men and the

like after whose fauna so many English inns take their names.

But to my chagrin it appeared after all that these were his names

for nilgai and chital.2

1 Other areas are the 70 square miles of Glrnar and an area of poor forest

in the Barda Hills.

2 It should be noted that neither Sterndale nor Prater records chital or

four-horned antelope from this part of India.

Jourti., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

The Gir Forest, Junagadh

501

THE GIR FOREST AND ITS LIONS

At the conclusion of my visit to Sasan my impression was

that, with the exception of wild pig, game was very scarce in the

forest, an opinion I altered after my second visit to the Gir.

Within the forest in Jamwala and Jasadhar divisions wild pig

can be found in great numbers, whilst nilgai are abundant. Four-

horned antelope, too, are common and chital far from scarce, but

sambar seem to be rare. I am told there are plenty of leopards

but I saw none, though I heard one and saw pug marks at Sasan.

Leopards, however, are very adept at avoiding mankind.

For the rest, we saw several foxes, one or two small parties

of langurs, evidence of porcupines, one chinkara (which is only

found in the more open easterly parts of the forest) and some

mongoose, one of which inhabited the rest-house compound at Jam-

wala and afforded Sheba many happy hours of innocent amusement.

The forest holds no wolves, though these are not scarce in some

of the more open and lonely parts of Kathiawar. Two species of

wild cat are found, one of a sandy colour (undoubtedly the jungle

cat) and one ‘with spots’, possible the desert cat.

Periodic famines decimate the game. One such disaster took

place in 1900 when vast numbers of animals died of thirst and

many others in their weakened state were slaughtered by villagers.

In 1939 there was another famine which caused a scarcity of game

from which the forest only now seems to be recovering. The

position has undoubtedly improved, game is on the increase and

there are plenty of animals in the forest. The restrictions on fire-

arms imposed in 1947 (when the State was taken over) have pro-

bably helped in this by limiting poaching by villagers.

I believe K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji of Bhavanagar is producing

an article on the birds of the Gir3, so upon this subject I had

best maintain silence, but as regards butterflies, although there

was a great abundance of them in October, the number of species

was not great (I saw perhaps 43 different kinds) and almost all of

them were the commoner varieties. An exception must, however,

be made of the skipper, Coladenia indrani indra, which I saw on

the blossoms of Acacia leucophlaea , for this butterfly has never

before been recorded as far north as Kathiawar. It was also in-

teresting to see the nymphalid, Euthalia nais, so common within

the forest as this is the north-western extremity of its range, but

not surprising as its foodstuff, an ebony, Diospyros melanoxylon,

is a common tree in the forest. I also noticed the sword-tail,

Grapliium nomias, a rarity here, and caught a fine series of Rapala

melampus (the red flash), and one ragged Spindasis elima (the

scarce shot silverline), both fast-flying strong-blues, on the same

blossoms as the skipper mentioned above, probably the foodplant

from which Rapala had hatched out as I did not see this butterfly

at the same flowers elsewhere.

Such then is the Gir Forest, the sole remaining home of the

Indian lion.

* * * * •&

My visits to the Gir were, to quote my instructions, ‘to study

1 Published Vol. 48 (December 1948), pp. 187-190.

£02 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

the present condition of the lions with special reference to their

rate of decrease or increase and to consider how continued pro-

tection could best be afforded without clashing- with human

interests.’

Because they are the two classes of persons directly interested

in the lions, I relied mainly on forest pagis3 and maldharis (graziers

of the forest villages and nesses) for my information. I also collect-

ed data about the numbers of cattle and buffaloes killed by lions.

Owing to bad weather my first investigations were confined-

to the vicinity of Sasan (including the north of Talala Mahal and

the Devalia ‘Sanctuary’). In this neighbourhood the unanimous

opinion was that the number of lions had decreased quite consider-

ably since 'the time of the census. The losses of cattle were relative-

ly small.

During my second visit I was able to make a thorough survey

of the Jasadhar and Jamwala divisions, covering over 300 miles of

forest. Throughout the former, and in the southern parts of the

latter, it seems that there has been a slight decrease in the num-

bers of lions since 1936, whilst in the northern and central parts

of the Jamwala division, if the reports of maldharis are to be relied

upon, there has been an increase. In both these divisions the

percentage of cattle and buffaloes killed by lions during the past

year was much greater than around Sasan, and greater in Jam-

wala than Jasadhar.

In short, the number of lions seems to have decreased con-

siderably since 1936 in the west of the forest, and probably to

a small extent over most of the remainder.

In view of my suspicions about the accuracy of the census I

am not prepared to commit myself as to the present strength of

lions in the Gir.1 2

The casual visitor to the forest probably overestimates their

abundance, because lions roam a lot and are much given to roar-

ing at night, so that one lion, or a pair, may make its presence

felt over a wide area and so be recorded from several different

places.

Nevertheless lions are still common and I feel that there is-

little cause for anxiety over their future if protection is strictly ancf

intelligently enforced.

* * * * *

Almost all lion shikar in the Junagadh Gir has taken place

from Sasan. All big shooting parties were centered on the Nawab

Saheb’s fine bungalow there. In addition, the Jetpur block, which

is adjacent to Sasan, has at times been the scene of much shooting

of lions (at least 5 lions and 2 lionesses having been shot there

in 1947)3. This is undoubtedly why the decrease in numbers is

greater in the west of the forest and, as lions are animals that

1 i.e. Forest guards.

2 If compelled to guess the present number of lions in the Junagadh Girr

I should say between 125 and 175.

3 The slaughter in this year, however, was exceptional.

THE GIR FOREST AND ITS LIONS

503*

wander a lot, it may well have acted as a drain on the rest of

the area.

Lions have also been shot in the neighbouring Kathi States-

and a few have been killed within Amreli limits. It is probably

no exaggeration to say that as soon as a lion passed over the

Junagadh boundary someone was after its skin.J

But it is only possible to consider shooting as the entire cause

of the decrease if there has been more shooting of lions during

the last 12 years than in the previous period. This is doubtful,

and, if there has not, there must be some contributory cause, for

lions were on the increase until about 1936 (or even later).

Cycles of increase and decrease are well known phenomena in

nature1 2, but their causes are often obscure, though climate some-

times seems to play an important part, either directly or indirectly.

Overpopulation too can upset the balance of nature and cause the

pendulum to swing in the opposite direction. The Gir lions may

be experiencing the downward trend of such a cycle, which shoot-

ing will naturally accentuate. But, of course, a fall in the birth

rate (or an increase in the rate of natural deaths) may not of itself

be sufficient to cause a decrease in numbers, though in conjunction

with shooting it may well do so. As there does not yet seem to

have been any very serious decrease I think this is the most likely

solution.

It is perhaps necessary to add that I have no evidence that

there is any poaching of lions in the Gir Forest.

* * * * *

Without any doubt the continued survival of lions in the Gir

is due to the protection given them during, and just previous to,

H.H. the Nawab Saheb’s regime. Similarly, were this protection

lifted their speedy extinction could be looked for.

The lion is much bolder, more fearless of man and less cunning

than the tiger and so is much more easily shot. This explains the

disappearance of this noble animal from all its other Indian haunts

whilst the tiger manages to maintain its numbers;

I think it may safely be stated that, as the present Administra-

tion of Junagadh is enforcing protection even more strictly than

before3, and as the Saurashtra Government has taken steps to

prevent the shooting of lions in its territories adjoining the Gir,

they are in no danger of extinction, and, indeed, an increase in

numbers may well occur. Their only enemy seems to be man, and'

if left alone by him, I believe them well able to look after them-

selves.

But this is not enough, for the number of cattle and buffaloes

they kill seems to be very considerable.

The following are answers given to my questions, ‘How many

cattle and buffaloes have been killed by lions in this nes (or village)

1 A careful policy of afforestation has of recent years attracted lions to-

Mitiala in Bhavnagar territory to the east of >fhe forest. Here the shooting of

lions has been rigidly controlled.

2 c.f. The Wood White butterfly in England.

3 Since the Administration took over no lions have been shot. The last

lion shot was killed by Brigadier Gurdial Singh at the time of the occupation.

.£04 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

during* the last twelve months? What is the number of your total

stock?’ While I have no check at all on these figures, nor do I

know to what extent they have been influenced by the traditional

pessimism of those who take their livelihood from the land, the

forest officials who accompanied me believed them to be given in

good faith. After a due allowance for the peasant’s vagueness

about time and numbers, they are probably not a great exaggera-

tion.

In fact, as kills of forest game made by lions are seldom found,

it is to be suspected that, over a great part of the forest, they rely

on cattle and buffaloes for most of their food.

It is fully realised that this is a very serious allegation to make<v

for it is bound to raise the question of whether it is in the human

interest to preserve the lions at all. However, before the very

drastic step of removing preservation should even be considered,

it is very necessary to collect much more detailed reports than the

comparatively meagre information I obtained from some 18 villages

and nesses.

It is of the first importance, then, that accurate accounts should

be kept of the numbers of cattle and buffaloes killed by lions.

THE GIR FOREST AND ITS LIONS ,505

On the other hand, in defence of the lions as it were, it must

be borne in mind that a large proportion of the losses are due to

the carelessness of the owners in bringing their cattle home late,

in letting single animals wander, and in accidentally leaving them

out at night. Also the fact that they receive the benefit of grazing

that is free, or for which only a very small fee is charged, on some

of the best grazing lands in India, may be considered to some

extent as compensation for any loss they may incur.

Any monetary compensation for losses within the forest would,

for obvious reasons, defeat its own ends. The increase in the

number of old and sick cattle killed by lions would probably be

startling ! Outside the Gir, which for this purpose should be held

to include all areas generally inhabited by lions, compensation might

well be considered.

That India possesses the last home of the lion in Asia should be

a matter of national pride, and it is hardly for me to assess the

price she should be prepared to pay for its survival ; but removal of

protection and its consequent extinction would certainly create an

unfavourable impression abroad.

The aim of the protective policy must be to strike a happy

mean which will maintain the stock of lions at a safe level and at

the same time endeavour to reduce the losses of cattle.

It is therefore essential to ascertain as accurately as possible

by a census the number of lions in the forest.

This in the first instance should be held in April of next year

(1950) and subsequently at two yearly intervals.

These censuses and the details of cattle losses will be the essen-

tial data upon which to work. From them will be decided whether

the shooting of lions is to be prohibited, or the quota to be shot,

as well as the areas in which shooting is to take place.

In addition, because it will provide further valuable informa-

tion, every effort should be made to ensure the reporting of lions

that are found dead, together with details of sex, approximate age

and, if possible, the cause of death. A record of these should be

kept together with that of those which have been shot.

It is probably optimistic to hope to break the maldhari of

centuries of habit by persuading him to bring his cattle home

earlier and to keep a more careful watch over them, but every

endeavour should be made to do so. He is fatalistic over his losses

and takes them very much as a matter of course.

At the same time the lions’ natural food should not be neglected,

for if they are to be discouraged from feeding on cattle there must

be an abundance of game for them to fall back upon. It is possible

that an increase in the quantity of game in the forest will of itself

reduce the losses of cattle by offering increased opportunities there

of easy kills ... as the lions undoubtedly prey on cattle as they

are easily come by.

With this in view the forest should be made a sanctuary for

all other kinds of game (except leopards) and permission to shoot

them should under no circumstances be granted. Leopards, how-

ever, should be treated as vermin as they prey on many of the

£06 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo*. 48

animals upon which the lions feed (or should feed) and consequently

are an unnecessary drain on their food supply.

For the rest, perhaps the prevention of jungle fires is the surest

way of preserving- the natural life of the forest.

* * * *

If, because of an increase in the numbers of lions or as a

measure to reduce their depredations on cattle, it is essential to

take the drastic step of reducing their numbers, this should only

be done after very careful consideration and carried out very care-

fully over a period of years.

If it is considered necessary to shoot lions, permission to

shoot should only be granted to responsible persons who are reput-

ed shots on the explicit understanding that they will personally

follow up wounded animals. Although no cases of man-eating have

as yet been recorded there is no reason why a wounded beast should

not adopt this habit. Though lionesses would not ordinarily be

shot, there have been instances where a tigress has passed on this

habit to her cubs. A lioness might well do the same.

II

Sasan (October)

Accompanied as usual by Sheba, I arrived in Junagadh on

September 30th and made all arrangements for a very thorough

tour of the Gir Forest by car. Unfortunately the night before

1 was due to set out it began to rain and a report came through

the following morning that already the roads were in bad condi-

tion. So our departure was postponed in the hope of an improve-

ment in the weather. After raining steadily all day until evening,

the storm greatly increased in intensity, and some of the heaviest

rain I can ever remember fell throughout the whole night, , accom-

panied by persistent lightning and violent thunder. As road travel

was now out of the question I decided to go to Sasan by train

and there make my headquarters with the object of covering as

much of that neighbourhood as I could on foot and by pony. If

it could be arranged I should pay the forest a second visit in

December to complete my investigations.

As it turned out the weather did me a good turn for the roads

had not been repaired after the monsoon and were already im-

passable before this storm.

Although this limited the scope of my activities, it greatly-

added to my comfort, for the Sasan bungalow is the Nawab

Saheb’s old shooting lodge, a large and most comfortably furnish-

ed house. As the State had kept on all the old mehmandari arrange-

ments I spent a week in luxury.

The bungalow is situated amidst pleasing surroundings in a

grassy park with jungle and hills surrounding it on three sides.

Though perhaps it does not possess quite the same remote charm

as Jamwala, my headquarters when I returned in December, it is a

delightful enough place. The bungalow itself is remarkable for

the two giant beds which were installed for the visit of a certain

very large Viceroy and Vicereine, and for the phenomenal

THE GIR FOREST AND ITS LIONS

507

number of lizards that have their habitation there . . . much to

Sheba’s joy, for lizard shikar ranks high in her list of blood sports.

My routine here was very peaceful. At daybreak I was woken

by the persistent call of a brain-fever bird somewhere in the depths

of the jungle, and soon after sunrise I would walk or ride to a

neighbouring village or nes where I questioned the inhabitants and

so, bit by bit, amassed a fair amount of useful information. After

lunch I dozed and in the evening the morning’s programme was

repeated. When I returned I would sit peacefully in front of the

bungalow sipping cherry whisky (which, together with Eritrean

beer, were the extremely improbable, but nevertheless most accept-

able, drinks supplied to me by the State !) listening to the evening

chatter of the mynahs and paroquets or watching the play of light

on the wonderful bank of clouds that built itself up to the north

on three successive evenings. When the pink of the clouds had

changed to a toneless grey I would move inside and write up my

motes for the day.

Although in my wanderings I went as far afield as the Devalia

Sanctuary (a misnomer as the area is in reality a reserve for lion

shikar) and saw much of the forest, I came across no game except

wild pig, and saw no lions. There is, however, plenty of evidence

that there are lions about at other seasons of the year (though

in no great numbers) but it appears that most of them leave this

part of the forest for its outskirts during the monsoon and just

after it.

This visit to Sasan was valuable as a preliminary survey but

insufficient to give me an impression of the whole forest.

Fortunately I had no difficulty in fixing up a second visit in

December.

Jamwala (December-January)

Accompanied on this occasion by my wife as well as Sheba,

we arrived in Junagadh on Christmas Eve and spent that afternoon

arranging details of our trip, devoting the following day to sight-

seeing. Junagadh is a most attractive town and its pleasant sur-

roundings are a remarkable contrast to the rest of Kathiawar.

Early on the 26th we set off to motor the 60 miles to Jamwala.

Our journey was without incident except at one point where the

road was blocked by a fallen tree and we had to make a detour

through the forest, an operation that entailed the felling of several

large saplings. At Sasan we picked up Mr. Sheikh, the A.F.O.

at Jamwala, who was to look after us, and arrived at Jamwala

in time for a late lunch.

Jamwala is on the southern edge of the Gir on the banks of

the Singavada river, the rest-house being situated to the north of

the village on a small hillock that gives a view over fields to the

forest. To the left lies the river, a pleasant stream of no great

size that runs between banks thickly clothed with karanj3 and

jambudo2, the latter a graceful, water-loving tree that resembles

1 Pongamia glabra.

2 Eugenia jambolana .

EOS JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , FoZ. 48

the willow. Beyond the river are the white buildings of the divi-

sional headquarters and behind them small jungle-covered hills.

It is a tranquil place, and remarkable for its greenness even at

that time of year when most of Kathiawar, because of the failure

of the rains, was already half desert.

The same evening we began our investigations by driving out

to Alsalia Nes, 8 miles into the forest, learning at the same time

w’hat the forest roads were really like, for although the road by

which we had come from Junagadh was tolerable, the remainder

are bad beyond -description. It was only the remarkable skill of

our driver that saved us from disaster on many an occasion.

Owing to the suspicious character of the rabari headman of

Alsalia our investigations were fruitless. He was convinced that

we wished to seize one of his buffaloes and tie it up as bait for a

lion. Such things, he said, had happened in the past. He had no

idea how many buffaloes he possessed, no lion had ever killed any of

them, and furthermore he had not seen any lions for a very, very

long time !

He was a fat, bouncing little man with a remarkable red, white

and black plaster attached to his stomach. It was, he told usT

made of red chillies and the sticky white sap of umbro3, and was

an infallible cure for tummy-ache. The third ingredient, one as-

sumed, was grime collected during manufacture. As Mr. Sheikh

aptly remarked, it was an undoubted example of jungly antiphlogis-

tine. However, our rabari acquaintance’s suspicions did not cause

him to neglect the courtesies of the forest and he made the custom-

ary offer of milk. Indeed he seemed very hurt when we refused

it on the plea that it was growing very late.

Whenever one halts at a forest village or nes this offer of tea

or milk (and sometimes food) is made, and, because they are a

genuinely hospitable people, refusal is taken as discourtesy. As

one is expected to stop at every habitation this makes progress

a little difficult.

Both tea and milk are served in a cup, but it is etiquette to^

pour them into the saucer and drink from that. , Tea is sometimes

infused with ginger or cinnamon, both of which strange mixtures

are quite pleasant on a cold morning.

My wife heard lions roaring throughout the night : I was far

too soundly asleep to hear anything.

; ; . ■ * * : * / * *

Having failed at Sasan, it was essential to see at least one

lion at Jamwala, if only as direct evidence that the Gir lions were

not an elaborate myth ! On this occasion Mr. Sheikh was success-

ful beyond all expectations and showed us four within 72 hours

of our arrival.

On the evening of the second day we bumped our way eastwards

in search of news along the track that runs to Jasadhar. Four

lions had been heard near Thordi, six miles away, and two had

been seen at Bhanka, a couple of miles nearer home. As these

1 Ficus glomerata, a species of fig tree.

THE GIR FOREST AND ITS LIONS

509’

two lions had walked into Bhanka village the previous night we

decided that this was the best place to tie up a young buffalo.

At 4.45 a.m. we were woken by Mr. Sheikh with the news that

a pair of lions had killed shortly after two o’clock. Hastily driv-

ing to Bhanka, we halted on the near side of the village and made-

our way as silently as possible through its tortuous ways to come

out on the far side behind a broken wall. From here, at about 80

yards distance, we caught two dusty shapes in the light of our

torches before they slunk off into cover. As our view of these

lions had been indistinct we decided to bring the car round in the

hope of picking them up in the headlights. So we beat a retreat

by the way we had come and returned with the car. Then fortune

favoured us, for we immediately discovered the lions close to our

left, and instead of making off in that direction they came out

into the road directly in front of the car. The next fifteen seconds

were fraught with excitement, for although the lion almost im-

mediately bounded off to the right and disappeared, the lioness

shambled straight down the road with us wildly accelerating be-

hind her in mad pursuit. So close were we at one time that I

thought we should run her down. Then she too, tiring of this^

irritating game, bounded off into the bushes after her mate. The

driver showed every sign of making the car do the same and it

was only with the greatest difficulty that I restrained him and per-

suaded him to turn back and make for the village.

Leaving instructions with the villagers to follow up the lions

as soon as day broke to find out where they were lying up, we

drove to the range headquarters at Dhabala to tell the forest pagis

to do the same.

Here we were glad enough to drink tea and warm ourselves at

a large wood fire. As soon as dawn began to make its appearance-

we set off for home.

Owing to the villagers’ late start (much time was spent in

gossiping and drinking tea) the tracks were lost and so was our

chance of seeing the lions by day.

The following night a cow was killed at Jamwala, and fresh

pug marks found by an ex-pagi named Kaloo Mahommed, and

followed until he discovered a pair of lions lying up on a hilltop

between Bhanka and Jamwala. As they were out in the open, just

over the brow of the hill, it was planned that we should approach

from the far side, walk up as near as possible and hope for a close

photograph of them. This sounded alarming, especially as the

suggestion came from the Settlement Officer, Mr. Nur Mahommed

Balooch, a charming fellow, but one who had already struck us as

being of a singularly reckless nature ! I also remembered the story

of a rabari, who, to demonstrate the harmless nature of lions, rush-

ed up to one brandishing a stick and shouting . . . and was prompt-

ly killed.

So once more we returned to Bhanka, and, after walking

perhaps two miles to the low, scrub-covered hill upon the top of

which the lions had been seen, we were met with the news that

they had moved into a nala close by and were now sleeping in*

thick shade that would make photography difficult. Therefore

Igio JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

plans had to be changed and it was decided (much to the Settle-

ment Officer’s disappointment) to place a machan at the top end of

the nala, tie up a goat close by, and gently drive the lions up the

mala in the hope of a photograph of them killing the goat.

While the goat was being brought from the village we relaxed

in the cool shade of a babool tree. It was very peaceful and Mr.

.'Sheik and the Settlement Officer told us comforting stories to show

the magnanimity and harmless nature of lions.

(At last the goat arrived, but, when all was ready, it was found

that the Settlement Officer had obstinately reverted to his original

plan and insisted that we first try to photograph the animals on

foot, and then, if they had not been too much disturbed, take up

our position in the machan. Accordingly we set off in the follow-

ing order. First came two pagis as vanguard, one to the right

and one to the left, each armed with an ancient muzzle-loader

charged with a large but far from spherical ball. Between the pagis,

but a little to the rear, came myself, somewhat apprehensive and

with camera ready for use, followed closely by the Settlement

Officer, another armed pagi, and my wife, whom I knew, by the

look on her face, to be remembering Rajkot Cemetery where are

.already interred two English officers killed by lions (as well as

two College Principals’ wives who had met a less violent death).

Behind her came Mr. Sheikh, then the village patel, and finally

two more armed pagis. If it is added that most of the pagis were

of Baluchi descent and wore beards of formidable aspect it will be

appreciated that our little company presented an unusual spectacle.

Proceeding thus, we crossed the open hill-side and made a

stealthy, but far from silent, descent into the nala, picking up on

the way the ex-pagi, Kaloo, who had been keeping a watch on the

lions from the top of a tree. The lions had moved once more and

were now out of sight. So we advanced carefully up the nala for

perhaps one hundred yards,; seeing nothing, uiitil, at perhaps

twenty paces directly in front, the lion rose from where he had

been lying in the shade of a small tree. For the next fifteen

seconds I was too fully occupied in trying to take the photograph

to register accurately either the exact appearance of the lion or

what was going on around me. But as far as I can recollect, just

as I raised my camera, II was very firmly grasped and propelled

forward by the Settlement Officer who apparently thought that

honour would only be satisfied with a close up of the beast’s head,

while a few yards behind me my wife received the same cavalier

treatment from Mr. Sheikh. When I had steadied myself and

released the shutter of the camera, the lion had already given us

a look of pained surprise and begun to make off at a leisurely pace

into the vegetation on the other side of the tree. At the same time

the lioness, who had been lying up till now concealed in the grass

«close to the lion, rose up and trotted off to the right. This was a

signal for the outbreak of the strangest cries from our company,

some bleating like sheep, and others making the most curious

popping noises with fingers and mouths. I then found myself

..t unning rapidly after the lioness in the company of the Settlement

1 Officer and the two pagis, with the result that I got a very close

THE GIR FOREST AND ITS LIONS

511

photograph of her just after (as it turned out) she had disappeared

into a thicket.

Although I had often contemplated the unpleasant circumstance

of being pursued by some large beast of prey, never in my wildest

dreams had I expected to be involved in the reverse of this situa-

tion.

When the lioness came into sight once more, we watched her

make her way up the hillside facing us, stopping every now and

then to look for her mate. When she had disappeared over the

brow of the hill, we remembered the lion and made a wild rush,

to the accompaniment of the aforesaid strange noises, to a point

of vantage from which we could overlook the head of the nala. As

we did so he broke cover and ambled across the open hill-side,

perhaps sixty yards away, the very embodiment of dignity and

grace. He was a magnificent beast with a dusky mane, and I was

struck, as I had been struck when I first saw a tiger in the jungle,

by his apparently immense size and the sense of his tremendous

power.

The whole party was highly delighted at the success of these

manoeuvres. It was, they declared (and I can well believe it), the

first time that a lion had been photographed by this method, but,

the jemadar-pagi added wistfully, if only we had been quiet we

should have got much closer.

It is sad to have to admit that the photograph was hardly a

success, for at the moment of taking it the lion had already con-

cealed himself so effectively among the leaves of the bushes that,

though his head is visible, it requires some considerable exercise

of the imagination to make it out.

* * ' * *

Having both seen and photographed lions, we v/ere now free

to explore the forest. Accordingly, earlv the next morning, wre

set out for Jasadhar. This was in the nature of a pioneer expedi-

tion for it is doubtful if any sane person has ever attempted to take

a car so far over such bad roads. However, we accomplished it

with little damage to ourselves apart from a few bruises, and to

the car apart from a bent steering rod.

We followed the road that leads northwards into the middle

of the forest and there turned east, stopping for a short spell at

Banej Nes to examine the, old antimony diggings and to drink tea

flavoured with ginger.

Ten miles further on, after crossing a small range of hills

over which the road was more appalling than usual, we dropped

down to Tulsi Shyam where Krishna’s ancient temple stands in an

attractive jungle setting.

As a place of pilgrimage it is of some considerable importance,

as may be seen from the size of the dharamsala attached to it, for

it caters both for spiritual comfort and bodily relief, being placed

at the site of a hot spring, its waters are led into a commodious

tank for the use of the pilgrims and the fact that they are hot

enough to make the act of bathing* a penance is quite in keeping

with the spiritual nature of the place.

8

£12 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

The priest, a most hospitable soul, received us very warmly and

having- shown us round the temple, entertained us to an excellent

lunch. Then having presented Sheba with a luddu the size of an

orange (which she devoured at a gulp and so gained great local

izzat) he set us on our way with many requests that we return for

a long stay.

Beyond Tulsi Shyam the jungle turned to thick Acacia scrub,

and, being less cut up by rocky nalas, progress was more rapid.

Even so we did not arrive at Jasadhar until well after i.oo p.m.,

the whole journey having taken us some five hours. As Mr. Sheikh

had promised, wTe found Jasadhar a ‘quiet’ place; indeed few places

can be more remote and isolated. So difficult is it to approach that

one does not imagine that the A.F.O. stationed there is much

troubled by interference from his superiors, an advantage which

a recent A.F.O. apparently appreciated, as the story of the haunt-

ed bungalow goes to show.

This bungalow is the A.F.O’s quarters, and we had been told

about it in Junagadh though nobody was able to give us details

of the haunting. Consequently it was disappointing to find out,

on arrival at Jasadhar, that the ghost was a ‘propaganda’ ghost. . .

that is, merely a rumour spread by the previous A.F.O. to prevent

anyone displacing him.

Panthers abound round here and Sheba had to have an armed

guard when I took her for a stroll in the jungle.

Our return, which was along* the southern edg*e of the forest,

was not quite so uncomfortable, as stretches of the road had been

repaired. It was dark long before our return to Jamwala.

The following day was devoted to a well-earned rest.

* * * *

The six days that were left to us were spent pleasantly in

making long or short expeditions into the forest and the country

round about. Of long trips there were two, of which the most

ambitious took us to Dhari, the military headquarters of Amreli,

for the purpose of carrying* out very necessary repairs to the dam-

aged steering rod. Our way led across theforest to Sap Nes and

through the narrow strip of the Baroda Gir. This tract is good

thick forest which undoubtedly contains lions (there were, so we

were told, plenty round Sap Nes, and this was within the central

forest area where they seem to have increased their numbers of

recent years), but whether any would be recorded from here during*

a census is doubtful as this northern side of the hills is dry and

would probably hold few drinking places in April.

At Dhari, which is a neat little cantonment set in the middle

of a desert wilderness, we inflicted ourselves unheralded on

Mr. Sheikh’s uncle, the colonel commanding the station. He rose

nobly to the occasion and gave us lunch and tea.

Our second long expedition took us to Kankai, an unimpressive

little temple which is nonetheless the religious centre of the Gir.

Our way as usual led through Chhodawadi Nes, which may well

be termed the Charing Cross of the forest, and thence westwards

through abrupt little hills covered with thicker jungle than we

THE GIR FOREST AND ITS LIONS

513

had seen before. Much of the grass was very long- as we were

passing- through a reserved area where no grazing was allowed,

and many of the trees showed signs of bad damage from fire, the

scourge of this forest. There was plenty of game about and we

saw large numbers of pig and nilgai, all very tame for there is

little to disturb them.

At Kankai we found the priest away, but his chela, a vener-

able old gentleman with a flowing* beard, took charge of us and,

having shown us the temple of the goddess Kankai, led us down to

the rivet to point out to us a green tree snake ( Dry of his ; myct-

erizaiis) that was wound in and out among the branches of a leaf-

less bush on the other side. It was a wonderful example of natural

protection for it was so like a long ribbon of weed that I was not

convinced it was a snake until it was caused unwillingly to move

by a stone that landed close by.

When we halted at Chhodawadi on our return, Sheba, who had

already performed prodigious gastronomic feats at this nes, finally

gained undying fame by drinking five pounds of buffalo milk : she

also met her Waterloo, for she could no more.

Two other trips, neither of which could really be considered

to be in connection with lion preservation as they were into Amreli

territory, well south of Jamwala and the forest, were to Mul-Dwarka

and Jagatia.

MuLDwarka is a very ancient temple intimately connected with

the Lord Krishna’s sojourn in these parts. What is left of it,

which is little enough as the building* is in a state of almost com-

plete decay, is situated on a small promontary, jutting out into

the Arabian Sea close to the quaint old walled town of Kodinad.

There is a small fishing village nearby whose main catch is a species

of small hammer-headed shark.

When we left Mul-Dwarka just before dusk, the harsh but

melodious Kronk ! Kronk ! of kunj (demoiselle crane) was to be

heard as a flight of these birds came into the fields nearby.

One of my pleasantest recollections of Kathiawar will always

be of the wonderful formations of these birds that wing their way

overhead at daybreak and shortly before dusk to the sound of this

peculiarly attractive note. Their mastery of the art of formation

flying far exceeds that of any other bird I have seen and it is

always a joy for me to watch them. The variety of their formations

is endless, but they always fly in echelon with each bird avoiding*

the slip-stream of the bird in front, and rapidly chang*e from one

formation to another with practised skill. Sometimes, especiallv

with flights that take place during the daytime, these formations

break up and the birds circle round and round with much tumult

in an untidy irregular mass, presently to resume formation, fly on

for a stretch, and then repeat the performance.

Jagatia, not far from Jamwala, is remarkable for natural gas !

In a field close to the small village six large iron pipes emerge

from the ground, tapping the reservoir of gas some two hundred

feet below the surface. As the pipes have been in position for

several years some millions of cubic feet of valuable gas must have

been uselessly dissipated into the surrounding atmosphere, for the

514 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

supply has been put to no use at all, except by the occasional

villager for cooking his dinner.

The gas smells of sulphur, is easily ignited and burns with

a clear smokeless flame.

On the 6th of January we reluctantly returned to junagadh,

and the following day made our dusty way to Rajkot.

*****

When other memories of our visit to the Gir fade, one which

will always remain is that of the hospitality we received from

Mr. Sheikh, who told us that he considered us his honoured guests,

from his uncle, from the priest at Tulsi Shiyam, from everyone down

to the humble maldharis of the forest.

This part of Kathiawar has retained much of the old courtesy

that so many parts of India have lost long since.

NOTES ON BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF SHWEBO DISTRICT,

BURMA

BY

W. L. Roseveare, i.s.e. (Retd.)

(With a sketch map)

Introduction

Except where otherwise stated, these notes cover observations made between

October 1930 and March 1934 in that portion of the Shwebo district irrigated

by the government canal systems. The trivial names used are those adopted in

Birds of Burma by Smythies.

Glossary of Burmese words used

Chaung — A stream-bed that goes dry, or practically so, for part of the year.

In— A shallow natural lake.

Indaing — Dry forest without bamboos.

Kaing — Land in a river bed, exposed and often cultivated in the dry weather.

Kazin — The low bank surrounding a rice-field.

Kokkobin — Albizzia lebbek. A large common roadside tree.

Mayin — A rice crop grown during the dry weather, and therefore practically

resitfricted to the borders of ins.

Nyaungbin — The pipal tree.

Tanamrgbin — A tree of moderate size.

Taze — A large area, adjacent to the Irrawaddy, in the Minbu district, which

is covered only by very high floods.

Ya — Dry (i.e. unirrigated) cultivation, other than kaing (q.v.).

Abbreviation

I.B. — Inspection bungalow.

List of Species

Corvus macrorhynchos. The Jungle Crow.

Habits. — Frequently seen in company with House Crows ; generally solitary

in pairs, but occasionally in flocks.

Status. — Fairly common ; observed in every month.

Corvus splendens. The House Crow.

Habits and Food. — A pair once observed wading in shallow water and picking

food off the surface. Sometimes seen feeding on young buds of nyaungbin.

Nest and Eggs. — One nest observed under construction as late as 10 June,

but was never finished. Nests seen occasionally in same tree as those' of Pond

Herons and Little Egrets.

Status.- — Very common every- month.

Uroeissa erythrorhyncha. The Red-billed Blue Magpie.

Status. — Occasional cold weather visitor to the area. Earliest date 29

October.

Dendrocitta vagabunda. The Tree Pie.

Habits and Food.— Usually seen singly, occasionally in pairs; frequently in

cotton trees, mangoes and tamarinds.

Status. — Uncommon, especially in hot weather and rains. Not seen between

March and 4 August.

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

£18

Crypsirhina cucullata. The Hooded Racquet-tailed Magpie.

Voice. — Twice seen uttering harsh raucous call.

Habits. — Generally seen singly, but family parties observed between July

-and October.

Status. — Seen in all months except May and June. Latest date 29 April,

earliest 18 July. Never common.

Argya gularis. The White-throated Babbler.

Voice. — I once saw it uttering a cheep cheep call, followed by a trill.

Nest and, Eggs. — Fledgling handled as late as 16 September.

Status. — Common in every month. ,

Timalia pileata. The Red-capped Babbler.

Identification. — Deep red crown and pure white forehead are conspicuous in

the field; otherwise very similar, both in appearance and movements, to the

Yellow-eyed Babbler.

Habits and Food. — Bird seen on 29 April was among bushes at least a mile

from any moisture.

Nest and Eggs. — The same bird was behaving as though near its nest, but

I failed to find it.

Status. — Very uncommon, only two observations, 29 April and 22 August.

Chrysomma sinensis. The Yellow-eyed Babbler.

Voice. — A harsh chattering call, rather like a Burmese Shrike’s or Blanford’s

Bulbul’s, but much softer. Occasionally utters a beautiful song, something

like a Magpie-Robin’s, from top of tree or bush. Bird seen singing as late as

16 October.

Habits and Food. — Generally seen in dry scrub jungle, but also in wet

rice-fields and swamps. On one occasion, 16 December, at least 6 birds emerged

from cracks in dry mud at the* edge of Wetlet Lake when I had almost trodden

■on them.

Nest and Eggs. — Bold when nesting. One bird brought material to nest

when I was within 6 yards and plainly visible. The beautiful cobweb frame-

work had been completed and a start was being made in adding grass blades

to it. Nest building observed on 13 September (latest date), and in another

case young just able to fly observed on 30 September.

Status. — Fairly common in hot weather .and rains, less so in cold weather.

,/Egithina tip Ilia. The Common Iora.

Voice. — One phrase may be represented by the words Oh, here we are. The

plaintive call we-e-e-tu, stated by Stuart-Baker1 to be uttered only in the rains,

was heard as early as 12 February and as late) as 7 November. The we-e-e is

sometimes repeated many times without the final lower note. A male was

once seen singing cheerfully on 2 August, although moulting and very be-

draggled. On the same day of the year, in Mandalay district, I once saw a

female uttering a loud trisyllabic note while sitting on her nest.

Nest and Eggs. — Male with all-black crown of breeding plumage once

observed on 13 February. Partial breeding plumage seen: on 20 September

(latest date).

Status. — Observed in all months, but not so commonly during the rains.

Habits. — Occasionally seen catching insects on the wing.

Chloropsis auri Irons The Gold-fronted Chloropsis.

Habits and Food.— Whenever observed, it was feeding in trees bungalow

compounds.

Status. — Very uncommon, and only seen between 23 September and 26

January.

Fauna of British India (Birds).

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc,

BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF SHWEBO DISTRICT 517

Molpastes cafer. The Red-vented Bulbul.

Status. — Fairly common, observed in every month.

Pycnonotus blanfordi. Blanford’s Olive Bulbul.

Voice. — Usually an ugly grating call, but I have seen it uttering quite a

musical trill.

Nest and Eggs. — Nest very loosely woven. Sometimes found entirely sus-

pended, sometimes supported from below as well. Found in creeper on house

porch, in small cutch tree, in thorn bush and in pile of dead brushwood.

Fledgling seen 4 April (earliest), eggs found 21 June (latest).

Status. — Very common in every month.

Saxicola caprata. The Stone-chat.

Voice. — A male was once seen uttering a pretty song of 6 syllables, followed

by the ordinary tsak-tsak call.

Habits and Foods — Frequently seen perched on rushes in Mahananda tank

and Wetlet Lake, and on one occasion in September a number were seen on

growing paddy. Once observed on top of toddy palm and once on roof of

bungalow.

Status. — Observed in all months except March, but scarce in April and

not common in May.

Saxicola torquata. The Japanese Bush-chat.

Habits and Food. — Seen more than once perched on bushes etc. growing in

water.

Status. — Observed between 22 August and 16 May, but never common.

Luscitiia svecica. The Red-spotted Bluethroat.

Identification. — White eyebrows and chestnut patch on throat were usually

conspicuous.

Habits and Food. — Seen on paddy field kazin, in scrub jungle, and on

abandoned canal bank. One stood very erect, but ran with body bent forward

and tail uplifted.

Status. — Very uncommon ; only observed three times.

Calliope calliope. The Common Rubythroat.

Habits and Food. — Once seen feeding like a wagtail, running very fast

in short rushes, with head lowered, usually ending by catching an insect.

Status. — Very uncommon; only observed three times; latest date 16 April.

Copsychus saularis. The Indian Magpie-Robin.

Voice. — In the cold weather 1 frequently heard it utter a long loud rather

plaintive whistle. The earliest date I heard its song was 27 hebruary.

Nest and Eggs. — Fledgling, just able to- fly, observed on 7 August.

Status. — Observed in every month, but very seldom in October.

Monticola solitaria. The Blue Rock-Thrush.

Voice. — On two occasions I saw it uttering a harsh grating cry, something

like a roller’s, whilst vigorously bobbing its head low and its tail high.

Habits and Food. — It was fond of the Shwebo golf-course and the Kabo

headworks. Its food includes caterpillars.

Status. — Fairly common in the . cold weather. Earliest observation 30

September, latest 3 April.

Siphia parva. The Red-breasted Flycatcher.

Identification. — Red on breast only once observed, and then only a very pale

rufous tinge, visible only intermittently.

Voice.—' The loud harsh chirp has reminded me of a cricket, and also of a

Streaked Fantail Warbler’s note, though more continuous.

18 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

Habits and Food. — I once saw a number hawking flies from perches on.

clods of earth at the edge of a tank.

Status and Distribution. — Fairly common in cold weather. Earliest date-

15 September, latest 14 February.

Eumyias thalassina. The Verditer Flycatcher.

Voice. — The only specimen observed in the area (on 13 January 1934) was

uttering a chat-like call, whilst perched in a mango tree.

Status. — Only once observed in the area, on 13 January 1934, at the head:

of Distributory No. 1 of the Moksogyon Branch Canal.

Cullcicapa ceylonensis. The Grey-headed Flycatcher.

Habits. — On two occasions, both in November, I observed one hawking in-

sects from the top of a tall pipal tree in Pauktaw inspection bungalow com-

pound, on the bank of the Yeu canal. On a third occasion, in February, I

saw one fly down from a mangoe tree to the surface of a canal and back like a

flash. The continual fanning of the tail is a conspicuous habit.

Status. — The above observations were the only ones in the area.

Tchitrea paradisi. The Paradise Flycatcher.

Status. — Observed twice only in the area, on 8 April and 22 July. A third

observation was made at Kyaukmyaung on the Irrawaddy, a short way outside-

the area, where on 23 April two full-plumaged adult males and one female;

were seen together.

Hypothymis azurea. The Indian Black-naped Flycatcher.

Habits. — On two of the three occasions on which I saw this bird in the-

area it was hawking insects from a perch in a mango tree. On the third

occasion it was perched in a bush close to a Magpie-Robin which was in-

full song.

Status.— Observed once in November and twice in February. On two-

occasions it was in an inspection bungalow compound, and on the third one in

the Civil Lines at Shwebo.

Chelidorhynx hypoxantlium. The Yellow-bellied Flycatcher.

Status. — Observed once only, on 19 January at Kabo (under 500 ft.).

Rhipidura aureola. The Burmese White-browed Fantail Flycatcher.

Habits. — Two birds competing for an insect once fle*w within a yard of my

face when I was standing in the open in white clothes, after which one of them

perched on a hedge one foot above ground within three yards of me. On

another occasion I saw a bird perched at the edge of the Mahananda tank.

Status. — Uncommon September to February ; not observed in other months.

Rhipidura albicollis. The White-throated Fantail Flycatcher.

Habits. — Once seen hunting for food in the bottom of thick bushes. Twice-

seen bathing in a stream.

Status. — Seen throughout the year, including August. Usually uncommon,

but on 23 April 1933 birds were very numerous at Kyaukmyaung on the

Irrawaddy.

Lanius colfuroides . The Burmese Shrike.

Identification. — Reddish tinge on lower plumage only once observed. The

same bird also had the lore's almost white.

Voice. — Once in June I saw a bird uttering an unusual whining call.

Habits. — I once observed a bird rubbing insects long and hard on a twig

before swallowing them.

Status. — Common most of the year, but in March they began to disappear

and I never saw a bird in May. In June they became exceedingly common

and remained so during July, after which their numbers fell again to normal1

BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF SHIVEBO DISTRICT 519

until the following March. On their re-appearance in June the adults were

generally very noisy and excited, flapping their wings and flirting their tails,

I never saw any other sign of mating or nesting, but have seen young birds

from June to August, the earliest date being 16 June.

Lanius nasiflus. The Black-headed Shrike.

Stalus. — Only seen once in the area, on 21 January at Wetlet. Clearly dis-

tinguishable from Burmese Shrike by larger size and much lighter upper

plumage.

Lanius cristatus. The Brown Shrike.

Status. — Uncommon. Only observed three times, October to January.

Earliest 9 October.

Tephrodo,*nis pondiceriana. The Common Wood Shrike.

Habits. — Once observed hawking flying insects from a perch in a tamarind

tree.

Status. — Uncommon even in the cold weather, and not observed between

23 April and 21 October.

Pericrocotus peregrinus. The Small Miniveit).

Status. — Only observed once, in jungle near the Shwebo-Kyaukmyaung

road. A flock of 8 or 10 birds was flitting restlessly and erratically like bees

about the highest trees.

Pericrocotus erythropygius. Jerdon’s Minivet.

Habits. — Never observed in high trees, but usually perched on bushes or

long grass, or even on the ground.

Nesting.- — Birds seen at nest A ft. up in a small cutch tree on 22 July. Nest

was a shallow cup made of fine grass very compactly cemented with saliva,

ornamented with bark and remarkably well camouflaged. Three eggs with

very good protective colouring. On 23 August I saw another nest in a similar

position and similarly constructed and camouflaged. The sole occupant was

a young cuckoo, being fed with caterpillars.

Status. — Seen once i,n February and once in March ; otherwise only between

June and October, and uncommon even then.

Lalage melaschista. The Grey Cuckoo-Shrike.

Status. — Observed on 20 August in jungle near the Shwebo-Kyaukmyaung

Road, and once in November in the compound of Taze inspection bungalow.

Graucalus javensis. The Large Cuckoo-Shrike.

Habits. — -Flight slow and direct. The seven observations made in the area

were1 all in bungalow compounds.

Status.— Uncommon, and only seen between 7 October and 15 February.

Artamus fuscus. The Ashy Swallow-Shrike.

Voice. — In October I have heard birds on the wing uttering a plaintive call.

Habits. — Nearly always seen on or around toddy palms or telephone wires.

One of a nesting pair was once seen fearlessly driving away a crow.

Nesting. — The pair just mentioned were nesting at the top of a toddy palm

on 22 March. Grass bents were being used in construction.

Status.— Never observed between 22 March and 14 June, otherwise in every

month, but never common.

Dicrurus macrocercus. The Black Drongo.

Identification.— A noticteable glossy blue sheen occasionally observed on

plumage.

Voice. — The usual rather raucous call was sometimes punctuated at fre-

quent intervals by a beautiful clear whistle — an amazing contrast. Another

520 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Yol. 48

call was much like the, harsh chatter of a shrike, and others might well be

mistaken for an iora’s. Possibly this is mimicry.

Habits. — Several birds once observed in company with a nightjar at dusk,

hawking insects a few inches above the ground from a standing position on the

surface of a road. On another occasion I saw more) than 12 birds, in company

with some Jerdon’s Mynahs, swooping down from perches to pick food from

the surface of a small pool.

Nesting.— Nest never observed in the area, and fledglings only once. In

the Mandalay district, however, I once saw a nest in a kokkobin, level with the

window of an inspection bungalow, and about ten feet from it. Sometimes both

parents were away foraging for food at the same time, but usually they were

away alternately, while the other one brooded the young. They always returned

to the nest with empty beaks and fed the young by regurgitation.

Status. — Observed in every month. Very common during the rains and

cold weather, but numbers gradually decreased during February until in March

and April it was very seldom seen. During May and June numbers increased

gradually, until it became very common again in July.

Dicrurus leucophaeus. The Pale Ashy Drongo.

Identification. — In the field the tail appears more widely and more deeply

forked than the Black Drongo’s.

Status. — Only observed in the area on four occasions, all between 27

November and 16 April, and on each occasion in the compound of an inspection

bungalow.

Chaptia aenea. The Bronzed Drongo.

Status. — Only two observations. On 23 June 1932, two birds were seen

flying from tree to tree, calling harshly, near Tantabin, at the tail of the

You Canal system. They were noticeably smaller than Black Drongos. On

28 October 1933, a single bird was seen in a tree on the Old Mu canal, and

noted as no bigger than a Green Bee-eater.

Chibia hottentotta. The Hair-crested Drongo.

Status. — Observed twice only, in June and November. On the latter occasion

it was perched among four King-Crows, and the stouter build was very notice-

able.

Dissemurus paradiseus. The Large Racket-tailed Drongo.

Status.—Seen four times, all between 13 December and 25 March, three times

in the Civil Lines at Shwebo. On one of them (10 March) the bird was much

dishevelled, with both outer tail feathers missing, but identified from the

conspicuous crest. Possibly it had been mobbed as an intruder to the area.

Acrocephalus stentoreus ( ? or arundinaceus). The Great Reed-Warbler.

Status. — Observed once only, in January, on reeds in Wetlet Lake, when a

number of birds were present. Probably sub-species brunnescens (Indian race),

as lower plumage was recorded as ‘all white, with no sign of streaks’. '

Orthotomus sutorius. The Tailor-bird.

Identification. — -When perched, the tail , is usually held straight out behind.

F rom October onwards it is much shorter than during the rains ; one record

I made in December is of a party of several birds in full plumage, but with

tails only about a quarter of the total length. A black spot on the side of the

neck becomes conspicuous when the bird is calling.

Nesting. — On 19 October an adult with food in bill was twice seen visiting

a bush ; presumably feeding young, but nest was not found.

Status. — Observed in every month except January, but never very common.

Cisticola juncidis. The Streaked Fantail-Warbler.

Local name. — In the Mandalay district I have heard this bird called nat-pi-so.

BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF SHWEBO, DISTRICT

521

Voice. — The usual call is reminiscent of two stones struck together, like a

Chat’s.

Habits. — Not found very retiring at any time of }-ear. Frequently observed

perched on grass stems, and in the cold weather flying short distances, calling

the while, then settling. This contrasts with the mounting flights indulged in

during the rains.

Nesting. — Nest-building observed 1 June at the earliest and 5 September at

the latest. Nest sometimes 2 ft. from the ground.

Status. — Uncommon in November and not observed in December or January,

but common in all other months.

Franklinia gracilis. Franklin’s Wren-Warbler.

Habits. — Observed in paddy fields, both wet and dry, and in swamps; and

I have seen it on a telephone wire. When perched, it sometimes jerks the tail

in all directions as vigorously as it does in flight, and bobs the body up and

down.

Status. — Observed only in June and September, and distinguished from

Be van’s Wren-Warbler at that time of year by absence of the white eyebrow.

Phylloscopus a'fiais. Tickell’s Willow- Warbler.

Identification. — In the field upper plumage appeared to me as olive-brown,

not olive-green.

Status. — Observed on three occasions, in November and January, on tank

bund and in inspection bungalow compounds. Identified by absence of wing

bars, pale yellow lower plumage, and conspicuous yellow eyebrow.

Phylloscopus fuscatus. The Dusky Willow-Warbler.

Status. — Observed occasionally from November to February, not always in

damp situations.

Prinia inornata. The Tenasserim Wren-Warbler.

Voice. — Call reminiscent of grasshopper or cricket, sustained sometimes for

ten seconds or more without a pause; uttered both on perch and in flight, in

the former case with the head thrown back ; only heard during the rains.

Habits. — Very bold ; it will approach within a few feet of one, in full view.

I have seen it perched on a low palm tree, on a telephone wire, and among

paddy stubble, as well as in more usual terrain, such as rushes and standing

paddy.

Nesting. — A nest found on 28 September, at the top of a grass clump 18 ins.

above water, contained one nestling and one egg. This nest was of the purse-

shaped type, and very big for the contents.

Status. — Recorded in every month except April, and common during the

rains.

Oriolus chiaensis. The Black-naped Oriole.

Identification. — I found that wing and tail coverts of females and young

birds showed more green than yellow in the field.

Voice. — Once in February, I heard a male calling with a harsh croak.

Habits. — Frequented bungalow compounds and open country near Shwebo.

Young birds have been seen collecting caterpillars from the ground and taking

them into trees to eat.

Nesting. — Female seen carrying nesting material as early as 11 April.

Status. — Observed in every month ; noted as especially numerous in November.

Oriolus xanthornus. The Black-headed Oriole.

Habits. — Seen only in trees in inspection bungalow compounds and in

thin jungle, never in open country or on the ground, like the Black-naped

species.

Status. — Much less common than the Black-naped, but observed in all

three seasons.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi: 48

£22

Sturnia malabarica. The White-winged Mynah.

Identification. — Distinguished from Jerdon’s Mynah, when colour of bill

was not noticeable, by the smaller size, the chestnut under tail, and the lighter

grey wings. It is, too, a more shapely bird.

Habits. — Once observed hanging upside down while feeding. The flight

is rapid.

Status. — Uncommon in the area; only observed in March, April and

September.

Gracupica nigricollis. The Black-necked Mynah.

Habits. — Feeds sometimes on pipal buds. Occasionally collects in large

flocks.

Nesting. — One nest seen was made mostly of straw-, and another of sticks

and straw. Nest building observed 21 August (latest).

Status. — Recorded in every month and noted as common in January, May

and October.

Gracupica burmanica. Jerdon’s Mynah.

Habits. — I have seen them, too, feeding on pipal buds.

Nesting. — I have seen nestlings being fed 10 August, latest. On one

occasion in July, a pair was seen attacking a 3 ft. long snake, which was

climbing a mango tree, presumably after their nest. They knocked it off the

tree and continued to attack it as it made off.

Status. — Common in every month.

Acridotheres tristis. The Common Mynah.

Habits. — This species also feeds on pipal buds. In courting, the male

erects his neck feathers and bows to the female'.

Nesting. — Nest twice observed under eaves of houses, within 2 or 3 ft. of

a Spotted Munia’s. One nest, in which the young were being fed on 16 July, was

being relined with sticks on 1 August. On 21 August the new brood was being

fed with caterpillars, and they were still being fed on 2 September. On

29 September fresh sticks were being taken in, and by 7 October the third

clutch was apparently being brooded. By 16 October the young were being

fed, and were still being fed on 8 November. These dates give an incubation

period of not more than 17 days, and a fledging period of at least 24 days.

Another nest was observed under construction on 7 November, while the

earliest observation of nest-building was on 24 April. In the latter case, the

young were being fed for several days before 13 May, again giving a probable

incubation period of less than 17 days.

Status. — Common in every month.

ABthiopsar fuscus or ? /£ cristatellus . The Jungle Mynah.

Identification.- — In many birds, the upper plumage was much browner than

normal, the bill and legs much paler and the curl of feathers above the nostrils

much less pronounced. Possibly some of these were young birds, but I have

one record of a pair in that plumage which were feeding young Probably

the more common and darker birds were the Siamese race, and the less

common and paler ones the Indian race.

Habits. Frequently seen with cattle and buffaloes, often perched on their

heads. 1 have seen them feeding on young pipal buds and on flowers of the

Mtt0,Vtree' O 1? <T7 r^oof in ™Xed flocks with Jerdon’s and Collared

Mynahs. On 13 September 1933, at Shwebangon, many flocks were seen in

flight, one of them comprising 70 to 80 birds.

Nesting.— The only nest observed in the area was on 12 June when a pair

were feeding young in a hole 12 ft. up in a tanaungbin in the open paddy ‘field,

(This was the pair in the browner plumage referred to above.). On 21 August

BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF SHWEBO DISTRICT

one year a bird was seen in flight carrying what I thought, to be food, but may

have been nesting material.

Status — Observed in every month. Recorded as common in September

and November, and uncommon in February and March.

^Ethiopsar albocinctus. The Collared Mynafn

Identification. — The tuft of feathers above the nostrils is much smaller than

that of the Jungle Mynah. This is very noticeable in a mixed flock.

Habits. — On one of the two occasions that I saw it in the area I saw a

flock of 6 to 8 birds, with 2 or 3 Pied Mynahs, on a bush in Wetlet Lakei.

On the other occasion there were large numbers in a cotton tree in full flower,

in company with Jordon's and Jungle Mynahs.

Status. — Only seen in January and February.

Surnopastor contra. The Pied Mynah.

Habits. — On one occasion in October I saw three birds together, and on

another in February I saw a party of nine ; otherwise I only saw them singly

or in pairs. In January, at Wetlet Lake, birds were much more numerous than

ever seien elsewhere in the area.

Nesting. — One nest seen, apparently complete, on 8 May. Another one was

in a bungalow compound, 30 ft. up in a tree. Although this nest was \ery

obvious, the birds were very cautious in approaching it. Only nine days

I saw young being fed, feathers were still being taken in for lining. Both

birds chased away a magpie-robin which settled close by, but took no notice

of a coppersmith.

Status. — Recorded in every month except July and August, but never

common.

Ploceus infortunatus. The Eastern Baya Weaver-bird.

Identification. — Earliest signs of breeding plumage observed 17 April. hull

breeding plumage recorded on 10 May (earliest), and on 9 Septembei ( atest).

Some cocks still with traces of breeding plumage observed on 17 Decembei.

Nesting.— Most of the numerous nests seen were overhanging water, but

one solitary nest was overhanging a thorn bush. This was possibly regarde

as an alternative means of protection against vermin. Nests were usually

in colonies, but solitary nests were recorded on several occasions.

I have two records of nesting in company with the Striated Weaver-bird.

In one case there was a finished nest of each species, each with three eggs,

in the same bush. , , r . . .

In one colony building material was being taken mostly from plantain

leaves, but partly from old nests and partly by stealing new material from

other nests. One large colony of nests was built partly in a mango tree over

a canal and partly in plantain trees alongside. I frequently found them

suspended from the funnels of old nests, sometimes attached by the ■ wual

rope, sometimes attached directly, giving the appearance of a two-storied

dwelling. In such cases, however, I always found the funnel closed b>

weaving, so that the upper ‘storey’ was no longer accessible. In one colony

the process had in two cases been repeated twice, giving three Storeys

each. In one case the connection between the upper and middle storeys was

a rope and that between the middle and lower a funnel. In the other, both

connections were funnels. —

In one colony several nests had funnels at least 18 ins. long. In. two cases

the ‘cock nests’ of a colony were all found to have mud on the inside, whereig

none of the finished nests contained any. In fact I have no record of a finished

nest in the Shwebo district containing mud, and it appears to be unusual. In

one colony observed on 23 September there was only one half-finished, or cock,

nest. On the other hand, groups of old cock nests were seen on two occasions,

with no finished nests nearby.

The earliest date on which finished nests were observed was 24 May, much

rain having fallen during the month. Nest building was observed as late as

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

16 September On 2 October one year a cock was still engaged in lengthening

the tunnel of a nest containing young, and a nest containing voung

seen on 19 October. &

was once

In one colony which I watched under construction the bulk of the work was

done by the cocks.. The hens only occasionally helped the cocks to weave, or

did a little on their own. The hen would sometimes perch on the far side of

the nest, and critically watch the cock at work. One day, on the other hand,

I watched the hens of a colony busily feeding their young on grasshoppers,

while all the cocks perched by the nests and tried to steal the food as it came in.

Status. — Except for one doubtful observation in January, I never saw this

bird from November to March. In all other months it was common.

Pfoceus manyar. The Striated Weaver-bird.

Identification. — Full breeding plumage observed on 10 May.

Voice. — I have heard them chattering noisily while nest-building.

Nesting. — I twice observed nests alongside Bayas’ nests, once in a reed bed

in Wetlet Lake, and the other time in kaing- grass at Kabo. Nests with the

entrance at the side and with no funnel were seen on two occasions. In one of

these cases the nest was also unusual in being suspended at two points only.

This species sometimes, if not always, sticks clung instead of mud inside its

nests. It is plastered along the inside edge of, I think, all cock nests, but of

few, if) any, egg nests:

A nest was observed under construction on 10 October, and I once found

unfledged young in a nest on 9 November.

Status: — Observed in every month from May to November, but not outside

that period.

PloceeSla chryssea. The Golden Weaver-bird.

Identification.— Apart from the buff eyebrow, males in winter and females

at all seasons were distinguished from the Eastern Baya by the darker upper

plumage, and by the reddish brown tinge on cheeks,, throat and breast. Earliest

date of full breeding plumage was 25 May and the latest 15 November.

Partial bi'eeding plumage was seen as late as 17 December.

Habits. — Generally seen on vegetation growing in water or swamps, but

once in the cold weather a large flock was observed on telegraph wires. A

mixed flock of this species and Eastern Bayas was once recorded in November.

It is sometimes very confiding.

Nesting .■ — I found that nests were built of much coarser grass or leaf strips

than those of the other Weaver-birds, and lined with softer grass. The en-

trance was frequently furnished with a small porch of fine grass and was

small for the size of the bird. One nest in a bush had just been begun by

twisting strips of very tough grass or palm leaf round the twigs. Another,

also in a bush, was suspended from two twigs.

On one occasion the female was bringing all the material for a nest,

while the male perched nearby and displayed, both to her and, in her absence,

to another female which had eggs. On other occasions, however, the male

was seen at work.

Nest-building not observed before 16 June or after 20 September, but in

Mandalay district I have seen it in progress on 18 October.

Eggs with darker spots, or mottled, were common.

Status. — Observed in every month between 25 May and 26 February, but

never in March or April.

Munia atricapilla. The Chestnut-bellied Munia.

Identification. — Birds in immature plumage were once seen on 30 April -

presumably young of the1 previous year.

Habits. — Generally found among rushes, also in long grass and paddy.

Sometimes in company with Spotted and Red Munias." Seen feeding on grass

seed.

Status, Recorded in every month except February and May, but not very

common, especially in the dry weather.

BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF SHWEBO DISTRICT

Uroloncha punctulata. The Spotted Munia.

Habits. A flock of some hundreds was once seen in November, fdedin^

on ripening paddy. A flock of a dozen, seen in September, was noted as very

tame. On one occasion in April, some birds wer^e seen roosting in a bush at

dusk with a large flock of House Sparrows. On another occasion, also in

April, several birds were in rushes with Chestnut-bellied and Red Munias.

Nesting. — Birds never seen singly or in pairs before 21 June, and nesting

not observed before 10 July. In one case growing grass was picked and taken

to an old mynah’s nest under Itihe eaves of my bungalow, but I do not think

that eggs were laid in it. One’ nest was built under bungalow eaves within

two or three feet of both a Mynah’s and a House Sparrow’s, and another

almost touching a Mynah’s. Other nests seen were 5 to 8 ft. up in small trees

and in bushes in wet fields, and were1 sometimes very conspicuous. Materials

were dead grass, green grass, straw and pampas grass, some nests being built

entirely of one or other of the two last-named materials. When pampas

grass was used, the white silky part was on the outside, giving the appearance

from a distance of a large mass of cobwebs — -a wonderful structure, with the

egg cavity ■'& or 6 ins. deep.

The birds sit very tight on their eggs ; one remained on them while I shook

the nest. A nest with 2 eggs was found on 6 November, on the 7th it contained

3, on the 8th 4. Bv 16 November there were 6. Another nest had 6 eggs and

another about the same number. In a fourth case, however, there appeared

to the touch to be' at least 10.

15 November was the latest date on whioh eggs were found, but a nest

with young was found on 28 November.

Amandava amandava. The Red Munia.

Habits. — Very tame. Flocks of up to 100 were seen out

season. Even during the breeding season, on 9 October, I

adult males together. A number of birds were seen on 30

in company with Spotted and Chestnut-bellied Munias, but

males in breeding plumage among them.

Status.' — Uncommon, but seen in all seasons.

of the breeding

once saw three

April one year

there . were no

Passer domesticus. The House Sparrow.

Habits. — Large flocks were seen in March and April, as well as in the

rains. Spotted Munias were once .seen roosting with this species, and Pegu

House Sparrows were seen in mixed flocks with them several times.

Nesting. — One nest, three feet up in a small thorn tree, had the entrance

at the top, not at the side ; the two eggs which it contained were1 so thickly

mottled with dark brown that the background was hardly visible. Another

nest, under the eaves of a bungalow, was about half finished in 24 hours from

the start.

Status.—Seen in every month and common in most.

Passer montanus. The Tree Sparrow.

Habits. — I have seen them in the Mu river bed at Yeu and on the canal

headworks at Kabo. They were not so common about buildings as in the

Minbu district.

Status. — Observed in every month, but not so common as the House

Sparrow, especially in the cold weather.

Passer ilaveolus. The Pegu House Sparrow.

Habits.— Frequently found in and about bungalows, especially in the dry

weather; it also frequented scrub jungle, paddy fields and toddy palms. In

the rains and cold weather it was often in flocks of up to 30 or 40, occasionally

in company with House Sparrows. Once, in April, I saw a pair hawking

flies and returning to the same perch, just like flycatchers.

Nesting. — Nesting was observed in an old woodpecker’s hole, in the rain

gutter of my house, and in the ceiling of an inspection bungalow. Feathers

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

were seen being' taken to all of these sites, and on one occasion a bird was

seen walking about on the outside of a Pied Mynah’s nest, with the owner inside^

and stealing two or three feathers from it.

Status. — Observed in every month, and usually common.

Emberiza aureola. The Yellow-breasted Bunting.

Status. — One observation only, on 30 April 1933, when a party of three birds

was seen on rushes in the Mahananda tank, near Shwebo town.

Delichon urbica. The House Martin.

Status. — Two observations, both in January 1934, at Wetlet Lake. On the

23rd of that month, numbers of birds were flying about over the reeds. On

the 28th, a bird was identified flying about over shallow water with numbers

of other swallows or martins.

Kiparia riparia. The Eastern Sand Martin.

Status. — Two observations only. On 10 October 1932, a single bird was

seen perched on grass in the water of the Mahananda tank. On 28 January

1934, a number of birds were seen, in company with Eastern Swallows and at

least one House .Martin, flying about over the shallow water of Wetlet Lake.

Riparia paludicola. The Indian Sand Martin.

Status. — I have no certain record of this bird in the Shwebo irrigated area.

On four occasions, between 12 October and 13 April, birds were seen which

were probably this species, but may possibly have been Eastern Sand Martins,

of whose existence I was not at that time aware1. On 13 April 1932, hundreds

of birds, of one or the other species, were at nesting holes in the bank of the

Mu at Yeu, while on 16 March 1933 I counted a flock of more than a thousand

on a sand-bank at Kabo.

Hirundo rustica. The Eastern Swallow.

Habits. — In the N. Shan States in December I once saw them flying about

in company with Wire-tailed Swallows.

Status. — Observed in every month of the year. On 22 June 1933, I saw a

single bird. None had been seen earlier that month, so probably it was an

exceptionally early arrival. Another was seen on 5 July of that year, and

on 24 July large numbers of birds were recorded.

Unusually large flocks, probably on migration, were recorded in the area on

9 September, 26 March and 3 April. Outside the area, near Sagaing, a very

large flock, evidently on migration, was observed on 23 May 1932, on the

telegraph wires. There had been a monsoon storm the previous night, and

they were very dishevelled, exhausted and tame, and busy preening themselves.

[A solitary bird was seen on 5 September 1932, at Wetlet, which was

possibly of the western race, rustica. It was perched on a rush in a paddy field

and was very tame. Close by, on a telegraph wire, were three or four Eastern

Swallows, from which it differed in having the forehead ashy-grey and the

breast and abdomen greyish-white tinged with pink. It appeared to be a

young bird.]

H. r. tytleri. Tytler’s Swallow.

No certain records of it from the irrigated area. The large flock

cf swallows seen near Sagaing on 23 May 1932, however, contained some of

Tytler’s as well as the Eastern race, and a solitary bird was ‘seen flying about

over the Irrawaddy at Kyaukmyaung on 22 April 1933.

Hirundo smithii. The Indian Wire-tailed Swallow.

Status. — Only observed once in the area, on 13 July 1932,, when a party of

three birds was seen in flight in the Shwebo Cantonments. (In the Mandalay

canal area, in 1926-27, a pair was always to be seen at one particular spot,

BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF SHWEBO DISTRICT 527

but apart from them I only saw the bird in that area on one other occasion in

-the course of 3J years.)

Hirundo daurica. The Striated Swallow.

Status. — Only one observation, on 7 November 1931, when two or more

birds were about the inspection bungalow at Thayetkan. There had just been

48 hours continuous rain from the north and one of the birds, although strong

on the wing, was very tame, as if exhausted. This bird’s plumage was rusty

.black, and it was possibly a young bird of Hodgson’s race on migration.

Motacilla alba [ocularis Swinhoe] The Streak-eyed Wagtail.

Status. — Only observed once, on 12 November 1933. A single bird was

feeding in the shallow water of a stream near Kyaukmyaung in company with

.a White-faced Wagtail. Identified by the grey line across the side of the head

through the eye.

Motacilla alba [dukhunensis Sykes] The Indian White Wagtail.

Status. — Only one observation, on 13 October 1933. A single bird was seen

on the bank of the Old Mu canal. Identified by white sides of head, grey

-crown and upper plumage, black chin and throat.

Motacilla alboides. Hodgson’s Pied Wagtail.

Status. — Observed twice in the area, on 12 October 1933 and 5 February

1934. On the former date a single bird .was feeding on a patch of floating

rubbish in the Mu river at Kabo. On the latter date another single bird

was seen feeding in the mud at the edge of the Mahananda tank. It frequently

hovered over the water nearly motionless, and once perched on a stick. In

the case of the first bird, the black ear-coverts were noted, and in the case of

the second the black sides of the neck.

Motacilla leucopsis. The White-faced Wagtail.

Identification. — Birds with the all-black upper plumage of summer were

seen on many occasions in the' cold weather, e.g. 6 December, 12 January,

7 March.

Habits. — On one occasion I observed a number of birds in company with

a single Grey Wagtail. Normally they do not appear to associate with other

species. Birds were usually seen singly or in pairs, but occasionally in flocks.

On one occasion at least 20 birds were1 seen roosting in a single bush with a

White-breasted Kingfisher and three Pied Kingfishers. On two occasions birds

were seen perched on telephone wires, and another bird was seen almost

liovering over water, catching insects.

Status. — Very common throughout the cold weather. The earliest record

was 16 September, birds being numerous by the 22nd. The latest observation

was 23 April.

Motacilla cinerea. The Eastern Grey Wagtail.

Identification. — Most birds I saw had the chin, throat and upper breast

white. In one, however, the throat and breast were suffused with yellow, in

another the breast was yellow, divided by a white band from the yellow

.abdomen, and in a third the throat too was yellow.

Habits.- — Nearly always seen singly and apart from other species. Once in

the Mandalay district, however, I saw a bird in company with a White-faced

Wagtail, and once in Shwebo another one among a number of that species.

Status. — Observed in every month from September to April, but not usually

common. On 21 April, 1933, however, a large number of birds were seen

along the edge of the Kadu Lake,, possibly assembled for migration. Earliest

date was 21 September, and latest 30 April.

Moiacilla ftava. The Grey-headed Wagtail.

Habits. — Usually seen singly, but occasionally in flocks of up to 20. A

bird was seen one October feeding with Indian Pipits. On several occasions

birds were seen walking about on floating vegetation.

9

528 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo/. 48

Status. — Usually rather uncommon, but on three occasions, in November*

January, and April, numerous birds were observed at the edges of lakes^

Earliest date 4 September, latest 10 May.

Molacilla citreoia. The Yellow-headed Wagtail.

Identification. — I saw a pair in full summer plumage on 8 April one year.

Habits. — I once saw this bird hawking insects just like a flycatcher and on

another occasion continually hovering just over the surface of a lake. On

several occasions I saw them on floating vegetation, a habitat of which this

species seems to be particularly fond.

Status. — Single birds and pairs fairly common in the area, and on two

occasions I found them numerous at the Wetlet Lake. I never saw one earlier

than 10 November ; my latest date was 8 May.

Dendronanthus indicus. The Forest Wagtail.

Status. — On 26 April 1933, I saw 3 birds feeding along the water’s edge

of the Mahananda tank, on the outskirts of Shwebo town. The plumage

and the very curious sideways swaying of body and tail were unmistakeable.

One bird was still at the same spot on 27 April and again on the 30th.

Anthus hodgsoni. The Indian Tree Pipit.

Status. — Not very common. Earliest date 7 November, latest 30 April.

Anthus ruf ulus. The Indian Pipit.

Identification.- — Easily distinguished from the Burmese Bush Lark, which

is also very common in the area, by the white edges to the tail.

Habits. — Not usually in flocks, but I once saw one of 30 to 40 birds in a

wet fallow field in September. The bird was seen once or twice on sand-

banks in the River Mu, which had little or no vegetation on them.

Status. — Common most of the year, though not so noticeable in the hot

weather. Very large numbers were sometimes seen, especially round the

Wetlet Lake and the Mahananda tank.

Alauda gulgula. The Small Skylark.

Identification. — The small dark crest is sometimes visible in the field, dis-

tinguishing it from the Burmese Bushlark.

Status. — Only observed five times in this area, three of the occasions being,

in December, one in March and one in May. On the latter occasion a pair

was seen copulating, but no nest was ever found.

Calaudrella raytal. The Ganges Sandlark.

Identification: — More than once I observed a small crest erected at intervals,

especially when agitated.

Voice. — I once saw a. bird singing high up in the air, after the manner of

a skylark. On another occasion I recorded the voice, when in flight, as a

trilling song.

Status. — Only seen in the bed of the River Mu, where it was fairly common

in the dry weather. I never observed it between 17 August and 5 January.

Mirafra assamica. The Burmese Bushlark.

Voice.— Once in October I saw a bird calling with a monosyllabic pipe.

On another occasion, also in October, I watched one chirping loudly while

gradually approaching its nest. I have also seen it singing lustily from, the

extreme top of a tanaungbin instead of from the usual bush.

Nesting. — The nest referred to above was found as late as 6 October, and

contained two nestlings. Pairing was observed as early as 3 April, and display

on 13 April. In the latter case the bird was running about excitedly, stretching

to its full height, bowing and singing, though the female was not to be seen.

birds of the irrigated area of shivebo district

529

I saw four nests in the area, all on the ground, two being concealed under

low shoots of small trees, one under a tiny shrub, and one in a clump of

rush stubble. All had the opening at the side and one at least had coarse

grass on the outside and. finer grass inside.

One of the four nests contained three young and another three eggs, so

that a clutch of three does not appear to be very ram

Status. — Recorded in every month. Fairly common.

Cinnyris asiatica. The Purple Sunbird.

Identification. The earliest date I saw signs of breeding plumage was

18 November and remnants of it were seen as late as 15 August, in the shape

of a little purple still visible on the flanks. The earliest and latest dates of

full breeding plumage were 16 December and 22 June. Earliest signs of non-

breeding plumage (viz. breast turning light in colour) were seen on 6 June

and the latest on 16 December when a male was seen with still no sign of

breeding plumage. The earliest date of full non-breeding plumage was 22

June, though a bird seen on 10 June had almost acquired it.

It seems that when breeding plumage is shed the whole lower plumage of

the male turns yellow before the violet stripe is acquired, for I have seen a

male on 10 July with the stripe extending only to the centre of the breast,

and others on 14 August with only a dark patch at the base of the throat.

On one occasion in April I saw a pair with an obvious young bird, in

which the lower plumage was a much brighter yellow than that of the mother,

instead of the usual duller shade.

Voice. — I recorded this once as a ‘loud, harsh, monotonous whistle’. On

another orcasion., in May, a male chasing a female was calling loudly and

continuously ‘very like a tailor bird’.

Habits. — This bird seemed particularly fond of kokkobins and of bushes

with yellow trumpet-shaped flowers, which I believe are aliamandas. The latter

are common in bungalow compounds, and were sometimes full of these birds.

I once saw a male hovering, with its bill in the green foliage of a tree, just

as if it were at a blossom. No doubt it was hawking insects. On another

occasion I watched a pair making frequent sallies after flying insects from

the top of a tall tiee.

Nesting. — One nest I found (in Mandalay) was built only 18 ins. from the

ground. The female on another one sat tight until I had approached to within

a few feet.

Status. — Observed in the area in every month, but uncommonly from

December to April.

Eicaeum cruentatum. The Scarlet-backed Flowerpecker.

Identification. — The steel-blue gloss on the wings was sometimes con-

spicuous. In one male which I saw, the whole lower plumage appeared pure

white, not buff.

Voice. — A female I saw in January was calling loudly, very much like

a tailor-bird. The tchik-tchik call is surprisingly loud for the bird’s size.

Habits. — Once near Maymyo I saw a male hovering motionless in the air,

to catch a flying insect. I mistook it at first sight for a butterfly. It had

just been raining heavily and the bird then flitted about the wet trees, con-

tinually shaking rain drops off its wings. A male which I watched in the

Shwebo area was flitting about a mango tree, sometimes on the lowest branches

only a few feet from the ground.

Status. — Only observed three times in the area, all between November and

January.

Picus viridanus. The Scaly-bellied Woodpecker.

Status. — Only observed three times in the area, a pair in February, and

single males in June and July.

Picus canus. The Black-naped Green Woodpecker.

Status. — Seen once only, a single female in November, moving from stem

to stem of toddy palms near Pauktaw inspection bungalow.

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 48

Dryobates mahrattensis. The Yellow-fronted Pied Woodpecker.

Habits. — Once observed feeding on a rope of creeper in scrub jungle at

Shwebo, and running up and down with equal ease.

Status. — Only identified five times in the area, in September, October,

March and April. Distinguished from the Fulvous-breasted, the Siamese

Pied, and the Burmese Pigmy species either by the dark stripe on the side

•of the neck, the crimson on the abdomen, or both.

Micropternus brachyurus. The Rufous Woodpecker.

The only bird I identified an this area (on 8 April 1932) was drumming on

a dead bark-less branch of a tree near the Yeu canal. The noise was similar

to that of a branch creaking in the wind. It once uttered a succession of

screaming notes, rather like a Pied Kingfisher. On a previous occasion, in

the same locality, I had seen a Woodpecker, too far off to identify, drumming

on a large tree and producing the same curious noise. This puzzled me until I

saw the bird, as it was just like the creaking of a large bough, but there was

no wind. The noise was tremendous for so small a bird. I have seen the

bird several times in the Mandalay canal area.

Dinopium javanense. The Golden-backed Three-toed Woodpecker.

(? or the Himalayan Dinopium shorii).

Only seen twice in the area, in February and October, both times along the

Old Mu canal. Distinguished from Tickell’s species, which I have seen in

other districts, by the smaller size, which was noted on each occasion as that

of a Rufous Woodpecker.

Jynx torquilla. The Wryneck.

Identification. — The black line from the crown, ending in a black patch

on the back, was usually conspicuous, and a black line through the eye down

the side of the neck, sometimes so. I have, however, seen birds in September

and October with these markings very faint.

Habits. — Most birds which I saw were solitary, but on 9 April one year I

saw two together, and on 19 October two birds in a tree with a third in a bush

close by. I did not find the bird shy or elusive. More than once I watched it

feeding in the compounds of occupied bungalows, in one case while my dogs

were running about. One note of a bird on the ground records it as ‘very

tame’, while on another occasion a bird in a tanaungbin allowed me to

approach within a few yards without leaving the tree.

I have watched it feeding on ants on a branch, and sometimes among

dead leaves on the ground.

Status. — Observed fairly commonly in every month from September to

April. Earliest date 12 September, latest 20 April.

Megalaima haemacephala. The Coppersmith.

Voice. — Although the bird is not so vocal in the cold weather as in other

seasons, I have heard it calling lin every month from November to February.

During an unusually cold spell in December 1933, I noted it one day as calling

loud and long in its usual tempo. In the previous month I had heard a bird

calling much more slowly than usual, with a pause of about two seconds

between each note. On one occasion in June I watched a bird calling in a

jerky, irregular fashion instead of with the usual monotonous regularity.

Habits.. — Usually stationary on its perch, but once in November I saw two

birds running about the branches of a small tree. I twice observed birds feed-

ing on berries. In one case, in March, they were being brought by one of

a pair to its mate, which was perched on a branch and calling. The two

berries which comprised the offering entirely filled the bill of the bird bringing

them.

Nesting .; — Of the two nests which I observed in, use, ,» one was 25 ft. up in

the branch of a mango, and the other about 30 ft. up in a broken branch of a

BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF SH WE BO DISTRICT 531

kokkobin. The latter had two entrance holes 18 ins. .. apart. One nest was in

use on 14 February, and young were' being fed in the other on 10 April.

Status. — Observed in every month. Fairly common.

Cuculus canorus. The Khasia Hills Cuckoo.

Status. The only birds I saw in the area were two or three young ones

which were round and about the Wetlet inspection bungalow on 8 and 9 October,

1933. . When first seen on 8 October, two birds were feeding on worms or

caterpillars in a fallow field with two Pied Crested Cuckoos. At intervals

they perched on bushes and were not at all shy. On 9 October two or three

birds were about the compound all day. Upper plumage was grey-brown with

bars, lower plumage white with narrow bars, and one at least had a white

nuchal spot and a white spot on the forehead. Feet were bright yellow, iris

orange, and bill dark at tip, orange at base.

Hierococcyx fugax. Hodgson’s Hawk-Cuckoo.

Status.— On 18 January 1934, at Kabo, a bird settled two pr three feet up

in a bush on the Mu river bank, immediately above a grass Owl which had just

settled on the ground. Identified by size, which was larger than the Plaintive

Cuckoo, powdery blue head and upper plumage, greyish-white lower plumage,

and black bill.

Cacomantis merulinus. The Plaintive Cuckoo.

Identification. — The barring on the tail was usually a conspicuous feature-

I once saw a partially albino bird, with a white patch on the left wing. Once

or twice I mistook them at first sight for Wrynecks.

Habits. — Birds were seen several times perched on telephone wires, twice

clinging to rushes, and once on the fence of a bungalow compound. Most

birds I saw, however, were on bushes. I have seen them eating worms andl

once a caterpillar, which the bird shook vigorously before swallowing whole.

Status. — Common in the cold weather, but never seen between 10 April'

and 30 September. On 28 November, 1933, I found birds very numerous in:

paddy fields at Myittaw, and on 18 March 1933 they were almost the common-

est bird seen during the morning, ‘very large numbers’ being recorded-

Possibly they were assembling for migration to the hills.

Clamator jacobinus. The Pied Crested Cuckoo.

Habits. — I once saw two birds feeding on worms in a fallow field. Always

seen singly, except for several occasions in September and October when I

saw two together.

Status. — Fairly common in the rains, but never seen between 9 November

and 26 May. In September 1933 I found them commoner than usual. Birds

in immature plumage were seen on 14 October and 9 November.

Clamator coromandus. The Red-winged Crested Cuckoo.

Identification. — From the side, the white collar is conspicuous. In flight

the long tail undulates like that of a Paradise Flycatcher.

Habits. — Two birds seen together on one occasion, otherwise always seen

singly.

Status. — Uncommon. Only six observations, all between 19 July and T6

November.

Eudynamis scolopaceus. The Koel.

Identification. — At least one female which I saw had chin, throat and breast

dark brown, striped and spotted with white, instead of vice versa.

Voice. — I never noticed the female’s kik-kik-kik call, but more than once saw

one uttering a monosyllabic screiech. Twice, in different localities, I heard a bird

calling on 1 February, and in 1934 birds were calling frequently by 5 February-

532

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

I several times heard birds calling in August and September and once on

4 October. A male seen on 19 July was calling very hoarsely.

Habits. — I have one record of a male feeding on the ground, in a patch of

scrub jungle ; also of one bird of a pair feeding the other in a neem tree. A

female was once seen in a young pipal tree, picking large berries and swallow-

ing them whole .

The bird seen calling hoarsely on 19 July was perched in full view, unlike

its usual furtiveness, but was ignored by several crows in the same tree.

Status. — Recorded in every month from February to October. Commonest

in March, Apriil and May, but there were numbers about on 3 July 1932. Not

seen or heard between 4 October and 1 February.

Rhopodytes tristis . The Large Green-billed Malkoha.

Identification. — In size, shape and flight, the bird often reminded me of a

Red-billed Blue Magpie. In the field the whole plumage, eixcept the white

tips to the tail feathers, sometimes looked very dark grey or black.

Habits. — I once saw a bird jumping about a tree like a squirrel. I usually

found it very shy and skulking, but once saw one on the drive of a bungalow

in Shwebo.

Status. — Only six observations in the area, in March, June, October and

November; also one in April at Kyaukmyaung, on the Irrawaddy near by.

Centropus sinensis. Hume’s Crow-Pheasant.

Voice. — Once heard calling on a very hot April evening, when most birds

were silent and still.

Habits. — Fairly often seen in trees, twice in full view on the top of one.

Status. — Recorded in every month ; comparatively uncomxnon in the cold

weather.

Psittacula eupatria. The Large Parakeet.

Status. — Only seen once in the area, on 23 March, 1932.

Psittacula krameri. The Rose-ringed Parakeet.

Habits. — I have seen birds feeding on neem fruit in May, and on their

seeds in June.

Once, at the end of January, I watched a male pecking at a female’s head

and Dawing with one foot, just like a puppy at play — presumably courting.

Birds were usually seen singly or in twos or threes, even out of the breed-

ing season ; on the other hand, I have seen flocks (in March and April.

Status. — Observed in every month except December. Usually common, but

not recorded between 2 November and 16 January.

Coracias benghalensis. The Roller.

Voice. — One of a pair seen in a tree on 10 June was uttering a very faint

whining note.

Habits. — I twice saw birds feasting on a swarm of flying insects in company

with other species.

Nesting. — No nests found, but on 8 May 1933 a bird appeared, from its

behaviour, to be nesting in a kokkobin, and on 20 June 1933 an evident young

bird was seen.

Status. — Observed in every month. Usually common, but less in evidence

from February to May.

Eurystomus orientalis. The Broad-billed Roller.

Status. — Only seien once, and then not in the irrigated area, but a little

outside it, in the jungle close to the Shwebo-Kyaukmyaung road.

Merops orientalis. The Green Bee-eater.

Identification— On two occasions, both in September, birds were noticed

with a much lighter chestnut crown than usual.

BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF SHWEBO DISTRICT 533

Habits. — Flocks were recorded in May, June and October, one in June being

a large one.

Nesting. — No nests observed in this area, but copulation once seen, on 30

September. In the Mandalay district this species and the Blue-tailed were

seen together in May at nesting holes in the vertical bank of the Thapangaing

outfall channel of the Mandalay canal.

Status. — Observed as common in every month, but not so numerous from

February to June as at other times.

Merops superciliosus. The Blue-tailed Bee-eater.

Habits. — On one very hot oppressive evening in April, when most birds

evidently found it too hot to move, numbers of these birds were hawking insects

very actively. I have more than once seen them hawking from a perch on tele-

graph wires.

I once saw one catch a large dragon-fly, which it swallowed whole.

Nesting. — I saw birds at nesting holes in the Mu river bank at Yeu on 22

April 1932. On 21 May my presence excited the birds greatly for some reason,

numbers wheeling round my head, accompanied by Common and Black-bellied

Tern and by one or two Little' Pratincoles. The birds were still there on

5 June, although the river had in the meantime been nearly up to the holes.

In June of the following year I saw a nesting colony in the bank of a canal

near Shwebo, within 20 yards of which people were continually passing. As

noted under Green Bee-eaters, I once saw both species nesting together in the

Mandalay district.

Status. — Earliest date 6 April, latest 10 November. Seen in all months

between those dates, but rather local. In favoured localities, such as the Wetlet

lake and the Mahananda tank, I found them numerous from July it October.

On 6 September 1933 I saw an unusually large flock, of 200 to 300, on telephone

wires at Wetlet.

Alcemerops athertoni. The Blue-bearded Bee-eater.

Status. — Only seen once in the area, on 27 November 1932, when two birds

were observed perched high up dn a cotton tree in the compound of Taze

inspection bungalow.

Ceryle rudis. The Pied Kingfisher.

Habits. — I once saw a bird dive ten times without catching anything, and

on another . occasion I saw one make a slanting dive, instead of the usual

vertical one. Birds were usually seen singly or in pairs, but parties of up to

five were seen occasionally. Three or more birds were seen on one occasion

roosting in company with a White-breasted Kingfisher and at least 20 Wag-

tails (Alba) in a small bush, growing in the water of the Old Mu canal. In

Mandalay I have seen a bird fishing in the moat of Fort Dufferin, and once,

in March, saw a party of five there-

Nesting. — No nests definitely observed in the area, but on 10 May 1931

three birds objected strongly to my presence near some holes in the Mu river

bank at Yeu.

Status.— Recorded in every month. It seemed to get very scarce in

September for some reason, a phenomenon which I noted in the Minbu district

also.

Alcedo atthis. The Common Kingfisher.

Habits.— On 22 April one year I watched a bird at a stagnant pool in

company wlith four species of Stork, three or four species of Egret, Common

Herons, Pond-Herons, a Common Sandpiper, and a Brahminy Kite. The

Kingfisher held its ground at my approach until all except the Kite and the

Pond Herons had left.

I once saw a bird settle for a few seconds on a road, picked up a winged

insect, and fly up to a perch to swallow it.

Status. — I never saw this bird in the area between 22 April and 10 August.

(I later noticed the same phenomenon in the Minbu district). For the rest of

the year, it was seen in every month, being numerous in September, October,

and November.

534

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

Ramphalcyou capensis. The Stork-billed Kingfisher.

Status .: — Never observed between 8 April and 20 September, and not very

common during the rest of the year, though seen in every month. I noted it

as commoner than usual in early February 1933, and in mid-January 1934.

Halcyon smyrnensis. The White-breasted Kingfisher.

Habits. — I once saw a bird roosting in a small bush in company with three-

or more Pied Kingfishers and twenty or more Wagtails (M. alba). Usually

seen near water.

Nesting. — The only nest I saw was on 10 May 1931, in the bank of the

R. Mu at Yeu. One parent was catching small fish, and taking them into

the tunnel, which was more than two feet long.

Status. — Observed in every month except April. Their numbers seemed

to vary curiously during the year. In January and February 1933 they were

numerous. On 9 February 1933 about 15 were) counted along the Shwebo

canal between Kabo headworks and Shwebo. During the same trip on the

following 3 April, however, not a single bird was seen, and the bird was not

seen again in the area until 8 June. By 19 July they had become very numer-

ous again, especially perched on telephone wires. None were seen during

August, but on 22 September they were once’ more numerous. October again

was a blank month, but by 25 November they were ‘very numerous indeed’.

Anthracoceros malabaricus. The Pied Hornbill.

Status. — Not observed in the' area, but I record here an observation made-

on 6 January 1929 along an irrigation channel from the Taunggan tank,

Mandalay district. A single bird was perched on top of a dead tree. Its-

occurrence in cultivation in the plains appears to be unusual.

Upupa epops. The Hoopoe.

Habits. — I have two records of birds dust-bathing.

Nesting. — None observed.

Status. — Seen in every month, but uncommon from March to May. Birds

seen on 18 April 1931 and 2 April 1933 were noted as the first seen for a long

time, and none were seen between the latter date and 31 May 1933. By 23

June that year they had become fairly common again, and by 19 July were

numerous. Even out of the breeding season, birds were seen more often singly

or in couples than in parties. Young birds (wiith the fawn in the plumage

undeveloped) were only seen once. This was on 22 July 1932 when two or

three were with their parents on the Shwebo golf-course, the birds being un-

usually timid.

Cypsiurus parvus. The Palm Swift.

Habits. — At least three times I saw flocks well away from toddy-palms, —

half a mile or so in one case. One of these, seen on 21 March flying about over

the Mahananda tank, was probably a thousand strong.1 The air was thick with

birds. I once watched another flock of about 100 flying to and fro some 20 ft.

above a fallow field surrounded by paddy stubble. They were evidently hawk-

ing insects, but the latter were so small as to be invisible even from a distance

of a few feet.

Voice. — All the three flocks seen away from palms were quite silent.

Status. — Seen in every month. Common.

Hemiprocne coronata. The Indian Crested Swift.

Status. — Observed once, in the jungle near Kyaukmyaung on the Irrawaddy,

when a flock was flying about high up. They were recorded as no bigger than

Palm Swifts, but had the breast and abdomen white, so that I have no doubt

that the height caused me to underestimate the size and that they were actually

this species. Later, in the Minbu district, I got to know the bird well.

(To be continued )

1 Collocalia ? — Eds.

FISHES OF THE KUMAON HIMALAYAS

BY

G. K. Menon, m.a., Research Scholar

( With a text figure)

(Communicated by Dr. S. L. Hora, Director, Zoological

Survey of India)

Introduction

Though angling in the Kumaon Lakes is a popular pastime for

lovers of sport in these invigorating hills, our knowledge of their

fish fauna is very meagre indeed. The first record of any fish from

this region is by Day3 who in 1878 noted that the Naini Tal speci-

mens of Bairbus conchonius ‘have the dorsal spine much less

coarsely serrated than those from the plains, from whence they

were introduced not many years since ; they have also a darkish

band along the side’. Walker1 2 (p. 17) gave the following list of

the Naini Tal fishes, based on identifications made by the Curator,

Indian Museum, Calcutta: —

(1) Barbus tor (Mahseer).

(2) Barbus chilinoides (the lake fish) or ‘Kali Macchi’.

(3) Barbus conchonius.

(4) Barilius bola (Hill trout).

(5) Ophicephalus gachua (Murrel).

(6) Oreinus sinuatus (Risala).

For introducing Mahseer in the lakes, Walker (p. 103) pays

a well-deserved tribute to Sir Henry Ramsay and narrates the

following history of their introduction here: —

‘The public are indebted to Sir Henry Ramsay for the mahsir fishing in the

Kumaon lakes. On account of the steep falls at or below the outlets of all

the lakes, except Malwa-tal, no mahsir could possibly have got unaided into

them. Into Malwa-tal it is possible that fish could get at most seasons from

the Gola river.

‘About 30 years ago Sir H. Ramsay had some small mahsir carried up

from the Gola in earthen-ware Ghurras to stock Bhim-tal, Naukuchia, and

Sat-tal, and from the Kosi river to> stock Nainital.

‘These young fish prospered in Naini-tal, in Sath-tal and in Naukuchia,

but they failed in Bhim-tal. For upto 1873 I never saw nor heard of a mahseer

being caught in Bhim-tal.

‘Later however (I think in 1878), Sir H. Ramsay again made an effort to

introduce mahsir into Bhim-tal, and this time with success. The fish are now

flourishing in Bhim-tal, as well as in many of the other lakes. I have myself

caught mahsir in Bhim-tal, weighing 8 lbs, and I am aware of one having

been caught on a live-bait, which weighed 18 lbs.’

1 Day, F., Fish. India, p. 576 (1878).

2 Walker, W., Angling in the Kumaon Lakes, p. 103 (1888).

536

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

‘As regards “Kali-macchi” — “Lake fish or Kurnkutla”, I cannot get in-

formation of any period at which they did not exist in the lakes, but whether

they were introduced in pre-historic times or like Topsy “growed” there, I

cannot say'.

I have quoted extensively from Walker’s, ‘Angling- in the

Kumaon Lakes’ for two reasons, firstly this work is not available

in any of the research libraries and secondly these facts are of

great historic importance in the study of the Kumaon fishes.

The next record of fish from the Kumaon Lakes is by Sundara

Raj1 who stated: —

‘.From all reports these isolated lakes had hardly any fish in them before

the introduction of Mahseer by Sir Henry Ramsay, a well-known commissioner

of Almora from 1856-84. The comparative barrenness of waters at this eleva-

tion is a characteristic feature of the Indian hills’.

‘The only other fishes found in these lakes at present are : —

(1) Barbus (Tor) cheilinoides McClelland.

(2) Barbus ( Puntius ) conchonius Hamilton.

(3) Raiamas bola (Hamilton).

(4) Barilius bendelisis (Hamilton).

(5) Oreinus sinuatus (Heckel).

(6) Nemachilus rupicola (McClelland).

(7) Ophicephalus gachua (Hamilton)’.

In Mav-June 1948 a party of the Zoological Survey of India

surveyed the fauna of a part of the Kumaon Hills and made ex-

tensive collections in the Naukuchia, Bhim-tal, and several rivers

and streams and casual collection in the Sath-tal and Naini-tal.

Over a thousand specimens were collected. In the lakes, besides

the Mahaseer, Barbus (Tor) putitora (Hamilton), the following

other species were obtained : —

Barbus ( Puntius ) ticto (Hamilton).

Barilius bendelisis (Hamilton).

Oreinus plagiostomus (Heckel).

Ophicephalus gachua Hamilton.

It is inferred, therefore, that Barbus (Tor) cheilinoides , Barbus

( Puntius ) conchonius and Raiamas bola of the earlier lists are either

now absent from the lakes or are very rare and that Barilius bende-

lisis, and Barbus (Puntius) ticto have been recently introduced into

the lakes. The explanation of the absence of certain fish earlier

known from the lakes is to be found in the habits and associations

of some of these fishes. Walker (p. 35), giving his experience of

fishing in the Naini-tal, stated: —

‘When I first angled in Naini lake, in 1863 and 1864, there were compara-

tively few large mahsir in it, there were shoals of lake fish ( Barbus chilinoides )

and many small trout (Barilius bola). A mornings catch would include a

couple of small mahsir, eight or nine ‘lake fish’ and two or threp trout.

Gradually the mahsir have reduced the number of other fish until it is a rare,

circumstance to catch a lake-fish with the fly, and I have not for many years

seen a single trout, although I heard of one being caught last year by a troller’.

Raj, Sundara B., Proc. Nat. Inst. Set. India, xi, pp. 341-342, 346.

FISHES OF THE KUMAON HIMALAYAS

537

Besides the ravages of the predatory mahseer, he attributed

the disappearance of the trout from the lake to its breeding habits.

He stated (p. 37): —

‘I 'have written only of the Mahasir in the Naini lake because they now

reign supreme having practically as far as fly-fishing is concerned, cleared

out every other kind of fish. The instinct of the trout, which led it in autumn

to crowd round the mouth of the streams which enters the lake at its western

end, accelerated its disappearance : for I have in former years often seen the

natives lifting them out with sheets in thousands as they pressed on each other

in their anxiety to get up stream. The persistence with which this instinct

remained in the Baril is in strange contrast to the complete annihilation of the

migratory tendency in the lake mahsir’.

Again in his account of the Bhim-tal, Walker (p. 52) stated that

‘without doubt the mahsir have lessened the numbers of the lake

fish ; but there is as little doubt that the protection of the fish from

poachers is too intermittent to secure the interests of the honest

angler’.

Leaving aside the fish fauna of the lakes, which appear to have

been artificially stocked at one time or another, the first account

of the fish of the Kumaon Himalayas is given by Hora! . The

material on which this account is based was obtained by Messrs.

E. O. Shebbeare and M. P. Bhola from the Nandhaur and Kalaunia

rivers, which were not visited by us. It comprised 17 species, of

which 11 are represented in the collections made from the Kosi

and Gola rivers. The following species are not represented in the

present collection: — ,

(1) Brachydanio rerio (Hamilton).

(2) Barbus chilinoides McClell.

(3) Barbus conchonius (Hamilton).

(4) Lepidocephalus guntea (Hamilton).

(5) Glyptothorax pectinopterus (McClell.).

(6) Amblyceps mangois (Hamilton).

The following species found in the present collection were not

represented in the collection from the Nandhaur and Kalaunia

rivers : —

(1) Oreinus plagiost omus (Heckel).

(2) Labeo dyocheilus (McClell.).

(3) Barbus ( Puntius ) ticto (Hamilton).

(4) Nemachilus rupicola (McClell.).

(5) Botia almorhae Gray.

Taking the lakes and the streams of the Kumaon Hills together,

it would appear that 23 species have been recorded so far, of which

one, Raiamas bola (Indian Trout) has not been found in recent

years and many have died out altogether. The fish fauna as now

known, is listed below : —

1 Hora, S. L., Rec. Ind. Mus. xxxix, pp. 338-348 (1937).

LIST OF FISHES KNOWN FROM THE KUMAON HIMALAYAS

538 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

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Kumaon Hills by Hora in the year 1937 {Rec, Ind , Mus, xxxix, pp. 338-48).

FISHES OF THE KUMAON HIMALAYAS

541

NOTES ON CERTAIN SPECIES

Carra gotyla (Gray).

1921. Garra gotyla, Hora, Rec. Ind. Mus. xxii, p. 553.

Three specimens of Garra gotyla, approximately 15 cms. each, were collected

from the Kosi river. They were compared with the specimens in the collections

of the Zoological Survey of India, and, as had already been pointed out by

Hora, marked differences in the shape of the head and proboscis could be

discernible between the Western and the Eastern Himalayan forms. Local

variations also were noticed in this species. The specimens under report, for

instance, differ considerably in the shape of the head and proboscis from those

obtained from Kangra (Punjab) and De'hra-Dun. In the accompanying figure

these differences are clearly shown.

(a) from Dehra Dun, ( b ) from Kumaon, (c) from Kangra.

Garra prashadi Hora.

1937. Garra prashadi , Hora, Rec. Ind. Mus. xxxix, pp. 338-40.

There are four female specimens of Garra prashadi, in the collection under

report. In all the important characteristics they agree with the typical

specimens, but the head is not so bluntly pointed. The body is sub-cylindrical

with slightly bulged out thoracic region. The dorsal profile rises very gently

from the tip^ of the snout to the base of the dorsal fin. The dark spot behind

the angle of the operculum, which is characteristic of Garra prashadi, is absent

in these specimens.

Three small specimens of this species were first collected from Malva Tal,

U.P., in May 1920 by Drs. B. Prashad and S. L. Hora. The second lot of

about 77 specimens was collected from the rivers of Nandhaur and Kalaunia,

U.P., in May-June 1936.

As this species has not been recorded from any other locality except the

Kumaon Hills the exact limits of its distribution cannot be stated until an

extensive survey of the Western Himalayan region is made.

Oreinus plagiostomus (Heck.)

1889. Oreinus sinuatus. Day, F.B.I. I. p. 248.

1889. Oreinus plagiostomus, Day, F.B.I. I. p. 250.

1949. Oreinus plagiostomus, Misra, /. Zool. Soc. India, I, pp. 39, 40.

Oreinus plagiostomus is represented by 80 specimens in the collection under

report. They were collected mainly from the Kosi river, the Naini Tal lake

and the Bhowali nalla. All the specimens, except one about 27 cms. in length,

are immature individuals under 3 cms. in length. It would thus appear that

the species breeds in April-May so far as this region is concerned.

542 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 48

According to Misra, 0. plcigiostomus and O. sinuaius are conspecific and

they represent the male and the female respectively of one and the same

species.

Nimachilus beavani Gunther.

1937. Nemachilus beavani, Hora, Rec. Ind. Mus. xxxix, p. 341.

Nemachilus beavani is represented by 47 specimens in the collection and

they range from 2 cms. to 7.7 cms. in total length. They were collected from

the Kosi and Gola rivers and resemble the Eastern Himalayan examples in

all important diagnostic features, except in one, that is, in the number of the

vertical brown bands on the body. There are in these specimens from 10 to 12

vertical brown bands on the body which is a characteristic feature of N.

montana. There is also a slight dorso-ventral depression of the body and head

discernible in these specimens which again is a character of the montana species.

N. beavani of the Kumaan Hills may probably be an intermediate form

between the N. beavcmi of the Eastern Himalayas, and the N. montana of the

Simla Hills.

Nemachilus rupicola (McClell.)

1878. Nemachilus rupicola, Day, Fish. India, p. 616, pi. cliii, Fig. 9.

Nemachilus rupicola is represented by about 100 specimens in the collection

ranging from 3 to 8.4 cms. in length. These specimens resemble closely the

Western Himalayan race of the species in that the head of these forms is not

so broad as the Darjeeling or the Assamese forms1.

Nemachilus rupicola is abundant in the Bhowali, Ramgar and Naini-tal

streams, and in the Gola and Kosi rivers.

Most of the specimens collected from the Bhowali naila were infested with

certain parasitic cysts. Probably these may be cysts of trematode parasites.

Faust2 in the year 1927 described such cysts found in the body of fish collected

from Kashmir and Seistan.

Botia almorhae Gray

1878. Botia almorhae. Day, Fish. India, p. 607, pi. cliv, Fig. 5.

There are three specimens collected from the type locality, Almorha, U.P.

In general characters they agree with the description given by Day. Botia

almorhae can be easily distinguished from other species of Botia by its long,

bifid sub-orbital spine which extends to the hinder end of the orbit.

I give below a table of measurements of the three specimens for convenience

of reference in future.

Measurements in millimetres

Acknowledgements

I wish to express here, on behalf of the survey party, our

sincerest thanks to Mr. Smetacek of Naukuchya Tal for all the help

that he rendered to us and made our stay there pleasant. I am

also deeply indebted to Dr. S. L. Hora, Director of the Zoological

Survey of India for all the valuable suggestions and guidance that

he very kindly gave me in writing out this paper.

1 Hora, S. L. and Mukerji, D. D., Rec. Ind. Mus. xxxvii, p. 400 (1935)..

2 Faust, E. C., Rec. Ind. Mus. xxix, p. 218 (1927).

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS

BY

James Hornell, f.l.s., f.r.a.i- (Deceased)

Part II

( With 23 text figures )

( Continued from p. 334 of this volume )

The Volutes

In the Volutes (Volutidae) the shell is generally large and of

beautiful colouring and shape. The animal is often larger than its

shell can accommodate and as a consequence the operculum in these

is wanting. The radula usually has but a single longitudinal row

of teeth. The family has great interest for India, for besides the

pretty and typical Voluta lapponica of our Indian seas, it includes

the great Melon-Shell ( Meto indica). In its youth this shell has a

well-developed spire as in ordinary

Volutes ; with growth the body of the

animal increases so fast and thus the

mouth whorl becomes so inflated and over-

grown that the spire is eventually

hidden. Strong folds are present on

the columella. The adult shell is almost

globular with the mouth whorl so in-

flated that in New Guinea a closely

related species is commonly used by

fishermen as a bailer. Our Indian

Melon-shell grows to a length of

about eight inches. It is fairly numer-

ous in five to six fathoms depth in Palk

Bay, less numerous elsewhere. It

appears therefore to prefer a bottom

where a considerable amount of mud

is present in the sand. The shell is

pale reddish brown blotched with a darker shade. The animal —

foot, mantle and head — is striped like a riger with yellow and black.

When crawling it presents a remarkable appearance, the shell all

but lost to sight in the enwrapping folds oi the gorgeous mantle

and foot.

The eggs are deposited in an extraordinary egg-mass — one of

the strangest produced in these seas. It stands nearly a foot

high, a great honevcomb-like glassy cylinder made up of some

hundreds of clustered capsules, each nearly an inch in length. In

form and sculpture it' resembles a tall cylindrical pineapple, the

10

Fig. 29. — The Melon-shell,

Melo indica Gmelin. x§.

544 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

capsules representing- the bracts. A narrow cavity perforates the

centre of the cylinder. The walls of the different capsules are

tough, colourless and hyaline. As in the Chank a number of

ova are deposited in each capsule, but with growth all disappear

eventually but one, and this, when it frees itself by eating through

the capsule wall, is nearly an inch in length. Long before they em-

erge, the young may be seen clearly through the transparent walls.

The spire at this time is distinctly conical, and the whole shell extre-

mely like that of the land-snails Bulimus and Achatina. A curious

fact is that this giant egg'-mass is not implanted in the sand as in

the case of the chank ; the parent carries the great mass with her

until the young become free.

The Olives

The family of the Olives (Olividae) contains some of the com-

monest shells found on the east coast of India ; on the west

coast they are comparatively scarce. They are notable for their

high polish and the beauty of their marbled colouring. Among

themselves there is less difference in form than usual, the shape-

being roughly cylindrical, with a very short pyramidal spire and

a long narrow mouth opening. The suture between the whorls is

channelled and is in connection with the hinder end of the mouth

aperture by way of a narrow slit in the lip through which a thread-

like tactile process of the mantle passes, to lie when at rest in the

channelled suture. The columella is overlaid with deposit and is

striated obliquely. No operculum is present.

As in Natica, wh^re the habit of life is similar, the shell is partly

immersed in the swollen foot; the mantle lobes are also large and

meet over the back thereby ensuring* the maintenance of the high

polish of the shell.

The Olives are very active ; they burrow rapidly in wet sand in

quest of the bivalves on which they feed and it is said that they

may even be taken on a line baited with a fragment of flesh.

Fig. 30. — Oliva gibbosa Born., seen in crawling attitude. X i|.

The common species is Oliva gibbosa. O. ispidula and O. oliva,

together with the related Ancilla cinnamomea, are other less com-

mon forms. As a rule the species of Ancilla are of one uniform

colour whereas those of Oliva are coloured variously with blotches,

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS

545

spots and marblings. O. nebulosa is exceedingly common around

Bombay.

On the Coromandel

coast Olives are extensive-

ly used as food by the

Pattanavar or sea-fishermen

caste. The chief collecting

season is during spring

tides during the fine wea-

ther period from February

to April. Towards the end

:>f the ebb Pattanavar

women and lads search for

Fig. 31. — Ancilla cinnamomea Lam.

them in shallow water by turning the sand over with their feet or,

in the case of those in uncovered sand by marking the trails as the

Olives travel about. The women boil their catch in fresh water,

extract the flesh and then either use it in their curry or fry it in oil.

The Marginellidae are small shells akin in appearance and

anatomy to the Olives; Marginella angustata is sometimes mistaken

for a small Olive. A distinguishing character is the great thicken-

ing of the outer lip.

The Harp-shells

The last family of importance among the Rhachiglossa is that

of the Harp-shells (Harpidae), a small group of very beautifully

coloured shells, the polished surface adorned with prominent long-

itudinal ribs, suggesting the strings of a harp. The body whorl

is greatly inflated (ventricose) as in Tonna, the spire short and

the columella smooth and covered with a brilliant callus. The foot

is enormous, with a semilunar fore-part separated by a transverse

groove; no operculum.

As is usual in highly polished

shells the mantle is reflected over the

back; this protects it from attrition,

and damage. The only living speci-

mens that 1 have found in India were

in coral-reef pools in the Gulf of

Mannar and in the Laccadive Islands.

When irritated, Harpa ventricosa ,

our common local species, commits

self-mutilation by severing and throw-

ing off the hinder part of the great

foot whenever alarmed, in frequently successful endeavour to escape.

Fig. 32. — Harpa ventricosa

Lam. X|.

Tribe 2. — Toxoglossa

The next three families, the Turridae, Terebridae and Conidae,

possess a large ‘poison gland’ in the gullet, communicating by a

duct with barbed teeth on the radula; they constitute the tribe of

‘Poison-teeth’ or Toxoglossa. As may be inferred from this, they

are carnivorous in habit.

o48 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

The Cones

The Cones (Conidae), as their name implies, are more or less

conical in shape. The spire is usually very short and may even

be telescoped so greatly as to give the apical end a truncated

appearance. The aperture is long and narrow, the outer lip thin ;

the operculum is small, narrow and claw-shaped. Internally the

partitions are partly absorbed.

Fig. 33. — Life appearance of Conus monile Brug. Xi.

The family is very numerous in species, mainly tropical in

habitat; it includes many most brilliantly coloured shells, some

so rare and beautiful that collectors have paid as much as Rs. 750

for a single shell. Some species are dangerous to handle on account

of the poisonous nature of their bite ; none of our fishermen appear

to fear them ; the South Sea Islanders on the contrary have a most

lively dread of them, and allege that their bite is liable to prove

fatal !

Our common species chiefly haunt coral reefs. They include

Conus ebraeus (,the marking resembling Hebrew letters). C.

figulinus, C. litteratus, C. geographus, and C. ceylanensis , the last

with a characteristic white band in the middle of the mouth whorl.

C. textile is a magnificent shell, large and beautifully polished.

The SlitTips

The Slit-lips (Turridae) are even more numerous in species than

the Cones and, unlike them, are world-wide in distribution. They

are nearly all very small in size ; in shape fusiform with a tapered

spire and an elongated body-whorl ending in a long canal. A deep

slit or notch in the thin lip close to the suture is their characteristic

feature. Our common species are Turris indica and T. acuta.

The Augers

Lastly we have the Auger-shells (Terebridae), very long tapered

shells of many whorls, resembling in general form the Turret-

shells ( Turritella ) but stouter and, instead of the shells being sculp-;

tured into spiral ridges, they are generally smooth surfaced or

noduled and brightly ornamented with coloured, spots — commonly

with orange on a white ground. Terebra duplicata is not uncommon

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS

547

in moderate depths on sandy bottom around the mainland coasts.

In the Laccadives they seem much more numerous ; from one short

visit examples of five spe-

cies were brought back in-

cluding T. maculata, and T.

crenulata.

Sub-class II- EUTHYNEURA

, The Gastropods belong-

ing' to this group have the'

visceral nerve straight and Fig- 34- — Surcula javana L.

not twisted as in the Strepto-

neura with which we have just dealt. Another characteristic is the

excessive development of the sides of the foot into lateral folds or

epipoda. These tend to envelop the shell and in degree as this is

more complete and permanent, so the spiral form of the shell is

reduced and its substance lessened in thickness, till it eventually

becomes lost. In the most specialized in this direction, the torsion

or twisting of the body tends to disappear and the animals gradually

acquire a secondary external symmetry. The group is divided pri-

marily into the orders Opisthobranchia and Pulmonata, the former

marine, with breathing arrangements suitable for life in water; the

latter without gills and normally air-breathers.

Order I. — Opisthobranchia

This order includes the Bubble-shells (Bullidae), the Sea-Hares

{ Aplysiidae), the Umbrella-shells (Umbraculidae), one section of the

Pteropods and the large and interesting shell-less group of the

Nudibranchs.

The Bubble-shells

The Bubble-shells (Bullidae) are abundant on sandy bottom in

shallow water. The swollen oval shells of Bulla ampulla , seem-

ingly all ‘mouth’, mottled with pale transparent brownish-red, are

often thrown ashore on our sandy beaches. In life none of the

fig* 35.— Bubble-shells ( Bulla

ampulla L.).

opening; it is not unlike a young

other shellfish but instead of bo

shell is seen, the fleshy lobes of

the foot being reflected over the

shell both at the sides and behind.

In front the foot, as in many other

burrowing mollucs, Natica and

Oliva for example, forms a stout

head-shield — the equivalent in its

economy of a ploughshare.

A closely allied species is the

little Cylichna cylindracea , be-

longing to the family Scaphan-

dridae, often found in the neigh-

bourhood of Bombay. Its shell is

cylindrical with a long and narrow

Olive. The Scaphanders live upon

'ing a hole in the victim’s shell, in

£48 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

order to suck out contents, they swallow their prey whole, grinding

it up, shell and all, within a powerful gizzard.

An extremely beautiful animal is the Striped Bubble-shell

(Hydatina velum), belonging to the Aplustridae. (Fig. 36.)

The shell has the form of ^

Bulla but is thin and fragile

and ornamented with broad

spiral black bands on a pale

ground. The foot is very

broad; the head disc extremely

larg*e. The true tentacles (there

are four labial ones) are wide

and ear-shaped and of enor -

Fig. 36.— Life appearance of Hydatina mous comparative size. The

velum Gmelin. xi. colouring of the foot and

tentacles partakes of the colour scheme of the shell; it is a wonder-

ful sight to see this creature when crawling in a pool, the shell

partly uncovered, the great head with its elephant-ear tentacles

stretched forwards and the wide side-folds partly reflected, undulat-

ing gracefully over roughnesses of the ground.

The Phiiines

In the Pliilinidae the form of the body is fully specialized for

burrowing*. The shell has become thin and small, the spire almost

lost and the aperture wide and ear-shaped ;

it is embedded entirely and there is therefore

no longer a clumsy projecting mass on the

back as in Natica and Oliva and Bulla to

hinder easy progress through sand. The

lobes of the body are fleshy and smooth,

without projections, the whole an animated

ploughshare, perfect for the purpose of bur-

rowing rapidly. Like Bulla and Cylichna it

has a powerful gizzard armed with a crush-

ing apparatus composed of three shelly plates.

The common Indian species of Fhiline is

shapeless in appearance, a mere mass of four

fleshy lobes. It is not uncommon in soft wet

sand.

Very different is the beautiful little Lobi-

ger of the family Oxynoidae. The Indian

species, Lobiger nevilli , is often seen in great

abundance in quiet, sheltered bays wherever

sea-grass prairies are to be found. At first . .

sight the observer is inclined to identify it *bedde^n

as one of the naked forms known as Nudi- the mantle.

branchs until the rounded shell is seen pro-

truding from the back. The body is slender and slug-like, tapering

off behind into a long, narrow pointed tail. The head bears two

short, flattened tentacles, while on each side of the body proper,

rise upwards two pairs of great leaf-like lobes or fins, whereof the

anterior pair is slightly the smaller. Each of these four fins is a

Fig- 37-— Living

appearance of Philine,

dorsal view; the dotted

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS

549

thin, wide lobe with frilled edges, attached to the body by a mus-

cular stalk. When alarmed or disturbed the animal seeks to escape

Fig. 38. — Lobiger nevilli Pilsbry, showing the oval shell lying between the two

pairs of fins’. X2.

by throwing off its fins; when cast off, these exhibit slight move-

ments for some time after. With the help of its mobile tail and of

these paired fins Lobiger is enabled to swim with ease. The oval

shell, slightly convoluted, is transparent and very delicate ; its con-

vex surface is freely exposed on the middle of the back, between

the fins ; there is here no need as in Bulla and Philine to protect it

from sand attrition, for Lobiger pursues a free life in the sea, never

attempting to burrow. The body-colour of our only Indian species

is normally a brilliant green, harmonizing' with the colour of the

sea-grass of the shallows where it abounds. Sometimes minute

dark specks are scattered through the green. The fins are of a

similar green colour but each is bordered with a band of coral red

speckled with black dots. Lobiger appears to posses some power

of colour adaptation, for when placed in a white vessel it becomes

yellow, the lovely scarlet border to the fins disappearing in the

effort to assimilate its colouring to the environment.

Sea-Butterflies

Here are placed by several eminent systematists the shell-bearing

Pteropods, ‘Butterflies of the Sea’ as they are often termed. They

spend their whole life in the open sea and though the number of

their species is small, individually they often occur in such vast

swarms as to discolour the water for miles ; they form the principal

food of the Baleen Whales. Their shells are either tubular ( Creseis )

or broad and pocket-shaped (Carolina) ; those of the former are

often abundant in the plankton of our waters but so small, pellucid

and needle-like as make them difficult to be recognized except when

examining under a microscope the catch of minute floating oceanic

life made by a tow-net. The shell of Cavolina on the contrary is

horny and brown and sufficiently stout to be easily identified when

thrown ashore after storms, usually in company with lanthina and

violet-coloured siphonophore jellyfishes.

The Pteropods differ from other molluscs in the transformation

of the foot into a pair of great wing-like swimming fins, arranged

c50 JOURNAL, BOMBA Y NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

one on either side of the mouth, the head as a distinct organ having:

virtually disappeared..

The Sea=Hares

The Sea-Hares (Aplysiidae), so named from a fancied resem-

blance to a crouching hare, are heavily built grotesque creatures,

lumpy and soft to the touch ; they possess a thin and much reduced

transparent shell, brown and ear-shaped, all but covered by the

mantle and further protected by two fleshy side lobes of the foot.

The stumpy head is armed with two pairs of tentacles, the hinder

the larger. The middle region of the body rises high with a

humpy back; behind, the broad flat foot passes into a short but

distinct tail. In colour Aplysia is mottled and spotted a dirty

purplish brown with spots and blotches of greyish tint scattered

throughout.

Species of Aplysia are common in most parts of the world ;

the common Indian one is almost indistinguishable from the British,

and is equally abundant in weedy shallows in bays and the sea-

ward ends of backwaters. These molluscs vary greatly in abund-

ance from year to year ; sometimes they appear along the margin

of the sea in multitudes ; in other years scarcely one is to be found

at the same season. When handled they discharge a large quantity

of purple fluid from glands under the mantle. This secretion is

harmless but is undoubtedly protective for it discolours the water

for a considerable distance around, alarming to any fish with

predatory intent. The odour is also unpleasant and to some persons

is distinctly nauseous.

Aplysia deposits its ova in long, greatly tangled cords, of con-

siderable total bulk, the colour brownish pink. In India the spawn-

ing season is February and March. At this time the animals are

notably gregarious. Another notable Indian genus is Dolabella.

Yet another genus closely related in form, size and colour is

M&farchus, marked off sharply from Aplysia by the presence of long

filaments, the larger dendritic, scattered thickly over the whole upper

surface of the bod}v Whether this is in any way protective I do

not know. The lateral flaps in this genus are united behind and

not open as in Aplysia , leaving only a small aperture on the summit

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS •

551

of the back. No shell is present, a stage further — the final one —

in the process of the elimination of what had become a useless

structure. Large and beautiful eye-like spots are scattered over the

body, the centre peacock

each is at least three

millimetres in diameter.

The gelatinous egg-

cords, filled with opaque

dirty reddish ova. are

similar to those of

Aplysia. The spawn-

ing time is the same

and so is its habitat —

wherever weedy shal-

lows are to be found.

It is very common in

some years in the month

of March.

The Umbrella=shelis

The Umbrella-shell (Umbraculidae) is another clumsy creature

of large size not uncommon in moderate depths on the east coast

(probably just as common on the west coast wherever the habitat

is , suitable). It is easily recognized by the circular flat shell that

partially covers the back of its ugly, tuberculated body, solid and

muscular. The shell is quite uncovered and hides the large plumed

gill lying beneath the mantle on the right side. The head is small

and, like that of the tortoise, is retractile into a deep notch in the

front of the enormously massive foot. Umbraculum inditum , with

a shell often five inches in diameter, is our common Indian species.

Representative of the Pleurobranchidae is the dull, unsightly

Pie urobranchus , coarsely slug-like in shape, greenish drab in colour

and rough surfaced. It is often found in dirty muddy pools be-

tween tide-marks at Rameswaram and on the south shore of the

Gulf of Kutch. The mantle extends over the back and entirely

conceals the shell which is an oblong* flexible horny plate, slightly

convex. The head bears two pairs of short fleshy tentacles and, like

Umbraculum, the foot gives off no lobes at the side as does Aplysia.

As if its appearance were not sufficiently repulsive, spicules are deve-

loped within the mantle.

Naked-gilled Gastropods

Wherever wide expanses of bare sand prevail on the Indian

littoral and in the adjacent shallows, the important sub-order of the

Naked-gilled Gastropods — the Nudibranchia — are not well repre-

sented; their especial habitat is among weed-clad rocks washed by

a strong tide-run. Rocky ground from Sind to Bombay and the

Gulf of Mannar are their favoured haunts ; here are to be found

many and beautiful forms. Unfortunatelv they are the most difficult

of all animals to preserve in their natural shape and colour, shrink-

ing to uncouth lumps when killed unless infinite care be taken to

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

narcotize them ; even so they have to be brought very gradually

into the preservative fluid. To study them satisfactorily they must

be examined in the living condition for at present we know almost

nothing* of the life appearance of many species and still less of their

habits.

They are slug-like animals without shell of any sort. Internal

gills are absent, their place being* taken by outgrowths from the back,

protean in the variety of their form and often exceedingly elegant

and brightly coloured. In some, these form rosettes, in others

richly arborescent filaments, or club-shaped knobs or even simple

folds not unlike those of Lobiger .

In certain instances the vivid colours are assumed as warning

colouration — possible enemies are told to beware of the calcareous

spicules present in the skin of certain species ( Chromodoris ) or of

the stinging cells which in others (A e oils) are developed in the

dorsal processes. In another group the colouring is protective and

mimetic, harmonizing with that of the sea-weeds and animals amid

which they live.

Retractile-giiled Nudibranchs

The commonest of Indian nudibranchs belong to the family

Dorididae, distinguished by the presence of a rough, tuberculated

dorsal shield, stiffened by the multitude of spicules embedded in

it, and by the possession of external gills, usually pinnate or

plumose, retractile within the orifice of the vent situated near the

hinder end of the body. These retractile gills characterize the

group of nudibranchs termed Anthobranchia. The most common

Indian genus is Glossodoris. G. petechialis is abundant in the Gulf

of Kutch, and the neighbourhood of Karachi, together with the

related C. semperi. Another common Indian nudibranch is Plo-

camopherus ceylonicus belonging to the family Polyceridae, distin-

guished from the Dorididae by the gills or ‘branchial tufts’ being

non-retractile and situated about the middle of the back.

Finger-gilled Nudibranchs

Interesting as these are, they cannot vie in beauty with the

species belonging to the group of the Polvbranchia where the

gill filaments, resplendent in vivid hues, sprout from the sides of

the body in all manner of variety.. In some, as in the Aeolid

Pteraeolidia semperi, the gill processes or cerata form a waving

forest of long finger-like processes, brightly coloured.

An extremely peculiar and interesting creature is the soft, semi-

g*elatinous Melibe rangi, not uncommon on the pearl-banks of the

Gulf of Mannar and under like conditions in the Gulf of Kutch.

From the back of its slug-like body rise six or eight pairs of large

semi-transparent lobes mottled olive green and brown; unlike the

cerata of the Aeolids which are not voluntarily thrown ofl:, those

of Melibe drop off at a touch (caducous) ; when taken in a net they

separate at once from the body and then become very puzzling to

those who find them if they have no previous knowledg*e of the

animal. Each lobe is somewhat flattened laterally and of crested

wedge-shape. Over the whole surface are scattered irregularly

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS

553

numerous tufted tubercles. Under the microscope each is resolved

into a group of digitate papillae having colourless transparent walls

containing threads of brown cell-rows. These threads belong to a

lowly species of alga living in virtual partnership with its molluscan

host — a most interesting instance of symbiosis.

Fold-gilled Nudibranchs

The last group of the Nudibranchs is a small one, that of the

Pellibranchia ; it is distinguished by the absence of external gills,

their place being taken by a broad and sensitive fold on each side

of the body. Through these ramify a system of blood vessels,

thereby allowing respiration to be effected directly through the

thin walls of the folds. These, beautifully margined by a border

of contrasting colour, function also as swimming fins. The Indian

representative of the group is Elysia grandifolia, of a brilliant green

ground colour with the green fins bordered with a band of yellow,

itself margined by a thin line of black.

Order II. — Pulmonata

With the exception of certain fresh-water forms which have re-

acquired gill-like breathing organs, the Pulmonata are air-breathers

in which the walls of the mantle cavity are traversed by a net-work

of fine blood vessels, constituting a true lung. Their most familiar

representatives are the land-snails and slugs, the former with a

typical spiral shell; the latter, so far as India is concerned, have

none externally but most of them possess a small internal plate

or a few calcareous particles hidden beneath the skin of the back —

vestiges of the ancestral shell.

Fig. 41.— Two individuals of the Common Madras Snail ( Xestina bistrialis

Beck.).

In peninsular India two distinct land-snail areas exist, the one,

the dry zone extending over the eastern and south-eastern regions —

the other, the wet zone, comprising the ghaut region of the west —

the Bombay Presidency, Malabar, Cochin and Travancore, together

with the Anamalai, Nilgiri and Palni Hills. This wet zone has

554 JOURNAL, BOMBA ¥'■ NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 48

intjFnate relationship with Ceylon : it is indeed classed as part of

the, Sinhalese Zoological Province by faunistic writers.

Fig. 42. — Shell of Achatina fulica Ferussac.

There is, however, much overlapping of these two regions and

much intermingling of species. For example we are told that the

Sinhalese province is characterized by the dominance and abundance

of the genus Helix, while Ariophanta — which differs from Helix in

having a mucus pore at the end of the tail — is considered to take

its> place very largely in the Indian dry zone. As a matter of fact

Ariophantas are particularly abundant on the wet zone Anamalai

and Nilgiri Hills and include the Imperial Snail, Ariophanta basileus,

a magnificent species growing to 2\ inches in diameter, characteristic

of the Cochin teak forests where it is occasionally eaten by the

semi-wild tribes who live on forest produce ; it is also found in

the Anamalai and Nelliampathi Hills. Two smaller species are,

however, abundant and characteristic of the dry zone area; one is

the single-handed Xestina ligulata, the other the two-banded Ario-

phanta. biserialis. These are common in Madras gardens.

Conversely, a wet-zone Helix ( H . vittata), with a white shell

coloured red-brown within the mouth cavity, is to be seen every-

where in the Tinnevelly and Ramnad Districts on babul and other

dry-zone bushes. They are reputed to have a bitter taste and this

probably accounts for their immunity from attack by birds ; their

white shells make them extremely conspicuous on the dark leafless

thorns during the hot weather when bird food is scarce. During

\his period our Indian land snails lie dormant, closing the aperture

of the shell by mucous secretion that dries hard and prevents

evaporation from within. As this resting stage occurs in hot coun-

tries during summer it is termed aestivation, the converse of the

winter rest or hibernation of animals in temperate and cold regions.

Into Ceylon a huge snail, Achatina fulica, whose home is Africa

and Madagascar, was introduced about the beginning of this

century ; it is now a recognized pest causing considerable loss

owing to its depredations in vegetable gardens in the low-country

region. The shell is ovoid with a well-developed conical spire and

it grows to a length of five inches. Its eggs are bright yellow

and about one-tenth of an inch in diameter. Apart from Bengal

where it has had a footing for over 80 years and where it is common

in Calcutta gardens, it has failed to spread elsewhere in India.

(Fig. 42).

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS

555

Stylommatophora

The shell-bearing1 pulmonates mentioned above belong tb the

section Stylommatophora, characterized by bearing eyes on the sum-

mits of the posterior of two pairs of invaginable tentacles. In the

same section are located the true slugs belonging to the family

Limadidae. In these naked slugs the body is elongated, narrowing

behind into a pointed tail. The mantle is restricted to a shield-like

area placed over the fore part of the body; beneath it is a small

calcareous plate representing the shell. A large respiratory orifice

opens on the rig'ht side rather far back. Several species of Limax

are common in India, the majority limited to the wet-zone.

A remarkable genus of aberrant Pulmonates in that of the slug-

like Onchidium , which frequents the sea-coast wherever there are

brackish marshes and mangrove swamps. Unlike Limax the mantle

covers the whole of the back and is covered with tubercles ; a remark-

able feature is that, in addition to the usual pair of tentacular

eyes, a number of other eyes are developed upon certain of the

tubercles on the back. The)’’ possess a lens, retinal nerve-end cells,

retinal pigment and an optic nerve as do the tentacular eyes but,

strangely enough the relationship of the nerve filaments to the

retinal elements of the dorsal eyes is planned on the same fashion

as in the vertebrate eye and the pallial eyes of Spondylus and Pecten ,

and not on the ordinary molluscan cephalic eye-plan as best exempli-

fied in the eyes of Cephalopods.

I have found Onchidium on the north shore of Kathiawar and

as it occurred in company with the little Mud-skipper fish Periop-

thahnus, Semper’s observation that the fish comes ashore hopping

and skipping in pursuit of Onchidhini is doubtless correct. In such

case the presence of dorsal eyes are of special value to the mollusc

in enabling- the approach of the enemy to be sensed in time to

permit of an attempt to escape.

Basommatopliora

In the second main division of the Pulmonates, the Basom »

matophora, the cephalic eyes are placed at the base of the

single pair of tentacles present, and these tentacles while contractile

are not invaginable. The majority of the genera are inhabitants

of fresh-water, but the Ellobiidae or Ear-shells are an exception.

One Indian species is exceedingly common among the roots of

mangroves in tidal backwaters, and others in moist spots near the

^ea. The shells are oblong or oval with a well-developed spire;

the outer and inner lips are thickened and expanded ; in one common

species both are conspicuously toothed ; in others only the inner

fip is so armed. Some have a superficial likeness to the little

Nassariid Arcularia; the form of the mouth is, however,, quite

different.

Of fresh-water snails belonging to this division, Lymnaea

and Planorbis are typical, the one elegantly spiral, the other dis-

coidal, coiled in a flat sinistra! manner. : The shell of Lymnaea is

thin, horny and fragile, with a large body-whorl and usually a sharply

elongate spire; the colour brown. In Planorbis, generally a much

smaller snail and nearly black, the shell is. stouter, is specially

c56 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo.L 48

remarkable because a lobe of the mantle just outside the pulmonary

cavity has been metamorphosed into a functional gill; this genus

therefore, derived from an air-breathing land pulmonate, which in

origin evolved from a vrater-breathing gilled marine gastropod, has

returned to a wholly aquatic life and has re-adapted its breathing-

apparatus a second time. It is noteworthy that the original form

of the branchiae has not reappeared, a wholly different part of the

body being specialized anew for the purpose, a fact which Pelseneer

remarks 'illustrates the irreversibility of evolution’.

Fig. 43. — Pond-snails ( Indoplanorbis exustus Deshayes) crawling on water weeds.

Both Lymnaeci and Planorbis have the habit of crawling up-

side down beneath the surface film of the pond wherein they live,

the foot gliding along* as if it were moving along a sheet of glass;

the well-known phenomenon of the surface tension of fluids is

the explanation of this miracle. The spawn of both genera is

deposited in colourless gelatinous masses on stones and water

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS

557

weeds. In hot weather when tanks and streams dry up, these

water-snails aestivate in the mud after the fashion of Pila and

Viviparus.

Class III.— SCAPHOPODA

Standing- apart from all other Gastropods is the little group of

the Scaphopods, in many ways so specialized as to appear degenerate

for there are neither eyes, nor true tentacles nor any distinct head

present; neither is there any gill nor any true ‘heart’.

The only well-known species are the Tusk-shells (Dentaliidae) .

In these the edges of the mantle lobes unite to form a complete

tube, and as a consequence the shell is tubular. At one end, the

posterior, it is narrow, widening gradually to the other end through

which protrudes the broad, muscular burrowing foot and a number

of long filaments. These last, the tentacula, are believed to be

employed for the capture and dragging to the mouth of the foramin-

ifera and diatoms on which these animals feed.

The Tusk-shells belonging to the genus Dentalium are often

very common in sandy ground in depths of a few fathoms around

our coasts ; their empty shells are often cast up ashore. The most

abundant species in Indian waters, Dentalium octogonum, has a

very pretty curved shell, snowy white, with eight grooves running

down the entire length, giving an octagonal outline in transverse

section. It g'row-s to a length of i| inch. Another species, very

rare, grows to a length exceeding three inches and is stout in

proportion. This species ( D . formosum) which I have seen on only

a few occasions, has a shell mottled with shades of dark red, a very

handsome object. All live buried obliquely in the sand, pointed end

upwards. In this there is a small perforation and through this

passes the water required for breathing.

It is interesting to note that the Scaphopods were for long

mistaken by naturalists for tube-forming annelids so close is the

superficial resemblance both of their tubes and of their head fila-

ments to those of certain of these marine worms.

Class IV. — LAMELLIBRANCHA or PELECYPODA

The most conspicuous characteristic of this class is that the

shell is in two parts or valves, hence the convenient semi-popular

term of Bivalves often applied to them. The mantle consists of

two lobes, a right and a left, corresponding to the two valves and

enveloping the body between them. A head is virtually absent

and no radula or teeth are present, whereas the foot, frequently

developed into a narrow, axe-shaped organ, is often of considerable

size and of great mobility and strength in sand-burrowing species.

The breathing organs are developed into plate-shaped gills, varying

greatly in structure; these differences are now made use of in the

classification of these molluscs. The majority of species pass their

lives in burrows in sand or mud ; others anchor themselves by a

cable of fine threads, the byssus; in some, one valve is cemented

to a stone or a rock ; a few bore into wood and stone and others

55 B JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

are so exceptionally active that they swim through the water by

alternately flapping their valves open and shut.

Their food consists of minute organisms, animal and vegetable,

swept within the cavity enclosed by the mantle lobes by the rhythmic

lashing of cilia lining the interior. These particles are then inter-

cepted by the filter-like structure of the gills and wafted to the

mouth by other sets of cilia.

Before describing some of the common Indian bivalves, an

explanation of certain technical terms is necessary for the ready

understanding of the subject. If an ordinary bivalve such as a

cockle or an oyster be taken in the hand and held in such a position

that the hinge is uppermost and the mouth side directed forwards,

we are holding the shell with its dorsal side uppermost, its ventral

side down, the anterior end turned forwards and the posterior end

toward the hand holding the shell; in this position the valve on

the right is the right valve, the other the left one. The elastic pad

joining the two valves at the hinge is the ligament and the fine

skin often present on the surface of the shell is the periostracnm.

Usually the hinge is formed by small interlocking projections, the

hinge teeth. The valves are kept shut by the contraction of power-

ful adductor muscles, usually two in number, one towards each

end of the shell. These pass across from one valve to the other;

when they relax slightly, the lips of the shell open, the normal con-

dition ; after death these muscles relax completely and the shell

gapes widely owing to the elasticity of the ligament which acts

precisely as though a small pad of indiarubber were inserted under

compression in the hinge.

In burrowing* species wffiere the shells lie mouth downward in

the sand the two mantle folds join posteriorly at three points to

form two apertures — the inhalant and the exhalant. In bivalves

that bury themselves deeply the margins of these apertures are

extended into a pair of long tubes, the siphons . Through the

inhalant or branchial siphon, water, laden with microscopic food,

is drawn within the mantle cavity, where it filters through the

gills and then passes out through the exhalant siphon.

The two chief orders of the Lamellibranchs are the Filibranchia

and the Eulamellibranchia. In the former the thread-like gill fila-

ments lie parallel to one another and are bent upon themselves

(reflected upwards) at about half their length. In the latter the

filaments instead of being free are united at regular intervals by

cross bars containing blood vessels and thus form a more efficient

breathing and food-collecting apparatus — a very perfect form of

filter.

Order I. — Filibranchia

False and Window-pane Oysters

The first family for consideration is the Anomiidae. In India

both its notable genera An o mi a and Placenta are represented.

Anomia, often called the False Oyster is a small shell usually about

ij inch in diameter, frequently adherent to edible oysters wherever

found. A. achaeus is the common species. ' It has a beautifully

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS

559

pearly shell, often golden in tint, very like a young edible oyster

in shape, but thin, translucent and fragile. It rests with its right

or flat valve downwards ; the left valve is convex. Through a

hole in the lower valve a shelly plug passes ; by this it attaches

itself to fixed objects. This plug is a modification of the byssus

which in most other bivalves consists of numerous elastic horny

filaments.

Placenta placenta, the Window-pane Oyster, grows to a much

greater size, often five and even six inches in diameter. It is

orbicular in outline when adult, very much compressed and remarka-

ble for a A -shaped tooth to which the ligament is attached. It

forms no byssus, lying more or less prone on the muddy bottom

of estuarine creeks and landlocked bays wherever these occur on

Indian coasts. Notable localities are Karachi Harbour, the Indus

creeks, the Gulf of Kutch, Bombay Harbour, bays and creeks in

Portuguese India, Tuticorin Harbour and the neighbourhood of

Chittagong.

The foot is long and trumpet-shaped ; it is employed mainly

for freeing the interior from mud that finds its way in and would

otherwise choke up the fine network of the gills. The shell is

peculiarly soft; both in appearance and substance it resembles mica,

particularly when immature. Small shells are usually colourless,

clear and translucent; the Chinese ages ago noted this, and with

their usual ingenuity put it to the useful purpose of glazing windows

and verandah roofs. For this purpose young shells are trimmed

into squares about 2\ in. across and then secured between narrow

battens of wood arranged vertically. The Portuguese borrowed the

idea and introduced it into their Indian possessions in the 16th

century. To-day the windows of the older houses in Goa and Diu

are still glazed in this manner; the Governor’s old palace at Marmu-

goa has fine examples of such windows.

In some localities — not in all — Placenta produces a large abun-

dance of seed pearls, too soft for jewellery and often misshapen,

but still valuable for use in indigenous medicine in India and for

the production of an expensive lime as an ingredient of the pan

snpari used by the fastidious wealthy.. Four such places in the

Indian region are Chittagong, Tamblegam Bay in Ceylon, the

Gulf of Kutch and the creeks of the Indus. In all these localities

Placenta forms beds of great extent, numbering shells by the

million ; the revenue derived from these fisheries is sometimes of

considerable importance. Usually these fisheries belong to the State,

a royal prerogative of ancient standing.

The anatomy and habits of Placenta are dealt with in great detail

by the present writer in his Report on the Anatomy of Placuna

placenta, etc.1

The Ark-shells

The Ark-shells (Arcidae) constitute a large family including

many Indian species, varying widely in appearance and habifis.

1 Hornell, J., in vol. i, of The Report to the Government of Baroda on the

Marine Zoology of Okhamandal in K.attiawar, London, 1909, pp. 43-97, with

5 plates and 2 text-figures. 4to.

11

£60 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 48

All agree, however, in having the hinge armed with a large number

of tiny plate-shaped teeth disposed in a straight row on each side

of the hinge. The shells

are often angular, radial-

ly ribbed and covered

with periostracum. The

mantle is open and no

siphons are present. The

best known Indian spe-

cies are Area granosa ,

Trisidos tortuosa , Bar-

batia fusca} Glycymeris

taylori and some small

species that live in cre-

vices in corals.

The Ribbed Ark-

shell (A. granosa) is a

fine shell found widely

distributed in backwaters

and estuaries. In ap-

pearance it looks like a

very rugose cockle; the

flesh is distinctively

coloured red, due to the

blood being of this hue,

an exceptional condition

among molluscs where

the blood is generally

The flesh is tough but

because of its red colour some shore people on the Madras coast

have the idea that it has specially nutritious and strengthening

qualities ; on this account it is often given to women in pregnancy.

It is also much valued by the poorer people of coast villages on

the Bombay coast who collect great quantities from sandy bays. In

size it seldom exceeds 53 mm. in length by a thickness of 43 mm.

It is noteworthy that this species is the subject of very profitable

cultivation in Japan, where the spat at a size of about 3 mm. are

collected from the natural settlement grounds in immense numbers

and relaid on special culture areas. As they grow larger, from

time to time they are redistributed in order to avoid the danger of

overcrowding and consequent food shortage. This species burrows

free in sand.

In the open sea the estuarine A. granosa is replaced by the

Hairy Ark-shell (Barbatia jusca) and the Twisted Ark-shell ( Trisidos

tortuosa). The former is ribbed and cockle-shaped, covered with

dense black periostracum thickly beset with short bristle-like hairs.

The second species was well named Parallelopipedum tortum by

some authors, for whilst the opposite sides are roughly parallel,

none of the angles are right angles and the shell appears as if it

had been twisted out of shape when in a plastic condition

(Fig. 44, A). The habitat of both the species named is between

the 4! and 6 fathom lines on a bottom of dirty muddy sand.

Fig. 44. — A, Trisidos tortuosa and its byssus ;

B, Inner viow of a valve of Area granosa L.

Both xi.

colourless or tinted pale bluish-green.

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS

561

Neither forms continuous beds, occurring scattered singly over

a large area.

A small, elongated and very typical Ark-shell not unlike

T. tortuosa is found in crannies among massive corals and some-

times in empty burrows made by boring molluscs, especially of the

Date-shell (Lithophaga). The foot is large and secretes a short

and massive horny byssus made up of thin plates of a characteristic

bronze green colour.

Closely allied but very different in appearance is the equivalve

Glycymeris , a common shell in depths of a few fathoms wherever

there is sandy bottom. In shape it is orbicular, somewhat com-

pressed and smooth, with central umbones. The hinge is curved

and so the line of the comb-like hinge-teeth is somewhat arched

instead of being straight as in Area. Glycymeris lives free and

unattached and so powerful is its crescent-shaped foot that some

species are able to leap to a height of several feet when disturbed.

G. taylori is a common Indian species.

Mussels

The well-known Mussels (Mytilidae) form another large family.

The three common genera of these seas are Mytilus, Modiolus and

Fig. 45. — A, a typical Modiolus; B, a typical Mytilus ( M . viridis L.). xf.

Lithophaga. All have elongated shells with the hinge close to the

anterior end, and unprovided with teeth. In Mytilus the umbones

are right at the anterior end ; in Modiolus they are some distance

away. Both live attracted by byssal cables ; Lithophaga on the con-

562 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST., SOCIETY, Vol. 48

trary has no byssus but is equally sedentary as it bores into lime-

stones and corals and never leaves its burrow once it has formed it.

Two species only of true Mussels grow to a considerable size

in Indian waters. One of these is the very handsome Green Mussel

( Mytilus viridis), readily recognized by the brilliant green coloura-

tion of the periostracum investing the exterior surface of the valves

(Fig. 45, B.) ; the other is an even larger species, less elegant of

contour, coated with coarse brown periostracum. The green species

is widely distributed on both coasts whereas the brown one is

confined, so far as I am aware, almost entirely to the extreme

southern end of the peninsula — Travancore and Tinnevelly. Al-

though the Green Mussel is to be found wherever rocky ground or

oyster beds exist between low-tide level and the three-fathom line,

only off the coasts of Kanara and Malabar does it find conditions

sufficiently favourable to permit of it forming distinct beds ; in

Malabar and northern Travancore its collection is a minor marine

industry. The flesh is eaten and relished by Muhammadans and

Christians and by Hindus of castes inferior to the Nairs. Divers

working from small dugout canoes pursue this fishery from

December to May.

On the east coast the Green Mussel is found wherever beds

of the Edible Oyster exist; we can clearly distinguish an Ostrea —

Mytilus viridis association or ‘formation’ as it is sometimes termed.

Several medium-sized species of the Weaving Mussels ( Modiolus

spp.) exist in our seas; in Palk Bay and the pearl bank region

in the Gulf of Mannar one species, the Bearded Weaving Mussel

( Modiolus barbatus ), called suran by the Tamil divers, is so abundant

that I have seen several square miles of sea-bottom covered con-

tinuously with a carpet of these shells, felted together in a tangle

of byssal threads. The presence of suran in such myriads is one

of the adverse influences militating against the prosperity of our

pearl fisheries ; the rapidity of their growth and their habit of en-

veloping everything about them in a dense network of entangling

fibres, contribute largely to the destruction of the more delicate

pearl-ovster spat. The two molluscs have identical feeding habits

and so the competition of hungry myriads of suran has the same

blighting effect upon pearl-oysters as that of the American slipper-

limpet upon beds of the edible oyster in English waters.

The larger species, closely related to the West Indian Tulip

Mussel ( Modiolus tulipa), is common in Palk Bay where it forms

extensive beds (Fig. 45, A). The average size is not too small for

food purposes, while the smaller would make, if dried and pulverized,

poultry meal and fertilizer.

A very small and pretty species, Modiolus variabilis , character-

ized by the fine ribbing of the shell, lives associated with the edible

oyster in backwaters and estuaries.

The Date-shells ( Lithophaga spp.) are long cylindrical mussels,

growing to a length of 3J in., which tunnel into limestone rocks

and corals, and sometimes into massive gastropod shells (Fig. 46,

B). Two of the common Indian species are Lithophaga teres and

L. straminea. Date-shells bore only into shells, corals and

calcareous rock, the reason being that the boring is effected mainly

by means of an acid secretion poured out by glands in the mantle.

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS

56a

This secretion decalcifies the surface little by little and so enables

the mollusc to scrape off and remove the softened debris and there-

by permit of a fresh surface being attacked..

Fig. 46. — A. a typical Pholad ( Pholas orientalis Gmelin.); B. a boring Musset

( Lithophaga ). xi.

Of the Isognomidae only one conspicuous species is found in our

waters. This grows to a size of quite five inches in diameter ;

it is often mistaken for a large pearl-oyster. In outline it is nearly

the same and the interior is lined with mother-of-pearl. The

hinge is distinctive ; instead of a single oblong mass as in the true

pearl-oyster, the ligament is subdivided into numerous short sections,

each sunk in a separate little pit or fossette. The long row of

these fossettes renders Isognoma easily identifiable. It is rather rare

and lives at a depth of several fathoms on rocky ground.

Pearl Oysters

The large family of the Pteriidae is of great interest to Indian

students for in the waters of the Indian Ocean are found some of

its best known representatives ; these include several species of

Pearl-oysters ( Pinctada spp.), the Wing-shells (Pteriids proper),

the Hammer-oyster ( Malleus ) and the curious Vulsella.

The Indian Pearl-oyster ( Pinctada vulgaris ) is amongst the

smallest of its kind (Fig. 47) ; it seldom exceeds 31 in. in height

and compares unfavourably in size with the huge Gold-lip (P. maxima)

from Mergui and Australasian waters, a species with valves large

enough for dinner plates. Our local species makes up in abundance

for what it lacks in size ; at the Ceylon pearl fishery of 1905, over

800 lakhs were fished within six weeks.

The shell is nearly straight along the hinge line and is produced

at each end into a short ‘ear’, a modification of the wing-like

projections that give the Pteriids proper their name of Wing-

shells. Ventrally the shell is deep and rounded with a series of

A

B

564

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

delicate finger-like projections at the ends of radial bands made up

of older fingers now outgrown, worn and disused. These pearl-

oysters reach their limit of size in about 3J years ; if they survive

longer the shells become worn,

the fingers disappear and the

over-all length and depth

actually decrease ; the thick-

ness increases until death and

this dimension is therefore

our best criterion to deter-

mine their age.

In life-history and habits

pearl-oysters are akin to

mussels. A strong cable of

byssal threads attaches them

to rocks, stones and shells ;

they possess the power of cast-

ing off their cable at will;

they are capable of crawling

short distances and this power

Fig. 47. — The Indian Pearl-oyster ( Pinctada to shift their foothold some-

vulgaris Schum.). xf. times enables them to avoid

entombment through an over-

wash of sand. When young they are restless and inclined to shift

their position frequently. I have often seen them do so six or seven

times within a few hours, each place of attachment marked by a

tiny tuft of golden byssal threads. The formation of one of these

threads takes only a few seconds ; the thread is formed from a glue-

like secretion poured into a fine groove on the under side of the

small tongue-shaped foot. On contact with water it coagulates into

a strong, slightly elastic substance, golden yellow in young oysters,

dark bronze-green in adults.

The sexes are separate but probably alternate in the same

Individual in successive seasons ; fertilization takes place in the

water. Development is rapid, a trochosphere stage first and then

a veliger. At the end of about a week or even earlier if conditions

are favourable, the larva settles upon the bottom and makes its

first attachment. In this condition it is called ‘spat’; a satis-

factory ‘spat-fall’ is dependent upon a favourable run of currents

at the time the oysters spawn, hence the irregularity of the formation

of fishable beds of pearl-oysters in Indian waters. Actually the

years when favourable conditions occur are less frequent than those

when conditions are adverse — hence the great number of blank

years in the pearl-fishing records of the Gulf of Mannar pearl-

fisheries.

Pearl-oysters occur sporadically everywhere on Indian coasts

t>ut the only places where they are ever found in fishable quantities

are the Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay and the Gulf of Kutch. The

greatest of these fisheries is that in the Gulf of Mannar ; for over

2000 years it has been the source of intermittent wealth to the

rulers of Southern India and Ceylon. That of Palk Bay is of little

value for the ground is so muddy and lacking in hard bottom that

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS

565

the oysters have perforce to attach to sparsely scattered dead

valves of other molluscs.

In the Gulf of Kutch a pearl-fishery is carried on by His High-

ness the Jam Saheb of Nawanagar. The oysters there do not form

beds; they occur scattered along the low- water edges of rocky

reefs.. They are collected by men wading in the shallows at low

water of spring tides ; some very valuable pearls have been found.

The origin of pearls in the Indian pearl-oyster has long been

the subject of speculation and investigation. After many years’

research 'I have had to revise my earlier conclusions1 and now I

am satisfied that the parasitic inducement of pearl formation in

the Indian pearl-oyster is of comparatively rare occurrence; sand

grain causation is much the more common and is to be reckoned

important; a more prolific source, however, is that due to irritation

caused by fragments of nacre dislodged from the inner lining of

the valves by muscular strain, which pass into the oyster’s soft

tissues. These fragments of nacre may wander far; in their course

they become invested with a containing sac of nacre-producing

cells immigrant from the mantle which lay down successive coats

of nacre upon the nucleus, thus forming a pearl. Other pearls,

mainly of the seed-pearl kind, are formed around nuclei consisting

of microscopical concretions which arise within the muscles at their

.place of insertion on the shell. These may also wander into the

oyster’s tissues and may even be found in ‘nests’ of as many as a

dozen or more within the visceral .mass. Thus pearl formation

may be induced by several different kinds of irritation.

Black-lipped Pearl Oysters

Solitary individuals of the larger Black-lipped Pearl Oyster

(Pinctada margaritifera) are occasionally found with the common

species. It is a handsome, stoutly built shell with a shade of green

in the very dark ground colour which is decorated characteristically

with several radial lines of white spots passing outward from the

umbo. ‘Ears’ disappear in the adult and the outline becomes sub-

orbicular. The nacre of this species is thick enough to be of value

in button making but its dark smoky colour greatly impairs its

market price. It is much more numerous in the Persian Gulf than

on the Indian coast.

Wing-shells

The Pteriids proper, the true Wing-shells, have usually an

obliquely oval shell with enormously developed ears at each end of

the hinge. Several species may be termed common on rough bottom

but they never form beds or banks.

Usually they are semi-commensal, living with particular kinds

of sea-fans and hydroid zoophytes. Two characteristic species

with this habit are the brown Pteria radiata and the brown and

white striped P.: zebra. The former is a typical Wing-shell, the

hinder ear prolonged into a huge backwardly directed spine. It

is found upon the branches of stout sea-fans (Gorgonids), usually

1 Herdman, Sir W. A. and Hornell, J. Ceylon Pearl Oyster Reports, vol. Hi*

<4>p. 49-56. Royal Society, London, 1905.

£66

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 48

coloured brownish orange. When young this Pteriid has the

identical rich orange colouration of the sea-fan ; its concealment

is further aided by the elongated shape of the ears — these simulate

branches of the host ; shape and colour are so similar that the

young readily escape observation on casual examination. With

growth these resemblances become obscured, the Wing-shells tak-

Fig. 48. — Pteria radiata Pease, commensal upon a Gorgonid Sea-fan.

ing on darker colour as their shell becomes too stout to escape

detection. By that time they cease to be acceptable morsels to

Pi§* 49* — A Wing-Shell ( Pteria inquinata Reeve).

the small fishes that prey upon them when the shell is small and

■thin.

The Zebra Wing-shells (P. zebra) are still more adept at mimi-

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS

567

cry ; they live chiefly upon a tall zoophyte, Halichornaria insignis ...

The host has stoutly built pinnate branches of a deep brown colour.

Upon these the little Zebra Wing-shells often congregate in

numbers, their shells, striped brown and white, exactly simulating

the brown pinnules and the colourless spaces between — precisely

the same idea as is exploited by the tiger and the zebra ; against their

usual background they are indistinguishable at a distance.

The smallest of our Wing-shells is Pteria vexillum, known in

old pearl-oyster reports as ‘false spat’, for it was mistaken times

without number for the spat of the true pearl-oyster, thereby

raising unfounded hopes of great pearl fisheries in the near future.

It is a tiny shell, seldom more than one-third of an inch long. It

occurs frequently in immense numbers in the pearl bank region,

clustering in untold millions on seaweeds and zoophytes. While

quite young it is difficult to distinguish it from real pearl-oyster

spat; only as growth proceeds do points of difference emerge.

The Hammer Oyster

Closely related to the .Wingf-shells is the Hammer Oyster ( Mal-

leus vulgaris) , a black, misshapen corrugated shell shaped like

the letter T. The crossbat at the top represents the two enor-

mously developed ears, the upright, the high narrow body. When

young it has the general form and habits of a Pteriid. With

increasing age it changes gradually into the monstrous form of

the adult, twisted, rough and wrinkled, and usually overgrown

with a crust of sponges, hydroids, polyzoa and ascidians — a happy

hunting ground for the zoologist. Like all Pteriids a portion of

the inner lining of the valves is nacreous; but here it is smaller in

area and thinner than usual.

Last of the family is the curious Vulsella rugosa, a deep oblong

shell without ears. It lives imbedded in sponges, not singly but in

numbers, so much so that an ‘association’ appears to have sprung

up between the two, in the same way and for the same reason that

the Vermetid gastropod Siliquaria forms a similar association with

another species of sponage Vulsella is particularly common on rough:

ground in depths of three to five fathoms. No typical byssus is

formed ; some authorities consider its differences from the true

Pteriids sufficient to entitle it to be put in a special family by itself

— the Vulsellidae.

The Scallops

The Scallops (Pectinidae) are not well represented in Indian

waters and are all small and insignificant unless we include the

magnificent smooth-shelled Amussium , which by some is placed in

a separate family, the Amussiidae.

The true Scallops, such as the common Clilamys senatoria have

a deeply ribbed shell, usually oval in plan, with two well-developed

and conspicuous ears. In the young condition some attach them-

selves to rocks and stones by means of a byssus ; when adult they

usually abandon this Tiabit and lie free, resting upon the right or

convex valve. They have uncommonly active habits for Lamelli-

branchs, especially when quite young, when some species dart

through the water by the alternate and rapid opening and shutting

£68 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

of their valves. Even the adults have considerable power of shift-

ing position in this way. Probably correlated with this unusual

activity is the presence of highly deve-

loped minute eyes upon the mantle

edge. These are placed on the ends

of short marginal tentacles at irregu-

lar intervals among the longer tenta-

cular filaments margining the gape of

the shell. They are always more

numerous on the left or superior lobe ;

in colour they are brilliantly iridescent

green, very conspicuous and arresting

wThen the animal is watched alive. In

structure they are as complicated and

perfect in basic design as the human

eye, with a cornea, crystalline lens

and retina of complex plan with a well-

developed optic nerve. There is no

question of the functional value of

such eyes ; they are made to see with and are valuable for the pur-

pose of warning their owner of the approach of danger, indepen-

dently of touch. I

The colouration of scallop shells is characteristically vivid; red,

brown and yellow predominate but these are believed to be of no

special significance. Handsome as are the smaller of the Pectens,

met with in shallow water, they cannot compare in elegance with

the lovely porcellaneous Amussium pleuronectes, met with in deeper

water in the Bay of Bengal off the Ganjam and Orissa coast.

Unlike the true Pectens its valves are smooth externally, highly

polished and handsomely decorated with reddish brown. The dredge

is necessary to procure it.

The Thorny Oysters

The Thorny Oysters (Spondylidae) resemble the Scallops in

anatomy, even to the presence of eyes bordering the mantle, but

they have abandoned a free

life completely. The valves

are both ornamented with long

spines (F|ig. 51), and those

of the lower (right) valve be-

come cemented more or less

extensively to a rock or

boulder.

S pondylus is a fairly com-

mon shell on rocky ground

and among coral reefs, where

its brilliant red or yellow

valves, decorated with radial

ribbing of long spines, are

conspicuous. It relies upon

quickness of sight and upon

the strength and spiny de-

fences of its shell to defy enemies. That its valves may not be

Fig- 5°- — A Common

Indian Scallop ( Chlamys

senatoria Gmelin.).

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS

569

wrenched apart by main force, a locking1 arrangement of the hinge

is devised. The ligament is a stout pad lodged centrally in a deep

triangular pit in the hinge area, with two very stout interlocking

teeth in each valve, guarding the ligament. ,The adductor muscle

is also specially strong.

(To be continued.)

A BIRD COUNT IN DEHRA DUN

BY

(Mrs.) M. D. Wright

( With a sketch map and a table)

Attempts at making a census of the bird population of a

country, or part of a country, have been made in Britain, America

and Europe. They have in some degree been successful as a result

of nation wide co-operation. One of the chief aims of them is to

show up which species are on the decrease in numbers, in danger

of extinction and therefore in need of special protection.1

In India which has one of the most wonderful avifaunas in

the world, great difficulties lie in the way of such an achievement.

Most counts for censuses are taken by counting the pairs of

nesting birds in a given locality and calculating their numbers on

an acreage basis.

Encouraged by Mr. Salim Ali, and having read of methods in

counting in Hickey’s ‘A Guide to Bird Watching’, I set out to

experiment in counting. As the usual methods were not possible

for me to work at without any help at all, I have made an attempt

at one on my own lines in order primarily to keep a more accurate

check on the birds of my general study area. The area of the

count therefore is a small portion of my general study area.

Description of Counting Area. (See sketch map)

The area of the count is a flat strip of open cultivation in the

Tons valley, 1900 ft. above sea level. It is about 1 mile long by

600 yds. wide at its widest part.

The Tons River which forms its northern boundary is a tri-

butary of the Ahsan River which flows into the Jumna. It is dry

for nearly half the year — a typical boulder-strewn hill river.

The southern boundary is a cliff rising up from the valley

covered with thick scrub jungle. No birds from here have been

included unless they ventured into the open field of the count at

the time of counting.

Vegetables and crops are grown in rotation, and irrigation

is by sewage brought down from the Sewage Farm above the

cliff, thus causing it to be an attractive feeding ground for birds.

Hedges between the fields and scattered trees give cover, building

sites and resting perches for birds. A small mango grove, which

shelters two village huts, is an added attraction.

1 Also, of course, to determine the significance of individual species as eco-

nomically harmful or beneficial. A study of the food and feeding habits by

itself is inadequate unless the local population density of the1 investigated species,

is ascertained. — Eds.

INHABITED AREA

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soe.

A BIRD COUNT IN DEHRA DUN

571

Aims of The County

1. To make an accurate minimum census of species of birds

that are residents or visitors to that area throughout the course

of one year.

2. To keep a check on : —

The Visitors — noting their arrivals and departures, whether

these were sudden or gradual, and periods of greatest and least

abundance.

The Residents — noting times of courtship, nesting and rearing

of young, whether strictly resident or partially migratory.

3. To note the effect of changes of weather and vegetation

on the bird population.

4. To note the time of year of maximum and minimum

(a) Total number of birds.

(b) Total numbers of species of birds.

Apart from the evidence of figures, frequent watching of birds

in the same area throws light on

Territorial habits of some species,

Preference of species for a particular type of country

or food.

Changes in plumage, and many other interesting aspects

of bird behaviour.

Method of Counting.

1. The period covered was from March 1948 to February 1949.

2. Usually the counts were taken with an interval of not more

than four days between each.

3. The same course was taken for each ‘cruise’. Moving

from east to west in a north-south zigzag and returning east along

the edge of the river.

4. During each cruise identified birds were marked down with

minimum numbers where seen on a rough chart of the area. These

numbers when added up under headings of species were made into

a monthly list together with notes on prevailing conditions of

weather, vegetation etc. at the time of the cruise.

5. Each half of the month an average was taken of the

figures for each species, making usually two averages a month.

These are the figures recorded.

6. A few adjustments in making the averages seemed neces-

sary and were accordingly made as follows : —

When there were over 100 birds of a particular species only

100 was recorded.

If a solitary member of a species was seen on only one count,

it was recorded as 1 in the average for that half of the month due

to the probability of its still being about.

The averages were taken ,.tQ the nearest bird to avoid arriving

at fractions of a bird !

Warblers, Pipits and Snipe have been counted collectively under

those headings due to the difficulty of differentiating between the

different species of them when partly hidden by foliage and in

flight.

£72

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , FoZ. 48

7. Only those birds on or in flight over the near edge of the

Tons river have been included. Unidentified birds have not been

included. ...

It is to be hoped that there will be many experiments in bird

counting in India. If they could be made in adjacent districts over

a period of years, results would be of real value. Mr. C. G. Webb-

Peploe’s ‘A Census of Nests in a private Bird Sanctuary’ ( Journal

B.N.H.S. Vol. 47, No. 4) is a fine example of what can be done

on a private estate where real protection of nesting birds can be-,

maintained along with education to the young of the country.

\RY 1949

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REVIEWS

1. INDIAN HILL BIRDS by Sdlim Ali. Pp. lii + 188. 64 coloured plates-

by G. M. Henry, 8 photographic plates, end maps. Size 7" x5" Boijibay—

Oxford University Fress, 1949., Price Rs. 20.

To supplement his Book of Indian Birds, which concentrates on the birds

of the plains and human settlements, Sdlim Ali has now given us an excellent

practical guide to the hill birds. By far the most useful feature of this guide

is the series of 64 coloured plates with representations of 117 species of birds.

This includes not only all the more common species of hill birds but also a

representative of nearly every genus. By reference to an illustrated species it is

thus easy to describe in the text many additional species that could not be

accommodated on the plates. G. M. Henry reveals himself in these plates^

as one of our foremost bird illustrators. His plates of the Emerald Dove,

of the Blue-bearded Bee-eater, and of the White-throated Fantail-fly catcher

rank among the best bird portraits.

The information given in the text emphasizes facts that help in identification,

such as voice and habitat. It is somewhat confusing to have mixed in with,

the field characters the descriptions of similar species, often not even dis-

tinguished by a separate paragraph. It would have helped the unwary reader

if such similar species would follow a species account rather than being sand-

wiched within it. Following best modern practice Sdlim Ali has chosen the

species as the unit of treatment rather than the subspecies. Field characters

and ranges of the more distinct subspecies are however given. The nomenclature

unfortunately is essentially the antiquated one of Stuart Baker. There is no

reason why Indian ornithologists are waiting for a new Checklist of Indian

Birds to be published at some future date instead of eliminating the useless

generic names that now clutter up the literature. I noticed a few minor orni-

thological inaccuracies. The Short-billed Minivet of Stuart Baker is actually

a conglomerate of two species ( brevirostris and ethologus) which differ in

ecology and distribution. The jungle Nightjar ( indicus ) occurs not only in the

peninsular hills but also in the Himalayas ( hazarae Whistler), as noted correctly

on p. XXVII. Caprimulgus monticola (not monticolus) is conspecific with

C. affinis. Black-headed and Rufous-backed Shrikes inter-breed at a broad

front and must be considered conspecific (Dunajewski 1939). These are minor

blemishes which do not detract from the value of this useful guide.

In an introductory section the distribution of 287 species in 13 regions of

India is tabulated. This is followed by a quick key of the birds on the basis

of prominent field-marks (‘conspicuous tails,’ ‘prominent crests,’ ‘bright, largely

blue,’ etc.). With this practical guide even the beginner should be able to

become quickly familiar with the birds of the hill country. The naturalists

of India owe a debt of gratitude to Oxford University Press for publishing

such a handsome volume at so low a price.

ERNST MAYR.

2. BOOK OF BAYS by William Beebe. Pp. 240, London. The Bodley

Head Limited.

The author’s name recalls memories of that exciting book Half Mile

Down which we read many years ago, and this volume is also full of varied

interest.

In the introduction the author says that the book is written ‘of an un-

quenchable desire to know more of the lives — the homes, the food, the enemies,

the mates — of certain wild creatures of sea and land.’ This expedition which

covered the Pacific Coast of South America afforded endless opportunities for

studying and collecting the natural inhabitants of that extraordinarily inter-

esting area. There are many items of information, which the author with his

extensive biological background associates with relevant facts and theories.

Thirty years ago the island of Guadalupe was said to be a paradise of birds'

and plants. In the course of years, cats, rats and mice escaped ashore from

ships, and somebody also turned loose a few goats. The goats now number

60-80,000 and every growing thing within reach has been eaten up. The cats-

£74 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

have eliminated the birds and the whole area is now desolate. The water at

the island also appears to be insufficient and the goats were observed drinking

salt water and also feeding on the exposed beds of kelp at low tide. This

island was the last sanctuary of the sea-elephant and also at one time the

northernmost limit of (the Fur Seal, several hundred thousands having been

slaughtered here. Some protection has now been afforded for both the seals

and the sea elephants by the Mexican government and it is hoped that the

remnants would survive. But the problem of animal preservation is not con-

fined to India alone, there is reference to a whole colony of sea lions being

exterminated very recently to make tinned meat for dogs.

As mentioned before the country is extraordinarily interesting and with the

facilities at their disposal, the expedition have seen a great variety of in-

cidents and specimens whose account sustains the interest of the narrative.

Among the many items which make the book readable, two of particular interest

to the naturalist in India might be mentioned: —

The Iguana dives off mangroves in swamps into water with closely

folded limbs as compared to their spread-eagling their limbs to the fullest

extent when jumping from trees on to scrub. They feed entirely on young

mangrove shoots and leaves. In some parts of India the monitor lizards

are known to live under similar conditions but apart from the fact that

they are mainly carnivorous we have very little information about their

habits.

Spider Monkeys, so peculiar to South America, when passing through

trees in parties, follow one another and use the same holds for hands and

feet as their predecessors — the route being fixed as a well-worn trail

through thick undergrowth.

It all makes us realise how very much more we have still to learn of the

; natural history of the birds, mammals, reptiles and the invertebrates of India.

Except for an occasional tendency towards polysyllabism and hyperbole, it is

certainly the sort of book we would like to see more of.

y IT. A.

The following books have been added to the Society’s Library since

July 1949

1. ANIMAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA— MAMMALS. By Leo George Wender

(Allen & Unwin Ltd., London, 1948) (A Review copy).

2. MAMMALS OF EASTERN ASIA. By G. H. H. Tate (The Mac-

millan Company, 1947).

3. INDIAN HILL BIRDS. By Sdlim Ali (Oxford University Press,

1949).

4. THE ANAMALLAIS. By C. R. T. Congreve (Associated Printers,

1949 ?).

5. THE FAMILIES & GENERA OF LIVING RODENTS Vol. Ill,

Part I. By J. R Ellerman [British Museum, (Nat. Hist.), 1949].

6. HISTORY OF THE PRIMATES — an introduction to the study

of fossil man. By W. E. Le Gros Clark [British Museum, (Nat. Hist.), 1949].

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

i.— PARIAH DOGS KILLING TIGER

It may be of some interest to members of the Society to hear

of village pariah dogs attacking* and killing a tiger cub. This

incident occurred on the 23rd of April when a tigress killed two

bullocks in a village (Bitkilsoya) near here. The village dogs were

also interested in the carcases and it was whilst they were at the

kill that the cub appeared and was promptly set upon and killed

by the dogs. It was a cub of about three months of age. I have never

before heard of village dogs attacking tiger or cubs on a kill.

_P.O. Jaraikela,

B.N. Rly., K. M. KIRKPATRICK

1st May , 1949.

2.— A TAME FOX

‘Vixen’ was a full-grown fox (of the Himalayan variety) when

she came into my keeping, so I can take very little credit for her

being so tame. I first saw her in the Lahore Zoo and straight

away fell in love with her, and made up my mind to get her,

somehow or the other. A few days later I was having tea with

my chief, and to my horror discovered that he too wanted her.

But one bright star rose in the horizon: his wife was all against

his getting her, and begged of me to acquire her and take her to

the jungles, my normal home. Again luck came to me one after-

noon in the shape of my boss discussing the subject with the then

curator of the Zoo, in my presence. ‘What will you take for

her?’ he asked. ‘Two horned owls’ was the somewhat amazing

reply. This had been decided in the Committee Meeting a couple

of days previously, as, apparently, several people were after Vixen

and it was decided to give her to anybody who would produce two

horned owls. My boss grunted and1 walked off in high dudgeon,

muttering something about ‘might as well ask for two kangaroos

at short notice’ ! ! As soon as he got round the corner I asked

if the offer held good for me. ‘To anybody who provides the owls’

and this was good enough. Within an hour I was driving down

the canal bank with two rats in a wire cage and my hawking nets

in the ‘tum-tum’ beside me, and at just after 6 p.m. I deposited

the owls, and marched off, the proud possessor of Vixen. That

was just about 50 years ago but Vixen’s memory still remains

almost as fresh as when I had her.

Next morning I returned to Wazirabad which was then my

headquarters, and had many qualms as to how Vixen would be

received by my six dogs. Two terriers, one beagle, two spaniels

12

£76 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

and a Tibetan sheep-dog-. They were, fortunately used to all

kinds of pets which master acquired from time to time, and a

stern ‘NO’ when hackles went up, or an ag-gressive eye was turned

on the fox, had1 the desired result and the introduction went off

much better than I had expected. I had many surprises on that

first day. After breakfast the dogs, fox and I went for a walk,

the latter, of course, on a chain and the first surprise came when

I saw her following without the least trouble, and without a

single pull on the chain. Somebody had broken her to the chain

anyway. The next surprise was on the following day when I

let her off her chain, as she showed no sign of running away,

and the first thing she did was to make straight for one of the

spaniels, roll on her back and squeal with pleasure and ‘bonhommie’.

,The spaniel accepted the advance, wagged his tail and one by

one they all came and smelt her, even the sheep-dog. An hour

later she was flying across the open maidan with the dogs in full

pursuit, dodging in and out among them and causing collisions

which now and again ended in a free fight among a couple of

the dogs, while the others continued their chase after Vixen. She

had obviously lived her life, among humans, and dogs, and had

had a good home, for she showed not the slightest tendency to

leave us and loved petting and being made much of. The first

night I had tied her to a box in my bathroom, but seeing she

was well behaved and obviously not in the least likely to run

away, she was promoted to a little bed in the corner of my bed-room

and my next surprise came when my early morning tea was

brought. I woke to find she had left her bed and was comfortably

coiled up at the foot of mine, and as the door opened a set of

evil looking teeth came into prominence and with ears back she

very distinctly told my bearer — ‘one step further and you are. for

it’. The bearer believed her and hung back with the. tray, till

I had Vixen securely by the collar and drawn up to the top of

the bed. She had, however, done her job and now took no further

notice of the man. This little drama was enacted every morning

during the three years or so that Vixen was with me, and ended

in her coming into my arms and biting my chin, ever so lightly,

as an invitation to come outside and play. In the house she was

cleanliness personified. I should have given anything to find out

who her late master and mistress had been who had brought up

this very delightful little animal so beautifully, with absolute con-

fidence in man and dog, and no inherent fear of either. How

was this engendered? Was she born and bred in captivity, of

parents who had lived their lives with man? I cannot, otherwise-

conceive how this absolute trust in man and dog came into being,

in the first generation of life with them. That she accepted me as

a pal I can understand as I had known her for some months when

she was in the Zoo, and never did I go there without spending

10 to 15 minutes with Vixen and a pocketful of titbits which she

much appreciated. But she showed extremely little, if any, nervous-

ness among the dogs nor was she at all alarmed when a

stranger came up, as many did, to ask questions about her. My

jackals of which I wrote in the August (1948) number of the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

577'

Journal , though equally tame, were always nervous among strangers

and either ran away or bristled, when any dog came near, a„nd

here was this fox quite at home with my dogs from the first !

In those days I was young and inexperienced but even so it

struck me as strange that this should be so, and I just could not

understand it and soon gave up trying.

Since then I have kept as pets almost every kind of carnivore

in India, and however tame they got they always showed some

slight degree of nervousness among strangers. Next to Vixen,

a wolf was the tamest and most confiding of all my pets, but

unfortunately died when about io months old of distemper, or

something very like it.

Well, in time, as the spring began to turn into summer I

made for my beloved jungles in the S.E. corner of Kashmir

(Bhadarwar) where we spent a happy eight months not a little

of which was spent in the shady valleys of spruce and fir, or

the lovely alpine pastures above the tree limit. Here Vixen showed

me how the fox family accounted for voles. As soon as we came

upon the little mounds of earth thrown up by the voles in making

their tunnels, she began stalking from mound1 to mound, actually,

I think, to find out which was the most freshly thrown up. This-

done she went off a couple of yards and sat down between

it and the next one. She very obviously meant business so I

would call my dogs back and we would sit down some 15 yards

away to watch for the next move. It came in the most unexpected

quarter. Not on top of the mound as I quite expected, but at

least 2 to 3 feet short of it, and between it and the next, and

here she would begin to dig furiously, working up towards the

mound of earth. Sure enough, a little pounce forward and out

would come the vole in her jaws to be eaten at leisure. How,

when and where, did she learn this trick? From her late master

or mistress, or was instinct playing its part? Anyway, it was

definitely clever, for had she attacked the mound direct, the vole

would have shot down its tunnel at the first sound of disturbance

with little chance of being caught.

The dogs invariably watched with the utmost interest and never

took their eyes off the fox from the time she sat down to the

moment she pounced, but I doubt if any of them profited by

the lesson !

The next surprise I got was a year later when walking along

a road between two stages, I noticed my dogs showing signals

of alarm. It was about 3 p.m. and I could not think what was

worrying them, when Vixen suddenly came down the hill shout-

ing her alarm call, almost in hysterics. Pheaw, pheaw rang the

echoes from a line of cliffs in front. My dogs all came round me,

the terriers with hackles stiff and just longing to be off to investigate,

but the more sober spaniels and the sheep-dog with flags at half-

mast, just terrified. The beagles seemed neutral but for choice

would have joined the terriers. Vixen had nothing to do with

their concerns but seemed to consider it her duty to let the country-

side know, and not to forget, that His Majesty ‘Spots’ was on

£76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 48

the prowl and somewhere very near. Some villagers ultimately

joined us and we moved on down the road, but it was a long

time before Vixen quietened down.

I never thought much about it till the question of fox-dog

cross came up in the Journal , but I cannot ever remember Vixen

either enticing my dogs or being particularly attractive to them.

The fact remains that in three years there was no mesalliance as

far as I know, and certainly no family. It was towards the end

of her third year we had a terrible tragedy while walking down

the Mussoorie Mall one afternoon, between Landour and the Rink.

The dogs were just -ahead, there were dozens of people and

rickshaws going up and down, and Vixen was just ahead of me

and not five yards away, investigating some enthralling smell in

the gutter. Suddenly from among the dahlia bushes above the

road, a panther sprang down and had taken Vixen before she

had even realised there was any danger from panthers. I shouted

and threw my alpenstock at him, people on the Mall rushed forward

shouting and my dogs turned and promptly gave chase, the two

terriers disappearing down the khud not very far behind. That

was the last I saw of the most delightful and lovable wild animal

pet I have ever kept, who left a blank in my every walk, in the

house, and wherever I was, which took a very long time to fill.

Fearn Lodge Hotel,

Ardgay, Ross-shire, C. H. DONALD, f.z.s.

Scotland.

3. — A DISEASED GAUR

A bull bison was recently shot in these parts with all four

hooves riddled with maggots. Presumably it had had foot-and-

mouth disease in all feet. It was somewhat emaciated and could not

travel far. It would probably have died within 3 or 4 months.

Honnametti Estate,

Attikan P.O. (Via Mysore), RANDOLPH C. MORRIS

6th May, 1949.

4.— CHARGE BY UNWOUNDED BISON

While returning from a morning stalk with a friend along

a jungle-clad ridge on March 26th we came, round a corner,

face to face with a solitary bull bison about 5 yards off. I was

leading, and turned to my friend with the words ‘look at this’.

I noticed the bull had its head down and its eyes had a strange

look. The next moment the bull was on us in a furious charge,

as we leapt behind two trees. The impetus of its charge carried it

straight over a small precipice, bordering the path we were on

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

579»

in the evergreen shola; and the bull rolled crashing down, making

a clean sweep of all growth in its fall. Apparently uninjured the

bull got to its feet and made off ; leaving us mystified as to the

reason for its extraordinary behaviour. I have never known an

unwounded bull to charge. One possible reason for its aggressive-

ness is that it was undoubtedly irritated beyond endurance by a

large tiger that spent its time trying to get a bison. Any old

bison would have satisfied the tiger but although I counted 51

bison within a square mile (the only unburnt area for many miles-

around) the tiger never managed to bag one. When he wasn’t

stalking bison the latter were chivvying him with terrific snorts

and bellows. We watched this interesting performance daily in

the mornings. It was no wonder that everything up there got

thoroughly peeved with and scared of everything else ! In the

area were milling around 28 elephants (of which we had previously

taken movies and stills at close quarters) ; these had1 become fractious

too ; and made known their strong disapproval of the tiger’s presence-

in their usual way. The herd bull smashed the shoulder of an

inoffensive buffalo bait with its trunk. This however may possibly^

have been due to the fact that the bait was tied on a track used

by elephants ; and elephants loathe being obstructed by animals

on their line of march.

Honnametti Estate,

Attikan P.G. (Via Mysore), RANDOLPH C. MORRIS

6th May , 1949.

5. —NATURALLY OCCURRING ALBINISM IN A SPECIMEN

OF RATTUS NORVEGICUS BERKENHOUT.

A wild example of the common or ‘Brown’ Rat, Rattus norvegicus ,

Berkenhout, trapped in a tenement in the Colony of Hong Kong on

29th December, 1948, seems worthy of record on account of its

very marked degree of albinism. The abnormal areas of the pelage

are pure white and there is sharp demarcation between these and

the other parts of the animal which exhibit the usual greyish brown

colouration of the species. The pure white areas include the whole

of the belly, a confluent squarish patch occupying half of the

right flank, two smaller patches on the left flank, the tip of the

tail, the fore feet and the left hind foot. (Right hind foot missing.)

The specimen is a female and has the following measurements

(in millimeters): head and body 168, tail 172, hind foot excluding*

claws) 39, ear 20.

There can be no reasonable doubt that this is an instance of

naturally occurring albinism, since it is known that no tame albino

rats are imported or kept in the Colony of Hong Kong. Whilst

the occurrence of a specimen such as this in a wild state may not

be very remarkable, this is the first one to have been seen by

the writer out of many thousands which have passed through

his hands.

.£80 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

This record is published by kind permission of the Hon. Chairman

of the Urban Council, Hong Kong.

Colony of Hong Kong, J. D. ROMER, f.z.s.,

nth July, 1949. Govt. Rodent Control Officer.

6.— HOW LONG DOES THE GIANT SQUIRREL ( RATUFA )

LIVE?

Longevity in Rodents and other Mammals.

Some of your readers may be interested to know that our pet

Indian Giant Squirrel ( Ratufa indica ) who answers to the name of

Susie, is now well into her tenth year. We received her as a

well-grown youngster in May 1940, so she must have belonged to

the March -April batch of litters. She used to spend the hot weather

in Ootacamund, until in 1944 she was taken to Lucknow and survived

three hot weathers there and last year went up to the Kumaon

Hills. Now she is back in the Nilgiris. Her coat is as glossy,

her manners as lively, and I regret to say, her palate as discriminatory,

as they ever were, and she shows no signs of incipient senility.

We should be interested to know what is the usual expectation

of life among these animals, as she has already outlived all her

known contemporaries.

WooDSiDE Cottage,

Fernhill, Nilgiris, P. S. SUNDARA RAJ

lSth July, 1949.

[We have the instance of a male Malabar Giant Squirrel, said

to have lived over sixteen years in the museum of the Bombay

Natural History Society which died in March 1901.

Squirrels, along with other rodents such as marmots, beavers,

porcupines and flying squirrels are reported on the authority of

Major S. S. Flower, to have a specific longevity of 5 to 10 years

and a potential longevity of 15 to 20 years. Dr. P. Chalmers

Mjtchell defines specific longevity as the expectatibn of life at

birth of a normal individual of a species, influenced by factors

such as constitution, accidents, enemies, diseases as well as its

powers of evasion, protection and resistance. Potential longevity,

on the other hand, is understood as the age which animals attain

when placed in an environment relatively ideal, free from the hard-

ships of their normal habitat, the difference between the two being

a rough measure of the natural conditions under which a species

lives. Metchnikoff (The Prolongation of Life : 1907) has shown

that there is a correlation between duration of life and the relative

capacity of the large intestines, animals with a capacious hind gut

usually being shorter lived in proportion to their size than those

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

581

in which the hind gut is reduced. Rodents form an exception to

this general rule, as they have a relatively large hind gut and

are long lived. The comparatively high specific longevity of this

group of animals may be associated with their remarkable power

of adaptation to different environments.

The age at which an animal reaches sexual maturity is also

supposed to have a correlation with its potential longevity, as in

the case of whales for instance. Recent enquiries show that some

of the largest whales enter their reproductive phase when only

2\ years old. There is nothing definitely known about the age of

cetaceans, but Capt. R. W. Gray (Growth and Longevity of Whales:

Nature, 1929) mentions instances of the Greenland or Arctic Right

Whale, Balaena mysticetus living, on harpoon evidence, to ages

of at least over 24 and over 37 years.

Major Flower, after his extensive studies on the duration of

life in animals, believes that the potential length of life of most

of the living animals of the world appears to be dependent on

the duration of their teeth, while no relationship is noticeable

between the periods of gestation and either specific or potential

duration of life. It is also a matter of surprise that the life span

of domesticated animals like the cat, dog and horse have neither

increased nor decreased during the long period they have been under

human control. — Eds.]

7. — THE BLUE-BEARDED BEE-EATER ( ALCEMEROPS

ATHERTONI JARD. & SELBY) ON THE NILGIRIS

In his most interesting and useful book Indian Hill Birds

Mr. Sfilim Ali says, under ‘Distribution’ of the Blue-bearded Bee-

eater ‘Nilgiris (?)’. I do not know why he doubts the occurrence

of this bird on these hills. Davison obtained it several times some

years ago and the British Museum has specimens (a male from

Sigur Ghat dated 10 June 1867, and three from Kullar obtained

in October and November of the same year) in its collection.

More recently Lt.-Col. H. R. Baker secured one on the Sigur Ghat

which is in the Whistler collection presented to the British Museum.

With regard to this bird’s present day status on the Nilgiris

my friend Mr. C. Primrose has sent me, at my request, an interest-

ing note on it. He says: ‘It is certainly not common and is

confined to small areas between 5,500 and 2,500 feet. I have seen

it many times on the Coonoor — Mettupalaiyam road, the Kotagiri —

Mettupalaiyam road, the Sigur Ghat and the bridle-path between

Kil-Kotagiri and Mettupalaiyam. On this estate (Marvuhulla)

two pairs have been seen by me from December to July in 1948

and this year, between 5,500 and 4,500 feet. Last year one pair

attempted to breed, but deserted the nest owing to coolies digging

at it. The tunnel excavated this year was in the same road bank

but about 150 yards from last year’s one. As it was beyond the

reach of the average cooly at least one young was successfully reared

to maturity. I several times saw one nearly fully fledged young

.at the tunnel entrance which, on seeing me, went back out of

£82 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

sight. The query against the Nilgiris in Indian Hill Birds may

have been inserted by the author owing to his not having, personally,

observed this bird whilst he was in these parts. If that is so,

it is not very surprising as it only occurs in pairs or parties

of three or four (probably parents and young) in certain favourite

localities, quite small ,in area, leaving these for others at a different

elevation, probably from the higher to the low7er one, during certain

times of the year. Therefore the keenest observer could easily

fail to see these birds while on a visit of some months.

The Arab saying “never the time, the place and the loved one

together’’ is applicable to this bird on these hills.’

Kenilworth,

Coonoor, Nilgiris, CHAS. M. INGLIS

20th August , 1949. F.Z.S., C.M.B.OU-

8.— CHANGE IN HABITS OF THE CEYLON HAWK-CUCKOO

(HIE RO COCCYX VARIUS CICELIAE PHILLIPS)

Until recently the Hawk-Cuckoo in Ceylon was considered to

be solely a migrant from the mainland, arriving early in November,

‘and makes its way at once to the hills, taking up its abode in

considerable numbers in the forests of the main range’ (Legge).

As it was noticed, considerably after Legge’s time, that it was

sometimes heard in the South-West monsoon, it was also thought

that some birds loitered.

As far as I am aware, there was no concrete evidence that

this bird was a resident in Ceylon until Mr. R. West, of Rook-

wood Tea Estate, Hewaheta (altitude 5,500 feet), shot a fledgling

on 2 2-4-1949. On January 26th, in the same year, I saw a pair

copulating on a tea estate in the Agrapatana district, altitude

about 5,700 feet. Since then quite a number of fledglings have

been seen in various parts of the wet zone hills, from December

to May, all with the Ceylon Babbler ( Turdoides striatus striatus)

as fosterer. So far none have been seen in the dry zone hills,

where the cuckoo is much less frequent.

The belief that it was a migrant rested very largely on Layard’s

statement that he shot three specimens in the outskirts of Colombo,

and the bird’s habits were such that it appeared to leave the

island with the other migrants.

Its tendency to move down from the higher altitudes when

it has finished breeding, and with the onset of the South-West

monsoon, must have been more marked in Legge’s day, when

it frequented much higher altitudes than it does now. Then it probably

moved down to jungle at lower elevations, where its occasional

out of season calling would not be remarked, but as it was not

heard in the jungles around Nuwara Eliya (6,000 feet and

upwards) and on the Horton Plains (7,200 feet and upwards) from

May to November, it was naturally thought to have left the island.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

583-;

Layard’s three specimens, shot in the old Botanical Gardens,.

Colombo, were thought by Legge to be newly arrived migrants.

Whether this was so, or whether they were wandering Ceylon.

Hawk-Cuckoos, it is impossible to say; |but the fact remains,,

that except for these three specimens, there is no evidence what-

soever that Hierococcyx varius visits Ceylon.

That the Ceylon Hawk-Cuckoo wanders down to the foothills

when not breeding, is evident, as I have seen an adult in August

(also a juvenile in September) on a tea estate in the wet zone

foothills, altitude about 700 feet, and occasionally seen and heard,

males in the same area later in the year. These birds were obviously

on the move, and there was no sign of them staying to breed.

As far as I know, it has never been recorded from the plains of

Ceylon unless Layard’s mysterious three birds belonged to the

island race.

Legge, in the 1870’s, wrote of its distribution as follows r

‘It is common about Nuwara Eliya, Kandapolla, and the “plains’*4

lying between the Sanatorium and Totapella. On the Horton Plains

themselves it is no less numerous. . . ’ He also says that Mr. Bligh-

wrote that it was not uncommon in the Haputale range, and that

it was yearly to be found on the Harangolla patanas (about 4,000*

feet altitude) in considerable numbers. These patanas are im

Kotmalie.

From this one learns that it was a bird of forest and patana

land, quite common from an altitude of about 4,000 feet up to*

the highest elevations. Nowadays it appears to be almost entirely

a tea estate bird, between altitudes of about 3,000 feet and 6,000-

feet, and has practically forsaken its old haunts around Nuwara

Eliya and the Horton Plains, though by far the greater part of

these forests are still virgin. One does still hear an occasional

bird calling in these high altitude jungles, a veritable voice crying

in the wilderness, but I think such birds are only wandering.

The last time that I heard a breeding group in these areas was

in 1922. I was camping with friends at Pattipola (altitude about

6,400 feet), and we often rode through the jungles beween Ambawela

and the Horton Plains by the old bridle road, but we only came

across this one group of Hawk-Cuckoos, near Ambawela, which

were making themselves heard far and near.

Not only has this Hawk-Cuckoo changed its habitat, but it

has presumably changed its fosterer too. In Kotmalie there is a

chance that Turdoides striatus striatus may have been available

as a fosterer, as I believe that there was a certain amount of

cultivation there even in early times, and the Ceylon Babbler must

have open or cultivated country for its habit. But, on the other

hand, Legge says that this babbler was not found above 3,000 feet

in the wet hills, in his time. Over the rest of the Cuckoo’s range,,

which apparently consisted of patana forest there can only have

been the Ceylon Rufous Babbler, Turdoides rufescens, available

as a fosterer.

This bird is a rufous counterpart of Turdoides striatus striatus,.

with orange bill, legs and feet. It is entirely a jungle bird, and

has retreated with the clearing of the forests. The eggs are-

£84 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

.almost identical, both in size and colour, with those of Turdoides

striatus striatus. It is common in the jtingles of the Horton

Plains, and in those round Nuwara Eliya, and is found down

to sea level in the wet forests of the south-west corner of the

island. It seems probable that the Hawk-Cuckoo used it as fosterer,

as it must have been common in this cuckoo’s old breeding haunts,

as it still is today.

That the Ceylon Babbler moved slowly up the wet hills, in

the wake of cultivation, is certain. I well remember my excitement,

when, as a child in Dikoya (altitude 3,700 feet) I saw a large,

pale brown bird in our garden, that I had never seen before.

That must have been about 1910. In five years time the Ceylon

Babbler was a common breeding bird in the Dikoya District, and

is now found plentifully up to an altitude of nearly 6,000 feet

in these wet hills. As it moved up, the Hawk-Cuckoo apparently

moved down, adopting it as its fosterer instead, it would appear,

of the more elusive Rufous Babbler, which is said to conceal its

nests with great care.

Whether the Hawk-Cuckoo has increased or decreased owing to

these changes of habitat and (presumably) fosterer, it is hard to say. I

would not state, like Legge, that it is now found in ‘considerable

numbers’ but, on the other hand, it is now spread over a larger

tract of country.

11 8, Boxley Road,

Maidstone, Kent, England, CICELY LUSHINGTON

20th August, 1949.

9.— GREEN PIGEONS IN A SWAMP

May I add to the notes on the above subject by Messrs. Frend

(April 1948, Vol. 47) and A. St. J. Macdonald (December 1948,

Vol. 48, p. 184)? In the Ibis (1939) I recorded finding many

hundreds of Grey-headed Imperial Pigeons ( Ducula badia grisei-

, capilla ) at a salt lick in the Triangle and in other parts of the

lower Kachin hills. I obtained both the Wedge-tailed Green Pigeon

( Sphenocercus sphenurus) and the Pin-tailed ( apicauda ) at licks.

The various plains species of green pigeon were also extremely

numerous at salt licks in the Pidaung Game Sanctuary.

Stanton’s Farm,

Kingsclere, Newbury, J. K. STANFORD

19th June, 1948.

I0. — WOODCOCK OUT AT SEA

While on patrol in the Bay of Bengal on the 22nd October 1942

just after the Midnapore cyclone, a woodcock was seen flying round

the ship at daybreak. After several abortive attempts to alight

on the shrouds it eventually settled on deck in the shelter of the

4-inch gun mounting, on the forecastle.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

585

The position of the ship when the bird came aboard was approxi-

mately ii 2 miles W.S.W. of Elephant Point which was the

nearest land.

It remained on board in the same position all day in spite of

the fact that owing- to heavy weather sheets of spray were thrown

over it. Though obviously exhausted it would neither drink water

nor eat bread crumbs and some bully beef placed near it.

About 5 p.m. when Elephant Point (a few miles south of Cox’s

Bazar) was sighted, the bird flew off towards the coast.

The previous three days we had experienced very wild weather

with high winds and heavy seas in one of the worst cyclones for

many years, and presumably the bird must have been blown out

to sea either from the Sunderbans or the Arakan Coast. It might

have been from either as the wind was constantly changing direction.

c/o Grahams Trading Co. (India) Ltd.,

i6, Bank Street, Bombay, A. E. G. BEST

4 th August, 1949.

11.— OCCURRENCE OF THE WOODCOCK ( SCOLOPAX

RUSTICOLA L.) AT MOUNT ABU

While on holiday at Mount Abu on 2nd July this year I was

surprised when R. K. Nirmalkumarsingji of Bhavnagar’s shikari

brought me a woodcock he had caught in a damp spot in the

forest near the St. Mary’s High School. The bird was caught

in a net 'set for spur-fowl and other ground birds which this

shikari was catching for my aviaries. I examined the bird at

leisure and there can be no doubt about the identification. The

weight of the bird was ten and a half ounces.

Jasdan, Y. S. SHIVRAJKUMAR

20th July, 1949.

12.— MERGANSERS FISHING

During a recent visit to Asfcam (March 1949), wk camped

for a few days in beautiful surroundings on the banks of the

Manas River, where it emerges from the Bhutan Hills, into the

North Kamrup Game Sanctuary. Though one is hardly 300 feet

up here, the riyer is icy cold, and several Himalayan birds which

one usually associates with higher elevations were seen. Among

them wfere Ibis-billis (a party of nine was seen at one time),

Himalayan Pied Kingfishers, White-capped Redstarts and

Mergansers.

Stuart Baker in the Fauna (Vol. VI, 473) says ‘the Mergansers

are most interesting birds to watch, as they either swim upstream

586 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

singly against the not inconsiderable current, or work in parties-

of six to eight birds across the stream from shore to shore’.

When the birds were in parties on the Manas, we often noticed

a similar number of Little Egrets in attendance. As the mergansers

approached the shore, the egrets would fly over them and take

up advance positions in the shallow water, the fish being hemmed

in between the egrets and the mergansers. As the mergansers closed

in, there was a lot of excitement and rushing about, and both

parties appeared to catch quite a few fish. In the last stages,,

some mergansers darted forward over the surface of the water in

inexplicable spurts as if jet-propelled. A black-bellied tern occasion-

ally took up a fish between the two parties. The mergansers

would then turn round and work back across the stream, the

process being repeated by the egrets. The birds all seemed to work

in a very amicable and co-operative manner.

c/o Faiz & Co.,

75, Abdul Rehman Street, HUMAYUN ABDULALI

Bombay,

15 th April, 1949.

13.— BIRD MIGRATION IN INDIA

Since the publication of records of recoveries of ringed birds

in or from India (Vol. 47, pp. 690-99) the following information'

has been received from the Bird Banding Bureau, Moscow to

complete the four blanks under the ‘Date’ and ‘Place where ringed*

columns on page 698.

114, Apollo Street,

Fort, Bombay,

15 th May , 1949.

Place where ringed

Astrakhan

Lake Teten, Eastern Kazahstan

(Not A. acuta as reported by

recoverer, but A. strepera ).

near Semipalatinsk, E. Kazahstan.

EDITORS

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

587

14.— FIELD IDENTIFICATION OF BIRDS

In the study of birds in India, we have now reached a stage

when extensive field observations are almost as important, if not

more so as collections of skins, and it might be profitable to

draw the attention of all students to the necessity of scrupulous

carefulness in their recordings. The following" extract from Peter

Scott’s ‘Wild Chorus’ (Country Life Ltd., London, 1938) will

serve to remind observers of their responsibility: —

‘ “Now you'll be able to tell me’’ they always begin. “The

other day I saw a big bird. What would it have been?

It had a white head and a black breast.’’

“Of course’’, I reply, “it might have been a Sheldduck, only

that has a black head and a white breast.’’

“Well, now I come to think of it, that’s just what this bird

did have.”

There can be further developments on the theme. “I’ll tell

you what, thought”, say I, “didn’t it have rather a turned

up beak?” “That’s right.” “Well, I believe it was almost

sure to have been an avocet, which is a very rare bird.

How interesting!”

I have to be very brazen about this, because by this time I

have little doubt that the bird in question was in fact

none other than a magpie.

But sometimes the mystery bird is not so easy to identify.

The most bewildering are those which are described by

a reliable observer and which do not fit in with any known

bird. I am left wondering whether my informant was mis-

taken or whether he has in truth discovered1 a species new

to science.’

As regards the claim made by some persons to be able to

differentiate between confusing subspecies of birds in the field,

Col. R. Meinertzhagen (Ibis, 1943, p. 349) wrote: —

‘My experience of sight records is that they lead to gross

errors. I have placed a bullet in a tree-trunk thinking it

was a giraffe; I have also shot a “hyaena” and picked up

a lion ; I have seen Whooper Swans in a mirage which

gave the hallucinatory semblance of Pelicans complete with

pouches ; I have seen Sheld-duck in glare which would have

been recorded as avocet if they had not been seen later

in shade ; I have seen a reputable British ornithologist

pointing out a soaring Buzzard as a Sea-Eagle to a party

of gaping German ornithologists, and I have seen two

batteries of anti-aircraft guns firing at 15,000 feet at an

Egyptian Vulture at 5,000 feet, thinking it was an enemy

aircraft.’

A good many puzzling and even improbable records have found

their way into ornithological literature in this manner; and once

in print such records can seldom be effectively correctd or eradicated.

\Vhile therefore it is gratifying to notice the swelling ranks of

bird watchers in India within recent years, it is hoped that side

£88 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , FoL 48

by side with increasing- interest there will also grow a proper

appreciation of the difficulties and drawbacks inherent in all sight

records of birds, and of the importance of correct identification

for notes to be of the fullest scientific value.

1 14, Apollo Street,

Fort, Bombay, EDITORS

ro th July , 1949.

15.— PRESERVATION OF WILD LIFE

Lt.-Col. Burton is to be congratulated for the missionary zeal

with which he has championed the cause of wild life in India.

Forest Officers who spend the best part of their lives in jungles

get to know and love their animal associates to the extent of being

jealous of sportsmen. The credit for whatever protection was afford-

ed to our wild life in the past goes to the lone forest officer who

among his multifarious duties found time to enforce the game laws

and apprehend poachers. In the United Provinces, it was at the

initiative of the Forest Department that the first National Park

in India was constituted. This year, I succeeded in creating the

Rajaji Sanctuary in the Siwaliks^ which comprises shooting blocks

once reserved for the Governor-General. Not unoften a Divisional

Forest Officer would initiate special closure for deer after a severe

rinderpest had taken its toll and decimated their number. In

the Saharanpur Siwaliks, I used to arrange special watering facilities

for our animals. Champion’s photographic studies of wild life

are known the world over.

2. Far be it from me to belittle the part played by eminent

sportsmen like Col. Burton in rivetting the attention of the public

to the need of preserving wild life. Officers of the civil and military

services have rendered yeoman service to this noble cause.

3. While agreeing with much that Lt.-Col. Burton has said

in his valuable pamphlet on ‘Preservation of Wild Life’ 1 and in

the supplement issued later, I cannot reconcile myself with the

view expressed by him that the interests of wild life come in such

sharp conflict with forestry, that forest officers cannot be entrusted

with the task of looking after animals, a task which they

have performed so well for the best part of a century. Theirs

has been a labour of love. I do not deny our shortcomings,

but I do feel that the contribution of several generations of forest

officers towards the preservation of wild life deserves better appreci-

ation.

4. I must confess, I see the advantages of organising a separate

Wild Life Department, the best justification for it being its

ability to cover vast areas outside the reserved forests. In the early

stages, however, the balance of advantage would lie in enlisting

1 Reproduced in the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society,

August 1948.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

589

both the services and the co-operation of forest officers in the

stupendous task of preserving wild life. True, forest officers are

not conversant with the modern technique adopted in the preserv-

ation, control and protection of wild life. But, what I submit

lor the consideration of enthusiasts like Lt.-Col. Burton* in

that after all said 'and done, lan average forest officer knows

far more about wild life than an average civilian or an agriculturist

or even a sportsman. One wonders where the game wardens

and upper grade assistants will come to be recruited from in

Burton’s scheme. In no other walk of life is even a nodding

acquaintance with the animal kingdom available except in the

forestry profession.

5. There is at present neither need nor room for organising*

a separate Wild Life Department. Might I urge that the solution

of the problem lies in the adoption of a middle course? The cadre

of the Forest Department should be supplemented to enable it

to organise wild life preservation on modern lines. What is

needed is not the creation of a separate department consist-

ing of a large number of whole-time officers, a host of clerks,,

menials, orderlies and other paraphernalia, but the appointment

of regional wild life officers working in close collaboration with

the existing Forest Departments and their vast organisation for

surveying, mapping, policing and maintenance of roads and

resthouses.

6. The sort of organisation which I envisage for the United;

Provinces is as under : —

(i) Provincial board for the preservation of wild life.

The board will consist of the following members: —

(1) Honorable (Minister in charge of the forests or his,

Parliamentary Secretary ( Chairman ) 1

(2) A member from each of the 2 houses of legislature 2

(3) Enthusiasts from sporting circles 2

(4) Chief Conservator of Forests 1

(5) Director of Agriculture 1

(6) Director of Veterinary Services 1

(7) A senior Commissioner 1

(8) Provincial Wild Life Officer ( Secretary ) 1

The functions of this board should be advisory. It will be a

sort of standing committee to advise Government in respect of

legislation to be enacted for the preservation of wild life. The

board will direct its secretary to devise ways and means to enforce

existing game laws to afford facilities for tourists and to secure

protection from and for wild life. The board will meet twice a year.

(ii) The Provincial Wild Life Officer will be recruited from

among (1) experienced forest officers noted for their studies of

wild life and (2) eminent sportsmen. There will be no age-limit.

He will have two regional 'officers to assist him who will be

styled as game wardens. Each game warden will have 2 field

assistants.

(iii) Offices. The Provincial Wild Life Officer will be attached

to the. Chief Conservator but will have an office of his own. Regional’

£90 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , FoL 48

game wardens will utilise the divisional office organisation and

will be attached to specific divisions in which sanctuaries are situated,

(iv) Menials. Each Wild Life Officer will have shikari orderlies.

7. The budget provision for the above organisation will be

.-somewhat as under: —

(i)

Scale of pay

Average

annual pay

Rs. Rs.

Administrative and executive staff —

Total

30,783

.(2)

Clerical establishment —

Senior Clerk 1

Typist 1

Junior Clerk 1

Draftsman 1

Total

4,835

(3) Menials —

Shikari orderlies 6 ... 25-J-30

(4) Travelling allowance including that

of members of the board.

(5) Contingencies, photographs, etc....

2,064

12,500

4,818

Total

55,000

8. All expenditure incurred on the preservation of wild life

should be debited to a separate budget head. Similarly, all revenue

from

(1) Shooting and fishing fees,

(2) Fines for breaches of shooting rules,

(3) Sale of horns, hides lusks and other trophies,

(4) Sale of animal photographs,

(5) Fees charged from sportsmen for the occupation of

resthouses.

should be credited to a separate head of revenue.

9. Associations organised in the past for the preservation of

wild life have seldom functioned. The Association for the preserv-

ation of Game in the United Provinces is virtually a defunct body.

The Forest Department has contributed a sum of Rs. 1,200 per

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

591

annum as a grant-in-aid for many years to this Association. This

year, I have not been able to contact the Secretary, despite many

reminders and no one is forthcoming to take the grant sanctioned

by Government.

io. Here is an inexpensive organisation which is likely to be

self-supporting in due course. It has a fair chance of being accepted

by Provincial Governments without much ado. Anything more

elaborate, I am afraid, would remain an idle dream.

[Lieut. -Col. Buirton comments on the above as follows: —

‘This constructive note is the first communication regarding

my pamphlet received by the Society, or by me, from any officer

of the Indian Forest Service. As such it is very welcome; also

because criticism by an experienced officer of the Forest Department

has muchycalue.

Mr. Chaturvedi appears to have overlooked the handsome

and well deserved tribute expressed in paragraph 8 of the supple-

ment (published antea pp. 290-99) to the many officers of the

Imperial Forest Service who, throughout their service, worked

continually and persistently to enforce wild life protection and the

laws and rules in regard to it, and to have them perfected.

In paragraph 4 of his note the. Chief Conservator sees the

advantages of organising a Wild Life Department. In the next

paragraph he says here is neither need nor room for organising a

separate Wild Life Department, and advocates a middle course

which he outlines in some detail.

In other countries it has been found that half measures are

futile and waste of time; and that there is in fact no satisfactory

middle course.

The Chief Conservator wonders where the wardens and upper

grade assistants will come from. Surely it can be envisaged that

the bulk of them will be obtained from among those of the Forest

Service who have at heart, as has the C.C.F., the interests of

the wild animals and birds they have seen daily in the forests

through the years of their service. Recruitment of staff would be

through careful selection of applicants in all grades.

All things have a beginning. Perhaps the scheme drawn up

for the United Provinces by the Chief Conservator will herald

the commencement of the much needed all-India policy envisaged

in Section D of the proceedings of the Conference held at Delhi

on the 6th September 1948 to secure the implementation of a co-

ordinated forest policy dealing with inter-Provincial and national

matters.

There is no matter more wholly national than the effective

protection and preservation of that Wild Life which is the Vanish-

ing Asset of the peoples of this country.— Eds.]

Naini Tal, U.P.

8th February, 1949.

M. D. CHATURVEDI

B. SC. (OXEN), I.F.S.,

Chief Conservator of Forests ,

United Provinces .

13

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

=92

1 6. — -WHAT ARE THE CAUSES OF THE DISAPPEARANCE

OR REDUCTION OF FAUNA SPECIES FROM CERTAIN

AREAS?

While it is recognised that poaching (cum wild dogs) are probably

responsible for the extinction of the nilgai (blue, bull) over most

of South India; and of black buck and chinkara over wide areas,

this cannot account for the very remarkable diminution of the

chausingha (four-horned antelope), and the ubiquitous jungle sheep

(barking deer) from areas in which they were very numerous only

a few years back. Poachers rarely waste valuable powder and

shot on such small creatures. Nor can the decrease be solely

attributed to wild1 dogs. The barking deer (jungle sheep) is now

rarely seen or heard in the North Coimbatore and Kollegal Forest

Divisions, and the adjoining Mysore State jungles ; and yet

they were very common up to 7 or 8 years ago.

What caused the disappearance of the Cheetah or Hunting

Leopard from South India — indeed over India as a whole?

The Jackal suddenly disappeared from that part of the plateau

lying at an elevation of 3,000 feet east of the Rilligirirangan Hills

(Coimbatore District) some 15 years ago, and has never returned,

although it still occurs further to the east at a lower Vvation

(2,000 feet).

Hyaena are now rare in the. same 3,000 feet area. Panther,

which up to 4 years ago were numerous in the forest divisions

referred to above are now seldom seen or heard of. The decrease

of barking deer, etc., may have something to do with this. Pig,

once very numerous in the same jungle, are equally rare now.

Up to 5 or 6 years ago the low country scrub jungle (elevation

1,000 feet to 3,000 feet) to the east and west of the Billigirirangans

and the Bargur Hills teemed with jungle fowl, grey partridge,

peafowl, quail, and spurfowl. Few, in comparison, are seen

nowadays — but this may be due to the poultry disease (known as

Ranikhet disease) having become endemic in the jungles, as it is

in the villages they surround.

We are still a long' way from understanding the reasons for

the migrations, temporary or permanent, of animal species. First

mange and later rabies caused wild dogs to disappear from these

areas for about a year each time, before and during the last war ;

and no doubt some kind of scourge is generally the cause of

temporary extermination of game. But the reasons for the per-

manent extinction or diminution of species that are not poached

is far less easy to understand. In none of the cases referred to

can it be said that their food supplies have been affected.

. What then is the answer? Our knowledge of animal ecology

must be far more profound than at present if we are ever to

introduce effective measures for conservation.

Honnametti Estate,

Attikan P.O.,

Via Mysore (S. India),

10th May. 1949.

RANDOLPH C. MORRIS

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

593

17. —FREAK shots

Your invitation under this head in the Journal f Vol. 48. (i)

is bound to prove of general interest.

I give below a few incidents that have come Within my experience.

Snipe.

Some years ago the Field published a series of articles or letters

by contributors which started, by one person claiming to have

killed all the birds in a small wisp in one shot, numbering four.

This was beaten by another with six, and so on until it reached

9. I met a man, a well-known sportsman, being' pig-sticker,

angler, and both big and small game shot well above average,

who had actually shot eleven, but he would not submit it to the

Field ! !

Jungle fowl.

While shooting driven murgi in the Gorakhpore District of

the U.P. one X’mas camp, I had the strange experience of shooting

the head and part of the neck off three birds on the same day in

a bag of forty odd.

It was close-in shooting in cane and tree cover, with birds passing

at close range, and may happen at any time under these conditions,

but three times in the same day is freak. My host and two

other guests witnessed it.

Duck.

This again is another man’s story, but I have been out with

him often, and can vouch for its authenticity. The hero of the

act was at all times extremely dangerous with his hammer gun

frequently carried at full cock and at the trail, ready to warm up

the pants of those venturing to walk in front of him in file.

The incident took place in one of the many U.P. tanks with

raised banks, covered in grass and bushes and affording cover to

the water edge. Some hundred or more pintail duck were seated

on the tank, and the shikari crawled through, with the gunman

close on his heels and at full cock as usual crawling on hands and

knees. As they approached over the crest of the bank and1 worked

down to the water’s edge, the shikari had by some act of providence

moved to one side when both barrels went off, the triggers

being fouled by some obstruction. He picked up seventeen dead

and fluttering pintail. ‘Was that not lucky?’ is all he had to say ! ! !

Cliakor.

This, though not a freak shot is a freak pick up !

I was shooting the hill face overlooking Bhim Tal behind the dak

bungalow with the beaters spread out on the face above me, but had

failed to connect with any of the three small coveys known to be

there. I had just watered my dogs at a spring when a shout went

up, and a single bird — the only one we had seen that day, came

594 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

sailing over me, but I clicked two empty barrels as he passed

by, and before settling in a heap of boulders half an acre in

extent. Determined to get this bird I first worked it with the

dogs, and when nothing came out, called the beaters down, but

before they arrived my Labrador came round the corner with

the chakor in his mouth, alive and fluttering. In my shooting

diary I have entered: ‘Only one chakor today, and that was caught

by “Boy”. Aktar the shikari thinks he is the best dog that has

ever been up here.’

Mixed Bag.

I have shot a quail and Luggar Falcon in the same shot. I

shot at the quail and the falcon arrived as they usually do, with

incredible speed from the sky just as I fired, and both dropped

about five yards from each other.

A tiger and an old solitary boar with a right ant left in the C.P.

was another unusual mixture.

Calcutta, A. St. ]. MACDONALD

L$th June, 1949.

18.— GLEANINGS

The ‘thorn’ or ‘claw’ in panthers’ tails.

With reference to Mr. Boswell’s note in the Journal , Vol. 47,

p. 716, it might be interesting to note that G. C. Shortridge in

'‘Mammals of S.W. Africa’, p. 85, writes:

‘The so-called claw at the end of a lion’s tail is usually no

more than a small horny §cale attached to the skin at the

tip of the last vertebra. There are better-developed terminal

‘claws’ on the tails of the Nail-tailed Wallabies — Onychogale

and on the Marsupial Rabbit — Thallacomys lagotis, that

of the latter being pointed, slightly curved and not unlike

the sting of a scorpion. ’

Bat Migration.

‘In the city of Chengtu (W. China) I am astonished at the

multitude of small bats I see every evening flying south

(September 1869), as if these little mammals were also on a

voyage of migration towards Southern regions’ (Pere David’s

Diary, Fox’s translation p. 298).

Hibernation of Nightjars.

On p. 45 of volume 50 of the ‘Condor’ there was a note by

Edmund C. Jaeger recording the finding of an American

Nightjar ( Phalaenoptilus nuttallii ) in a state of torpidity in

a niche in a rock in the cold weather. This was handled

for some time but then flew away.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

595

In the May/ June issue, volume 51, pp. 105 to 109, there

is an extraordinary account of the same\ bird1 found in the

identical place on 26th November 1947. After this, the

place was visited every week until 22nd February 194S

(85 days) on which occasion it flew away on handling*.

Rectal temperatures were recorded and varied between

18.0 and 19.8 C, while the air temperature was between

17.5 and 24.1 C. During- all this period the bird was

presumably in a dormant condition. There is a photo-

graph of the bird lying* on a man’s hand with its head

laid across its back and apparently fast asleep.

On 24th November 1948, the bird was back again in a

similarly dormant condition but disappeared on the 19th

December apparently having* been disturbed.

19.— ‘ AGGRESSIVE DEMONSTRATION BY RUSSELL’S

VIPER'

I admire the way in which Mr. V. M. Vasu in Vol. 48 No. I

of the Journal corroborates Mr. A. A. A. Fyzee’s note in Vol. 47

No. 2 at pp. 388-89 ; and by giving an emphatic statement of

his personal experience with a Russell’s Viper [Viper a russelli)

near Navibunder on the west coast of Kathiawar (Saurashtra).

I confess that I am not an expert on snakes apart from the fact

that my Arab watchman used to present me with an odd hundred

snakes killed by him during the year from my garden compound

In Bhavnagar, which I tried to identify to the best of my ability ;

amongst these at no time do I recollect having seen a Russell’s Viper.

In fact I have not heard of, or seen a Russell’s Viper in any

part of Kathiawar although it may occur somewhere. My recent

visit to the Navibunder area, at the mouth of the Bhadar River, made

me feel that that would hardly be the proper place to harbour a

Russell’s Viper, however small it may be, on account of its almost

barren and semi-desert terrain. I am, myself, inclined to believe

that what Mr. Vasu saw, must have been the Common Saw-scaled

Viper [Echis carinata ) which gives out a hissing*, or in my own

words, a fizzing sort of sound, created by the friction of the

scales rubbing on each other, when disturbed. However, I am

now very much interested to know whether any reader or person

has any authentic record of Russell’s Viper ( Vipera russelli)

in Kathiawar (Saurashtra) and if so, from where.

Bhavnagar,

Saurashtra, K. S. DHARMAKUMARSINHjI

211 d June, 1949.

[We have failed to trace any specimens or authentic records

of Russell’s Viper occurring in Kathiawar ; therefore it is possible

that, as suggested above, Mr. Vasu may have confused its identitv

with Echis which is common in that area. — Eds.]

596“

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

20.— A NEW SPECIES OF PIT VIPER FROM SOUTH

INDIA: TRIMERES URUS HUTTON I SP. NOV.

Description of the type. Snout sharp, distinctly upturned, its

edge continuous with the equally sharp canthus rostralis. Upper

head scales unequal subimbricate, some of them obtusely keeled,

io or ii in a line between the supraoculars ; these are narrow and

entire but have their inner margins indented by the adjacent

scales; internasals not twice as large as the adjacent scales,

separated from one another by two small scales ; supralabials,

the first entirely separated from the nasal, the third much larger

than the others; temporals strongly keeled.

Scales in 21 : 23 : 19 rows, indistinctly keeled on the posterior

part of the body; Ventrals 146; anal entire; subcaudals 52 pairs.

Colour Green above, paler on the sides, with a distinct series

of dorso-lateral, paired, small, white spots ; pale green below ; a

white temporal streak, edge with red below ; it is continued for-

wards in front of the eye ; tip of snout and end of tail dull red.

Total length 138, tail 40 mm.

The paratype agrees well with the type. It has a single scale

between the internasals ; there are 8 scales in line between the

supraoculars, ventrals 139 subcauds 49. Total length 139, tail

41 mm.

The sharp upturned snout of this new species of viper gives

it a resemblance to the Malayan T. borneonsis ; in general scalation,

except for the separation of the first labial from the nasal, it is

related to T. erythrurus.

Trimeresurus huttoni is described from two juveniles, both evident-

ly belonging to the same brood. They were captured together

in the High Wavy Mountains, Madura District, South India;

altitude 5,200 feet, by Mr. Angus F. Hutton, after whom I have

much pleasure in naming it.

The type has been presented to the British Museum (Natural

History), and the paratype has been retained by Mr. Hutton for

his own collection.

British Museum (Natural History),

South Kensington,

London, MALCOLM A. SMITH

2nd April, 1949.

21.— NOTES ON A SECOND SPECIMEN OF THE SKINK

DASIA SUBCAERULEA FROM SOUTHERN INDIA

Dasia subcaerulea has until now been known from a single

specimen caught at Bodinaikkanur (Madura District) altitude 1,100

feet, and described by Mr. G. A. Boulenger in 1891. Mr. Hutton

has now obtained a second specimen from the High Wavy Mountains,

altitude 5,900 feet, and about 10 miles S. E. of Bodinaikkanur.

Except that the pre-anal scales are not enlarged, it agrees

well with the description of the type, so that the resemblance* of

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

597

this species in scalation to the Indo-Chinese-Malayan D. olivacea

is more complete than before.

In g-eneral colouration lit also agrees, except that the two

black sreaks upon the neck of subcaerulea are never present in

olivacea.

The digits of the type of subcaerulea are shrivelled as I have '

stated in my description (Fauna Brit. India, p. 278). This is due

to desiccation.

The digits of this second specimen are also unfortunately damag-

ed, the result of being burnt. It was caught on the ground after

a forest fire. Those sub-digital lamellae, however that are still

undamaged, are enlarged basally, and suggest that this species

like its ally has aboreal habits.

When caught Mr. Hutton’s specimen was light greenish-yellow

in colour above with black and white spots as in the type. This

colouration has now disappeared, and the specimen is dark brown

above, so dark that the spots are hardly visible. The appearance

is of a specimen that at some time has been placed in formalin.

It is considerably larger than the type having a length oF

70 mm. from snout to vent ; most of the tail is missing.

This specimen has also been presented to the British Museum

(Natural History).

British Museum (Natural History)

South Kensington, MALCOLM A. SMITH

London,

3rd March, 1949.

22.— EGG-LAYING BY THE INDIAN PYTHON IN CAPTIVITY

The December (1947) number of the Journal has a note by me on

the breeding of the Indian Python. That note records that on

9 June 1947 a pet python of mine laid sixteen eggs; no male

python had been (and has been) in the cage since 28 March 1938.

F urther information : —

On 6 June 1948 the same python laid twenty eggs, thirteen

of them being of normal size and colour. These were 8| inches

measured round the centre, and iof inches round the ends.

On 5 June 1949 the same python laid eighteen eggs, twelve of

them being of normal size and colour. These were 8J inches

measured round the centre, and 10 inches round the ends.

The eggs that were not normal were only about half the size

of the others, hard, discoloured, dirty brown and sausage-shaped.

Loyola College,

Madras,

Oth June, 1949.

C. LEIGH, s.j.

598

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

23.— A POSSIBLE CAUSE OF BLANK DAYS WHEN

MAHSEER FISHING

There is still much to be learnt about the classification and

distribution of Mahseer and Bokar (Catli) in India. Also about

the habits of these fish. But a very pressing question, of interest

to sportsmen and1 scientists alike, is the still apparently unsolved

problem of what is the cause of blank days at fishing, when the

conditions appear to be good. Blank days, euphemistically styled

by anglers as the ‘glorious uncertainty’ of fishing, and dismissed

by others as a futile waste of time, frequently occur when all

the accepted conditions of mahseer fishing are favourable. On

these occasions, yas every fisherman knows only too well, fish

just won’t bite.

In Assam I have often found that there are certain days when

mahseer and bokar cannot be caught, in spite of several baits

being tried. Sometimes they don’t move at all. Other times

they can be seen following the spoon, only following. Rarely

they follow too close, and become foul-hooked. Then perhaps a

red-letter day, and fish take well, almost any kind of bait. The

conditions of these two types of day appeared to be the same.

Why then the difference?

Most anglers in India agree that the following conditions are

required for a good day’s fishing: —

(1) Clear sky, free of rain and thunder.

(2) Clear water, not coloured.

(3) River not too low.

(4) Temperature not too low.

(5) No wind.

(6) Moon not full. (Opinion not unanimous on this point.)

About thunder, Mr. Macdonald himself seems (in his book

‘Circumventing the Mahseer’) to find the result variable on thundery

days. But his contributor on fishing in the Darrang District of

Assam, who is a very experienced angler, says of thunder ‘. . . good

fishing may be had, provided there is no thunder about which

seems to send the fish clean off the feed’.

With regard to muddy or coloured water, four out of five

anglers seem to be of the opinion that it is useless fishing fly,

fly-spoon or spoon when the water is not reasonably clear.

Concerning the moon, Mr. Macdonald does not appear to refer

to this factor in his book. But Mr. Conway in his ‘Sunlit Waters’,

I think, was very emphatic about mahseer never taking when

the moon is full.

My own theory, not yet proved (but I have hopes), is that

presuming the other main factors of the weather and water are

favourable, fish go off the feed when the barometer is falling, or

is low, and that they come on the feed when the glass is rising.

And that they take particularly well when the glass has

been low and starts , to rise. This latter condition would explain

the ‘mad half hour’ often experienced in Britain after (or even

during) heavy rain, before a flood comes down. For during a

storm, even a thunderstorm, the glass frequently starts to rise.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

599

indicating- the fine weather about to come. Similarly, when it

is gloriously fine to all appearances, the glass may be gradually

and slightly falling, foretelling wet weather in the near or distant

future.

With this theory in mind, I have equipped myself with an

altitude barometer, pocket size. I have not yet had time to study

this while actually fishing, but during the last few months I

have noticed that its rising and falling has no distinct relation

to the actual weather at the time, but of course relates to the

weather of three or four (or even more) hours ahead. In future

while fishing, therefore, if the day is blank I shall refer to the

barometer. If it is falling, I shall probably (being a keen angler)

persevere just to prove my theory, but will perhaps be fishless.

If, on the other hand, I find that the glass is rising, or high

and remaining high, then I shall know that the fault is mine and

not the fish’s, and that I must find a better place or change my

tactics.

On Sunday July ioth 1949 I went to a small forest stream

nearby, to collect orchids. In case the water might have cleared

sufficiently, I took a fly rod, but unfortunately left the pocket

barometer at home. It may interest anglers to know that although

the water was muddy and visibility only about one foot, I had a

very pleasant two hours’ fishing, killing 8 mahseer between 1 lb.

and 3 lb. on a Hardy’s 1 inch fly spoon. It was twice broken

by larger fish, as my gut cast was an old one. The mahseer (no

bokar were caught) were taking best of all in the middle of the

severe thunderstorm which occurred, when the thunder claps were

at their loudest (there was no rain). And when I returned to

the bungalow, I checked up on my calendar — and it was the day

of the full moon. So what? I believe that had I had my baro-

meter with me, I would have noticed the glass rising after being

low.

It would be interesting to hear the views of other anglers on

the subject. It is said that when the glass is low, the oxygen

of the water is diminished, making fish listless. Possibly this

atmospheric pressure theory, which I believe is held by others

in various parts of the world, may provide the solution of the

problem of blank days, and save fishermen a lot of time and

wasted energy.

Do yang T. E.,

Gating P.O., , E. P. GEE

Assam.

[Mr. A. St. J. Macdonald comments on the above as follows:

‘Mr. Gee’s note is a worthy contribution to the angler’s quand-

ary ! It is only by such observation and experiment that progress

made.

The approach is scientific, so “We cry unto thee oh Pundits.

Norman, Plora and Arthur Thompson.”

600 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

The seasons and elements dictate the laws of Nature: breeding

of beasts and birds, g-ermination of seed, and hatching out of

insects, in productive continuity; so why not fish?

I am inclined to agree that elemental influence plays a large

part in a fish’s life, whether feeding or migrating. But whether

it be from a lack of (or too much) oxygen ; pressure, as Mr. Gee

now suggests ; or some other indication that fish read in changed

conditions in the water or weather, it is closely associated with

insect life. We may go a step further into the entomologist’s

camp ! What are the factors that influence the hatching out of

beetles and of moths, to take just two? Fish seem to know

when to expect them, and will immediately come on the feed with

the first arrivals flopping in the water.

I have experienced this so often in the Kumaon lakes, where

the surface was dead for most of the day with no fish moving,

but the moment the first cockchafer beetle flopped in the water,

the surface was alive with feeding fish. This also occurred at

other times with white moth, and a large variety of may-fly found

up there. Is this also a barometer problem?

On the influence of the moon I have already addressed a

letter to the Journal, with graphs to illustrate results within my

own experience. ’

* * * * *

Dr. M. Suter, the well-known angler, writes:

‘Mr. E. P. Gee’s note touches on a subject which has puzzled

most of us fishermen and has left me so after very many years

of regular fishing within a radius of ioo miles around Poona.

On the whole I agree to the reliability of conditions i, 3

and 4 of Mr. Gee’s list, but as to condition 2 (clear water, not

coloured) I have consistently done better in moderately coloured

water than in crystal clear, in which latter fish seem to be more

shy and wary of accepting an artificial lure.

Local Indian fishermen, spinning a bunch of green algae

or a hook tied between two triangular slices of white coconut flesh

in rapid runs catch every year fish up ro 25 lb. and over when rivers

are in spate and the water quite muddy.

Condition 5 (no wind) : Heavy wind is undoubtedly adverse

but a light breeze rippling the surface is hereabouts essential for

success with the fly, the gram and the unshelled groundnut used

dry fly fashion.

I never fished during a thunderstorm but repeatedly observed

mass distress amongst fish and sometimes heavy mortality after

a violent thunder-and rain-storm.

Whether this is caused by the sudden lowering- of the water

temperature due to abundant cold rain, or whether the electric

phenomena accompanying the storm are involved is not within

my knowledge.

I firmly believe in the influence of atmospheric pressure and

am sure that if Mr. Gee will continue his barometric observations

very interesting results ought to ensue.

As for the influence of the phases of the moon on the

appetite of fishes I have never noticed any and am frankly sceptical

about anything of the kind.’ — Eds.]

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

601

24.— MOONSTRUCK— FISH OR ANGLERS?

(With a graph )

There is a firm belief with some anglers, that the phases of

the moon influence the feeding habits of fish. Conway, in his book

‘Sunlit Waters’ makes reference to this on p. 123, and claims to

have kept records over two years which supported his views, but

details are unfortunately not g'iven. The localities and seasons

would have been interesting.

The theory is generally accepted in the case of marine fishes,

so much so, that professional fishermen and anglers alike study

the tides as the main factor, but of inland fishes it remains an open

question.

As a matter of interest I have prepared a graph of three months

results while fishing the Kumaon lakes with unbroken continuity.

The period is taken over three lunar months, from April 28th to

July 20th 1947.

In all, 423 fish were taken in 72 fishing- days. All three lakes

were visited regularly and fished in the same way. The fish were

all mahseer ( B . tor putitora ) and caught on fly and fly-spoon, with

only a few caught during the heat of the day on atta. The

results, as will be seen from the graph, are anything but consistent.

I wonder if anyone among our members has results to support

the theory?

I have personally never attributed any importance to the belief,

but on the contrary, selected the full moon period to fit in with

a fishing holiday so that it may help with sitting up for tiger, and

had satisfactory results with the rod. But we livp and learn !

Calcutta, A. St. J. MACDONALD

25th May, 1949.

25.— ON THE CULTURE OF GREY MULLETS IN

ASSOCIATION WITH COMMERCIAL CARPS IN

FRESHWATER TANKS IN BENGAL

( With a photo)

In an earlier article, the writer (Pillay, 1947) indicated the

desirability of culturing suitable fish compatibles in mullet farms

for a more economic utilization of ponds’ fodder resources. Lin

(1940) reported the successful practice of culturing carps together

with grey mullets in brackish water ponds of Hong Kong- and

presumed that this practice was probably something new in pisci-

culture. During an investigation on the biology of Mugil tade Forsk.

and its culture, which is now in progress, the writer had opportunities

to visit some coastal villages on the contai coast (Midnapore District

West Bengal) and study the age-old system of mullet culture in fresh-

water tanks in association with carps practised in this area. In

view of Lin’s remarks quoted above, it is considered necessary

602 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, V 61 . 48

to place on record the information thus collected regarding- this

very interesting system of mixed fish farming.

The general preference for freshwater fish for the table is wide-

spread in Bengal, and even the sea fishing centres form no

exception. . Culture of carps is, therefore, undertaken in fresh-

water tanks even in the coastal region of Contai. Carp spawn

is not available locally, and the fishermen have to obtain their

supplies from the Balasore area in Orissa. Due to the distance

and transport difficulties, the outlay needed to secure spawn is

comparatively high. The mortality during transit is also very high,

so much so that an average tank in this area remains understocked

as far as carps are concerned. But the resourceful fishermen

have found it advantageous to stock them with an adequate number

of grey mullet fry, to increase the yield from their tanks. Mullets

A typical collecting centre for mullet seed

are g'reatly esteemed in the locality, more so when caught from

fresh waters. The fact that they grow very rapidly in freshwaters

; Hora and Nair, 1944) has been well realised by the fishermen

and so their culture in tanks is very popular. The main species

utilized for culture are: — Ainj ( Mugil cephalus Linn.), Dhoka (M.

Hide Forsk.) Kannua1 (M. corsula Ham.), Parsia (M. speigleri Blkr.),

Khorsla1 (M. parsia Ham.), the first three species being preferred

because they grow rapidly and attain a large size within a compar-

atively short period. Mullet culture in freshwaters is in vogue

in Madras also (Job and Chacko, 1947).

Along the Contai coast, there are numerous narrow tidal

streams and creeks, and connected with these are several borrow

pits dug for the construction and repairs of the sea-dyke guard-

1 In other parts of Bengal, M. corsula is known as khorsula and M. parsia

as parsia.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

603

-;ng the coast from the tidal storms of the Bay of Bengal. These

streams, creeks and pits form the important source of mullet seed

for culture. The accompanying photograph shows a typical collect-

ing centre at Baguranjalpai — a village near Contai. The high

water brings with it numerous fry ranging from f inch to 2 inches

size, and when the tide recedes a good number of them remain

in the borrow pits and pools. The fishermen collect these, by means

of fine-meshed dip nets. Pieces of cloth (gamcha) are also employed

sometimes for the purpose as described by Basu (1946). The fry

thus captured are transported in earthen handies, in the same

manner as carp fry. Though mullet fry are available in the area

for at least 6 months in the year, different species predominate at

different periods. Fry of Ainj (M. cephalus) and Parsia (M. speigleri)

are available during March-April and Khorsla (M. parsia) from

October to November. Dhoka and Kannua fry (M. tade and M.

corsula) are abundant in July-August. The fry thus obtained are

directly introduced into freshwater tanks. The fry collection centres

being very near to the tanks, there is practically no mortality during

this transference.

No artificial feeding or manuring is done here, but despite

this the growth of mullets in the tanks has been found to be very

encouraging. The growth rates of different species reported by

the fishermen, are as follows: — In an average tank, M. cephalus

grows to about 16 inches in one year and attains a weight of about

5 to 6 lb. in two years’ time M. tade introduced in July-August

attains only about 6 inches to 9 inches by the end of the first year but

it grows more rapidly in the second year and weighs about 3 to

4 lb. at the end of it, M corsula measures 4 to 5 inches in the

first year and reaches 14 to 18 inches in about 3 years. M. speigleri

and M. parsia do not grow to a very big size and usually they

are fished out at the end of the first year when they measure

about 5 to 6 inches. Mullets feed near the margins of the tanks

and do not interfere with the normal feeding of carps. Being

ncn-predaceous, they do not affect the growth and well-being of each

other. Thus it appears that carps and mullets form suitable

associates in ponds in coastal and estuarine areas in India also as

in China, and mixed farming on these lines may be well worth

popularising.

Another aspect revealed by this age-old practice is that the

laborious process of acclimatization and conditioning (Devanesan

and Chacko, 1943, and Venkataraman, 1944) may not be necessary

if small fry collected from creeks and backwaters are to be used

for stocking and the seed is not to be transported to very distant

places. During a recent visit to the Sir Daniel Hamilton’s Estate

in Gosaba (24 Parganas, West Bengal) it was found that M. tade

are directly introduced into tanks in the fingerling or more grown-

up stages from Bheris, without any appreciable mortality- Spurgeon

(1947) has shown that they ascend freshwater courses from

estuaries and get naturally acclimatised. The popular practice of

allowing mullets to graze in freshwater in paddy fields (Hora and

Nair 1944) also lends support to this view.

604 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL BIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

The writer’s grateful thanks are due to the National Institute

ol Sciences of India for the award of an I.C.I. (India) Research

Fellowship which provided the opportunity to observe this interest-

ing practice.

Zoological Survey of India Laboratories,

Calcutta, T. V. R. PILLAY

2i st July, 1949.

References

1. Basu, S. P. (1946) : Possibilities of Mullet culture in India. Indian

Farming, 7 (II) : 517-522.

2. Devanesan, D. W. and Chacko, P. I. (1943) : Possibility of culture of

certain marine mullets in freshwater tanks, Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India ix (2) :

249-250.

3. Hora, S. L. and Nair K. K. (1944) : Suggestions for the development

of Salt water Bheris or Bhasabhada Fisheries in the Sunderban^ Fishery

development pamphlet No. 1, Dept, of Fisheries. Govt, of Bengal, Calcutta.

4. Job, T. J. and Chacko, P. I. (1947) : Rearing of salt water fish/ in

fresh waters of Madras. Indian Ecologist 2 (I): 1-9.

5. Lin, S. Y. (1946) : Fish Culture in ponds in the New Territories of

Flong Kong Journal of the Hong Kong Fisheries Research Station. 1 (2) :

161-193.

6. Mookherjee, H. K., Ganguly, D. N. and Sircar, A. (1946) : On the com-

position of food of the Indian Mullet Mugil parsia (Flam.) with suggestion to

culture them in fresh-water ponds of Bengal. Proc. 33 rd Indian Sci. Congr.,

pt. 3 (7) p. 16.

7. Pillay, T. V. R. (1947) : Possibilities of Mullet Culture in India. Indian

Farming November 1947 : 544-548.

8. Spurgeon, V. D. (1947) : Natural acclimatisation of two species of mullets

Mugil dussumieri (C.V.) and Mugil oeur (Forsk.) to freshwater conditions on

the Nellore Coast. Curr. Sci., 16, (4) : 123-124.

9. Venkatraman, R. S. (1944): Acclimatisation of salt water mullet Mugil

seheli To freshwater. Curr. Sci., 13 (9) : 139.

26.— SOME OBSERVATIONS ON APLOCHEILUS LI NEAT US

(CUV. & VAL.) IN MADRAS PROVINCE *

The Top-minnow, Aplocheilus lineatus, occurs in South Kanara,

Malabar and Tirunelveli districts. The maximum size of the fish so

far recorded is 9.5 cm. Its food is found to consist of corixid

bugs, small beetles, water mites, insect larvae including mosquito

larvae, ants, phytoplankton ( Merimopedia , Spirulina , Crucigenia,

Mougeotia, Amphora, Cyclotella, Melosira, Pinnularia and Synedra ),

and zooplankton ( Euglena , Phacus, Diaphanosoma f Ceriodaphnia,

Diaptomus , Cyclops, Eucy clops and Naaplius). When reared in

aquaria, the fish is found to consume young Gambusia, Lebistes

and carp fry. It also thrives well on prawn-shell meal, earthworms

and other artificial food. It is very active and agile, and has been

observed to jump over a two-foot wall of a garden pond. The fish

is thus mainly insectivorous ; and is suitable for control of mosquito

larvae. Its larvicidal propensities have already been reported bv

* Communicated with the kind permission of the Director of Industries and

Commerce, Madras.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

G05

Bently3, Deraniyagala3, Fraser3 and John4. In the laboratory of

this station, a single specimen of the species was observed to feed

on 270 mosquito larvae in 24 hours. The fish attains maturity

when 50 mm. in size. Its breeding season extends throughout

the year with a maximal from August to September. Our observ-

ations on the breeding and early development of the species do

not show considerable variations from those of Job5 and Jones6.

A very remarkable feature about the fish is its occurrence in all

types of water such as hill-streams and reservoirs at high altitudes,

rivers, tanks and wells of the plains, low-lying paddy fields and

swamps, and estuaries and backwaters. It is hardy and is able to

adapt itself quickly from one type of environment tO' another. It

thrives even in foul waters containing sulphuretted hydrogen and red

sulphur bacteria. For example, it is found to occur in the Hope

Lake located at about 700 feet above sea level. The water in this

lake is highly oxygenated, soft and slightly acidic with a pH of

6.3 — 7.5 ; and has very low calcium and chloride content (0.7 p.p.

100,000). The fish is also seen in the stagnant pools in the course

of the Tambraparni river below the lake. It is found in abundance

in the Periyar Reservoir situated at an elevation of 3,000 feet.

The water in it is soft, acidic and very low in calcium and chloride

content. The occurrence of the species has been noted in the upper

reaches of the Mannantoddy river at an altitude of 2,000 to 3,000

feet, whose waters are highly oxygenated, soft and acidic (pH — 6.7;,

with very low calcium and chloride content (0.5 p.p. 100,000). The

fish occurs in almost all tanks, ponds, wells, fields and swamps

in the plains of Malabar, in which the ecological conditions vary

from place to place. In the Coondapur estuary, where the chloride

content is over 2,000 p.p. 100,000 and pH 8.0, the minnow is

found in large numbers. In Dr. Rai’s estate near Mulky, the

minnow is found under interesting conditions. Sea water enters

into the estate through the Pollai canal and fills up one of the

ponds during high tide. This salt water pond is connected to a

freshwater pond through a small channel. The fish was found In

both the ponds and freely 'moving from one to another. The

chloride content and pH of the ponds were 1250 and 7.9 and 610

and 7.5 respectively. The fish is also found in the creeks of the

Cochin backwaters containing red sulphur bacteria and where the

pH and chloride content are about 7.9 and 2,000 p.p. 100,000. The

oxygen content is less than 1. occ/i. The fish is thus unaffected

even by adverse environmental changes.

Freshwater Biological Station,

Kilpauk, Madras,

July 1949.

References

1. Bentley, C. A. (1910) : /. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., 20 : 392.

2. Deraniyagala, P. E. P. (1930): Ceylon J. Sci.. 2: 191.

3. Fraser, A. G. (1938) : J. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., 40 : 96.

4. John, C. C. (1940) : /. Alai. Inst. India., 3 : 67.

5. Job, T. J. (1940) : Rec. Indian Mus., 42 : 51.

6. Jones, S. and Job, T. J. (1940) : J. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., 42 : 203.

P. I. CHACKO

S. V. GANAPATI

606 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , FoZ. 48

27.— FOOD ORGANISMS OF THE CARP LABEO BOGGUT

(SYKES) *

Lcibeo bog gut is one of the common carps of the Tungabhadra

and Krishna drainages. It breeds during the flood season (July

to October) when its juvenile stages occur in large numbers. Though

growing to a size of about eight inches only, the easy availability

of its seed makes it a valuable addition for stocking inland waters.

The following is a table of the food organisms and their frequency

of occurrence in 100 specimens of the fish collected from the

Tungabhadra river near about Sunkesula village in Kurnool district,

in the months of May, June and July 1948.

* Read before the zoology section of the 36th Indian Science Congress,

1949; and communicated with the kind permission .of ' the Director of Industries

and Commerce,, Madras.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

607

The fish chiefly browses on algal matter and on the bottom

scum. Diatoms and desmids also enter its food as minor items.

It is noteworthy that animal matter is totally absent in its diet.

This is the first record of the food and feeding' habits of this species.

Freshwater Biological Station, P. I. CHACKO

Kilpauk, Madras, (Miss) SHARADA SUBRAMANIAN.

May 1949.

28.— A REMARKABLE ABERRATION OF

A PAPILIO POLYTES ROMULUS CRAM

( With a photo )

I have pleasure in sending you two photographs illustrating

the upper and under sides of an aberrant specimen of a Papilio

polytas romulus Cram, collected by Mr. A. Bell at Jeolikote below

Naini Tal at about 5,000 feet elevation.

The following is a brief description of this specimen very kindly

furnished by Mr. A. G. Gabriel of the British Museum, to whom the

specimen was presented: —

Upperside. Forewing normal. Hindwing: a white marking edged

with buff-coloured scales occupying the apical third of the discoidal

cell, and white elongate markings in interspaces 2 and 3 beyond

14

608 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

the cell ; two elongate buff-pink markings in interspaces i/b and

i c ; the submarginal spots also buff-pink ; marginal lunules white

as in the typical form.

Upperside Underside

Underside. The markings are similar in colour and position to

those on upperside.

This remarkable aberration appears to be unique and there is

nothing like it in the collection of the British Museum. Brigadier

\V. H. Evans, who saw the specimen, said that he had never

come across anything like it.

Very unfortunately the butterfly was in much tattered condition

when caught.

The photographs were also supplied by the British Museum.

1 1 6, Koregaon Park,

Poona, M. SUPER, d.sc.

14 th My 1949-

29.— THE EGG MASS OF A DOLIID GASTROPOD MOLLUSC

FROM KRUSADAI ISLAND

( With a plate)

During a visit to Krusadai Island in 1947 we found a few

gelatinous ribbons washed ashore at Kundugal point on 25-2-47.

On examination, these proved to be the egg masses of a gastropod

mollusc. In addition to the fresh spawn mass in which the embryos

were alive, there were four other ribbons which on account of

exposure to the sun had become tough and leathery, superficially

resembling the cast skin of snakes.

The spawn masses were brought to the laboratory and kept

alive for three days. The ribbons were from 250 to 380 mm.

long, 60 to 70 mm. wide with a wavy margin and a thickness

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

i. General view of egg-ribbon of Dolium sp.

(Specimen incomplete — broken during preservation)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

6Ut>

of about 1.5 to 2 mm. Inside each ribbon were numerous transverse

rows of 28 to 34 capsules arranged in curved rows (photo 1 J.

Each capsule was oval in shape, of an average diameter of 2

to 3 mm. and with a wall of fibrous texture and having a round

aperture on the surface. On an average 75 to 85 veligers were

found inside each capsule except in those which were empty.

Most of the veligers were in the early stages of development

but clearly showed sculptured shells of a brown colour. An oper-

culum and a velum consisting of several lobes were also present.

Subsequent examination of the material was not possible as

the veligers died and the material remained unidentified. Inquiries

at Krusadai revealed that similar spawn masses were not previously

recorded from that area ; nor are there any descriptions of similar

egg masses in Hornell’s Common Molluscs of South India. J

A comparison of the description and figures of the egg mass

of Dolinin (? maculatum Lam.) from the Iranian Gulf given by

Thorson2 with our notes and illustrations and the preserved spawn

brought with us leave no room for doubt as to the identity of

our material. The Iranian egg mass was 300 mm. long, 90 mm.

wide and 2 mm. thick with curved rows of capsules numbering*

about 30 across the ribbon, each capsule containing 91 ..o 10 1

embryos, a number much larger than in our material. These broad

gelatinous ribbons without sand incrustations are said to be

characteristic of the genus Dolium and were first described by Lo

Bianco3 from the Mediterranean. From the dried ribbons we have

been able to make out that in the early phases, the eggs inside

the capsule are distributed in a semilunar mass as described by

Thorson and, presumably, when the eggs develop, they spread

out and occupy the whole cavity of the capsule (photo 2).

It seems certain that the egg masses which we collected at

Kiusadai can be referred to a species of the genus Tonna (== Dolium)

but specific identity can be established o,nly by further work.

Gravely4 has recorded four species of Doliids as occurring in South

India. These are: —

Tonna dolium (Linnaeus) ( = Dolium maculatum)

Tonna cumin gii (Reeve) ( — Dolium cumin gii)

Tonna fasciata (Lamarck) ( = Dolium fasciata)

Tonna pomum (Linnaeus) [ = Dolium ( Malea ) pomum ]

As there do not appear to be any published photographs of the

egg ribbons of Dolium, we feel the accompanying photographs will

be of interest.

Central Marine Fisheries, N. K. PANIKKAR

Research Station, Madras /Mandapam, P. R. S. TAM PI

July 1949.

References

1. Horned, J. (1922) : Common Molluscs of South India. Madras Fisheries

Bulletin , xiY : 97-215.

2. Thorson, G. (1940): Studies on the egg masses and larval development

of Gastropoda from the Iranian Gulf. Danish Scientific Investigations in Iran

Copenhagen, Pt. 2 : 159-236 (pp. 192-95).

610

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , T'oZ. 48

3. Lo Bianco (1888 & 1908) : Notizie biologiche riguardanti specialmente il

periodo di maturita sessuale degli animali -del golfo di Napoli. Mitth. Zool.

Slat. Neapel, 8: 385-440 (p. 417); 19: 513-761 (pp. 635-36).

4. Gravely, F. H. (1942) : Shells and animal remains found on ihe Madras

beach. Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. Natural History series II, p. 98.

30.— THE ‘VICTORY PLANT’

( With a photo and two text figures )

The leaves of Polygonum , as is well known, bear various kinds

of marks on their surfaces. One particular species of this genus

growing- in the departmental garden was noticed to bear on all its

leaves a V mark (see photo). Leaves of the same species growing

in other places also bear the same mark showing that it is no

chance occurrence but a distinctive feature of the leaves.

The V mark is dark brown or dark violet in green leaves. In

leaves which have turned pink the mark may be dark g'reen

in colour. The point of the V is invariably and without a

single exception pointed towards the tip of the leaf. The mark is

very definite and conspicuous in green and young leaves. As the

leaves grow older and bigger the mark also becomes enlarged,

diffuse, fainter and occasionally even irregular in outline. But

the essential V form is always maintained. The mark is found

only on the upperside of the leaf, never on the lower side. Dried

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

611

up leaves and herbarium specimens also show the mark, but rather

faintly.

In this species a very young leaf is completely enclosed within

the stipular sheath ; such a leaf does not show the mark. An older

leaf which has outgrown the stipule shows, the mark faintly,

with the stipule adpressed against the upper surface of the revolute

leaf. In fact the stipular tip often occupies the bay between the

arms of the V mark, almost suggesting a possible connection

between the mark and the stipule.

Sections taken through the region of the mark do not show

any peculiarity except that certain cells of the palisade tissue

only in the marked region show violet

coloured cell sap. This probably explains

the presence of the mark on the upper-

side and not the lower. It is not unlikely

that the violet colour of the sap is due to-

an anthocyanin pigment. Several species

of Polygonum are known to bear an-

thocyanin pigment in their leaves

(Garjeanne, A., 1903. Buntblatterigkeit bei

Polygonum, Beihefte Botaniscehen Zenter-

alblatt, Bd. xm, s. 203). Wheldale

further mentions that anthocyanin pigments

occur in the subepidermal region in the

older leaves in Polygonum (The An-

thocyanin pigments of plants, 1916,

Cambridge University Press, p. 41). It

is worth noting* that although all the leaves

bear the V mark, the leaves are all not

green in colour, the colour varying from

green to pink and red, in the same plant. This is very suggestive

of widespread anthocyanin activity.

How exactly the V mark arises is not clear. A possible ex-

planation is this. The young leaf at first is fully protected within

tne stipular sheath. When it outgrows the stipule in its develop-

ment a portion of the young leaf is exposed to light as in fig. 1.

This exposed area develops the pigment probably as a chromatic

adaptation to light. Then the rest of the leaf grows up perhaps

at a very rapid rate, without there being any necessity for further

chromatic adaptation. But the area that has already developed

the pigment retains it as in fig. 2.

The most interesting point about the V mark as compared with

other kinds of marks on the leaves of Polygonum is its astonish-

ingly constant occurrence, definiteness and disposition. Evidently

it is one of those characters that are transmitted from generation

to generation — a mendelian character. So far as I am ,aware

the presence of this mark on the leaves of Polygonum has not

been clearly or adequately mentioned in any of the standard

taxonomic works, although it has been figured on the leaves of

P. persicaria var. genuinum (Sowerby’s Botany, edited by

J. T. B. Syme, Vol. 8. pi. 1237) and P. alatnm (P. F. Fyson,

Flora of the Nilgiri and Pulney hilltops. Vol. 3, p. 473).

612

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo l. 48

Quite a lot of amusement was created when the leaf was

exhibited as the Victory Leaf — at the conversazione held during

the Convocation week in January 1948 — during India’s first year

of independence. In fact the plant has come to be better known

amongst students as the Victory Plant rather than as Polygonum !

Department of Botany and Geology, A. R. RAO

University of Lucknow,

Lucknow,

1 st September 1948.

31.— BOUGAINVILLEAS AT HILL-STATIONS

Dr. N. L. Bor, when dealing with the above in his interesting

articles on ‘Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs’, says that

they will grow almost anywhere ‘except at hill-stations’.

There is in Ootacamund (elevation 7,400 feet, Nilgiris) a very

fine specimen which is just now a mass of magenta-coloured bracts.

It is as beautiful as most of those I have seen on the plains or

elsewhere. Several varieties are commonly , grown in Coonoor

(elevation 6,000 feet) and do quite well.

RENIL WORTH,

Coonoor, Nilgiris,

29 th April 1949.

32.— THE GENUS CEROPEGIA : FURTHER COMMENTS*

In a recent note published in the Journal (47 : 775 — 777, 1948)

the writer remarks ‘It is somewhat astonishing then, that Hooker

was able to identify his own plant as being the C. odorata of

Nimmo’. But the writer has not mqntioned any of Hooker’s

specimens iwhich Hooker, according to the writer’s statement,

must have used as the type material to base his description. Instead

of Hooker citing his own specimen as the type of his species,

he cites only Nimmo ’s sheet from Salsette, besides another of

Law in Hooker’s ‘Flora of British India,’ iv, p. 75. It is, there-

fore, unambiguously clear that Hooker had seen Nimmo’s specimen

and that of Law, to serve him the material for describing the

species as otherwise, an elaborate description like the one he has

g'iven in the Flora of British India (vol. iv, p. 75) is impossible.

If Nimmo’s sheet was not available for him, he would have quietly

omitted the Nimmo’s species under species dabia as is usual

with him. I, therefore, contend that Hooker f. has seen Nimmo’s

sheet and has described it fully from that type. Its absence from

the Hookerian Herbarium does not preclude its presence elsewhere.

Nimmo collected this plant long before the Kew Herbarium came

CHAS. M. INGLIS

F.Z.S., C.M.B.O.U

* The material for the note was gathered during the writer’s stay at the

Calcutta Herbarium in December 1948.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

613

into existence, and it is quite possible that the type of Nimmo

is not in Kew and may be present in some other herbarium.

Uuless and until it is definitely known that Nimmo’s Salsette

specimen does not exist anywhere except in the fertile brain of

Joseph Hooker, Hooker’s description of Nimmo’s name, ‘ Ceropegia

odorata Nimmo ex Hk. f. ’ should be recognised as having been

validly published.

Dept, of Botany, R. SESHAGIRI RAO

P.R. College,

Cocanada,

8th May 1949.

33.— THE GENUS CEROPEGIA : STILL FURTHER

COMMENTS

None of the authors who have been writing on the flora of

Bombay since the publication of Graham’s Catalogue in 1839,

Avith the possible exception of Hooker, has seen the type of C.

■odorata Nimmo. Cooke, who wrote his Flora under the watch-

ful and very sensitive eye of Dr. Hooker, failed to see not only

Nimmo’s type, but apparently any other sheet of this species, and

in consequence he omitted C. odorata Nimmo from his book. These

omissions call for an explanation.

The type of Nimmo’s plant is not found in Hooker’s or Wight’s

herbaria; it is not in the British Museum, nor in the Linnean

Society ; if it were in the Calcutta herbarium we should have

heard about it long ago. My contention is that until the type

Be produced, no one can identify Nimmo’s plant for a certainty,

and therefore his binomial must remain a nomen dubium ; moreover,

if Nimmo’s plant remains doubtful, its identity with Hooker’s

plant must likewise remain uncertain.

Much emphasis is laid on the fact that Hooker in his Flora

mentions ‘Nimmo’s sheet from Salsette’. Graham in his Catalogue,

after No. 898, writes : ‘Three new species, discovered by Mr. Nimmo,

in the Concans’. The first of these three species of Graham is

C. odorata N. In the absence of the proper herbarium sheets,

I consider this reference of Graham as the source from which

Hooker derived his information as regards Nimmo’s plant.

This question could easily be solved if we could find Nimmo’s

type, but of this I see little hope. Nimmo did not keep a herbarium,

nor did he keep any large collection of Bombay plants. In the

extensive correspondence of Nimmo kept in Kew herbarium there

is no mention of such a collection ; moreover, in the course of two

years spent in Kew herbarium I went through most of the Indian

plants ; Hooker’s and Wight’s private herbaria are included therein,

and were carefully examined ; in all I found about 5 or 6 plants

from Nimmo, and none of these is the type in question.

Nimmo’s description of the plant is too short and too vague;

until his type be produced, the identity of his plant with that of

Hooker will remain doubtful. Provided such an identity can be

614

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

established satisfactorily, then it is correct to write ‘ Ceropegia

odorata Nimmo ex Hook, f . ’ ; but the crux of the matter is

precisely in proving such an identity in the absence of the type.

St. Xavier’s College, H. SANTAPAU

Fort, Bombay.

34. — MASS FLOWERING OF STROBILANTHES KUNTHI-

ANUS ON THE HIGH WAVY Mts., IN AUGUST 1948.

Last year the whole of the grassy eastern and western facing-

slopes of the High Wavy Mts., above 5,000 feet were covered in

a mass of blue flower, during the month of August. According

to eye witnesses the mass flowering was very even throughout the

area, and continued up to over 6,000 feet. The last mass flowering

was in August 1936. Last year’s flowering, however, covered a

far greater area than before as Strobilanthes kunthianus has spread

over many areas where it did not previously exist. A few odd

plants have flowered in odd years here and there, but in August

1946 I came across a patch about two hundred acres in area which

was a sheet of blue. This patch was in the extreme south-west

of these hills, and was surrounded on all sides by Strobilanthes

which was not flowering*.

It is curious that a patch like this should be two years earlier

than the rest. 1 do not know whether this same patch was two

years earlier than the 1936 mass flowering or not, but it will be

interesting to see what it does in 1958.

Injiparai Estate, A. F. HUTTON

Valparai P.O.,

Coimbatore District,

11 th May 1949.

[This accidental flowering of some Strobilanthes plants one or two

years before the general flowering has been noted for other species

of the same genus by Santapau in the Journal (44: 605, 1944). After

the general, there may follow some sporadic flowering for one

or more years, and for this reason it may be of interest to keep

Strobilanthes kunthianus under observation. Exact data about the

partial or general flowering of Strobilanthes are needed, and readers

ffom various parts of India will be rendering a service if they will

communicate to the Society any precise data on the subject. — Eds.]

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR ENDING 31st DECEMBER 1948.

President

H.E. Raja Maharaj Singh

Vice-Presidents

Lt.-Col. Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, i.m.

Mr. W. S. Millard, f.z.s.

Executive Committee

Mr. Humayun Abdulali

Sir Chintaman D. Deshmukh, kt., c.i.e., i.c.s.

Mr. M. J. Dickins

Mr. R. E. Hawkins

Mr. H. B. Hayes

Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, s.j. ...

Dr. S. B. Setna, ph.D.

Dr. M. Sharif, d.sc., ph.D., f.n.i.

Lt.-Col. Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, i.m.s.

Mr. Salim Ali (Hon. Secretary)

Mr. J. I. Alfrey (Hon. Treasurer)

Advisory Committee

Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, i.a. (Retd.) ...

Dr. B. N. Chopra, d.sc. ...

Mr. C. H. Donald, f.z.s. ...

Rev. Fr. Dr. J. B. Freeman, m.a., l.t., ph.D., d.d

Dr. S. L. Hora, d.sc.

Mr. C. M. Inglis, b.e.m.b.o.u., f.z.s. ...

Mr. R. C. Morris, f.r.g.s., f.z.s.

Dr. S. K. Mukerjee, d.sc. ...

Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian-Adams, o.b.e., f.z.s., i.a

(Retd.)

Dr. Baini Prashad, d.sc.

Staff

Salim Ali

V. K. Chari, b.a., l.t.

s.

\ Bombay

Bangalore

Benares

Dharmsala

Mysore

Calcutta

Darjeeling

Coimbatore

Calcutta

Nilgiris

New Delhi

Curator

Asst. Curator

616

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

List of members of the Executive and Advisory Committees

elected for the year 1949.

Vice-Presidents

Maj.-Gen. Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, i.m.s.

Mr. W. S. Millard, f.z.s.

Executive Committee

Mr. R. E. Hawkins

Mr. M. J. Dickins

Sir Chintaman D. Deshmukh, kt., c.i.e., i.c.s.

Mr. H. B. Hayes

Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, s.j.

Dr. S. R. Setna, ph.D.

Mr. P. M. Lad, i.c.s.

Mr. M. J. Hackney

Maj.-Gen. Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, i.m.s.

Mr. Salim Ali l (Hon. Secretaries)

Mr. Humayun Abdulah j

Mr. J. I. Alfrey (Hon. Treasurer)

Bombay

Advisory Committee

THE HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT FOR THE

YEAR 1948

The Society’s Journal

Volume 4 7, Nos. 3 and 4 and Volume 48, No. 1 were published

during the year. The last number was again considerably delayed

in reaching members. Every effort is being made to make up

time so that future issues may be more punctual, but our press

unfortunately seems helpless in the matter.

Mammals

In ‘Bat Migration in India and other Notes on Bats’ (Vol. 47,

No. 3, p. 522), Humayun Abdulali gives some particulars of an

experiment on bats undertaken by him in 1942-43 of ringing several

species of bats in the various caves on Elephanta Island in Bombay

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS, 1948

617

Harbour, with a view to studying* their local and migratory move-

ments. The experiment was made on a modest -scale and could

not be persisted in for a long* enoug*h period, but it suggested the

great possibilities inherent in this method for obtaining data on

this much neglected branch of mammalogy. The article closes

with a reference to various recent researches in the U.S. and else-

where particularly on the senses in bats and their ability to avoid

collision with obstacles in their flight even when blinded which

suggest that this is done by ‘echo location’. Bats produce super-

sonic cries as they fly which though inaudible to the human ear

serve by their echoes to guide them clear of intervening obstacles.

An impassioned plea for the protection of wild life is con-

tained in Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton’s ‘Wild Life Preservation: India’s

Vanishing Asset’ (Vol. 47, No. 4, p. 602). The author after point-

ing out the various Indian animals threatened with extinction states

that forgetfulness, indifference, ignorance and greed for gain on

the part of Man are responsible for the present depletion and unless

prompt steps are taken by Government to protect our wild life

through the enactment of adequate laws and their efficient en-

forcement, control of firearms and finally an enlightened public

opinion, many of our animals would vanish before our eyes. Col.

Burton recommends the establishment of a Wild Life Department

separate from the Forest Department, whose officials already over-

burdened with their own considerable work will not be in a position

to devote their full attention to a subject such as this which re-

quires constant observation and study. He would have it linked

instead through the Ministry of Agriculture with the Provincial

Agricultural and Forest Departments while a Central Game Fund

is maintained in the Office of the Ministry of Agriculture. The

article is followed by an extensive and useful bibliography on wild

life protection in India.

Among the popular papers one that will appeal particularly to

sportsmen is ‘Jungle Memories’ Part I — Tiger — by Lt.-Col. E. G.

Phythian-Adams (Vol. 48, No. 1, p. 125). As the title indicates

this article contains many interesting anecdotes of tigers and

several valuable wrinkles for the young* shikari in India. Col.

Phythian-Adams lias drawn freely from his shikar diary kept over

a period of nearly 40 years in various parts of India but mostly

in the Nilgiris. Further parts of the serial are to be published

in the subsequent issues of the Journal.

In ‘A Further Note on the Bearded Pig in Malaya’ (Vol. 47,

No. 4, p. 632) following an article entitled ‘The Riddle of the

Bearded Pig’ by J. E. Kempe in a previous number of the Journal,

C. A. Gibson-Hill of the Raffles Museum has made a valuable studv

of the distribution of this rare animal in Malaya. Sus cristatus

was believed to be the only wild pig occurring in Malaya until

1918, when the first specimen of the Bearded Pig, Sus barbatus

was obtained from Pekan. Since then several other records had

turned up, but though plentiful in the adjacent islands of Sumatra

and Riau Archipelago, its existence in Malaya side bv side with

qristatus remained a riddle and it was believed to be only an acci-

dental straggler from the neighbouring islands. The subsequent

618 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

discovery among- the deposits excavated from certain lime-stone

caves in the peninsula, of tushes of barbatus has now established

the animal to be indigenous to the mainland. Gibson- Hill after

examining all the available records of • its occurrence both pre-

historic and contemporary, takes the view that the Bearded Pig

has survived in Malaya from Neolithic times in isolated pockets

in small numbers, ‘erupting’ at intervals into more densely in-

habited areas.

Birds

‘The Birds of the Mishmi Hills’ by Salim Ali and S. Dillon

Ripley is among the important regional papers published during the

year (Vol. 48, No. 1, p. 1). This area was relatively unknown orni-

thologically until the present survey was undertaken which accounts

for the 14 new forms reported in this paper. A discussion of the

geology of the Mishmi Hills, its altitudinal and life zones and the

affinities of its avifauna contribute to the importance of the study.

‘Some Birds of the Gandak-Kosi watershed, including the pil-

grim trail to the sacred lake of Gosainkund’ (Vol. 47, No. 3,

p. 432) is the ornithological diary of Mr. B. E. Smythies of the

Burma Forest Service during his trip to Nepal. A list of 45 birds

seen during this trip and useful notes on many of them make it a

valuable contribution to the little known ornithology of Nepal.

‘The Storm Petrels occurring in the Northern Indian Ocean and

Adjacent Seas’ by C. A. Gibson-Hill (Vol. 47, No. 3, p. 443) is

again a study in distribution of the 4 species of storm petrels re-

corded from the Indian Ocean — Wilson’s, the Black-bellied, the

British and Swinlioe’s.

The first of a serial on the taxonomy of Indian birds is Dr. S.

Dillon Ripley’s ‘Notes on Indian Birds’ (Vol. 47, No. 4, p. 622)

which deals with the races of the Pipit Anthus hodgsoni. The

author, basing his work on the collections in the U.S. National

Museum, the American Museum of Natural History, the Academy

of Natural Sciences and the Museum of Comparative Zoology and

Peabody Museum and his own collections from the Mishmi Hills

recognizes 4 races and provides a workable key for their identifi-

cation. With this paper Dr. Ripley makes his debut in the Journal.

We shall hope to see more and more of his contributions in our

pages since he has now undertaken the gigantic task of preparing*

an up-to-date checklist of Indian Birds.

‘A Census of Nests in a Private Bird Sanctuary’ (Vol. 47,

No. 4, p. 676) is the account of an ecological study of Indian birds

made in the school compound at Dohnavur at the southern corner

of the Madras Presidency. Mr. Webb-Peploe who contributed

this article has since died, but it is hoped that at least a few of

his colleagues and pupils with whose co-operation he has recorded

these and other field observations on the animals of his area in the

past, would keep up the interest he has infused into them.

‘The Food Habits of 3 Kingfishers occurring on Singapore

Island’ were studied by Gibson-Hill (Vol. 48, No. 1, p. 146) with a

view to testing the hypothesis that two species with similar ecology

cannot live in the same area. The Indian Common Kingfisher

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS , 1948

619

( Alcedo atthis benghalensis), the White-breasted Kingfisher ( Halcyon

smyrnensis fused) and the White-collared Kingfisher ( Halcyon chlo-

ris humii) were studied in this context and records within their

whole breeding range were examined. A comparison of the

structure of the bills of the three species was also made. As a

result, he comes to the conclusion that though the same feeding

methods are adopted by all the three, each seems to show a definite

preference for three different fields, Alcedo atthis ‘feeding typically

and largely from and over water’, H. chloris from ‘mangrove mud-

banks and muddy beaches’ and H. smyrnensis from ‘dry ground

and open country away from water’.

Particulars of 72 rings recovered from marked birds shot or

found dead within Indian limits, compiled from various sources

and brought together in one place will prove of great use to

students of bird migration (Vol. 47, No. 4, p. 690).

‘Astanmarg’ (Vol. 48, No. 1, p. 38) is a delightful account

from the pen of Col. R. S. P. Bates of a holiday in this Himalayan

valley and his encounters with its birds and flowers. The article

is illustrated with some of Col. Bates’s superb photographs.

Reptiles and Fishes

In his ‘Notes on a few Reptiles from the Nilgiri Hills’ (Vol. 47,

No. 3, p. 552) Garth Underwood furnishes a list of 5 lizards and

2 snakes he collected in that area. The same author’s ‘Notes on

Poona Reptiles’ (Vol. 47, No. 4, p. 627) listing 1 tortoise, 13 lizards

and 12 snakes include field notes on several forms.

That the King Cobra believed to be the fastest snake in India

is no faster than the average good-sized rat snake, and that an

average man running hard would have no difficulty in outdistancing

either are the conclusions reached by S. K. Ghosh, of Calcutta,

who narrates an exciting encounter with a King Cobra in the Sajek

Valley in Assam (Vol. 47, No. 4, p. 760).

Among the more important papers on Fishes and Fisheries

published during the year are the following: —

‘Methods of collection and hatching of Carp ova in Chittagong

with some suggestions for their improvement’ by Nazir Ahmed

(Vol. 47, No. 4, p. 593).

‘Breeding and feeding habits of Mullets (Mugil) in Ennore •

Creek’ by P. K. Jacob and B. Krishna Murti (Vol. 47, No. 4,

p. 663).

‘Some observations on the habits of Hippocampus giittulfitusf

by P. K. Jacob and A. D. Isaac Rajendran (Vol. 48, No. 1, p. 153).

Insects

Several regional papers on butterflies were published during

the year of which the following are among the more important: —

‘The Butterflies of the Andamans and Nicobars’ by Lt.-Col.

M. L. Ferrar (Vol. 47, No. 3, p. 470).

‘The Butterflies of the Khasia and Jaintia Hills, Assam’ by

R. E. Parsons and Sir Keith Cantlie (Vol. 47, No. 3, p. 498).

‘Local lists of Lepidoptera from the Punjab and U.P.’ by D. G.

Sevastopulo (Vol. 47, No. 4, p- 586).

620

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

Part XX of ‘The Early Stages of Indian Lepidoptera’ and ‘The

Food-plants of Indian Geometridae and Pyralidae’ by the same

author were also published. His ‘Some suggestions for entomo-

logical, work in India’ published in Vol. 48, No. 1, p. 75, deserves

to be read by every serious student of entomology. It contains

valuable hints on lines of future work especially with regard to

lepidoptera such as distribution, seasonal forms, diapause, temp-

erature experiments, use of the secondary sexual apparatus, scents,

intersexes produced by shock, palatability, colour perception, para-

sites, relations with ants, genetics, larval and pupal dimorphism,

and hybridisation.

‘Descriptions of Plant Galls from Travancore’ by Dr. K. K.

Nayar published in Vol. 47, No. 4, p. 669 listing 39 species of

plants affected by g’alls suggests the scope of this study in a

tropical country such as India.

Botany

The last part of ‘Some Beautiful Indian Cl’mbers and Shrubs’

Part XXVIII (Vol. 47, No. 3, p. 401) dealing with Bougainvillea

(Nyctaginaceae) by N. L. Bor and M. B. Raizada appeared during

the year. It is proposed soon to have this popular serial pub-

lished in book form.

Of systematic interest is Fr. II. Santapau’s ‘Notes on the

Solanaceae of Bombay’ published in Vol. 47, No. 4, p. 652. Al-

though the paper is intended primarily to acquaint Indian botanists

with modern work done in Europe and America on this family, the

layman has much to benefit from the helpful keys given in the

course of the article for several genera such as Solanum, Datura,

etc.

The Journal maintained its usual interesting and varied crop of

miscellaneous notes which always form such a popular feature.

A grant of Rs. 500 was received during the year from the

National Institute of Sciences of India towards the publication cost

of the Journal. For this the Committee wish to express their thanks

to the Council of the Institute.

Publications

1. ‘The Book of Indian Animals’ by S. H. Prater. This, the

second volume of the Society’s Indian Natural History Series, was

published in April. An edition of 3,000 copies has been printed

out of which 802 were sold up to the end of the year. It contains

73 plates in colour and numerous line and half-tone illustrations.

2. ‘Circumventing the Mahseer and other Sporting Fish in

India and Burma’ by Major A. St. J. Macdonald was published

during the year. 1,000 copies have been printed out of which 169

copies were sold till 31st December. Slightly different in format

from ‘The Book of Indian Animals’, it is attractively got up and

profusely illustrated with 4 coloured and 17 black and white plates

and 64 text figures. Its wealth of practical information on the

different aspects of angling, will make it the fisherman’s vade-

mecum for many years to come.

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS, 1948

621

3. 1,000 sets of coloured picture postcards of Indian birds

specially painted for the 4th edition of ‘The Book of Indian Birds’

by D. V. Cowen were also published by the Society out of which

220 sets have been sold.

4. ‘Some Beautiful Indian Trees’ by Rev. E. Blatter and

W. S. Millard. Although a print order for 2,500 copies was placed

with Messrs. Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh, Scotland, as early as

1947, the book could not be brought out yet. Mr. Millard is putting

Avhatever pressure he can on the printers, and it is hoped that the

book would be out soon.

The publication of the projected ‘Book of Indian Butterflies’ as

Volume III of the Society’s Indian Natural History Series is held

up pending the decision of the Government of Ilndia regarding

the publication grant applied for through the Council of the

National Institute of Sciences of India. The letterpress and illus-

trations for it are completely ready. It will be recalled that this

was one of the items on the list of our proposed publications for

which a subsidy was asked from the Central Government.

Revenue Account

Actual receipts amounted to Rs. 37,796-7-7 as compared with

Rs. 33,820-12-0 during the year 1947. This increase of Rs. 3,975-

11 -7 in the revenue is due to the income derived from the sale of

the Society’s new publications, — ‘The Book of Indian Animals’,

‘Circumventing- the Mahseer and other Sporting Fish in India and

Burma’ and bird picture postcards. The total proceeds of the

sale of publications in 1948 was Rs. 12,073 as compared with

Rs. 6,322 in 1947.

Life Members . During* the year 1948, 3 life members died

but 6 joined increasing the total number from 210 to 213.

Ordinary Members . 141 new members (including one Honorary

member) were enrolled in 1948. Against this 60 resigned and 12

died. The total membership on 31st December 1948 was 1,398 an

increase of 69 over the previous year. It must be mentioned, how-

ever, that the actual number of active and paying members is far

less — perhaps not more than about 800. Since the end of the war

we have lost contact with many members who stand on our list.

Some of these may have died and others may not wish to keep up

their connection with the Society.

Educational Activities

With the appointment of the new Nature Education Organiser

in February 1948, our educational activities which proved so suc-

cessful during the period between 1926 and 1928 have revived. It

is gratifying that the Government of Bombay have been convinced

of the usefulness and desirability of the scheme and have since

sanctioned the finance needed for carrying it out. The work of

this section has been as under: —

1. Nine lectures in English in three courses were given by

the Nature Education Organiser at the Museum to Nature Study

teachers from local secondary schools on Birds, Mammals, and

622

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

Reptiles and Fishes followed by guided tours through the galleries.

247 teachers from 85 schools attended the courses.

2. A similar talk was given, but in Marathi and Gujarati to

Nature Study teachers from primary schools followed by guided

tours as before. 27 teachers from 14 schools took advantage of

this opportunity.

3. As a result of these efforts, children from 50 schools

visited the Museum accompanied by their teachers and the Nature

Education Organiser took them round the galleries.

4. A leaflet was prepared in English setting forth the points

to look for when inspecting the animals exhibited in the Museum

and distributed to the schools for the use of the children.

5. Extramural lectures on animal life were given by the

Nature Education Organiser at 5 schools.

Acknowledgments

The thanks of the Committee are due to Mr. W. S. Millard for

his continued help in looking after the Society’s interests in

London.

Staff

Pending the appointment of a permanent Curator, Mr. Salim

Ali continued to look after the Museum in addition to acting as

Honorary Secretary of the Society.

The Assistant Curator, Mr. V. K. Chari and office staff deserve

a word of praise for the interest and co-operation they have shown

in the satisfactory management of the Society’s affairs.

APPENDIX TO THE HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT

COVERING THE PERIOD JANUARY TO JULY 1949

Membership

It will be recalled that the Committee’s resolution to increase

membership fees was ratified at the Annual General Meeting held

on 1 1 th August last year. Members and the Executive Committee

were naturally apprehensive of the effect this step might have on

our membership strength. The enhanced fees came into force on

1 st January and members will no doubt be interested to hear how

they have been received. It is gratifying that the resignations due

directly to the increased subscriptions have been far fewer than was

feared. The number of new members joining since the commence-

ment of the year has been less than during the same period of 1948

but this cannot be ascribed solely to this cause. It is just possible

that a slowing down of effort; on the part of existing members to

enlist new ones may be partly responsible. The question of keeping

up membership strength is vital to the Society, and the Committee

looks to every individual member to do his utmost in obtaining at

least one new member in the course of a year. This should not

be beyond the power of anyone to do, and every member should

tieat it as his duty to the Society, if he wishes that the Society

should continue to prosper. During the 7 months under review 47

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS , 1948

623

new members joined including- 5 life members (one new and 4 by

compounding-) and 36 resigned or died leaving us 7 to the good.

Government Grants-in-aid for Publication of the Journal

It is gratifying to report that our efforts, initiated through the

personal interest of Sir Chintaman Deshmukh, to obtain financial

assistance from Government to maintain unbroken publication of

the Society’s journal, during the period of its financial uncertainty

following 15th August 1947, have borne fruit. A grant-in-aid of

Rs. 4,000 per annum for 3 years has been received from the Govern-

ment of Bombay, and another of Rs. 8,000 per annum for a like

period from the Central Government. The Society’s membership

position will be reviewed by Government after 3 years and if inspite

of all our efforts it continues to remain unsatisfactory they will

decide whether to continue the subsidy or not. In the meantime it

is comforting to feel that for the next 3 years at any rate the regular

publication of the Journal is assured, and it is hoped that our mem-

bership position at the end of that period will show a substantial

improvement.

Nature Education

Our thanks are due to the Government of Bombay also for

sympathetic consideration of representations made to them in re-

gard to the desirability of a nature education scheme in connection

with the Natural History Section of the Prince of Wales Museum.

Government have been pleased to sanction a sum of about Rs. 4,600

annually for 3 years in the first instance, towards the salary and

expenses of the Nature Study Organiser appointed by the Society

in February 1948 in anticipation of sanction. The account of the

work done in this department during 1948 is given in the Annual

Report.

During the period from January to July the museum nature

education programme has been further expanded both in regard

to activity with schools and with the general public. The Nature

Education Organiser has for the last several months been giving

popular talks on various natural history subjects every Sunday

morning in English, followed in some cases with a repeat of the

same in Gujarati and Marathi. Unfortunately the response from

the public has so far been disappointing, but a progressive though

slow increase of interest is becoming noticeable, and with persis-

tence it is hoped to make these gallery talks a popular Sunday

feature of the Natural History Section.

Conservation of Wild Life

The establishment of the so-called Kanheri National Park and

of the Wild Life Sanctuary at Dandeli in Kanara District is a wise

and farsighted step on the part of the Bombay Government, and

is an earnest of the keen interest taken by our Premier in the

matter of educational and recreational amenities for the ordinary

citizen. The Society were invited to nominate a representative

on the Directorate of Parks and Gardens. Mr. Humayun Abdulali,

15

624 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

the Society’s nominee, has been particularly active in pleading the

cause of wild life and in trying to bring about a total closure of

shooting on the island of Salsette. He is also experimenting with

the introduction of partridges, junglefowl, spurfowl, hares and

the smaller deer into the park area so as to add to its natural

attractions for visitors. If these animals are to thrive and in-

crease, it is essential that all shooting and netting should be pro-

hibited in the environs of the area, and adequate measures adopted

to ensure that the restrictions are enforced and offenders strictly

dealt with. The Society have recently attempted to move the police

to prosecute several hotels and restaurants in the city which are

brazenly advertising and selling partridge and other game birds

during the close season. The police report that under the existing

laws it is impossible to prosecute with any hope of conviction and

it is apparent that the laws will have to be revised and brought

into line with existing conditions.

The Government of Bombay have entrusted all matters in con-

nection with wild life in the Province to the Director of Parks and

Gardens jointly with the Chief Conservator of Forests, and our

representative is busy revising the game laws so as to bring them

in line with more progressive ones existing in other provinces,

and in keeping with present day conditions, to ensure the preser-

vation of our fast disappearing wild life.

At the invitation of the Government of Assam the Society

deputed two of its members, Dr. Dillon Ripley and Mr. Salim Ali

to visit some of the rhinoceros and other wild life sanctuaries in

that province and submit proposals for improving them and for

making them more accessible and educative for local visitors, and

an attraction for foreign tourists. The memorandum and sugges-

tions of this .commission, as amended and approved by our wild

life experts, Mr. R. C. Morris and Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, as well

as by other competent sportsman and naturalist members resident

in Assam has been submitted to the Assam Government with a re-

quest that they take early practical measures on the lines recom-

mended in order to avert the fate towards which wild life is rapidly

drifting.

In response to an invitation issued to the Society by the

UNESCO to send a representative to the Technical Conference for

the Protection of Nature to be held at Lake Success (U.S.A.) in

August this year, our member Dr. Dillon Ripley has been requested

to attend on behalf of the Society and move a resolution, if a suit-

able opportunity offers, enjoining on the Government of Assam to

give effect to the Society’s recommendations particularly in regard

to the protection and preservation of the Great One-horned

Rhinoceros.

The Honorary Secretary, Mr. Humayun Abdulali, announced the

election of the following- 103 members since the last meeting.

From nth August 1948 to 31 st December 1948

Mr. F. R. Danter, T.D.L. Association, Nasik; Dr. M. Sageer,

Bombay; Mr. Nazar Futehally, Bombay; Shri B. K. Ghoshal,

Director of Industries, Kanpur, U.P. ; Shri Rameshwar Dayal,

Proceedings And accounts , 194I 625

Deputy Commissioner, Delhi; Shri A. Gupta, i.p., Saharanpur,

U.P. ; His Excellency Lt. General Sir Archibald Nye, g.c.s.i.,

g.c.i.e., k.c.b., k.b.e., m.c., New Delhi,; Shri G. K. Handoo, i.p.,

New Delhi; Raja Shanker P. S. Deo, P.O. Chichli, via Godarwara;

The Hon’ble Mr. Justice G. S. Rajadhyaksha, i.c.s., Bombay;

Major C. R. Dotiwalla, i.a., Mhow Cantt., Madhya Bharat; The

Bursar, Andhra Christian College, Guntur; Mr. K. Karunakaran

Nair, m.sc., Bombay; Mr. R. S. Vatcha, Bombay; Lt.-Col- W. P.

Horsburgh, c/o. Grindlays Bank Ltd., Bombay; Mr. K. P.

Mathrani, i.c.s., Rajkot; Mr. D. R. Gadgil, Yerandawana, Poona;

Mr. K. M. Kingaby, Bombay; Mr. A. S. Hinton, Milikajan P.O.,

& T.O., Assam; The Librarian, i.e.m.e.l. 32, Infantry Workshops,

Amritsar; Mr. M. V. Pai, b.sc. (Econ.), Bhavnagar; Dr. M. G.

Pradhan, Bombay; Dr. H. P. Moolgavkar, Bombay; Mr. S.

Moolgavkar, Bombay; Mr. J. F. Dastur, m.sc., f.n.i., i.a.s. (Retd.),

Bombay; Miss Nina Premchand, Bombay; Mr. L. G. O.

Woodhouse, Ceylon; Mr. G. I. Lightle, Bombay; Sardar Gian

Singh Rarevalla, b.a., Prime Minister of Patiala, Patiala; Mr.

R. B. Das, Bombay; Mr. Sodhi Kartar Singh, P.O. Anandpur,

District Hoshiarpur (E. Punjab); Prof. S. P. Agharkar, m.a.,

ph.D., f.l.s., f.n.i. , Poona; The Secretary, Board of Agriculture,

Katmandu, Nepal; Mrs. Pott, Ootacamund, Nilgiris; Mr. W. W.

Mayne, b.sc., Munnar P.O., Travancore; The Secretary, Kasturba

Mahila Mandal, P.O. Kausani, District Almora; The Principal,

Queen Mary’s College, Madras; Mr. D. D. Watters, Bombay;

Mr. S. H. Prater, o.b.e., c.m.z.s., London; The Principal, St.

Augustine’s English School, Kalimpong, West Bengal; Mr. Behran

Vicaji, Bandra, Bombay; Mr. S. P. Shahi, m.sc., a.i.f.c., Divi-

sional Forest Officer, Ranchi; Dr. S. R. Captain, m.r.c.v.s.,

r.w.i.t.c., Bombay; The Director of Fisheries, Dundas Street,

Karachi; The Mess President, Officers’ Mess, Madras Regimental

Centre, Nilgiris, S.I.; Kanwar Balram Singh, c/o Messrs. Balmer

Lawrie & Co. Ltd., Calcutta; Mr. D- C. Matthai, c/o Messrs.

McLeod & Co. Ltd., Calcutta; Mrs. John D. Fosque, c/o Caltex

(India) Ltd., Bombay; The Principal, Agricultural College &

Director, Agricultural Research Institute, Hebbal, Bangalore; Mr.

A. Middleton, Aldur P.O., Mysore State; Mr. Geoffrey J. E.

Percival, Norwood, Ceylon; Mr. F. E. G. Holton, Coimbatore, S.I.;

Raja S. V. Jagannadha Rao, Raja Sahib of Jatprole, Kurnool Dis-

trict; Capt. M. J. Preston, Bangalore Cantonment; Mr. Elijah

Nathan Elijah, Bombay; Mrs. Phiroza J. Taleyarkhan, Bombay;

Dr. A. R. Ranjha, d.sc., c/o. The Zoological Survey and Marine

Fisheries Department, Pakistan ; The Officer-in-Charge, Zoological

Survey and Marine Fisheries Department, Karachi; Mr. K. S.

Lauly, b.sc. (Hons.), m.sc. (Tech.) Dandeli P.O., N. Kanara;

Capt. W. S. Massey, North Wynaad, Malabar; Mr. L. F. P.

Russell, Naharkatia P.O., Assam.

From 1 st January to <\th August 1949

Mr. R. F. Elliott, Calcutta; Raja Bir Udit Pratap Sekhar Deo,

Ruler, Gangpur, Jharsuguda; Dr. A. L. Furniss, Victoria Leprosy

£>26 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATUBAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vot. 48

Hospital, Hyderabad (Deccan); Major W. L. Roseveare, i.s.e.

(Retd.), c/o. Lloyds Bank Ltd., London; Capt. A. R. Chowdhury,

c/o. Agent, Imperial Bank, Dacca; Mr. W. J. Carrot, Burma

Civil Service, Rangoon; Mr. C. N. Subramanian, Kadamane Estate,

Saklaspur, Mysore; Miss K. A. D. Naoroji, Bombay; Mr. Saros

A. D. Naoroji, Bhuj, Kutch ; Mr. John Edge, E. Dooars, West

Bengal; Mrs. D. D. Saini, Bombay; Mr. Hasanali K. Merchant,

Agent, Standard Vacuum Oil Co., Bhavnagar ; Mr. A. F. W.

Humphreys, New Delhi; H.LI. The Maharaja of Dhrangadhra,

Dhrangadhra; Mr. M. A. Islam, Divisional Forest Officer, Gauhati,

Assam; Mr. M. C. Jacob, Junior Conservator of Forests, Shillong,

Assam ; The Principal, Cotton College, Gauhati ; Mr. S. C. Roy,

Calcutta; Dr. De. V. Renato, Greens Hotel, Bombay; Mr. S. S.

Dhareshwar, B.Sc.,Chikodi, Belgaum ; Mr. D. J. Wood, Cinnamara

P.O. , Assam; Mr. T. E. Sibbit, Rydak T. E., E. Dooars, Bengal;

Mr. P. F. Cumberlege, c/o. Messrs. Burmah-Shell, Madras; Mr.

Pratapsinh Karsondas Asar, Bombay ; The Director, Pakistan

Forest College, West Punjab, Pakistan; The Divisional Forest

Officer, Poona; The Chief Conservator of Forests, United States

of Rajasthan, Rajasthan, Kotah ; The Director of Parks & Gardens,

Bombay Province, Bombay; The Divisional Forest Officer,

Kanara Eastern, Dharwar ; Mr. A. E. G. Best, c/o. The Grahams

Trading Co. (India) Ltd., Bombay; The Divisional Forest Officer,

Satara; The Divisional Forest Officer, Nasik W. ; Rev.

Ernest M. Shull, Thana District; The Divisional Forest Officer,

W. D. Kanara Dn., Karwar ; The Divisional Forest Officer, North

Khandesh Dn., Dhulia; Mr. Thakur Bhawani Singh, Jodhpur; Rev.

L. E. Pocklington, Saranga P.O., W. Bengal; Mr. C. A. Caldeira,

Canal Street, Calcutta; Mr. A. S. Talati, Dist. Chhindwara; The

Divisional Forest Officer, Kanara Northern, Dharwar; Mr. Camar

S. C. Tyabjee, Gunfoundry Road, Hyderabad Deccan; Mrs. Doris

Ferreira, Bandra, Bombay.

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS, 1948

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PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS ,

1948

629

Chartered Accountants, 1 AnmTnus

Registered Accountants, J

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY HELD IN THE

LECTURE ROOMS OF THE B.E.S. & T. COMMITTEE, ELEC-

TRIC HOUSE, ORMISTON ROAD, BOMBAY, ON THURSDAY

THE 4th AUGUST 1949, AT 6 P.M.

1. The Managing Committee’s Report for the year ended 31st

December 1948 haying been circulated among members was taken

as read.

2. The Honorary Secretary read a supplementary report on

the activities of the Society during the current year and again

stressed the need for increased membership, (for details see p. 622)

3. When presenting the accounts the Honorary Treasurer ex-

plained that a saving of approximately Rs. 16,000 will be effected

this year as the final instalment of gratuities had been paid off to

members of the staff who had recently retired after long service.

4. The Executive and Advisory Committees for 1949 as Pre~

viously proposed in the circular to members were duly elected, there

being no fresh nominations received.

5. The Honorary Secretary asked for suggestions from the

members present for popularising and adequately publicizing the

activities of the Society. Several members expressed their views:

Fr. H. Santapau suggested that we should have monthly

meetings where contributors of small papers to the Journal, for

example the various miscellaneous notes, should present their

observations in person as far as possible, initiating discussion and

bringing about closer contact between members.

Dr. S. L. Hora expressed a similar opinion and the Honorary

Secretary promised to try and arrange for such meetings in Bombay.

On the termination of the formal meeting, members and their

friends attended an absorbing talk by Dr. S. L. Hora, the Director

of the Zoological Survey of India on his Satpura Hypothesis of

Indo-Malayan animal distribution (illustrated with lantern slides).

This was followed by a film entitled ‘Poultry : A Billion Dollar

Industry’ which was very kindly lent for the occasion by the United

States Information Service.

Classification

CATALOGUE OF BOOKS IN THE BOMBAY NATURAL

HISTORY SOCIETY’S LIBRARY

Part III — Reptiles, Amphibians & Fishes

R — Reptiles.

A — Amphibians.

P — Fish and Fisheries.

Ps = Fish — Sport and Angling.

RPr == Reptiles — Popular.

RFR= Fauna of British India Series (Reptiles & Amphibians).

PFR= do. do. (Fish). Reference volumes ; not lent

out.

Title of Book

R

(See Carnochan, F. G. & Adam-

son, Hans Christian.)

Reptilia & Batrachia — Zoology

of Egypt, Vol. I, 1898.

Ophiolatreia : An Account of

the Rites & Mysteries con-

nected with the Origin, Rise and

Development of Serpent Wor-

ship, and a full description of the

Celebrated Serpent Mounds &

Temples — (Privately printed).

All about Reptiles & Batra-

CHIANS, 1935.

Marvels of Reptile Life, 1926.

Monograph of the Lacertidae,

Vol. I, 1920.

Monograph of the Lacertidae,

Vol. II, 1921.

Catalogue of the Lizards in

the British Museum (Nat.

History), Geckonidae, Euble-

pharidae, Uroplatidae, 2nd Edn.,

Vol. I, 1885.

Catalogue of the Lizards in

the British Museum (Nat.

History), Iguanidae, Xenosauri-

dae, Zonuridae, Anguidae, An-

niellidae, Helodermatidae Va-

ranidae, Xantusiidae, Teiidae,

Amphisbaenidae, Vol. II, 1885

Catalogue of the Lizards in

the British Museum (Nat. His-

tory) Lacertidae, Gerrhosauridae,

Scincidae, Anelytropidae, Diba-

midae, Chamaeleonitidae, 2nd

Edition, Vol. Ill, 1887.

15a

£>32 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

BOOKS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY’S LIBRARY 633

Title of Book

(See Fayrer, Sir Joseph, Brunton,

Sir Lauder, & Rogers, Major

Leonard.)

( See Phisalix, Marie & Caius,

R.P.F.)

The Empire of the Snakes, 1935.

The Common Snakes of India &

Burma & How to Recognize

THEM, 1914.

Snakes & Snake Bite in Iraq —

A Handbook for Medical

Officers. Royal College of

Medicine of Iraq publication,

1932.

The Tetrapod Reptiles of Cey-

lon— Testudinates & Croco-

dilians, Ceylon Journal of Science -

(Colombo Museum Natural His-

tory Series), 1939.

Snakes of the World, 1937.

On the Poison of Venomous

Snakes & the Method of

preventing Death from their

Bite, 1909.

The Thanatophidia of India,

being a description of the

Venomous Snakes of the Indian

Peninsula, with an account of

the influence of their poison

on Life ; and a series of experi-

ments, 1872.

The Thanatophidia of India,

being a description of the

Venomous Snakes of the Indian

Peninsula, with an account of

the influence of their poison

on Life ; and a series of experi-

ments, 1872.

Pythons & Their Ways, 1930.

The Lizards of South Africa — ■

Transvaal Museum Memoir No.

if 1943-

Los Ofidios Venenosos del Cauca

Metodos Empiricos y Racionales

Empleados Contra los Acciden-

tes producidos por la Mor-

dedura de Esos Reptiles, 1896.

The Snakes of India, 1935.

L Principaux Serpents de

lTnde, Premiere Edition, 1948.

The Reptiles of British India—

The Ray Society — 1864.

\

634 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

BOOKS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY’S LIBRARY 635

636 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

BOOKS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY’S LIBRARY 637

Classification

638 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , FoZ. 48

Author

G

Title of Book

35 P

3<3 P

37 p

8o 5

93 5

77 3

40 5

5 5

6 5

F

C

F

C

B

De, Kiran Chandra

Devanesen, Rao Sahib

D. W- & Chidam-

baram, R.

Goode, George Brown

§c Bean, Tarleton H.

Govindan, V.

Gunther, Dr. Albert

do.

Report on the Fisheries of

Eastern Bengal & Assam, 1910.

The Common Food-fishes of

the Madras Presidency — Dept,

of Industries & Commerce,

Madras, 1948.

Oceanic Ichthyology, a treatise

on the deep-sea & pelagic fish

of the world based chiefly upon

the collections made by the

steamers Blake, Albatross &

Fish Hawk in the Northern

Atlantic, with an atlas con-

taining 417 figures— Special

Bulletin, Smithsonian Institu-

tion, U. S. National Museum,

^ 1895.

Fishery Statistics & Informa-

tion, West & East Coasts,

Madras Presidency — Madras

Fisheries Bureau, Bulletin No. 9,

1916.

Catalogue of the Acanthop-

TERYGIAN FlSHES IN THE COL-

LECTION of the British Mu-

seum—Gasterosteidae, Bery-

cidae, Percidae, Aphredoderi-

dae, Pristipomatidae, Mullidae,

Spridae — Vol. I, 1859.

Catalogue of the Acanthop-

TERYGIAN FlSHES IN THE COL-

LECTION of the British Mu-

seum— Squamipinnes, Cirrhiti-

dae, Triglidae, Trachinidae,

Sciaenidae, Polynemidae, Sp-

hraenidae, Trichiuridae, Scom-

bridae, Carangidae, Xiphiidae —

Vol. II, i860.

Catalogue of the Acanthop-

TERYGIAN FlSHES IN THE COL-

LECTION of the British Mu-

SEUM-Gobiidae, Discoboli, Oxu-

dercidae, Batrachidae, Pedicu-

lati, Blenniidae, Acanthoclini-

dae, Comephoridae, Trachyp

teridae, Lophotidae, Tenthidi-

dae, Acronuridae, Hoplognathi-

dae, Malacanthidae, Nandidae,

Polycentridae, Labyrinthici,

Luciocephalidae, Atherinidae,

Mugilidae, Ophiocephalidae,

Trichonotidae, Cepolidae, Go-

biesocidae, Psychrolutidae, Cen-

triscidae, Fistularidae, Mastace-

mbelidae, Notacanthi — Vol. Ill,

1861.

BOOliS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY’S LIBRARY 639

640

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

6

£

7s

CD

5i

52

53

54

55

56

57

58

59

60

61

62

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

'BAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY’S LIBRARY 64l

Author

Title of Book

B

Innes, William T.

Jardine, Sir William &

Bushman, J. S.

Jardine, Sir William &

Hamilton, R.

do.

Jardine, Sir William

B

Jardine, Sir William &

Schomburgk, R. H.

Jones, Thomas Rymer

B

C

Jordon, David Starr

Kyle, Harry M.

do.

Lacy, G. H. & Cretin,

Dr. E.

B

C

Lowe, Richard Tho-

mas

Macdonald, A. St. J.

C

Manley, J. J.

Masterman,

Thomas

Arthur

C

Masters, John

B

McIntosh, William

Carmichael & Master-

man, Arthur Thomas

Nall, G. Herbert

Nayudu, N. Rama-

swami

B Nicholson, Sir F. A.

B do.

C

do.

Exotic Aquarium Fishes, A work

of general reference, 2nd Edi-

tion, 1935.

Ichthyology, Fishes particularly

their structure & economic uses ,

The Naturalist’s Library, Vol.

XXXV, 1853.

Ichthyology : British Fishes,

Part I, Vol. XXXVI, 1852.

Ichthyology: British Fishes,

Part II, Vol. XXXVII, 1854.

Ichthyology: Fishes of the

Perch Family, Vol. XXXVIII,

1852.

Ichthyology: Fishes of British

Guiana, Part II, Vol. XL, 1852.

The Aquarian Naturalist, A

Manual for the Sea-side, 1858.

Fishes, 1925.

The Biology of Fishes, 1926.

do.

Angler’s Handbook, North Pun-

jab Fishing Club, 3rd Edition,

1895.

A History of the Fishes of

Madeira, i843-’6o.

Circumventing the Mahseer &

Other Sporting Fish in India

& Burma, 1948.

Notes on Fish & Fishing, 1877.

( See McIntosh, William Carmi-

chael & Masterman, Arthur

Thomas.)

The Compleat Indian Angler,

1938.

The Life-histories of the British

Marine Food-fishes, 1897.

( See Taverner, Eric, Nall, G.

Herbert & Bacon, Alban.)

( See Hornell, James & Nayudu,

M. Ramaswami, Wilson, H. C. &

Panikkar, N. P.)

Notes on Fisheries in Japan, 1907*

Papers from 1899 relating chiefly

to the development of Madras

Fisheries Bureau, Vol. 1, Bul-

letin No. 1, 1915-

Annual Reports of the Madras

Fisheries Bureau 1908-1917 —

Madras Fisheries Bureau Bul-

letin No. 10 (Part II of Bulletin

No. 1), 1918.

( See Campbell, The Hon’ble,

A. Y. G. & Nicholson, Sir F.A.)

(See Hornell, James, Nicholson,

Sir F. A.& Wilson, H. C.)

642 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

BOOKS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY'S LIBRARY 643

A few copies of The Birds of Kuteh are

available at the office of the Bombay Natural History

Society, 1x4 Apollo Street, Fort, Bombay, at

Rs. 20/- each plus postage and packing. Members

and others interested should apply immediately.

We have also for sale Indian Hit! Birds by

Salim Ali with 64 beautifully coloured plates by

the distinguished bird artist G. M. Henry. Price

Rs. 20/- per copy.

AND

Popular Handbook of Indian Birds by Hugh

Whistler, 4th edition. Revised and enlarged by

N. B. Kinnear. Price Rs. 19/12.

Members zvill not be charged for postage and packing

WILD LIFE CALENDAR 1950

Illustrated with beautiful wild life photographs

of Birds, Mammals, etc., by well-known Nature

photographers.

Price Rs. 2-4-0 to Members. Rs. 3/- to non-Members

Postage and Packing etc.

Published by

THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

X14 Apollo Street, Fort

BOMBAY

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS,

l8 CHURCH ROAD, VEPERY, MADRAS. 17-11=1949. Cl 0464

EDITORS : S^LIM ALI, S. B. SETNA AND H. SANTAPAU

114 APPOLLO STREET, FORT, BOMBAY

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the

editors by observing the following instructions :

1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for publica-

tion to other journals or periodicals, or have already been published

elsewhere, should not be submitted.

2. The MS should preferably be typed (double spacing) on

one side of a sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered.

3. All scientific names, to be printed in italics, should be under-

lined. Both in zoological and in botanical references only the initial

letter of the genus is capitalized. The specific and sub-specific names

always begin with a small letter even if they refer to a person or a

place, e.g. Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni or Streptopelia chinensis suratensis

or Dimeria blatteri.

4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where

identification has been authentically established by comparison of

specimens actually collected. In all other cases, or where identification

is based merely on sight, binomials should be used.

5. Photographs for reproduction must be clear and show good

contrast. Prints must be of a size not smaller than 3^ x 2 i inches

(No. 2 Brownie) and on glossy glazed paper.

6. Text figures, line drawings and maps should be in Indian ink,

preferably on Bristol board.

7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the

paper, alphabetically arranged under author's name with the abridged

titles of journals or periodicals underlined (italics), and titles of books

not underlined (roman type), thus ;

Roepke, W. (1949) ; The Genus Nyctemera Hubner. Trans, ent.

Soc. Lond.t 100 (2) ; 47-70-

Prater, S. H. (1948) : The Book of Indian Animals, Bombay.

Titles of papers should not be underlined.

8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting

the author’s name arid year of publication, thus ; (Roepke, 1949).

9. Synopsis ; As recommended by the Royal Society Scientific In-

formation Conference (July 1948), the editors consider it desirable that

each scientific paper be accompanied by a synopsis appearing at the

beginning, immediately after the title. The synopsis should be factual.

It should convey briefly the content of the paper ; draw attention to

all new information and to the author’s main conclusions. It should

also indicate newly observed facts, the method and conclusions of an

experiment, and if possible the essential points of any new finding,

theory or technique. It should be concise and normally not exceed

200 words.

When the synopsis is complete it should be carefully revised by

the author to clarify obscurities, and further compressed wherever

possible without detracting from its usefulness.

1 14 Apollo Street, Fort, Editors,

Bombay 1. Journal of the Bombay Natural

History Society.

THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS

Mammals-

Book of Indian Animals, by S. H. Prater, with many coloured and black and

white plates. Rs. 16.

(Price to Members Rs. 13).

Birds.

Game Birds of India, Vol. III. Pheasants, 1st Edition. Rs. 32.

(Price to Members Rs. 24).

Book of Indian Birds, by Sdlim Ali, with many colour and black and white

plates, 4th edition, revised and enlarged. Rs. 16*

(Price to Members Rs. 12-8).

Set of 12 Coloured Picture Postcards'of^ Common Indian Birds. Rs. 2*4 net.

Fish.

Circumventing the Mahseer and Other Sporting Fish in India and

Burma. Rs. 15.

( Price to Members Rs. 12).

Snakes .

Identification of Poisonous Snakes —

Folding Chart. Rs. 2-8.

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Wall Chart to distinguish a Wild Dog from a Domestic Dog or Jackal,

etc. Rs. 2-8.

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Vol. 48, No. 4.

DECEMBER 1949

Price Rs. 15 net «

THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society

EDITED BY]

sAlIM ALI, Si B. SETNA, PH.D. 8i H. SANTAPAU. S.J.

PUBLISHED BY

THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

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BOMBAY • CALCUTTA

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 48, No. 4

PAGE

Jungle Memories, Part IV. By Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian-Adams,

o.b.e., f.z s.f i. a. (Retd.). ... ... ... ... 645

A South Indian Pelicanry. By K. K. Neelakantan, b.a. (Hons.)

{With a plate and a map) ... ... ••• ••• 656

Some Interesting Plants from Orissa. By M. B. Raizada ... 667

Notes on the Snakes and Mammals of the High Wavy Mts.,

Madura District, S. India, Part II — Mammals. By A. F. Hatton.

{With a plate) ... ... ... ... ... 681

Some Notes on the Birds of the Nepal Valley. By Mrs. Desiree

Proud. {With a plate and a sketch map) ... ... ... 695

The Insect Fauna of a Cotton Field at Lyallpur. By Abdul

Hameed Khan, m.sc. ( With a plate) ... ... ... 720

Bombay Crop Pests Calendar and a Seasonal Schedule of

their Control by Modern Insecticides. By E. J. Vevai,

b.a., ph.D., i.a.r.i. and G. M. Talgeri, b.sc. ... ... 725

Notes on Birds of* the Irrigated Area of Shwebo District,

Burma, Part II. By W. L. Roseveare, i.s.e. (Retd.) .. 729

The Study of Indian Molluscs, Part III. By James Horn ell, f.l.s.,

f.r.a.i. (Deceased). {With 19 text-figures) ... ... 750

The Inland Fisheries of Kodinar in Kathiawar. By T. V. R.

Pillay and J. S. Shaw. ( With a plate) ... ... ... 775

The Indian Caddis Flies ( Trichoptera ), Part XI. By the late Martin

E. Mosely. {Within plates) ... ... ... ... 782

On a Collection of Fish from Travancore. By E. G. Silas, b.sc.

{With a sketch map in text) ... ... ... ... 792

Reviews : —

1. Animal Life. (N. N. Murti) ...

2. Popular Handbook of Indian Birds. (S.A.)

3. The All-in-One Shikar Book. (E.G.P. A.)...

4. Insect Dietary. (J. I. Alfrey) ...

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES:—

1. Tiger eating Panther. By Col. R. C. Morris (p. 802). 2. Ambush

to capture crows by Yellow-throated Marten {Charronia gwatkinsi) . By C. J.

Gouldsbury (p 802). 3. Charge by Unwounded Bison. By Col. R. C.

Morris (p. 803). 4. How do predators kill Porcupines ? By Editors (p. 804).

5. Notes on the Indian Pangolin {Manis crassicaudata , Geoffer St. Hilaire).

By Angus F. Hutton (p. 805). 6. White-capped Redstart [ Chaimarr hornis

leucccephalus (Vigors)] feeding on berries. By H. G. Alexander (p. 806).

7. The validity of Harpactes fasciatus legerli Koelz. By Salim Ali (p. 806).

8. The Indian Button Quail {furnix maculatus) . By Doris Ferreira (p. 808).

798

799

801

APR 1 0 1950

ii CONTENTS OF VOLUME 48, No. 4

9. Kentish Plover \Leucopohus alexandrimis (Linn.)], breeding on West

Coast of Saurashtra. By K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji (p. 809). 10. Occurrence

of the Black Stork Ciconia nigra (Linn) in Tibet. By Editors (p. 810).

11. ‘ Peculiar behaviour of the Darter ( Anhinga melanogaster Pennant) By

Lt.-Col. R. S. P. Bates (p. 810). 12. ‘ The Birds of Delhi and District.’ By

Editors (p. 811). 13. A Cobra’s strange meal. By Editors (p. 812). 14.

A note on the occurrence of a Giant Balanoglossid at Krusadai Island. By

P. John Sundara Rao and S. Ranga Rao (p. 813). 15. ‘A Honey-Bee in the

nest of a Mason- Wasp.’ By K. Boswell (p. 813). 16. Note on the larva of

Ambly podia centaurus. By T. Norman (p. 814). 17. Observations on Aphis

asclepiadis Passerni (Aphididae: Hemiptera). By B. K Behura (p. 815).

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society.

1949 Yol. 48 No. 4

JUNGLE MEMORIES

BY

Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian- Adams, o.b.e., f.z.s., i.a. (Retd.).

Part IV — Wild Dogs and Wolves, etc.

The epithet, *a perfect swine’ may with every justification be

applied to the Wild Dog, whose nature and habits may be summed

up in a single word — -bloody- These have been so fully described

by Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton in the -Journal of the Society for August

1940, that this account of personal experiences is little more than

supplementary to the details given in that article.

Shikar books rightly emphasise the importance of taking every

opportunity of destroying these pests of the jungle, not only on

account of the immense destruction they cause to game, but for

the more sordid reason that their skins carry a handsome Govern-

ment reward. These facts are so well known that one might expect

every sportsman to be aware of them, and yet I have it on the

best authority that when two young officers came across a pack in

the Nilgiris only last year, they did not know what they were,

and refused to believe the shikari’s assurance regarding the Govern-

ment reward. All of which goes to show how ignorant some of

the younger generation are of natural history, and how important

it is that they should become members of our Society!

In my own case I read up all I could about wild dogs as soon

as I reached this country, and have never lost a chance of shooting

them. I have kept no record of the number destroyed, but it

cannot be far short of 50, as I have constantly come across them

in the Nilgiris, both on the plateau and in the low country, and

have seldom failed to take toll.

643 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL 48

Early Experiences

The first pack I came across was in Chanda in 1907 when I

was after bison. We had found fresh tracks of the latter and a.

few minutes afterwards a cow dashed away through the bamboos.

It was the first bison I had seen so 1 followed, and almost at once

found a pack of from 12 to 16 wild dogs in a great state of excite-

ment. I shot the leader as he sat and looked at me, and the rest

bolted ‘snarling and yapping’, according to my diary. Whether

they were actually after the bison I cannot say, but my trackers

were positive about it.

My next experience wTas in the ghats west, of Poona where I

was tying up at night for panther. Creeping up quietly at dawn,

I found the goat on the ground bleating feebly, with a pack of

6 wild dogs on it. Some quick shooting killed two on the spot

and wounded two more which were found dead later. The goat

had one ear eaten off, a piece of skin about 4 inches in diameter

bitten out of its side and in- addition a foot was chewed. Evidently

the pack’s arrival had almost coincided with my own. Of the

survivors one kept calling for a couple of days after — -‘a long moan-

ing whine very hard to describe.’ Unfortunately I did not then

know the dodge of answering with 3 toots on a fired rifle cartridge

case.

Wild Dogs and Monkeys

Later in the same year (1909) I was in camp at Yirnoli in

North Canara, and one afternoon while I was having tea, heard

monkeys cursing some 200 yards away. I went out to investigate,

and found two wild dogs lying in the middle of the road looking-

up at the monkeys, and what I can only describe as laughing at

them! I shot one but missed the other. This was during the

monsoon, and I doubted whether I should be able to save the skin,

but managed to dry it on a bamboo frame-work over a fire after

treating it with wood ashes — n tip worth knowing when everything

is saturated with moisture. Whether wild dogs ever succeed in

killing the ordinary brown monkey I cannot say, but on the Nilgiri

plateau they certainly manage to secure the Nilgiri black langur,

as I have on a number of occasions found their fur in wild dog

droppings. No doubt they run them down when they leave the

trees and make across the open, as is the habit of these monkeys

when alarmed by one’s own dogs.

On the Nilgiri Plateau

Most of my encounters with wild dogs have however taken

place in the Nilgiris, both on the plateau and in the low country.

The former is subject to both the Southwest and the Northeast

monsoons, and the packs move about accordingly to escape the wet.

They seem very regular in their visiting dates, and in August

and September they are sure to be found on the Billithadahalla

river in the Ivundahs. I have repeatedly found them there at that

season, and from the number of sambar carcasses lying in the

water or on the banks of the river it is obvious that they make

a stay of several weeks before moving on. I first met the dogs

JUNGLE MEMORIES

647

there on 11th August 1932 while I was, fishing. As I came round

the corner of the ‘Bamboo Pool’, I saw 2 sambar hinds and a

calf standing on a small rocky islet in the middle of the river,

and on a small grassy maidan close by a pack of about 25 dogs.

They were lying on the grass sunning themselves, ‘in all their

naked cui bono’, to use Kipling’s immortal phrase, and evinced

not the least desire to chase the deer in the river when the latter

bolted on seeing me. The bloody remains of a hind showed that

they were full fed, and even my unexpected appearance at such

close quarters seemed to cause them little concern. The nearest

dog was not 25 yards away, and as ‘Little Boy’ rushed at him he

bolted towards the rest of the pack. Some of the latter then

rose, and my dog, finding he had taken on rather more than he

could manage, bolted back to me, followed by 3 or 4 almost to

my feet- It was the chance of a lifetime, but as luck would have

it my rifle was with the shikari on the far side of the river. I

withdrew out of sight, but the water was high and my shikari

had some difficulty in crossing. By the time T had got the rifle

the dogs had cleared off, and though I followed for some way I

was unable to get a shot. Though the result was disappointing,

the episode was an interesting one, as it shows that wild dogs

kill only for food, whereas at times both , tiger and panther will

kill simply from blood lust. When they followed ‘Little Boy’ up

to me their attitude appeared to be one of curiosity only, without

any intention of hostility.

Two days later while fishing at the same spot the pack chased

a young sambar stag into the water a short distance below me.

I ran up but could not at first get a clear view owing to the trees

and bushes lining the bank. The stag was in waist deep water

only a few yards from me and I saw one dog swimming by its

head— the stag was splashing and screaming, though I do not think

it had actually been seized — 3 dogs were yapping in the shallow

water and 9 more were whimpering on the far bank. The 3 dogs

started to swim across evidently, intending to head off the stag. X

knocked over the first as he came up the bank only 20 yards away,

and then shot the second in the water, but missed the third as he

ran uphill chased by my own dog. The rest of the pack bolted

downstream and the stag went away7 in the opposite direction — it

certainly was his lucky day. I hoped the dogs would return to

look for their leaders, so waited for an hour while the latter wrere

being skinned, but saw no more of them. If I had known how to

call them up, I would certainly have got another chance.

As my knee was not too good, I sent my driver George with

the shikari downstream in the afternoon to see if they could find

the pack, and he had a very interesting story to tell on his return.

When they reached the scene of the morning’s encounter there

were 4 sambar in the water, shortly after joined by 2 more, which

first sniffed at the carcasses of the dogs which I had shot. A few'

minutes later 2 dogs appeared on the skyline, and George then

saw that about a dozen more were sitting halfway down the slope

among some rocks. They were about 500 yards away but

apparently got his scent, as they came no closer but cleared off

648 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 4b

over the hill. George guessed they would cross the river lower

down by the Bison Swamp ford, and ran along the bank down-

stream to cut them oh, but was too late, so he sat down and

watched them go uphill. They soon stopped but out of range,

and divided — about 8 dogs sat apart and 7 went towards a small

shola. Of these 2 remained at the bottom well separated while

the remaining 5 went uphill in single file along the leeward edge

of the shola and beat it down. Out came 3 sarnbar hinds and a

calf, and the dogs waiting below took up the running for a short

distance only and then stopped, for no apparent reason, unless it

was that the deer kept all together and would not separate.

Exactly the same thing happened in September 1935. I was

returning to the de Heriez Hut from fishing when 1 saw a pack

of dogs lying about on the grass across the river at the lower end

of the ‘Bungalow Beach’, and managed to hit 3 of them, though

only , one was recovered on the spot. I sent George after the

wounded dogs and when he returned with the skins he reported

that he had counted no less than 22 sarnbar in the river and saw

some dogs chasing 4 more, but as the latter kept together the

dogs left them. I think the explanation must be that the dogs

realise that if 2 or more deer go to bay they will be back to back

and so guarding their vitals, while a frontal attack unsupported

from behind will be risky on account of the very effective blows

which sarnbar can deliver with their hooves. A single animal on

the other hand can be attacked at both ends.

Mudumalai

In the low country of the Nilgiris there are two very distinct

types of jungle. The Mudumalai and Benne forests which form

part of the Wynaad, are subject to the full force of the South-west

monsoon and consist of heavy tree jungle and tall elephant grass;

while the Anaikatti-Masnigudi area at the foot of the northern

slopes receives only the North-east monsoon and as a result is

composed of an entirely different type — open scrub jungle. It

follows that while wild dogs are resident in the Anaikatti area

and have their breeding places there, they will not as a rule be

found at Mudumalai and Benne except during the dry months.

Another factor which affects their visits to the latter forests is the

length of the grass, which when high offers a great impediment to

hunting wdiile it affords cover to the deer. It is very noticeable

how seldom one meets dogs in that area when the grass is high

and has remained unbumt for a number of years, and I think that

an additional deterrent is the fear of cutting their pads on the

sharp grass blades. Whatever the reason, the fact remains that

even in the dry months their visits to that tract are intermittent

and they will not be found there throughout the year.

Scouts

An interesting point which I think has not been recorded so

far, is that when wild dogs decide to return to an area from which

they have been absent for some time, they first send in advance

JUNGLE MEMORIES

649

one, or at most two scouts, and it is not till these have returned

and presumably made their report, that the main pack arrives.

During the past 24 years I have observed this on many occasions,

and do not think there can be the least doubt about it. At

Mudumalai the scout nearly always comes down the Benne road

from the west, and after circling round by the Doddokatte path,

returns by the same route. Unless it is shot, one may be quite

sure that the pack will appear on the scene within 48 hours and

often less. After all there is really nothing very extraordinary

about it. The intelligence of the wild dog is of a very high degree,

and the way in which they combine when hunting proves that

they have some method of communication. Bar-headed geese in

the South Similarly send out a scout in advance to examine the

tank where they intend to spend the day, and unless he is satisfied

that conditions are suitable, the main flock will go elsewhere. This

is well-known, and I see no reason why we should credit the wild

dog with less intelligence. To give one example out of many in

my diaries, at 6-30 a.m. on 11th May (1948) I met a single

wild dog on the Benne road not far from the Game Hut, but could

get no shot though I followed it into the jungle. Next day at

2.45 p.m. wThile I was enjoying a siesta, a pack of 20 dogs chased

a chital fawn into the Hut compound. My servant who hurriedly

woke me said the whole place seemed full of dogs. By the time

G. and I had got our rifles they had gone, and though we did

contact them again by calling up (3 toots on an empty .318 case)

vve failed to bag any- Till we saw the scout there were neither

droppings nor tracks of dogs to be found anywhere in the locality,

but an examination of the Benne road showed that the pack had

used the same route by which the scout arrived and by which tie

returned. Personally X don’t think there can be the least doubt

about the matter, but would welcome the views of other sportsmen

on this subject.

The popular idea, repeated in almost every shikar book, that

wild dogs clear the jungle of all game, however true it may be of

other parts of India, most certainly does not apply to the Mudumalai

area, where the long grass affords such excellent cover. Again

and again there has been a pack hunting the locality throughout

my stay of a week to 10 days, and though the chital were certainly

wild and scattered, there was no question of their leaving the

place. Even in the open scrub jungle at Anaikatti where conditions

are so favourable for hunting, and where wild dogs are to be

found practically throughout the year, there are always a certain

number of chital and sambar, though black buck and four-horned

antelope are admittedly nearing extinction.

Anaikatti

Many times have I taken toll of the packs at Anaikatti, and

the following extract from my diary for October 1926 gives a

typical encounter. X was sitting up one evening on a rocky knoll

about 3 miles from the Forest Bungalow when my shikari Xvala,

who was watching the opposite side, ran back with news of a pack

approaching along the path below. Xt was too far for a certain

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL 48

sliot but I got ready, and shortly after saw the dogs beneath us — =

they looked very red and snaky seen from above, and the black

tips of their brushes showed up very clearly. I whistled to them

but they paid no attention, so called and they halted. Aiming

clear below the nearest dog’s body (they were 100 feet below me

and looked like rats) I fired, and had the satisfaction of seeing him

go over. lie then got up and began whirling round and round.

Kala said he then fell over into a bush, but I did not see this

as I had dashed up to the top of the rocks for another shot- How-

ever they did not stand, so we hurriedly descended and ran some

400 yards after them. Suddenly, we came upon them round a

corner and the bushes literally spouted dogs all round us — one was

half crouching with head down and ears laid back under a bush

40 yards off. I thought it was the wounded one so fired and knock-

ed him over— another took his place and I then saw that it was

eating something — vve found afterwards that they had just killed

a hare. I fired but was unsteady with the run and missed. It

dashed away close past me and I had a snap at 10 yards, but the

cartridge had not come up from the magazine so nothing happened.

Hurriedly reloading I ran round the bush and saw the dog loping

away 40 yards off. A lucky shot in the middle of the back rolled

it over stone dead, and that was the only one we actually collected,

as the other two got away into thick stuff and could not be found.

Wild dogs are extraordinarily tough animals and will get away

with the most frightful Wounds.

Vultures often give away a pack by circling forward over it

without descending, and if you see a dozen or so doing this it is

worth while investigating, as I have found on more than one

occasion. But generally speaking it is pure luck whether one

comes across them or not, even though a pack may be hunting

the area for a wTeek and one is after them every day.

If a dog has been shot, it pays to get under cover and try to

call up the remainder by 3 toots repeated at half minute intervals,

on an empty rifle case. The chances are that one or more will

return to look for their wounded comrade- This method may also

be used when no shot has been fired, but in that case a better

plan is to blow on the edge of a leaf held vertically between the

thumbs — the resultant squeal will almost certainly induce some

dogs to investigate. An aniseed trail is said to give good results,

especially during the breeding season (October-November), but I

have had no success with it.

Breeding Season and Localities

I once shot a bitch containing 9 embryos ‘all beautifully formed

with claws complete and presumably about one month gone’,

according to my diary. That was on 3rd November and confirms

my experience that most, if not all, pups are born in the latter half

of November or during December. It is the exception to find them

after Christmas.

The country round Anaikatti and Masnigudi abounds in rocky

caves sufficiently large to admit a dog or even a boy, but too small

for a man to enter, and it is here that the wild dog nurseries are

JUNGLE MEMORIES

651

located. Generally there are several earths close together, but at

times the pups of more than one litter will be found in a single

earth. Such was the experience of my friend B. many years ago

when he took no less than 12 pups from under a large rock, and

of S. who took 11 under similar circumstances. But personally

I have never found more than 7 pups in one cave, and generally

from 2 to , 5. Access to the caves is often difficult even for a

small boy, and generally involves a certain amount of digging,

especially in loose earth where the tunnel may be some yards

long. ....

Whether there is a single earth or more, a guard-bitch will

always be on watch outside from dawn to dusk- She takes no

part in the feeding arrangements, which, as is well known, is

effected by the pack returning from a kill either carrying meat in

their mouths or vomitting it up. Her job is simply that of watch

dog, and the moment she gets a whiff of human scent she will

clear off and will not return so long as the intruder is there. More-

over, she will also intercept the returning pack and prevent them

from approaching the cave. It is therefore very desirable to stalk

and shoot, the guard-bitch before any attempt is made to dig out

the pups. Shikaris tell one that both she and the pack are liable

to attack any man found in the vicinity of the nursery, and

B. told me that when he neared the cave from which he subsequent-

ly took the 12 pups, the men would not let him approach till

4 wild dogs which were vomitting up meat had left, and until the

guard-bitch had been shot. That the 4 dogs would have attacked

I find it hard to believe, but the trackers must have had some

reason for their apprehension, since normally they show not the

slightest fear of a pack however large. That the bitch on guard

would attack is, I am quite sure, a mistaken idea. My own experience

is that she clears off on the slightest suspicion. On one occasion,

when the guard-bitch got away unfired at and it proved impossible

to extract the pups from the cave, we fixed a wire noose over the

mouth of the latter, hoping to catch her when she returned. This

plan succeeded, but unfortunately she managed to break loose before

we returned at dawn.

At times instead of caves, holes are dug in the flat ground,

and it was a warren of this type which I first came across near

Sigur at the foot of the northern slopes of the Nilgiris in December

1925. There vrere 6 or 8 earths dug in a small flat maidan, but

though they wrere quite fresh and the season rather far advanced,

they were untenanted- The whole of that area is now covered by

a regular sea of lantana, so I have not been able to revisit the

spot.

Except for his handsome appearance, the wild dog has not a

single redeeming feature, and no effort, fair or foul, should be

spared to destroy these pests of the jungle.

Burmese Wild Dog

Is there a separate grey species of wild dog in Burma?

In his article on the Indian Wild Dog, Col. Burton states

that no material is yet available to establish the identity of the

652 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

wild dogs of Burma, and this remark encourages me to relate the

single instance of my meeting one there. That was on the 21st

April 1913, while I was in camp at Thaygon near Paungde, on the

line between Rangoon and Prome, and all that my diary records

is : ‘This morning saw a wild dog quite close but could get no

shot. Its colour was grey. Pollock states there are none in Lower

Burma, but villagers say it is quite common here’. I cannot now

recall the incident, and can only regret that I failed to bag the

animal, whatever it was. I was always very careful in writing

up my diary, and certainly should not have described it as a wild

dog unless I had every reason to believe this to be the case. I

could hardly have mistaken a jackal, besides I do not remember

■ever meeting the latter in Burma. So it remains rather a mystery.

In this connection, ‘Big Bore’ writes in A Guide to Shikar in

the Nilgiris : ‘A peculiar variety of wild dogs exists in the Karen

Hills of Burma thus described from a specimen in confinement- Lt

was black and white, and as hairy as a Skye terrier and as large

as a medium spaniel. It had an invariable habit of digging holes

in the ground into which it crawled backwards, remaining there

all day with only its nose and ferrety eyes visible;’ What authority

the late Mr. Shehan had for this statement I do not know* but

he was a very competent naturalist, and I feel sure would not have

included the above description in his book unless he had believed

it to be correct. It is therefore possible that a grey species of

wild dog exists in Burma and still remains to be authenticated.

Members of the Society who have resided long in that country may

perhaps be able to throw some light on the subject; During my

6| years there I never met another wild dog either red or grey;

WOLVES

My jungle memories of wolves are limited to two encounters

near Poona about 1908. I was out at the time at Lonikhand,

which in those days was an excellent centre for black buck and

chinkara, and while I was stalking an unusually fine buck, I

became aware of 5 wolves sitting on a ridge about 200 yards away

evidently interested in my proceedings. I w'as in half a mind

whether to leave the buck and go after them, but could see no

covered line of approach, so maintained my original objective; and

that was the last I saw of. them. Not long after I came across a

pair in the same vicinity and had a long running shot which

missed. As my horse and spear were handy, I then tried to

ride them down, but they got into such broken ground that I had

to abandon the chase.

In 1930 while living in Mysore City I was informed that wolves

had been shot not far away some years before, so spent some time

combing that and other likely areas. But I could neither find

one, nor even get any recent information of their existence, and

finally came to the conclusion that they had died out. Again

while on tour in the Ceded Districts during the recent war, I w*as

told that a couple inhabited a cave in a small rocky hill not far

from Anantapur; and at Penukonda I was assured that some took

toll of the flocks of sheep every year during the monsoon, but I was

JUNGLE MEMORIES

653

never able to find time to investigate further. If any do still exist

in Southern India, the Anantapur District seems the most probable

locality.

So I have never bagged a wolf, and my memories of this animal

are confined to the two incidents near Poona, as narrated above,

over 40 years ago.

HYENAS

The hyena’s laugh is proverbial, but how seldom is it heard!

During 45 years in India I can record only a single instance. In

December 1918 I was stationed at Karachi, and as soon as possible

after the Armistice, got 10 days leave and marched North-west

with camel transport across the border into unadministered territory.

Several days’ trek brought me to the far side of a range of rugged

hills which I had visited as a subaltern in 1905, and which I was

told still held ‘gud’ (as oorial are termed locally) and Sind ibex.

While in camp there I was woken one morning some hours before

dawn by a most infernal uproar. It was a hyena, no doubt attract-

ed by the meat of a gud which I had shot on the previous evening,

and which was hanging by the kitchen tent. My diary of that

trip is unfortunately little more than a record of distances marched

and of animals shot, so I cannot quote from it verbatim, but I shall

never forget the unearthly staccato yells, shrieks and howls which

the animal made. I did not realise what it was till I looked out,

when it bolted without giving the opportunity of a shot. And that

is the only occasion on which I have heard a hyena make any sort

of noise.

One I remember shooting by mistake many years ago in the

Kaipur jungles. At the time we were following a wounded bear

which had entered a cave, and while peering down between the

huge rocks which formed it, I saw something move in the shadows

below and fired at it, thinking it was the bear. But when we

went down and pulled it out, I was disgusted to find that all I

had bagged was a hyena, and that too a very mangy specimen

compared with those I have so often met in later years in the

Anaikatti jungles at the foot of the Nilgiris.

The only one at which I have deliberately fired was near

Gundlupet in Mysore as long ago as 1926, and my reason for doing

so was that I wanted a stuffed head for my collection. I was

looking for black buck near the Sugarloaf ITill soon after dawn on

23rd July, when I noticed a hyena slinking away across a low

crop of millet; I ran round to cut him off, and knelt down behind

the slight thorn hedge on the far side, while my two men and

‘Little Boy’ beat across the field towards me. The hyena cantered

out only five yards away and looked distinctly nasty when he saw

that he was intercepted. Only the low hedge separated us, and

I must confess that for a moment I wondered, whether the cowardly

behaviour attributed to these animals was altogether correct; but

before he could recover from his surprise, a bullet in the neck from

my No. 2 Express dropped him. He proved to be a fine specimen

in excellent condition, and the head when set up made quite a

good trophy.

G'A JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

Since then I have repeatedly come across them at dusk round

Anaikatti, where they are common, and more than once have for a

few startled seconds thought I had met ‘Tom Puss’ himself; in

fading light there is a marked resemblance. On a number of

occasions also I have had them pass quite close during small-game

beats, but I see no use in shooting them as the trophy is a poor

one, and on the other hand they are extremely useful scavengers.

They are often described as ‘vermin’, but why they should be so

classed I cannot imagine > for true vermin whether furred or

feathered is destructive to other game, and this the hyena most

certainly is not except perhaps for a very occasional chital fawn.

Though they are common round Anaikatti, I have never come

^across one in the Mudumalai forest where the long grass and heavy

tree jungle are little suited to their liking. On the Nilgiris plateau

they are rare. Over 20 years ago an old hyena used to leave his

tracks and droppings every night on the bridle-path from Hodgson’s

Hut to Andy Comer, but there has been no trace of him for a

long time. Their habit of making regular nightly rounds is a

marked feature; one has for many years visited the Anaikatti

village eveiy night, coming by the game-path from the vicinity of

Temple Hill and returning by the same route.

Ho wild dogs eat hyenas? I should imagine that they seldom

get the chance, as the former hunt principally by day, and the

latter seldom leave their caves before nightfall. But I was informed

by that well-known sportsman, the late Mark Clementson, in

September 1933, that a few days previously he had shot a hyena

and left it out overnight. When he returned next morning he

found a pack of wild dogs eating the carcass, and bagged two of

them.

The behaviour of hyenas vis-a-vis panthers has already been des-

cribed in the- section dealing with the latter animal, so I will not

repeat it here. Taking them by and large they are uninteresting-

brutes, and my best memory is of the practically face to face en-

counter across the low thorn hedge near Gundlupet.

JACKALS

There is only one point of real interest to the shikari in con-

nection with these animals, and that is their -well-known ‘pheeal’

cry. It was at one time supposed that this was made only when

a jackal sighted a tiger or panther, but I think it is now' generally

admitted that it is merely a signal of alarm at something suspicious.

An experience of my own tends to confirm this viewT. On

25th August 1935 I was marching out to the de ITeriez hut in

the Kundahs, and as it was raining hard I and my three men

were all wearing waterproofs. Half-way between the top of the

Avalanche pass and the junction of the Biilithadahalla river, I

noticed three jackals some distance ahead on the open sloping

hill-side on our right. As we approached two of them bolted, but

the third stood his ground and started the ‘pheeal’ cry, keeping it

up till after we had passed, not 40 yards away. No doubt he

could not in the rain make out exactly what wTe were and according-

ly gave the alarm . He could hardly have mistaken us for tigers

JUNGLE MEMORIES

(555

at such close quarters, even though we were all wearing long

khaki waterproofs. Had the pack ponies been with us, he would

no doubt have recognised us as humans and bolted at once, as

his companions did, but we were a mile or more ahead of them.

Do jackals ever mate with domestic dogs? 1 remember seeing

a mixed couple in a cage in the Mysore Zoo many years ago, but

whether anything came of it I do not know. I rather think there

was a record of it in the Journal at the time. The single instance

of possible mixed mating which has come to my notice was while

I was on tour during the war. I had left Cannanore some hours

before dawn, and as we reached the Anjerakandi cross-road about

ten miles out, the headlights disclosed a small white bitch playing

with a jackal. They certainly appeared to be on extremely intimate

terms and I imagine that but for our approach mating would

undoubtedly have taken place.

In the plains of India, at any rate in the South, the jackal

carries such a poor coat that it is not worth shooting, but in colder

climates the fur is long and thick, and makes up into a handsome

car rug or jacket. I have one of the latter made out of the skins of

three which I shot near my post at Khan Nuktah between Baghdad

and Faluja in the winter of 1917, the only ones that I can remem-

ber to have fired at. On the Nilgiris plateau during the cold

weather jacks carry very fine coats indeed, but their pursuit is,

very rightly, restricted to the Ooty Hunt, and they are not allowed

to be shot.

Apart from his ‘pheeaT cry, the jackal is almost as uninteresting

as the hyena, and hardly deserves inclusion in this series.

(To be continued )

A SOUTH INDIAN PELICANRA .

BY

K. K. Neelakantan, b.a. (Hons.)

( With a map and a plate )

Even during- the infancy of Indian ornithology a number of

pelicanries like the famous one at Kundakolam (Niunguneri taluk,

South Tinnevelly) were discovered here and there by pioneers in

the field. But very little detailed information has been published

about these, and our knowledge of pelican life in India is very

meagre.* My curiosity and interest were therefore aroused when

I heard of a village in the West Godavari District where every

year ‘large duck-like birds bred in thousands’, and guessed that

it could only be a pelicanry.

Thirteen miles from the Thadepallegudem station on the M. &

S.M. railway route from Madras to Calcutta, there is a large village

called Ganapavaram with a hamlet by name Sarepalle at its southern

end. Two miles south of Sarepalle lies another village called

Aredu (see map). The land between these villages is a vast

level stretch of paddyfie’ds with long rows of palmyras planted

along the bunds. In certain places, as on the banks of canals

and some raised broad bunds, stand clumps of rain trees, mango,

tamarind, jambul, neem and babool trees. Among these the rain

trees are the most common.

The Tadepallegudem-Bhimavaram road runs north to south across

this cultivated plain, and midway between Sarepalle and Aredu

a small irrigation canal, running east to west, cuts across the

road. In this area paddy is grown only once a year as a ru\e,

but every three years water for a second crop is also made avail-

able. Thus in 1947 and 1949 the fields were all dry, sun-baked

and stubble-covered after December, whereas in 1948 they were

green with growing paddy standing in a few inches of water

even in April.

The pe’icanry itself extends from the outskirts of Sarepalle

to Aredu covering a distance of about two miles and spreading

on either side of the road for about two furlongs. All parts of

this area are not used by the birds at the same time. Besides,

a spot which is thickly populated in one season may have only

a few nests in the next ; and a place totally unoccupied one year

may be swarming with birds the next. Though Aredu is said to

have been the original breeding centre of the birds, and was

actually found thickly inhabited by them in April 1948, there was

not a bird or nest to be seen south of the Madhyakaluva in 1949

(see map). In 1947 a clump of trees close to Sarepalle was

almost overcrowded ; in 1948 the numbers were smaller, and in

1949 there were only a few nests here and there. But the rain

* For the latest report on Kundakolam, where now only 10 pairs of pelicans

breed, see j.B.N.H.S. ‘Notes on a few birds from the South of the Tinnevelly

District by C. G. Webb-Peploe, Vol. 45, No. 3.

journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. See.

!

rl SOUTH INDIAN PELICANRY

657

trees and coconut trees north ol the Madhyakaluva were found

used every year.

There is little difference in the nature of the land between this

and the contiguous areas, but the birds do not go far from the

road. In Aredu the birds used to nest on trees within the village

itself. Some nests were on a small thorny tree less than a couple

of yards away from the busy bus route. This preference for trees

near the road is most probably due to the fact that chances of

protection are greatest where villagers are always within sight.

Pond Herons breeding in my village in Malabar show the same

instinct, and nest only on trees standing- within enclosures.

According to the villagers this sanctuary has been in existence

from time out of mind. Many years ago the birds used to nest

only in and around the village of Aredu, but owing to some shoot-

ing they moved north towards Sarepalle. For a time they avoided

Aredu but returned again and were left ' unmolested till 1949,

though their activities destroyed a good many of the trees in

the village. This year, however, some trees were cut down and

the villagers are said to have prevented the birds from occupying

the remaining ones.

There has never been any official guarding of the pelicanry ;

yet some sort of understanding exists that no one should harm

the birds or take eggs or young ones. The local Muslims alone

seem to fancy the flesh of pelicans ; a few birds are said to be

shot occasionally by them on their way to and from the pelicanry,

but this has not had any noticeable effect on the others. As

the birds usually fly high when away from the pelicanry, there

is little chance of their being shot at too often.

The pelicans arrive without fail during Dasara (end of September

or first week of October) and begin nesting activities forthwith.

Some villagers said that if there was rain soon after their arrival,

the birds disappeared for a short while and returned only after

the showers. They remain til/l about July, but from April onwards

the numbers begin to diminish. One old man pointing to a large

group of adult birds assembled in a field in March (1949) said

that it was a ‘meeting’ held to fix an auspicious day for departure.

On an earlier trip another venerable figure had solemnly asserted

that the birds invariably arrived on an auspicious day.

In all the Indian pelicanries reported hitherto, the pelicans

were found breeding in company with other birds. In the Buchupalle

and Kundakolany colonies pelicans and painted storks bred together,

and the one at Shwaygeen (Burma) visited by Oates was ‘a comr

bined pelican and Adjutant colony’. That described here, and

which may be called the Aredu-Sarepalle Pelicanry, is tenanted only

by pelicans all of which belong to the spotted-billed species

(Peleccinus phiiippensis Gmel). As excellent general descriptions

can be found in any good bird book none is given here. Identific-

ation of this species is easy because the spots on both sides of

the median bar of the upper mandible, from which the bird derives

its name, are very conspicuous.

Soon after arrival at the pelicanry the birds commence nest-

ing activities. Twigs from trees are wrenched off ; dry stems of

658 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

dhal and other plants are uprooted or broken off; reeds from the

tanks and canals are fished up ; and even thorny babool twigs are

collected and taken one by one to the nest. Some of the twigs

thus carried are so short as to make the sight of the huge

birds carefully carrying them somewhat ludicrous.

After a thick foundation of these twigs has been made, straw

from the numerous stacks close by or from the newly harvested

fields is collected and added to the nest. Though the birds have

such large bills the quantity of straw carried is surprisingly small.

Only some five or six strands at the most are taken at a time

and carried in the tip of the bill. In many cases the straw used

covers all the twigs so that the finished nest appears to be made

entirely of straw. The harvesting season falls during November

and December, and the birds finding straw in plenty, make a liberal

use of it. Some of the birds nesting near the canal substitute

sodden, decaying weeds and reed-stems for this straw.

Though the finished nests are massive structures one never

finds any bird feverishly busy collecting material. The birds always

go about in a leisurely way often spending five or six minutes

tugging and puffing before flying to the nest with a twig some

six inches long. Pelicans are certainly the most clumsy and placid

of birds !

When a bird takes material to its nest, its mate (one of the

birds always remains on or near the nest until the chicks are some

weeks old) puts up and opens its biff, stretches its head, gives

vent to a number of groans, and finally, receiving the twig or

straw adds it to the nest. This neck-stretching and groaning are

indulged in whenever a bird comes and alights near another, whether

it is its mate or not, and seems to be intended at least partly

to prevent the newcomer from alighting on the sitting birds.

Many attempts are made by these lazy birds to pilfer material

from others’ nests or even to receive with the most casual air,

what the working partner at a neighbouring nest has brought to

its mate. These attempts are, of course, resented but the birds

never come to blows. A few clumsy, half-hearted thrusts of the

bill are all that express the protest of the victim. Now and then,

regardless of these shows of resentment, material is snatched away

even from under the sitting bird.

When completed, the nests are about two to two and a half

feet across, roughly circular and a foot or more in thickness. They

are placed on almost every kind of tree though some varieties

seem to be more favoured than others. Rain trees are the most

popular and it is on these that the largest groups of adults and

nests are found. Next come coconut and palmyra trees. Mango

and coconut trees are few in number, but almost every one of

them is used by the birds.

On the branching trees the nests are placed on strong forks

or at places where a number of branches stand close together offer-

ing a firm foundation. Those on the coconut trees are placed at the

bases of the lower fronds which are more or less horizontal. On

palmyra trees the nests are usually built at the base of the lowest

leaves, but a few are placed higher up on the leaves themselves.

A SOUTH INDIAN PELICANRY

659

On palmyra and coconut trees very often nests are placed all around

the stem in a continuous ring so that one cannot easily say where one

nest ends and another begins. On many-branched trees also two,

three and even four nests may be built so close together as to form

one large platform.

Till about the end of February the nests are continually added

to or repaired with twigs and straw. From March onwards very

little work is done on the nests. In most cases the chicks become

so big by this time that their movements completely destroy

the nests and they are forced to perch on the branches of the

nest-trees or of those close by. After the middle of March only

a few nests are found; these invariably contain small chicks. Mean-

while the ground under the nesting trees becomes cluttered up

with the debris of these nests. Some get so cemented together

with the droppings of the birds that they can be lifted up by a

single twig. When the nest is finished three to four chalky-white

eggs are laid. There seems to be the usual number though it

is not in every case that all eggs hatch out successfully.

When a few days old the chicks are covered all over by snow-

white down. The first touch of colour appears when the grey

feathers of the tail begin sprouting. Then the wing feathers

grow gradually and become darker as they grow. The grey ‘mane’

on the nape and the crest are also formed meanwhile, adding

another touch of colour. The bill becomes longer and flatter. Even

the small nestlings have the pouch though this is inconspicuous

and the bill looks like that of ordinary stork chicks.

By the middle of April most of the chicks attain full growth.

The white of their plumage is always of an attractive pure colour

and the feathers of the wing are darker and sleeker than those

of the adult. From the time the egg is laid it takes about five

months for the chick to become full grown ; towards the beginning

of the fifth month it begins to fly.

The chicks are lethargic and, as a rule, not very noisy. They

lie quietly in the nests or perch close by silently until adults arrive

wfith food. Then the nest becomes lively ; the chicks stand up and

start swaying about and flapping their wings to the accompaniment

of all sorts of throaty noises. Again when the parent leaves, they

settle down and remain very quiet.

The parents are for ever on the move after eight or eight-thirty

in the morning, going out to get food or coming in to feed the

chicks. They go about usually in flocks of varying size, the

average number of birds in a flock being fifty or sixty. Because

of this habit of flying in flocks^ the feeding of chicks takes place

at rough’y the same time in entire sections of the pelicanry. More-

over the feeding takes place at fairly regular intervals, the frequency

of it being in direct proportion to the size of the chicks.

The arrival of the adults puts the chicks and the Brahminy kites

on the alert and the movements and noises suddenly increase. While

the flock as a whole wheels about above the trees, one by one

the birds descend to their nest-trees and prepare to feed their chicks.

A parent alights on a branch near the nest and coiighs up,

or regurgitates, what it has already fed on. Meanwhile the chicks

660 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vo/. 48

scramble towards it clumsily, lurching about like drunks, grunting,

groaning and yelping. On nearing the parent they grunt with

renewed vigour and start waving their necks and wings awkwardly,

making frequent attempts to catch the parent’s bill. In course

of this the chicks repeatedly open and close their bills producing

a number of resounding claps. At last one of the chicks takes

hold of the parent’s bill; the latter opens its mouth wide and the

chick thrusts its whole head into the pouch. Often enough the

young one’s bill goes deep into the parent’s gullet and gets stuck

there.

This wonderful performance, though harmless, is quite as thrill-

ing as a sword-swallower’s act for some of the bigger chicks have

bills quite a foot in length and thrust all of it into the parent’s

throat. For a time after the chick has dived in there is little

movement other than a few half-hearted flaps of the wing and

slow swaying of the necks. When the parent feels that the chick

has had enough, it starts swinging its head untili the chick lets

go. A few moments later the same or some other chick repeats

the performance ; and this goes on until the adult hops off or

flies away. Quite often after one chick has just fed, another goes

up to it, forces its bill open and tries, often with success, to get

a share of the food. Another peculiarity noted was that now and

again two chicks managed to thrust their bills into the parent’s

mouth and to feed simultaneously. When a chick has been fed

it sometimes moves off, coughs and disgorges a few pieces of

food which either fall on the nest or to the ground. When the

pieces fall on the nest, the parent picks them up and swallows them

again. Scraps fall off invariably whenever feeding takes place.

In November 1948 before the eggs were hatched I came across

the head of a big fish under one of the nest-trees. It is probable

that this was the remnant of a fish brought to feed a brooding

bird though I never caught any adult in the act of feeding another.

The Rev. Howard Campbell found the pelicans of Buchupalle

‘bringing' quantities of a fine trailing of waterweed from a tank

about two miles off, to feed their young’ (Baker & Inglis; Birds

of Southern India, p. 424). Though the Kolleru water is full of

all kinds of water-weeds the pelicans of the Aredu-Sarepalle pelicanry

never seemed to bring any of it for feeding their young. All the

food was regurgitated, never carried in the bill or pouch, and

seemed to consist entirely of fish.

One of the first questions to strike the observer is, ‘Where in

this dry place do the birds procure all this food?’ The ‘sanctuary’

is a vast stretch of dry land where water for cultivation has to

be brought through irrigation canals. These canals are mostly

shallow and narrow. The one big canal which passes through

the pelicanry is only some ten to fifteen feet across and five 01-

six feet deep. Most of the time the birds are here this canal,

in the dry years, is only five or six feet broad and two or three

feet deep. There is a small tank near the road in the pelicanry

itself and three larger ones in the Sarepalle-Ganapavaram area.

1 here is a major irrigation canal which skirts the western bounds

of the pelicanry and some other small canals and tanks are also

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Rain trees and palmyras on canal bund.

Photos by Author

Fallen chicks resting under trees, waiting for feeding to begin on nests above them.

(Note thick white deposit of droppings on bund under the tree).

A SOUTH INDIAN PELICANR Y

661

found round about the place but even if all these are put together

the amount of food they can provide for the birds must be very

small. Moreover rarely are the birds found resorting to these

canals or tanks except when in search of nest-materiak The villag-

ers assure us that the birds go to the Kolleru (Kollair or Colair

lake) — a very extensive but shallow lake which contains plenty

of water till April and quite a considerable quantity even during

the drier months. There is every reason for believing the villagers

right in this matter. The lake is only seven miles away from the

sanctuary and lies roughly to the west (see map). The adult

birds from the pelicanry always drift oft* to the distant northwest

and return from that point. It may be safely assumed that they

go to the Kollair for food as even the i" map does not show any

body of water west or north of the pelicanry other than this lake.

On the 5th of April 1948 when I was on the KoMair I saw a

flock of thirty or forty pelicans soaring overhead, and

Mr. Thirunaranan, Lecturer in Geography, Government Training

College, Rajahmundry, remembers to have seen a few pelicans on

every one of his numerous trips to the Kollair. I believe that

these must have come from the Aredu-Sarepalle pelicanry.*

Pelicans are usually called ‘Thithigodalu’ in Telugu, but in

Ganapavaram and Aredu they are known as ‘Kolletigodalu’ which

means ‘godalu’ of the Kolleru.

Though the pelicans of this place seem to have no enemies

whatsoever there is a considerable amount of egg and infant mort-

ality. Owing perhaps to the clumsiness of the birds and their

occasional bickerings, some nests fall off the trees. Eggs that

drop off are eaten up ravenously by the crows which haunt the

‘sanctuary’ in hordes during the first few months of the breeding

season. Chicks that fall down are completely ignored thereafter

by the parents and have to fend for themselves. After a certain

period, that is when the chicks are able to flap about a little,

they cling on somehow and avoid such a fate.

Very small nestlings that fall off die before long*, but those

that are half-grown put up a good fight for survival. Some make

desperate but vain attempts to climb back to the nests where

these are on spreading trees. Some manage to reach a shallow

pool under some of the rain-trees which are heavily covered by

nests and birds. Once there, they plough up the mud at the bottom,

like ducks, in search of food. But more often they become sca-

vengers and, flocking under thoce nests where feeding is going

on, snatch up the pieces of food that are dropped. All those that

live more than a day become very grimy and diseased-looking.

A few manage to live on for a surprisingly long time, but I have

not been able to ascertain whether any of these ever survive the.

* In March 1949 a small colony of nesting pelicans was discovered at

Chilakalampada, about six miles north-east of Ganapavaram (see map). I

■could not stop at the place on that occasion and had to leave Rajahmundry short-

ly after. As no villager even in Ganapavaram knew of its existence I think it >

is n new one where, perhaps, birds driven away from the neighbourhood of

Aredu settled down. This however is only a bold guess. It may be noted that

this small colony of about fifty nests is farther away from the Kollair than

the Aredu-Sarepalle one by five to six miles.

2

662 JOURNAL 3 BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

season and manage to fly away. It would not be surprising if a.

few of the bigger ones grew to adult size and led normal lives

thereafter.

These unfortunate creatures seem to know well that they cannot

make the adults recognise or help them. When two or three are

together they are very friendly and occasionally preen and even feed

one another as the chicks in the nests do.

Death is always the result of shock from the fall, or of starv-

ation. Even the smallest of the chicks is able to defend itself and

the - strong blows it gives with its hook-tipped bill keep off all

aggressors including man. Though crows go about in flocks look-

ing for dead chicks, and jackals live in the pelicanry itself, these

never seem to attack live chicks. When the chicks die they are

quickly eaten up by the crows and jackals. Still every now and

then one comes across a perfectly preserved body, with not even

a scratch on it, rotting away. Why a few are left untouched

like this is a mystery. Vultures never seem to feed on the dead

chicks though White-backed Vultures in large flocks often soar

over the pelicanry and even roost on a few of the palmyra trees.

The fallen chicks which try to exist on the fragments of food

dropped from the nests have to put up with a lot of competition

because the sanctuary attracts and harbours a good many Brahminy

kites, adult and juvenile, which exist mainly on these scraps. They

perch on the nest trees or on those close by and the moment

feeding begins at a nest, dash this way and that under the trees,

screaming. In a matter of seconds even the tiniest fragment is

picked up and swallowed and one cannot get even a microscopic

sample of the food !

The number of Brahminy kites found here is certainly unusual.

I have seen this kind of crowding only where fargescale fishing is

carried on by fishermen. Pariah kites are very common in the

villages on either side of the pelicanry but are rarely found in the

sanctuary itself.

Writing about the Shwaygeen pelicanry which Oates visited

in 1877, B. E. Smythies says in his ‘Birds of Burma’: .‘The most

striking* point about this pelicanry was the complete silence that

prevailed save for the whistle of the wings of birds flying far

overhead’. In the Aredu-Sarepalle pelicanry no such eerie silence

reigns. The pelicans make a good deal of noise with the Brahminy

kites contributing their mite which is by no means inconsiderable.

The noises made by the pelicans are not very loud, however,

and, at a distance of a couple of furlongs, are hardly audible.

The sound most often heard is a peculiar long-drawn throaty grunt-

ing reminiscent of the grunts of buffaloes and the funny noises

produced by the oil mills of South Indian villages. Always there

are various other sounds mixed up with these. A yap-yap sound

like the yelping of a pup is quite a common one. Some of the

sounds uttered by the chicks are almost human. When wanting

to be fed they give vent to heart-rending groans punctuated by

sounds like Ayya, Ayya , Aay-ya-yd, and so on. To add to all

this both adults and young ones again and again open and close

their bills producing sounds like that of loud clapping.

A SOUTH INDIAN PELICANRY

663,

It need not be said that where such large water-birds as the

pelicans breed in numbers their droppings do incalculable good

to the soil. In this pelicanry the quantity of faecal matter is

never very obvious to the eye though most of the trees and the

ground beneath become so completely covered by it that from a

distance they seem to have been carelessly whitewashed. Where

a thick deposit of this matter is formed all minor vegetation is

smothered and dies out completely as it does in a place where ducks

have been penned for a number of nights. The villagers are well

aware of the value of this natural fertiliser, but do not as a rule

collect and use it. They feel that as it gets absorbed by the

earth or dissolved in the water the crops are benefited even if

no systematic distribution is carried out by human agency. There-

is no doubt whatever that the fields in this area derive immense

benefit from this manure.

Unfortunately, there is another side to this picture, which is

equally obvious. The birds cause considerable damage to the trees

which they use. The branching trees lose most of their leaves

soon after the birds occupy them. Coconut trees droop, and in

the course of years dry up and die. Even the sturdy palmyra

leaves bend down under the weight of the birds and become dis-

eased-looking though they do not seem to suffer permanent injury.*

Whether it is the weight and the clumsy movement of the birds

or the thick white coating of faecal matter that completely covers

up every tree that causes this destruction is not easy to say.

Coconut trees are probably affected by the first of these causes.

In the case of trees like the mango, when the leaves take on

such a thick coating of this cement-like matter they just wither

away and the trees neither grow nor bear fruit. Even were the

trees to put forth blossoms the activities of the birds would soon

cause all of them to drop off. As coconut and mango trees are

prized possessions of the local farmers, their tolerant treatment

of these destructive birds certainly proves their goodness of heart

and respect for tradition.

Though various attempts were made to count the number of

nests and adult birds they did not prove successful. In April

1948, Mr. Thirunaranan and I roughly estimated the number of

nests (counting every compact group of four or less than four

chicks as a nest) at 150. Basing other figures on this, we put

down the number of adults at 300 (not counting non-breeding

birds) and the number of chicks at 450. I feel, however, that

this is too guarded and conservative an estimate to be of any

value. This year, (March 1949) I attempted a rough count and

decided that there were more than 400 nests and so perhaps more

than 800 adults and 1,200 chicks. Though these figures are very

approximate they are given for what they are worth. The count-

ing of nests is in itself a job for a team of interested observers

which should include at least one expert climber. The counting

* My attention was recently drawn to a short note on a similar subject

contributed by Mr. McCann to the J.B.N.H.S. (Vol. 42. No. 2). He describes

therein the damage done to the brab and coconut palms by roosting vultures.

664 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

of the adults seems almost impossible as many of them are always

on the move.

From this superficial account it must have become clear to the

reader that a great deal of work has to be done to enable us to

form a full picture of the life and habits of these birds. Apart

from such thing’s as the recording of the day to day changes right

through the season, the careful counting of the nests, adults and

chicks, the timing of the movements of adult flocks, a study of

the courtship, of the behaviour, movements and proportion of non-

breeding birds, of the food, its exact sources and the method of

procurement, there is the most interesting question of where the

birds go during the fall season. (Salim Ali in the latest edition

of ‘The Book of Indian Birds’ writes, ‘Migrant. But movements

imperfectly known’). This can only be settled satisfactorily by

large scaie ringing of the chicks at least. This too is a task for

more than one man and the expenses involved are heavy enough

to put it outside the reach of a mere amateur.

One of the many interesting problems presented by the pelicanry

is that of learning the relationship between the moulting of the

adult’s plumage and the age of the chicks. Right through the

breeding season the adults undergo obvious changes in their general

appearance. At the commencement of the breeding season they

are mostly dull whitish with the crest and the ‘mane’ of the neck

grey, tail and flight feathers blackish. By February most of the

birds become brownish from the breast downwards. This colour

which becomes gradually deeper looks like some stain. The wing

coverts become more and more whitish and ragged ; the crest and

mane become darker. By the middle of March the whitish colour

of the wing coverts disappears and a sleek, dark greyish brown

replaces it. The underparts in most cases lose the brown colour

and become dull white or pale greyish. I could not find out the

exact relationship between the stages of the moult and the age

of the chicks, but there is no doubt that the two are related. In

March 1949 only birds which had small chicks in the nest were

still whitish and ragged above. Those which had well grown

chicks were very neat and well-groomed. Towards the end of April

it is difficult to distinguish between adults and fulls grown chicks.

Till then the length and colour of the bills (whitish or pink in

chicks and bluish in adults) and the colour of the underparts (snow-

white in chicks, grey or brownish in adults) enable them to be

told apart easily.

It may also be mentioned here that the adults moult their

wing and tail feathers during the breeding season as is proved by

the absence of some of these in most birds at certain periods.

Hugh Whistler in his ‘Study of Indian Brids’ (published in this

journal some years ago) wondered whether anything like the peculiar

horny combs that adorn the bills of the White Pelicans of America

during the breeding season are found on Indian pelicans also. The

Spotted-billed Pelican has not been found to develop any such

ornament and there is no difference 'between the bills of breeding

and non-breeding birds

A SOUTH INDIAN PELICAN R Y

665

The future of this pelicanry seems at present uncertain. The

Kollair Lake is the main source of food for this targe body of

birds. According to the schemes of the Government of Madras

when the Ramapada Sagar project on the Godavari is completed

the Kollair will be partly drained and brought under cultivation.

Even if a small lake is left in the deepest part it may be so

small in extent and its water content so low as to make it

impossible for the pelicans to exist on the fish provided by it.

In an article in ‘The National Geographic Magazine’ (January

1 049) on the Everglades National Park, the author points out that

conservationists have successfully resisted a7, 1 attempts at drainage

of that marshy area because, if water is drained off the food for

breeding birds will fall so much below their need as to wipe the

sanctuary out of existence. Could our Indian naturalists put up

an equally good fight and prevent such a short-sighted procedure

as the draining of the Kollair?

It is not merely a question of the survival of the sanctuary

that is involved here. The Kollair is the only lake of its kind

in the south on the east coast and it attracts and harbours a

very large number of birds of various species. With the drain-

ing of the Kollair an important haunt of some of our ducks

(to mention only the most outstanding and perhaps the most

numerous of the birds of Kollair) will disappear thus decimating

the bird population of this unique ornithologists’ paradise.

These days institutions all over the west have realised the

danger faced by wild ducks and taken measures to prevent the

numbers from failing below the present level at least. If we in

India allow the few major duck-haunts like the Kollair to be

drained and those like the Chilka lake to be shot over at will by

indiscriminate sportsmen, soon a number of interesting* species will

have to be written off. Places like this should be declared

sanctuaries and maintained zealously as such, so that we can not

only prevent some birds from going the way of the Passenger Pigeon

and the Great Auk but also create centres for bird study and

bird-banding.

Even if the Kollair were left undrained the future of the pelicanry

would still be uncertain. The villagers have become conscious of

the harm done by the birds and their hostility has already caused

the birds to desert Aredu. If the pelicans are thus driven from

place to place, they may finally desert the pelicanry altogether.

The dates of visits paid to this sanctuary, and a few observations are given

below :

(1) 15th April 1947. — Land dry and fallow. Almost all chicks well-grown.

Many flying. No nest seen.

(2) 4th April 1948. — Water in fields — growing paddy. Birds occasionally

alighted in water-logged fields but still drifted northwest for food. 1 nest

contained small chicks. Other chicks all well grown. Whole area including

Aredu well populated.

(3) 11th September 1948. — Growing paddy in fields. No pelicans.

(4) 27th November 1948. — Fields mostly harvested. Haystacks everywhere.

Pelicans had almost completed nest-building. Nests not conspicuous. Birds

sitting on eggs. Broken shells showed eggs were fresh. Birds were busy

collecting nest material. Near one nest three or four adults were seen, some

of them obviously non-breeding birds. (Why do they stand around the nest?

Could they be chicks of last year’s brood?)

‘66G JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

(5) 14th January 1949. — Nests very conspicuous. Birds busy collecting straw.

A number of chicks dead and dying on the ground. Some adults lacked a few

of the flight feathers. M^t had dark stain on underparts. Hot day but birds

made no conscious attempt to shade chicks. Chicks had just started growing

wing feathers. Noise in pelicanry much greater than in November.

(6) 12th February 1949. — Very few adults seen which were not on a nest

or near one. Non-breeding birds seemed to be absent. Noise and movement

had increased considerably. Birds busy gathering twigs for nest repair. A

good many chicks grown to 2/3 adult size.

(7) 12th March 1949. — Very hot. By 9 a.m. heat waves and haze. Large

flocks of adult birds sitting idly in fields, and gasping. Most adults had changed

completely in appearance. Very fe.w remained on trees. Both parents seemed

to go out for food. Chicks almost full-grown. A few could fly. Others flapped

wings and practised. Half a dozen nests contained small chicks ; each nest

guarded by an adult bird. On one nest tight sitting bird suggested presence

of eggs. Even chicks which could fly well were fed by parent. Adult arrived

on what must have been the nest! tree, waited for chicks which flew up in a

few seconds and fed them.

Most of the birds typical of this area can be seen in the pelicanry.

The presence of the pelicans does not seem to a fleet them in any

way. As has been pointed out already the number of Brahminy

kites is abnormal and their way of life odd. Till about February

House and Jungle Crows haunt the sanctuary in flocks to feed on

the fallen eggs and chicks. King Crow, Indian Roller, the Egrets,

Pond Heron, Green and Blue-tailed Bee-eaters, Common Myna,

Indian Oriole, Rufous-tailed Finch Lark, Ashy-crowned Finch Lark

and Bush Chat were common birds. Less common were the Shikra

( — feeding full-grown chick on garden lizard — April 1948) and the

Palm Swift. When there is water in the fields Green and Common

Sandpipers and Red-wattled Lapwings were quite common. Once

a lawny Eagle (?) sat on a tree very near another full of pelicans.

Open-bills in very iarge flocks were seen going over the sanctuary

four or five times. A pair of White Ibis, a pair of King Vultures,

a Little Cormorant were other birds seen just once. In the tank

near Sarepalle, where pelicans occasionally go for weeds, a flock

of Blue-winged Teal was seen once. Cotton Teal and Cormorant

were always to be found here. In 1949 a flock of Lesser Whistl-

ing Teal used to float about invariably in the Ganapavaram or

Sarepalle tank. Indian Orioles, Common Mynas, Crows, and

Brahminy kites nested on trees in the pelicanry itself. Birds of

the undergrowth like the W arblers were never found ; nor was

any kind of babbler seen in the area. This was of course due to

the lack of bushes and grasses. Though palmyra trees were in

abundance Palm Swifts were rarely seen. This was found to be a

special feature of the whole area and not of the pelicanry alone.

It remains now to thank a few kind friends like my colleagues,

Mr. V. Satyanarayanamurthi, m.sc., and Mr. V. Sreeramamurthi,

m.sc., of the Arts College who accompanied me the first time and

efficiently tapped the villagers for information. To Mr. B. M.

Thirunaranan, b.a. (Hons.) (London.), Lecturer in Geography,

Government Training College, Rajahmundry, my debt of gratitude

is immense. He accompanied me on my second visit and right

through he made innumerable suggestions of the greatest import-

ance. My thanks are also due to the authorities of the Bombay

Natural History Society who willingly helped me with suggestions

and information whenever possible

SOME INTERESTING PLANTS FROM ORISSA

by

M. B. Raizada

Systematic Botanist, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun.

The plants referred to in the following pages formed part o£

the collections made by Dr. H. F. Mooney, c.i.e., i.f.s., during

Ms numerous botanical tours in Orissa, including the Eastern States.

These collections he invariably sent to the Herbarium of the Forest

Research Institute, Dehra Dun, either for identification or confirma-

tion of his determinations. The collection being from a region, the

flora of wdiich is still insufficiently known, naturally contained

material of considerable interest.

Apart from such general wrorks as the ‘Flora of British India’

by Hooker or ‘Indian Trees’ by Brandis, the flora of Bihar and

Drissa is known to the outside world chiefly from Haines’s ‘Botany

-of Bihar and Orissa’, which it might be mentioned, wras completed

in 1925 — -some twenty five years ago.

Haines, however, was best familiar with the British districts

-.and, above all with Chota Nagpur. It is true that the late Messrs.

Grieve and Cooper supplied him with specimens and notes from the

various States, but much of the area remained botanically unexplor-

ed; of course, this is not at all surprising taking into account the

vast extent of the region and the virtual absence of communications

at that time.

Dr. Mooney has been Chief Forest Adviser to the Eastern

States for. several years, during which period he availed himself of

the opportunity and collected assiduously and naturally his collections

include a large number of plants not previously recorded by Haines.

As these are in the neighbourhood of some 85 species it seems

■■worth while publishing an account of them.

In the following pages 85 species including one new species of

Dimeria, the technical description of which will, however, appear

-else where, belonging to 67 genera and 83 families are enumerated.

The sequence of families and genera is that adopted by Sir

A. D. Hooker in the Flora of British India. The generic and

specific names have, however, been adopted, as far as practicable,

in accordance with the latest international rules of botanical

nomenclature, but where changes have occurred the synonym as

it appears in Hooker’s Flora of British India, is given.

From the field notes and the material collected by Mooney R

is clear that the Eastern States and particularly the Kalahandi

State, a remote tract of wild hill country adjoining the Eastern

Ghats, are of considerable interest botanically and would repay

closer botanizing and study. It is in this tableland that a definite

transition from a northerly to a southerly type of vegetation becomes

markedly perceptible, many of the species collected being found

In the Eastern Ghats or even further south. There is little doubt

that further investigations may bring to light a larger number of

species having an affinity with South Indian flora.

668 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL 48

In conclusion, it is my pleasant duty to thank Dr. H. F. Mooney

for having supplied the rich material which forms the basis of

this paper, in which new records of species already mentioned by

Mooney in Indian Forest Records (New series), Botany, Vol. 8 No. 2

(1941) have not been included.

ANN ON ACE AE

Alphonsea madaraspatana Bedd. ; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind., 1:89, 1872.

Hitherto known from the Eastern Ghats.

Naraj at the head of the Mahanadi Delta, Cuttack district, Orissa., 12-6-1919,

H. F. Mooney 3427 !. A small spreading tree growing from cleft in rock

overhanging river at P.W.D. Inspection Bungalow.

POLYGALACEAE

Securidaca inappendiculata Hassk., PI. Jav. Bar. 295, 1848. S. tavoyana

Wall.; Hk. f„ FI. Br. Ind., 1:208, 1872.

Hitherto reported from Assam, Sylhet, Chittagong & Burma.

‘Jola, 2,100 ft., Pal Lahara State, Orissa, Sept. 1948, H. F. Mooney

2993!. A large woody climber.’

CARYOPHYLLACEAE

Polycarpaea aurea Wight & Arn. in Ann. Nat. Hist. Ser 1. 3 (1839) 91 ;

P. corymbosa Lamk. var. aurea Wight; H.K. f. FI. Br. Ind. 1:1874, 245.

Previously known from the Deccan hills, in rocky places.

‘Sonabera, 2,150 ft., Ilhariar, West Sambalpur, Orissa, 29-9-1949, II. F.

Mooney 3653!. In Crevices of bare quartzite.’

RUT ACE AE

Merope angulat (Willd.) Swingle in Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 5:423, 1915;

Tanaka in Journ. Ind. Bot. Soc. 16:233, 1937. Citrus angulata Willd., Sp. PI.

3:1426, 1801. Paramignya angulata (Willd.) Kurz in Journ. As. Soc. Beng.

44: 135, 1875 et For Flora Burma 1:194,. 1877. P.longispina Hk. f., FI. Br.

Ind., 1:511, 1875; Brandis, Indian Trees, 122, 1906. Atalantia angulata (Willd.)

Engl, in Naturl. Pflanzenfam. 19a: 330, 1931.

This rare species of tidal forests and mangroves is so far reported from

Bengal (Sunderbans), Burma, Malaya, Java, New Guinea and the Philippines.

‘Jambu, Mahanadi Delta, Cuttack, district, Orissa, 5-6-1949, H, F. Mooney

3372!. In mud on bank of tidal creek.’

This remarkable plant, the only species of the genus Merope , has got quite

an array of synomyms, the most important of which I have given above. As

none of the Indian works consulted give a correct or complete description of

the plant, it is given below.

A small tree or large shrub growing on the seashore in tidal forests or

mangrovie swamps ; twigs with stout (.5-1-5 in.) spines, paired or single in the

axil of leaves. Leaves simple, thick, coriaceous, alternate, inconspicuously veined,

elliptic or elliptic-oblong, 3-5 in. long, 1-1-5 in. broad ; petiole short, wingless.

Flowers small, white, borne singly or in pairs (very rarely in few-flowered

clusters) in the axils of leaves. Calyx cupulate, 5-iobed. Petals 5 imbricate,

oblong-lanceolate, acute. Stamens 10, free ; anthers linear as long as or longer

than the filaments. Ovary stalked on a rather tall disk, ovoid, 3-5-celled with

4 pendulous ovules in each cell. Fruit strongly angled, triangular in cross

section, 1-2 in. long, cells filled with a sticky, mucilaginous fluid. Seeds very

large flattened, reniform, caudate at the tip where attached, borne one in a

segment and immersed in a glutinous, mucilaginous fluid.

This singular genus which is widely scattered over the East Indies in

brackish swamps is outstanding because of its characteristic fruit containing

very long seeds. It is a highly specialized genus of the subtribe Triphdsiinae

SOME INTERESTING PLANTS FROM ORISSA

em

and is related to Paramignya Wight & Pamburus Swingle (Type species

Limonia missionis Wight = Pamburus mission is (Wight) Swing, from Talaar

Madras Presidency).

MELIACEAE

Xylocarpus gangeticus C. E. Parkinson in Ind., Eorester 60:140, 1934.

Carapa moluccensis Lamk. var. gangetica Prain in P. Bot. Surv. Ind., 2:292;

1903.

Hitherto known from the Sunderbans, Burma, Malaya and the Andamans.

‘In tidal forest on bank of Jamba river, Jambu, Mahanadi Delta, Cuttack

district, Orissa, 6-6-1949, H. F. Mooney 3388 !’

In herbarium specimens this species closely resembles and may easily be

confused with X.granatum Koenig ( Carapa obovata BI.) but in the field it is

easily distinguished by its Characteristic bark, which is dark coloured and rough

with longitudinal fissures exfoliating in oblong flakes, and small buttresses and

the pneumatophores which sometimes extend up the base of the small buttresses.

Further it has a smaller fruit (3-4 in. in diameter) with fewer seeds, than

that of X.granatum. From X.moluccensis Poem, it is easily distinguished by

the shape of the leaflets.

LEGUMINOSAE

Crotalaria umbeltata Wight in Wall. Cat. 5383. G.nana Burm. ; Ilk. f.,

FI. Br. Ind., 2:71, 1876 in part.

So far reported from the Western Ghats, in the hills from South Kanara

and Mysore southwards, up to 6,000 ft.

‘Sirkagutu plateau, 3,000 ft., Keonjhar State, Orissa, 4-10-1946, H. F. Mooney

2805!. In open pasture.’

Crotalaria retusa Linn.; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind., 2:75, 1876.

Proviously recorded from various parts of India but not from Orissa.

‘Near Kharpura in Sonpur State, Orissa, 21-3-1944, H. F. Mooney 2402 !’

‘Anandpur, about 150 ft. Keonjhar State, Orissa, 11-3-1948, H. F. Mooney

2998!’

Indigofera trifoliata Linn.; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind., 2:96, 1876.

Hitherto reported from various parts of India but not from Bihar and

Orissa.

‘Chanlipat, 3,500 ft., Jashpur State, Orissa, 29-9-1941, H. F. Mooney 1888!.

Abundant in open grassy banks in Sal forest.’ ‘Near Pipokhri, 2,500-3,000 ft.,

Keonjhar State, Orissa, H. F. Mooney 2759!’

Indigofera wightii Grab.; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind., 2:99, 1876.

Known so far from Peninsular India and Ceylon.

‘Khondalita, Kindiripadar, 2,700 ft., 1-6-1944, H. F. Mooney 2524!. In

scrub ‘Sal’ by road. Very hispid hairy. Flowers bright red.’

Tepbrosia roxburghiana J. K. Drummond in Gamble, FI. Madras 1:1918,

319.

Hitherto reported from the Deccan Peninsula.

‘Sonabera, 2,150 ft., Khariar, West Sambalpur, Orissa, 28-9-1949, H. F.

Mooney 3645!. In open grass land on shallow sandy soil overlying quartzite.’

Galactia longifolia Benth. in Ann. When, Mus. 2:127, 1838. G. tenuiflora

W. & A. var. lucida Baker in Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind., 2:192, 1876.

Previously recorded from the Western Ghats, in the hills of Coimbatore, the

Nilgiris and Pulneys up to 3,000 ft.

‘Kairakhol State, Orissa, 10-9-1943, H. F. Mooney 2310 !’ ‘Pankorsja Ghat,

3,050 ft., Kashipur, Kalahandi State, Orissa, 24-5-1944, H. F. Mooney 2,560 t

By road side scrambling among rocks’. ‘Sapua forest, Khandpara State, Orissa,

12-8-1946., H. F. Mooney 2689!’

<670 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY FoZ. 48

Alysicarpus rotundifolius Dalzell. Desmodium robundifolium Baker in Hk. f.

FI. Br. Ind. 2:172, 1876.

Hitherto reported from the plains of Konkan.

‘Bailadela hill, 2.000-4,000 ft., Bastar State, 4-10-1940, H. F. Mooney 1418!’

This plant was placed in the genus Alysicarpus by Dalzell and rightly so,

as the pods are somewhat turgid and resemble the pods of that genus, but

the calyx is not glumaceous and the corolla is considerably exserted. As a

matter of fact this and the following species stand intermediate between the

genera Alysicarpus and Desmodium and indicate that probably they are not

naturally separable. But wherever these species be placed Alysicarpus

belgaumensis Wight and A.racemosus Benth. must accompany them, since

there is no doubt that they are all congeneric.

Alysicarpus parviflorus Dalz. in Hook. Kew Journ. 3:211, 1851; Desmodium

parviflorum Baker in Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 2:172, 1876.

Hitherto known from the Western Ghats and Konkan.

‘Taj Bandh Mali, 3,500 ft., Kalahandi, Orissa, 20-12-1948, H. F. Mooney

3185 !. Flowers bright red, turning purple and blue on drying.’

This species forms a connecting link between the genera Alysicarpus and

Desmodium and might with equal force be placed in either. The corolla is

hardly exserted and the calyx is not glumaceous. Leaves 1-and 3-foliolate,

intermixed.

Cynonietra mimosoides Wall.; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 2:267, 1878, in part.

Previously known from the Andamans, Burma, Sunderbans and the Western

' Ghats.

‘Jambu, Mahanadi Djelta, Cuttack district, Orissa, 6-6-1949, H. F. Mooney

3392!. Fairly common on the sandier soils along the fringe of the tidal forest

community. Local name — Singhara.’

A small evergreen tree with lenticellate branches ; fruit (pod) pale brown,

compressed, curiously wrinkled, beaked.

ROSACEAE

Pyrus pashia Buch-Ham. ; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 2:374, 1878.

Known from temperate Himalaya from Kashmir to Bhotan, Khasia Hills,

Manipur and Burma.

‘In Mancheri valley near Laliya and also in Kamaleswar Valley, about

3,600 ft., Surguja State, Orissa, 3-6-1943, H. F. Mooney 22301’

HALORAGACEAE

Myriophyllum intermedium DC.; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 2:433, 1878.

Hitherto known from the Nilgiris, 7,000 ft.; Deccan Peninsula.

‘Nawadit, Samri Pat, 3,700 ft., Surguja State, Orissa, 17-3-1947, H. F. Mooney

2845!. Aquatic, rooting in water.’

RHIZOPHORAGEAE

Bruguiera parvlflora W. & A.; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 2:438, 1878.

Hitherto known from the tidal forests of the Sunderbans, Andamans and

Tenasserim.

‘In tidal forest on bank of Jambu river, Jambu, Mahanadi Delta, Cuttack

district, Orissa, 6-6-1949, H. F. Mooney 3381!’

LYTHRACEAE

Sonneratia alba Sm.; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 2:580, 1879.

Previously known from the Andamans, Burma (Pegu and Mergui) and East

^Godavari district.

‘Jambu, Mahanadi Delta, Cuttack district, Orissa, 6-6-1949, H. F, Mooney

3379!. Bank of creek in tidal forest. Local name Urva.’

This species in herbarium specimens looks very much like S.caseolaris

(Linn.) Engl. ( S.acida Linn, f.) but differs from it chiefly in the absence of

petals. Haines in his flora p. 376 regarding S.acida Linn. f. says ‘The tree

wTas not in flower and the flower is described from a Bombay specimen.’ It

SOME INTERESTING PLANTS FROM ORISSA

671

is, therefore, fairly certain that the species of Sonneratia occurring in the tidal

forest of the Mahanadi Delta is S.alba Sm.

AIZOACEAE

Sesuv ium port ulacastr urn Linn.; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 2:659, 1879.

Hitherto known from various parts of India (on sea-shore) from Bengal,

Burma, Bombay and Madras, but not from Bihar and Orissa.

‘On the bank of tidal river at Jambu. Mahanadi Delta, Cuttack district,

Orissa, 6-6-1949, H. F. Mooney 3395 !. A prostrate, fleshy herb, leaves oblong-

spathulate, 2 inch long.’

Trianthema crystallina Yahl. ; Hk. f. FI. Br. Ind. 2:1879, 660.

Hitherto known from various parts of India but not reported from Bihar

and Orissa.

‘Bank of Kendrapara Canal among bushes at Tanki Belari, Mahanadi

Delta, Cuttack district, Orissa, 9-6-1949, H. F. Mooney 3419 !’.

Gisekia pharnaceoides Linn.; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 2:664, 1879.

Hitherto known from the drier parts of India from the Punjab and Sindh

to Ceylon.

‘Jambu, Mahanadi Delta, Cuttack district, Orissa, 7-6-1949, H. F. Mooney

3403!. On sandy ground in the open.’

V M BE L LIFE RAE

Trachyspermum stictocarpum (Cl.) Wolff in Engler, Pflanzenreich , iv. 228:

89, 1927. Cariurn stictocarpum Cl. var. hebecarpa Cl. in Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind.

2:682, 1879.

So far known from the Central Provinces and Konkan.

‘Kalahandi State, 1,500-3,000 ft., Orissa, Dec. 1939, H. F. Mooney 1192!’

Although Haines mentions this species he actually never collected it from

the area.

Pimpinella heyneana Wall.; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 2:684, 1879.

Previously recorded from Chittagong, Burma and Peninsular India.

‘Kiapodar, 1,350 ft., Kalahandi, Orissa, 18-12-1946, H, F. Mooney 3172!.

On shady banks of large streams.’

RUBIACEAE

Argostemma verticillatum Wall.; H.K. f. FI. Br. Ind. 3:1880, 43.

Known from temperate Himalaya, from Kumaon to Sikkim.

‘G-andamardan Hill, 1,200-3,000 ft., above Narsinghnath, West Sambalpur.

Orissa, 5-10-1949, H.F. Mooney 3700 !. On shady side of moist mpss-covered

rocks, common above 2,000 ft.’

Oldenlandla umbellata Linn. ; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 3:66, 1880.

Hitherto known from Circars, Deccan and Carnatic.

‘Balukhand, Puri, Orissa, 16-5-1948, H. F. Mooney 3021 !. Frequent on

moist shady bank along Sar Lake ‘Cut’.’

Qldenlandia trinervia Betz.; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 3:66, 1880.

Hitherto known from Chittagong, Burma and Peninsular India.

‘Balukhand, Puri, Orissa, 25-5-1948, H. F. Mooney 3035 !.

On moist shady bank at sea level along Sar Lake ‘Cut’. An erect herb,

2-4 in. high with 4-angled stems.’

Anotis montholoni Hk. f. in Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 3:73, 1880.

Previously recorded from Western Ghats, Mysore and Canara to Malabar.

‘Sirkagutu, 3,100 ft., Keonjhar State, Orissa, 3-10-1946, H. F. Mooney 2784!.

On shady bank by forest path in forests’.

672

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

COMPO SITAE

Dichrocephala latifolia (Lamk.) DC.; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 3: 245, 1881.

Hitherto known from the tropical and subtropical Himalaya from Simla to

Sikkim, Khasia hills ; Western Peninsula on the Ghats from Bombay south-

wards.

‘Sagbari, 2,750 ft., Kalaliandi State, Orissa, 24-5-1944, H. F. Mooney 2499!.

In moist situation under shade.’

Blumea blfollata DC.; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 3:260, 1881.

Known from various parts of India but not from Bihar and Orissa.

‘Nayagarh, 350 ft., Nayagarh State, Orissa, 12-3-1943, H. F.. Mooney

2210!. Along edges of rieefield.’

Acanthospermum hispidum DC., Prod. 5:522, 1836.

A hairy dichotomously branched erect annual herb, 1-2 ft. high. Leaves

opposite, sessile, obovate, spathulate, serrate, hairy on both surfaces, l|-3 in.

long. Flow,er heads about J in. in diameter when young, spreading to ^ in.

at maturity, placed at the base of the forking branches and consist of two

kinds of florets, the outer female and rayed, the inner male and tubular.

Peduncle hairy, very short. Female florets about 5-7, developing into achenes

that stand radially. Achenes bristly and having a pair of liom-like spines at

the top. Disk florets 6-7, tubular, yellow. Stamens 5, with united anthers

and free filaments. Ovary inferior, infertile. Pappus absent.

This pernicious weed is a native of South America and is of recent introduction

into this country. It is reported by Gamble (Flora of Madras) from S. Canara

and Salem districts and is now common in Malabar, Coimbatore etc. It is: a

pest in Udaipur State, C. P. which is very close to the western boundary of

our area.

Recently Mooney has collected it on the Main Pat in Surguja. Flowers

March- April, Fruit Oct-Dec.

Galinsoga parviflora Cav. ; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 3:311, 1881.

An introduced American weed now known from various parts of India.

‘Sarnri; 3,800 ft., Surguja State, Orissa, 17.3.1947, H. F. Mooney 2852!’

Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S. Moore in Journ. Bot. 50:211, 1912.

Gynura crepidioides Benth. in Hook., Niger FI. 438, 1849; Bor in Curr. Sc.

7:116, 1938.

‘Purnaguma, 2,000 ft., Karlapat, Kalahandi, Orissa, 19-12-1946, H. F.

Mooney 3177 !. On shady bank in road cutting in moist situations. Flowers

red or deep orange.’

‘Indra Giri, about 3,700 ft., Kasipur, Ivalahandi, Orissa, 27-1-1949, H. F.

Mooney 3250!. Open grassland and among Phoenix bushes.’

An erect succulent usually much branched annual herb, about 2-3 ft. high.

Stem and branches pubescent or nearly glabrous. Leaves alternate, spathulate

usually deeply lyrate — pinnatifid, sometimes not lobed, mostly petiolate, the

upper ones rarely sessile, 1-10 in. long ; lobes acutely dentate, almost glabrous.

Capitula oblong, | — ^ in. long, on long slender pedicels, in a dense or lax

corymbose cyme, rarely solitary. Disk hairy with filiform bracts below.

Involwcral bracts about 15, linear-subulate, glabrous or slightly setulose.

Florets all tubular, hermaphrodite or rarely a few outer ones female, limb

5-toothed. Corolla orange-yellow or tinged with purple, shorter than or equalling

the pappus. Style-branches slender, tips long, subulate, hispid. Anther-bases

entire or subauricled. Achenes narrow, many ribbed ; pappus hairs copious,

fine, white.

This species, which is a native of tropical Africa, was first observed by

Bor in the plains of Assam at Charduar in 1931. Since then it has spread

all over Assam and various parts of Bengal. It has also been reported from

Burma (Parkinson 15665), Darjeeling (Aaizada 18558), Bastar State (Mooney

2591) and Dehra Dun (Raizada !). In Dehra Dun it made its first appearance

about 1940 and is since then invading plantations and getting naturalized. One

SOME INTERESTING PLANTS FROM ORISSA

673

■factor which has undoubtedly a very important bearing on its distribution is

its capacity for producing flowers and fruits all the year round as well as its

tolerance towards very diverse edaphic conditions.

LOGANLAGEAE

Mitrasacme polymorpha R. Br. ; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind: 4: 80, 1883.

Known from Nepal, C. P., Deccan Penninsula etc.

‘Tangula, 2,200 ft., Pal Lahara State, Orissa, 9-10-1946, H. F. Mooney

2826 !. Frequent in open Sal jungle !

GENTIAN AGE AE

Exacum pumilum Gris,eb. ; Hk. f. FI. Br. Ind. 4:1883, 98.

Hitherto known from the Konkan and Anamalai Hills.

‘Supkon Dongar, 2,400-2,900 ft., Sonabera plateau, Khariar Estate, West

Sambalpur, Orissa, 30-9-1949, H. F. Mooney 3666 !. Under shade of tall grasses

on dry sandy soils overlying shale and sandstone. A very slender delicate herb

with bright blue flowers.’

Hoppea fastigiata C. B. Clarke in Hk. f. , FI. Br. Ind. 4: 1.00, 1889.

So far known from Peninsular India.

‘Sinkagutu, 3,000 ft., Koenjhar State, Orissa, 3-10-1946, H. F. Mooney

2789!. Abundant in open grass land, especially in damper localities.’

Canscora sessiliflora R. & S'. ; Hk. f. FI. Br. Ind, 4:1883, 104.

Previously recorded from the Deccan Peninsula — N. Circars and Carnatic.

‘Mundkati, 700 ft., Barapahar, West Sambalpur, Orissa, 16-9-1949,

H. F. Mooney 3588!. In the open on sandy soil overlying sandstone.’

SOLAN AGE AE

Physaliis minima Linn.; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 4:238, 1883.

Known from various parts of India.

‘Kandadhar hill, 3,250 f't, Koenjhar State, Orissa, 4-10-1946, H. F. Mooney

280!. By path in Sal forest.’

Reported by Haines to have been collected from Chota Nagpur.

SCR OPHULA RIA CEA E

Mecardomia dianthera (Sw.) Pennell in Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. , Philadelphia

98:87, 1946. Bacopia chamaedryoides (H.B.K.) Wettst. in Engler et Prantl,

Natur. Pflanzenf. 4:36, 1891. Herpestis chamaedryoides H.B.K., Nov. Gen.

et. Sp. 2:369, 1818. Lindernia dianthera Swartz, Prod. Veg. Ind. Occ. 92, 1788.

‘Near Nawadit on Samri Pat, Surguja State, 17-3-1947, H. F. Mooney

2849!. Abundant and wide spread on grassy banks and in open grass land

above 3,600 ft.’

An annual, diffuse, decumbent, glabrous herb; branches few from the base,

6-12 in. long, prostrate or ascending, often rooting at the lower nodes ; stem

4-angled. Leaves opposite, decussate, almost sessile, ovate, rounded, crenate-

serrate, subacute or obtuse, rounded and at times unequal-sided at the base,

glabrous above, minutely dotted on the under surface, unicostate, midrib sparsely

branched. Flowers solitary, axillary, bisexual, zygomorphic ; pedicel ‘25--5 in,

long, as long as or longjer than the flower, 3-sided; bracteoles 2, arising from the

base of the. pedicel, -1--12 in long, linear lanceolate. Calyx -25 in. long, green,

glabrous, nearly as long as the corolla, persistent, free (or almost 5-partite?).

Sepals 5, free, unequal, posterior and the two anterior ovate, 3-5- veined, the

two lateral linear, 1-veined, enclosed by the larger outer sepals ; frequently one

lateral sepal, usually the right . one, rarely the left one, or both, provided

with a green, linear, basal appendage, which projects beyond the outer sepals

and is bent towards the pedicel; all the sepals are somewhat enlarged in

fruit and persist after cfehiscencee and shedding of the seed. Corolla gamopetaJous,

bilabiate,, very shortly exserted, yellow with purple veins, the colour of the

674 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

veins, most intense towards the posterior side, gradually decreasing in intensity,

towards the anterior side, the veins of the anterior petal almost colourless ;

ccrolla-tube almost cylindric, neither saccate, nor spurred or plaited, nearly as

long as the calyx; lobes small; upper lip outermost in bud, emarginate

(notched); lower lip 3-lobed, lobes spreading, the anterior slightly notched;

a tuft of hairs on the posterior side in the throat of the corolla. Stamens 4,

didynamous, arising from the base of the corolla-tube, included; filaments

slender, filiform ; anther-cells roundish, separate, stipitate, dehiscing by

longitudinal slits. Disk prominent, hypogynous, greenish-yellow. Gynoecium.

bicarpellary, syncarpous; ovary superior, 2-celled, with numerous ovules; style

slightly dilated at the top but not winged, curved towards the anterior side

of the flower near its apex; stigma entire, blunt. Capsule -25 in. long smaller

than the enclosing persistent calyx, cylindrical, 2-valved, septifragal; valves

entire or slightly notched at the tip. Seeds numerous minute ; testa reticulate,

with light brown meshes and dark brown net-work.

The only previous record of this species is from Bengal (Brain, Bengal

Plants 2 (1903) 765 and Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind. 3. No. 2. (1905) 257. It is not

mentioned by Voigt (1845), who completed his account of the Calcutta plants

in 1843 or Hooker in Flora of British India the last volume of which was

published in 1897. Bruhl (Journ. and Proc. As. Soe. Beng. n.s. 4 (1910) 629)

therefore concludes that this species was probably introduced in this country

after 1897. There is also no record of this species by Haines in his Botany

of Bihar and Orissa. Recently, however, Raizada has collected it from Benares

and Dehra Dun. It is a native of America.

Adenosma microcephalum Hk. f., in FI. Br. Ind, 4:264, 1884.

Hitherto known from Burma (Tenasserim) and Cambodia.

‘Near Aurar Village, 2,300 ft., Sonabera plateau, Kliariar, West Sambalpur,

Orissa, 3-10-1949, H. F. Mooney 3696 !. Under shade of quartzite boulder on

dry rocky outcrop.’

OROBANCHACEAE

Aeginetia peduncuiata Wall.; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 4:320, 1884.

Known from various parts of India but not definitely reported from Bihar

and Orissa.

‘Khariar, Sonabera plateau, 2,100-2,400 ft., West Sambalpur, Orissa,

30-9-1949, H. F. Mooney 3668 !. Parasitic on Themeda spp. and fairly common

on Sonabera plateau, where it wras seen several times.’

Although mentioned by Haines in his Botany of Bihar and Orissa p. C-12,

it has never hitherto been collected from that area.

LENTIB ULA RIA CEA E

Utricularia striatula Sm. in Bees Cycl. 37: n. 17, 1819. U.orbiculata Wall.

Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 4:334, 1884.

Hitherto known from various parts of India but not from Bihar and Orissa.

‘Sirkagutu 2,500 ft., Keonjhar State, Orissa, 2-10-1946, H. F. Mooney

2766!. Growing on moist rock.’

GESNERACEAE

Epithema carnosum Benth. var. hispida Clarke; Hk. f., FI. Br. India 4 : 369,-

1884.

Previously known from the Western Ghats, Nilgiris and Tinnevelly hills.

‘Kapilas forest, 1,000 ft., Dhankanal State, Orissa, 16-9-1942, H. F. Mooney

2067 and 2724 !. A succulent herb growing among moss on rocks in valley

close to stream’.

ACANTHACEAE

Strobilanthes pulneyensis ? Clarke in Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 4:438, 1884.

So far known from the Western Ghats, Coorg, Nilgiris, Pulney hills etc.

‘Karlapat. 2,400 ft, Kalahandi State, Orissa, 24-12-1939, H. F. Mooney

Dehra Dun Herb. No. 83738!. In glen.’

SOME INTERESTING PLANTS FROM ORISSA

675

‘Chandragiri, 3,200 ft., Ivalahandi State, Orissa, Jan. 1988, H. F. Mooney

Dehra Dun Herb. No. 83075 !’

These specimens were identified by Mr. V. Narayanaswami at the Calcutta

Herbarium as S.neilgherrensis. Bedd. var. but to me they appear to be closer

to S .pulneyensis Cl., the flattened heads being a very distinctive character and

also shape of the bracts, which are not narrow-oblong. In all probability it is

a variety intermediate between the two species and indicates that the two

species are not specifically distinct. Further field investigation is, however,,

necessary to confirm the above conclusions.

Haplanthus verticillatus Nees ; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 4:506, 1884.

Hitherto known from C.P. and the Western Peninsula.

‘Tej Band Mali; 3,300 ft., Kalahandi State, Orissa, 20-12-1948, H. F. Mooney

3183!’

VERBENACEAE

Avicennia marina (F.orsk.) Vierh. in Denkschr. Akad. Wien. 71:435, 1907.

Hitherto known from the Sunderbans, Burma, Andamans and the Deccan

Peninsula in tidal waters and salt swamps.

‘In mud on bank of tidal creek at Jambu, Mahanadi Delta, Cuttack district,.

Orissa, 6-6-1949, H. F. Mooney 3394 !’

LABI AT AE

Platystoma africanum. Beauv., FI. Owar. 5:61 t. 95, fig. 2., 1802’.

JP. flaccidum Benth ; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 4:611, 1885.

Previously reported from Dharwar, N. Canara and Mysore

‘Pipokheri, 300 ft., Keonjhar State, Orissa, 10-10-1946, H. F. Mooney 2755!.

A herb common in forest, flowers very pale blue’.

'AM ARAN TA CEA E

Gomphrena celosioides Mart., in Nov. Act. Nat. Cur. 13:301, 1826.

‘G-olapalli, 400 ft., south of Bastar State, Orissa, 6-1-1943, II. F. Mooney

2147 !. Very local on open heavily grazed and trodden grass-land near Range-

Quarters.’

An annual or perennial, much branched, prostrate or procumbent herb.

Tap root stout, very long. Branches densely clothed wTith adpressed or spread-

ing' long' white hairs; nodes swollen. Leaves opposite, shortly stalked, entire,

oval-oblong, spathulate or oblong-elliptic, 1-2 in. long, attenuate at the base,

glabrous above, covered with long wdiite shaggy hairs beneath. Flowers in-

dense cylindrical, solitary, terminal or axillary spikes *5-1-5 in. long. At the

base of each spike are two small leaves. Flowers hermaphrodite, dull white

compressed, each writh one bract and two bracteoles. Bract short, membranous,

ovate, acute, at times denticulate, persistent; bracteoles as long as the flower,

boat shaped, white, membranous and shortly winged on the back at the top.

Perianth 5-partite covered with dense white wool, the 2 inner lateral segments

larger, concave, woolly, perfectly green along the middle, the 3 outer ones

transparent, scalelike, woolly at the base only. Staminal-tube long, 5-fid, anthers

yellow, 1-celled, filaments united into a long tube. Style short, 2-lobed, Fruit

enclosed by the hardened perianth. Seed small, somewhat compressed shining,

reddish-brown or orange-red, falling away from the fruit on ripening.

Native of S. Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay and Argentine, of very recent

introduction but now very rapidly spreading and becoming a troublesome weed

on lawns.

Till recently this species was erroneously identified as Gomphrena decumbens

Jacq. or G. dispersa Standley. It can, however, be distinguished from both

these species, by the very narrow, often obscure, and entire or scarcely toothed

crest on the keel of the bracteoles, which is broadest and appears to. rise at

some distance below the sharply acute apex. Moreover G. decumbens' differs

in having the bracteoles often tinged with pink and much longer than flowers ;

while G. dispersa has the conspicuous crests of the bracteoles widest at or

676

JOURNAL , B OM BA Y NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY t Vol. 48

near the apex so that the flowers have an obtuse facies. Each of these species

has a more northern distribution in tropical America, namely in Mexico and

around the Caribbean Sea. There can, of course, be no possibility of confusion

of G.celosioides with the commonly cultivated garden G.globosa Linn, which

has wider, globose, variously coloured heads.

Flowers practically throughout the year.

A native of S. Brazil, and of very recent introduction into this country.

1 have also collected or seen it from Dehra Dun, Delhi, Allahabad, Ajmer,

Ranikhet, Madras, Coimbatore etc.

Psilotrichum ferrugineum Moq. ; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 4:725, 1885,

Known so far from Bengal.

Near Sonkardili, 2,000 ft., Keonjliar State, Orissa, 5-10-1946, H. F. Mooney

2816!. In Swampy ground.’

Alferoaathera pungens H.B.K., Nov. Gen. et Sp., 2:206, 1817. A. echinata

Srn., in Bees Cycl. 39: Supp. n. 10, 1819.

‘Champua, 1300 ft., Keonjhar State, Orissa, Nov. 1948, H. F. Mooney

3124 !. In grass.’

A prostrate spreading biennial herb. Stem zig-zag, slightly tinged with pink,

covered all over with shaggy hairs. Leaves simple, opposite, exstipulate very un-

equal ; petiole short somewhat ensheathing at the base ; lamina oblong-orbicular

or ovate orbicular, entire, narrowed at the base, covered with a layer of very

short silky hairs, 1-1 in. across, obtuse or abruptly tipped at the apex.

Flowers in heads in the axils of leaves, much compressed and chaffy; heads

in. long. Bracteoles 2. Perianth-segments of 5 unequal, scarious

sepals, 1-nerved ; the outer 3 larger than the inner 2; the posterior one oblong,

obtuse and furnished with a sharp point at the apex ; the 2 lateral ones

lanceolate, sharply pointed at the apex and becoming spiny in fruit ; the

2 inner ones fringed with hairs. Stamens 5, minute, united at the base into

a cup and alternate with irregularly toothed processes. Ovary superior,

1-celled, 1-ovuled. Fruit a utricle enclosed by the persistent perianth, the

bract and the bracteoles. Seed round, brownish.

A native of tropical America. It v7as introduced into this country about

1913. This wreed was first collected on the Melagiri hills in Salem district,

Madras in 1913 and is now rapidly spreading and has already got established

in Coimbatore, Bangalore, and Madras. It has also been collected from Bombay

by Santapau and from Dehra Dun by Baizada. I have myself seen it growing

at Shahadra near Delhi and in the Indian Agricultural Research Institute

grounds in New Delhi.

I have been unable to satisfy myself with the correct identity of this plant

as its nomenclature is mixed up with taxonomy. Further research is necessary

to settle this point.

EUPHORBIACEAE

Jatropha heterophylla Heyne ex Hk. f. in Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 5:382, 1887.

Hitherto known from the Deccan Peninsula.

‘On the boundary line of Sal forest near Titlagarh, Balangir Patna, Orissa,

8-7-1949, H. F. Mooney 3454 !. Sub-gregarious in a small patch on the open

line and extending some way inside the forest.’

Chrozopfiora parvifolia Ivlotzscli ex Schweinf. PI. quaed. Nilot. 10 (1862);

Plain in Kew Bull. (1918) 91; C.plicata 2, Hk. f. FI. Br. Ind. 5:1887, 410.

Previously reported from various parts of India but not from Bibar and

Orissa.

‘Bhawani patna, 800 ft., Kalahandi, Orissa, 4-8-1949, H. F. Mooney 3564!.

Common in fields on black cotton soil. Twto glands at base of leaf-blade.’

URTICACEAE

Ficus foveofata Wall.; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 5:527, 1888.

Previously known from the outer Himalaya, the Khasia hills, Chittagong

and Burma,

SOME INTERESTING PLANTS EROM- ORISSA-' , 677

Tangula, 2,200 ft., Pal Lahara State, Orissa , 1-10-1946, II. F. Mooney

2825 !. Creeping on rocks and bases of trees near streams and moist places

under shade.’

Lecanthus wightii Wedd. ; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 5:1888, 559 in part.

Previously recorded from various parts of India but not from Bihar and

Orissa. '

‘Slopes of Gandamardan Hill, 2,500-3,000 ft., above. Narsinghnath, West

Sambalpur, Orissa, 5-10-1949, H. F. Mooney 3716 ! . On moist . mossy rocks

in shady places.’

Efatostemma surculosum Wight; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 5:572, 1888.

Known from various parts of India but not , recorded from Bihar and

Orissa. < ■ v i ■

‘Goyalghati, Plathar valley, 1,000 ft., Kapdlas Hills, Dhenkanal State,

Orissa^ 16-9-1942, H. F. Mooney 2068!. A small succulent herb growing among

moss on rocks. ’

ORCHIDACEAE

aben rria grandiflora Lindl. ; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 6:136, 1890.

Previously known from the Western Peninsula.

'Khandual Mali, 3,300 ft., Karlapat, Kalahandi, Orissa, 12-7-1949, H. F.

Mooney 3471!. Abundant in crevices of laterite on plateau in South Kalahandi.’

LILIACEAE

Dipcadi monfanum (Dalz.) Baker; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 6:346, 1892.

Previously recorded from the Bombay Presidency.

'Tejbandh Mali, 3,300 ft., near Gunpur, South Kalahandi, Orissa, 16-7-1948,

PI. F. Mooney 3091!. Growing gregariously all over the hill side.’

The specimen quoted above differs in several respects from the description

of D. piontanum (Dalz.) Baker. According to Mooney the flowers are pale

vermillion or pale brick red. It is in all probability a var. nov. if not a sp.

Nov., but the material sent is insufficient to decide the issue.

COM ME LIN AC EAE

Phaeneilema paniculatum Bruckner in Notiz. Bot. Gart., Berlin 10 (1927)

56; Aneilema paniculatum Wall.; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 6:1892, 381.

Known previously from the Deccan Peninsula.

‘Sonabera plateau, 2,100-2,400 ft., Khariar, West Sambalpur, Orissa,

28-9-1949. H. F. Mooney 3641 !. On very shallow sandy soil on bare quartzite

rocks in the open. Flowers bright blue.’

Also collected on the summit of Gandamardan Hill, 3,200 ft., above

Narsinghnath, Sambalpur district by Mooney 3707 !.

Phaeneilema scaberrima (Bl.) Eaizada Comb. nov. ; Commelina scaberrima

Bl. Enum. 1:4, 1827; Aneilema scaberrimuni Kunth Enum. 4:69, 1843; Ilk.

f., FI. Br. ind. 6:382, 1892.

So far known from the tropical eastern Himalayas and Khasia hills ;

Western Ghats; Bampa hills and Ceylon. \ 1 '

‘Srikuti; 700 ft., Banpur State, Orissa, 5-10-1942, H. F. Mooney 2106!,

On moist bank under moderate shade in semi-evergreen forest.’

ERIOCAULA.CEAE

Eriocaulon breviscapum Koern. ; Hk. f., Fi. Br. Ind. 6:575, 1893.

Known so far from North Canara.

‘Near Koira, 2,000 ft., Bonai State, Orissa, 25-2-1946, H. F. Mooney

2623 !. In. running water of perennial streams.’

3

678

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , FoZ. 48

I am not at all satisfied with the identification of this plant as I am

unable to find any reliable character by which to distinguish this species from

E.nvulare Dalz. The distinguishing characters given by Euhland in

Pfianzenreich are, to my mind, very unsatisfactory.

Eriocaulon echinulatum Mart.; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 6:579, 1893.

Hitherto reported from Tavoy, Burma.

‘Motijharan, 650 ft., Sambalpur, Orissa, 11-12-1947, H. F. Mooney 2987 L

In muddy ground near spring.’

Eriocaulon thwaittsl Koern. ; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 6:583, 1893.

So lar known from the Nilgiris and Ceylon.

‘Purhaipada, 2,000 ft., Bhuinya hills, Keonjhar State, Orissa, 5-10-1946,

H. F. Mooney 2815!. In open grass land.’

Eriocaulon ritchieanum Euhland in Pflanzenr. iv. 80:73, 1903; Fyson in

Journ. Ind. Bot. Soc., 3:16, 1922. E.horsley-kondae Fyson l.c 13. t. '43.

Previously known from the Central Provinces and Peninsular India.

‘Nawadit, 3,700 ft., Samri Pat, Surguja State, Orissa, 9-5-1940, II. F. Mooney

1295!. Growing in stream.’

CYPERACEAE

Fimbr isi>Iis polytriclioides (Eetz.) Yahl. ; Hk. f., Fi. Br. Ind. 6:632,

1893.

Previously known from Bengal and the Deccan Peninsula.

‘Marsaghai, Mahanadi Delta, Cuttack district, Orissa, 10-6-1949, H. F. Mooney

3421 !. On slightly elevated patch of sandy ground by edge of rice-field in

otherwise low-lying locality. ’

Fin. bristylis giobulosa (Eetz.) Kunth ; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind., 6:644, 1893.

Previously known from Nepal, Assam, Burma and Ceylon.

‘Marsaghai, Mahanadi Delta, Cuttack district, Orissa, 3-6-1949, H. F. Mooney

3336!. In rice-field on heavy clay.’

The specimen quoted above is abnormally small for this species but is, I am

sure, correctly named.

Fimbristylis cyperoides E. Br. Yar. cinnamometorum C. B. Clarke in Hk.

f., FI. Br. Ind. 6:650, 1893.

So far reported from Burma, Bastar State and South India.

‘Champabandh Mali, 3,400 ft., Karlapat, Kalahandi, Orissa, 16r7-1949,

II. F. Mooney 3505 !. On thin soil over laterite.’

Fuirtna uncinata Kunth; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 6:666, 1893.

So far known from Peninsular India.

‘Balukhand, near Puri, 25-5-1948, H. F. Mooney 3034 !. On moist shady

bank of the Sar Lake “Cut”, sea level.’

Rhynchospora wightiana Steud. ; Hk. f . , FI. Br. Ind. 6 : 669, 1SQ3.

Hitherto reported from Peninsular India.

‘Junagarh, 700 ft., Kalahandi, Orissa, 15-12-1948, H. F. Mooney 3165 !.

In dry sandy waste land.’

Rhynchospora gracillima Clarke in Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 6:671, 1894.

So far recorded from Khasia hills, Tinnevelly and Ceylon.

‘Near Sankiari, 2,500 ft., Jaspur State, Orissa. Sept. 1947, H. F. Mooney.

In moist forest glades with small grass and sedges.’

Scleria biflora Eoxb. ; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 6:687, 1894.

Previously recorded from Bengal, Assam and Ceylon.

"Motijharan, 600 ft., Sambalpur, Orissa, 3-9-1948, H. F. Mooney 3105!

SOME INTERESTING PLANTS FROM ORISSA

67l>

This species very closely resembles S.tessellata Yv’illd. and may better be

considered a variety of it, since the only difference is in the lobes of the disc-

margins which are short, ovate, erect, thin, pale in S.tessellata, and lanceolate,,

acute or subulate, erect, stout, ferruginous- brown in S. biflora. Eoxb.

Scleria zeylasica Poir. ; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 0:687, 1894.

So far reported from Tenasserim, Nicobars & Ceylon.

‘Motijharan, 600 ft., Sambalpur, Orissa, 3-9-1948, H. F. Mooney 3103!’

Diplacrum caricioum E. Br., Prod. 241, 1810. Scleria caricma Benth ,

Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 6:688, 1894.

Hitherto known from various parts of India but not from Bihar and

Orissa.

‘Motijharan, 600 ft., Sambalpur, Orissa, 30-11-1947, H. F. Mooney 3982!.

Among grass.’

GRAM IN MAE

Panicum aurilum Presl. ; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 7:40, 1897.

Eeported by Haines from north Bihar (Tarai near Purneah and Monghyr)

but so far not recorded from Orissa.

‘Sankardih, 1,700 ft., Pauri hill, Bamra, Orissa, 26-6-49, H. F. Mooney

3439!. In mud by edge of perennial pool in stream under shade in Sal forest. r

Pseudoraphis brunoniana Griff., Not. ad. Plant. Asiat. 3:29, 1851.

Chamaeraphis spinescens Poir. var. brunoniana Hk. f. , FI. Br. Ind. 7:62, 1897.

Hitherto known from several parts of India but not from Bihar and Orissa.

‘Narsinghpur, Narsinghpur State, Orissa, 5-8-1946, H. F. Mooney 2687 L

A floating grass forming a tangled mass in tank.’

‘Near Eengli, Sambalpur, Orissa, 16-9-1947, H. F. Mooney 2897 !. Grows

in ponds. ’

Pseudoraphis minida (Mez) Pilger in Notiz. Bot. Gart, Berlin 10:210,

1928. Chamaeraphis gracilis Hack, apud Hk. f. , FI. Br. Ind. 7:62, 1897

(non Hack, in Engl. Bot. Jahrb. 6:236, 1885.)

Previously recorded from Lower Bengal, Assam, and Burma.

‘Balukhand, near Puri, Orissa, 25-5-1948, H. F. Mooney 3031 !. An aquatic

grass growing in water upto about 9 in. deep and on damp ground along

the margin of Sar Lake “Cut”. Tends to grow m small gregarious patches.’

Dimeria lehmanni Hack.; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 7:104, 1897.

Hitherto known from Kambakkam hills in South India and Ceylon.

‘Sonabera, 2,150 ft., Khariar, Sambalpur district, Orissa, 29-9-1949, H. F.

Mooney 3658 !’

Dimeria mooneyi Eaizada, sp. nov.

‘In crevices of bare quartzite at Sonabera, 2,150 ft., Khariar, Sambalpur

district, Orissa, 29-9-1949, H. F. Mooney 3,652 and 3657 !’

A very distinct species with solitary spikes, close to D. avenacea C. E. C..

Fischer. Typus Mooney 3657 in Herb. Dehra Dun.

Arthraxon echinatus Hochst. in Flora (1856) 188; A. spathaceus Hk. f., in

FI. Br. Ind. 7:1897, 145.

Hitherto known from the Deccan Peninsula and Assam.

‘Usakothi valley, 1,000 ft., near Lohra-Behera, Barapahar, West Sambalpur,

Orissa, 20-9-1949, H. F. Mooney 3614 !. A very diffuse grass up to 24 in.

high and rooting at the nodes, on quartzite rocks, under very light shade/

Artbraxon nudus Hochst. in Flora 1856:188. A.ciliaris Beauv. in paid; Hk.

f., FI. Br. Ind. 7:146, 1897.

So far known from Assam, Burma, etc.

680 JOURNAL] BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

‘Near Kholgaon, 700 ft., Sambalpur, Orissa,' 28-10-1947, H. F. Mooney

2933!. Growing in mixed deciduous forest.’

Coelorachis darker (Hack.) Blatter & McCann in Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist.

Soc. 32:33, 1927 . Rottboellia clarkei Hack. ; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 7:156, 1897.

Known so far from , the Western Peninsula.

‘Kardhana, 3,000 ft.,' Jaspur State, Orissa, Sept. 1941, H. F. Mooney 1825 !.

In moist glade near a stream under light shade.’

Sporobolus pili ferus Ivunth ; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 7:251, 1897.

Hitherto known from various parts of India but not from Bihar and

Orissa.

‘Kardhana, about 3,000 ft., Jaspur State, Orissa, Sept. 1941, H. F. Mooney

1811!. Abundant on dry, stony upland.’

Tripogon jacquemontii Stapf ; Hk. f., FI. Br. India. 7: 286, 1897.

Known from various parts of India but not definitely from Bihar and

Orissa.

‘Basang Mali, 3,500 ft.; Kasipur, Kalahandi State, Orissa 30-5-1944,

H. F. Mooney 2518!. Abundant.’

Although mentioned by Haines on p. 966 he actually never collected it from

the area.

Tripogon bromoides Both; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 7:287, 1897.

Hitherto reported from the Western Ghats and Ceylon.

‘Sonabera plateau, Khariar, Sambalpur dist., Orissa, 15-4-1949, H. F. Mooney.

3299!. On bare sandstone cliffs at 2,500 ft. and extending to 3,300 ft. on

Sonabera plateau but much more abundant. ’

The spikes in the specimen quoted above are considerably smutted but in

all probability it is correctly named. The lemmas are 4-fid.

Tripogon roxburghianus Bhide in Journ. Proc. As. Soc. Beng. (n.s.) 7:515,

1911 Lepturus roxbmghianus Hk. f. in Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 7 :365, 1896 (fortassis

Steudel) .

Previously recorded from the Deccan Peninsula.

‘ Jantiabandh, 3,700 ft. , south Kalahandi, Orissa, 17-7-1949, H. F. Mooney

3530. In moist ground close to “dew pond” in laterite or shallow soil forming a

dense sward. Gregarious in small patches.’

Eragrostis tenuifolia Ilochst. ; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 7:322, 1897.

Hitherto recorded from the Central, "Western and Southern India.

‘On the Pats 3,000-3,500 ft., Jaspur State, Orissa, Sept. 1941, H. F. Mooney

1891 !. Very abundant on clay soils.’

Eragrostidla bifaria (Vahl.) Bor in Ind. Forester 66:207, 1940 et in

FI. Assam 5:107, 1940. Poa bifaria Vahl., Sym. Bot. 2:19, 1791. Eragrostis

coromandeliana Wight; Hk. f., FI. Br. Ind. 7:325, 1897.

Previously known from Peninsular India.

Sundargarh, 800 ft., Gangpur State, Orissa, 28-7-1948, H. F. Mooney 3086!’

■. : . .. vvv . ■; -.hiwj k !\ivk: r.;\ v/WhOi

NOTES ()\ TFIK ;SNAKBg XnH :MA^A^'OP'

. : THE HIGH WAVY MOUNTAINS, MA.BHEA DISTRICT,

; , : . ' ;V SOUTH ; INDIA , ::\H: '

v Angus' E. Hutton ',;;i • ;i’ ■

,P •• , a pm i .ovu of mvn

y ... ' ' ' 1 . ' ; P'art II— Mammal s ‘ V . .

, , , (With, on e\ plate) ' . . ; i

.. : : ; ’ : ' .;n,u7 •>;! ; .. : o ■; , ’ 7 . ; . . • ,

: (Continued: from p. 460 of \ this * .volume) )■

Tlie area covered by this note is the same as that described

at the commencement of part one, but includes, in addition, the

Yprushnaad Valley, /which lies to, the .east of tiie High /Wpvy Mts.

, This valley, which, runs north, and south, is i, about 20, ; miles in

Ifehgth and 10 in width and is ( drained by the Vaigai river . The

aMi' from 1,800 ft. to 3,000 ft. 1 is covered with thick deciduous

forest with a dense undergrowth , ,of pan tana and elephant ; , grass :

Above > 3,000 ft. it merges into eyergreen forest which runs up to

over 6,000 ft. at the southern end. Except for a small area under

paddy and cotton around Mylandamparai at the northern end, and

some cardamom and coffee cultivation in/thd hvergfbenHdhe^t; the

whole area, is completely wild and uninhabited save for a few

jungle people— Puli ars— who lead, a miserable existence , hi this

extreme] y malarious valley. ; .

'hThe rainfall is Very light and' mostly : falls during the: JSf.-E.

Mbpspon.

.Though dealing with Mamjnak occurring in the High Wavy Mts.

some of the observations were made in the Aiiamalai Hills of the

same species in captivity. : ; ww; ■

| My thanks are due to my friends who have allowed me- to in-

corporate their observations into these notes and who have assisted

me in every way. '• ' ' 7

ESephas maximus . Indian Elephant.: (Tamil:, Ymnai ,) :

Very common throughout the area, but visits the higher hills - Only during

the" dry weather. They have inherited roads along which they Travel -on their

migrations.. One road which is. the main route between ■ the Y arushPaad V alley

and Travancofe is well over 20 ft., wide. ;Some elephants1 spend the; whole1 year

ip : tins valley but the majority of them : migrate id TraVancore in June-JUlv

anp. return in December- January. The reason for this is that the grass burning

in the Varushnaad starts in June, as it ‘does not receive the South West Monsoon,

hub in Travancofe (the Periyar Game Sanctuary area) the grass * burning starts

after the North East Monsoon is over, so really the elephants ' are driven back

and forth. Some of the herds on their way .'back come up to the High

Wayys, in ' November-Deceinber and remain there till May- June. They do a

gfeat" (feijT bf d.am’agu in the cinchona . clearings,' .and .to a far lesser extent,

t'p the tea. They are particuiarly attracted ‘ by tea 'and 'cinchona nurseries,. and

]ustu W’Mk over the" beds , ' -desolatiph. in their .wakp ;v presumably* they

Tike the , soft Carth underfoot. ^Several times tTe^- havC passed close to buildings,

Mt'havbnbvhr attempted to damagd them: /, Soifip yeaVs dgbna yopng ohe was borh

Withih ! 100 yards of :some cobly lilies'. frTfre dam’s ‘ Attendant *’ was a § grown

ohy-^pdssi’bly ' its prefroub : ^ourigst'er. ; The - whole f difttif D passed in' fujl Wiew

Pf o^the copies on ' the ' day after the birth. 'The ' herds in thb hills0 rarely

€82 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

exceeded twenty animals. When they are out feeding, either in the clearings or

in the grassland the old bulls generally stop in the jungle or very close to

them. One herd was being watched when an aeroplane flew over, and the

reaction was instantaneous ; all the elephants formed a circle facing outwards

with the youngsters in the centre, until the danger had passed, and then

they bolted for the jungle.

They were regular visitors to a large water hole near one of the bungalows

though generally during night. Many years ago a lot of elephant trapping

used to be done up here, by whom no one seems to know; there are chains

of disused pits across all the main elephant paths and the present paths weave

in out among them. Last year one elephant slipped and fell into a pit some

10 feet deep and later escaped ; the other elephants had pushed in small trees

apparently to help it to do so. The remains of two dead elephants were

found, one in the High Wavys, and one in the Varushnaad. The former

only consisted of one thigh bone and the lower jaw, and the latter was a

fairly recent death — a cow — which I was told by some Puliars had been in

a weak condition for some days.

In 1937 an elephant was observed while actually giving birth to a calf in

the Varushnaad. My informant tells me it was lying on its back. One curious

habit of elephants which I have not seen recorded anywhere is that of sliding-

down a steep bank just for the fun of it. I personally have only seen one

young bull repeat this sliding twice but other observers have seen a whole

herd doing it. I know of several ‘slides’ or chutes where they amuse them-

selves in this way and all of them end in water. Sometimes, when in a bad

mood they give vent to their anger by pushing down trees and thrusting at

them with their tusks, I havie seen quite big areas of jungle cleared of small

trees in this manner, with the bigger trees scarred by their tusks.

Bos gaurus. Indian Gaur or Bison. (Tamil: Kartu Madu .)

A few herds live in the hills wandering from one grazing ground to another.

In the Varushnaad there are far larger herds, but nowhere are they common.

The great rinderpest epidemic some years ago, seems to have reduced their

numbers badly in this area. Very few good heads are to be seen. The bison

follow the same migration paths as the elephants, though I do not think they

travel in company. Occasionally they visit the tea, but do no damage and

keep pretty much to themselves. One parti-coloured animal was seen in 194G,

but has not been seen since. Perhaps it had been wallowing in the w^hite clay

which occurs in patches up here, which had dried on its coat giving it the

parti-coloured appearance? It was watched at 200 yards. Several remains of

bison have been found, including two which had undoubtedly been killed by

tiger.

Hemitragus hylocrius. IN ilgiri Tahr. (Tamil: Varri Ardu .)

This animal though very common, is entirely confined to a few hill-tops,

which affoyd it considerable safety from panthers. The biggest herd I have

seen numbered well over 200 animals, including 9 ‘saddlebacks’. I once saw

a duel between two males (described in Vol. 47, No. 2, p. 374). There does

not seem to be any fixed breeding season, though I should say the majority

of young ones are born about May-dune. During the dry weather, when

water on the precipitous slopes has all dried up and the grass is being burnt

off, the tahr travels amazing distances, to fresh grounds in search of grazing

and water. I have seen a complete herd in the centre of the Varushnaad

valley, at about 2,000 ft. and well over 6 miles from the nearest hill, at this

time. On another occasion I saw 7 sambar grazing in the middle of a herd

of tahr, which took no notice of them at all. Wild dog sometimes succeed in

cutting off a few from a herd and killing them. Three were seen in the ever-

green forest about a couple of miles from their usual area, who must have been

driven by wild dog. The heads in these hills are not very big and I doubt-

if thjere are many over 14 in. to be had, though there was one old w’arrior I

tried to get, who had horns quite 16 in. or more in length ; but he was too

cunning for me. I have only once seen a tahr miss its footing on the steep

hill-sides, and that was when I suddenly came upon a solitary one which in

its efforts to escape jumped down on to a loose tuft of grass on a steep precipice,

and fell a good 50 or more feet and regained its balance and made good

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Evergreen forest with large rocky patches. A Our Lion-tailed Monkey with its friend the Black

favourite haunt of tiger and sambar. Bison visit the Cat.

grassy ridge on the right.

SNAKES AND MAMMALS OF THE HIGH WAVY MOUNTAINS 683

its escape though it was limping a bit. The tahr certainly seems to be

maintaining its numbers well in this area, if not on the increase, and there

is very little poaching d,one.

Axis axis. Spotted Deer. (Tamil : Pulli Mam.)

The Puliars and forest watchers tell me there are a few isolated herds in

the extreme N.-E. of the Varushnaad valley, but as this place is a great

distance from the estate, I was never able to visit it. I am told the heads are

quite good, and have seen a few which were shot therte. It is said to be

maintaining its numbers, but some poaching goes on.

Rasa unicofor. Sambar. [Tamil: Mila ; Mam or Kombu Mam (stag).]

A very common animal throughout the area but not where the jungle is

too thick ; it is commonest in the hills. They do a considerable amount of

damage on the estate and are looked on as a pest. They strip the bark off

Dadap ( Lithosperma sp.) shade trees, and eat the leaves; are particularly

fond of the bark of Gupressus macrocarpa, and kill hundreds of these trees

annually in spite of protection given. They favour Grevilleas to rub their

horns on to remove the velvet ; they eat the tops of tea and cinchona plants

and in fact are a thorough nuisance. Many are shot each year, others are

caught in nooses set by the estate coolies, and wild dogs kill off several, but

in spite of all this they are on the increase. Their breeding season is not

clearly defined though most of the young arfe born at the start of the S.-W.

Monsoon in May- June. It seems strange that ‘Mother Nature’ should arrange

for so many of her young ones to be brought into a world of rain, wind

and cold for the first 6 months of their lives and it is a wonder that such a

large percentage survive. I once came upon a stag and a hind which were

courting and eventually mated in my presence, and I obtained a few photographs

of them, though unfortunately due to under-exposure unsuitable for reproduction

here. This was in the month of March, and the stag had recently shed liis

horns ; surely a curious state of affairs , as the horns are mainly intended

for display or defence at this period. They were probably very late breeders.

Stags are rarely out of velvet here till September-October. The heads in this

area are very small, anything over 24 in. being unusual. The biggest head

I have seen from these hills was just o^er 30 in. In the Varushnaad they

run bigger and have a better spread. This must be due to the more open

country, compared to the thick jungle of the hills. Once a young sambar was

found almost dead in the tea by some pluckers. It had a big hole above its

nose which was full of maggots. I put it out of its misery and a post mortem

examination revealed a piece of ‘eeta’ (hill bamboo) which had entered above

its nose and passed through the roof of its mouth and severed one eye as

well. The poor creature must have suffered agonies, from its wound. Its

parent was with it when it was found. Sambar, even when their young ones

are being tom to pieces by wild dogs, will not desert them, sometimes at the

cost of their own lives. With regard to the ‘sore neck’ which seems to be

so common among these animals in other parts of India, I have only once

seen a stag suffering from this complaint, out of several animals of both sexes

which have been destroyed here. Much has been w’ritten about sambar

‘stamping grounds’ and I do not intend to add more; though I can say

that there seem to be two sizes of these ‘grounds’. The larger used for

the purposes given by various writers, but the smaller ‘grounds’ I think are

merely resting places, which the sambar keep clear of leaves, with their feet,

the purpose, I take it, being to have a bed comparatively free of leeches.

These smaller ‘grounds’ are generally placed to the leeward of trees and are

used regularly. They usually have a well-scarred tree nearby where the

stags remove the velvet from their horns, the same tree being used for years.

Large quantities of ticks are always to be found in these places — several hundred

getting onto one’s legs in a few minutes if one stands nearby.

Muotiacus muntjac aureus. Barking Deer or Muntjac— Jungle Sheep. (Tam :

Kelai Ardu.)

Not very common on the hills, though it is on the increase. Odd ones are

occasionally seen in the early morning or late evening, when they come out of

684: . JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL 48

thfi jungle ;to- graze. A family party of three was seen, some years ago, and I

have ) seen; pairs during the. months of March-May, when the "young are born.

They are usually the first of the jungle folk, excepting monkeys, to give a

warning of the presence of tiger or panther. A few are accidentally caught

in traps set for porcupine by the estate coolies, each year. They make

charming pets and become very tame, and are quite easy to rear if fed on 2 oz.

fresh milk mixed with 2 oz. hot water, given 4 times a day. They start

eating weeds, and , grass when about 6 Weeks old. In the Anamalais we had

a couple of bucks for oyer two years, and we found out something about the

habits of these animals. We kept , them on the old tennis court , with a variety

of other pets, including rabbits, sheep, chickens and ducks. One day we

found the two jungle sheep eating a litter of baby rabbits which,, had, fallen out

of a hutch. On another occasion they had a young chicken and they iiave

also eaten eggs. They make a queer sound sometimes by grating their teeth

together. In the evenings the two had sham battles together and chased

each other 'around, cracking their heads together, and so on, for an hour or

more at a time. Once while racing round they both jumped over two chicken-

run-frames in one bound. I measured it afterwards and the distance was

10 feet and 1J feet highland the jungle sheep cleared it wdth over a foot to

spare. They are mainly nocturnal in their habits.

Tragulus meminna. Mouse Deer or Chevrotain. (Tamil: Ruram Panni or

Sarakumarn.)

Though rarely seen, this little animal is fairly common and their minute

tracks can often be seen on the sand’ at the side of streams. They seem to be

very fond of water and most of those I have seen have been lying up close to

a stream or water hole. They are very delicate and rather difficult to. rear in

captivity.' I;A pair was caught up here some years ago and was later 'sent to

the Dondon Zoo where they lived for over an year. Occasionally coolies catch

them' in traps though this is discouraged. Comparing skins of these animals

taken at different times of the year, it appears that they get considerably darker

during the monsoon months and the hair also is thicker then. Being nocturnal

in habits they are almost' 5 blind during the day and have to rely upon their

highly developed hearing to detect their enemies. The lowest elevation I have

seen a ffioiise deer is 2,800 feet close to some evergreen forest. They seem to

be 'imnnlfte to the attacks of leeches; the peculiar smell that is left on one’s

hands5 after stroking them may be some secretion that helps in this aspect.

This same smell can be detected on jungle sheep who also seem to be immune.

Soffie investigations in this direction would be rather interesting. They have

a great liking for beans and these are often found half eaten in the garden.

Sus cristatus. Wild Pig. (Tamil: Kartu Panni.)

Another destructive animal, though mostly to private gardens. In the tea

they dig up vast quantities Of Oxalis bulbs, and if these happen to be growing

amongst young tea or cinchona plants, the latter get dug up as well. To

plant sWeet potatoes or tapioca 1 in a garden is merely inviting the pig to do

his worst. They are also attracted by carrion, and I have on maiiy occasions

known pig to dig as much as 4 feet down in order to feed upon the buried

corpse ' of some animal. They have been known to exhume and eat human

bodies. They are the most cunning animals I know7 as, regards the destroy-

ing of them. If one waits for them at one garden they will visit another

andj vice-versa. If a pit is dug, no matter how carefully covered, they will

detect' it, and force a fresh entry into some other part of the garden. Place

a few bombs amongst the ‘potatoes and they will avoid them: only1 rarely

does one get killed by this , method. Occasionally they can be seen while lying

up ’in wallows. If come upon suddenly an old boar, I find, is rather inclined

to charge. However, they invariably give a warning of their intentions by

standing in one place and rocking from side to side for a few seconds. This

is generally long enough to enable one to get up the nearest tree ! They are

commonest in the hills though I have seen their tracks in the Variishnaad

vaMey.: •The' -locals, though aware of •their carrion eating habits X relish1 the

flesh; ' ' •' :’;i ‘ ' o ■ -■ ■

SNAKES AND MAMMALS OF: T'ME Uf&H 'IFaVF MOUNTAINS 685

Pantbera tigris. Tigter; (Tamil : Puli or Kadiiva.)

Only a visitor to tlie hills during the dry weather, though it is possible

a few remain all the year round. Their tracks are frequently seen on all the

main game paths, especially those, that lead to water holes, where no doubt it

is easy for them to secure a meal. An account of a tigress shot up here in

1947, is - given in Vol. 47, Nq. :1. *They . favour evergreen forqst containing

patches of open rocky grassland. One tiger which had been seen nq any times

was almost white in colour, and was believed to be very old. A pair of cubs

wore taken from a cave at the foot of the hills in 1947 and are now. in the

Madras Zoo. A cub was seen in July 1947 and. the tracks of a tigress and one

small cub were seen in February 1948. A tree that a tiger had used for sharpen-

ing his claws was found and the highest scratch marks, (measured with my

rifle), were 13 feet from the ground. / The. so called ‘pooking’ call qf tigers is

frequently heard and often it is ■ answered ' by samhar. The only difference

t can find between the sounds made by tiger and sain bar is that the former

is more ‘throaty’. Some 15 years ago a coolie . was killed by a tiger but was

not eaten, so it cannot be called a man-eater. There was, I believe, a man-eater

in the Varushnaad valley a year or two ago which accounted for several

Puliars, but it was said to have been poisoned by them with some moots or

other plant poisons. The flesh is. used by . the locals as a ‘cure-ally and even

the bones are ground up and used. The. teeth, claws and whiskers are looked

upon, as the most valuable parts. In May 1948, coolies saw a pair fighting

near the estate, tracks seen afterwards confirmed this.

Pa'nthera pardus. Panther or Leopard, ['jamil:.. .Siriipuli, Peria Narri,.', or

Kdru Puli (Black Panther).] , ,

-The Black Panther is far commoner in these hills than the normal spotted

ones, though they are not found outside the evergreen forest area. The spotted

ones are also darker than usual in this area. Their habits and movements

are similar to those of the tiger, though T think they are definitely resident

since: panther kills can be found throughout the year, whereas tiger kills

can only be found during the dry weather; They are extremely common in

the Varushnaad valley where they follow the large 'herds of cattle that graze

there : ih the early part of the monsoon, before the grass is burnt 'off; The

cattle keepers tell me that there are one or two cows killed each night and

sometimes more. No One- goes there’ to shoot them as the malaria is so bad

that it would be asking for trouble to do so. A black panther with two black

cubs killed a cow and two calves in one ni^ht in September 1946 and a small

portion of each was eaten. They did not return to the kills though they were

seen by a watcher a few days later. Some years ago a fine inale black

panther was shot out in the open while it was watching a herd of Ibex, It

measured 7 ft. 6 in. between pegs. Last year another large panther which

measured 8 ft. 6 in. was shot. In May last year a spotted panther with two

spotted cubs was seen on the road one night. 1 once saw a black panther

lying asleep in a tree, some 20. feet up. I thought it was , a monkey and

it wasn’t till I was quite close that I saw it was a black' panthef but un-

fortunately it recognised me as a human being at the same moment and with

one bound was gone. The flesh : is Used for the same purposes' as that of

tigers. ' ■> : m ;

Felts viverrina. Large Tiger-Calt or Fishing Cat. (Tamil: Vang a Narri.)

A rather rare ; animal and even more rarely sqen. My only . record is of

two. kittens whioh had been born in the tea, near a tree-stump which had a

small hoilpw beneath it. They were' found by some weeding coolies who were

attracted to the spot by the sound . 'made by the parent leaving the nest. The

description of it given by the coolies, tallies with that of the tiger-cat. The

two kittens were kept for some time ..by one of our staff who . only. . informed

me when they yvere getting weak, A. friend tqpk ,them on but neither survived

long. . They ./ yyqre rather docife, Jiftje creqt.ure^ aqd, : yery : prettily marked ; neither

had their eyes open when found , though they opened before they died. In the

Anamalai Hills we had a visit by one which during 5 days took the following

nourishment One goose; : next night, 2/ducks; followed by 31 ducks/ then a

pair of rabbits ; then 7 young' rabbits! It Was -haught in a trap '"but escaped

6S6 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

leaving just enough fur etc., behind to identify it. It had torn out the wire

netting of the trap.

Prionailurus bengalensis. Leopard Cat. (Tamil : Puli PoorM.)

This beautiful animal, though not very common, is frequently seen at night

or in the evening due to its habit of sitting on tree stumps in the tea, whence

no doubt it can spy for rats and other small game. I shot three while they

were thus engaged. Another was shot by a friend when it was a good distance

up in a tree. I wonder if they manage to kill roosting birds and squirrels !

I saw a good many more than I shot including a § grown young one in

March 1948. They occur throughout the evergreen forest and I have seen one

in the rocky grassland at about 3,500 ft. There seem to be two varieties of

this cat: one has orange rosettes bordered by black, similar to those of the

panther, and the other has plain black spots with a darker ground coloration.

The latter is the commoner animal, in fact in these hills I have only seen

two with rosettes. Measurements were : head and body 18 in. ; tail 11 in.

(maximum size). I did not weigh any of mine but they would be about 8 to

12 pounds.

Felis chaus. Common Jungle Cat. (Tamil: Kartu Poonai .)

This cat is not common in the hill jungle where I personally have never

seen one, though it seems plentiful at the lower elevations. I saw several in

the deciduous forest area, where it preys upon hares and other game. One large

male I wounded attacked me, but I managed to kick it away from me and

killed it with a second shot as it attacked again. My first bullet had passed

through its chest and stomach and the second found its neck. It was met on

the road late one evening. I am told by locals that it kills and eats otters

but I would not have thought it would be bold enough to do so, as the otter

is no mean adversary.

Moschothera civettina. Large Malabar Civet. (Tamil: Punagu Pooyiai.)

A fairly common animal in the evergreen forest, though not often seen.

Their droppings are frequently found on paths in the tea. Dogs for some

unknown reason love to roll in them, and in those of otters and mongooses.

They smell simply awful after this, and it takes a good few days for the

smell to go. The coolies occasionally catch them in traps and keep them

alive. They collect the civetine which the animal exudes, and they sell it

for ten rupees a tola. Though mainly fruit eaters they will eat meat when

it comes their way, even carrion. The young are born in April, the nest being

placed under a rock or stump. They are difficult to rear. I tried several times,

without success.

Viverricula indica. Small Indian Civet. (Tamil : Punagu Poonai.)

I have only seen one in the deciduous forest at about 3,000 ft., though

it must be fairly common, from the number of droppings seen on the roads.

Paradoxurus jerdoni. Browm Palm Civet. (Tamil : Maran Nai.)

Not very common in these hills, though its queer cry can occasionally be

heard in May, which I presume is the breeding season. Their colour is

extremely variable; I have shot one which was a pale buff, all over, with a

slightly darker tail, and another was dark brown all over, and another light

brown with the last 5 inches of its tail yellow. The two females I shot were

both more ginger in colour underneath. One contained two almost fully

developed young ones. They feed mainly on jungle fruits though I have no

doubt they will kill small birds and mammals if they get a chance. One was

found dead in a tea bush where it had strangled itself in a forked branch. I am

told they become very tame in captivity though I have never kept one myself. i

Herpestes smithii. Long-tailed Mongoose. (Tamil : Keen Pilli.)

A pair were seen once, in the early morning, on a road in the deciduous

forest. They were digging furiously for something, I do not know what, but

1 At the time of writing this, I have a youngster in captivity which shows

signs of doing well. It was caught when half-grown and is very tame.

SNAKES AND MAMMALS OF THE HIGH WAVY MOUNTAINS 687

perhaps some insect, as the drain at the side of the road was a mass of little

pits which had been dug by these two animals. I have seen tracks of

mongoose in the Varushnaad valley, but I am not sure of what species. It

is possible they were of the common Indian mongoose ( Herpests edwardsii ) which

is common in the plains.

Herpestes fuscus. Nilgiri Brown Mongoose. (Tamil: Karupu Keeri.)

The Tamil name means black mongoose and I think this is a more correct

name than brown mongoose, as the animal, in these hills at any rate, is

certainly more black than brown in colour. It is very common and frequently

seen in the tea. Like the last species it digs little holes all over the forest

and roadsides. I once saw one eating an earth snake ( Uropeltis sp.), which

it dropped on seeing me and bolted. This incident led me to believe that

they dig for these snakes. In the Anamalais a nest was found inside a

hollow fallen tree containing three young. The young are certainly reddish

in colour with an extremely comical appearance as they have a scarlet nose

and lips, which I suppose disappears as they get older. This species is a

notorious fish stealer and does a lot of damage for which the .otter gets the

blame. I have proved this in these hills, where I had stocked a water hole

with marral from the plains. Only mongoose tracks were visible when I

found a half eaten fish on the edge of the water, so a trap was set and a

mongoose was caught. The next night another was caught over the same

fish. I do not know how they did it, but they had captured 7 fish, all over

2 lbs. in weight. The next species I am convinced is also a fisherman, though

I have not actually observed it fishing. This mongoose swims well on occasions

so perhaps one swims out and drives the fish shorewards while the other

lies in wait? How they knew I had put fish in the hole mystifies me, as

there were certainly no fish there before. They are also poultry thieves.

Herpestes vitticollis. Stripe-necked Mongoose. (Tamil: Sewapu Keeri.)

A common animal, often seen during the day lying out in the open on

rocks. This mongoose seems to have a favourite rock in its domain where

it defaecates; such a rock, in time becoming covered with droppings. They are

fond of water and one pair lives in a water hole near here. From my observation

platform, they could be seen almost any time of the day slowly progressing

round the edges catching frogs, etc., as they went. Their nest was among the

roots of a large tree near the water’s edge.

Martes flavigula. Southern Marten. (Tamil : Kwran or Maran Poonai.)

Three pairs were seen in these hills and it also occurs in the hills to the

south of the Varushnaad valley. It is not often seen and is very shy and

retiring in its habits. Some years ago a young one was caught by a dog,

when it was feeding on the ground. They are quite fast runners when on

the ground and spend a lot of their time there. I once saw one eating a

Malabar squirrel it had killed, this incident is described elsewhere in the

Journal (48:355).

Amblyonyx cinera. Clawless Otter. (Tamil: Neer Nai.)

A very common animal in most of our hill streams, though being mainly

nocturnal in habits, it is rarely seen. Their droppings are often seen on the

rocks. When suddenly disturbed they make a queer sound like a croaking

hoo-hoo before diving beneath the surface and escaping.

Lutr a vulgaris. Common Otter. (Tamil: Neer Nai or Meen Nai.)

A large male used to live in the water hole mentioned before. He could be

seen any time of the day diving in the water and doing other antics. He

was never seen to catch a fish though there were several there which he could

have caught. He seemed to be after something else, though we never found

out what it was. Possibly water snails or frogs. In the Suruli river earfy

one morning a party of seven otters were seen swimming. I did not see

them myself so I am unable to say whether it w-as one family or not. A

young one was caught in January 1947 when it was roaming near the coolie

lines, but it bit anyone who attempted to touch it and had to be released.

688. JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

The ^perfect skeleton of one was found beside a path in the jungle. On being

examined it was found that at some time in its life it had broken one humerus

which had subsequently healed. The pair are now in the Society’s museum.

This otter often strays a considerable distance from water in search of food

and its tracks are to be found on most game paths for some distane§:;|tom

water. They are fairly common in these hills, though, I am not sure of their

lowest altitude.

Melursus ursinus. Sloth Bear. (Tamil: Karadi.)

A very common animal in this area. It is commonest in the deciduous

forest and in the open grassland ■where wild dates abound. It has been met

in the evergreen forest at over 5,500 ft. One was put up in the tea by some

coolies in January 1947. The pits they make when grubbing for roots, etc.,

are often seen on the forest paths especially on those near open grassland.

They have been seen many times out in the open during the day. On these

occasions they never keep still a moment and behave exactly as if they had been

stung by a bee. I met onje in September 1947 quite close to where a herd of

tahr or ibex was grazing. It saw me when I was a good 400 yds. away and

bolted straight up an almost vertical precipice and was soon out of sight. Up

till then, I had always imagined they had rather poor eyesight, in this instance

it could not have winded me, as I was approaching up wind, and not making

a sound either. I have never seen a young one though some tracks were

seen in the Varushnaad valley in September 1947. During the time a road

was being constructed, bears often paid a visit to the labourers’ camps though

they never harmed anyone; They seem to be nocturnal ks well as diurnal in

their habits.

Cuon alpinus Wild Dog. (Tamil: Chen-Nai .)

Fairly large packs roam the hills, and kill pretty well anything that comes

their way. I do not think they are resident in the Varushnaad though the

Puliars say a few sambar are killed annually by them, mostly during the

North-East Monsoon. They are scarce in the hills at this tune, so perhaps

they find our N.-E. too Wet, and seek their food elsewhere. I have twice met

packs of them on the road at night and feel sure they were hunting sambar

as later, alarm calls were repeatedly heard from the direction in which a

sambar had gone. Our three dogs (a Labrador, a Silky Sydney and a Nepal

Terrier) have twice met them in the jungle and no more notice was taken of

them than a village pi would do. After a few minutes of sniffing around they

went on their way leaving no ill-feeling behind. Many times they ha vO killed

sambar in front of working coolies in the middle of the morning, the. coolies

commandeering the meat. - Once a young stag nearly knocked me over on a read

near the lines, the dogs chased it past them and killed it a little further on

in th>e river. Most of their kills were in water. In the Anamalais in . 1945 a

sambar stag tried , to get into the • dining room of our bungalow at about 8 p.m.

ofie night when it was being chased by wild. dogs. . It broke the; window- frame

and most of the glass and then rushed along the veranda and broke several

flower pots. The following morning it was again chased through the garden

into the tea beyond. We never knew the result of the chase though it was

pretty obvious the dogs were. tiring the unfortunate, beast out. The pups?, are

born in November-December., after the N.E. Monsoon is over. Only on one

occasion up here have I known of the dogs . attempting to . attack a human

being and that was when one of our staff, . when , alone , inadvertently passed

near a kill in the tea and some of the dogs came out on the road and showed

a very menacing attitude towards him and so he wisely .beat a re treat. ; .,

( Canis aureus. Jackal. (Tamil: Koton Nani.)

If Very common in the plains at the foot, of the- hills. I have never . seen one

above 2,500 ft. According to the Puliars 'there are none in the Varushnaad

valley and 1 should think this is correct. The undergrowth there in very

thick for jackal? and the lack of human habitations too, would probably

account for their 'absence, I hayed never seem; a somalled '‘Horn’ known!- locally

.asf. ‘ N arri-Kormbu’:, and , which isi ! supposed' : to t ; have all;: sorts of wonderf u 1

magical, properties, ; In the Anamalais a litter, of three pnps Was'. found in a

SNAKES AND MAMMALS OF THE HIGH WAVY MOUNTAINS 689

hole in the ground in the tea fields at an elevation of 3,600 ft. The pups

were kept in captivity for a time and later had to be destroyed under Medickl

Officer’s orders for fear of rabies.

Vttlpes bengalensis. Indian Fox. (Tamil: Nani.)

A very, common little animal in the plains and the foothills and also I

am told there are a few in; the Yarushnaad valley. It is, said by the locals

that they will exhume and feed on human bodies, though I have no evidence

to show that this is true, beyond the fact that I once saw a couple feeding

on a five-day old panther kill which was about 50% maggots. I shot one on

the road-side one night whilst it was busy eating a hare it had just caught. The

coolie who was with me at the time would not eat the hare as he said it

would be poisoned by the fox having eaten it. The same coolie on the other

hand was only too pleased to feed off the remains of a wild dog’s kill.

SemnopUhecus entellus. Grey Langur. (Tamil: Vella Manthi.)

A few troops here and there can be seen among the foothills, especially

those that are rocky. I havle never seen any in the Varushnaad though there

is no reason why they should not live there. In one locality in the High

Wavys there is a type of monkey that I have seen nowhere else, though a

friend has seen it in the northern end of the Anamalai Hills. It may possibly

be a relation of this species as it has much the same habits. It is much

smaller than this species, being about the size of a lion-tailed monkey. Jts

outstanding difference lies in its colour which is grey with a black nape and

white underparts. It makjjes a noise that I can only describe as being

similar to that made by a lost baby chicken — a sort of plaintive cheep-cheep.

I saw this troop (of twenty odd) twice at over 5,000 ft. but was unable to

obtain any specimens. They are called ‘Samba-Manthi’ by the locals and the

hill bears this name.

Macaca radiata. Bonnet Macaque. (Tamil: Kurangu.)

A very common monkey in the Yarushnaad where large troops of over fifty

animals can be found. They are often seen out on the ground, where they

search for insects and caterpillars. Only once have I come across them in the

higher evergreen forests and that was when a troop of some twenty animals

visited the jungle in front of our bungalow at about 5,000 ft. in March 1947.

They did not remain long and were speeded on their way by the Nilgiri langurs.

In the Anamalais we had one for a few years as a pet, but it got very

dangerous and had to be shot. It was found on the road-side almost dead,

when perhaps two weeks old, and was fed on diluted milk and mashed

banana. In its young days it was a delightful pet but as soon as it developed

canine teeth it became nasty and was especially malicious towards women,

and invariably sought them out when it escaped.

Kasi John ii . Nilgiri Langur. (Tamil: Karu-Manthi.)

Though it is very common in certain areas, it. is comparatively rare in

others. I do: not think they care much for the cold and damp of our monsoons,

especially the wind, and so seldom venture to the tops of the higher ridges

even during the dry weather. But large troops can always be seen, in

the more sheltered valleys. They visit the higher parts of the Yarushnaad

valley at certain times of the year, but never venture far from their home

ground. They have a very definite sense of territory and with a little observation

one can tell the exact place they are likely to be found, on a particular day

of the week, as they have certain feeding grounds which they visit regularly.

In front of our bungalow they used to come and feed on the Morning Glory

creeper which grew there, the flowers being the choice part. In the evenings

they often descended to the ground and foraged for fallen fruits and insects,

etc. If disturbed when they are some way from the jungle it is very amusing

to see the way they attempt to. run. They leap into the air and progress

with a series of galloping jumps and bounds, and can travel quite fast, though

they are occasionally caught by coolies on the run. The method employed is

to catch them by the tail, swing them in the air and beat their heads on the

690 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , FoZ. 48

ground. The flesh is highly esteemed by the locals as a cure for all sorts of

lung complaints. The liver is said to be the best part. Some folk say that

the whole monkey should be boiled in brandy, and the liquor thus obtained

bottled, and used as required. An adult monkey weighs about 25-35 ib.

The young are mostly born in June, though a few are born throughout the

year. The females at this time keep to themselves and the males leave the

main troop, returning after the young are born. I have kept several at different

times; they do not do well in captivity, are difficult to feed, and are liable to

turn nasty.

Macaca silenus. Lion-tailed Monkey. [Tamil: Singilli Manthi, Singalam

Manthi, or (some places) Arakkan.]

Comparatively rare in these hills. More are found in the hills to the south

of the Varushnaad valley. They are very shy in their habits and live in the

thickest of jungles. Once used to the sight of man, they have no fear, and

will allow a close approach. There is one old solitary male who lives in a

patch of jungle through which our outlet bridle path passes. He loves to sit

in a tree just over the road and waits quietly till you have passed by under-

neath and then makes a loud Hoo, noise, not unlike a tiger’s ‘cough’ and if

you are not prepared for it, you jump ! I have never seen a Black Monkey

(Nilgiri Langur) in the territory of this species. They move about almost

effortlessly in the trees and never jump from one tree to another unless

disturbed ; they much prefer to reach out and slowly walk into the next tree

or else they descend to the ground and climb up. The locals will not eat the

flesh of this monkey as they hold it sacred, and also believe that it brings

good luck. Young ones are often caught and kept in captivity by shopkeepers,

presumably to promote business. They make excellent pets and never attempt

to bite unless teased, and are very clean in their habits. In the Anamalais

we had one (a female) for 8 years. It is still living with its present owner,

being now nearly 10 years old. It was on the best of terms with a blacir cat

we had (see photo) and on more than one occasion we have seen the monkey

trying to suckle the cat. She used to hold it in her arms like a baby. Once

we saw her doing the same with a dead rat she had got hold of. She used

to make a variety of sounds of which we soon got to know the meaning. She

had sounds for anger, hunger, sorrow and joy ; and another sound she only made

when she was ‘on heat’. On these occasions she used to be rather irritable

and off her food. Once we rescued a white cat she nearly killed by strang-

ling, though not without some difficulty. In the Anamalais there are almost

as many Lion-tailed as Black monkeys and so some trespassing on each others’

territory is inevitable. On these occasions some terrific battles take place in

the trees, and there are casualties on both sides. They make a row that can

be heard for a great distance and some of the monkey oaths, used, I should

imagine if translated into English would be quite unprintable ! The Lion-

tail is fond of water and has been seen bathing in a river and is said to be

quite a good swimmer, though I have never seen them swim in the wild

state. Our pet fell in the water tank once and used a sort of crawl to reach

the side. There seem to be two sorts of Lion-tails ; a very large one that is

found in the Wynaad and in the High Wavys, and a smaller type that is

found in the Anamalais. The former weigh 25-30 lb. and the latter J5-20 Ib.

only. Possibly it is something to do with surroundings that affects their growth.

Loris tardigradus. Slender Loris. (Tamil: Thevangu.)

A rather rare little animal, and difficult to find. I saw two in one tree

one night at about 2,000 ft. In the Varushnaad the Puliars say it is fairly

common, though I have never seen one there. I do not know anything about

its habits, though apparently it is confined to the deciduous forest, up to

about 2,500 ft.

Manis pentadactyla. Indian Pangolin. (Tamil: Arrakannu, Arangu or Alangu.)

I have never seen one in its wild state, though it does occur in these hills.

One was seen by some coolies in the evergreen forest about two miles from the

estate, at about 4,600 ft. Another was killed by some dogs on a cardamom

SNAKES AND MAMMALS OF THE HIGH WAVY MOUNTAINS 691

estate at the southern end of the Varushnaad valley at about 3,500 ft. It

seems to be very rare and I think must be nocturnal. I have once seen the

queer tracks left by its fore feet and tail which must drag on the ground as

it walks. The scales are prized by the locals who use them as charms *jo

keep oil evil spirits ! I know of two having been kept in captivity by planters

in other districts and they are said to become very tame though rather

delicate.

Hystrix leucura. Porcupine. (Tamil : Mullampuni.)

A very common animal throughout our hills. I am not sure whether it is

found in the Varushnaad or not. I have seen its quills at 3,000 ft. but not

lower. It does a great deal of damage in the tea and to a lesser extent

to other crops. During the dry VAeather they take up residence in the jungle

boundaries of the estate and at night carry out raids on the tea. ^hey dig

towards the main tap root and gnaw through it, resulting in the death of the

bush and then pass on to the next. Large numbers are trapped with wire

nooses at this time, which are set on their ‘runs’. They are very easy animals

to kill ; a slight tap on the end of the nose kills them instantaneously. One

attacked a dog which ventured near it when it was caught in a trap by its

foot ; the dog collected a lot of quills in its body. Tigers for some unknown

reason like to eat porcupines and one used to eat trapped pnes regularly. They

are very good eating. The quills are used by the coolies as pins to fasten up

the ‘cumblies’ (blankets) that they wear during the wet wTeather.

Lepus nigricollis. Biack-naped Hare. (Tamil: Musal or Moyal .)

Quite common in the plains and in the grassland right up to over 5,000 ft.

They are often seen on the roads at night, and also in the paddy fields. I

have seen several in the Varushnaad, even in quite thick deciduous forest.

They are much preyed upon by foxes and wild cats. I do not think they are

very good eating, and they are scavengers of the worst type. Large numbers

always lived close to the camps when we were constructing a road to our

estates.

Ratufa maxima. Malabar Squirrel. (Tamil: Mallai Anil or Kartn Anil.)

A very common animal throughout the evergreen forests. It is not found

in the deciduous forest or in the Varushnaad valley. Their alarm calls can

always be heard during the day and they give one of the first warnings for

the felines. They often use the same nests for some years running, keeping

them repaired and adding to them each year. I have examined several nests

in trees which we felled (during some clearing operations), though many of

them were damaged by the fall. Their average size was 2 ft. in diameter

and the inside looked as if it would hardly accommodate an adult, squirrel,

being barely a foot across. They bring forth two lots of young each year, as

far as I can make ouit : pne lot in September and another lot in March, the

average per litter being two. Once only have I seen three. The young

remain with their parents for six months or more and then go off on their own.

Tfyo adults, I think, pair for life, though they have no sense of territory as

the monkeys have. When the young are past the milk-diet stage, both the

parents help in the feeding. Quite often I have seen these squirrels foraging

together: one on the ground collecting nuts, etc. which the one in the treie

knocks down. Very occasionally one comes across a squirrel larder at the

base of some tree, which may contain upwards of two measures of nuts and other

hard fruit. There are two types of Malabar squirrel in the High Wavys : one

has a broad black band round the shoulders, and the other has a narrow

band placed further back so that the shoulders are chestnut red. The former

is the more common and it is the larger of the two; its tail also is more bushy.

They make excellent pets if taken fairly young, at least past the milk stage.

I have kept two; the second pne I had for 6 months but it died from over

feeding when I was home on leave, four months later. It was fully grown.

It was very clean in its habits and could always be seen cleaning its fur„

taking special care over its tail which was carefully combed out from the

base with its fore feet, while it sat upright. It often used to lose its balance

during this process, though it always immediately regained it. It had a varied

692 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

appetite, and could put away an enormous quantity of food at a meal. It

loved bananas, grapes, oranges and mangoes; it also used to eat cabbage

leaves j ’Morning Glory , roses, carrots and peas. It would not touch groundnuts

or beans. It liked tea to drink and often drank water. It did not, or could

not, eye*: i make the adult sounds,, though it often squeaked. I once saw an

adult being eaten by a Tree Marten (described in the Journal, 48:355).

Funambulus palmarum. Palm Squirrel. (Tamil : Anil.)

Very common in the plains and in the Varushnaad valley. It is very fond

of rocky country and it makes its nests in among the rocks. They are often

seen on the ground or on the parapet walls of the road to the estate. It does

not ascend the hills above 4,000 ft. and does not frequent evergreen forests.

Funambulus sublineatus. Dusky Squirrel. (Tamil: Anil.)

It does not like thick forests much and so not often seen in our jungles. It

is quite coihmon in the Varushnaad, and in light evergreen forest. It prefers

country that has a light rainfall and fairly sheltered. In the forests at the

south of the Varushnaad, however, it is quite common up to 5,000 ft.

Funambulus layardi. Jungle Striped Squirrel. (Tamil: Samba Anil.)

A very, common little animal, found throughout the hills above 3,000 ft.

It is very shy in its habits and extremely difficult to approach closely. I

have only seen one nest, and that was wedged between some creepers and

the side of a tree, some 15 feet from the ground. It was made out of leayes

and sticks and was roughly spherical in shape and about 9 in. diameter. It

was still beihg built when I saw it in April, so I presume the young would be

born the following month. They often forage on the ground for insects, and

climb up the nearest tree with amazing rapidity if disturbed. Hawks are

their chief' 1 enemies and they will start a terrific bird-like chatter, which is

taken up by all the squirrels in the area as a warning cry, when a ha\yk

is in the neighbourhood.

Petaurista philippensis. Common Grey Flying Squirrel. (Paruvakeerie or

Paruva-anil.)

.Very common in the evergreen forest up to about 4,500 ft. It is commonest

ah 3,500 ft. and very rare above 4,500 ft. It does not live in deciduous, forest

thought I have seen it on the borders. I should say they are the commonest

of all; the squirrels within the altitudinal limits mentioned. As many as

twenty have been seen at the sides of a jungle road some 4 miles long. They

are ney^r , seen during the day unless disturbed, but they come out before dark

to feed. ,1 have found the best time to observe them is between the hours of

7 p.m. and 10 p.m. with the aid of a powerful torch. Quite often large

parties can be seen in one tree, if it happens to be fruiting. When gliding

from the tree tops they can steer a course in and out of the trees with the

aid Of their tail which is flattened for the purpose. The maximum distance

I have actually measured for one of thesje glides was just over 100 feet and

was' down a steep hill-side. They have no fixed breeding season and young-

sters can be Seen throughout the year though, the majority are born in September

and March. They vary in colour considerably though as they get older the

silvery grey markings on the back get larger till in a mature specimen the

back is. this colour all-over. During the monsoon the fur gets thicker and

they lose it during the early part of the dry weather, some specimens having

a. very moth-eaten appearance at this period. An account of a nest and youns

oiae. from the Anamalais wras published in the Journal [46 (3)]. They feed

as. much upon insects as on fruits. Adults "weigh from 6 to 8 lb.

Sciuropterus fuscicapillus. Small Travancore Flying Squirrel. (Tamil:

Pa'ruva Poonai.)

Occasionally seen in the evergreen forest but only in certain areas. It is

not a common animal and prefers keeping to the highest of trees. I have

seen them in company with P .philippensis , and they seem to get on well

together, I have never seen a nest but presume it is similar to the last

SNAKES AND MAMMALS OF THE HIGH WAVY MOUNTAINS 693

-species. The young I have only seen twice, in March, but whether it breeds

at other times during the year or not I am unable to say. The adult male

has a dark brown tail and the female a gingery-brown onp, otherwise cheir

colour is the same. I do not think they descend lower than 3,600 ft. in

our hills. A friend has a young one in captivity in the Anamalai hills ; it

is very tame and not unlike tiie adult in colour. When disturbed in the

daytime it growls like a dog. When at rest it carries its tail held over

its head like a canopy. This gives it a very ferocious appearance. It is no

doubt a method of protection. It started to build a nest out of sticks etc.,

when it was about 5 months old but soon gave up.

Bandicota malabarica. Bandicoot. (Tamil : Perichyelli.)

Quite a common animal throughout the area, specially near human habitation.

They are often caught in traps by the coolies who love the meat; only the

lower castes, however, eat it. They do a great deal of damage to buildings

by tunneling in the walls and beneath floors.

Rattus rattus fufescens. Common House-Bat. (Tamil: Veete yelli.)

The commonest of our rats. It is a great nuisance on the estates and does

much damage to stored grains. We once caught one in a box trap, which,

in the morning was found to contain, not only the rat, but a family of 6 young

ones that had been born during the night ! We felt so sorry for it that :t

was released in the jungle with its babies, which it carried away later.

Rattus ratus wroughtoni. Common Indian Bat. (Tamil: Maran yelli.)

Quite common up to about 3,000 ft. in the deciduous forests. It is very

common in the Varushnaad valley. They are often seen on the roads at night,

where they search for scraps of grain that fall from passing carts and

lorries, and are often run over.

Golunda ellioti. Indian Bush Bat. (Tamil; Kartu Yelli.)

This rat though very common, is confined entirely to the open grassland

•country from the plains up to over 6,000 ft. Its burrows in the grassland,

which are close to the surface, are liable to fall in if trodden on, which can

result in a sprained ankle, or a nasty fall. They have appeared in the tea area

recently and are doing some damage in the same way as the porcupine.

Rattus bianfordi. White-tailed Wood Bat. (Tamil : Maran yelli.)

Occasionally caught in traps, but it is otherwise rarely seen. We caught

some in the factory firewood shed. I do not think it is found outside the

evergreen forest area.

Mus musculus. Common House Mouse. (Tamil: Veete Sundyelli.)

Quite a common little creature in the hills, where it is often caught in

traps. I am not sure of its range, but believe it occurs in the Varushnaad.

A nest with four young was once found in a sack of silk-cotton, in the

bungalow. One of the young was inadvertently stuffed into a cushion with

cotton, and was discovered some days later when it made its presence known !

[Mus booduga. Indian Field Mouse. (Tamil : Kartu Sundyelli.)

These have much the same habits and distribution as the last species,

though the nesting habits are different. They generally make their nests under-

ground, though I have found one above ground. This was a spherical ball of

grass woven into some stems of lemon grass and was only about 6 in. in

diameter and some 18 in. from the ground. I only had a momentary glimpse

of the adult mouse, sp cannot be quite certain of its identity, though being

more white than grey beneath, feel that it must be this species, or possibly

the next.]

Vandeluria oleracea. Long-tailed Tree Mouse. (Tamil: Maran Sundyelli.)

I have only caught one of this species in a trap. It does not seem to be

common in these hills. I know nothing of its habits.

4

694

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 4b

Paraechinus micropus. South Indian Hedgehog. (Tamil: Mulluyelli.)

that had been run over by a lorry on the ghat road at about 2,000 ft. I

know nothing about its habits save that it is nocturnal. The Puliars say it

is common in the Varushnaad Valley, and that it is very good eating, it

baked in its skin. I know porcupines are excellent cooked in this manner.

Suncus sp. Common Musk Shrew. (Tamil: Moonjeuru.)

Very common throughout the area. They are frequently caught in traps

set for rats. They have a wide range and can be found up to over 5,600 ft.

One was often seen collecting insects at the edge of a water holei in the

jungle in daytime. I have never found a nest, and know nothing of its breed-

ing habits, though I should think they would be similar to the next species.

Dogs will have nothing to do with a shrew nor will cats. Apparently it

gives off some smell that is very disagreeable to them, though not unbearable

to humans. They are good swimmers.

Crocidura perrotteti. Indian Pigmy Shrew. (Tamil : Sinna moonjeuru.)

Bather rare in this area ; I have taken three specimens — one of which

was a female containing four young. I have never found a nest though I

believe it is made in the ground, as I once saw an adult carrying a pi<ece of

straw into a burrow. The burrow was later dug out for some feet without

success. Their extraordinary shaped ears and minute size — barely 2 in., includ-

ing the tail — help to make their identification easy. They seem to be almost

blind during the day, but as they are occasionally seen out at this time, I

presume they rely upon their sense of smell.

Tupaia eliioti. Madras Tupia. (Tamil: Anil — Squirrel; the locals cannot

tell the difference between the two and have no special name for this in their

language.)

Quite a common little creature in the evergreen forest. They were often

seen on logs and falfen trees during the daytime. If disturbed they immediately

run beneath the log and travel some distance along the ground and then up

the nearest tree. Th^ey prefer, however, bamboo forest and make their nests

within the stems. They are generally seen in pairs. I have only seen one

empty nest, which was discovered when a pair under observation, suddenly

disappeared half-way up a bamboo, and later reappeared at the same place.

The entrance was at the top of the section of bamboo, and seemed to be a

natural hole, where a side shoot had broken off. The nest itself was just

lined with leaves and grass. I was not able to revisit this place to find

out more about them.

Pteropus gigaoteus. Piying-Fox. (Tamil : Peria bavaal.)

Fairly common on the plains and in the Varushnaad valley, where they

are often caught while roosting by the Puliars wdio eat the flesh. I have

never seen one above 2,500 ft.

Cynopterus sphinx. Short-nosed Fruit Bat. (Tamil: Bavaal.)

The commonest bat in the hills where it is often seen in the evenings,

flitting about at the edge of the jungle, catching moths and other insects on

the wing. [? — eds.]

Scotophilus kuhli. Common Yellow Bat. (Tamil: Bavaal.)

Also very common in the hills as well as the plains. I have seen several

during the day roosting in the roof of the bungalow. One was found in the

curtains.

Kerivoula picfa. Painted Bat. (Tamil: Sewapu Bavaal.)

On two occasions I have seen this bat outside my bungalow. Both times

I thought it was an Atlas Moth ( Attacus atlas), and went out to investigate.

I have never seen one anywhere else. It seems to be rather rare in the

hills.

(There are other bats in this area which I have not identified).

SOME NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE NEPAL VALLEY

BY

Mrs. Desiree Proud

( With a sketch map and a plate)

The following- notes were collected during- a year’s residence

in the Nepal Valley, from February 1948 to February 1949. They

are from sight records, but I have only noted birds of whose identity

I am in no doubt. Others, seen indistinctly, such as crested

drongos, various nightjars, hill partridges, etc., I have not included.

The birds are those of the Nepal Valley itself, and the hills

immediately surrounding it. We have not been fortunate enough

to visit any of the higher hills — those glorious ranges of perpetual

snow, which dominate the northern scenery from Kathmandu.

The Nepal Valley lies, at an elevation of 4,500 ft., between the

Mahabarat range and the main ranges of the Himalayas. In

extent about 12 miles by 18, it is a comparatively flat depression

set in the midst of a succession of mountain ranges. To the south-

west it is bounded by the Chandragdri range, of an average height

of 7,000 ft., but rising in its peaks to 8,000. Over this runs the

path to India. To the south-east is Phulchok, a massive offshoot

of the Mahabarat just over 9,000 ft. It is densely clothed with

evergreen forest right down to Godavari at its foot, where the

Maharajah has a park, and a number of houses seldom used

nowadays. The bird life here is particularly rich and varied.

Chandragiri is also covered with forest, but it has been much

thinned by cutting.

The Sheopuri Lekh, of which the highest point is just under

9,000 ft., forms the valley’s northern boundary. The lower slopes

are - under grass or cultivation up to some 6,500 ft. There are

patches of scrub jungle, interspersed with cultivated fields, and

Chir pine plantations. About 5,500 ft. is the T.B. Sanatorium, set

on open slopes with wide views over the valley. The upper slopes

are covered with forest, and abound with birds. The view from

the top of Sheopuri must be amongst the most beautiful in the

world, especially in winter, when all the country to the north is

covered with snow. Last winter there was snow for weeks on

the hills above 7,000 ft., but it very rarely falls in the valley, where

the climate from October to March is almost perfect, cold but with

brilliant sunshine almost every day.

Sheopuri falls rapidly in elevation to the east and west, and

minor ridges run south to join with the Chandragiri and Phulchok

and so complete the encirclement of the valley. To the west and

highest point is Naga Jung, a conical forest-covered hill, just-

under 7,000 ft., and swarming with birds.

The valley is drained by the Bagmati and its tributaries. To

the west the Vishnumati, in the centre the Bagmati, and to the

east the Manora. All rise in the Sheopuri and first run south,

696

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 4b

then the Manora and Bagmati turn west and are joined by the

Vishnumati just before the combined stream turns south to flow out

of the valley by the gorge of Chorbar, and then on through a

tortuous passage between the Chandragiri and Phulchok. All three

streams are wide and shallow. In the winter and hot weather

mostly beds of damp sand, with a small stream in the centre, in

the monsoon full to the banks, but only a few feet deep. Nepal is

on the whole very poor in waders and water birds.

The bird life varies a good deal between the different hill

ranges, according to the density of the forest. At Sandarigal on

Sheopuri where the Bagmati flows out and down into the valley,

a dam has been built to provide electricity, and this attracts many

birds such as forktails, dippers, kingfishers and redstarts not seen

elsewhere.

The oak forest starts at about 6,000 ft. with Quercus incana.

At about 7,000 ft. this gives place to other species of oak.

Rhododendrons abound also from about 6,500 ft. upwards. When

in flower these are a beautiful sight — rose pink and pure white as

well as the more common red. The scenery of these mountains is

lovely beyond all words. We spend most Sundays out on the hills,

and they are amongst the pleasantest days that I can ever re-

member. Unfortunately during the monsoons it is difficult to get

out as our small car becomes bogged in the mud, and the forests

swarm with leeches. Therefore, my notes for the months July —

end September are confined to the birds of the valley itself, which

are much less interesting, being mostly those already familiar in

the plains of India. The breeding season is confined to the months

April — end June. The heavy rains of July destroy most nests

built too late.

There are three large towns, and numerous villages in the

valley which is heavily cultivated, and provides little cover for

birds. Wheat is grown in the winter, being sown end November

and December and reaped in May. Broad-beans are also grown

extensively in winter as wTell as potatoes and many other vegetables.

As soon as the monsoon has set in the rice is planted, and this is

the most important crop of the year. It is reaped from September

to November.

Almost no animal labour is used. The ground is deep dug by

hand, and really dug*, not the mere surface scratching that one

sees too often in India. I have seldom seen a more loved and

well-tended land. When the rice is full grown the valley is at

its most beautiful — a wonderful shining green, with the golden

temple roofs enhancing the picture. Indian corn and koodoo are

grown in summer on slopes too steep to be irrigated for rice.

There are few wToods in the valley, but many gardens. An

.exception is the Rani Bagh — a dense wood surrounded by a bound-

ary wall. It is quite close to the British Embassy and is a

favourite site for those birds which breed in the valley. In the

centre of the valley is Goucher, a grassy plateau, with woods on

its northern and western flanks which run down to the beautiful

golden temples of Pashpatti. Some of the paths through the

valley are bordered by high hedges, but these are not frequented

W^'

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

N

SWEOPURI LEKh

MAHADEO POKMRJ

Scciie,:- ? - 4 Miitb

NEPAL VALLEY

SOME NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE NEPAL VALLEY 697

by the numbers of birds one finds in the hedges in England. They

are however favourite haunts of the chiff-chaff, crested bunting and

tree pipit in winter.

With the exception of white wagtails, ducks and teal, Nepal

is disappointing as a migration route, and does not compare with

Kashmir and Simla in the numbers and varieties of passage

migrants. Many of the winter visitors arrive surprisingly late,

as for instance the Kestrel which was not seen till November n,

later than it arrives in S. India. I wonder if these have migrated

into India from the N.W. and then spread up into the Nepal hills

from India. There are some surprising absentees. I have seen

no grey tits, ‘seven sisters’ , wren-warblers, or bee-eaters.

I have used Stuart Baker’s Fauna of British India, and the

list of birds in Landon’s ‘Nepal’ compiled by Mr. S. TI. Prater of

the Bombay Natural History Society.

Corvus macrorhyfichos : Himalayan Jungle Crow.

Found sparingly in pairs on all the hills surrounding the Nepal Valley.

Scarce in valley itself. One pair nested in the Rani Bagh. It fed greedily

on the small half-wild pears, and I watched it carrying these off to its nest.

June 4th.

Corvus splendeus : Common House Crow.

Abundant all over the valley. Not in hills. They roost in enormous

parties in several groups of trees in the valley, one of these the wood near

Harisidhi. In the evening huge flocks flying home remind one of rooks in

England. Nest building commences early. One pair in our garden started

building in a chestnut tree early March, but carried up only a stick or two

per day, and completed nest about May 21st. Enormous numbers of nests in

Harisidhi. Most birds sitting June 5 th. One feeding young koels

September 12th.

Urocissa melanocephala : Red-billed Blue Magpie. .

Very common all the year in Nepal Valley, keeping to well wooded gardens

and small woods. Also found in jungle hills but not much above 7,000 feet.

In family parties February-March in our garden. These broke up into

pairs end March, the young birds driven away with difficulty. March 25th a

pair searching through our garden calling softly to each other. Mid April

carrying nesting material. Nest found May 18th, slight platform of twigs,

about 15 feet from tihe ground, placed on level branch in monkey-puzzle tree

(. Araucaria ) near the trunk. No attempt at concealment. Five young. Both

parents feed.

May 21st. Young growing- fast, one sits on edge of nest, flapping wings

continuously. Head and neck rusty black contrasting with white under parts

and white nape patch. Bill black, not red like parents’.

May 23rd. All young on edge of nest flapping wings. By 10 a.m. four

birds had left the nest and were sitting in surrounding branches. When parents

bring food all young get very excited, one over-balanced and flopped down

into bushes. Parents very agitated flew down to it. Saw one parent catch

snake at least two feet long, and carry it off, but did not see it give it to

young. Tails of young almost non-existent.

May 31st. Young still being fed by parents but can now fly fairly well..

Tails several inches beyond body. Saw parents bring grasshopper three times,,

slug once. Scolds intruders furiously when they approach.

June 8th. Young magpies fly well now. They abandon our garden by

day, which they appear to spend in the Rani Bagh. Every evening they return

to roost in thick tree in our garden, arriving regularly about five o’clock.

Every morning about nine they depart flying one after another, making a great

clamour. Tails- growing well extremely graduated. Bills still black, edged

orange.

June 24th. Above routine still continues.

698

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

July 13th. Now only return to garden occasionally. They all came today

and came right into the verandah hopping over tables and chairs calling softly

to each other bu't bursting into loud clamour when they see a stranger. Young

almost like parents now but much smaller and generally less spruce looking.

Tails full grown; black parts rather dark brown than velvet black. Blue grey

of back much duller. Nape patch very distinct, bill still black marked orange.

September 23rd. After two months’ absence magpie family returned to

garden. Young birds now indistinguishable from parents. Bills orange red.

They still keep all seven together and all scold intruders.

November 7th. Seven magpies still together in garden most evenings.

February — ditto.

Dendrocitta formosae: Himalayan Tree Pie.

Common in the Nepal Valley in winter ; keeps to well wooded gardens or

woods like the Rani Bagh, where several always seen. Also common on the

lower slopes of hills. Leaves valley to breed about the beginning of April, not

seen after that below 6,000 feet. First seen in valley in autumn November 12th,

but not common till November 19th, after which seen again in all the usual

haunts. A pair generally in our garden.

Garrulus lanceolatus : Black-throated Jay.

Rather scarce but pairs seen occasionally on Sheopuri about '6,000 feet.

Garrulus bispecularis : Himalayan Jay.

Fairly common on all the forested hills above 6,000 feet.

Parus monticolus: Green-backed Tit.

Never in valley itself but fairly common on all the hills from 5,000 feet

upwards. Does not move at all with the seasons.

Lophophanes ater * Himalayan Coal Tit.

Seen once only — December 21st — a little party about 6,000 feet on Nagar Jong

in the evergreen forest, amongst a party of yellow-cheeked and reel-headed

tits.

Machldlophus spilonotus : Northern Black-spotted Yellow Tit.

Only one bird seen in our garden April.

Machiolophus xanthogenys : Northern Yellow-cheeked Tit.

Very common, both in Nepal Valley, and on all the hill-sides up to 8,000 feet

at least. Most leave the valley itself about the end of April to breed on the

hills. May 21st, a family party with three young in our garden. Family parties

seen occasionally rest of summer. They do not become really common in the

valley again until October. They are however, still found in the coldest

weather up to 8,000 feet.

Aegithaliscus conclnnus : Red-headed Tit.

Common on all the hills from 5,000 feet upwards. Always in flocks, April

onwards, so evidently early breeders. Commonest at about 6,000 feet.

Sitta hiraalayensis : White-tailed Nuthatch.

Common on hills above 5,500 feet, not in valley itself.

Sitta castaneiventris : Cinnamon-bellied Nuthatch.

Very common in the valley itself and on the lower hills to about 6,500 feet.

Feeding fledged young in June in the valley.

Dryonastes caerulatus: Grey-sided Laughing-Thrush.

Rather scarce. Did not see any till January 16th when I got a good view

of a small party in bamboo scrub at 8,500 feet on Phulchok. Has a very

SOME NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE NEPAL VALLEY 699

sweet whistle of three or four notes. I have since heard this on Chandragiri

and Sheopuri so perhaps they are commoner than appears from sight records.

Gamila* pectoralis : Indian Black-gorgeted Laughing-Thrush.

Seen only once in June in scrub below the Sanatorium at about 5,500 feet

in mixed party of tits, etc.

Garrulax moniliger. Indian Necklaced Laughing-Thrush.

Seen once only early June together with last species in scrub below Sana-

torium.

Garrulax albogularis : White-throated Laughing-Thrush.

Very common in large flocks on all the jungle-covered hill-sides between

5.000 and 8,000 feet.

Trochalopteron erythrocephalum : Red-headed Laughing-Thrush.

Only seen on Sheopuri where it is common both in scrub below the jungle,

and in the dense jungle itself right up (to 9,000 feet. Always seen in flocks

and very skulking.

Trochalopteron lineatum : Streaked Laughing-Thrush.

Not seen for certain in Nepal, but heard, we think, on Sheopuri hills about

8.000 feet.

Acanthoptila nipalensis: Spiny Babbler.

Seen occasionally creeping about in undergrowth in the vegetable garden,

our garden, and hedgerows. Has loud call chek chek, but skulks so much

it is extremely difficult to see.

Pomatorhinus ruficollis : Nepal Rufous-necked Scimi't'ar Babbler.

Moderately common on jungle-covered hill-sides ; prefers thick scrub to

tree forest. Very skulking, and more often heard than seen.

Pomatorhinus erythrogenys : Rusty-cheeked Scimitar Babbler.

The commonest scimitar babbler of the jungle hills round Nepal 4,500 to

7.000 feet very shy but their melodious calls constantly heard. Particularly

■common on Nagar Jong and the Sheopuri scrub jungle below the Sanatorium.

Stachyridopsis pyrrhops : Red-billed Babbler.

Common on jungle-covered hill-sides. Prefers true jungle to scrub. 4,500

to 8,000 feet. Commonest at Godavari but also on Nagar Jong and Sheopuri.

The note described by Stuart Baker as like the ‘ringing of a tiny bell’ is a

very exact description. It has also a churring scolding call.

Alcippe nepalensis: Nepal Babbler.

Very common in thick jungle especially Godavari and Sundarijal. I did

not notice them much between June and October so they may have migrated

to the higher hills to avoid the worst of the monsoon. Nest at Godavari April

4th half built, both parents building, bringing large quantities of white spiders’

web to weave into foundation. Nest about two feet from ground ; later des-

troyed by wood cutters.

Pseudominla castaneiceps: Chestnut-headed Tit-Babbler.

Seen only once on Chandragiri range about 7,000 feet on ropeway path.

About twenty of these little birds were quarrelling in a dense mob, extremely

noisy. An absolute ball of chattering quivering morsels. I approached close

■enough to touch them but they were so engrossed in the’ excitement that they

never noticed me, and when finally the melee broke up, two tiny birds bumped

into me before diving again into the undergrowth. January 23rd.

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , VoL 4S

Pseudominla cinerea : Dusky-green Tit-Babbler.

Seen once only a small flock in jungle above Godavari about 7,000 feet.

April 4th.

Leioptiia capi&trata : Black-headed Sibia.

One of the commonest birds on all the jungle-covered hills. They are

found from about 6,000 to about 9,000 feet in the oak forests an,d do not

appear to move at all with the seasons. They seem to differ a good deal in

their habits from the Western race — pallida — so common round Simla. Here

they are found in much larger flocks, and are much noisier, having a variety

of chattering screaming notes and a wailing cheeoo as well as the sweet whistle

so often heard in Simla, but comparatively rarely uttered.

Siva strigula : Stripe-throated Siva.

Fairly common on all the jungle-covered hill-sides from about 6,000 feet

upwards. They do not appear to move with the seasons.

Yuhina gularis : Stripe-throated Yuhina.

Abundant on Phulchok from 7,000 feet to the summit where it is one of

the commonest birds. Also common on Sheopuri at highest) elevations.

Yuhina occipitalis:

Common on the high hills in flocks, particularly so on Sheopuri. I have

seen it in winter right down to valley level on Nagar Jong, but never away

from jungle.

Ixuius flavicollis: Yellow-collared Ixulus.

A flock on Sheopuri about 7,500 in oak jungle, February 6th. Very tame,

keeping up a continual murmuring twitter. In company with tits, willow-

warblers and stripe-throated Yu'hinas.

Erpornis xantftoleuca: White-bellied Erpornis.

Quite common in jungle, particularly at Godavari. Also on Nag'ar Jong

where I have seen them near the summit (7,000 feet) January 9th. after snow

and cold, in spite of Landon’s list which describes their habitat as ‘low hot

valleys’. Commonest about 5,000 feet. Usually solitary or in pairs and

frequently found in the large parties of tits, willow-warblers, nuthatches, etc.,

which wander round the hill-sides in autumn and winter. They are un-

obtrusive little birds creeping about in upper branches of trees.

Leiothrix lutea : Indian Red-billed Leiothrix.

Quite common in winter, in flocks on the jungle-covered hill-sides 4,500 to

8,000 feet. Not noticed in the summer.

Cutia nipa!ensis : Nepal Cutia.

Scarce. Seen only twice. On Sheopuri about 6,000 feet a pair -early June.

On Phulchok a small party January 16th at about 7,000 feet. Both times

kept to highest branches of tall trees, very quiet.

Pteruthius erytliropterus • Red-winged Shrike-Babbler.

Seen several times near the summit of Nagar Jong, 6,800 feet in flocks,

together with tits, etc., in oak forest. Not noticed elsewhere..

/Egithina tiphia : Common Iora.

A monsoon visitor to the Nepal Valley. First heard July 18th, at Gauchar.

Not noticed after first week in September.

Chloropsis hardwickii : Orange-bellied Chloropsis.

Quite common on all the higher hills. Particularly so at about 7,000 feet,

but seen occasionally down to the level of the valley. Never away from the

SOME NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE NEPAL VALLEY 701

jungle. Generally in pairs throughout the year, and does not seem to move at

all with the seasons. Delightful song, and also mimics other birds. I have

heard it mimic the grey drongo exactly.

Minla ignotincta : Red-t'ailed Minla.

Quite common in winter in jungle. First seen on Sheopuri at about 8,000

feet, November 28th. After that seen often at Sundarijal, 5,000 fee!t\ and

Godavari.

Microscelis psaroities : Himalayan Black Bulbul.

Abundant on all the hills. From May to September found in pairs mostly

above 6,000 feet1. In the autumn they collect into enormous flocks and range

along the lower hills being then commonest about 5,000 feet, but found up

to 9,000 feet during even the coldest weather. Only occasionally seen in the

woods in the Nepal Valley. Godavari, Nagar Jong, and Chandragiri are

their favourite haunts and they are comparatively scarce on Sheopuri where

the white-cheeked bulbul is found in winter in very large flocks.

Hemixus macclellandi: Ruf bus-bellied Bulbul.

Very common on all the jungle hill-sides from 4,500 to 9,000 feet.

Commonest between 6,000 feet and 7,000 feet. During most of the months of

the year in flocks, not so large as the last species, and often found Jn company

with it. A pair carrying nesting material at Godavari, about 7,000 feet. April

24th. Several pairs carrying food May 23rd, Sundarijal, 5,000 feet. Owing

to the swarms of leeches in the thick bushes I did not look for the nests.

Alcurus striatus: Striated Green Bulbul.

First seen January 15th. Two birds among a flock of black bulbuls just

above Godavari. The next week a number of birds seen at Chandragiri,

6,000 feet', again in company with other bulbuls. They have very sweet whistled

notes, quite distinctive from any other bulbul. These might be syllabified as

chee-tu and sometimes chee-whittu or chee-tu-ti-ti-ti-twee-oo.

Molpasles cafer : Red- vented Bulbul.

Very common in the Nepal Valley. In pairs all summer, breeds May to

July. In autumn collects into large flocks, wandering through gardens and

scrub jungle. Not seen in true jungle, but on open hill-sides round the Sana-

torium it is found up to 6,000 feet.

Molpastes leucogenys : White-cheeked Bulbul.

Very common' on all the hills round the Nepal Valley up to 8,000 feet. They

do not move a'ti all with the seasons, but in winter collect in very large flocks.

These are particularly common on Sheopuri between 5,500 and 7,000 feet

where I have seen literally hundreds together between December and February.

A few found at Gauchar throughout the year, but I have seen them nowhere

else away from the hills.

Certhia familiaris : Nepal Tree-Creeper.

A small tlree-creeper with long, rufous, unbarred tail and white underparts,

presumably of this species, seen occasionally above' 6,500 feet, on Sheopuri

and Phulchok.

Tichodroma muraria : Wall Creeper.

Seen only on an eroded hill-side on Sheopuri, where small mud cliffs have-

been formed.

Cinclus palasii : Indian Brown Dipper.

Moderately common on stream above dam at Sundarijal. March 28th a

young bird seen, it was very tame and allowed us to approach very closely,

in spite of anxious calling of parents. It could hardly fly but plunged through

and under the water like any old bird.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

Saxicola torquata : Stonechat.

Very common in the valley all winter. A very dark bird, brightly coloured

below seen occasionally, about 1 in 20 of the paler type. This presumably the

Turkestan race — przewalskii (?) Between April 5th-14th„ .'thousands passed

through on passage. They seemed to be always in pairs — very dark birds,

very pale birds, and intermediate. Saw none in valley after mid-April, but

several pairs on hill-sides above 5,000 feet. One pair seen in valley at foot

of Nagar Jong, wi‘t!h two fully fledged young, August 7th. First seen on

return migration September 20th — a female. Not common until October 11th.

No large scale passage migration as in the spring.

Rhodophila ferrea : Dark Grey Bush Chat.

Seen only twice. A male on Nagar Jong February 12th, a female in scrub

jungle below Sanatorium February 13th.

Euicurus maculatus : Western Spotted Forktail.

A pair usually seen on the Bagmafi below the dam at Sundarijal. Also

on stream above Sankhu and on jungle streams high on Sheopuri.

Enicurus schlstaceus : Slaty-backed Forktail.

Seen on jungle stream on Sheopuri.

Microcichla scouleri : Little Forktail.

In winter one or two usually seen on Bagmati near the dam at Sundarijal,

and on the stream above it.

Phoenicurus fron alis: Blue-fronted Redstart.

Very common on all the hills round the Nepal valley all winter. Both

sexes have a clicking call rather like castanets ket-k-t-k-t uttered continuously.

Not seen much after March 22nd. First date in autumn, October 10th.

Phoenicurus hodgsoni : Hodgson’s Redstart.

Fairly common in winter in 'the valley, usually at lower elevations than

the last species, and not nearly so common. Very local, birds usually found

in the same spot season after season. First date October 27th. They have

the same cicada-like note as the last species.

Phoenicurus ochruros : Black Redstart.

Two only seen, both females. In both cases a very dark bird, one on

April 5th in a hedge in company with a bluethroat, another April 12th in our

garden.

Chaimarrhornis leucocephala : White-capped Redstart.

Common on all streams during the winter. Did not keep dates, but they

were common by September 23rd.

Rhyacornis fuliginosa: Plumbeous Redstart.

Common throughout the year on all the hill streams running into the

valley. They breed before the monsoon breaks, when the streams become

raging torrents. Many young birds strong on the wing round Sundarijal

May 28th.

Cyanosylvia suecica: Bluethroat.

Rather a scarce passage migrant, female seen April 5th. It seemed very

small and pale. November 19th, three birds together seen skulking in a hedge.

Calliope calliope: Common Ruby-throat.

Only one seen, a male in beautiful bright plumage, April 1st, in our garden.

SOME NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE NEPAL VALLEY 703

Tarsiger chrysaeus : Golden Bush Robin.

Seen only on Sheopuri above 6,000 feet in winter. First seen November

28th — fairly common during December to February.

lanthia cyanura : Red-flanked Bush-Robin.

Fairly common in winter in the jungle on hills above 5,000 feet, November

to April.

lanthia indica : White-browed Bush-Robin.

Scarce, seen a few times in jungle on Nagar Jong, December-January.

Copsychus saularis : Magpie-Robin.

One of thle commonest birds in the Nepal valley. Every garden and

orchard has several pairs. Not seen on hills. In full song when we arrived

end of February. Many nests in holes of walls, houses, etc., in May and

June. Most first broods out by mid-June, and the parents singing, courting

and quarrelling again, and very aggressive over territory. Most second broods

out by early August. Song till end August, when moult smarted. In full

moult by September 21st. Tailless birds all over the place. Did not sing

any more till early February, but pairs still faithful to their territory.

Turdus merula albocinctus : White-collared Blackbird.

Common above 8,000 feet during winder on Sheopuri and Phulchok. As

we never got up there in summer I do not know whether they breed there

or not.

Turdus boulboul : Grey-winged Blackbird.

Fairly common above 7,000 feet, especially on Sheopuri.

Turdus atrogularis : Black-throated Thrush.

Winter 47/48 common in the valley from January to the end of March.

First seen December 27th in our garden, but very scarce this winter until the

middle of February.

Turdus eunomus : Dusky Thrush.

Large parties on Nagar Jong at about 5,000 feet, spring ’48, last date

April 18th. None seen in this winter until end of January when odd ones seen

in the valley.

Turdus unicolor: Tickell’s Thrush.

Fairly common, spring ’48. A few pairs remained all summer on hills

above Godavari, and I saw a female and fledged young in Gouchar woods in

the centre of the valley, August 28th, young still being fed by parents.

Geokichla citrina: Orange-headed Ground-Thrush.

Summer visitor first seen Rani Bagh, April 12th. One pair lived there all

summer. May 17th nest found, placed on broad horizontal branch of tree

which leaned outi from bank about 12 feet from the ground, but level with

top of bank, so could be observed easily — three eggs. Parents very shy, and

never approached nest while I was watching, but if surprised on nest sat very

tight, and did not move even when I was only a few feet away. May 20th,

young hatched. June 1st young taken by a Newar as cage birds. Parents

remained in Rani Bagh, but did not have a second brood. Verj^ common on

Sheopuri Range abouiti 5,000 feet, males singing beautifully early June, also

at Gouchar. All left by early September. They are very favourite cage birds

in Nepal.

Monticoia erythrojjasfra : Chestnut-bellied Rock-Thrush.

Very common in winter above 6,000 feet. They arrive late. First seen

January 9th on Nagar Jong, but saw three pairs that day. After that they were

'04

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

everywhere Sundarijal, Chandragiri, Phulchok. Always in pairs calling to

each other with a curious quach note.

Monticola cinclorhyncha : Blue-headed Rock-Thrush.

Very common on the spring migration during April when many seen, both

in valley and on hills, particularly Nagar Jong. None seen after the end of

April, and none seen in autumn.

Myiophoneus temminckii : Himalayan Whistling-Thrush.

Common on mountain streams at all elevations. Does not move at all

with the seasons.

Hemichdidon sibirica: Sooty Flycatcher.

Never seen in the valley, but fairly common on the hills above 6,500 feet.

Last date November 2nd on Sheopuri at 8,000 feet.

Siphia strophiata : Orange-gorgeted Flycatcher.

Common in winter on all the hills from 4,500 up to 8,000 even in the

coldest weather. First date December 5'tfh. Has a deep chirring note, and

also a little monosyllabic tik — tik continued endlessly, very ventriloquistic in

effect. Males with orange breasts about one to four females or young.

Siphia parva : Red-breasted Flycatcher.

Very common in winter. No birds with red breasts seen until the spring,

migration when red breasted birds predominated for a short time. Spring

migration April 2nd to April 20th. None seen after April 24th. On return

migration first seen September 23rd, abundant after 1st October, but none

with red breasts.

One male with the whole breast red (presumably sp. parva) was seen in

Rani Bagh April 11th, again April 14t!h.

Cyornis tricolor: Slaty-blue Flycatcher.

Not seen in the valley. Several pairs seen during November-December

on Sheopuri above 7,000 feet.

Cyornis superciliaris : White-browed Blue Flycatcher.

Seen only on the spring migration. Very common in our garden and in

woods in valley between March 17th and April 1st. White eyebrow -very con-

spicuous, so presumably Western race — superciliaris. None seen on autumn

migration.

Cyornis rubeculoides : Blue-throated Flycatcher.

Very common in summer in all the woods and well wooded gardens in the

valley. Not seen on the' hills above 5,000 feet. First date April 11th and

became common in the following week. Five pairs established themselves in

the Rani Bagh, the males singing most beautifully mostly in clumps of bamboos.

By May 15th these five all obviously had nests, but very difficult to find as

the males never visited them and the females, presumably incubating, never

appeared. As soon as young hatch the song of the male changes to a shorter

one of only five notes and both birds! utter anxious note. Nests soon found

as both parents feed. All nests in hollow bamboos between four and twenty

feet from the ground. All young out of the nest by June 1st. Fledged young

continue with their parents all June — early July. Presumably no second broods.

Did not hear them sing after heavy rain started in mid-July. They were common

in our garden and in open places during August. All gone by September.

Eumyias thalassina : Verditer. Flycatcher.

Common on passage in the valley, but breeds on lower hills. Breeds mostly

April-May. First date seen March 25th, all gone by the end of September.

SOME NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE NEPAL VALLEY 705

Muscicapa latiroslris ; Indian Brown Flycatcher.

A few in the valley all summer, our garden, Goucher. Very unobtrusive so

it is probably more common than it appears.

Niltava sundara : Indian Rufous-bellied Niltava.

One only seen Chandragiri, October 6th, about 6,000 feet.

Tchitrea paradisi : Himalayan Paradise Flycatcher.

Common in valley during summer, not on hills. Breeds in woods and

gardens. First date seen March 19. By end of month all birds collected in

breeding areas, and were busy courting and quarrelling over nesting sites. Five

pairs bred in the Rani Bagh.

Pair No. 1. Male pure white with long tail.

April 12. Both birds collecting nesting material.

April 17. Nest nearly completed, a cup of grasses, fine roots, bark, a few

leaves bound together with spiders’ web, and plastered with the last so that

it appears quite white. It is placed in fork of small leafless tree, about 15 feet

from the ground, not concealed in any way. Female brought fine roots for

lining, male did not go near nest.

April 22. Female sitting on nest all morning, the male also took a turn

for a few minutes.

May 5. Indian Cuckoo sitting on the branch beside the nest, both parents

very agitated. After 5 minutes the cuckoo flew away.

May 12. Nest evidently deserted, so I cut it down. Quite empty. This

pair built again immediately in a tree only a few yards from the first nest,

about 20 feet from ground. This nest completed May 20, and the birds sat

on it occasionally until June 3 when this nest' also deserted. They made one

last attempt and built again June 17, but this nest vras destroyed in a heavy

storm when only half built and the birds abandoned it.

Pair No. 2. Male a red bird, central tail feathers about 2 inches beyond

rest of tail, sharp line across the breast dividing the black of the head from

the white underparts.

April 17. Foundation of nest complete in fork about 35 feet from ground

only short distance from the first pair’s nest. Both parents work in an ecstacy

of excitement, pushing each other off the nest in their haste.

April 22. Both birds working, not much progress made.

May 14. Both parents incubating, changing places fairly frequently.

May 15. As above. The female sits for longer periods than the male.

May 16. Young evidently in the> nest. Both parents visit frequently, one

always remaining on the nest during absence of the other. Female arrives,

sits on rim of nest for some seconds, then appears to give food, but very little,

and nothing can be seen in her bill. She then broods for 10 minutes or so till

return of male. He also sits on rim of nest, then feeds and waits for return

of female, but does not brood.

May 17. Parents now feed immediately on arrival at nest, female broods

for about 10 minutes after feeding, male flies off immediately after feeding.

May 18. Much larger particles of food now brought by parents, female

only broods occasionally.

May 20. One young can now be seen sticking up above rim of nest.

May 22. Young clearly seen, one larger tlhan the two others. They seem

ravenous and clamour for food even when parents nowhere near. This may

have been because a large owl was sitting in the bamboos near the nest and

all the flycatchers busy mobbing it. It flew off when I approached, but the

agitated birds took some time tb calm down, and probably had not fed the

young for some time. During an hour’s watch the female fed the young every

five minutes, male sat nearby looking exhausted after the struggle with the

owl.

May 24. Three young now clearly visible, one much larger than the others.

They often stretch neck and flap wings. Both parents still feed but male only

comes occasionally.

May 25. I only had a few minutes to watch. The male flew down and

scolded me. This unusual in this placid pair, which have always built, in-

cubated and fed regardless of my presence.

706

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

May 26. Young enormous in comparison to size of nest. They sit on

edge all round, facing inwards. Backs very pale chestnut the heads dull

brown not black. They stretch, preen and flap wings continuously. Both

parents busy feeding, very much on the alert, attacking other birds and

scolding all intruders. When they utter their harsh Tst note the young cower

down in the nest and remain perfectly still.

May 28. Young left nest. They keep to the higher branches of the nest

tree. Both parents fed them, quite frantic with anxiety scolding and flying

at all and sundry.

June 1. Parents still feeding fledged young in high branches, they left the

Rani Bagh after this and I did not see them again.

Pair No. 3. Fure wmi n.a.e.

May 16. Completed nest found in tree very close to last nest, about 14 feet

from ground, slung in fork of horizontal branch partly concealed by leaves,

female incubating, male flew about chivying other birds.

May 20. Female still incubating, male took his turn once but very restless

and flew off after a few minutes.

May 23. Female incubated for hour as I watched flying off twice for a

few minutes, no sign of male.

May 24. Female incubated 30 minutes then male 10 minutes then female

again.

May 25. Female on nest 20 minutes, then male flew into nearby tfree and

called and female flew off and joined him.

May 26. Female on nest all morning.

May 28. Female on nest, male took a turn for 10 minutes.

June 1. Newly hatched young, female brooding most of the morning but

occasionally flew off and returned to feed, but nothing could be seen in her bill.

June 3. Female feeding young, one can be seen peeping above nest, no

sign of male.

June 4. During an hour’s watch female brought food three times, then

brooded 15 minutes ; male once flew into tree to scold intruding barbet, but

otherwise did nothing.

June 8. Only 2 young, wellgrown, female alone still doing all th'e feeding.

June 12. Young left nest, could not fly properly, but sat about in the

nest-tree : both parents feeding.

Pair No. 4. Pure white male.

May 16. This nest never found, but parents feeding 3 newly fledged young,

which could not fly properly, parent's very anxious and noisy, mobbing other

birds with harsh cries.

May 20. Young still being fed, but not seen in Rani Bagh again.

Pair No. 5. Nest very high in tree above leafy canopy, so could not observe

it. Male a red bird, with long central tail feathers.

June 3. 3 young left nest; they remained a week in Rani Bagh, and then

disappeared.

All above nests within radius of 25 yards, and I could watch them all from

one central position. By June 12 all had taken their young away from Rani

Bagh', and I never saw one there again, with the exception of the unsuccessful

pair No. 1. They were seen in gardens and open country during July, scarce

in August, and all gone by mid September (last date 12th).

General note on nesting. Both parents build beginning of nest, but female

alone finishes it. Both incubate, but female does most. Female alone broods,

both feed, but female does most, and this varies with individuals. When young

leave nest, male takes a larger share. No second brood if first successful.

Chelidorhynx hypoxanthum : Yellow-bellied Flycatcher.

Very common in winter, very tame, in gardens and woods both in the valley

and on hills up to 7,000 feet. Leaves early, last date March 20 ; arrives late,

first date November 19.

Lanius nigriceps • Indian Black-headed Shrike.

The common shrike of Nepal, abundant everywhere. Only a few breed

in the valley itself, most go up into surrounding hills about 6,000 feet, where

they swarm in scrub jungle from mid-May.

May 24. One nest found in valley, a solid cup built in a bamboo about

20 feet, from ground. One bird, presumably the female was sitting and the

other brought food.

SOME NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE NEPAL VALLEY 707

June 4. The young had left nest and parents feeding them outside. The

birds which had bred in the hills began to return to the valley early August,

when I heard many singing beautifully. Very common from September on-

wards, and many young birds about. They remain in the valley all winter.

Lanius tephronotus : Grey-backed Shrike.

Moderately common during winter, both in the valley and surrounding hills.

November 3 first date seen ; March last seen.

Lanius cristatus : Brown Shrike.

Very scarce passage migrant, March 27 and 31.

Hemipus picatus: Pied Shrike.

Very rare. A small party seen on edge of jungle at foot of Nagar Jong,

August 7.

Pericrococtus brevirostrls : Short-billed Minivet.

Very common throughout the year, both in the valley and on all hills up

to 9,000 feet. They do not appear to move much with the seasons, but in

winter collect into huge flocks, which range round the hill-sides. Most nests

April and May. Found several but all out of reach. One in our garden on

top of an enormous chir pine, several in tall jungle trees on Nagar Jong. Both

parents build and feed. Young out by early June and continue all summer

with parents. I saw no second broods.

Lalage melaschista : Dark-grey Cuckoo-Shrike

Quite common on hills during summer. Passed through the valley March-

April. Bred on hills about 6,000 feet during May-June. After breeding they

returned to the valley and were common in our garden July-August. Scarce

September and all gone by second week of October.

Graucalus javensis : Large Himalayan Cuckoo-Shrike.

Found throughout year on high hills 5,000-8,000 feet. Also seen occasionally

in Nepal valley. Very common at about 6,000 feet near Sanatorium some may

leave in winter, but I have seen them during November-January-February above

8,000 feet.

Dicrurus macrocercus : Himalayan Black Drongo.

Abundant in valley throughout' the year. In the coldest months they con-

gregate at lower end of valley near Pharing where the river runs out of the

valley. Breeds April-June. I found 30 nests, but none within reach. 3 young

the average. Nearly all nests in slender fork of tree about 25 feet from ground.

Persian lilac a favourite tree. They have very high percentage of success,

only one nest of the 30 came to grief and that was blown away in a storm ;

the birds built again and the second time reared their young successfully.

May 21. — First young out of the nest; several more by May 24. By June 1

families of young everywhere. The amount of white in the young birds

seemed t’o vary a good deal. 6 families reared in Rani Bagh, but most nests in

gardens and open country. Last family out of nest by June 6. No second

broods. The family parties kept together all June- August. In August they

are moulting and are very miserable and quieti (for them). Moult completed

by end September and the birds collect in large flocks at) any field where the

rice is being cut, to catch the small moths and insects which fly in thousands

over the damp stubble.

Dicrurus leucophaeus : Himalayan Grey Drongo.

Fairly common on all the hill-sides in the jungle; occasionally seen in the

valley in winter. I have seen them in coldest weather at 8,000 feet in

January. One nest found half built, April 24, at about 6,000 feet above Goda-

vari. Nest in fork of oak ( Q . incana). Saw many pairs with young on the

wing by end May. Family parties stay together till October. I heard one in

70S

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

January in the valley exactly mimicking an Oriole, both the liquid peedu note,

and the harsh' cry of the female oriole.

Dicrurus caerulescens : White-bellied Drongo.

One only seen in Rani Bagh, April 14.

Acrocephalus dumetorum : Blyth’s Reed-Warbler.

Quite common on passage April 10-17. Only 2 seen on return passage

October 29 and 31.

Acrocephalus agricola : Paddyfield Warbler.

Also seen on spring passage, but I omitted to note the dates.

Orthotomus sutorius : Tailor Bird.

Very common in Nepal throughout the year, not on higher hills. Breeds

May-June, and few odd nests during monsoon. 2 nests in our garden and a

good many in the Rani Bagh.

Cisticola juncidis : Streaked Fantail-Warbler.

Common in valley during the summer. First seen March 31. April-May

common in the bean fields. Once the rice grows up they frequent the rice

fields, flying above them in wide circles tikking. Seen carrying nesting material

(fluffy white down) in July and food in August. They disappeared with this

into the rice, and as there is no long grass on the bunds between the fields,

they must build in the rice itself, though I never found a nest. I never saw

the birds in gardens or woods where long grass does grow. They all disappeared

end September.

Phylloscopus affinis : Tickell’s Willow-Warbler.

Several seen on passage September.

Phylloscopus colly bila tristis : Chiff-chaff.

Fairly common throughout the winter. It keeps to the hedges which bound

the fields-— the only willow- warbler to do so. I have never heard it utter the

chiff-chaff call here, only a single note a plaintive tweet. Distinct tiryje of green

in the plumage.

Phylloscopus pulclier : Orange-barred Willow-Warbler.

Very common on all the hill-sides during the winter, being the common

willow-warbler above 6,000 feet, though found sometimes in the valley. It is

one of the few easily distinguished warblers, the orange wing bar and pale

outer tail feathers being very noticeable in the field ; the yellow of the rump is

not very noticeable. The note is also very distinctive, a high pitched ti - - ti

repeated continuously, more like the note of a flowerpecker than a warbler.

The separate notes are sometimes run together to form a thin insect-like trill.

First noticed as common on the high! hills early October.

Phylloscopus proregulus : Pallas’s Willow-Warbler.

Another easily distinguished willow-warbler, common in the valley all

winter, where there are trees — gardens, woods, jungle-covered hill-sides up to

8,000 feet ; commonest at about 5,000 feet. Usually in mixed flocks with

others of its kind, tits etc. The yellow rump and coronal streak very distinctive.

It frequently hovers in front of branches as it feeds. Note, a soft tsip. In

spring I have also heard i,t utter a little rapid high pitched song. Most bad

left our garden by April 1, but a few seen till the 12th. On return seen from

October 6 onwards.

Phylloscopus inornaius ; Hume’s Willow-Warbler.

Very common in Nepal Valley on migration, and throughout the winter.

Unfortunately I cannot distinguish between the note of this bird and P.

trochiloides. Both have a double note cher wit or cherfyrmt. If a close view is

SOME NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE NEPAL VALLEY 709

obtained Hume’s is seen to be smaller and brighter, with! a faint coronal streak,

but both keep largely to the higher branches of tall trees, so I am unable to

tell the relative commonness of the two. Both are however undoubtedly

common.

Phylloscopus trochiloides : Green Willow-Warbler.

See last species.

Phylloscopus magnirostris : Large-billed Willow-Warbler.

The note of this bird is quite unmistakable, 5 notes in a descending scale.

Heard occasionally on the spring passage. I think I saw it on the return in

September, but as it was quite silent then I could not be sure. It has also a

very characteristic call of three notes, which! is its usual note in its winter

quarters in Ceylon, but this is never heard in summer or on passage.

Phylloscopus occipitalis: Large Crowned Willow-Warbler.

A scarce passage migrant. A few seen in the Rani Bagh during the first

week in April, uttering the call so familiar in the western Himalayas.

Numerous unidentified willow-warblers swarm through during the spring

migration, and again, though not in such large numbers, in the autumn.

Seicercus burkii : Black-browed Flycatcher-Warbler.

Fairly common all winter in our garden, and in woods, bamboo clumps etc.

in the valley as well as wooded hill-sides up to 7,000 feet. Not seen after

first week in April. Returned October. During coldest weeks — mid December —

mid January — disappears from valley and presumably migrates lower.

Seicercus xanthoschistos : Grey-headed Flycatcher- Warbler.

One of the commonest birds both in the valley and on all hill-sides up to

9,000 feet. Found at highest elevations’ during coldest weather, but a great

many leave during December-February returning in swarms end Fe'bruary-

March. Its pretty little song is heard throughout the year, but greatly intensified

from March to May. Most nests April. One on Nagar Jong had young, April

13 ; the young left the nest April 18, but many other nests with young early

May. Breeding over by June.

Regulus regulus : Himalayan Goldcrest.

Common in winter above 8,000 feet, particularly so on Phulchok (9,200 feet)

during December January, in large flocks of 30 birds or more. Keeps up a

continuous high pitched squeaking. As I have not been up to these heights in

summer, I do not know if they breed there or not.

Oriolus oriolus kundoo : Golden Oriole.

Fair numbers passed through the valley during March and April, but most

went on to breed on the surrounding hills. 1 nest found in the valley, the

usual deep untidy cup, built in a poplar tree about 20 feet from the ground,

May 15. The female was sitting while her mate sat in nearby tree, often calling

to her. This nest destroyed in a storm, as well as drongos’ nest in same tree,

but whereas the drongos built again in the next tree, the orioles disappeared,

and I saw no more in the valley until September when the return migration

began. Odd ones seen until end Nov., these were all single birds. In spring

they migrated through in pairs.

Oriolus chiuensis : Black-naped Oriole.

Seen occasionally in the valley during winter (January-February).

Oriolus trallii : Maroon Oriole.

Common in the jungle above Godavari during April and May, when they

were in pairs and evidently breeding. I saw one carrying nesting material, but

failed to find the nest. Not seen anywhere else, and l.ot noticed in winter.

5

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo\. 48

Sturnia malabarica : Grey-headed Mynah.

Very common in the valley all summer. April 16, first date seen. Many

nests in Rani. Bagh during May-June in holes in trees, usually 12-20 feet from

ground. Nesting over by end June. September-October they collected into enor-

mous flocks which haunted the ripening rice fields. All gone by first week of

November.

Acrid otheres Iristis : Common Mynah.

Abundant in valley everywhere throughout the year. Innumerable nests

April-June, mostly in houses, stables, etc.

A:thiopsar fuscus ; Jungle Mynah.

Abundant throughout the year, but fewer in winter. Many nests in trees,

mostly May-June.

Ploceus philipplnus : Baya Weaver Bird.

Common in the valley throughout the year. All the birds I have seen in

breeding plumage have yellow on the breast, although this varies a good deal

individually. Birds with very little yellow and those with a great deal are

found together in the same colonies, and I doubt if there are really two species

in the valley as given in Landon’s list. Breeding is rather late, commencing

end May and continuing to end September, August being a favourite month.

Male birds were still busy building nests on September 25, but I do not think

any of these were occupied by females. The first colony was at Harisidhi in

trees overhanging the village pond. La,ter there were colonies all over the

valley, but very local. A favourite site was the road to Baranilkanti which is

planted with lemon-scented gums. Every quarter mile or so there is a colony

in these trees of 5-25 nestis. They also frequently build in willows along the

banks of rivers, and in bamboos near villages. Here there are seldom more

than 10 nests together. I watched an amusing incident at one of these, a colony

of 7 nests, which on June 17 were all occupied by young birds, which the

females were feeding, the males meanwhile building fresh nests about 100 yards

away. One male, however, hung about the nests with food in his bill, but

every time he attempted to enter the nest with it his wife attacked him furiously

and he would retire discomfited and sit on the bamboo spray, where he was

chivvied by all the other busy females as they flew back and forth with food.

Every time his wife went off to forage he would edge nearer and nearer to his

nest but she always returned and saw him off before he could screw up courage

to fly into the nest. After nearly an hour of this he at last succeeded and flew

into the nest and fed the young, where, judging from the chorus of delighted

twitterings he was very welcome. He then flew away triumphantly and returned

no more.

By mid November all birds in winter plumage and collected into flocks.

They are however much less common than in summer, and probably most

migrate to the lower hills and plains.

Uroloncha striata: Hodgson’s Munia.

Not very common. A summer visitor, first seen in Rani Bagh April 3.

They remained till August, breeding May and June.

Uroloncha punctulata : Spotted Munia.

Very common all the year. They breed late ; many nest in August and

September, large untidy balls of grass and feathers in trees usually 15-20 feet

from the ground. Large family parties in our garden October-February, the

young still in immature plumage in the latter month. Usually 5 to 7 young

to one pair of old birds, and often several families together.

Carpodacus erythrinus : Common Rose-finch.

Passage migrant. A number of birds went through March 23-25, then I

did not see any for some time. April 15 th!ey became very common, and seen

everywhere in gardens, etc. quite abundant on Nagar Jong. Most gone by

April 20, but odd ones seen till May 8. Females predominate. I noticed very

few on the autumn migration.

SOME NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE NEPAL VALLEY 711

Procarduelis nipalensis: Nepal Dark Rose-finch.

A winter visitor to the hills above 6,000 feet. First seen January 1 a small

party, mostly males, in the scrub jungle on Sheopuri, at about 6,500 fleet.

Seen often during January-February.

Hypacanthis sp molds : Himalayan Green-finch.

According to Landon’s list common in the valley, but I have only seen thlern

a few times. April 29 a flock in my garden. A large flock on Sheopuri about

6,000 feet on May 18, and small flocks at] Godavari in December and

January.

Passer domesticus : House Sparrow.

Scarce in the valley and a summer visitor ; first seen April 12th. Small

flocks here and there throughout the summer. Did not see any nests.

Passer montanus : Tree Sparrow.

Abundant throughout the valley and throughout the year. Many nests in

our verandah April-June, but many young fell out and came to grief. 2 broods

at least.

Passer rutilans : Cinnamon Sparrow.

A few seen April in flocks of tree and house sparrows. Not again.

Emberiza aureola : Yellow-breasted Bunting.

Common passage migrant. First seen April 7 and common till end of

the month. Not seen again till early October, when large flock in the rice

fields, looking very different in their winter plumage. Common all October,

November, early December, but not seen after the cold weather set in.

Melophus lathami: Crested Bunting.

Not noticed in summer. First seen November 11, flocks feeding in the fields

where the rice being harvested, and roosting in the hedges at night, in company

with tree-pipits. Seen off and on all December, January, February, but very

local.

Riparia riparia : Small Sand-martin.

Common all the year along the river banks, particularly so along the

Vishnumati.

Hirundo rustica : Eastern Swallow.

Very common in summer, but a few remain all t'he year. I have seen fair

numbers in December, January, February in coldest weather. They roost

on wires in one of the little cloth shops in Kathmandu. There are never

less than 15 birds all through the winter. They are1 very tame and though

almost on a level with people’s heads appear quite indifferent to human beings.

The owner tells one with pride that they come to his shop from all over the

valley. They become absolutely abundant during March, but many are only

passage migrants, and disappear in April. Nesting begins in earnest in April.

All nests I have seen were right inside houses, usually attached to the wall of

the upper story. First young seen on the wing May 30. Second broods June

July. The majority leave August, September. I did not notice any large influx

of passage migrants in the autumn, as in spring.

Hirundo daurica : Red-rumped Swallow.

The commonest swallow in the summer. They arrive late, few being seen

before April 14, and noti common before 20. They also build inside the houses

and certainly have more than one brood. I have seen them feeding barely

fledged young on September 6. Common till end of October when most left.

I have seen a few hawking over the gorge at Chorban on February 5 and

several in Kathmandu, February 9 and 10. The colour of the rump varies a

great deal, and though most have a light rufous rump, paling towards the tail.

712 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

some have almost pure white rump, and in some it is a deep rufous throughout.

I do not know if tfhe colour is affected at all by the age of the bird. They are

very tame and frequently alight on the damp sand along the river banks when

an excellent view can be obtained.

Motacilla alba: White Wagtail.

At least two forms, M.a. alboides and M.a. leucopsis, common throughout

the winter. Birds with black backs are seen all winter, being in the proportion

of about 1 to 3 of all other kinds. I have always understood that black backs

were only seen in breeding plumage, so find this puzzling. There are also of

course numbers with black heads and grey backs (females?) and with grey

heads and grey backs (young?) During the spring migration they swarm along

the river banks. April 10-17 was the height of the migration, I counted

thousands all along (the Vishnumati. Only a few April 20 ; by April 24 not

one bird anywhere. On the return migration none seen till September 19 and

not common till 25, never the large flocks of the spring. All winter they are

quite common both on the river banks and in all the ploughed fields.

Motaciila madaraspatensis : Large Pied Wagtail.

Very scarce in the valley. Only 1 pair seen in the summer, which fre-

quented the stream near Harisidhi village from May 9 onwards. June 5 nest

found, built on ledge of the bridge, well concealed by a clump of grass. It

contained 3 young.

During the winter saw 2 birds only in January, both solitary.

Motacilla cinerea: Grey Wagtail.

Not common, but a few remain in fhe valley all winter. Very local. There

is always a bird at the dam at Sundarijal and another on the stream at the

foot of Sheopuri. No extra birds noticed during the migrations.

Anthus hodgsoni : Indian Tree Pipit.

Abundant all winter, both in the valley and on all the hills up to 9,000 feet.

Start to leave early in April and all gone by May 1. On return first seen

October 7 ; common by 14th.

Anthus rufulus : Indian Pipit.

Common throughout the year in valley. Nests during April and May in

the wheat fields. We found a good many nests with eggs May 5-25 but these

cvere all destroyed as the wheat was harvested. When the monsoon breaks the

pipits desert the fields and are then common at Goucker and on open hill-sides.

Anthus campestris: Tawny Pipit.

Fairly common throughout the winter in the wheat fields. First date seen

October 11.

Oreocorys sylvanus : Upland Pipit.

Common throughout the year on open hill-sides above 6,000 feet always

found on the grass slopes above the sanatorium. Does not move at all with

the seasons, and never seen in valley. Breeds May. Its note is very character-

istic, and sounds like a gate swinging on rusty, squeaking hinges.

Alauda gulgula: Little Skylark.

A winter visitor only, when small flocks frequent the rice fields. Not noticed

much before December.

Zosterops palpebrosa : White-eye.

Very common all summer and a few remain all the year. Very many

nests found April and May. 8 nests in Rani Bagh and others in gardens and

scrub jungles. 2 eggs in all cases. Most nests 6 to 8 feet from ground, but

two over 20 feet. All young left the nest during second fortnight of May.

Did not see any second broods.

SOME NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE NEPAL VALLEY 713

,/Ethopyga siparaja: Yellow-backed Sunbird.

Scarce, a few seen in Rani Bagh during April. None in summer. A

young male, with very red throat was being fed by parent (female) in Nagar

Jong jungle (4,500 feet) October 11. Several immature birds seen in our

garden in October ; none in winter.

Aithopyga gouldiae: Mrs. Gould’s Sunbird.

The common sunbird of the hills above 6,000 feet where it is abundant in

the oak forests throughout tihe year. Never seen in the valley, but I have seen

it at 9,000 feet in coldest weather with snow on the ground.

yEthopyga ignicauda : Fire-tailed Yellow-backed Sunbird.

A bird which I take to be of this species, was common on Chandragiri

above 6,000 ft. during January and February. They were in pairs, the males

in eclipse dress which is not described in Stuart Baker. Head, chin, throat

grey, the crown streaked darker. Breast yellow, with tiny patch of vivid

scarlet in centre, rest of lower parts greenish, rump bright yellow. Upper

tail coverts and tail brilliant jewel-like crimson.

They were feeding on a flowering jungle tree.

Cinnyris asiaticus : Purple Sunbird.

Arrives in th'e valley in considerable numbers in June. First seen in our

garden June 1, and common by end of the month. They apparently breed in

the lower hills and visit the valley after breeding. When they first arrived

there were a fair number of males in breeding plumage, but by July only

females and males in eclipse dress were seen. Common all July-August, all

gone by end September.

Dicaeum ignipectum : Fire-breasted Flowerpecker.

Seen on hills above 6,000 feet in summer, sparingly in valley in winter,

not common anywhere.

Dicaeum erythrorhynchos : Tickell’s Flowerpecker.

Common all summer. All leave in winter.

Piprisoma agile Thick-billed Flowerpecker.

Very common all summer all over valley and on hills to 7,000 feet. All

gone by end October.

Picus canus : Assam Black-naped Woodpecker.

Quite common in the valley throughout the year, also on lower hills.

Chrysophlegma flavinucha : Large Yellow-naped Woodpecker.

Fairly common on the hills, particularly on Nagar Jong, also in the

Goucher woods all surpmer. Not noticed during the cold months.

Dryobates darjellensis : Darjeeling Pied Woodpecker.

The common woodpecker of the higher hills, above 7,000 feet all the year.

Very common on Phulchok, Sheopuri.

Dryobates catbparius : Red-breasted Pied Woodpecker.

Seen once only on Phulchok at about 6,000 feet in January.

Dryobates macei : Fulvous-breasted Pied Woodpecker.

The common woodpecker of the valley and the lower hills up to about

7,000 feet throughout the year, particularly common on Nagar Jong.

Dryobates auriceps: Brown-fronted Pied Woodpecker.

Fairly common on the lower hills, especially Nagar Jong, between 4,500

and 7,000 feet, all the year. Also occasionally .. in the valley.;

714

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

Micropternus brachyurus : Northern Rufous Woodpecker.

Seen once only, in chir pine woods below Sanatorium about 5,500 feet,

May 17.

Picumnus innominatus : Himalayan Speckled Piculet.

Seen occasionally on Nagar Jong during summer ; not noticed in winter.

Megalaima virens : Great Himalayan Barbet.

Common on all the hills in the oak forests above 6,000 feet throughout' the

year.

Megalaima asiatica: Blue-throated Barbet.

Very common in the valley throughout the year, though the numbers lessen

during the coldest weather, not seen much above 6,500 feet on the hills. Many

nest in the Rani Bagh, April and May all in holes in trees above 25 feet from

ground and quite inaccessible.

Megalaima franklinii : Golden-throated Barbet.

Rather scarce, but several seen in the oak forests above Godavari during

the summer.

Megalaima haemacephala : Indian Crimson-breasted Barbet.

Monsoon visitor to the valley. Only seen at Goucher and in the Rani Bagh,

never on the hills. Arrived June and left end August.

Cuculus canorus : Eastern Cuckoo.

Common on all the hill-sides above 5,000 feet. First heard on Nagar Jong

April 11 and abundant there all summer. Called cuckoo until end of June ; not

heard after that, though often seen on lower hills and sometimes in valley.

Many pass through on migration during September and October when they

frequent the willow trees growing on banks of Vishnumati, which are infested

with caterpillars.

Cuculus optatus : Himalayan Cuckoo.

Common in the summer on all the jungle hills above 5,000 feet constantly

heard but seldom seen. Never heard in the valley except on passage. One

haunted the Rani Bagh from March 28 to 31.

Cuculus micropterus : Indian Cuckoo.

One of the commonest birds during the summer in the valley, not on the

hills. First heard April 2 and after that abundant in our garden, Rani Bagh,

and Goucher. Called continuously all April. May June, not so frequently

after middle of last month, heard occasionally July, after that silent, but seen

In Goucher woods till end August. In spite of being so common I failed to find

any eggs. I once saw one sit beside paradise flycatcher’s nest. This nest was

subsequently deserted by the flycatchers. Twice saw it in Rani Bagh, carrying

an egg in its bill but whether its own, or one robbed from another bird’s nest

I could not tell. In June saw a paradise flycatcher feeding a young one, but

that was the only young cuckoo I saw. I cannot think the paradise) flycatchers

are the usual fosterers, as all the nests in the Rani Bagh successfully reared

young flycatchers, at a time when these cuckoos were all over the locality.

Hierococcyx varius : Common Hawk-Cuckoo.

Very scarce in valley. Only recorded twice, April 13 on Nagar Jong

5,000 feet, and April 20 in our garden.

Clamator jacobinus ; Pied Crested Cuckoo.

Once only April 24 in our garden.

SOME NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE NEPAL VALLEY 715

Eudvnamis scolopaceus : Koel.

Abundant all summer. First heard March 26 and from then onwards a perfect

menace, waking us up at 3 a.m. with its fiendish screams. We shot a great many,

which would result in peace for a night or two, but fresh birds soon took the

dead one’s places. Noisy all April, May, June, both the kodl and water bubbling

note. Only occasionally heard in July and completely silent after the third

week. Still common August and September but moulting and silent. 3 or 4

females often seen together feeding in wild pear trees. I was surprised to

hear the familiar koel call on September 12 when they had been silent a long

time, but on looking up saw a young bird being fed by a crow. After being

fed it followed the crow about, flapping its wings and uttering low conversational

notes. It did not cry' kodl again. All gone by October.

Rhopodytes fristis : Large Himalayan Green-billed Malkoha.

Seen once only on Nagar Jong at about 6,500 feet on January 8. Very

tame, creeping about in the bushes.

Psittacuta himaEayana : Himalayan Slaty-headed Paroquet.

Fairly comrpon on the lower hills round valley ; occasionally in valley

itself.

PsiftacuEa cyaaocephala : Blossom-headed Paroquet.

Moderately common on hills round valley, especially Nagar Jong.

Ceryle Eagubris: Himalayan Pied Kingfisher.

This lovely bird seen once only on the dam at Sundarijal December 8. I

got a very good close view.

Alcedo atthis : Common Kingfisher.

Scarce in valley, but a few seen throughout the year. Usually one on

the Bagmati near Goucharan, and one on the pond in Bag'mati village.

Halcyon smyrnensis : White-breasted Kingfisher.

Very common in valley. Most leave in the coldest months, but in summer

abundant everywhere. Breeds during monsoon, July-August. We often saw

them carrying food into holes in the mud cliffs. Many young birds about,

September-October, but these never with their parents. They were often so

tame that one could get righf up to within a few feet of them.

Upupa epops : Hoopoe.

Rather scarce passage migrant ; very local. One bird haunts a small group

of trees on the banks of the Vishnumati. I have seen it there off and on from

mid-October — mid-April for two winters. Seen elsewhere only September 11

and October 7.

Micropus affinis : Indian House Swift.

First seen February 29, after that common. Built under eaves of houses

May-July. Left valley August and September.

Collocatia fuciphaga : Himalayan Swiftlet.

Seen occasionally flying over Nagar Jong.

Caprimulgus raacrourus: Horsfield’s Nightjar.

Heard the familiar call (which always sounds to me like paddy being

pounded) in the Rani Bagh in mid-April. It remained in the Rani Bagh till

the end of the month. I saw it several times in broad daylight, and got an

-excellent view, as it was very tame. Not seen or heard after May 1. This year

my husband writes that he heard it as early as the 13th March.

716

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 48

Strix indranee : Brown Wood-Owl.

A pair in tih'e Rani Bagh all summer. When they were feeding young

during May and June I frequently saw them during the day, when they were

furiously mobbed by paradise flycatchers, drongos, mynahs, etc. In early

June some children caught a young one, it could not fly, but the children said

it had fluttered down from a hole in a thick dead tree. The hole was about

25 feet from the ground. I bought the owl from the children and later put it

into a thick clump of bamboos which was a favourite roosting place of the

parent owls. The young one was covered with the softest pure white down.

It continuously snapped its bill with a clicking sound, but made no real attempt

at biting us. I did not see it again, but in July saw the parent owls with one

young one just able to fly, whether this or another of course I could not' tell..

At least two varieties of owlet are common, one in gardens, and another in

the jungle, but I have not identified them.

Ninox scutulata: Indian Brown Hawk-Owl.

A pair frequents our garden throughout the year, but they only call during

the summer. Then tlheir curious coo-ock, coo-ock is heard regularly just at

dusk as they leave their roosting place, and again early in the morning. They

roost together, sitting cuddled up close together, and return night after night

to the same spot. They are very tame during the day, and one can get very

close to them.

Pandion haliaetus : Osprey.

Seen off and on throughout the year. One frequently perches in the huge

chir pine at the bottom of our garden. It sometimes brings a fish and eats

it there. As there are no lakes and thle rivers only contain fish of the ‘whitebait’

variety, it is rather mysterious where it gets them from, unless it robs masheer

from the royal ponds.

Sarcogyps calvus: King Vulture.

Fairly common throughout the year.

Pseudogvps begalensis : Indian White-backed Vulture.

The common vulture of the valley, becoming scarcer in the coldest months.

Goucher is a favourite haunt of theirs, and they breed in the tall trees there.

GypaStus barbatus : Lammergeier.

Scarce in the valley, but seen occasionally soaring over Nagar Jong, Goda-

vari or Sheopuri. On February 13 I saw 2 birds over the last hill — a magni-

ficent sight as they wheeled round each other in great circles.

Falco peregrinus : Eastern Peregrine Falcon.

A winter visitor. A single bird lived in the embassy grounds during the

winter of 1947-1948. This year a pair arrived October 20, (1948) and have

been here ever since. They leave early April. They feed on the pigeons which

are very common. In the evenings, after feeding all day in the fields, the

pigeons flight past the embassy on their way to roost on the temple roofs in

Kathmandu. The peregrine usually brings his prey to one of the tall chir pines

in our garden where he devours it at his leisure. I have never seen him feed

except in the evening.

Falco severus : Indian Hobby.

A summer visitor. The ki-ki-ki call (so familiar from Kashmir days) first

heard May 29, and we presently saw the hobby flashing through the garden to

alight on one of the tall chir pines so popular with eagles and falcons. It proved

to be the above species and not F. subbuteo of Kashmir memories, but I find

the notes of the two indistinguishable. It remained throughout the summer

and had a nest during July-August in a tall pine in the embassy grounds. I

often watched it carrying food to the nesf, but could not see the nest properly.

Last date seen carrying food August 20. They disappeared during last week

of September. This year (1949) my husband writes that it arrived April 4.

SOME NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE NEPAL VALLEY 717

Falco chiquera: Red-headed Merlin.

Throughout the year in the valley ; rather scarce.

Faico tinnunculus : Kestrel.

A winter visitor and arrives very late. First date seen November 11 ; very

common by November 15. They are seen all over the valley, but are particularly

common at the lower end near Chorban. Last date seen April 12. They are

all extremely pale, no slaty in the male and the female very pale rufous, so I

suppose the European race tinnunculus.

Aquila nipalensis : Steppe Eagle.

Fairly common in winter, mostly the phase with white bars in the wing.

Other eagles, not identified specifically, are common during the winter.

Ictinaetus inalayensis • Indian Black Eagle.

Seen throughout the year, but only flying over the jungle hills never in

open country or in the valley. It is the common eagle of the jungle from

4,500 to 9,000 feet.

H awk-eagles with white breast often seen in the hills, but not identified for

certain.

Spilornis cheela : Crested Serpent-eagle.

Fairly common in summer. A pair always at Godavari April-June where

they always roost in the same large tree. Often seen soaring in pairs over the

hills above Godavari, also over Nagar Jong. They appear to leave in winter.

I have not seen one after September.

Haliastur indus: Brah'miny Kite.

A summer migrant, arriving late when the rice is well grown. I did not

see one before August. Very local ; frequenting the same patch of rice’ fields

throughout its stay. Left end September.

Milvus migrans : Common Kite.

Abundant throughout the year.

Circus raacrourus : Pale Harrier.

Seen occasionally on spring passage.

Circus pygargus: Montagu’s Harrier.

On passage only. Several during April. One only on the autumn migration —

a male, November 3.

Circus cyaneus : Hen Harrier.

A pair frequented the fields near the Embassy during March and April.

They hunted alone during the day, but always roosted near each other in the

bean fields on the banks of 'the Vishnumati. Not seen during the autumn and

winter.

Circus aeruginosus : Marsh Harrier.

The commonest harrier in autumn and winter, usually immature or females.

I have seen only one male in full adult plumage. First date September 5.

Buteo ruttnus: Long-legged Buzzard.

Buzzards (I think of this species) common during the winter. First date

September 7. They leave in April. The dark phase the most common, but I

have seen an almost pure white one near the Chorban gorge in January and

another very pale bird frequented our garden all January and February.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

718

Accipiter nisus : Sparrow Hawk.

Common in winter. First date October 14. A pair haunted our garden

and were so destructive in stealing our chickens that we were obliged to shoot

them. They proved to be of the above race. Almost pure white below, very

finely barred dark brown. A faint tinge of buff on the flanks of the female,

none on the male. He was considerably smaller than his mate and did less

damage amongst our chickens. I have seen them hunting along the hedges

between the fields, slipping from side to side with wonderful speed and neatness.

1 hey cause wild panic amongst the flocks of little birds. I have watched a

magpie robin escape with a squeal of terror, quite unlike its normal note.

Streptopelia orientalis : Rufous Turtle Dove.

Summer visitor, quite common in the Rani Bagh and on the surrounding

hills. First date March 17.

Streptopelia chinensis : Spotted Dove.

Very common,

CEnopopelia tranquebarica : Red Turtle Dove.

Not very common. A summer visitor seen here and there in the valley

from April to September.

Fulica atra : Coot.

A pair on Bhatgaon tank January 8. The only time seen.

Charadrius dubius : Jerdon’s Little Ring-plover.

Seen occasionally on sandy shingle beds in the Bagmati and Vishnumati

between March-October.

Lobivanellus indicus: Red-wattled Lapwing.

Very common during tihe monsoon, and a few remain throughout the winter.

Lobipluvia malabarica. Yellow-wattled Lapwing.

Seen occasionally during the monsoon.

Numerous arquata ; Eastern Curlew.

Seen once only, at Goucher August 21.

Tringa ochropus: Green Sandpiper.

A winter visitor and passage migrant. First date August 17, last date

April 17. Those which remain all winter are very local and are to be found

throughout their stay in little groups of 2 to 7 birds frequenting the same short

stretch of river bank. Large numbers pass through on migration. September

16 saw numbers flying through calling, usually 3 birds to a party. I counted

over 20 parties during an afternoon’s walk, all flying steadily in the same

direction. September 21 again saw numbers flying past.

Actitis hypo leu cos : Common Sandpiper.

A few on all the river banks, generally 1 or 2 to each mile of bank ; these

numbers remain constant throughout the winter. During the migrations many

more are seen. First date August 8, last date April 27.

Scolopax rusticola : Woodcock.

Rather scarce winter visitor.

Capelia gallinago: Fantail Snipe.

Capella stenura : Pintail Snipe.

Fair numbers on passage, and a lew all wirier. All (hat I have seen shot

were fantail.

SOME NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE NEPAL VALLEY 719

Lymnocryptes minima: Jack Snipe.

Scarce passage migrant, probably a few all winter.

Dissoura episcopa : White-necked Stork.

Seen occasionally throughout the year.

Egretta garzetta : Little Egret.

Not so common as the next species, but remains throughout' the year.

Usually solitary or in pairs, but I have seen it in small flocks in winter.

Breeds in tall trees in small wood near Godavari. May 30 could see the birds

on their nests but foliage too thick to make out any details. Pond herons breed-

ing in same trees.

Bubulcus ibis: Cattle Egret.

Abundant all summer in flocks. Most leave during the cold weather. A

huge breeding colony in Kathmandu itself, in two large peepal trees. All birds

fledged and ready tb fly in this colony by July 20. Another smaller colony in

Harisidhi village, in peepal tree over the village pond. May 20 the birds were

repairing last year’s nests, some already had eggs. May 31 most nests had

incubating birds. 52 nests occupied this colony.

Ardeola grayii : Indian Pond heron.

Abundant throughout the year. Birds in breeding plumage from June to

September. Most breeding colonies occupied end June-August.

Nycticorax nycti corax : Night Heron.

Very common throughout the year. Did not find any breeding colonies, but

many immature birds about all autumn, and unlike the parents which do not

appear till dusk, these young birds are seen standing about in the fields all

day.

Anas peneiope : Wigeon.

A male shot by Newars May 15.

Anas crecca : Common Teal.

Abundant during the migrations. Little flights crossing the valley all day

from last week August till mid October. Most birds during first week of

October. They only remain in the valley a few hours, sometimes a day or

two. During the spring migration most went through in April, but never in

such numbers as in autumn.

Aytnya ferina : Pochard.

January 8 a male on small tank at Bhatgaon.

Duck and teal fly through in thousands during the migrations, but as

there are very few suitable places for them to alight, most go through without

stopping. Numbers of teal are shot, but very few duck.

THE INSECT FAUNA OF A COTTON FIELD AT LYALLPUR

BY

Abdul Hameed Khan, m.sc. (Agr.)

Cotton Research Laboratory , Lyalipur ( Pakistan )

( With a plate)

SYNOPSIS

A knowledge of the insect fauna of a cotton field in any

particular locality is of very great importance for the proper

assessment of the damage done by them in different seasons.

The population of the different species of insects varies with changes

in the climatic conditions. A thorough study of this problem at

Lyalipur during 1945 and 1946 revealed that the insect fauna of both

desi ( Gossypium arbor eum Linn.)and American cotton ( G . hirsutum

Linn.) fields was similar, with the exception of cotton jassids (Em-

poasca devastens Dist.) which were in great excess in the fields of

American cottons, particularly in the former year, when heavy rains

were received. The Cotton Boll-worms ( Earias insulana Boisd.)

causing 10-20% loss of crop, however, was in abundance in the

drier season and on desi cotton. The Cotton White-fly ( Bemesia

gossypiperda Cam.) another serious pest iof cotton, due to its

very small size, could not be collected. Its attack is rather serious

in hot and dry seasons. The hymenopterous insects cause indirect

loss to the crop by natural cross-pollination.

* -x- * * *

INTRODUCTION

Lyalipur is situated in the heart of the canal colony areas of

the West Punjab and is the. most representative of all these

districts. Its climate is hot and dry during April, May and June.

Plot winds are very common during summer and there are usually

10-15 severe dust storms. A short spell of monsoon weather follows,

daring late July and August. September and October are mild

and dry and winter is cold. First frost occurs in the 3rd week of

December and there are no frosts after the 15th of February. Light

showers are usually expected during Christmas and early January.

Such climatic conditions coupled with sound f perennial irrigation

have helped in the development of the canal colony districts as the

most flourishing of the entire area. Cotton is the most important

cash crop of these areas and wheat, gram, oilseeds and sugarcane

etc., are only of secondary importance.

Both the local and the American cottons belonging to G. arbor eum

race bengalense and G. hirsutum respectively are being grown

over large areas, but the latter ones are by far the most important,

covering approximately 90% of the envire area under cotton.

39 Mollisoni and 4F, the two varieties belonging to the local

and the American group of cottons respectively, have been holding

the field for a fairly long time. It may be mentioned that both

desi and American cottons always give very high yields and always

bring good returns to the growers, but crop failures are not un-

THE INSECT FAUNA OF A COTTON FIELD AT LY ALLPUR 721

common due to occasional serious attacks of certain insects, like

cotton jassids, cotton boll-worms, and the cotton white-fly. The

extent of damage done, varies with the weather and climatic condi-

tions which have a direct bearing- on the multiplication or reduction

of a particular set of insect species.

For a proper appreciation of the. damage done to cotton by

insects, the knowledge of the insect fauna of a particular locality is

very important, and for this purpose a collection of insects was

made every 4th day from fields of both 39 Mollisoni and 4F by

sweepings with a hand net. Sixteen forward and sixteen backward

strokes of the hand net were made as described by Verma and

Afzal (1) from 20th August to 21st November during the two

cotton seasons, 1945 and 1946. The daily total number of insects

collected is given in Table I.

TABLE I

Daily insect collection from fields of cotton

722 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

It will be seen from Table I that the number of insects present

during 1945 in both 39 Mollisoni and 4F was more than in 1946.

It was due to heavy rains received which resulted in a higher

humidity during the greater part of the first cotton season. It

is clear that the American cottons harboured a much larger number

of insects than desi cotton. It will be further seen that the

number of insects in both desi and American cottons, particularly

in the latter case, was very high up to the end of September,

after which it showed a marked decrease and in the third week

of November, it was very low indeed. The insect collections were

classified and the number of different species is given in Table II.

TABLE II

Classification of insects found in cotton fields

It will be seen from Table II that the insect fauna of both desi

and American cotton was similar, except that the number of cotton

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

I* Empoasca devastens Dist. x io| ; 2. Bemesia gossy piper da Cam. xnj ;

3* imu^ana' Boisd. x 2f ; 4. Platyedra gossypiella Saund. x 3^ ;

5. V lyllocerus 11 pustulatus Fst. x 7 ; 6. Dysdercus cingulatus F. X2j.

THE INSECT FA UNA OF A COTTON FIELD AT LY ALLPUR 723

jassids ( Empoasca devastens Distant) was much more on American

cotton than on desi cotton and in the season 1945 than in 1946

and that the disparity in total number of insects from two fields was

entirely due to this insect. It is well known that jassids are

a major pest of American cottons in the Punjab, while desi cottons

are practically immune to it. The bigger number of jassids on

4F is therefore according to expectation.

It may be mentioned here that the larger number of cotton

jassids during 1945 resulted in the loss of yield in 4F by 3 maunds

;md in the case of Victory (124F) by 10.28 maunds per acre at

Lyallpur. The differences in yield in the case of desi cotton were

negligible. This is a huge loss indeed and calculated in terms

of money, it comes to crores of rupees.

Another interesting point brought to light was that there was

a general higher trend in the population of all the species during

1945 as compared with 1946, except for the number of cotton

boll-worms (Earias insulana Boisd.) which showed greater number

during 1946 and its population was slightly more in 39 Mollis oni

than in 4F. It is further clear from the data given above that

both desi and American cottons were more or less equally attacked

by boll-worms and that the lesser number in 1945 was due to the

heavy rains, which checked their multiplication. The losses due

to boll-worm attack are serious in certain seasons and range from

10 to 20%.

It will be interesting to note that the cotton white-fly ( Bemesia

gossypiperda Cam.), which is also considered a major pest of cotton

in the West Punjab did not find a place in Table II. This is

probably due to the very small size of this insect, which makes

its proper collection rather difficult. It is present on the cotton

plants in huge numbers in hot and dry seasons, and heavy rains

are considered helpful in checking its attack. The losses due to

the attack of this insect during 1945 and 1946 were, however,

not so serious.

Apart from the loss in yield from the damage directly done to

the cotton crop by the insects mentioned above, there is an in-

direct loss brought about by the hymenopterous insects. These

insects bring about general deterioration in the cotton crop, by

natural cross-pollination. It has already been shown by Afzal and

Khan (2 & 3) that there is about 2% of natural crossing in cotton

in contiguous plants and rows and 0.05% under field conditions

at Lyallpur. The most active agents of natural crossing were

found to be Apis dorsata Fab., Anthophora confusa Smith and Elis

Ihoracica Lepel.

It may be mentioned here that most of the hymenopterous insects

are extremely active and agile and that is the reason, why their

collection by the sweepings method mentioned earlier has not proved

of much use.

The data presented in this paper has revealed an interesting

picture of the insect fauna of a cotton field at Lyallpur. It may

be taken as a representative one for all the canal colonies. The

important pests and cross-pollinators have been brought to light.

724

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

Similar records from other parts of the Indo-Pakistan sub-continent

would make very interesting- comparisons.

Literature cited

1. Verma, P. M., and Afzal, M. (1940) : Studies on the Cotton Jassid in

the Punjab. Ind. Jour. Agri. Sci., 10.

2. Afzal, M. and Khan, A. H. (1950) : Natural crossing in Cotton in

Western Punjab. I. Natural crossing in contiguous plants and rows. Agr.

Jour., 42. No. 1. (In press)

3. Afzal, M. and Khan, A. H. (1950) : Natural crossing in cotton in

Western Punjab. II. Natural crossing under field conditions. Agr. Jour., 42.

No. 2. (In press)

BOMBAY CROP PESTS CALENDAR AND A SEASONAL SCHEDULE

OF THEIR CONTROL BY MODERN INSECTICIDES

BY

E. j. Vevai, b.a.,, ph.D. (Wales), Assoc., i.a.r.i. (New Delhi)

Agricultural Entomologist to Government, Bombay Province

AND

G. M. Talgeri, b. sc. (Agri.) Hons.

Entomological Officer, IJ C Provincial Scheme for Tests with DDT, BHC and

allied insecticides. College of Agriculture, Poona 5.

Introduction

For the last several years there has been a growing demand especially

from educated farmers, orchard owners, rural development staff, district and

propaganda officers as well as the students of agricultural colleges and schools

for a handy, . comprehensive and up-to-date crop pest calendar for the Bombay

Province, giving a schedule of control measures by the use of modern insecti-

cides. Prior to this, Dr. Ayyar at the 4th Entomological Meeting held at Pusa

during February 1921 had suggested the need for preparing such calendars for

each province of India. In the absence of such a work in this Province, the

present article is a modest attempt at meeting this pressing need of the day.

In this Province, there are diverse agricultural practices and as such, certain

crops are cultivated either in Kharif or Rabi or in both the seasons. Thius, the

appearance of pests here in particular months would not hold good for other

localities. However, in order to simplify the matter, the crop pests are arbitrarily

classified according to their periodical appearance in crop fields, as well as

under the categories of their nature of occurrence such as (a) Regular seasonal

crop pests (b) Occasional sporadic crop pests, and (c) General crop pests found

all the year round.

The control measures recommended against the crop pests are through

personal experiences of the authors, who have gathered them through pre-

liminary trials. For the benefit of the rural public they have attempted to

set them out in this article.

A. Regular Seasonal Crop Pests

Mid-March to mid-June.

(i) Protect your summer cucurbits against Pumpkin Beetles ( Aulacophora

abdominalis ) by dusting a mixture of Pyrodust 4,000 and Guesarol 405 (DDT

5%) dust, mixing in proportions of X : 1 at 15 to 20 days interval, (ii) Preserve

the seed potatoes by dusting them with Geigy 33 A-5 (DDT 5%) against the

Potato Tuber Moth (Gnorimo schema operculella), at the rate of ounces per

SO lb. of potatoes, (iii) For the Spotted Bollworm ( Earias fabae) on Bhendy,

cotton and Brinjal fruit borers ( Leucinodes orbonalis ), spray 0.2% DDT-water

suspension (Guesarol 550) at fortnightly intervals, (iv) After April-pruning of

grape vines, the Udadya Beetles ( Scelodonta strigicollis) are controlled by two

to three sprayings of DDT — Bordeaux mixtures, prepared by mixing 3 lb. of

Guesarol 550 in 100 gallons of Bordeaux mixture (5 :5 :50) which is already

used against Grape Downy mildew. Care should be taken to use this mixture

immediately after adding the DDT. (v) Entrap the Cucurbit fruit flies

( Chaetodacus spp.) in Clensel traps, wherein Clensel is diluted with 30 parts

of water, (vi) To control Pyrilla on sugarcane, use the dust 5% BHC (either

Gammexane or Hexyclan) or 0.3% DDT spray (Guesarol 550 ; 6 lb. in 100

gallons of water), (vii) For fruit flies on mangoes, guava, destroy fallen fruits

and spray only the foliage (on sunny sides) of ten different trees (per acre) with

a (poisonous) spray of 1 ounce Tartar emetic, 24 ounces of jaggery in 20 lb.

of water. This mixture should suffice for two acres.

0

726 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , FoL 48

Mid-June to mid-September.

(i) During June-July give two or three dustings (at intervals of twenty days)

of 5% DDT (Guesarol 405) against Jowar Stemborer ( Chilo zonellus) and the

Jowar Army worm ( Cirphis unipuncia). Care should be taken to dust the seed-

lings when omy 6-8 inches higitii and dust should be directed to the central whorl

of leaves, (ii) With three to four spraying of 0.2% DDT- water suspension

(Guesarol 550) at intervals of 20 days, keep under control, Anar Butterfly ( Vira -

chola isocrates ), Mango Shootborer ( Chlumetia transverse ) on mango seedlings

and gratts, and 0.15% DDT-water suspension or 5% DDT dust (Guesarol 405)

would control Castor Semi-looper ( Achaeci Janata), Mustard Sawny grubs

(Athalia proxima ) and Diamond-backed Moth ( Plutella maculipennis) on cab-

bage, cauliflower, knolkohl, radish seedlings in nursery beds or fields as well

as Lemon Butterfly caterpillars ( Papilio demoleus), on citrus plants like oranges,

lemons, pomelo etc. (iii) In about first week of July, save your paddy crop

(Belgaum District) by giving one or two dustings of 5% BHC (either Gammex-

ane or Hexyclan) against early instar nymphs (on grassy bunds and roadsides)

and adults of Paddy Grasshopper (j Hieroglyphus banian var. elongate). (iv) To

protect your Jowar crop from the ravages of Deccan Wingless Grasshopper, it

is expected that 10% BHC (in the form of Gammexane or Hexyclan) should be

able to kill the early instars of nymphs breeding in the grassy bunds and

roadsides. Do not leave any patches of undusted crops like groundnut, pulses

etc. (v) To control the Katra or Gujarat Hairy Caterpillar ( Amsacta moorei)

on bajri, maize, pulses etc., promising results were obtained by spraying the

hedges and later the regular crop fields, with 20% DDT emulsion diluted 100

times. This spray would also kill Satara Hairy Caterpillar, Sann Hemp Hairy

Caterpillar ( Utetheisa pulchella) as well, (vi) With regard to aphids on jowar,

groundnut, use 5% BHC dust (Gammexane or Hexyclan) or Pyrodust 1,500,

taking care to dust all the parts wherever aphids are found.

(vii) In case of crabs ( Parateiphusa spp.) in paddy fields, fumigate the burrows

(first ascertaining the ‘live’ burrows) by introducing 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls of

Cynogas ‘A’ dust. It is advisable to use t'he Cynogas foot pump for the pur-

pose. (viii) Before transplanting paddy seedlings, immerse them (for 5 minutes)

in a solution of 0.2% DDT-water suspension (Guesarol 550) thus safeguarding

against the attack of ‘Kane pests’ ( Pachydiplosis oryzae ) and possibly against

the stemborer ( Schoenobius bipunctifer). (ix) In places where the Rice Blue

Beetle ( Leptispa pygmaea) and the Hispa Beetle ( Hispa armigera ) are of regular

occurrence, it is advisable to cut and destroy the leaf-tips of paddy seedlings

before transplantation, then dip in 0.2% DDT-water suspension before planting

in fields. Should the infestation occur, once again remove thte leaf-tips from

the standing crop (after careful examination that as yet the paddy plants have

not produced the flag-leaf) and dust the crop with 5% DDT dust (Guesarol 405).

(x) Dust a mixture of 5% DDT dust (Guesarol 405) and Pyrodust 4,000 in

proportion of 1 : 1 against the infestation of Epilachna beetles on various cucur-

bits, brinjals, as well as against the Pumpkin Beetles. In some cucurbits,

DDT dust has caused scorching, so it is better to try the dust in the first in-

stance on only a few plants, three days after or before the routine irrigations.

(xi) The Betelvine Bug ( Disphinctus maesarum) in Blassein and elsewhere

can be brought under control by the periodical sprayings of tobacco (dhus)

decoction (1 lb. in 16 to 20 lbs. water and diluted 8 to 6 times respectively)

or spray .25% DDT-water suspension. Care should be taken to allow 4 weeks

to elapse before harvesting the leaves, (xii) For jassids ( Empoasca devastens)

on cotton, brinjal and potato, dust 5% DDT (Guesarol 405). Jassids causing

hopper-burn in potato can very well be controlled by the 0.15% DDT-water

suspension spray.

Mid-September to mid-December.

(i) Beware of the Bihar Hairy Caterpillar ( Diacrisia oblique ) and Sann

Hairy Caterpillar ( Utetheisa pulchella) which would feed on lowersides of leaves

in cluster when young. Spray with 20% DDT emulsion diluted 100 times with

water or Pyro-colloid (1 : 500) at intervals of twenty days, till the pesc is

brought under control, (ii) With two to three spraying of 0.15% DDT-water

suspension (Guesarol 550) applied once in three weeks, control Onion Thrips

(' Thrips tabaci), Mustard Sawfly grub, Diamond-backed Moth caterpillars

on cabbage, cauliflower etc. (iii) After the October-pruning of grapevines,

BOMBAY CROP PEST CONTROL BY MODERN INSECTICIDES 727

spray them with DDT-Bordeaux mixture as stated before, against Udadya .

(j v) Mixture of 5 %. DDT dust (Guesarol 405) with Pyrodust 4000 in equal

proportions, was found beneficial against flea beetles ( Haltica sp.) on crucifers

in nursery beds. (v) On early infestation of aphids on cabbage, cauliflower,

green peas, citrus, cotton eic., give lonmgmtly dustings of 4% briC (Gammex-

ane) or Pyrodust 1500 or spray of Pyro-colloid (1 : 800). (vi) Give one or two

dustings of 10% DDT mixed with Pyrodust 4000, in proportions of 2:1 against

the Red Cotton Bug (Dysdercus cingulatus) in early instars, so also against

Groundnut-pod Bug (Aphanus sordidus) in store godowns and thrashing floors.

Mid-December to mid-March.

(i) By the middle of December or when mango inflorescences appear either

give a spray of 0.15% DUf -water suspension (Guesarol 550) with equal quantity

of wettable sulphur or dust the trees with a mixture of 5% DDT dust (Guesarol

405) and sulphur (300 mesh) in equal proportions, against the Mango-hoppers

(Idiocerus clypealis, I. atkinsoni and I. niveosparsus). If the attack persists,

repeat till the pest is brought under control. At the most two sprayings or three

dustings at fortnightly intervals will be found necessary. Incidentally this will

also be found useful against the Lymantrid hairy caterpillar ( Dasychira securis)

and the Mango Shootborers ( Chlumetia transversa) widely prevalent in Ratnagiri

District. Depending on the availability and easy access to water, the dusting

or spraying should be adopted, because both the treatments are equally effec-

tive. (ii) By spraying 0.2% DDT-water suspension (Guesarol 550) Anar Butter-

fly ( Virachola isocraies) on pomegranate fruits and Cotton Spotted Boll worm

(Earias fabae ) on bhendy and at 0.15% DDT strength, Diamond-backed Moth

and Mustard Sawfly grubs can be controlled. (iii) Pea Aphis ( Macrosiphum

onobrachys ), Cabbage Aphis ( Brevicoryne pseudobrassicae) and Safflower Aphis

( Macrosiphum jaceae) can be effectively controlled by two to three sprayings

of Pyro-colloid (1 : 800) or 5% BHC or Pyrodust 1500 at weekly intervals till

the pest is brought under control. (iv) Severe infestation of Dusky Cotton

Bug ( Oxycarenus laetus ) can be checked by one or two thorough dustings on

cotton bolls with a mixture of 10% DDT (Guesarol 410) and Pyrodust 4000

in proportions of 2 :1 at fortnightly intervals. Removal of affected and fallen-

off bolls reduces the infestation to some extent.

B. Occasional Sporadic Pests

Mid- June to mid-September.

(i) Control the surface grasshoppers ( Epacromia dorsalis and Chrotogonus

lugubris) destroying vegetable seedlings in seed-beds, and of cereals and cotton

in fields by either dusting 5% BHC (Gammexane), or 0.2% DDT-water suspen-

sion. (ii) Protect your cereals against the ravages of swarming caterpillars

(Spodopteria mauritia ) or Army worms ( Cirphis unipuncta and C. loreyi) by

dusting the inner whorl of leaves with 5% DDT dust (Guesarol 405) or spraying

Pyro-colloid (1 : 800) against the former.

Mid-September to mid-Nov ember.

(i) Whenever there 'is a sporadic outbreak of Mango Slug Caterpillar ( Parasa

lepida) on mango or citrus, spray either 0.2% DDT-water suspension or spraying

DDT emulsion 20%, diluted 100 times in water, (ii) Save the bajri earheads

from the devastation by fbe Blister Beetles ( Zonabris pustulata ) by dusting bajri

crop when the inflorescence just comes out of the flag-leaf, with mixture of

5% DDT dust (Guesarol 405) with equal parts of Pyrodust (1500) at fortnightly

intervals or spraying 0.15% DDT-water suspension, (iii) For the Painted Bug

( Bagrada picta) on cabbage, cauliflower etc. two dustings of a mixture con-

taining 10% DDT (Guesarol 410) and Pyrodust 4000, in proportions of 2 : 1

at fortnightly intervals would be found very useful. (iv) Control Heliothis

cbsoleta boring pods of gram, tur and tomato fruits, by 0.15% DDT-water

suspension (Guesarol 550). Repeat every fortnight.

C. General Crop Pests Found All ti-ie Year Round

(i) Be vigilant against the attack of termites ( Cyclotermes obesus) and other

species on wheat, sugarcane, fruit trees, cotton, etc. In loose sandy loams

where termite attacks are of regular occurrence, it is suggested that

723

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

-sugarcane setts and wheat seeds should be immersed for 10 minutes in

- 5 % DDT-water suspension (Guesarol 550 : 1 lb. in 1 gallon of water), and dried

in a cool shady place before planting. For temporary relief, irrigate the

crop beds with 3 to 4 lbs. crude oil per acre along with irrigation water, and

do not use raw F.Y. manure or groundnut cake as top dressing, (ii) To do

away with Mealy Bugs ( Trionymus sacchari) on sugarcane setts, soak them

in 1% coaltar solution for half hour, dry and plant them, (iii) To remove the

trouble of Rhinoceros Beetle ( Orcytes rhinoceros ) dispose of decaying, fallen

down palm trees and manure heaps. The latter can be sprayed with 0.2%

DDT emulsion 20%, diluted 100 times or use 10% DDT dust, (iv) To control

the Black-headed Caterpillar ( Nephantis serinopa) on palm, spray the leaves with

0.4% DDT-watet suspension, (v) The troublesome nests of red ants ( Oecophylla

smaragdina) should be broken open and then blown in with Pyrodust 1500

or spray 0.5% DDT-water suspension — the latter has longer residual effect,

(iii) With regard to Mango Bark-feeder ( Arbela tetraonis) in mango, citrus,

guava trees, scrape off webbings, ascertain ‘live burrow’, and then inject with

borer solution of two parts of carbon bisulphide, with one part of chloroform

and creosote. Even petrol would serve the purpose. Care should be taken

as these are inflammable. Likewise, Mango Stem-borer ( Batocera rubra) can

also be brought under control, (iv) Leaf-miners on citrus ( Phyllocnistis citrella)

can be controlled by a stronger dose of nicotine sulphate (1 : 400), so also those

on crucifers. One pound of bar-soap may be added to 100 lb. of spray,

(vii) Against rats ( Gerbillus and Mus spp., etc.) damaging field crops, launch

a regular campaign for the fumigation of rat burrows with Cynogas ‘A’ dust.

Prior to fumigation, close all the burrows with mud on the first day and

observe on the second day if there are any live burrows. Fumigate only such

live burrows. Besides fumigation, poison baits in the form of pills containing

one part of An tu or white arsenic in eight parts of cooked bajri flour mixed

with pieces of groundnut kernels, may be placed in the rat haunts on the

third day after sufficiently prebaiting the rat to come near a non-poisonous

bait for the first two days.

Lastly during these days of rationing, preservation of food grains from

different insects pests is by far the most important. By periodical sweeping of

godowns and disinfecting them with 1% DDT-water suspension (Guesarol 550)

dusting the gunny bags superficially with either Geigy 33 or Gammexane 4%

(DO 34) would control Rice Weevil ( Sitophilus oryzae), Red Grain Beetle ( Rhizo -

pertha dominion) , Paddy Moth ( Sitotroga cerealella) and Pulse Beetles ( Bruchus

spp.) etc. Repeat the dustings as and when needed, once in two months in case

of Geigy and once a month for Gammexane.

Before concluding this calendar, a word of caution is deemed necessary for

those who would be handling and using these insecticides against various crop

pests. The insecticides included in the schedule if properly handled and admin-

istered in the exact proportions stated against each of them, are harmless. Yet

as a precaution, all leafy vegetables and fruits to be used for human consump-

tion, should be washed in water thoroughly before marketing. The safest

course would be not to use these insecticides at least three to jour weeks prior

to harvesting time. In that interval of time the toxic effects of the insecticides

should be worn off thus rendering them harmless.

NOTES ON BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF

SHWEBO DISTRICT, BURMA

BX

W. L. Roseveare, i.s.e. (Retd.)

Part II

(Continued pom p. 534 of this volume )

Caprimulgus macrourus. The Burmese Long-tailed Nightjar.

Status.— Heard calling twice in the area, on 24 March 1932 at Satthe and

on 1 July 1932 at Pauktaw. Both these places are on the Yeu/ Main Canal

neai Yeu. On 29 August 1932 also, I saw several birds catching insects over

the Mahananda tank, Shwebo, which seemed larger than the common nightjar,

and were possibly this species.

Caprimulgus monticolus. Franklin’s Nightjar.

Status .* On 7 August 1932 I saw a bird .at Yeu, with mottled brown

plumage, small white wing-patches and white edges to the tail, which was pre-

sumably this species. It was standing in the road, with several black drongos,

and hawking insects a few inches above the surface.

Caprimulgus asiaticus. The Common Indian Nightjar.

Voice. — I heard birds calling in every month, except July, December and

January, at various times between dusk and dawn. On one occasion, in

September, the call was heard after 5 or 6 rainless and almost cloudless days.

On the other hand, I once watched a bird calling for a long time on 1 June,

at midday during rain. The latter bird and another were perched on the

tops of fence posts in Yeu inspection bungalow compound. While calling, the

whole bird vibrates from head to tail.

Tylo alba. The Barn Owl.

Status. — Only once observed for certain, when a bird hew across my com-

pound at Shwebo at 6 a.m. on 15 August 1932. Another whitish owl, which

was probably this species, was seen in the previous month, also at Shwebo,

flying across the road in the headlight beam of a car.

Tyto longimembris. The Grass Owl.

Status. — I saw what was probably this bird three times in the area. Two

of the observations were at Kabo, on the R. Mu, on 15 August 1933 and

18 January 1934. On the first occasion a bird settled in a dry paddy field, in

the growing paddy, and moved to another one when I walked it up. In size

it was similar to a barn owl, had a pronounced white facial disc, no ears,

all the upper plumage brown, with white spots on wings, tail white with narrow

dark brown bars, lower plumage brownish white, legs dark, eyes very dark.

The bird seen on 18 January got up from the river bank and settled again on the

ground. In appearance it was similar to the first, but with dark eye-patches

and White feathering on the thighs. The third observation was on 27 January

at Shwebo, when a bird was seen perched inside the roof of an empty build-

ing. I would have taken it for a barn owl, if it had not been for the warm

brown of the upper plumage.

Athene brama. The Burmese Spotted Owlet.

Identification. — One young bird which I kept in my house for several days

had no white spots on the crown. I noticed this on another occasion in the

field (vide next para).;

780 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 48

Habits. — On 6 June 1932 I saw two birds in a tree, one of which was a

young bird with an unspotted crown and the other was in normal plumage.

They were rubbing their bills together, scratching each other on the head, and

sometimes looking exactly as if whispering in each other’s ear. The one with

the spotted crown flew off and repeated the performance with another bird,

also in normal plumage. A few days later, in another locality, I watched the

same display of affection between two birds on the top of a fence post. 1

once saw two birds clinging to the trunk of a toddy palm, like woodpeckers,

and once saw a single bird on a telegraph wire. On another occasion a bird

was in a tree close to two pied mynahs and two pied crested cuckoos.

Nesting. — Not observed, but a pair were seen copulating on 3 August.

Status. — Seen in every month. Noted as numerous in November 1932,

±a33 and September 1933, and as uncommon in February 1933 and

December 1933.

Ninox scutulata. The Brown Hawk-Owl.

Status. — Two observations, one an small scrub near Shwebo, and the other

in the Mu river bed at Yeu. Identified in both cases by the long pointed

wings and the owl-like head.

Pandion halia'etus. The Osprey.

Status. — Two good observations in the area, on 26 September 1933 and

23 October 1933, and two doubtful ones, on 24 July 1932 and 13 September

1932. On 26 September two birds were seen perched close to the Mahananda

tank, Shwebo, wihile on 23 October three birds were seen fishing in the tank.

The bird seen on 24 July, which hovered and dropped like a kestrel and was

probably this species, flew off a nest 20 ft. up in a small tanaungbin tree on

the shore of the Mahananda, pursued by a number of small birds. The nest

which was empty, was a large onle made of sticks, straw and rags, with a

shallow cup.

Sarcogyps calvus. Th/e Black Vulture.

Habits. — I saw a bird once at a carcass in company with a long-billed and

a white-backed vulture.

Nesting. — A bird was seen on 15 October on top of a bare tree alongside

a nest of grass and small sticks.

Status. — Recorded in every month except March and May. Rather

uncommon.

Gyps indicus. The Long-billed Vulture.

Habits. — Nearly always seen in company with long-billed vultures.

Status. — Recorded in every month except May and December. Not very

common.

pseudogyps bengalensis. The Indian White-backed Vulture.

Habits. — Nearly always seen in company with long-billed vultures.

Status. — Recorded in every month from June to February except December,

but never very common. Not seen between 28 February and 10 June.

Palco peregrinus. The Eastern Peregrine and Shahin Falcons.

Status.- — One observation only, on 30 November 1932, when a bird, un-

mistakably this species, got up from the' nearly dry bed of the Yeu canal

and seftled in a bare tree.

Falco jugger. The Laggar Falcon.

Status. — Four observations, all between 7 August and 4 October.

Falco tinnunculus. The European and Himalayan Kestrels.

Status. — A single male seen in flight on 18 March 1933 near Yonzu, Shwebo

canal area. I think I saw another one on 23 September 1932 along the Old

Mu canal.

BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF SHIVEBO DISTRICT 731

(?) Neohierax insignis. Fielden’s Hawk.

Status. — One doubtful observation, on 16 September 1933. A single bird

probably this species, was flying from bush to bush in scrub jungle1 near

Shwebo towp.

(?) Erythropus aniurensis. The Eastern Red-legged Falcon.

Status. — One doubtful observation, on 19 November 1932, when a bird,

thought to be a female or young male of this species, was seen on the1 out-

skirts of Shwebo.

Aquila clanga. The Greater Spotted Eagle.

Identification. — The white on the upper tail-coverts was usually very con-

spicuous. No birds without this marking were identified.

Habits. — I found this bird fond of standing on the smooth inspection paths

of canal banks. It was always very bold and usually stood its ground until

closely approached, when it would fly up reluctantly into a tree. It was some-

times seen singly, but more often in pairs or in small parties.

Status. — Clearly identified 8 times in the area.. Earliest date 3 October,

latest 21 March.

tfieraetus fasciatus. Bonelli’s Eagle.

Identification. — The bill sometimes appeared almost white, rather than

bluish-grey as in F.B.I.

Habits . — It has the flycatcher’s habit of returning again and again, after

short flights, to its starting point, whether on the ground, or in a cotton tree,

toddy palm or other tree. When perched, it holds itself very erect, and in

flight the use of the tail as a rudder is very noticeable, as in the case of the

pariah kite. One bird, on my approach dropped a pond heron which it was

carrying.

Status. — Identified 8 times in the area. Earliest date 21 September, latest

3 April. I found no nest in the arda, but two birds were' seen in the same

tree at Taze on 26 and again on 27 November 1932, and I suspect that they

were going to breed there.

Hieraetus pennatus. The Booted Eagle.

Status. — I twice saw single birds, on 6 March 1931 and 9 October 1933,

which were apparently this species, not Bonelli’s Eagle. They were no bigger,

if as big, as a Pariah kite, were much speckled or splashed with white on the

upper plumage, and one at least had white thigh-coverts. The use of the tail

as a rudder was conspicuous in one case.

Spizaetus cirrhatus. The Changeable Hawk-Eagle.

Status. — Only two doubtful observations, both of the melanistic form.

Spilornis cheela. The Crested Serpent Eagle.

Identification. — When the neck feathers are ruffled by wind, a white collar

show's conspicuously. The white band on the tail and the white tip to it are also

conspicuous.

Habits. — Its contempt of man is very striking. I have seen it, perched very

erectly, on the ground, on a post, on a dead bough and in trees.

Status.: — Six observations, mostly in March or April, but also in August

and October.

Butastur teesa. The White-eyed Buzzard-Eagle.

Identification. — I frequently found the grey wing patches more conspicuous

than the white nape patch. There was sometimes no sign of white in the eyes.

Habits. — I only once or twice saw two or more birds together. Other birds

seem to ignore its presence. I once saw several sparrows perched a yard or

two from it on telegraph wires, and on another occasion two house crows

within two feet of it on a tree.

732 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Nesting. — The only nest seen was on 31 March 1932 on the outskirts of

Shwebo, 50 ft. up in a bare tree, at the end of a small branch. It was loosely

made of sticks only, and contained 3 eggs.

Status. — Usually fairly common, but never observed between 31 March and

30 May or between 4 September and 16 November.

Butastur liventer. The Rufous-winged Buzzard-Eagle.

Status. — Only identified once, on 29 October 1933, along the Old Mu canal

near Kinu, when a single bird was perched on a bush.

Haliastur inda?. The Common Brahminy Kite.

Habits. — Sometimes very bold. I once came upon a crowd of storks,

egrets and herons of various species, a common sandpiper and a common

kingfisher, with a Brahminy kite, at a small pool. When I stopped, they all

flew off except the Brahminy which held its ground. I saw it fairly frequently

on the ground% and one September I saw a party of 6 adults in that position.

Once, on 13 January, I saw a pair fighting in the air with a pair of Pariah

kites. The latter repeatedly settled in a tree, but on the Brahminys attacking

them, gave battle again.

Nesting. — Birds seen pairing off on 3 January. Nests seen under construction

on 28 January, and 26 February. The former was in a tanaungbin, and the

latter in a fork near the top of a tall tree.

Milvas migrans. The Common Pariah Kite.

Status. — Fairly common : birds seen several times in June, the latest date

being 22 June. Earliest date of return 22 September.

Elanus caeruleus. The Black-winged Kite.

Status. — Observed 4 times in the area, all between 3 September and 17

March. On all four occasions a single bird was hovering over paddyfields.

Circus melanoleucus. The Pied Harrier.

Habits. — Once, on Maymyo golf course, I saw a male hovering motionless

a foot or two above the ground. In the Shwebo area, I once saw a bird

soaring about 400 ft. up, and I twice saw birds standing in the shallow water of

canals.

Status. — Earliest date 10 September, latest 14 March. Fairly common.

Circus aeruginosus. The Common Marsh Harrier.

Identification. — I found the easiest way to distinguish the female from that

of the pied harrier in the field was by thie absence of white on the upper

tail-coverts.

Status. — Earliest date 2 October. Observed several times in April, the

latest being 25 April. Fairly common between those dates.

Buteo rufin«»s. The Long-legged Buzzard.

Status. — On 8 September 1932, near Nyaunghla, a bird settled in a toddy

palm. It was the size of a Brahminy kite or larger. The bill was very hooked

and the thighs feathered. The upper plumage was dark streaky brown with

a few white streaks also. The rump or upper tail-coverts were yellowish

white, the lower plumage whitish and the thigh coverts white. From the

appearance and behaviour it was probably this species.

Buteo burmanicus. The Japanese Desert Buzzard.

Status. — Identified twice in the area. The first occasion was on 13 February

1932, near Yeu, when a bird was seen drinking at the river’s edge. The shape

and size (that of a Pariah kite or perhaps smaller), the feathered tarsus, light

grey face, dark brown tail, and dark bill and eye appear to identify it as this

species. The second bird was first seen soaring over the Shwebo canal at

Myittaw on 27 November 1933. Later I saw it perched in a tree and swooping

BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF SHWEBO DISTRICT 733

down to the canal for offal. It allowed a very close approach, and I recorded

the following:

Size of Brahminy kite or smaller. Tail slightly rounded. Wings long.

Tibia featlhered, tarsus bare. Crown, nape and sides of head light brown,

ear-coverts darker. Upper plumage all dark brown, with whitish edges to

feathers. Flight feathers and tail blackishi, Throat streaky brown, with

reddish tinge. Breast brown. Patches under wings conspicuously white. Eye

dark. Bill all grey, cere white. Legs dull yellow, claws grey.

Accipfter badius. The Shikra.

Habits. — Observed a number of times on the ground, once at the water’s

edge in a canal bed.

Status. — Seen throughout the year, but never common.

Accipiter nisus. The Asiatic and Indian Sparrow Hawks.

Status. — Only seen once, on 28 September 1933, when a single bird was

flying from tree to tree at the edge of the Paiktaw in near Shwebo. Dis-

tinguished from the Shikra of all ages by broad wings, brown upper plumage

and barred breast. Shortly after, at the same place, either the same bird or

another one fluttered from a kazin into a wet field and back. The latter bird,

at any rate, was a young one. White abdomen and thighs were noticed.

Accipiter v’rgatus. The Northern Besra Sparrow Hawk.

Status. — Only one observation, on 15 November 1933, at Thayetkyi, when

a young bird settled in a cotton tree in the bungalow compound. It was the

size and shape of a Shikra, with fairly long pointed wings, but distinguished

from that bird by the strongly marked light and dark brown bars on upper

plumage and broad black streaks on white underparts.

Crocopus phoenicopterus. The Green Pigeon.

Status. — Only four good observations and one doubtful one, in January,

July, August and November. In one case about 8 birds were perched very

conspicuously on top of a barei tree. In another, 4 birds were feeding on

berries in low bushes.

Streptonelia chinensis. The Spotted Dove.

Habits. — On 22 April 1933 innumerable birds were standing, with many

ring doves, on the Shwebo-Kyaukmyaung Road for a distance of several

miles. I never saw them so plentiful on any other occasion. They are very-

brave when with young. One bird of a pair once flew out of a bush within

two or three yards of me, and the other one off the nest when I got still closer.

Nesting. — Of two nests seen in the Mandalay district, one was in a hut

in a paddyfield, and the other in the fork of a small tree just above a Bland-

ford bulbul’s. Of four seen in the Shwebo area, all were in bushes or small

trees between 4 ft. and 6 ft. above ground. One of these 6 nests contained

2 young, the sitting bird was not disturbed off another. The remaining 4 only

contained one egg or one young bird.

Status. — Very common in every month, perhaps rather less so during the

rains.

StrepfopeHa decaocto. Thle Ring Dove.

Habits. — I have many notes of this bird in the area, but always singly or

in pairs, never in a flock. I once saw one withl a party of red turtle doves,

and on 22 April 1933 I saw large numbers with spotted doves (q.v.).

Status s — Observed in every month. Fairly common.

(Enopopelia tranquebarica. The Red Turtle Dove.

Habits. — Nearly all my notes are of birds in trees. I' seldom saw them on

the ground. In May 1928 large flocks were seen roosting in thick-foliaged trees

in Fort Dufferin, Mandalay, and were very timid. On 28 October 1930 two

734

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

pairs were flying round the ship on which I was travelling near the China Bakir

light-ship at the mouth of the Irrawaddy. One male settled on the ship, another

bird several times descended close to the water and once touched it.

Status. — Never seen at all in the area between 5 May and 27 July, and never

seen in flocks between 16 April and 16 September. Common during the rest

of the year.

Oallus gallus. The Jungle Fowl.

Status. — Seen only once in the irrigated area, on the Old Mu canal at Kinu

on 28 October. A female was seen near Kyaukmyaung, on the Irrawaddy, on

20 November, and two separate pairs on the Shwebo-Kyaukmyaung road on

22 April.

Coturnix coromandelica. The Black-breasted Quail.

Voice. — A bird I watched calling in September was standing very erect

and jerking the wjhole head and breast violently. From the break of the

monsoon up to the end of August, I seldom heard one calling. One night in

October, a bird was calling an hour before sunrise.

Habits. — Twice in the hot weather parties of birds — 2 or 3 in one case, 5

in the other — got up at my feet.

Status. — Fairly common throughout the year. No records in January, May

or November. On 8 June 1933 birds were numerous on recently flooded land

alongside R. Mu at Kabo. On 10 September, 1933 numerous birds were call-

ing at the edge of the Kadu lake.

Arborophila atrogularis. The White-cheeked Hill Partridge.

Status. — On 9 April 1932 a strange partridge, the size of a francolin, get

up at my feet near tilie head of the Yeu canal. The general colour was

3rellowish browin, with a grey tinge on the wings, which seems to accord best

with this species.

Francoliaus pintadeanus. Phayre’s Burmese Francolin.

Voice. — Once in April I heard two birds calling to each other sometime

after dark. On another occasion, in September, I saw a bird, which had been

calling, fly out from 20 ft. up in a tree. I have no record of birds calling in

January, February, July or December, but they were heard in all other months

including several birds on one very oppressive evening in April.

Habits. — Several times in the cold weather I found birds very tame, walking

slowly off the road into the jungle as I passed in a car.

Status. — Heal'd or seen in every month except December, usually on the

outskirts of the irrigated area.

Amaurornis fuscus. The Ruddy Crake.

Status. — Only observed once, on 30 April 1933 in the bed of the Mahananda

tank, Shwe'bo, when a single bird was hunting for food among dead leaves

on swampy ground. I had a very good view and recorded a detailed descrip-

tion, which leaves no doubt of the species.

Amaurornis phoenicurus. The Chinese White-breasted Waterhen.

Status. — Observed throughout the year, but not common.

Gallinula chloropus. The Indian Moorhen.

Status. Uncommon in the area. Seen five times between December and

April on the Mahananda tank, Shwebo, and once, on 9 October, on the

W^etlet lake. On 6 February, 1932 a party of about 15 was swimming on

the Mahananda tank, and a young bird was seen there on 20 December 1932.

Gallicrex cinerea. The Watercock.

Identification. — I never saw a bird with a red bill, but have 6 records from

the area during the rains of birds with yellow bills and red shields. The yellow

bill was on one occasion very conspicuous through glasses at a distance of

\ mile or more.

BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF SHWEBO DISTRICT 735

l oice. — The call which I heard most often was like water pouring out

of a narrow-necked bottle, preceded sometimes by a peculiar growl, like the

noise of an aeroplane in the distance. Another common call was rather like the

popping of corks, which it made by bending the neck forward, opening the

bill and working the throat.

Habits. — Mostly seen in paddyfields, either in growing paddy or in long

grass.

Status. — Quite common from May to September, especially in August, and

September. Once heard calling (the call is unmistakable) on 27 November,

and once on 19 January, otherwise not heard or seen between 14 September

and 15 May.

Porphyrio poiiocephalus. The Indian Purple Moorhen.

Status. — Only seen on the Mahananda tank and the We'tlet lake. On the

former it was only seem three times, a single bird on the 26 June 1931, a

number of birds on 15 July of the same year, and two birds on 7 November

1932. On 1 September 1933, a thorough search revealed no birds, and it appears

to be only an occasional visitor to this tank. On the Wetlet lake, a single

bird was seen on 2 July 1933, there were apparently no birds there on 7

September or on 9 or 10 October of the same year, but on the 9th of the follow-

ing month a party of 6 or 8 birds was feeding on the lake. In December 1932,

a flock of about 15 was feeding there, and in January 1933 and January 1934

there were large numbers of birds. It is apparently therefore a local migrant.

Fulicaatra. The Coot.

Status. — Not seen anywhere between 30 April and 11 October, and at other

times seen only on the Mahananda tank and Wetlet lake. On thte Maha-

nanda tank it was definitely absent on 1 September 1933, single birds or pairs

were seen between 11 October and 20 December 1932, numbers of birds on

12 February 1933, and single birds on 27 March and 30 April 1933. It was

absent from the Wetlet lake on 7 September 1933 and again oin 9 and 10

October. In the cold weather of 1932-33 and 1933-34 flocks of hundreds were

always on the water from 8 November onwards.

Metopidius indicus. The Bronze-winged Jacana.

Habits. — I have seen it more than once wading in the water, though it

usually walks on the lily leaves. It was often seen associating with the

pheasant-tailed species.

Status. — Seen on the Mahananda tank in every month of the year, but

never on the Wetlet lake. From December to June, considerable numbers

were always present on the Mahananda tank, but for the rest of the year never

more than one or two. Nesting was once suspected, but no nest ever found.

On 20 December 1932 numbers of adults were feeding, but only one young

bird. A single young bird was seen there on 26 April 1933.

Hydrophasianuschirurgus. The Pheasant-tailed Jacana.

Status.— Except for one doubtful observation on a smaller tank, this bird

too was only seen on the Mahananda tank, and never on the Wetlet lake.

In every month between 8 December and 14 June it was in considerable

numbers, in other months only single birds or pairs were seen. Full breeding

plumage was observed on 26 April, and the remains of it on 7 November.

No nest was found.

Rostratula benghalensis. The Painted Snipe.

Status. — Only one observation, a pair being seen at the Mahananda tank

on 21 May 1933. They frequently raised their wings above their backs,

lowered their heads, and ran at Jerdon’s mynahs which came too close.

Antigone antigone. The Sarus Crane.

Status. — I myself only saw the bird once in the area, when a single bird

was with three adjutant storks in the reeds of the Kadu lake on 11 August

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo,. ^

736

1933. It flew right away with them, keeping right alongside one of them

all the time, as if it were its mate. I had a close view with glasses and

the identity was unmistakable. On 17 February 1931 my wife saw two birds

get up from the bed of the Yeu canal, which 1 am satisfied from her descrip-

tion were this species.

Burhinus oedicaemus. The Indian Stone Plover.

Voice. — The loud plaintive whistle was quite a common sound in the area,

sometimes during the day but more often during the hour or two after sunset.

I knew the sound well for a year or more before I connected it with this bird,

which I much more often heard than saw.

Habits. — I once watched a bird stand quite motionless for more than ten

minutes, except for onoe leaning its head sideways and occasionally flicking its

tail. I got tired of the game and moved first; I saw one bird get up from a

wet paddyfield, but all others were in thin scrub jungle.

Status. — Fairly common. Heard or seen in most months, but not between

25 June and 12 September, or between 28 October and 23 January.

Esacus recurvirostris. The Great Stone Plover.

Identification . — Several times when in flight, I noted a strong resemblance

to ducks. In fact, on at least one occasion I at first mistook a flock for a

flock of duck.

Habits. — Once or twice I saw the bird running with a curious crouching

gait, with the ‘knees’ bent. As I approached a bird one day in April, it ran

ahead, squatting at intervals, before eventually taking to flight.

Status. — Seen only 6 times, all in the Mu river bed between 18 January

and 24 August.

Glareola maldivarum. The Large Indian Pratincole.

Voice. — I once saw a bird uttering a call something like a greenshank’s.

Habits. — A party I saw on 31 August 1932' were lying very low on the

ground. On 3 August 1932 a single bird was standing motionless on a mud-

bank, at intervals flying round in circles for a few seconds and returning to

the same place. Seen mostly at the Mahananda tank and at or near the

Wetlet lake, but one day in April 1933 I three times saw single birds stand-

ing on the bank of a distributary canal near Shwebo, which was carrying a

little water.

Status. — Seen in every month from March to September, except May, but

never common. Earliest 27 March, latest 3 September.

Glareola lactea. The Small Indian Pratincole.

Habits. — A flock of 40, which I saw on Wetlet lake in December, 1933,

were very tame, standing and sitting about very sluggishly with drooping

wings. One scraped a hole in the mud and sat in it. I twice saw birds in

thfe cold weather at Wetlet lake, otherwise only in the bed of the Mu. On

8 May one year I saw two birds alone and two or three times in the rains

parties of not more than 5.

Nesting. — A Frge flock in the Mu river bed at Yeu on 22 April 1932 was

evidently, from the birds’ behaviour, a breeding colony though I saw no eggs.

On 5 May 1933 I saw eggs and young in the river bed at Kabo. Young birds,

about 4" long, were running about surprisingly fast with their parents. Two

eggs were on top of a small sand hillock, which was quite bare, in preference

to neighbouring ones which all had a little vegetation.

Status. — Seen in all months except February, June, October and November.

Not seen between 6 September and 16 December.

Larus brunnicephalus. The Brown-headed Gull.

Only seen twice, bn 23 January, 1934. when a single bird was standing on

a kazin in Wetlet lake with some whiskered terns, and on 5 February

1934 when two birds were with a party of pheasant-tailed jacanas on the

Mahananda tank’.

BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF S II WE BO DISTRICT 737

Chlidonias hybnda. The Whiskered Tern or? Chlidonias leucoplera. The White-

winged Black Tern.

Identification . — The bill and legs sometimes appeared black in the field.

Probably these birds were white-wmged black terns. I once saw the grey

under parts of breeding plumage as late as 18 December.

Voice. — Once, on 9 November, I saw a bird screaming rather like a gull.

Habits. — 1 once saw one bird of a flock hawking flying insects. On 8

November 1933 a flock of 50 or 60 was beating up Wetlet lake very slowly

against the breeze, only twelve inches above the water — a most beautiful sight.

Status. — Only seen on tfhle Mahananda tank and Wetlet lake. Earliest

date 9 October, latest 12 February. Fairly common.

Sterna aurantia. The Indian River Tern.

Identification. — A large flock seen on 10 November all had the black crowns

of breeding plumage. They were with black-bellied terns in non-breeding

plumage, and clearly distinguishable. Many birds seen on 3 January all had

black crowns. On 10 January, one of several was in process of losing the

black crown, the others being still in full breeding plumage.

Habits. — I have seen it hovering over the water like a pied kingfisher,

with the bill pointing downwards like that bird’s, but not plunging quite so

vertically.

Seen on Wetlet lake several times in the cold weather, usually solitary,

but once, on 10 November, in a large mixed flock with black-bellied and other

terns. Only once on the Mahananda tank, two birds on 26 Aprii. Frequently

seen along canals in the cold weather ; once a flock of about 30 fishing in a

shallow pool. Elsewhere only seen on the Mu river.

Status. — Not seen between 10 June and 9 November, and curiously irregular

in their occurrence at other times. For instance, I never saw a bird in February

and only an occasional single bird or pair in April ; yet on 15 March 1933 there

were numbers of them on the Mu at Kabo. Again, on 3 January 1933 many

birds were seen in the Yeu canal area, yet on the 22nd of the same month only

one solitary bird was seen during a whole day on Wetlet lake, where a largi-

flock was seen the following November.

Sterna melanogaster. The Black-bellied Tern.

Identification. — On 5 May 1933, among several birds still in full breeding

plumage, there was one with only a small black patch on the abdomen, and

another with no sign of black on the lower plumage, though both still had the

black crowns. A bird seen on 8 June still had the black belly. Of several

birds seen on 10 November, all had black crowns but some had white bellies.

A bird seen on 16 December, with others in breeding plumage, had dark grey

crown and white belly. It appears that the black crown is retained later than

the black belly, but resumed earlier.

Nesting. — A nest with one nestling and one egg was found in the Mu river

bed at Yeu on 13 April 1932. A bird, much excited, swooped within a few

inches of my head at Kabo on 5 May 1933, though it was with several others, of

whom two were losing their breeding plumage.

Status. — Not seen between 8 June and 13 October. Common in other

months, especially March to May, on the Mu river, Wetlet lake and along

canals.

Sterna aibifrons. The River Ternlet.

Status. — Only seen once in the area, on 20 July 1932, when a single bird

settled at the edge of the water in the Mahananda tank, Shwebo.

Rhynchops albicollis. The Indian Skimmer.

Status. — Two observations only, both at Kabo, one of four birds fishing on

10 June 1933, the other of three birds on 31 January 1934.

Leucopolius alexandrinus. The Kentish Plover.

Status. — On 10 November and 16 December 1933 on Wetlet lake and on

7 January 1934 on the Mahananda tank, I saw flocks feeding which were

either this species or young little ringed plovers. As in each case there was

738 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

not a single adult little ringed plover among them, they were probably

Kentish plovers.

Charadrius dubius. Jerdon’s Little Ringed Plover.

Habits. — I once saw a bird in shallow water, feeding among reeds, and

once a number of birds in a nursery paddyfield ; otherwise they were always

on sand or mud in canal or river beds, swamps or ins.

Status. — Observed in every month ; common, though less so in the cold

weather. No nest found in this area-.

Charadrius dominicus. The Asiatic Golden Plover.

Status. — Seen only on the Wetlet lake, in November and December. Al-

ways seen feeding on the mud in flocks of up to 25 in company with sand-

pipers and, on one occasion, Kentish plovers. The white forehead and super-

cilium of breeding plumage was still visible on 10 November.

Vanelius vanellus. The Lapwing or Green Plover.

Status. — Only seen once in the area, on 7 January 1934, when three birds

were in shallow water in the Mahan anda tank, Shwebo, among a flock of

grey-headed lapwings. I had a very good view of them and they were un-

mistakable.

Hoplopterus duvaucelii. The Spur-winged Plover.

Habits. — I used to see them in the Mu river bed and at and near the Maha-

nanda tank, but not at the Wetlet lake or elsewhere. At the Mahananda tank

they were commoner in the cold weather than at other seasons. In fact, a

bird I saw there on 19 November 1933 was the first I had seen away from the

river for months, probably since the start of the rains.

A distinctive habit is to stand motionless for long periods at a time, even in

the cold weather and when in flocks. One which I timed stood motionless for

more than 6 minutes. I once saw one feeding in an inch or two of water.

On 7 January 1934 two birds of a party of 7 were running about close

together, sometimes stopping and bowing continually in all directions — pre-

sumably courting though it seemed rather early.

Nesting. — None found, but judging from the behaviour of a pair in the Mu

river bed on 8 May 1931, they had young. At Kabo on 15 March 1933 there

were a number of birds, both in pairs and in parties. While unaware of me

they did nothing but feed, but when I was observed some of them behaved as

if to decoy me from young.

Status. — Observed in every month, but their movements were very irregular.

I have seen considerable numbers on occasions in March, July, August and

November, but sometimes they were very scarce for months together.

Lobivanellus indicus. The Red-wattled Lapwing.

Voice. — I have heard birds calling an hour before sunrise and well after

sunset. I have also seen them calling occasionally while running as well as

in flight.

Nesting. — A nest found near Shwebo on 22 June 1933 was on a small mound

in a wet field, the depression being lined, not encircled, with dry chips of

wood and small pieces of dry mud. The birds sat and kept guard by turns.

They were very timid, being frightened even by a solitary dog at a distance.

I took one of the four eggs, and the bird was very restless before settling down

again. Four days later the three remaining eggs had been re-arranged symmet-

rically. Both birds were wildly excited. When I replaced the fourth egg, One

bird soon returned and settled again without re-arranging them. On 11 July

the nest was empty, even the egg which I had removed for four days being

missing. On 13 July 1932 several birds at Shwebo Cantonment were diving

excitedly at my dog, as if they had young.

Status. — Common all over the area in every month. I have also seen the

bird at Lashio and at Bernardmyo (5,500 ft.), Northern Shan States.

BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF SHWEBO DISTRICT 739

Microsarcops cinereus. The Grey-headed Lapwing.

Habits. — Only observed on the Wetlet lake and the Mahananda tank. I

have seen flocks of 21 and 24 birds, but apart from those always saw them

singly, iin pairs or in parties of up to 7 or 8. I saw them more than once

standing in shallow water.

Status. — Earliest date 2 October, latest 27 March. Observed in every month

between those dates.

Himantopus hiraanlopus. The Black-winged Stilt.

Habits. — I saw them more than once mixed up with flocks of ducks, and

once saw a flock of about 20 flying in V-formation.

Nesting. — No nests found, and the reported breeding site at Kinu1 held no

birds on either 30 July 1932 or 13 August 1932. On 3 April 1931, however, I

saw a pair copulating in the shallow water of the Mahananda tank.

Status. — Seen twice in paddyfields and once in a drainage channel : other-

wise only at the Mahananda tank and Wetlet lake. Observed in every month

except February, but their movements were very irregular. Between 8 May

and 30 July 1932 a flock of up to 120 was seen several times in the Mahananda

tank, but was not always there. In 1933 there were numbers of birds ttiere

in April and May, but none from then up to the end of October, although the

depth of water was sometimes suitable. On the Wetlet lake there were large

flocks on 3 September 1932, but definitely no birds on 2 October, although the

depth of water was suitable. There were a few birds on 11 December,

and large numbers on 22 January 1933. On 7 September 1933, on the other

hand, there were very few birds there, but on 10 October and again on 8

November there were hundreds. A partial explanation may be afforded by

the fact that in early September 1933 the water was deeper than at the same

time in 1932.

Limosa iinicsa. The Eastern Black-tailed Godwit.

Status. — On 3 September 1932 I saw a flock of about 15 birds flying very

fast over Wetlet lake, whichl were apparently this species. They were the

size and shape of gneenshanks, plumage mainly drab like a common sand-

piper’s, white bar on wing, tail white with dark tip. I knew the redshank

well and am sure that they could not have been that species.

Tringa ochropus. The Green Sandpiper.

Status. — Only three good identifications, all at the Mahananda tank, in

two of which it was in company with common sandpipers, when the larger size

was noticeable. Two of the observations were in February, and the third on

the 28 March. A solitary sandpiper was once seen at the same place on 15

July, which was probably this species, but may have been a wood sandpiper.

Tringa stagnatilis. The Marsh Sandpiper.

Status. — Only seen once, in the Wetlet lake on 28 January 1934 — a single

bird in shallow water. The resemblance to a miniature greenshank was

striking.

Actitfs hypoleucos. The Common Sandpiper.

Habits. — Though usually solitary, I once saw a flock of 27 at the Mahananda

tank on 1 September, first flying about high up and later feeding at the

water’s edge. They were very wild.

Seen occasionally in company with green sandpipers, and on other occasions

with wood sandpipers. On 27 April 1933, at the Mahiananda tank, there were

any number of birds feeding with wood sandpipers in one or two inches of

water — unusual behaviour.

I once saw a bird feeding on floating rubbish in the Mu river, which had

lost all the toes from its left foot, but was walking about without even limping.

Status. — Earliest date 24 July, latest 14 May. Common in all months from

August to April, but noted as especially so from September to November and

Vide Birds of Burma — Smythies.

740

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

again in April. On 8 November 1933 I noted that birds had been numerous

recently in the area, yet on that and the two following days not a single one

was seen at Wetlet lake, where they had been numerous on the preceding

9 October. Again on 29 January 1934 no birds were seen in several hours at

Wetlet lake, though wood sandpipers were numerous.

Tringa glareola. The wood Sandpiper.

Status.— Common throughout the area in every month from August to

April, especially from December onwards. Earliest date 20 July (two birds),

latest 27 April (numbers of birds, with white spots on wings unusually con-

spicuous).

Tringa totanus. The Tibetan and Central Asian Redshanks.

Habits. — As often as not I saw this bird along canals, wet borrow-pits being

especially attractive to it. In February 1933 I saw as many as 50 birds in a

single small borrow-pit, and on Wetlet lake in December have seen flocks of

100 or more.

Status. — Earliest date 31 August (two birds in Mahananda tank) but, as

no other birds were seen before 10 November, these were possibly residents.

Latest date 26 February. On 10 November 1933 only two birds seen during

three days on Wetlet lake, but by the following 16 December there were large

flocks there.

Tringa erythropus. The Spotted Redshank,

Status. — I twice saw single birds which appeared to be this species. The

first one, on 24 February 1932, was at the water’s edge in a canal borrow-pit.

It appeared! as big as a greenshank and uttered a loud clucking noise, not

unlike a domestic hen’s, and occasionally a shrill whistle fiee-wit , both calls

being uttered both on the ground and on the wing. In the second case, on

23 January 1933, the bird was in a pool in a canal bed, the upper plumage

being light brownish grey with white spots.

Tringa nebularia. The Greenshank.

Local name : Ngon-gya.

Identification. — A bird seen on 10 April 1932 was in process of acquiring

breeding plumage.

Habits. — Frequented the beds of canals in the cold weather, when only a

little water was running. Usually seen singly or in pairs, but I once saw a

party of 7 in flight in October. One November at Kabo, I watched three birds

running about in formation at the edge of the river, with their bills lowered

right to the ground, presumably chasing insects.

Status.— I saw a single unmistakable bird at Kaoo on 5 July 1933, presum-

ably a non-breeding resident. Otherwise, the extreme dates were 11 September,

and 5 May. Common from November to February, though in three days on

the Wetlet lake in early November 1933 I did not see a single bird. It seemed

to prefer the river bed and canals to jheels. I have no record of one on the

Mahananda tank.

Calidris temminckii. Temminck’s Stint.

Habits .> — Seen more than once in company with little ringed plovers, and

once with wood sandpipers I once saw a bird perched a few inches above

the ground, preening its feathers.

Status. — Only seen at the Mahananda tank and the Wetlet lake, and not

common even there. Apart from one bird, possibly a non-breeding resident,

seen feeding at the Mahananda on 20 July 1932, the earliest date was 10

November and the latest 27 April.

Limicola falciaellus. The Eastern Broad-billed Sandpiper.

Status. — A number of birds were seen at the Mahananda tank on 26 April

1932, feeding in the mud with little ringed plovers, which were probably this

species on passage. The head, neck, upper back and breast were drab grey,

with a darker line on the crown and pale supercilium. The wing-coverts were

dark reddish-brown, mottled lighter, abdomen and vent white, and bill very

dark. Evidently they were acquiring breeding plumage.

BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF SHWEBO DISTRICT 741

Capella gallinago. Fantail Snipe.

Capella stenura. Pintail Snipe.

Habits. — I several times saw one or other of these feeding in shallow water.

One which was doing so squatted in the water on my approach.

status. — I was never able to distinguish the two in the field. One or both

was fairly common in the area from September to April, though on 27 March

1933 there was not a single bird to be found at the Mahananda tank. Earliest

date 5 September, latest 27 April.

Pelecanus philippensis. The Spotted-billed Pelican.

Status. — For a few days in July 1932 a single bird visited the Mahananda

tank; otherwise I only saw it on the Wetlet lake. A single bird was there

on 2 July 1933, three single birds on 7 September, and a single bird on 10

October. From 8 to 10 November there were no birds there, but on 29 January

1934 there was again a single bird.

(?) Phalacrocorax carbo. The Indian Large Cormorant.

Status. — On 22 April 1933 I saw two cormorants or shags flying down

the Irrawaddy at Kyaukmyaung, which were larger than little cormorants.

As shags are said to be confined to the coast, they were probably this species.

Phalacrocorax javanicus. The Little Cormorant.

Habits. — Usually seen perched on posts or sticks, but on 6 April 1932, and

again on the 8th, I saw many birds near Kabo perched on the tops of tall trees,

mostly bare ones.

Status. — Observed in every month, both on jheels and canals, but much

more common in most of the area during the hot weather than in other

seasons. On Wetlet lake, however, I found them numerous in October and

November 1933 also. They appear to move about locally a good deal, as

birds were very numerous on the Mahananda tank on 26 April 1933 and

again on 14 May that year, yet on 30 April there were very few there.

Anhiaga melanogaster. The Indian Darter.

Habits. — One bird I watched one January was twisting its neck about,

with its bill open, producing no noise but a curious vibration just below the

skin. On two occasions I found them numerous on the Wetlet lake, and

sometimes saw them in pairs or in parties of a few birds, but as a rule they

were seen singly.

I have seen them in the dry weather perched over canals or patches of

swamp, with the depth of water insufficient for diving or even for swimming.

Status. — Observed in every month from December (from the 1st) to May

(up to the 31st), but only seen once during the rest of the year, when two birds

were flying over the Wetlet lake on 4 September. Although birds were numer-

ous on the lake in December 1932 and January 1933, there were' none there on

9 October or on 8 to 10 November 1933. Apparently a local migrant.

Threskiornis melanocephalus. The White Ibis.

Status. — On 14 June 1933 I saw what appeared to be two young birds of

this species among about 100 openbills wheeling over the Shwebo canal about

200 ft. up. Otherwise only seen between 2 October (1932) and 22 January, and

only on the Wetlet lake. On 9 and 10 October 1933, however, the whole of

the lake was covered and no birds found. They were usually in company with

considerably larger numbers of openbills, and on 9 November 1933 there was

a mixed flock of several hundreds, with the openbills predominating. Later

the same day I saw a flock of about 100 white ibis in flight by themselves.

Plegadis falcinellus. The Glossy Ibis.

Local name : Hka-yu-sok-anet.

Voice. — Some birds which I put up in November uttered a call in flight

rather like the mew of a ring dove.

Habits. — In early September I found them very wild. I have seen them

feeding close to a flock of white ibis and openbills and in company with

7

742

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 43

egrets. Occasionally seen singly or in parties of three or four, but usually in

flocks of about 40, and once in January in a flock of several hundreds.

Status. — Only seen on the Wetlet lake, where they were usually in con-

siderable numbers from September to January. Earliest date 4 September,,

latest 22 January.

Ciconia nigra. The Black Stork.

Local name : Chi-gyin-sut.

Habits : Usually seen along canals, but once on the Wetlet lake ; often

in company with white-necked storks and sometimes with eastern grey

herons. Usually singly or in small parties, but more than once in flocks of

30 to 40. On 25 February 1932 I watched a bird soaring in circles about

300 ft. up for 51 or 10 minutes, when it went off westwards.

Status. — Seen in every month from October to April, except March, and

fairly common. Earliest date 29 October, latest 22 April. The latter observa-

tion was of a solitary young bird feeding with a large number of white-necked

storks ; young birds were seen in October and December also.

Dissoura episcopa. The White-necked Stork.

Local name : Paung-gya, according to boatmen on Wetlet lake.

Habits. — From October to April, it was generally seen in parties or flocks,

usually of not more than 20, but once of 65. In other months it was solitary

or in pairs, except for a party of 3 on 10 June. Sometimes seen in company

with black storks or adjutants, usually in wet borrow-pits or fields, or in

shallow canal pools, but occasionally in jheels, once on a sandbank in the Mu,

and once two birds on the extreme tops of adjacent tall dead trees.

Status. — Common. Observed in every month, but no nesting seen.

Xenorhynchus asiaticus. The Black-necked Stork.

Local name : Hnget ton-sat is the only one I have heard.

Habits. — Seen mostly along canals, but sometimes on Wetlet lake and the

Mu river, once in the Mahananda tank, and once in wet paddyfields. Only

once seen associating with other birds, when two birds were in a large mixed

flock of white-necked and black storks. On one occasion at Wetlet, I saw a

bird drop from a considerable height to the lake like a stone.

Nesting. — No nests found, but on 26 September one year I saw a bird in

flight carrying a stick. A young bird was seen on the river bank with its

parents on 18 January, and birds in immature plumage were seen at various

dates between then and 9 October.

Status. — Seen in every month except June and August, and quite common.

LeptoptHos dubius. The Adjutant.

Identification. — Of three birds seen on 1 July 1931, one had red on head and

neck, in the other two those parts were almost white. The gular pouch of a

bird seen on 30 July 1932 was conspicuously red. Another seen on 13 August

1932 had the neck yellow and the gular pouch orange-red.

Voice. — A curious creaking noise heard in flight in August sounded at first

as if it came from the throat, but was actually, I decided, made by the wings.

Habits. — Sometimes seen singly, and equally often in pairs or parties of

up to 5, but occasionally in larger flocks of up to 15. Seen twice with vul-

tures, twice with white-necked storks, and once with a sarus crane. Most

frequently in wet fields or swamps, but sometimes in jheels or canal-beds,

and once in the Mu river bed. I only twice saw it perched, both times on the

top of a tree, and twice soaring high up.

Status. — Seen in every month from 22 April to 24 November, though never

common. Except for a single bird on 28 February, never seen outside that

period. In the Mandalay canal area I once saw a flock of 15, on 2 August.

It seems as if they breed in Lower Burma, and move to Central Burma and

possibly further north for the rest of the year.

Leptoptilos javanicus. The Smaller Adjutant.

Status. — Between 14 June 1932 and the following 3 August, birds were seen

several times in the Mahananda tank. At first there were only two, but by

12 July their numbers had increased to five' and a pelican had joined them.

On 3 August, only one bird was left. No other observations.

BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF SHWEBO DISTRICT 743

Ibis leucocephalus. The Painted Stork.

Local names : Hnget-sat and Hnget-sat-kya were the only names I heard

in Shwebo.

Habits. — Usually in jheels or wet fields, but once in the Mu river bed.

Sometimes single, but more often in small parties, or flocks of up to 50. Usu-

ally by themselves, but once with scores of grey herons, openbills and geese.

One flock I saw was scattered into ones and twos to feed. Two birds which

I watched feeding in the Mu were holding the open bill half under water and

walking slowly along. A young bird I saw in shallow water in the Mahananda

was scratching up the muddy bed with its feet.

Nesting. — Not observed in Shwebo, but on 22 November 1926 I watched a

bird nest-building on the top of a tall tree on the bank of the River Myitnge in

Mandalay district.

Status. — Seen fairly commonly in every month from 3 July to 9 November,

but, except for four birds on the Wetlet lake on 29 January 1934, not seen

outside those dates. In the Mandalay canal area, however, I have seen large

flocks in March and April.

Anastomus oscitaus. The Openbill.

Local Names: Youk-tha-kwe, Hnget-pya-gya and Hkayu-sok were all heard.

Identification. — Flocks of up to several hundred seen in October and Novem-

ber were all in the non-breeding grey plumage. I saw a party of three birds,

all in pure breeding plumage, as early as 17 February, and a flock of 10 to 15

in the same state on 3 April. On the other hand, some of a flock seen on 14

May were still in winter plumage and some were in process of changing, and

on 8 June a few of a large flock were still in winter plumage.

Habits. — Occasionally seen singly or in small parties, but as a rule/ in flocks,

sometimes numbering several hundreds. Generally by themselves, but some-

times with whiite-necked storks, white ibis, egrets and others. Seen mostly

on jheels (though not on the Mahananda during the rains) or along canals,

but sometimes in the Mu river bed and occasionally in fields. Only once seen

perched, when a flock of 30 were in a bare tree.

*The flocks occasionally scatter to feed, and in the dry weather they were

fond of feeding in the mayin paddy growing in the jheels. On 4 September

1933, at sunset, an endless stream of birds flew off from the Wetlet lake to-

wards the Kadu lake, but were back at the former the next evening. By

7 September, however, there -were none to be seen there, possibly owing to

recent heavy rain having spoilt the feeding. They were still absent on 9

October.

Status. — Common in most months, but never seen between 14 June and 4

September.

Ardea purpurea. The Eastern Purple Heron.:

Identification. — I always found the striped neck a most distinctive feature,

also the apparent greater length of the neck compared with the grey heron.

In a low sun the purplish tinge on the grey wings is distinct.

Voice. — The squawk uttered almost continually as a bird circles overhead

reminded me once or twice of a night heron.

Habits. — Except for one bird seen in flight at Kabo, I only saw it at the

Mahananda tank and the Wetlet and Kadu lakes. Twice seen perched on

tree-tops.

Status. — Observed in January, May, and monthly from Se^ember to Decem-

ber. Numerous on the Wetlet lake in October and November. It is doubtless

commoner than it seemed to be.

Ardea cinerea. The Eastern Grey Heron.

Habits. — Seen in parties and flocks as often as singly, especially in the

cold weather. One January I saw twelve birds fly off together from the

Mahananda tank, one November eleven birds were together on a sand-bank

in the R. Mu at Kabo, whilst I once saw twenty standing together in Wetlet

lake. On another occasion I saw thirteen birds flying high in V-formation.

Within a small area in Wetlet lake I have seen many scores of them with

painted Storks, openbills, geese and other birds.

744

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

A bird was once seen holding out its wings to dry like a cormorant, and

another perched on the top of a post like that species. A number of birds were

seen one day in November perched on the extreme tops of trees.

Nesting. — None observed, but young bird seen on 1 September.

Status. — Common in every month; rather less so from June to August, and

more so from October to February.

Egretta alba. The Eastern Large Egret,

Identification. — With practice I found it often possible to distinguish this

bird without doubt from tihe smaller egret, even out of the breeding season

and when by itself, by its larger size. There was, of course, no difficult)^ when

the two were seen together, and, when seen with grey herons, its approximation

to tihe size of that bird was enough to identify it.

A bird seen on 14 August had only the extreme tip of the bill still black,

but one seen on 9 September still had the black tip.

egrets. The absence of breast plumes in this species and their presence on the

smaller egrets was very noticeable. One bird on this occasion was holding

its wings out like a cormorant, and some pairs were making love by touching

each other’s heads. As stated above, I have seen it also in company with grey

herons.

Most birds identified were on the Maihananda tank or Wetlet lake, even

in July and October, and either this species or the smaller was numerous at

Wetlet in September. In August, however, I only saw this species in paddy

fields and canal-beds.

Status. — Not identified in the area between 26 February and 14 June, though

either this species or the smaller was seen in April 1932 and April 1933. Ob-

served in every other month, and fairly common.

Egretta intermedia. The Indian Smaller Egret.

Identification. — Out of breeding plumage I was often able to identify it by

tihie fact that it was only slightly larger than little egrets and cattle egrets

witih which it was seen. Sometimes birds seen by themselves were clearly

smaller than the large egret. .

I once saw distinct breast plumes as early as the 23 January, and have

seen scanty ones present as late as 7 September. Back plumes were never seen

before 14 May or after 7 September. A partially black bill (the tip turns black

first, but turns yellow last) was seen as early as 5 February and as late as 7

September. On 14 May 1933, one bird was seen in full breeding plumage,

another with no sign of it, and others in intermediate stages. More than once

I saw birds that had lost the black bill and back plumes, but still retained the

breast plumes ; but never vice versa.

Habits. — Seen throughout the year mostly on jheels, but occasionally in the

Mu river-bed and in canal-beds and wet fields. Flocks were seen in all seasons,

but in the rains it was more often seen singly.

I once saw it roosting in tamarinds with large and little egrets, and

once in a big pipal with little egrets, pond herons and crows.

Status. — Observed in every month, and I would say commoner than the

large egret.

Egretta garzetta. The Little Egret.

Identification. — Some birds wear their crest plumes for a great part of the

year. I have seen birds with them as early as 6 April, and few were without

them by 20 April. I saw them continuously from then to January, and saw

several birds with long plumes as late as the 24 of that month. Back plumes

were seen as early as 20 April, and breast plumes on 26 April (this bird

had no crest or back plumes). A bird seen on 14 May had the full crest plume,

and back plumes just appearing, but no sign of breast plumes. Another one

•seen on 15 August was in exactly the same state, but was presumably shedding,

not growing, its plumes.

Habits.y- Seen in parties or flocks at all seasons, but seldom singly during

the rains. During the dry weather it was usually seen in the canals, but

sometimes in the jheels and occasionally in the Mu river-bed. In the rains

it was most often seen in the jheels, but occasionally perched in trees. I have

two records of it in mixed flocks with cattle egrets.

BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF SHWEBO DISTRICT 745>

I have seen them roosting in tamarinds with large and smaller egrets,,

and in a big pipal with smaller egrets, pond herons and crows.

It is sometimes very bold. On one occasion in July a bird remained stand-

ing on a canal bank while I passed within two yards of it on a motor-cycle.

Nesting. — Twice in early June birds were observed on nests in tanaungbins

in or near bungalow compounds, with pond herons also on nests in the same

trees. The little egrets’ nests were about the same size as the pond herons’

but more compact. On my approach to one such tree, all the little egrets,

left their nests and perched on the crown of the tree, while the pond herons

sat tight.

Status. — Seen in all months. Common, especially in the dry .weather.

Bubulcus ibis. The Cattle Egret.

Identification. — Earliest signs of breeding plumage seen on 3 April. On

16 April nearly all of a flock of 20 were in partial breeding plumage, most

noticeably on the head and neck. On 2 July 12 birds out of a flock of 16 were

pure white, and on 18 August about half of a flock were in that plumage.

Possibly these were young birds.

On 13 November 1932 a bird which flew up into a tree had the usual yellow-

bill and black feet, but a white crest plume just like a little egret’s.

Habits . — In the rains seen mostly on Wetlet lake and Mahananda tank.

In the dry weather seen all over the area indiscriminately, including Shwebo

town.

During the rains I saw solitary birds several times, but never in other

seasons. In October I once counted a flock of more than 400 in the bed of the

Mahananda tank, and saw a very large flock in early May also.

In December I have seen mixed flocks of this species and little egrets.

On 4 January 1931, at Shwebo, numerous flocks were flying northwards in the

evening, many of them followed at a short distance by a single bird, as

though acting as a rearguard. On one occasion in June a single bird settled

for a few moments among a number of large, smaller and little egrets

roosting in a tamarind tree. I noticed them on other occasions roosting or

nesting in tamarinds, to which they seem to be partial.

Nesting. — The only nests observed were on 30 May 1933, when several

dozen birds were seen nesting in a group of tamarinds in the middle of Shwebo

town. Many of them were sitting.

Status. — Seen in every month ; especially numerous in the latter part of the

rains and in the cold weather.

Ardeola grayii. The Indian Pond Heron.

Identification. — Many birds were seen on 3 April 1931 in full breeding

plumage except for crest plumes. Some seen on 27 April 1933 had crest plumes

as well. One bird seen on 30 July 1933 was in process of changing plumage,

and one seen on 16 August 1933 was in non-breeding plumage. Of a number

seen on 4 September 1932, some were in breeding plumage, others not.

Habits. — I once saw one perched on top of a stick in water, among many

cormorants on similar sticks. A number of other pond herons were present,

standing in or at the edge of the water as usual. Possibly a case of mimicry of

behaviour.

Nesting. — On 8 June 1932 one of a pair settled on a nest in a tamarind. '

Another bird was breaking off dead twigs, and several others fluttering about

in the tops of the trees, making a great noise with their wings and croaking.

On the same date in 1933, I saw a bird sitting on a nest loosely built of sticks

in a tananngbin in a bungalow compound, with a little egret on another one

within 2 ft. Two days later, in a large tanaungbin in another bungalow com-

pound, two birds were on ne9ts near the ends of branches. Little egrets again

had nests in the same tree. On my approach the egrets flew off, while the

pond herons sat tight.

Status. — Common in every month, especially from November to May.

Butorides striatus. The Little Green Heron.

Status. — Only seen twice for certain in the area. On 6 December 1931

a bird was observed in the Mu river bed at Yeu, flying along the water’s edge,

and standing on the bank. On 16 March 1933 a bird flew out from the grassy

bank of the Mu at Kabo, settled on a sand-bank and erected its crest. On

746 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

11 September 1932 a bird, which I think was this species, settled in paddy in

the Yeu canal area. Birds seen on 13 December and 27 January, and taken a,

the time for black bitterns, were, I think, more probably this species.

Nycticorax nycticorax. The Night Heron.

Identification. — In Mandalay, birds with white spots on the wing, pre-

sumably young ones of the previous year, were seen on 20 March.

Habits. — Usually heard or seen in flight close to bungalows, including my

own in Shwebo town. But I once found a large flock roosting in bushes in the

old Mu canal. In the Mandalay district, I once put up a flock of 30 or 40

from trees on the berm of the Fort Dufferin moat.

Status. — Heard or seen in every month from September to February. Except

for one rather doubtful occurrence on 7 June, not observed between 14 February

and 10 September.

Ixobrychus sinensis. The Yellow- Bittern.

Local names : Gyayn-sa and Byaing-sat both used by boatmen on Wetlet

lake.

Status. — On three occasions between 2 July and 9 October I saw two or

more birds on the Wetlet lake. They were seen both on the edge of reed-beds

and in flight close to them. One bird got up from the edge of a reed-bed in

2J ft. of water. Not seen elsewhere in the area.

Ixobrychus cinnamomeus. The Chestnut Bittern.

Local name : Sal-byaing.

Voice. — In the Mandalay district I once saw a bird uttering a call very

much like the clucking of a domestic hen.

Habits.- — Usually seen singly, but several times in pairs. Most often in

wet Helds and swamps, but also in jheels and small tanks. Once in the

Mandalay district I saw one settle in a tree, and in the Shwebo area I once

watched a female or young bird (probably the latter) perched 6 ft. up in a bush

in full view. Otherwise I only saw them in flight or on the ground. One

bird I put up in August from a paddy field flew at least half a mile before

settling again.

Nesting. — Not observed, but on 30 July 1933 I saw a bird sitting very close

inside a ring of mud among clumps of grass in a wet field, preening its breast

and freezing at frequent intervals. It allowed me to approach to within 10

yards.

Status. — Fairly common from June to September. Not seen between 10

September and 25 June. Early in November 1933 it appeared to be absent from

the Wetlet lake, as none were seen between the 8th and 10th of the month,

when most of the lake was explored. Probably a local migrant.

Oupetor flavicollis. The Black Bittern.

Status. — Only seen four times, all between 18 June and 26 July, in jheels,

wet fields and swamps. On one occasion two or three birds were together, on

the others the birds were solitary. One bird flew up from long grass and

settled 10 ft. up in a bush. Another one, in July, was standing in the open

.at mid-day in a few inches of water.

Sarkidiornis melanotus. The Comb Duck or Nukhta.

Identification. — The development of the male’s comb seems to vary con-

siderably. I saw onte bird on 7 June 1932 with a very large comb, but others

on 5 July 1932 and 5 July 1933 with quite' small ones. Three birds in adult

male plumage on 14 May 1933 had no sign of a comb. Not one of a flock

of 7 seen on 10 October 1933 had any comb, but it is possible that they were all

females.

Habits. — Seen occasionally in the rains in paddy fields and water channels,

but mostly on the Mahananda tank and Wetlet lake, both in the rains and

the dry weather. In the rains usually seen singly, but in the dry weather

always in pairs or flocks. The biggest flock I saw, however, was one of 13

on 7 September 1933. This flock was flying in V-formation, with two leaders.

On 3 September 1932 I saw a solitary male with a flock of 15 Burmese grey

duck, and on 26 April 1933 two birds with a flock of small whistlers.

BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF SHWEBO DISTRICT 747

Status. — On 23 January 1933 there was a flock on the Wetlet lake ; other-

wise I never saw a bird in the area between 10 October and 26 April. They

appeared to be absent from the Wetlet lake on 8, 9 and 10 November 1933, 16

December 1933, and 29 January 1934. On 16 December 1933 my boatman

said that they would probably arrive in ten days’ time, but I do not know if

they did so. I saw them fairly commonly in all other months of the year.

Possibly a local migrant.

Netfapus coromandelianus. The Cotton Teal.

Habits. — Apart from a single bird seen on the R. Mu on 5 May 1933, I only

saw it on the Wetlet lake and Mahananda tank. It was occasionally solitary,

but usually in pairs, small parties or flocks of up to 40 or more, irrespective of

the time of year. I once saw several birds in company with a number of little

grebes, otherwise it was always apart from other species.

Status. — Seldom seen from June to September, or from November to

January. Fairly common in other months.

Anser anser. The Grey Lag Goose.

Voice. — I found them very noisy on the Wetlet lake in December.

Status. — On 9 November 1933 and 11 December 1932 there were hundreds

of birds on the Wetlet lake: On 22 January 1933 there were only a few, and

on 23 January 1934 there were none, the local people saying that they had de-

parted for the season. On the 4th of that rnonth I had seen a flock of about

100, and on the 6th one of 20 birds, flying north over Shwebo in the early

morning'. The first flock arrived in V-formation about 200 ft. up, but broke

up considerably over the town.

? Anser albifrons. The White-fronted Goose.

Status. — On 23 January 1934 I saw two birds on the Wetlet Lake, which

I took at first for grey lag, but my boatman was very definite that they

were not, and called them Gya-ma. I have heard that name applied to the

Burmese grey duck, but they were clearly not that species. The fore-neck and

breast were light grey, the rest of the plumage mostly grey, with a little white

on the head, and white on the rump or upper tail-coverts. Possibly they were

young birds of this species.

Dendrocygna javanica. The Lesser Whistling Teal.

Status j — On 22 January 1933 I saw a small flock on the Wetlet lake and

on 21 August 1933 two birds in flight at Kabo. Otherwise I only saw them

on the Mahananda tank and only during the dry weather of 1932-33. On 18

December 1932 and again on 8 January 1933 there was a flock of about 25 there.

By 27 March there were hundreds of birds, and there were still hundreds of

them on 30 April. On 14 May the numbers were reduced to about 12, which

were last seen on 21 May. Possibly a local migrant.

Dendrocygna fulva. The Large Whistling Teal.

Habits. — Except for one bird put up from the' foot of a canal bank, I only

saw it on the Mahananda tank and Wetlet lake. I twice saw single1 birds ;

otherwise they were seen either in pai^ or in flocks. Flocks were usually

about 12 strong, but I once saw a large one on the Wetlet lake. Usually

apart from other species, but once seen feeding among egrets. In August and

September I found them very tame, allowing a close approach.

Status. — Never seen between 23 January and 8 May. Fairly common during

the rest of the year.

Tadorna tadorna. The Shelduck.

Status. — In the cold weather of 1933-34, I twice saw this bird on the Wetlet

lake. On 16 December 1933 there were two adults and a young bird swim-

ming, feeding and walking about in the mud — a magnificent sight. On 29

January 1934 I saw a party of 4 birds, standing in shallow water and flying

about.

748 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

Casarca ferruginea. The Brahminy Duck.

Voice. — The call reminded me once or twice of that of the grey lag goose.

Habits .■ — Seen in the Mu river bed, and also at the edge of the VVetlet lake,

even on 22 January. In that case there was a flock of 8 to 10 birds; on the

other hand a pair was seen in the Mu river bed as late as the 16 March. On

the same day three birds were seen with a flock of Burmese grey duck — t'he

only time that I saw them with other species.

Status. — Only seen 5 times in the area. Earliest date 9 November, latest 16

March.

Anas platyrhyncha. The Mallard.

Status. — Two drakes and two ducks were seen feeding on the Mahananda

tank on 30 January 1933. No other observations.

Anas poecilorhyncha. The Grey Duck.

Local name : Gya-ma (Wetlet lake).

Identification. — A bird seen on 5 July 1933 had both blue and green in the

speculum, which was conspicuous.

Habits. — Mostly seen on the Mahananda tank and Wetlet lake, at all

times of year, but several times in paddy and other wet fields, and occasionally

in canal-beds and the Mu river bed. Occasionally seen singly, but mostly

either in pairs, small parties or flocks, irrespective of the season. An unusually

large flock of about 40 was seen on tlhe Mu river at Kabo on the morning of

16 March 1933, they flew right off to the north. On the evening of the same

day, however, two small flocks of 6 to 8 birds arrived from the north and

settled on the water. Once in August I saw two birds settle in a tree about

40 ft. up — the only time I saw one perched. Four other birds seen in the same

month were unusually tame ; they were feeding only about 100 yards from a

village, and let me approach in full view to within about 75 yards.

Status. — On 7 May 1931 I saw a pair with blue speculums on the Mahananda

tank, which were presumably the eastern race. As far as I know, all other

birds seen were the Burmese race. I recorded the bird in every month except

April, and it was fairly common, though for some reason it appeared to be

absent from the Wetlet lake in November and December 1933.

Anas crecca. The Common Teal.

Local names : Be-gya, Be-daung~gya.

Habits. — Only seen on the Mahananda tank and Wetlet lake. A solitary

male, much tamer than usual, was seen in the Mahananda on 14 February 1934.

In December I have seen literally thousands of birds on the Wetlet lake. I

have seen them in company with Garganey teal and with cotton teal.

Status. — Earliest date 9 October, latest 14 February.

Anas acuta. The Pintail.

Local name : On the Wetlet lake it was always called simply Yit.

Identification. — One of a flock of 12 seen on 10 October 1933 was a drake

already in full plumage. On 10 November 1933, several drakes in full plumage

were seen by themselves, and on 23 January 1934 they formed a large proportion

of a flock many hundreds strong. It seems, therefore, that old drakes of this

species migrate further south than those of most ducks. Their tails usually

appeared less elongated than in the breeding season in Europe.

Habits. — On 18 January 1934 a single drake settled on the Mu river at

Kabo. Otherwise I only saw them on the Wetlet lake, in flocks of from 12

birds up to many hundreds. Most of the latter flock were standing asleep on

the kazins which were protruding above the very shallow water. As they all

stood facing the sun, the white breasts of the drakes were very conspicuous,

and the whole effect was magnificent.

Status.- — Earliest date 10 October, latest 23 January.

Anas querquedula. The Garganey or Blue-winged Teal.

Local name : Be-bya-galay (Wetlet lake).

Habits. — Only seen on the Mahananda tank and Wetlet lake. In April

in three successive years I saw solitary drakes on the Mahananda, and once

BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF SHWEBO DISTRICT 749

saw a pair there ; otherwise they were always seen in flocks, numbering from

8 birds up to many hundreds, sometimes in company with common teal. On

several occasions I saw them feeding by day.

Status. — Cornmon in the cold weather, earliest date 2 October, latest 7

May. Also seen on 26 April.

Spatula clypeata. The Shoveller.

Local name: Ama (?)

Habits. — Seen several times on the Wetlet lake, singly and in small flocks,

once with common teal.

Status. — Uncommon. Earliest date 8 November.

Aythya rufa. The White-eyed Pochard.

Status.- — Only seen once in the area, on 18 Februai^ 1933, when a flock of

6 birds was swimming and diving in the Mahananda tank. White under the

tail distinguished them from tufted duck.

Aythya fuiigula. The Tufted Duck.

Local names : Myo-ma, Nyoo-hmat.

Habits. — Seen only on the Mahananda tank and Wetlet lake, usually1 in

flocks of anything from 5 or 6 birds upwards. Seen once with a flock of coots.

Status. — Not very common. On 2 July 1933 I saw two birds on the Wetlet

lake. I was able to take detailed note of t'heir plumage and have no doubt

of their identity. Apart from that observation, the earliest one was 11 Novem-

ber, and the latest 12 February.

Podiceps cristatus. The Great Crested Grebe.

Status. — Only seen once, on 29 November 1933, when a single bird was

swimming and diving in the Mahananda tank.

Podiceps ruflcollis. The Indian Little Grebe.

Local names : Ongalauk is the only name I have recorded from this area.

Identification.— I have seen birds with the chestnut head of breeding plumage

as early as 26 April, and others with the sides of the head still chestnut as

late as 31 January.

Habits. — Seen only on the Mahananda tank and Wetlet lake ; commoner

on the former than on the latter. Between 24 July and 2 October, I only saw

it singly or in pairs, and from then up to the end of November never in parties

of more than a few birds. From December to July, however, it was always to

be seen in large numbers on the Mahananda tank. I have a note of hundreds

there on 26 April. I noted a preference for water with green scum on it.

Nesting. — None observed, but I have seen young birds being taught to dive

on 10 October.

Status. — Seen in every month, but scarce from the end of July to early

October.

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS

BY

James Hornell, f.l.s., f.r.a.i. (Deceased)

Part III

( With 19 text figures)

( Continued from p. 569 of this volume)

Order II. — Eulamellibranchia

In this order the gill filaments are united at regular intervals

by cross branches. Except in the oysters and a few others, two

adductor muscles are present. Many have the edges of the mantle

lobes united at three places posteriorly and the margins are often

prolonged into tubular siphons, sometimes quite short, sometimes

extremely elongate.

Edible Oysters

The true Edible Oysters ( Ostreidae ) are among the least typical

of the order and have much in common with some of the preceding

order, particularly with the Scallops and Spondyles. They all live

a fully sedentary life after the early free-swimming stage is past;

the description of the larval life of the Pearl Oyster is identical

with that of our Indian Edible Oysters. Once they settle to the

bottom they turn over upon the convex or deep valve and cement

this to whatever hard object is handy, preferably a stone or another

oyster, for they are gregarious and form regular beds. Some-

times they may even attach to the aerial roots of mangroves in

backwaters. Their value to mankind as food is greater than that

of any other mollusc ; they are susceptible to great improvement

under cultivation.

The Common Backwater Oyster of India ( Ostrea virginiana)

is the only species deserving to be called the Indian Edible Oyster

as it is the one that lends itself most readily to cultivation. It is

extremely variable in form and passes under many names, scienti-

fic as well as local. Among the more recent of the scientific names

under which it has been described are O. gryphoides, var. cuttack-

ensis in the Records of the Indian Geological Survey, and O. mad-

rasensis by Preston1. It has, however, no outstanding differences

from the common American species (O. virginiana) and I agree

with Vredenburg in believing it to be in no wise separable from this

widely distributed form. It is very hardy and can sustain considerable

fluctuations of salinity. Hence it thrives in nearly every estuary and

backwater. On the Malabar coast and in Cochin these oysters

have considerable value to the poorer populations living in the

vicinity; the Madras Fisheries Department has a model oyster park

in Pulicat lake whence large quantities of cultivated oysters are

1 Preston, H. B. ‘Report on a Collection of Mollusca from the Cochin

and Ennur Backwaters’. Records of the Ind. Mus. vol. xii, pt. 1.

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS

751

supplied during- the season, certified to be hygienically safe to eat.

The Indus creeks are another famous source of oyster supply, con-

signments being sent from Karachi to all important centres in

north-western India.

The season when oysters are in marketable condition depends

upon the time of spawning, and this, in turn, is controlled by

rainfall ancj sunshine. Heavy rains causing flood water to enter

backwaters* in such amount as to lower greatly the salinity of the

water over the beds invariably entails wide-spread emission of the

reproductive products when the gonads are ripe. Hence as the

rainy season differs on the w’est and the east coast of India, there

is corresponding divergence in the spawning maxima and the

marketable season in these two localities. The dry season on each

coast is, therefore, roughly synchronous with the season when

oysters are in prime condition in each respective locality.

Rock Oysters

Rock Oysters (O. crenulifera) are readily distinguished by the

deep ridge foldings of the convex left valve and by its deeply

crenulated or lobed edge which tightly interlocks with the margin

of the upper or right valve, which is flattened and opercular in

form. The adductor muscle scar of both is usually dark purplish-

black in tint, rarely white. Very characteristic is a row of closely

set elongated denticulations seen a short distance inwards from

the margin on the inner surface of the upper valve ; these fit into

a corresponding series of furrows in the lower valve. Externally

the shell is tinted an opaque pinkish purple. Internally it is white,

margined with purple or black. The size is generally smaller than

that of the backwater or mud oyster and seldom exceeds three

inches in length, except when living isolated, when it may grow

considerably larger.

The habitat of Rock Oysters is within a narrow’ belt between tide-

marks ; during spring tides they are entirely uncovered at low-tide.

They are purely a marine species, never forming beds in backwaters

or estuaries. Under favourable conditions they form denselv

752 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

crowded colonies upon rocks between tide-marks. They are

particularly common on rocky shores from Sind to Malabar; much

less abundant on the east coast. They are of excellent flavour

but on account of their small size, both natural and usually further

reduced by overcrowding-, as well as by the difficulty experienced

in opening them by reason of their interlocking edges, they are of

insignificant economic importance. ^

Cockscomb Oysters

The third species of Indian Oyster is the Cockscomb Oyster

(O. crista- galli), a massive form occurring on stones and shells,

chiefly on the east coast. The edge of the valves are deeply

pleated and these pleats are continued on the surface of the valves

as angular ridges and furrows extending radially from the hinge.

In the Rock Oyster similar pleats occur but they are more numerous

and much shallower than in the coarsely pleated Cockscomb species.

Pinna

Several species of Pinna (. Pinnidae ) occur in Indian waters.

The most common one is Pinna bicolor, a big wedge-shaped shell

often a full foot in length that occurs commonly on sandy bottom

on the east coast. It lives in depths from just below low-tide to

about six fathoms. The umbones are at the apex of the wedge,

the hinge-line along the length of one of the two long sides. It

lies buried to more than half its length in sand, point downwards,

the edges of the upturned wedge-base gaping. It is very common

in the beds of sea-grass along the south end of Palk Bay, the knife-

Fig. 53. — Pinna atropurpurea Sowerby, showing the tangle of fine byssal threads

attached to two pieces of gravel.

like edges of the posterior margin protruding a couple of inches

or more above the sand. Pearl Oysters sometimes settle in numbers

on these projecting edges. In the 1905 Ceylon Pearl-fishery when

some millions were fished from such foothold, the divers complained

bitterly of the injuries that their hands received when pulling the

Pinnas out of the sand ; as many as a dozen Pearl Oysters some-

times clung to one Pinna — the reason being that the area fished

was almost all sand where the projecting shell margins of the

Pinnas were the only stable objects to which the Pearl Oysters could

cling.

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS

753

Pinna has a long- tongue-shaped foot and spins a strong byssus

of very fine silky fibres, wholly unlike the coarse strands of the

byssus of the Pearl Oyster. Occasionally thread has been spun

from these fibres and silky gloves and stockings woven therefrom

but these are mere curiosities and have no commercial importance.

A second species, shorter and stouter, the Smoky Pinna (Pinna

fumata) is common in five fathoms in Palk Bay. From the Laccad-

ive Islands a third, P. zebuensis , is reported.

The False Cockles

The False Cockles ( Carditidae ) are often uncommonly like the

English cockle, thick and heart-shaped and deeply ribbed with radiat-

ing ridges. Typical of this form is Cardita bicolor, a coarsely

ribbed species unevenly spotted with dark red on a ground rendered

yellowish by thick periostracum. It is

common everywhere on coarse sandy or

even gravelly bottom. Like the cockle

the foot is sickle-shaped and highly

muscular; by its aid these molluscs are

able to hop along the ground. C.

rufescens is found in the Laccadives.

A circular outline and a pure white

shell are features very general among

the Lucinidae. The form of the ante-

rior adductor muscle scar is still more Fl£' 54<.— Cardita bicolor

characteristic ; it is of unusual length

and for the most part lies separate a little distance within the pallial

line. Lacina cumingi is typical, with a long vermiform foot longer

than the length of the body, specially useful for burrowing in loose

sand; it occurs on both the east and west coasts. L. bella and

L. punctata are other Indian species.

The Bladder-Shells

More conspicuous than the ordinary Lucinas is the fine Bladder-

Shell ( Cryptodon vesicula), a thin fragile white shell almost globular

in form. Unlike Lucina, which has a toothed hinge, in the Bladder-

shell it is weak and toothless. The foot is short. The hemis-

pherical valves, papery and delicate, occasionally nearly two inches

in diameter, are sometimes very abundant, thrown ashore by the

waves.

Galeommids

The Galemmatidae are all tiny creatures, remarkable for the

way the mantle folds are reflected over the edges of the valves, nearly

concealing- them. The foot is long and flattened on the underside

after the gastropod fashion and for the same purpose — crawling.

To this family is referable the beautiful little creature which I

once found at Pamban, Scintilla hanleyi by name. As is shown

in fig-. 55, drawn from life, the inner edge of the mantle is furnished

with six long cylindrical tentacles, tapered toward the free ends.

These are coloured brown madder, shading from the tip to the

base where they grade into the pale buff of the mantle. The

754

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

edge of the mantle is in turn bordered by a line of madder running

along it while the general surface is covered with many madder

Fig. 55. — A Galeommatid ( Scintilla hartley i deshayes), showing the flattened

crawling foot and the mantle reflected almost entirely over the valves ; also

two sets of tactile, digitate outgrowth's from the mantle. x3.

brown tubercles. The upper surface of the fore part of the foot is

also madder tinted, the base being white.

The Black Clam, Villorita cochinensis , is our most conspicuous

member of the family Cyrenidae. It is a small, thick-shelled clam

found in west coast estuarine backwaters, where it is associated

with the Common Clam ( Meretrix ovum). Its shell is ribbed con-

centrically and covered by a coarse, thick, blackish-olive periostracum,

frequently worn away by corrosion at the umbo, revealing the

whitish shell beneath. The interior is characteristically pale pink

in tint. This clam can survive the prevalence of fresh-water con-

ditions longer than the Common Clam ; it was originally, as most

other Cyrenids still are, a purely fresh-water species, and its pre-

sence in quantity in estuarine backwaters, subject during a con-

siderable portion of the year to brackish water conditions, indicates

a marked change in its habits and a re-acquired tolerance for

saline conditions. It is used by the same people who eat the

Common Clam and its valves are also burned for lime in

Malabar. It is not nearly so abundant as Meretrix ovum ; its habitat

also is usually farther distant from the sea. The shell seldom

exceeds 30 mm. in length.

The Fresh- water Mussel

Commonest species in India, the Fresh-water Mussel ( Lamelli -

dens marginalis) , has similar anatomy to the text-book types so well

known to biological students under the names of Anodonta and Unio.

It is very widely distributed and is occasionally eaten by the lower

castes, especially in Ganjam. There and in Vizagapatam the valves

are used as mango peelers. To prepare one, a hole is made in the

convex umbonal region by rubbing this part, usually of a right

valve, upon a stone till a hole of the right size is formed; to use

this peeler it is grasped in the hand with the hollow side against

the palm and then the sharp edge of the hole is used to peel off

strips of skin. The advantage claimed for this implement over a

knife is that the mango does not become stained and its flavour

impaired by contact with steel.

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS

755

This species, although its shell is normally too thin to be of use

in pearl-button manufacture, sometimes produces pearls in con-

siderable quantity and of fair quality. Occasionally they are offered

Fig. 56. — The Fresh-water Mussel ( Lamellidens marginalis Lam.).

in the Surada bazaar (Ganjam) ; these are obtained from mussels

found in a great irrigation reservoir in the neighbourhood. The

pearls have a reddish tint and less lustre than those from the

marine Pearl Oyster.

This species is notable in that I was successful in inducing the

formation of free pearls in numerous individuals; the modus

operandi was simple. Having gagged the valves open, I pushed

large grains of sand into the substance of the posterior adductor

muscle with the help of a pair of fine pointed forceps; the mussels

were then returned to the water and left for the pearl sac to form

and lay down onion-like concentric layers of nacre. Unfortunately

the tank threatened to run dry at the end of three months and I

had to remove the mussels and dissect them to ascertain the results.

These agreed with those I had obtained in 1908 from experiments

made on Pearl Oysters in Ceylon.’ The sand grains had become

coated with nacre and while those induced in the Pearl Oysters

were perfectly spherical as they were formed within the mantle

where they were not subject to pressure, those produced by Lamelli-

dens were misshapen and wrinkled owing to the pressure of the

fibres of the adductor muscle; still, they were true pearls and had

been induced by artificial means. It was as the result of this

success and of the Pearl Oyster experiments above recorded that Lord

Pentland, then Governor of Madras, sanctioned the purchase of

Krusadai Island, near Pamban, with a view to establish there a pearl-

oyster farm for the production of culture pearls after the method

which I had planned to carry out. Unfortunately the 1914-1918 war

broke out and although the island was purchased and buildings put

up, financial stringency caused the abandonment of the scheme.

A larger species common in Bengal is extensively utilized for

button manufacture. An allied genus, Parreysia, has coarser hinge-

teeth and generally a stouter shell.

See Proc. Linn. Soc. for 1940-41, pp. 144-149.

75 G

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

The Tellinas

The species of Tellina ( Tellinidae ) most common on all our

sandy shores is small and pink-shelled, about j inch long, com-

pressed from side to side. The anterior end of each valve is

rounded, the posterior shorter and slightly angular; the ligament

is external, showing as a prominent black hinge behind the beak

or umbo. The marking on the inside of the valves is distinctive ;

the pallial sinus which marks the position of the siphons when

withdrawn into the shell, is extremely long, extending from the

hinder margin nearly to the anterior adductor. Without seeing

the living animal a zoologist can tell from this that it must have

long siphons. In Tellina the siphons exceed twice the length of

the shell; they are formed by the tubular outgrowth of the mantle

edge at the posterior end of the body; the evolution of these siphonal

tubes in bivalves is particularly interesting, for among our common

shells we find a full gradation of transitional stages, beginning

with instances where the siphonal openings, one incurrent (to the

gills) and one excurrent or anal, are formed by the temporary coming

together of the mantle edges of opposite sides at several definite

points, thus forming temporary openings. The next stage is for

these temporary junctions to become permanent and then for the

edges of the openings to lengthen gradually into tubes of varying

length. The Tellinas and their near relatives Donax, Atactodea

and Gari are noteworthy for the extreme length attained by their

siphons. The shells are usually small and as their habitat is in

shallow water on sandy coasts, seafowl and other birds search

the sands for them at low water, to say nothing of predaceous

fish that take up the hunt whenever the depth of water permits.

Hunted continually, these molluscs lie in deep burrows with just

the tips of their siphons level with the surface — as inconspicuous as

may be. If discovered they withdraw the siphons into the shells

lying below at a depth of maybe a couple of inches and begin

with lightning speed to burrow still deeper by the help of their

wedge-shaped muscular foot. The longer the siphons the greater

the protection ; it is significant that the four genera named as

having peculiarly long siphons are the commonest bivalves along

our sandy shores — infinitely more numerous than those with short

siphons. Tellina virgata and T. scobinata are two abundant

species.

The Wedge-Shells

Of the Wedge-Shells ( Donacidae ) two common species are the

small Donax cuneatus and the much larger D. scortum. In out-

line the former is a small, much compressed bivalve roughly wedge-

shaped ; the posterior end is obliquely truncate. It abounds between

tide-marks and for some short distance below low-tide level. It

never enters backwaters and is essentially a marine form. Adult

size about 40 mm. in length. On the east coast it is plentiful

on surf -beaten sand-flats ; along the west coast it is less abundant

and is usually smaller. In Tamil districts it is valued by the fisher-

folk as an emergency food supply when rough weather cuts off

their usual resources. It lies buried an inch or two below the

surface layer of sand ; the boys who collect it turn over the wet

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS

757

pand with their feet as each roller spends its force and slips back

into the sea.

The larger and more handsome

Donax scortum is much less com-

mon but its strong, boldly sculp-

tured purple-tinted valves are often

to be picked up on sandy beaches.

The sculpturing takes the form of

coarse concentric ridges upon

valves roughly triangular in shape.

The beak is angular and promi-

nent, the fore end and ventral

margin rounded, with the hinder

end folded and produced sharply to

a bold point. They run to 2J in. in length and are among the most

easily identifiable of our local bivalves.

Mesodesmatids

The Mesodesmcitidae are represented by Atactodea glabrata ,

common at times in the sand of our beaches.

Fig. 58. — A valve of Atactodea glabrata, Gmelin., with an enlarged view of the

hinge plate, xl.

It grows to a length of ij inch. The shell, strong and massive,

is sculptured with bold concentric ridges; the colour is white, but

this is obscured by a skin of dirty yellow except near the umbo,

where this covering is usually worn away. The ligament is internal

as in Mactra.

The Madras

The Mactras ( Mactridae ) are widely distributed on sandy shores

and become plentiful when conditions are favourable. They are

generally thin shelled and smooth surfaced, more or less triangu-

lar in outline, with deep roomy valves, whence the name Mactra

(Latin — a kneading trough). The ligament, in the form of a tri-

angular pad, is lodged in a deep hollow or pit within the hinge

and immediately under the umbo. Several typically thin-shelled

species are common on both the east and west coasts. Some

attain quite a considerable size and may exceed two inches in

length (M. tumida ), but the best known species is the little

M. c orb icalo ides, common in the Adam’s Bridge region. Its shell

is distinctly trigonal in shape, usually about 30 mm. in length, and

with deeply concave valves which are thus able to give accommoda-

8

Fig. 57. — A Wedge-Shell ( Donax

scortum, L.). Xi.

758

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

tion to a body relatively much larger than can be contained in the

shallower valves of the Mesodesmatids. Its colour is most distinc-

tive, externally bluish grey with pink or purplish blue colouring show-

Fig. 59. — A valve and hinge plate of Mactra corbiculoides Deshayes.

ing* through at the umbo and another similar colour band along the

margin; internally the whole surface is tinted a deep violet. When

partially bleached the colour fades to a warm pink.

Many of our most familiar and beautiful bivalves belong to the

Veneridcie, small clams characterized by the handsome colouring

and great strength of the valves. They vary greatly in shape,

from greatly flattened discoidal forms ( Circe scripta) to swollen ones

like Circe gibba and oblong ones like Paphia and Swietta. The

beaks are usually prominent and situated above the mid-length of a

strong hinge-plate bearing (usually) three prominent strong cardinal

teeth, flanked by long laterals.

The genus Venus is purely marine; its shells are ovate with

deep crescent-shaped ventral margin and a strongly beaked umbo.

Widely distributed on both our coasts, it never forms beds. Venus

reticulata and V. plicata are two common species. The sea-worn

fragments of Venus mercenaria, strung on leather thongs, were the

wampum of North American Indians — a rude form of currency.

A wonderfully lovely Cytherea ( Crista erycina) is found in the

channels through Adam’s Bridge. It is a thick ovate shell nearly

three inches long, boldly ribbed concentrically, splashed and marbled

with rich red brown. So handsome is it that the shell dealers in

Rameswaram Temple offer good prices for it; they know that its

rich colouring will tempt the pilgrims who come here from the most

distant parts of India; to them everything from the sea in this

holy place is invested with virtue and interest.

Backwater Clams

Much more abundant are the Backwater Clams belonging to

the genus Meretrix, distinguished by the fine striation of the

elongated posterior lateral tooth in each valve. At least three

species are of value as food in Southern India — Meretrix meretrix,

M. casta, and M. ovum. The first is comparatively scarce but is

found scattered along both our coasts, the second is local to the

east coast, while the third, M. ovum, which may be a sub-species

of the second or vice versa, is found only on the west coast.3

1 Hornell, J., ‘A Revision of the Indian Species of Meretrix’: Records of the

Indian Museum, vol. xiii, pp. 153-173, 4 plates 1917.

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS

759

Everywhere on both coasts either the second or the third of

these bivalves is found abundantly in muddy sand in estuaries and

Fig. 60. — Backwater Clams. A and B, Meretrix casta Gmelin, outer and inner

side of a valve ; C, Meretrix ovum Hanley ; D, Meretrix meretrix L. ; E,

Villorita cochinensis Hanley. All are about adult size except E, which is X f.

connected backwaters wherever the water remains saline through-

out the greater part of the year. Suitable conditions prevail more

extensively on the west coast and it is there that these small

clams attain greatest economic importance.

Meretrix ovum. — The valves are smooth, grey in general tint

and in many, two imperfect brown rays diverge from beak to

margin. In shape the shell varies from a swollen cordate form to

one compressed and almost almond-shaped. It lives in great

abundance in west coast backwaters, with a size-average of from

35 to 40 mm. in length by 25 to 28 mm. in depth; when over-

fished the average size becomes reduced as few individuals have

an opportunity to reach maturity apart from the adverse influences

flowing from overcrowding. Two dark rays, often faint and easily

overlooked, are characteristic of this species ; only occasionally can

they be traced back to the umbo ; usually they are best marked to-

wards the ventral margin where they often terminate in two small

reddish brown patches on the extreme edge. The periostracum is well

developed and persistent; it varies from a pale cream to a rufous

yellow or even brown, the darker tints being mainly of stain origin.

In India this clam is nearly as important a food mollusc as the

Oyster. Its flesh is of good flavour, tender and nutritious. To the

poorer classes of shore dwellers, wherever it is obtainable in quanti-

ty, it often takes the place of fish in their dietary when this is dear

or scarce. The Malabar clam fishers usually use very small dugout

760 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

canoes which are anchored when the fishing- ground is reached.

Men, women and lads all engage in the fishing ; the feet are used

to locate and dislodge the clams when these occur in shallow water.

In deep channels diving has to be resorted to. The usual price is

from one to two pies per seer.

On the east coast the place of M. ovum is taken by M. casta,

a rather larger and stouter species of the same habits. Its valves

are thick and massive, the exterior covered with a strongly ad-

herent dull brownish periostracum, that varies much in tint even

in the same locality. A purplish-black band about a quarter of

an inch wide, extends from the hinge to the posterior angle of

the shell : unlike the yellow colouring of the rest of the surface,

this dark pigment permeates the substance of the valves and shows

equally on both the outer and the inner surface. None of the

radial banding of M. ovum is seen, nor any of the diverse colour

schemes of spots and chevrons so often found on the umbos of

M. meretrix.

Although often very abundant it is generally less common than

the corresponding species on the west coast and is held in less

esteem by the people. It is, however, eagerly collected wherever

it abounds. At Pulicat, for instance, as many as 30 women may

often be seen collecting this shellfish in the shallows.

Fig. 61. — -Two colour varieties of Meretrix meretrix L. ; note the two short siphons

and the great extensibility of the foot as indicated by the dotted outline. X f .

The Great Clam

The Great Clam ( Meretrix meretrix) is a nearly related species.

It is distinguished by its greater size and by the smoothness and

delicacy of its periostracum. Its average dimensions when adult

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS

761

range between 74x60 mm. and 75x62.5 mm. It is a very beauti-

ful shell and it is a pity it is not more abundant. It lives in sands

at the mouths of most of the estuaries and backwaters of India;

it seems less hardy than the smaller species and as a consequence

its distribution is more local and restricted. It requires a cleaner

habitat than M. casta and a strong tidal current over the sandbank

in which it burrows.

The shell exhibits considerable variation in colouring and at

least five well-defined colour varieties are known. Apart from the

umbonal region which is frequently rayed, the valves usually exhibit

no banding, but in two varieties there are very broad ill-defined

radiating bands of a somewhat livid or purplish colour extending

from the ventral region half-way to the umbo. Considerable

colour is nearly always seen on the umbo itself but this is extremely

variable and no two shells are exactly alike. Most frequently a

minute brownish speckling can be made out ; in others this speck-

ling* resolves itself into a pattern of chevron-shaped chestnut mark-

ings which may coalesce either into short rays or into concentric

zones, never spreading far beyond the umbo. In one variety the

colouring is a uniform chestnut.

Circe is another genus of the Veneridae of some economic

importance for the little Cockle-Clam ( Circe gibba ) is so plentiful

in Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar as to form a valued item in

the food resources of the poorer classes of shore dwellers. It is

a strongly ribbed white shell with a superficial resemblance to the

European Cockle ( Cardium edule)} having rugose ridges running

radially from the umbo to the margin and being about the same

average size. It frequents muddy sands near low-tide level along*

the open coast. On the Coromandel sands north of Palk Strait it

becomes scarce and on the west coast it is either absent or extre-

mely rare. Around Bombay its place is taken by C. divaricata ,

a species consumed in great quantities by the shore people. More

characteristic of the true Circes are C. scripta and C. per sonata.

These have shells greatly compressed laterally and nearly circular

in plan, found sparingly in the same localities as the Cockle-clam.

The colouring of C. scripta, which is the more common of the two,

is yellowish, with a broken chevron pattern on the outer half of the

valves, suggestive of angular lettering. Closely set concentric ribb-

ing covers the whole surface.

The Tapestry Shells

The Tapestry Shells (Paphia spp.), so called from the close

ribbing and handsome markings that recall the texture and the

patterns of tapestry, are generally oblong in shape with perfectly

smooth ventral margins. A superb species is Paphia adspersa; it

grows to a length of three inches and the fine colouring and bold

concentric ribbing of its valves make it one of the most striking

of our commoner bivalves. P. textile is another typical form, in

this case with smooth valves marked with closely-set dark chevrons

on a yellow ground. Other smaller species are fairly common on

both our coasts ; of these, P. pinguis is especially abundant in the

Bombay area where large quantities are taken at low water by

762 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

women grubbing for them in soft dark mud. P. textile is another

species sometimes offered for sale.

Hemitapes ceylonensis is a handsome inflated species with a

superficial resemblance to the Backwater Clam (Meretrix casta),

being- about the same size, shape and colour; it differs, however,

in having- radiating- bands of a reddish brown tint running from the

umbo to the margin (Fig. 62). The pallial sinus is much better

marked and is deep and angular.

Average length, if inch. Flatter and

more typical is Paphia gallus, strong-

ly ribbed but in its colour closely

related to Hemitapes ceylonensis ; a

denizen of the west coast sands.

Near relatives of the Tapestry

shells are the pretty species of the

genus Sunetta. Detached valves are

common on our sandy beaches, recog-

nizable by their coarse concentric

ribbing and attractive colour design-

usually some arrangement of bold

reddish brown chevrons; a fine milling occurs just inside the ventral

edges of the valves. They are small shells seldom exceeding if inch

in length. Sunetta meroe and S'.

effossa are two common species.

The True Cockles

The true Cockles ( Cardiidae )

are represented in Indian seas by

several large and handsome species,

notably the Asiatic Cockle ( Cardium

asiaticum) found on all sandy

coasts. This cockle is thin-shelled

and highly inflated, with the ex-

terior sculptured with fine ribbing,

length, the depth being appreciably less. The foot is very large,

bent in the middle nearly at right angles; it is used for leaping and

some species can jump a foot or more off the bottom. Unlike the

ihick-shelled and smaller cockle of European seas, none of the

Indian cockles has any appreciable economic value, as they do not

appear ever to occur in thickly populated beds. Several species

are found in the Laccadives, including Cardium australe, C.

leucostoma and C. fragum.

The Holy= Water Clams ( Tridacnidae ) are so called because of

the use to which their immense ribbed valves are put in Roman

Catholic churches in Europe and elsewhere. They grow to a larger

size than any other bivalve, the shell attaining in exceptional cases

a weight of over 500 lb. The valves interlock at the edges and

each is deeply corrugated, folded into a few very bold ridges

radiating from the umbo. The substance is white and procellan-

ous, very thick and strong*. The mantle edges exhibit an exceptional

condition among bivalves ; they are united throughout their entire

length apart from three restricted openings, a branchial, an anal

Fig. 63. — Sunetta mevoe L.

In size it runs to two inches in

Fig. 62, — Hemitapes ceylonensis

Sowerby, an inflated form. Xi.

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS

763

and a pedal; through the last named, a massive byssus passes.

A single adductor of enormous power controls the opening and

closing of the valves. The smaller species usually live in burrows

in coral reefs; others, often of great size, lie attached by their

byssus to reef rock, often in extensive beds, on flats where the

corals are either dead or inactive in growth. Stories are told of

the great power of their grip and pearl divers in the South Sea

dread as one of the greatest dangers of their calling, the possibility

of setting a foot within the gape of a giant Tridacna.

In Indian seas we find them here and there on the coral reefs

of the Gulf of Mannar; in the Laccadives they are especially abund-

ant. To see the gorgeous colour of the mantle frilling as these

molluscs lie with their shells agape in a clear pool is one of the

many wonders of a coral reef; the gaudy hues of Joseph’s coat were

dull and drab compared with the sparkling loveliness of the iridescent

blues and purples and oranges of the mantle filaments and folds

protruding from between the open valves.

The Chamas

The next family, the Chamidae , has several essential morpholo-

gical features common with the cockles and tridacnas, but unlike

them its members live their adult life with one valve, the left,

cemented to stones, corals and shells. The Indian Chamas are

all small and may be taken for Thorny Cockles ( Spondylidae ) if

the form of the hinge be not noted. In Chama the ligament is

external and not in an interior pit and there are fewer hinge teeth —

two in one valve and one only in the other. The regular disposal

of the spines and the brilliant, florid colouring of the Spondyles

are also absent.

The Garids

Of the Garidae , the lovely Soletellina diphos and S. atrata are

the best known representatives on our coasts. The former is a

long, oval, purple-coloured shell, rounded at front and narrowed

behind to a somewhat pointed form; in life the purple tint is

masked on the exterior by a smooth, dark yellow periostracum.

fin length it grows to five inches; this large size and the unusual

colour of the shell render it conspicuous when thrown up on the

beach. It is fairly common on the Coromandel coast while on the

Konkan coast its place is taken by the equally common S. atrata.

Like most other members of the family Garidae , these mauve

or purple species have extremely long siphons, each separate from

the other. They live buried deeply in the sand, keeping communica-

tion open with the water above by means of these siphons which

open level with the sand surface. When retracted these long

siphons occupy much space within the valves; this space is indi-

cated by the deep bay marked upon the hinder part of each valve

— :the pallial sinus. Several other species, chiefly of the genus Gari,

are found in Indian waters ; they are all much smaller than Sole-

tellina diphos (e.g. Gari pallida found at Bombay) and instead of

a pointed posterior end it is usually blunt or sub-truncate.

764

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 48

The Razor-Shells

The Razor-Shells ( Solent dae ) are long scabbard-shaped shells

living in deep burrows in sandy bays. The foot is enormously

developed, cylindrical in form, mobile and protean in action, capable

of swelling out with lightning rapidity or thinning to a point adapted

to the easy penetration of loose sand. At low tide the slot-like

openings of their burrows are often exposed and, as we walk near the

edge of the sea, little jets of water shot up here and there bespeak

the retreat to the bottoms of their burrows of Razorfish that have

sensed the vibration of footsteps upon the sand. It is difficult to

dig them out, so fast and so far do they burrow; even if the fingers

do succeed in seizing one by the uppermost or posterior end, it is

hard to pull out a large individual for the foot can be expanded at the

lower end to form a living bulbous anchor after the fashion of the

mushroom anchors used for the mooring of buoys. Sometimes they

hold on so tightly that the swollen end is broken off and left behind.

Most Indian species are small in size as Solen corneus, S. trunca-

tus and S. brevis, the last two common at Bombay.

A very pretty relative

of the Solens is the Sunset-

Shell ( Siliqua radiata). The

shell is smooth and oblong

and is marked distinctively

by broad, wedge-shaped

bands of mauve, radiating

from the umbo. It is found

on sandy shores in com-

pany with the more deeply

of this peculiar colour in mol-

in sand is evidence that colour

Fig. 64.-

-Thf*- Sunset-shell ( Siliqua

radiata L.).

tinted Soletellina ; the occurrence

luscs that live completely buried

may often be of no significance in the economy of an animal save

as the visual evidence of the presence of waste excretion. A curious

oblique ridge or rib extends on the inner surface of each valve from

the beak across the shell towards the ventral margin. In no other

family is any similar structure seen.

The Borers

The habitat and shell design of the Borers ( Phoiadidae ) exhibit

peculiar features of great interest. In countries where the coastal

rocks are comparatively soft, these molluscs excavate burrows in

the same style as Date-shells do in coral. In India the Borers are

seldom found in rock — our gneiss and schist are too hard for them ;

instead they affect stiff peaty and clayey deposits where boring is

comparatively easy. The finest instance of this is on the north

coast of Palk Strait, to the west of Point Calimere. Here a stiff

clayey deposit is found ; the conditions must be ideal for boring

and food must be plentiful, for here a truly magnificent shell, the

Oriental Borer ( Pholas orientalis) is abundant and of a larger

size than any European species. A length of 4 to in. is common.

The shell is beautifully proportioned ; long and tapered behind,

snowy white in colour, papery in appearance, brittle but exceed-

ingly hard. The surface is covered with prickly sculpture, rasp-

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS

765

like in arrangement. There is no true hinge and the ligament

has given place to an accessory shell plate. More peculiar still,

the dorsal edges of the valves have grown outwards in such a

manner as to become reflected over the umbones, protecting them

from damage. These umbonal plates are further strengthened by

supporting pillars and plates, dividing the space under these out-

growths into a number of minute chambers. Within each valve

a short stout rod projects inwards from the edge of the umbonal

cavity. The Pholads appear to excavatb their burrows largely

by patiently rasping down the walls by the semi-rotation of their

shell, first to one side and then to the other. The foot takes part

also in the operation of boring.

The valves gape at each end. From the hinder one project the

siphons here united externally into a single organ, tubular in form.

The extremity, slightly bifid, projects beyond the mouth of the

burrow when the animal is feeding. The long narrow gills extend

into the inhalant siphon.

A smaller species, Pholas bakeri, is sporadically distributed from

Bombay southwards to Malabar and thence into the Gulf of Mannar.

Members of an allied genus, Martesia , bore into floating wood ;

M. striata is a common Indian species.

The Ship= Worms

The Ship-Worms ( Teredinidae ) are still more specialized for

boring but they confine their attention entirely to wood. The body

is long and worm-like, the siphonal tubes being of extraordinary

length, united throughout the greater part of their course.

The shell is small and globular, covering only the thick anterior

end where the visceral organs are situated. The tiny valves

show resemblance in essential features to those of the Pholads,

especially in the presence of a calcareous spur in each umbonal

cavity; Teredo has evidently descended from a Pholas-like ancestor,

suffering extreme modification in its successful attempt to perfect

its form to a burrowing habit. The body in some of the common

species may reach a length of a couple of feet or more, with a

diameter of about a quarter of an inch. As it starts making its

burrow when quite tiny and never quits it, the aperture is minute.

The burrow is lined with a calcareous tube, not connected in any

way with the body of the Teredo but deposited from a secretion

poured out by certain glands. Contrary to the general belief,

Teredo does not feed upon the wood it excavates.

Ship-worms are extremely destructive to timber, especially in

the tropics ; unless protected by metal sheathing or some special

composition, woodwork under water becomes riddled with the

multitude of their burrows within a few months. The hardest wood

is not immune. I have seen ironwood piles completely destroyed

and reduced to a mere shell of honey-combing at Tuticorin. Deal-

wood perishes within a few weeks. Their ravages cause constant

anxiety to the owners of small coasting craft and fishing boats.

The accepted Indian method of combating the shipworm’s destruc-

tiveness is to haul the vessel ashore or else careen her, and after

drying as thoroughly as possible, to daub the underwater parts

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

7%’

with a mixture of chunam, dammar and oil. Canoes and small

boats being- easier to handle

are hauled ashore at frequent

intervals and have their bot-

toms smeared with rancid fish-

oil of an odour warranted foul

enough to disgust any ship-

worm larva that comes near.

Sometimes an Arab sailing

vessel has been neglected too

long and has become riddled

below the water line with

Teredo tunnels. The owner

will then lay her up during the

Monsoon at any handy west

coast port and engage carpen-

ters to endeavour to repair the

damage; such a vessel I have

seen with every visible hole

plugged with a wooden spike

about four inches long; when

all were inserted the bottom

looked like a giant porcupine

for the projecting ends of the

hundreds of spikes were not

cut off till all were in. Such a

repair is obviously no cure but

it permits the craft to be sailed

home when good weather

returns.

A short length of the siphon

tubes is free at the hinder end

and at the point of junction of

these free ends with the long,

united siphonal region are situ-

ated a pair of tiny pallet-like

limy plates supposed to be of

use in protecting their owner

against the intrusion of any un-

welcome visitor. These pallets

may be likened in function to

the operculum of a gastropod.

Watering-Pot Shells

Last of all and more degene-

rate and quite unlike typical

Fig. 65.— A, a Ship-worm (Teredo), extracted from its burrow. Note the pair of

pallets above the origin of the siphons and the vestigial shell-valves embracing

the rounded ‘head’. B, Cylinder of a Watering-pot Shell ( Aspergillum

javanum Lam.), showing the frills around the siphonal end of the tube

and the circlet of short tubules at the anterior end ; a indicates the remains

of the larval shell embedded in the wall of the cylinder. C, face view

of the perforated ‘rose’ at Che lower (anterior) end of the cylinder.

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS

767

bivalves are the Watering-Pot Shells (Clavagellidae) . They are com-

mon on our sandy shores, washed up after storms; they may also be

found at very low spring tides embedded upright in the sand. In

form their habitation is a short, stout, brittle calcareous cylinder

about three inches long with several delicate upstanding frills round

the open upper end (Fig. 65, B). The lower extremity is closed,

slightly convex, perforated with holes and surrounded with a number

of short open-ended tubes — ^the whole suggestive of the rose of a

watering-pot or can, whence the name (Fig. 65, C). When first

seen the impression is that the short open cylindrical tubes fringing

the ‘rose’ are the broken bases of rootlike tubes; this is not the case.

That the creature is a bivalve is proved not only by a study of the

soft parts of the body but by the presence of a tiny but perfect

bivalve shell (a) embedded in the surface of the main tube just above

(posterior to) the rose. The larger structure, the frilled cylinder, is

a secretion of the siphons.

A common Indian species is Brechites dichotomus or Aspergillum

dichotomum as it was formerly called.

Class V.— CEPHALOPODA

The Cephalopods are so called because the foot, here divided

into a number of tentacle-like arms, is attached apparently to the

head. The body is a muscular sac containing the viscera and gills.

In many forms an internal ‘bone’ or ‘pen’ stiffens the body in a

manner comparable with the backbone of the higher animals. The

head, joined to the body by a narrow neck, is furnished with a pair

of large eyes, perfectly constructed optically but evolved by quite

a different line of development to that of the vertebrate eye ; although

vastly larger its optical mechanism is on the same basic plan as that

of the cephalic eyes of Strombus and other typical gastropods.

The arms, either eight or ten in number, arise in a circle at the

forward end of the head. Except in the case of the Pearly Nautilus

these are armed with a large number of suckers, enabling the animal

to cling tenaciously to any object at will. Each sucker is a round

disc with a little bulbous cavity at the centre that enables the

creature to work the sucker apparatus like an air-pump ; the

vacuum created causes the sucker to adhere by atmospheric pressure

and this continues so long as the central intelligence controlling the

muscles working the sucker’s piston maintains them in a state of

tension. The mouth, situated in the centre of the circle of arms,

is armed with a horny parrot-like beak, capable of rending its prey;

in large species it is powerful enough to inflict severe injury upon

man.

The class is divided into two sections according as the number

of gills is two or four. Those characterized by the latter number

were predominant in former geological times but to-day the Pearly

Nautilus is the only existing Cephalopod with four gills. The two-

gilled section is in turn divided, according as the arms are eight or

ten, into the Octopoda and the Decapoda. The common Octopus

and the Paper Nautilus ( Argonauta ) are types of the former; the

Cuttlefishes, Squids or Calamaries and the curious little Spirula are

the best known representatives of the other.

76S JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 48

The Octopuses

The Octopoda have neither internal nor external shell, with the

partial exception of the Paper Nautilus where the female forms an

extremely fragile and transparent shell in which she brings forth

and shelters her eggs. Some Octopods attain a large size and mytho-

logical stories tell of huge individuals that have seized men from boats

— stories founded on the immense size of deep-water individuals

occasionally risen from the depths, found floating or thrown ashore.

In our Indian seas the largest I have seen, Herdman’s Octopus

( Octopus herdmani ), has a body less than the size of the closed fist,

with arms 2\ feet long when fully extended. The Octopus is by

far the most intelligent of the mollusca ; it seems an absurdity to

class it with snails, chanks, oysters and ship-worms. In one sense

the name of Devilfish sometimes given to it both in English and

in Tamil (pey kanavai) seems justified. If several Octopods be

watched in captivity and if they be at home in their surroundings,

the cleverness of the creatures in stalking their prey and their

cruel rapacity in tearing their victim into pieces when caught are

uncanny and devilish. I have watched an Octopus on the prow7!

sliding stealthily over the bottom with all the skill of a high intelli-

gence ; every bit of cover is made use of and even the colour of

the bottom is imitated for concealment. Passing over yellowish

sand the dark body tints of the Octopus fade away and there is

nothing but a slight pulsation to betray its presence. Anon it

crawls over a mass of brown weed — dark tints come back in a flash

and once more the animal is indistinguishable from its background.

This ability to make lightning changes in its colour disguises is

due to the colouring matter in its skin being in little sacs controlled

by tiny sets of radiating muscle fibres. If the muscles contract

the pigment spots grow and expand; if they relax, the spots close

to pin points and a greyish yellow pallor suffuses the body.

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS

769

Crabs are the favourite food of the Octopus, but they will

also open bivalves, and fishes are occasionally caught by the cruel

snake-like sucker-beset arms.

Wherever sea-bottom growth is luxuriant; wherever corals,

gorgonids, and pearl oysters abound ; wherever a tangle of sea-

weeds, sea-grass, or of hydroids be found as in the Beyt Channel

in the Gulf of Kutch, there Octopods thrive and multiply. More

than anywhere else they love the crab-tenanted weedy shallows of

Palk Bay where great use of them is made by the line-fishermen

who esteem them their best bait, for their flesh is firm, not easily

pulled off the hook, and of an odour tempting beyond measure to

the fish sought after. The Octopods so used are quite small and

work on their specific differences is greatly wanted. To capture

them long lines are prepared having hundreds of short branch lines

tied on at intervals of from five to six feet. To each of these side

lines a large Lambis shell (usually L. lambis) is attached, the

apex and the fingers being first broken off. These lines are sunk

overnight on the weedy beds which these Octopods frequent in

company with the Blue-clawed Swimming Crab, Neptunus pelagicus.

The next morning when the lines are hauled, many of the shells

are tenanted by small Octopods that had sought concealment

therein. The average number of shell-traps used on a devilfish

long-line averages upwards of 800, made up of a contribution of

several short lengths from each of the five men manning each

fishing canoe.

The men credit these little Octopods with a great deal of

sagacity ; amongst other clever tricks attributed to them is that

when they enter an empty shell, they are careful to block the

entrance with a shell or a piece of stone as a screen against their

enemies, the big swimming crabs.

Often on the pearl banks I have come across the same kind

of small Octopod hiding in empty pearl-oyster shells, and in others

it is not uncommon to find the inside of one valve covered with

a closely set layer of their tiny colourless eggs. The large species

are scarce in comparison with the small ones having a body of a

size varying from that of hazel nut to that of a walnut. All are

provided with an ink-sac and a favourite trick to cover escape

when pursued is to eject a cloud of inky fluid from this sac; this

diffuses at once and forms a dense dark cloud — a ‘smoke screen’ —

covering their movements.

Of the ten-armed Cephalopods, the Squids or Calamaries and

the Cuttlefishes, several species are common in Indian waters. The

Octopus has solitary habits and frequents rough bottom where

he is able to ambush his prey; not so the Decapods. The latter

have far less intelligence and instead of quartering the bottom

in quest of prey, they swim through the open sea in shoals, often

of immense numbers.

The Squids

The Squids ( Loligo , Ommastrephes } etc.) are the most active

of the Cephalopods ; to speed through the water their body is long

and torpedo-shaped, armed with a powerful triangular fin on each

770 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

side. The Octopus on occasion is able to dart swiftly backwards

by expelling* water from the gill chamber through a siphon on the

under side of the body. The Squids also have this power but their

caudal fins are so greatly developed that swimming is their cus-

tomary mode of locomotion. A shoal of these elegant creatures in

flight through the water is an entrancing sight never to be

forgotten.

Unlike the arms of the Octopus those of the Squids are short

and stumpy with the exception of the extra two — the tentacular

arms — which are very long ; instead of the suckers being distri-

buted throughout the entire length as usual with the others, they

are restricted to a broad pad-like swollen region at the far end.

Each of these long arms is retractile into a pouch on either side

of the head ; they are used to seize their prey when at a distance.

An internal support, the pen or gladius, is present in the dorsal

region. It is a thin, light, nearly transparent horny structure,

with a stiffening rib down the centre on one face.

Alike with the Octopus and the Cuttlefishes, the Squid has an

ink sac for defence. In the presence of danger the contents are

discharged as an inky cloud ; often indeed has it need to employ

this protective device for it is a favourite morsel with most large

fish and with certain of the large cetaceans ; the sperm-whale feeds

greedily upon the large species that inhabit the deeper horizons of

the oceans.

Squids are abundant in all our coastal waters during the local

fair weather periods but it is only in the deep embayments, such as

the Gulf of Kutch, parts of the Gulf of Mannar and in Palk Bay

that they haunt the inshore waters in great shoals. Probably

they are most common in Palk Bay and Strait. Shoals appear in

the shallows off Rameswaram Island about the month of April and

during the height of the S.-W. monsoon the shoals reach their

maximum. At that time they seem to be made up of immense

assemblages of individuals gathering under the lee of the land,

partly to feed upon the smaller fry that seek shelter there from

the violence of the monsoon and partly to deposit their egg capsules

(Fig. 68) among the weeds growing luxuriant in the place favoured.

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS

771

A notable fishery is pursued in this region for their capture.

Two methods find favour, the one a wholesale netting in which

thousands may be caught at one haul by means of a great seine net

having a close-meshed net in the centre with wing ropes thickly

beset with palm leaf strips to function as scare-lines ; the other

method is where the skill of the individual fisherman is exercised

in catching the Squid singly with the aid of a long-handled jigger.

To use this the fisherman builds a primitive machan in shallow water;

it is usually nothing more than a stout-forked jungle post set fork

upwards ; on a crossbar joining the forks the man perches himself

precariously and from this stage awaits the approach of a female

Squid intent upon depositing her candle-shaped egg-capsules among

the pile of leaves which the man has placed on the sand around the

base of his lookout. Sometimes the structure is made more stable

by using four posts carrying a square platform. The jigger is a

pole 12 to 15 feet long armed with 5 or 6 hooks set grapnel-fashion

around the working end.

Whatever part of the catches is not sold fresh — the demand

is considerable — is split and sun-dried ; this makes a clean and

attractive product, sold at inland markets at about Rs. 3 per 100.

Cuttlefishes

Cuttlefishes ( Sepia spp.) have a large, fleshy, flattened body

bordered by a narrow frill-like fin on either side, a head furnished

772 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 48

with two great goggle eyes, and beset with tentacles of two kinds

of the same general character as in the Squids (Fig. 68) ; instead

of the long horny pen found in the latter, the Cuttlefish has an

internal support in the form of a broad, stoutly built ‘bone’, com-

posed of fine calcareous laminae enclosing air spaces. This cuttle-

bone has value for rubbing down paint in fine coachwork and a

minor industry on certain parts of the Indian littoral is the collection

of these bones during the monsoon when they drift ashore, some-

times in great numbers. The brown pigment called ‘sepia’ is another

minor commercial product obtained from the Cuttlefish and its rela-

tives ; the rich brown pigment, when genuine, represents the dried

and pulverised contents of the ink-sac of Cephalopods.

Palk Bay fishermen cherish the erroneous belief that cuttlefish

cast their bones annually in February and March, the season when

the bones are thrown ashore in quantity.

A small and very pretty Cephalopod is Sepiola , a stout-looking

form seldom exceeding inch in length. Its distinguishing feature

is the presence of a rounded, paddle-like fin on each side of the

rotund little body. It lurks in little pits on sandy bottom, buried up

to the eyes, watchfully alert for any small crustaceans and tiny

fishes that may wander incautiously within reach of its two long

tentacular arms.

Spirulas

The last of the ten-armed forms is the aberrant Spirilla of wide

oceanic distribution within the tropics. Wherever be its haunts

when alive, there it must exist in great profusion for multitudes of

its curious, loosely coiled ‘ram’s horn’ shell are to be found on every

beach in the Pacific and Indian oceans after a spell of long continued

onshore winds. Only a very few specimens of the living animal

have ever been found and absolutely nothing definite is known of its

habits. From study of the soft parts three species are believed to

exist but the shells of all are identical.

The animal has the appearance of a very

small long-bodied Sepiola bereft of its fins and

measures about 2-J in. in length. It has the usual

eight short arms and two tentacular ones. A

terminal sucker or pore exists at the posterior

extremity of the body and it has been surmised

Pj . 69 glielj Qf that this enables it to anchor itself to a rock or

Spirula peronii other stable object.

Lam. The shell of Spirula like the bone of the

Cuttlefish is an internal structure ; it is located

in the hinder region of the body and has the form of a loosely coiled

tubular cylinder, snowy white without, nacreous within. At fre-

quent intervals throughout its length it is divided into short cham-

bers by thin concave partitions as in the external shell of the Pearly

Nautilus next to be described. As in the latter, each partition is

traversed by a narrow tube, the siphuncle. This tube passes close

to the inner wall of the whorls, whereas in the Nautilus it passes

through the centre of the partition walls.

THE STUDY OF INDIAN MOLLUSCS

773

The Pearly Nautilus

Last of the Indian Cephalopods but again represented solely by

-empty shells drifted ashore, is the four-gilled Pearly Nautilus, the

sole living- representative of a great host of strange molluscs that

flourished exceedingly during- the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic periods.

The Ammonites, though closely related in shell form are, however,

not so nearly akin as the earlier straight-shelled Orthoceras.

Though the shell of Nautilus like that of Spirula is one of the

familiar objects of tropic beaches, nothing was known of its habits

until a few years ago. Dr. Willey was one of the first to throw

light on its life-history and to watch it in captivity. The seas

around the islands of the Western Pacific are its headquarters;

there in moderate depths Willey was able to capture numbers by

the simple expedient of sinking wicker traps to the bottom. He

found Nautilus to be gregarious and nocturnal, crawling over the

bottom in troops at night time in search of the crabs and shellfish

on which it feeds.

The figure shows its ordinary

attitude wThen crawling. It is also

able to swim after the usual manner

of Cephalopods. The earliest speci-

mens captured were taken floating

■or swimming on the surface. In

this position the numerous tentacles,

60 to 90 in number, which here take

the place of the arms in other cepha-

lopods, are arranged in a radial

manner around the mouth and this

accounts for the old-time descrip-

tion given of it when seen floating

•on the surface as ‘a shell with

something like a cauliflower stick-

ing out of it’. These tentacles are

prehensile and are given off from

lobes of the foot surrounding a

mouth armed with a beak which is

solid and calcified instead of horny

as in other cephalopods.

A dorsal lobe of the foot forms

a thick and strong hood for the pro- Fig. 70.— The Pearly nautilus in the

tection of the whole animal when attitude of crawling. (After Willey.)

withdrawn into the great roomy

terminal chamber of the shell. Unlike typical members of the class

Nautilus has no ink-sac.

The shell is a pretty object often thrown ashore during monsoon

storms. A. he size is considerable, often reaching 4 to 5 inches in

diameter. It is a discoidal shell, coiled in one plane, and divided

h>y concave septa into a large number of chambers, increasing in

size as they approach the open terminal chamber; in this the whole

hody of the animal is lodged. The chambers are connected by

a narrow siphuncular tube as in Spirula; in life a delicate membran-

ous tube passes from the hinder end of the animal backwards

9

774 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

through the siphuncle. With increase in size the Nautilus periodic-

ally finds the body chamber too small, so lengthens and widens i%.

in front, while behind it shuts off the hinder portion of the chamber

by a new transverse partition. The chambers are filled with a

nitrogenous gas ; this has value in lightening the shell and is useful

in adjusting the weight of the body to the particular need of the

moment. It is in effect a hydrostatic apparatus.

The interior of the shell is pearly as are also the septa, while

the outer layer is porcellanous, barred irregularly with broach

wavy bands of reddish brown upon a whitish ground.

The end.

THE INLAND FISHERIES OF KODINAR1 2 IN KATHIAWAR

BY

T. V. R. PlLLAY AND J. S. SHAW

( Department of Fisheries , Baroda State )

(With a plate)

(Communicated by Dr. S. L. Hora, d.sc., f.n.i.)

Introduction

In a recent article in this Journal” , one of us (T. V. R. Pillay)'

gave a detailed account of the Marine Fisheries of Kodinar. Being

a very important centre of sea fishing, the inland fisheries of

Kodinar have not attracted much attention so far, even though the

State derives some revenue by periodically leasing out the fishery

of the Somat river. Investigations were conducted by the authors

during 1947-48 with a view to collect data regarding the inland

fishery resources of the taluka and examine the possibilities of

their development ; and this paper embodies the results of these

investigations.

Kodinar is a pocket of Baroda State territory 207 sq. miles

in area, in South Kathiawar, bounded by the Arabian Sea on the

south and Junagadh State territories on all the other three sides.

Kodinar enjoys a very good climate, the heat being tempered much

by the delightful sea breezes. The average rainfall is 30", while

the highest is 54". The land which consists generally of a plain

of fertile soil, is irrigated by the Shinghoda, Somat and Shingavadi

rivers. There are two other .seasonal rivers also viz., Gome and

Rupen. During the rainy season all the rivers and ponds get

flooded but they dry up partially or completely during the summer

drought. The coastal regions abound in creeks and backwaters and

in certain localities, the general aspect is that of a network of

creeks with tidal swamps in between. The types of inland waters,

important from the fisheries point of view in the taluka are (I) the

creeks and backwaters, (2) rivers, and (3) village ponds.

CREEKS AND BACKWATERS

In the absence of any big rivers or lakes, the creeks and back-

waters form the most important type of inland waters in Kodinar.

All the year round, fishing is carried on in these waters, and dur-

ing periods when sea fishing is closed due to rainy or other un-

favourable weather conditions there is a natural intensification of

activities. Kotda and Madhwad are the two important centres of

this type of fishery. The wide and shallow backwater, lying east

of Kotda and separating the Baroda State territories from that

1>An abstract of this paper was published in the Proceedings of the 36th

Session of the Indian Science Congress, Allahabad, Part III, 1949.

2 Journ., Bomb. Wat. Hist. Soc., 48, (1)— 1948 : pp. 47-61.

.776 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

of Junagadh, is the richest among them. This area, right from

its. mouth opposite Diu island to Chikkhli and Phatalbara affords

lucrative fishing and is fished by the Kharvas and Kolis of

Vanakbara and Kotda.

Fishing is generally done from dug-out canoes in deep waters,

and by wading in shallower regions. The nets used are of three

types, viz., cast nets, drag nets, gill nets and traps. Cast nets

.are mainly of the unstringed variety and are operated from the

banks in creeks and from dug-out canoes ( Tindias ) in backwaters.

The mesh of this net generally increases from 1/2" square at the

apex of the cone to 1" square at its base. The weighted peri-

phery has attached to it a large number of short cords which are

lied at points approximately 2\ times its length. Thus a deep

peripheral pocket is formed for the net. When thrown, the net

forms a cone over the enclosed area and the hauling cord attached

to a central point at the apex is slowly drawn up. The fish in

the area is then gravitated into the peripheral pocket as the net

is hauled up. The cast net is employed for the capture of all kinds

of small fish available in these waters.

There are two types of drag nets operated in the local creeks

and backwaters, and they are the Choklo Jal and the V edi Jal.

Choklo is the simpler of the two and consists of a more or less

square piece of hemp netting (20-25 ft. long and 20 ft. broad) strung

•on a bamboo pole at each end. Two fishermen are required for

the operation of the net and each holds one side and drags along

the narrow creeks for some distance. Then it is skilfully hauled

up so as to capture the fish driven along by dragging. The main

-constituents of the catches are Talar (Engraulis spp.) and B01

(■ Mugil spp.).

Vedi Jal is a bigger edition of Choklo. and consists of several

pieces of such netting tied end to end. The number of pieces

"used and the resultant length of the whole net depends upon the

width of the backwaters in which they are operated. The main

object is to fence up the areas and drag up and encircle the

fish in the locality. First a straight fence is constructed across

the backwater by tying together a suitable number of net pieces

and fastening them at both ends to two bamboo poles driven into

the sandy or muddy bottom. Then the dragging net is paid out

at a suitable distance across the backwater. The net has a thick

-coir or hemp foot rope, the weight of which makes it sink down

vartically. There is also a similar head rope, and this is kept

raised up by the fishermen who follow it in dug-out canoes (see

plate). The canoes may be one, two, or more according to the

length of the net. The free ends of the head and foot ropes are

taken charge of by two parties of fishermen and they drag it along*

towards the fencing. Dragging is always done against the

current. As the dragging net draws near the fencing,

the part on one bank crosses over to the other forming

a ring. The ring is slowly made smaller and then the net is

liauled up in such a way as to capture all the fish in the ring.

Where the backwater is too wide to do dragging from the banks the

fishermen do so from dug-out canoes. The Vedi Jal is generally operat-

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

THE INLAND FISHERIES OF KO DINAR IN KATHIAWAR

ed during' the monsoons and the catches consist mainly of Netla,,

Talar ( Engraulis spp.) and small Boi ( Mugil spp.).

The gall net in this area is the Khandari Jcil and Pillay (1949)1

has described the net and the mode of its operation. It is a single-

piece wall of cotton netting 75 to 80 feet long and about /\\ feet

high, strung on a half inch thick cotton head rope and a thinner

foot rope of the same material. It is buoyed up by means of thin

circular pieces of light wood or pith about 2" in diameter and

in thickness, tied to the head rope half a foot apart. During day

time at high tide, the net is set in the form of a wall across-

the mouth of the creek from a tender canoe. The number of fisher-

men engaged in working the Khandari jal is two or sometimes-

three. Generally one of them will be a boy who takes his initial,

lessons in fishing in these inland waters before venturing into

the open sea. After paying out the net, the tender canoe is rowed’:

about in front of the net, and one of the fishermen beats the side

of the boat with a wooden stick, so as to drive the fish towards

it. The frightened fish rush or leap against the net and get gilled

therein. A good many find themselves landed inside the canoe in

their frantic efforts to escape. The catches mainly consist of

Boi ( Mugil spp).

Traps are seldom used by fishermen in this area. The only

instance of such a contrivance was observed to be employed by

the Kolis of Velan in the narrow creeks for capturing small mullets.

An account of this is also included by Pillay (op. cit) in his paper

‘Grey Mullet Fishing in Baroda State’. At low tide, the creek

is bounded off at its narrowing portion and the bund is camou-

flaged by marsh plants. A 3 foot gap is left in the middle of the-

bund and a rectangular piece of bamboo patta 3 ft. x 2 ft. is placed

in this gap in a slanting position. The water from the creek flows

over the ‘patta’, which acts as a sieve, and all fish brought in with

the water, are either stranded over it or caught into one or two-

baskets kept behind.

The following fishes were collected and identified from these-

waters so far.

No. Vernacular name Scientific name

1 Sci. & Cul. 15, (1)— 1949 : pp. 20-23.

77 8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIE TYy-YoZ. 48

Besides these Jinga ( Penaeus carinatus, and Metapenaeus

monoceros) are also caught in fairly good quantities. A consider-

able portion of the catches consists of young ones and during the

monsoons adults of some fishes that migrate to these waters for

breeding are indiscriminately captured. Though it is difficult at

present to enforce conservation measures here due to geographical

and other reasons, possibilities of developing the fisheries of these

waters by culture are great. The shallow marginal regions of the

Chikkhli backwaters can be bunded off and made into ideal fish

farms for the culture of mullets and other suitable marine or

brackish water fishes on a large scale. Seed are available all

through the year near by, and the incoming tides will solve the

problem of fish food. The Chikkhli and Phatalbara creeks are also

the abode of edible oysters ( Ostrea virginiana). Conditions here

~are sufficiently suitable for the opening of edible oyster parks also.

To the west of the village of Velan is a shallow and extensive back-

water formed by a low bund across a narrow creek. This is locally

known as ‘Khari’ because of the salt formed on its margins by solar

■evaporation. Though in summer season the salinity is a little high,

during monsoons the water is all but completely fresh. During

the rains, it fills up with fresh water ; when full the surplus over-

flows and empties into the creek near by. The backwater is a

favoured haunt of grey mullets and Hornell1 (1948) and Moses in

19382 soon after the opening of the Fisheries Department in the

State and again in 19443 recommended the conversion of this

sheet of water into a mullet farm by raising the bund and provid-

ing a small sluice and emergency weir in the centre. The con-

version of this backwater into a fish farm for the culture of oysters,

pomfrets, mullets and Indian salmon, has been sanctioned by the

•Government and included under the schemes of Post-war develop-

ment of fisheries in the State and will be started in 1950-51. The

fry of mullets ( Mugil spp.) are available in the adjoining creeks

throughout the year and that of Indian salmon ( Polynemus sp.)

after the monsoons. But young ones of pomfrets ( Stromateus spp.)

have not been met with in these creeks or backwaters. The

authors, therefore, conducted some experiments in the collection,

transport and conditioning of these from the Madhwar Bay, where

they occur in large numbers from December to April.

Young ones of the three types of pomfrets ( stromateus cinereus

S. sinensis and Parastromateus niger) are caught by the fisher-

men in fixed bag nets ( Gholu jals). A good number of living fish

could be collected by removing them as soon as the catches were

emptied into the boat. But a majority of them were found fatally

Injured during the hauling of the net. The few uninjured specimens

available were easily transported in earthern hundies to Velan in

boats, and released into cement tanks. Then by slowly lessening

1 Report on the further development of the Fishery Resources of Baroda

State by James Hornell (1918).

2 Annual report of the Departpient of Fisheries, Baroda State, for the

year 1937-38.

3 A Post-war scheme of Fishery Development in Baroda State by S. T.

’Moses (unpublished) 1944.

THE INLAND FISHERIES OF KODINAR IN KATHIAWAR 779

•the salinity of the water medium by the addition of fresh water,

it was possible to acclimatize them to brackish and fresh water

conditions within a week with only negligible mortality. But the

.greatest difficulty was experienced in obtaining live and uninjured

specimens from the catches of fishermen. So, for the large-scale

collection of young' ones of this fish for cultural purposes some

specialised method of fishing has to be devised. However during

the investigations, young of Stromateus cinereus ( 2 "-3" size) were

found in the estuary of Shinghoda at Muldwarka ; and this

.place which is only about 14 miles by road and about 7 miles by

road-cum-sea route from Velan, will serve as a good source of

seed supply for the farm.

RIVERS AND ESTUARIES

As mentioned elsewhere, there are five rivers : Somat, Shinghoda,

Shingavadi, Gome and Rupen, flowing through Kodinar taluka and

joining the Arabian Sea. But, of these, the last two will have some

water in them only during the rainy months. Rivers Somat and

Shingavadi form the western and eastern boundaries of Kodinar

taluka.

These rivers hold some water throughout the year, but the

Avater level is too low for large-sized fish to live. Somat and

.Shinghoda join the Muldwarka sea very near each other, and

dishing is carried on in the estuarine areas of both, the Somat

fisheries being leased out periodically. From the fishery point of

view, Shinghoda is more important and the resources of this river

were more thoroughly investigated.

Shinghoda starts from the Junagadh territory and flows through

the central region of Kodinar taluka, almost splitting it into two

halves. The river has very steep banks, so much so that, it is

not of much use for irrigational purposes. During the monsoons

the river is flooded, but in summer it dwindles down, leaving

considerable portions of its sandy or gravelly bottoms exposed.

The villagers cultivate seasonal vegetables on these fertile areas

during summer. The water is fresh throughout excepting for 4

or 5 miles on the lower reaches near Muldwarka. Machiaras do

fishing in the river at Kodinar where the water is always fresh by

means of cast nets. The following fishes, and 1 species of prawn,

viz., Palaemon carcinus Fabr., were collected and identified from

Just after the rains., • fry of Labeo boggut are seen in large

numbers near about Kodinar city. Evidently they breed in the

780

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

small side streams in the locality. Adults of 8" to 8|;/ size are

common in Shinghoda. In the absence of other major carps, this

fish can be utilised for cultural purposes in this area.

The estuarine regions of this river are rich in fish life and

this is the main source of fish supply in the Kodinar markets

during the rainy season and on sea-fishjng holidays. The men who

do fishing here are Machiaras and the nets they operate are cast

nets, and a kind of drag net known as Jam Jal.

The cast nets are of the type already described. The Jam Jal

is very much similar to Vedi Jal in design. The main difference is*

that, it is provided with a series of floats and weights. As in

the operation of the Vedi jal , first of all a fencing is made with,

a piece of rectangular netting 30 to 35 feet long, 16 to 18 feet

high and of 1 to ij/r mesh. The net is tied upright on wooden or

bamboo stakes. The rope which is provided with iron sinkers,,

is either allowed to hang free or is fastened to the poles. Then

about a furlong away, the dragging net is paid out. It is a single

piece netting- and is 60 ft. -75 ft. long, 16 ft. -18 ft. high and of i"-i^,r

mesh. The head-rope has tied to it several bundles of dry reeds which,

serve as floats. On the foot rope are strung, about 125 to 130

iron sinkers which together weigh about 4A to 5 seers. This net

is dragged along and hauled up exactly like the Vedi Jal. Ir is

operated at the turn of the tide. The catches mainly consist of

Mendley ( Coilia dussumieri ), Gandhio, Boi ( Mugil cephalus and

M. olivaceus .). The following fish were collected and identified

from the estuary at Muldwarka

No. Vernacular name Scientific name

The presence of young* ones of Hilsa ilisha and Stromateus

cinereus in the estuarine area, is of significance. The seas off

Muldwarka afford a rich fishery in pomfrets and Hilsa. Though

adults have not been observed ascending the river, the presence

of young ones of different sizes tend to prove that they migrate

into these waters and breed there. This estuary will be a good

source of supply of pomfret fry for cultural purposes. Moses1

(1938) proposed the opening of a Hilsa hatchery here and

the sanctioned scheme, kept in abeyance during the war, was in-

1 Annual report of the Department of Fisheries , Baroda State, for the year

1937-38.

THE INLAND FISHERIES OF KO DINAR IN KATHIAWAR

781:

eluded as an item of work in the plan of Post war Fishery develop-

ment in the State and will be taken up in 1951-52.

PONDS

Almost every village in the taluka has a pond or two. But the

majority of them hold water only for a couple of months after

the monsoons. Fish life is very scanty in these ponds. The

perennial ones are generally temple tanks and the religious

susceptibilities of the villagers prevent fishing in these waters,

even for survey purposes. So, the possibilities of pond culture:

for food production is extremely limited in Kodinar. However

the irrigation tank of Pichvi which is in charge of the P.W.

Department can be utilised for fish culture. Public health fisb

farming is probably the only activity of the kind, in which the

cooperation of the villagers can be had. Being a malarious dis-

trict, antimalarial fish culture has some possibilities here. The few

larvivorous fishes available locally are not efficient enough and so

exotic fish like Gambusici, which has an additional advantage im

being viviparous, will have to be introduced for the purpose.

conclusion

Among the inland waters of Kodinar, the backwaters offer the

greatest scope for development and there are good possibilities for'

the establishment of extensive fish farms and oyster parks. The-

fish raised in these farms will have a ready market locally during

the off-seasons and the excess can be railed from Kodinar to

neighbouring towns like Dhari, Amreli, etc. Oysters will find a

market in Bombay, and the country-crafts that now transport fislv

can suitably be utilised for their transport also.

The Velan Backwater Fish farm, when started will form the

nucleus for cultural activities in this area.

The nets described above, are fairly well-adapted for opera-

tion in the inland waters of this area. The small mesh of nets-

like the Vedi ]al causes the destruction of large quantities of

mullet fry. If they can be allowed to grow in the wild or cultured’

in farms, by enforcing legislation, it is bound to contribute con-

siderably towards increased production.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are highly indebted to Dr. S. L. Hora for his-

kind suggestions and Dr. S. T. Moses, for help and encouragements

in the preparation of this paper.

THE INDIAN CADDIS FLIES (' TRICHOPTERA )

BY

The late Martin E. Mosely,

.( Dept . of Entomology, British Museum , Nat. Hist.)

Part XI

( With 13 plates)

( Continued from page 422 of this volume)

SERICOSTOMATIDAE McLachlan— (Continued)

Goerodes Ulmer.

Goerodes Ulmer, Coll. Selys., fasc. 6, pp. 37-38, 1907.

Goerinella Ulmer, D. ent. Z., 75, pp. 68-70, 1915.

Crunohiodes Martynov, Ann. Mus. Zool. Acad. Sci. URSS.,

28, P- 47U *927-

Crunoeciella auct.

,The genus is here based mainly upon characters furnished by

the male genitalia. The species of Goerodes, in the male, show

a considerable diversity in neuration, particularly in the anterior

wing* so that neuration should be considered as specific rather

than of g-eneric importance.

The insects are uniformly brown of varying* shades. Basal

joint of the d antennae unbranched. Maxillary palpi c? generally

two-jointed, shorter than the labial palpi, terminal joint, which is

rather obscure, carrying* a tuft of dark, much broadened scales.

Spurs 2, 4, 4.

Genitalia d : — All species in the genus conform in a production

of the centre of the dorsal margin of the 9th segment in two pairs

of processes, the outer usually appearing as asymmetric, sinuous

and very stout spines, the inner varying in form ; sometimes these

processes are replaced by a plate or plates ; the penis short and

curved ; inferior appendages always branched, the branches varying

in number and form ; they agree in all species in carrying* a more

or less erect branch, generally with a dilated apex, arising from

the upper margin of the appendage towards the base, as seen

from the side.

Genotype: — Goerodes cornigera Ulmer.

Goerodes ursina (Hagen) Fig 166.

Mormonia ursina Hag., Verh. Zool. Bot. Ges. Wien, 8, p. 484,

1858, ibid., 9, p. 208, 1859.

Goerodes ursina Ulm., Genera Insect., fasc. 60a p. 106, 1907.

Banks in Journ. Fed. Malay Mus., 16, p. 392, 1931, writes

4 In the series of G. ursina Hagen there are no males.’

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate I

Figs. 157-161. Goerodes ^hasiana sp.n. 1S7, wings. 158, maxillary

and labial palpi, lateral. 159, genitalia, lateral. 160, genitalia, dorsal. 161,

ninth segment and inferior appendages, ventral.

THE INDIAN CADDIS FLltiS ( TRICHOPTERA )

783

In the collection of the British Museum, the species is re-

presented by a single female, a co-type. This specimen is reddish

Brown in colour and I give here a figure of the neuration.

Having regard to the similarity in the neuration of nearly all

females in this genus, it is improbable that it is correctly associated

with its male.

Co-types 9 in the collections of the British Museum and of

the Museum of Comparative Zoologv, Harvard College, Mass.,

U.S.A.

The following species is unknown to me. It is doubtful whether

it can be recognized from its descriptions but it clearly belongs

to the Lepidostomatinae.

Goerodes musteliina (Hagen)

Mormonia ursina Hagen, Synops. i, Nr. 79, var? minor

Mormonia musteliina Hagen, Verb. Zool. Bot. Ges. Wien, 9,

p. 209, 1859.

Goerodes musteliina Ulm., Gen. Insect., fasc. 6, p. 106, 1907.

4Fusca; antennis flavidis, articulo basali, longo recto, subtus

iiavo barbato ; palpis maxillaribus clavatis recurvis, flavo pilosis,

-capite thoraceque fuscis, flavo pilosis ; pedibus luteis, anticis fuscis ;

alis fuscis, fusco hirtis (Mas).

Long. c. alis 6^ mill. Exp. al. 11 mill. Hab. Rambodde, Nietner.5

Goerodes khasiana sp. n. Figs. 157-161.

Insect yellowish. In the S , anterior wings bearing dense hairs

amongst which are elongate, white scales ; costa folded over from

nearly the base to a point opposite the distal end of the discoidal

cell ; post-costal fold short, terminating in a narrow cell ; posterior

wang of the type aberrant, with a small cell below the discoidal

cell enclosing the corneous point ; in other respects the neuration

as usual. Antenna with the basal joint somewhat shorter than

the width of the head with the oculi. Maxillary palpi single-joint-

ed, broad.

Genitalia C • — -Apical margin of the ninth tergite produced in

two pairs of processes, the inner short and membranous, one

process longer than the other, the outer long, sinuous, strongly

chitinized and asymmetric; penis short and stout, elbowed abruptly

downward; inferior appendages branched, the main branch with

the inner margin irregular, excised as showm in the figure of the

ventral aspect ; from the side, stout at the base, terminating in

a slender branch ; a branch arising from near the upper margin

towards the base, with a slender stem and greatly dilated apex

which appears as a narrow wart from above ; from beneath may

be seen a short ventral branch to the appendage arising rather

from the middle of its upper surface than the usual situation on

the upper, inner margin.

Length of the anterior wing 7 mm.

Length of the basal joint of the antenna 0.72 mm.

Assam: — Khasi Hills, from the MacLachlan collection.

Type and paratypes $ in the collection of the British Museum.

784 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 48

Goerodes palnia sp. n. Figs. 162-165.

Insect pale fuscous. In the 6 , basal joint of the antenna as

long as width of head with the oculi ; a triangular wart arises bet-

ween the bases; maxillary palpi single-jointed, bearing a tuft

of broad scales ; wings covered with pale hairs intermingled with

scales ; anterior, costal margin rounded and narrowly turned over

onto the sub-costa for nearly its entire length ; post-costal fold long* ;

in the posterior wing, the fourth apical cellule extends slightly

further inwards than the basal angle of the discoidal cell.

Genitalia d* : — Ninth tergite produced in the centre of its-

apical margin in two pairs of processes, the outer forming strongly

cnitinized, sinuous, stout spines, somewhat asymmetric, seen from

the side with wide bases, lower margins of which are con-

vex, the inner, which are much smaller, are membranous, finger-

shaped and fringed with widely spaced, long hairs ; the ninth segment

is produced above these processes in a small, triangular prominence;

penis short and curved, apex curled over in a flattened tongue;

inferior appendages branched but not two-jointed, the basal part

is wide for about two-thirds of its length, then it is cut across

to leave a shelf with the inner angle forming a triangular project-

ion and the outer produced in a broad branch with a rounded apex ;

from the side, a second branch is seen to arise from the upper

margin near the base ; this branch is slender and rod-like ; ninth

sternite produced at the centre of its margin.

Length of the anterior wing 6 8 mm.

Palnis : Kodaikanal, 2. ix. 1921, Fletcher collection.

Type cT ln the collection of the British Museum.

Goerodes piscina (Hagen).

Mormonia piscina Hagen, Verh. zool. — bot. Ges. Wien, 9,.

pp. 208-9, 1859.

Goerodes piscina Ulmer, Gen. Insect., fasc. 60a, p. 106, 1907..

Goerinella piscina Ulmer, Deuts. ent Zeit., 1915, pp. 68-70, 75,

figs. 44-7, 1915.

Insect brownish. Description of the d : basal joint of the antenna

rather longer than the width of head with oculi ; maxillary palpi

two-jointed, basal joint longer and more strongly chitinized on

the under than on the upper side; the terminal joint membranous,

clothed with a mat of broad hairs and arising from before the

apex of the first joint ; labial palpi three-jointed, the second joint

longer than the first and shorter than the third ; wings, anterior,

clothed with hairs and scales, costa doubled over the sub-costa

rather deeply at the base, the fold narrowing towards the apex

of the wing ; post-costal fold very long ; posterior wing, sub-costa

much thickened and confluent with the radius at about midway,

separated at the apex ; a. cross-vein between the cubitus and the

medius forming a doubtful fork no. 5.

Genitalia d : — Dorsal margin of the ninth segment produced

In the centre in two pairs of processes, the inner close together,

small, finger-like, with strpngly serrate outer margins, the outer

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate IX

Figs. 162-166. Goerodes palnia sp.n. 162, wings. 163, genitalia*

lateral. 164, genitalia, dorsal. 165, ninth segment, inferior appendages and

penis, ventral. 166, Goerodes ursina (Hagen) $. Wings of co-type.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate III

Figs. 167-171. Goerodes piscina (Hagen) rf. 167, maxillary and labial

palpi, lateral. 168, wings. 169, genitalia, lateral. 170, genitalia, dorsal.

1 7i> ninth segment and inferior appendages, ventral.

Journ.y Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate IV

Figs. 172-177. Goerodes punda sp.n. 172, wings. 173, base of

antenna. 174, maxillary palpus from in front, lanial palpus from side. 175,

genitalia, lateral. 176, genitalia, dorsal. 177, ninth segment and inferior

appendages, ventral.

THE INDIAN CADDIS FLIES (TRICHOPT'ERA)

785

long and stout, arising' from very stout bases, as seen from the

side, asymmetric, the apex of each process bifurcate, the upper

fork acute, the lower blunt and rounded in the one, in the other,

there is a truncate apex., the upper angle produced in a pointed

finger ; penis short, arching downward ; inferior appendages single-

jointed, and branched ; from beneath, there are two branches aris-

ing on the inner margin, the lower straight and pointed, the upper

wide and rounded, both directed inwardly and distally ; above the

second branch, the appendage is cut away on its inner margin

leaving a narrow apex simulating a second joint at the base of

which are two or three stout spines ; from the side may be seen

an additional branch arising from the upper margin towards the

base, with a slender stem and much dilated apex curving some-

what distally.

Length of anterior wing (f io mm.

Length of the anterior wing 9 8 mm.

Ceylon.

Goerodes punda sp. n. Figs. 172-177.

Insect yellowish. In the d anterior wings bearing a dense

mass of small scales intermingled with hairs ; costal margin rounded ;

discoidal cell about as long as its footstalk; ali the apical

cellules sessile ; post-costal fold extending' to a point nearly opposite

the distal end of the discoidal cell ; posterior wing with the neu-

ration regular. Basal joint of the antenna slightly longer than the

width of head with the oculi. Maxillary palpi two-jointed, basal

1 joint from beneath, very broad, nearly double the length of the

terminal joint ; both joints covered on the upper surfaces with

broadened hairs.

Genitalia <3* : — Dorsal plate produced in two pairs of long

processes, the outer broad at the bases, terminating in acute,

strongly chitinised, sinuous spines, the inner shorter, set close to-

gether and parallel ; penis short and curved ; inferior appendagos

five-branched; a branch with a very slender stem and a dilated

apex arising from the upper margin near the base, directed up-

ward; a second slender branch at the extreme base of the ventral

margin ; the third branch is very small, transparent and concealed ;

it arises towards the base of the appendage between the first and

second branches ; the apex of the appendage is forked, the upper

foik shorter than the lower and terminating in a clavate apex,,

the lower oroduced and acute.

Length of the anterior wing* d 7 mm.

Ceylon: Pundaluoya, Sept. 1897. ex MacLachlan coll.

Type cf in the collection of the British Museum.

Goerodina gen. n.

Spurs, 2, 4, 4. In the d , the basal joint of the antenna armed

with two processes, both situated at the extreme base, one furcate,

the other simple and very small. Maxillary palpi two-jointed, basal

joint stout, long, slightly curved, with a small membranous

786 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

branch at its apex, terminal joint short. Wings clothed with hairs

and scales ; anterior with the post-costal fold short, situated near

the lower margin of the wing. Inferior appendage branched at

the apex and with an upright branch at the base, rather irregular

in shape.

Genotype: — G. serrata sp n.

Goerodina dubitans sp. n. Figs. 178-184.

Insect brown. In the <$ , wings covered with hairs and scales,,

the latter very dense ; in the anterior, the costa is not folded ;

post-costal fold short, terminating in a large cell ; the fifth and

sixth apical cellules are based upon a round, false cellule bare

of hairs or scales and situated about midway between the base

of the discoidal cell and the distal end of the post-costal fold ;

discoidal cell rather short. Basal joint of the antenna about one

and a half times as long as the width of the head with the

oeuli, armed with two processes of which the basal is complicatedly

furcate, the distal, short and simple ; above these processes the

joinr is excavated, the excavation lined with a series of bars.

Maxillary palpi membranous and two-jointed, the basal joint large

with a rounded knob towards the apex, terminal joint short and.

thick.

Genitalia cf : — The apical margin of the ninth tergite is produced

in a large, triangular plate, apex slightly excised ; penis short

and downcurved ; no apparent sheaths ; inferior appendages with

a slender branch arising from the centre of its upper surface at

the base, directed upward, apex not dilated as is usual ; apex of

the appendage probably three-branched, outer branch rounded, lower

finger shaped) apex slightly dilated, the third with a wide excision!

of its dilated apex ; from the side, there is a rounded production

of the base of the lower margin.

Length of the anterior wing S 7 mm.

Length of the basal joint of the antenna 1.58 mm.

Assam : Khasi Hills, from the MacLachlan collection.

Type S in the collection of the British Museum.

Goerodina serrata sp. 11. Figs. 185-190.

Insect brownish. In the cf , anterior wings covered with hairs;

and scales ; costa narrowdy folded over from the base to a point

opposite the base of the discoidal cell which is narrow; post-costal

fold about half the length of the wing ; three large cells in the

post-costal area ; in the posterior wing, apical cell no. 3 unusually

broad. Antenna with the basal joint considerably longer than the

width of the head with the oculi and furnished with a pair of

processes at its base, the longer bifurcate towards the apex, where

it is considerably dilated. Maxillary palpi membranous, covered

with broad hairs, two-jointed, basal joint stout, long, slightly curved

with a membranous branch towards its apex ; second joint short

and slender.

Genitalia cf : — Apical margin of the ninth tergite produced in

a . large, rounded plate, beneath which is a pair of processes with

.Jotirn., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate V

Figs. 178-184. Goerodina dubitans sp.n. d*. 178, wings. 179, base ol

antenna, inner surface. 180, the same, from beneath. 181, maxillary and

labial palpi, lateral. 182, genitalia, lateral. 183, genitalia, dorsal. 184, ninth

segment and inferior appendages, ventral.

Jaern. J; Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate VI

Figs. 185-190. Goerodina s errata sp.n. d, 185, wings. 186, base of

antenna. 187, maxillary and labial palpi, lateral. 188, genitalia, lateral.

189, genitalia, dorsal, penis and sheaths omitted. 190, genitalia, ventral.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate VII

1 392 ^

Figs. 191-197. Paraphlegopteryx brunneus sp.n. <$. 191, wings. 192.,

base of antenna. 193, maxillary and labial palpi, lateral. 194, genitalia, lateral.

195, dorsal plate from above. 196, upper penis cover, (?), dorsal. 197, ninth

segment and inferior appendages, ventral.

THE INDIAN CADDIS FLIES ( TRICHOPTERA )

78"'

strongly serrated margins, with small, projecting branches on their

outer margins near the base; from the side, the serrate process-

is broad at the base with a nearly right-angled excision of the

upper margin leaving a narrow distal finger very acute at its apex ;.,

penis elbowed downward, apex deeply excised; sheaths very long,,

apices crossing ; inferior appendages branched, main stem with

an irregularly shaped apex as seen in the figure, a long, sinuous

branch arising beneath it from rather nearer the apex than mid-

way. this branch with a slight projection of its inner margin

near the base ; a basal branch arises from the upper surface of

the appendage towards its base ; this has the usual slender or

constricted stem with a dilated apex but the apex is more elongated

than is usual, seen from the side; there is a strong projection of

the lower margin of the appendage at the base.

Length of the anterior wing 7 mm.

Length of the basal joint of the antenna 1.4 mm.

Assam: Khasi Hills, from the MacLachlan collection.

Type cf in die collection of the British Museum.

Paraphlegopteryx Ulmer.

Paraphlegopteryx Ulm., Notes Leyd. Mus., 29, pp. 5-6, 1907.

Spurs, 2, 4, 4. In the d , basal joint of the antenna about

as long as the width of the head with the oculi, without processes.

Maxillary palpi single-jointed, short and cylindrical. Wings clothed’

sometimes with hairs and scales, sometimes with hairs alone ; no

post-costal fold in the anterior; neuration in the posterior irregular,

sometimes with a groove containing dense black spinules. Inferior

appendages stout, sometimes furcate. No well-defined erect branch

at the base.

In all the species, in the tf , there is a large, shieldshaped,,

black spot on the metanotum.

Genotype : P. tonkinensis Ulmer.

Paraphlegopteryx brunneus sp. n. Figs. 191-197.

Insect brown; wings broad; anterior clothed with hairs only,,

the base of the costa turned over and bearing a dense fringe ;

no post-costal fold; discoidal cell long and narrow; fork No. 1

with a footstalk; posterior wing clothed with hair and scales, the

latter collected in a band following the apical and posterior margin

of the wing; subcosta thickened, fork No. I long and narrow

with a short footstalk, discoidal cell long and narrow, media

flowing into the lower branch of the radial sector ; basal joint of

the antenna rather shorter than the width of the head with the

oculi ; maxillary palpi with a single, short, cylindrical joint curving

slightly upward and heavily fringed on its lower surface; spurs of

the anterior tibiae long and distinct.

Genitalia <$ : — The tergites bear groups of long hairs; apical1

margin of the ninth straight ; beyond it is a dorsal plate, deeply

excised at its centre to leave a pair of processes with concave

apical margins separated from the produced lateral angles of the

788 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 48

plate by rounded excisions and about twice their length ; penis

arching- downwards, a divided plate (upper penis cover?) covering

the apex; sheaths short and broad, lying over its base and con-

cealed under the dorsal plate; inferior appendages single-jointed

and three-branched, broad at the base; a short branch on the

upper margin near the base, directed upwards ; the appendage is

then narrowed in a pair of branches of which the outer and upper

is long, the inner short ; from beneath, the appendages are widely

separated and the apices of the inner branches are truncate.

Length of the anterior wing- a* io mm.

Length of the basal joint of the antenna 0.89 mm.

N. E. Burma: Kambaiti, 6800 feet, 7. iv. 1934, R. Malaise.

Type o* in die collection of the Stockholm Museum.

Paraphlegopteryx compositus Mart. Figs. 198-204.

Paraphlegopteryx compositus Martynov, 1936, Rec. Ind. Mus.,

,38> P- 291-

Head dark ochraceous ; oculi black ; basal joint of antenna

rather shorter than the head together with the oculi ; maxillary palpi

short and cylindrical, apparently single-jointed, sparsely clothed

with long hairs ; labial palpi, second joint longer than the first

and shorter than the third ; pronotum and mesonotum dark ochrace-

ous, legs ochraceous. For further particulars, see generic description.

Genitalia <3 Margin of the ninth dorsal segment evenly round-

ed; beyond it is a large dorsal plate with two triangular project-

ions at the base and the apex produced in two large triangles with

a narrow excision between ; beneath this is a pair of fiat, blade-like

penis-sheaths covering a short, downwardly arching penis ; inferior

appendages three-branched, with a broad base which is produced to

make a first branch ; at the base of this branch, on the under

surface is a rounded wart covered with short setae and seen from

beneath, a second wart or minute process on the inner margin

opposite it ; the second branch arises at about midway, seen from

the side, it is short and lies parallel with the first branch ; the

third branch is slender and arises towards the upper marg'in of

the base of the appendage, curving upwards and tailwards.

Length of the anterior wing d 9 mm.

Kumaon : Muktesar, 7,500 feet, 14. ix. 1922, Fletcher coll.

The locality of the type is E. Himalayas, Darjeeling district.

Paraphlegopteryx normal is sp. n. Figs. 206-209.

Head dark fuscous,, nearly black ; oculi frack ; antennae dark

'ochraceous, basal joint about as long as the breadth of the head

including the oculi; palpi and legs dark ochraceous; wings fuscous,

anterior with area between the costa and subcosta thickly beset

with thickened hairs and scales in both wings ; scales or thick-

ened hairs sparingly seated on the nervures and more thickly along

the posterior border of the posterior wing.

Genitalia d : The eight tergite modified and produced in a

large, rounded dome overshadowing the genitalia from above; the

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate VI II

198

199

Figs. 198-199. Paraphlegopteryx compositus Mart. Example from

Kumaon, and enlargement of posterior wing.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate IX

205

Figs. 200-205. Paraphlegopteryx compositus Mart. <$. 200, wings. 201,

genitalia, lateral. 202, ninth segment and dorsal plate, dorsal. 203, penis

sheaths, dorsal. 204, inferior appendages, ventral. 205, Ignasala fuscata

Navas, d* Wings (after Navas).

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate X

Figs. 206-209. Paraphlegopteryx normalis sp.n. d*. 206, wings. 207,

genitalia, lateral. 208, genitalia, dorsal. 209, ninth segment, inferior appen-

dages and penis, ventral.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate XI

Figs. 210-213. Paraphlegopteryx rufus sp.n. <$. 210, wings. 21 1,

genitalia, lateral. 212, genitalia, dorsal. 213, penis and sheaths, dorsal.

THE INDIAN CADDIS FLIES ( TRICHOPTERA )

7S»

ninth tergite is reduced beneath the dome and carries a dorsal

plate with a pair of widely separated, narrow processes towards

its basal margin, whilst its apical margin is produced at its centre

in a pair of deep plates whose lateral margins are bent downwards

and inwards to form deep hood ; upper penis-cover lying close

up under the hood ; penis short and strongly arched ; inferior append-

ages with broad, rounded bases, the narrow apices produced and

pointed ; from the side, the apical margin of the basal part is

somewhat truncate, the produced apex arising- from the lower apical

angle.

Length of the anterior wing 3 8 mm.

Darjeeling.

Type 3 in the collection of the Munich Museum.

Paraphlegopteryx rufus sp. n.

Insect reddish-browm ; wings broad and rounded, clothed with

i hairs but without scales; anterior, discoidal cell long and narrow;

posterior, neuration irregular; fork No. I in both wings with a

footstalk ; no folds or grooves in either wing ; basal joint of the

antenna of about the same length as the width of the head with

the oculi ; maxillary palpi single-jointed, short and cylindrical.

Genitalia d* : — The apical margin of the ninth tergite slightly

, rounded ; beyond it is the dorsal plate, from above produced in

: a pair of stout processes with rounded apices, separated from each

other by a deep excision ; towards the base of each process, on

its outer margin, is an irregularly shaped projection; from the

- side, the plate is roughly rectangular ; the whole plate with its

processes sparsely clothed with long hairs ; penis very short and

• curved; sheaths forming a pair of short, flat plates above its base;

inferior appendages broad at the base which is ear-shaped from

above, apical portion produced and directed inwards, apex clavate ;

lying* along the upper margin as seen from the side, is a short

branch directed distally.

Length of the anterior wing cT io mm.

N. E. Burma: Ivambaiti, 12. vii. 1934, 6,300 feet, R. Malaise.

Type 3 in the collection of the Stockholm Museum.

Ignasala Navas

Ignasala Navas, Revist. Ac. Cienc. Zaragoa, 15, p. 39, 1932.

Navas describes the genus as follows : —

Etim. En obsequio del P. Ignacio Sala, S. J., a quien tanto debe

la entomologia de Bombay.

Similis generi Atomyia Banks.

Caput antennis articulo primo longo, fere aequali latitudini

■capitis cum oculis.

Abdomen cercis inferioribus 3 grandrbus.

Alae elongate, parum dilatatae, maxima dilatatione in tertio apicali ;

venis axillaribus 1 et 2 modo soldo disposifis ; cellula discali clausa,

10

790 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

lit in Atomy id) hoc est : in : ala- ant. i, 2, 5, post. 1; in $'

ala ant. 1, 2, 3, 5,, al. post. 1, 2, 5.

Cetera ut in Atomyia Banks.

Se distingue de Atomyia por la mayor longitud del primer

artejo de las antenas, asi como de la celdilla discal del ala anterior

y en la misma por la posicion normal de las:venas' axilares 1 v 2,

si hien presentan alguna anomalia en su terminaeion.

El tipo es la siguiente especie.

Ignasala fuscata Navas Fig. 205.

Ignasala fuscata Navas Revist. Ac. Cienc. Zaragoza, 15, pp. 40-41

%• 38. I932- ■

Navas describes the species as follows: —

Caput fusum, nigro pilosum ; oculis fuscis ; palpis maxillaribus

brevibus, fuscis, duobus arficulis fhlvis^ fulvoque pilosis;

antennis articulo primi longo, longiore latitudine capitis, apicera

versus leviter incrassato, fusco, piloso, apice fulvo, ceteris

fulvis, fusco annulatis, . in 9 pallidioribus.

Thorax inferne fulvus, superne piceus, fusco pilosus.

Abdomen fuscum, inferne pallidius, appendicibus testaceis ; cercis-

inferioribus d grandibus, leviter ascendentibus, sensim angustatis,

medio convergentibus, pilis fulvis, in medio apicali plerisque fuscis.

Alae angustae, membrana fusco tincta ; reticulatione, pilis

fimbriisque fortibus fuscis.

Ala anterior furcis apicalibus 2, 1, 5 longitudine decrescentibus,

sessilibus ; cellula discali angusta, plus quadruplo longiore latitudine.

A^a posterior cellula d-iscali brevi, extrorsum dilatata, duplo

longiore sua latitudine ; furcis apicalibus 1, 2, longis sessilibus,

5 brevi, longiter pediinculata. (refers to 9 wing)

Long. corp. <3 3.7 mm. ; 9 3 6 mm.

Long. al. ant. <3* 6.6 mm. ; 9 6.5 mm.

Long. al. post. 0* 5.5 mm.; 9 5-3 mm-

Patria : Khandala (Bombay) 12-24. v. 1927, 22^28. x. 1928*

Leg. P. Sala, S. J.

Navas gives figures and dimensions of the wings in both sexes..

Having regard to the numerous species in the sub-family I am

of opinion that the association of the S with the 9 is uncertain.

1 therefore reproduce here the figure of the d wings only. Navas

gives no figures of the allHmportant ’Jfenitalia.

Kodala gen. n.

Spurs, 2, 4, 4. In the <3*, basal joint of the antenna short,

without processes. Maxillary palpi single-jointed. Wings clothed

apparently with hairs only ; costa folded over the wing for nearly

its entire length ; no post-costal fold. Inferior appendages single-

jointed and branched.

Genotype: K. lanca sp. n.

Kodala lanca sp. n. Figs. 214-217.

Insect small and brownish ; anterior wing with the costali border

turned over, no fold in the post-costal area, wing almost entirely

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate XII

Figs. 214-217. Kodala lanca sp.n. 214, wings. 215, head, lateral.

216, genitalia, lateral. 217, genitalia, dorsal.

Jouni., Bombay Nat. Hist Boo.

Plate XIII

222

Figs. 218-222. Indocrunoecia heterolepidia Mart. 218, wings (after

Martynov). 219, genitalia, lateral. 220, penis, lateral. 221, genitalia, dorsal.

222, ninth segment, inferior appendages and penis, ventral.

THE INDIAN CADDIS FLIES ( TRICHOPTERA )

791

denuded in the type and the vestiture consisting' of hairs, no visible

scales ; antennae with the basal joint rather longer than the depth

of the head from the side ; maxillary palpi single-jointed ; labial

palpi three-jointed, basal joint the shortest.

Genitalia <3- — -Dorsal plate larger and bifid; penis asymmetrical-

ly directed to one side, apex dilated and membranous ; inferior

appendages single -jointed and branched, apex fringed with very

long, stiff hairs; basal branch, from the side, elbowed and directed

distally ; middle branch bent inwards at right angles, arising from

the centre of the inner surface.

Length of the anterior wing cf 6 mm.

Palnis : 7,000 feet, Kodaikanal, 15 Sept. 1921, Fletcher Coll.

Type d* in the collection of the British Museum.

Indocrunoecia Martynov.

Indocrunoecia Mart., Rec. Ind. Mus., 38, p. 393, 1936.

Spurs, 2, 4, 4. In the <3 , basal joint of the antenna short,

without processes. Maxillary palpi two-jointed, basal joint long,

terminal rather short. Wings clothed wifh hairs and scales, costa

folded over the wing near the base ; no post-costal fold. Inferior

appendages branched, no erect branch at the base.

Genotype: I. heterolepidia Mart.

Indocrunoecia heterolepidia Martynov Figs. 218-222.

Indocrunoecia heterolepidia Mart., Rec. Ind. Mus., 38, pp. 293-

295, figs. 66-67, !936-

Insect light brown. In the 3 , basal joint of the antenna as

long as the breadth of the head with the oculi, no processes at its

base. Maxillary palpi two-jointed, basal joint long, second joint

very small, if present at all. Anterior wing broad, egg-shaped,

greyish yellow, clothed with hairs and elongate, whitish scales ;

discoidal cell long and narrow ; no post-costal fold ; in the posterior

wing, fork No. I with a very short footstalk, otherwise 'figuration

regular.

Genitalia <3 : — The apical margin of the ninth tergite produced'

in a large dorsal plate deeply excised at the centre of its margin

to leave two triangular processes with produced apices ; lateral

angles of the plate produced in slightly incurving, finger-like

processes ; from the side, the dorsal plate is very broad with an

irregular lower apical margin ; lateral angular projections slender,

straight and directed distally; penis short and straight; inferior

appendages three-branched at the apices, all the branches short>

nearly equal in length with more or less slender stems and dilated!

apices; from beneath, there is a shelf-like plate projecting' from

about the centre of the inner surface ; bases of = the appendages

fused together to form a pair of broad plates.

Length of the anterior wing 3 7 mm.

East Flimalayas, Darjeeling District.

Type and paratvpes in the collection of the Indian Museum,.

Calcutta.

(The end)

ON A COLLECTION OF FISH FROM TRAVANCORE

BV

E. G. Silas, b.sc.

( With a sketch map in text)

Communicated by Dr. S. L. Hora, D.Sc., F.N.I., etc.

Introduction

The fresh-water fish fauna of Travancore has received considerable atten-

tion in recent years. After Day’s ‘Fishes of Malabar’ (1865)* and ‘Fishles of

India’ (1876-1888), Pillay (1929), John (1936), Hora and Law (1941), Hora and

Nair (1941), Raj (1941 a) and Chacko (1948) have reported on the fijshes of

Travancore.

The present collection was made from two areas in April 1949 ; one from

the hill-streams of Balamoore and Thadikarakonam in Southern Travancore

and the other from the canals in Alleppey, Northern Travancore.

The fish fauna of Southern Travancore is perhaps of special interest when

the system of waterways is taken into account. All the rivers and lakes south

■of Calicut from Ponnani in Malabar to Trivandrum in Travancore are con-

nected by canals and backwaters to form a continuous ‘System’. But the

rivers and streams south of the river Neyyar in Southern Travancore form a

separate ‘System’ and are not connected with those of the north. So far no

• exhaustive collection seems to have been made from this Southern section.

In view of the discontinuity between the water-ways of the southern from

the northern sections of the State and the continuity and similarity in the

; topography of the land in the southern section to that of the Tinnevelly Dis-

trict, there is a likelihood of a considerable affinity between their respective

fish faunas. Observations on the fish fauna of the streams in the plains have

already shown the presence of a number of sluggish forms similar to those of

the Madras Province. The Western ghats at this region are of lesser elevation

than those of the north and a few miles south they end in the form of low

hills. The rainfall is much less and the terrain is more rocky and consequently

the forests are less dense. The hill-streams also flow abruptly into the plains

and are torrential in nature.

The Kalikayam and Thadikarakonam streams are perennial and are

characterized by a series of rapids, falls and pools along their respective courses.

Collections from the above streams contain a number of forms previously

recorded only from northern and central Travancore. At the time of making

the collections, in addition to the fishes, the writer noted the presence of a

number of insect larvae also, such as those of Trichoptera (caddis flies),

Ephemercptera (may-flies), Chironomidae (gnats) and a few Coleopterans (water

beetles) crustaceans and some frogs in these streams.

In this paper an account is given of the ecological factors that govern fish

life1 in the various types of habitats. The number of specimens with measure-

aments with the list of species collected therefrom are also given.

Ecological Observations and Lists of Species

Kalikayam Stream : — The Kalikayam stream, which passes through the

Balamoore area, is about 40 feet wide with an average depth of about feet

*Geographically and faunistically conditions in Malabar, Cochin and Tra-

wancore are more or less identical.

ON A COLLECTION OF FISH FROM TR AVAN CORE

7 m.

and has a rocky bottom with a number of pools along its course. During the

time of collection in April its water was clear. The largest pool in its course

has a surface area of about an acre and the flow beyond this pool was moderate...

Collections of fish were made from the pools as well as the running stream.

The following species were collected from the pools : —

Number Standard

Name of species of length in

specimens millimeters

The following species were collected from the running waters : —

Thadikarakonwm Stream : — In addition to rocky rapids and pools, the

stream at Thadikarakonam had intermittent patches of muddy areas along.;

its course. There was overhanging vegetation on either side of the stream.

The banks in some places were covered with aquatic and semi-aquatic vegeta-

tion. Accumulations of fallen and decaying leaves were present in shallow

places along the sides of the stream. Stagnant water isolated here and there

in crevices and depressions of the rocks formed excellent breeding grounds for

mosquito. Separate collections were made from the pools, running water and

muddy areas along the course of the stream.

794

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

Alleppey Canals : — A collection was made from the canal system in Alleppey

town wthich consists of three interconnected parallel canals starting from the

"Vembanad lake and the Pamba river (fig.)i- [The water in these canals is

subject to tidal influence to a considerable extent as a result of which' their

salinity is greater towards the lake end than towards the blind ends. The

salinity is highest during the summer months when the freshwater outflow

from the rivers into the lake is less. The rich aquatic vegetation and micro-

phyto-plankton present in these canals give plenty of food, shelter and shade

for the fishes. In some places the overgrowth of the water-hyacinth ( Eichornia

crassipes) results in the death and decomposition of the submerged vegetation

and the water in such places becomes impure — a condition not congenial for

normal fish life. But hardy air breathing forms, such as, Anabas testudineus.

ON A COLLECTION OF FISH FROM TRAVANCORE

795

Ophicephalus gachua, Ophicephalus striatus, Heteropneustes fossilis, etc., are

found to live in such places.

According to the degree of the salinity of the water the fishes collected from

the canals can be arranged into two groups, namely, those collected from places

near the mouth of the canal Where the salinity is greater, and those collected

towards the blind ends of the canal where the salinity is very low.

The following were collected from near the mouth of the canal : —

Species

Number Standard

of length in

Specimens millimeters

Lutjanus argentimaculatus (Blkr.)

SynapUira orientalis (Day.)

Paraplagusia bilineata (Blkr.)

Equula edentula (Bloch)

Ambassis thomasii ( Day.)

Ambassis dayi (Blkr.)

Glossogobius ginris ( Ham . )

Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch)

Anabas lestudineus (Bloch.)

Ophicephalus striatus (Bloch)

Etroplus maculatus (Bloch)

Etroplus suratens is (Bloch)

Mastacembelus gentheri (Day.)

Elops saurus (Linn.)

Scatophagus argus (Bloch)

3

5

1

7

5

6

3

2

1

48

4

3

1

2

65-73*5

93*5-98

99

35

48-53

39*5-44

61-152

207 214

114 & 119

124

30-54*5

71-73

219-224

107

47-55

The following were collected from towards the blind end of the canal : — •

Species

Number

of

specimens

Standard

length in

millimeters

Ophicephalus striatus (Bloch)

Etroplus maculatus (Bloch)

Etroplus stir atensis (Bloch)

Barbus ( Puntius ) pinnauratus (Day.)

Barbus ( Puntius ) amphibious (C. & V.)

Barbus ( Puntius ) fit ament osus (C. & V.)

Amblypharyngodon metettina (C. & V.)

Mystus oculatus (C. Sc. V.)

Mystus vittatus (Bloch)

Glossogobius giuris (Ham.)

2 175 & 220

30 29*5 to 58

6 68-72

3 138*5-144

4 65-89

6 55-87

1 79

2 91-108

36 88-104

5 83-170

General Observations on the Collection

In all 370 specimens were collected, which include 33 species belonging to

:23 genera and 16 families. Many of the species listed above are common and

widely distributed and hence they need no special remarks. Barbus ( Puntius )

dorsalis (Jerdon) collected from tlhte Thadikarakonam stream is recorded from

Travancore for the first time. Besides, the range of Batasio travancoria is

-extended within the limits of Travancore.

Notes on some of the species are given below

Barbus (Puntius) dorsalis (Jerdon).

Barbus dorsalis, Hora, (1936) Rec. Ind. Mus. xxxviii : 1-7. 3 specimens.

Length 34 to 42.2 mm.

Stream at Thadikarakonam, South Travancore.

Barbus dorsalis is a new record from Travancore. The specimens showed

the following characters : —

The dorsal fin starts in front of the ventral and is midway between the end

of the snout and the base of the caudal fin. The dorsal spine is weak and not

serrated. Upper 2/3 of the body is slightly darker. All the scales are dotted

with fine black spots, the spots being' denser towards their bases. There is a

deep black spot at the basal portions of the dorsal starting from the fifth ray

796

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi 48

and extending backwards. A similar spot is also present at the centre of the

base of the caudal fin on each side. This species does not attain large size.

The variations in the colour of the body found during growth has been the

main reason for its being described under different species by various authors.

This aspect has been pointed out and clarified by Hora (1936) who has given

a series of figures showing these variations in three main types of coloration i

along with the transitional stages. Very young specimens measuring about;

23 mm. show a dark spot each at the base of the dorsal, caudal and anal fins.

In specimens measuring about 34 mm. the anal spots disappear, but the dorsal

and the caudal spots which persist are very distinct. These spots become re-

duced and lighter in specimens .measuring more than 83 mm. The specimens

under observation resemble the 34 mm. stage described by Hora.

The measurements of the specimens in millimeters are as follows : —

Canals in Alleppey, North Travancore.

Cuvier and Valenciennes (1849)* 1 described a specimen collected from Alleppey

as Barbus gibbosus. Topotypes obtained from the same locality by the writer

resemble Day’s description of Barbus pinnauratus in -all essentials. Hence this

helps to confirm that Barbus gibbosus is a synonym of Barbus pinnauratus.

Batasio travancoria Hora and Law.

Batasio travancoria. Hora and Law, (1941) Rec. Ind. Mus. xliii : 40-42.

5 -specimens. Length 88-93 mm.

Ivalikayam stream — South Travancore.

Hora has described specimens collected from Perunthenaruvi, Kallada river,,

and Kulathupujha in Central Travancore and River Palode, north of Trivan-

drum. The present collection shows its extended distribution to the south?

The nearest related species of this genus are found in widely separated areas.

Acknowledgement

I am deeply indebted to Dr. S. L. Hora, Director, Zoological Survey of

India, for all the facilities he gave me to work out the collection and for his

kind encouragement and guidance.

References

Chacko, P. I. (1948) : Development of fisheries of the Periyar Lake. Journ.

Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., xliii (1) : 191-192.

Day, F. (1865) : Fishes of Malabar. London.

Day, F. (1876-1889) : Fishes of India. London.

Hora, S. L. (1936): On a small collection of fish from the Chitaldrug

District, Mysore, Rec. Ind. Mus., xxxviii : 1-7.

* = Barbus (Puntius) sarana (Ham.).

1 His. Nat. Poiss. Cuvier, M. B. and Valenciennes, M. p. 154 (1849).

ON A COLLECTION OF FISH FROM TRAVANCORE

797 '

Hora, S. L. (1942): Fishes of Mysore State and the neighbouring hill

ranges of Nilgiris, Wynad and Coorg, Rec. Ind. Mus., xliy : 193-200.

Hora, S. L. (1942) : Game fishes in India. Journ. Bombay, Nat. Hist.

Soc ., xliii (2) : 163-169.

Hora, S. L. (1943) : Game Fishes of India. Ibid, xliy (1) : 1-8.

Hora, S. L. and Law, N. C. (1941) : Freshwater Fishes of Travancore.

Rec. Ind. Mus., xliii : 233-256.

Hora, S. L. and Nair, K. K. (1941): New records of Freshwater fishes-

from Travancore. Rec. Ind. Mus., xliii : 387-393.

John, C. C. (1936): Fishes of Travancore. Journ. Bombay, Nat. Hist.

Soc., xxxviii : 702-733.

Pillay, K. S. N. (1929) : Fishes of Travancore. Ibid., xxxiii : 347-379.

Raj, B. S. (1941) : A new genus of Schizothoracine fish from Travancore.

Rec. Ind. Mus., xliii : 209-214.

Raj, B. S. (1941) : Two new fishes from Travancore — South India, with *

remarks on Barbus ( Puntius ) micropogon. (C. & V.) Ibid., xliii : 375-386.

REVIEW

1. ANIMAL LIFE. By J. R. Bhatt. Pp. iii + 253, 8i"' X 5i"— The

^Ceylon Daily News Press, Colombo.

Books on animal life for use in schools are many ; only a few of them rise

.above the level of mediocrity so characteristic of our school text books. This

book on ‘Animal Life’ by Mr. J. R. Bhatt is a welcome departure from routine

texts prescribed for study. It does not claim to be a standard text-book nor

'does its author aim at an exhaustive treatment of the subject matter. Yet,

one finds in it a harmonious blending of theoretical with practical knowledge

and therein lies its uniqueness. Although the book deals with the outline's of

structure and the life-histories of common animals with particular reference to

■Ceylon, it may well be followed as a model in our schools.

The first few chapters are treated in a simple and lucid manner in order

to acquaint the young student with the life-histories of common types of

animals. Practical hints are given at the beginning of each chapter along

with questions to test the power of observation of the student. These ar 0 so

-framed as to incite curiosity and create enthusiasm to know more about the

mysteries of animal life in a state of nature. This attempt of the author, to

engender in the readers interest, initiation, observational powers and correla-

tion of facts observed, deserves credit. His approach to the subject is the

right one and every teacher would do well to follow the methods adopted by

. Mr. Bhatt.

Another notable feature of the book is the gradual emphasis that the author

lays on the bearing of animal life on human economy and the applications of

the science to agriculture and animal husbandry. In fact, side by side with

natural history, the reader gets some idea of applied zoology designed to stimu-

late, in young minds, interest in biological problems such as the improvement

of live-stock, eradication of pests of food-crops, elimination of disease pro-

■ ducers and disseminators and the development of cottage industries.

The book is fairly well illustrated although additional diagrams and plates

would have enhanced its value. It should prove useful in the schools to the

teachers as well as students, not only as a guide for studies but also as an

introduction to more advanced study of the mysteries of animal life and their

bearing upon human affairs.

N. N. Murti.

2. POPULAR HANDBOOK OF INDIAN BIRDS. By Hugh Whistler,

F.Z.S., M.B.O.U., Fourth edition. Illustrated. Gurney & Jackson, London

1949. Price 22sh. 6d.

Vagaries and exigencies of the printing trade and the untimely death of

the author in 1943 have held up and dragged out the publication of the fourth

edition of this excellent and much-sought book till now. The delay has been

unfortunate since the large number of bird students, mostly British and

American military personnel, who were concentrated in India during the war

were forced to remain disappointed and greatly handicapped by the book being

then out of print and unobtainable. But though it undoubtedly missed the

best market from the sales point of view it is not rendered the less welcome

now that it has appeared. Happily there is still a considerable number of

discriminating bird enthusiasts in this country who have waited eagerly for

its appearance all these years and who will now acclaim it with genuine

satisfaction.

The book has been revised and enlarged by the addition of some extra

illustrations and text by Mr. Norman B. Kinnear [at one time Curator of our

Society, and now Director of the British Museum (Natural History)] who

was a constant collaborator with the late Mr. Whistler in some of his most

'important systematic work on Indian birds.

Thle present edition contains 24 full page plates (instead of 21) of which

there are 7 in colour in place1 of 6 previously. Three extra figures have been

added in the text. The inaccurate drawing of the Yellow-cheeked Tit on

REVIEWS

799

)page 23 of the 3rd edition has been replaced with a truer likeness of the bird.

All the new drawings are the work of Roland Green, well known as an

illustrator of many modern bird books.

Sundry minor changes following the suggestions of reviewers of previous

editions, and the addition of the following species considerably enhance thle

usefulness of the book: — Siva strigula and Siva cyanouroptera, Ianthia cyanura,

Niltava sundara and N. grandis, Pyrrhula erythrocephala and P. nipalensis,

Merops leschesaulti and Alcemerops athertoni, Coryllis vernalis, Macropygia

unchalla.

Members will be pleased to learn that in future copies will be available

from the office of the Bombay Natural History Society.

S. A.

3. THE ALL-IN-ONE SHIKAR BOOK. By Maurice Tulloch. Published

by D. B. Taraporevala & Sons Ltd. Bombay. Price Rs. 10.

This book, as its name implies, is a compendium of information on all

branches of shikar, and fulfils a long-felt want at a most reasonable price.

Chapter 1 gives in simple language details of shot guns, Which might be read

with advantage by those dealers who refer in their catalogues to 12 bore, not

.apparently realising that the decimal point is applied to rifle's only. In the

paragraph on cartridges emphasis might have been laid on careful storage in

.air-tight boxes in places whlere the monsoon is heavy ; with this precaution

they seem to keep almost indefinitely. On the question of shot sizes, the

author is, we think, undoubtedly correct in his preference for the srpaller, on

-account of the better pattern. Even for duck we have found that No. 7 or

8 kills dead, and that large shot too often results in wounded (and generally

lost) birds. Much of course depends on the angle at which thle bird is taken,

and whether driven or walked up. It would for instance be of little use, as

well as cruel, to fire with No. 8 shot at a peafowl going away, though the

bird may be killed dead with the same size when driven overhead1. No. 7 is

probably the most suitable for all-round purposes, but it has not been available

for some years, and the best solution seems to be No. 8 in thfe right barrel and

No. 6 in the left for general purposes. It would simplify matters when reload-

ing if different sizes of shot were distinguished by cases of different colours,

as in pre-war days.

Chapter 2 gives useful instruction on how to shoot, and emphasis is rightly

laid on the importance of foot-work. The necessity for that clumsy contrivance,

the cross-eyed stock, when the left e'ye is master, seems however to be doubt-

ful. Our own experience is that the defect can be corrected with glasses. The

effective killing range of shot guns might have been mentioned. Far more

-game is shot under 25 yards than over, and 40 yards is definitely a long shot.

The chapter on Safety’ is of the utmost importance, not only for beginners

but also for those of more experience, who were not trained correctly in their

youth. How often one has seen men climb over an obstacle without unloading,

or handing their gun to the shikari without first removing the cartridges !

Page 16 shows how a gun should be carried, but it should be noted that

when carrying the weapon in the crook of the arm, it is essential that the

safety catch should be on, otherwise a rough sleeve may cause an explosion

by catching at_ the trigger.

In the chapter on snipe, the author states that Pintail is smaller than the

Fantail, but our experience is the reverse, the Pintail being a noticeably heavier

bird. The paragraph on marking down is admirable, and if carefully observed

should result in very few lost birds. At times a dead bird may be walked over,

and in such cases it pays to form a close line working to and fro over the

suspected spot. If this fails to produce the bird, the probability is that it has

been trodden into the mud. A few other points perhaps deserve mention. In

snipe shooting balance is all-important, and this can be achieved only if the

left foot is kept constantly leading. When a bird rise's very close, it is better

not to raise the gun till it has got to a reasonable distance — any attempt to

follow it almost invariably results in a miss. A bird which you think you

have hit, and which does not rise appreciably above the line of sight as it

:goes away, should be marked dowm even though it carries on for some dis-

tance— the dhances are it will be found dead. The drawings of duck in

■chapter 6 are helpful, though the Pintail Duck might be better described as

800

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

brown rather than grey and black. The edibility of ducks depends very largel)

on their food. In some places the Whistling Teal may be quite good eating,,

and the Pintail incredibly fishy. Even the Brahminy and Shoveller are not

too bad if skinned instead of being plucked. Incidentally the Shoveller is not

a dirty feeder in South India as it is in the North. For shooting an open tank,,

a length of wire netting into which grass and reeds can be quickly woven,

supported on light bamboos, makes an admirable hide, and is easily transport-

able. If one has no hide, it pays to lie flat on one’s back in the open at the

water’s edge. Both duck and geese pay little attention to one in this position.

Chapters 7 to 9 call for no remarks, except that an error has crept in om

page 45 regarding the Greater Bustard. It is the cock and not the hen which

is the larger bird.

Chapter 10, The Sportsman’s Code, is a most valuable one, for htere at

last is laid down in black and white what constitutes good sportmanship,

and no one can any longer offer the paltry excuse of ignorance. It deserves-

the closest attention of all sportsmen, for there can unfortunately be no doubt

that the standard of sportsmanship has greatly deteriorated in recent years,

and for the beginner it should prove specially useful, since only too often he

has no guide on the subject except the local shikari, who naturally is interested'

solely in the size of the bag. The standard laid down in this Code is not im-

possibly high, and everyone calling himself a sportsman should observe it.

The obligation not to fire at a dangerous animal unless one is prepared for a

possible follow-up, is of special importance, and with it one might couple the

heinousness of firing from a car.

Chapter 11 gives sound advice on different types of rifles and how they

should be used. The old-fashioned Express of .500 or .577 bore with L.P.

cordite, is a most useful weapon for tiger, provided solid bullets are used, and

not hollow-pointed which are liable to break up without penetrating. The

chief trouble with these rifles is the difficulty of obtaining ammunition.

Tyros will find tihle chapter on fieldglasses useful, but perhaps more

emphasis might have been laid on the importance of a telescope for hill

shooting, to assess a distant head, which fieldglasses alone cannot do.

The chapters on big game are sound and call for little remark. The

drawing on page 78 to illustrate sitting-up is artistic, but ignores the necessity

for all-round cover, so essential in this type of shikar. As to the ethics of

sitting-up, we consider the author’s remarks fully justified. A shallow purse

or jungles which cannot be beaten owing to the terrain or lack of men often

prohibit the more normal method. That it should be illegal in some parts

weighs the balance in favour of those who can command a line of elephants.

In other places beating is prohibited !

As regards bison, the statement that a wounded bull will circle on his

tracks, is contrary to the experience of most sportsmen. The question of

soft-nosed or solid bullets depends not only on tihfe angle at which the shot

is taken, but also on the bore' of the rifle. A soft-nosed .470 bullet will pro-

bably prove more effective than a solid from a low-power rifle like the ordinary

.375.

For crocodile shooting a telescopic sight makes all the difference with such

a small target as the neck or brain affords, and it is also worth remembering

that even if a wounded mugger succeeds in reaching the water, there is a

chance that hei will be so worried by water entering the wound, or by small fish

nibbling at it, that he will return to land within a short time and offer a

second chance.

Chapter 27 on Fishing, is, as the author says, somewhat elementary, but

that is what makes it specially valuable. A simple explanation like this of the

various forms of fishing should encourage men to take up this fascinating

sport, who in tflxe ordinary course might shy off a regular fishing book, or who

are obsessed with the idea that fishing is too technical or requires a bottomless

purse and endless patience before success can be attained.

The author is to be congratulated on having produced a book so full of really

useful information on all branches of shikar, and so very pleasant-illustrated.

It is the best ten rupees worth which has come on the market for very many

years, and should be in every sportsman’s library.

E. G. P.-A.

REVIE WS

801

4. INSECT DIETARY. By Charles T. Brues. Harvard University Press,

IBoston, Mass : U.S.A.

This is the first complete work of its kind that I have read and is most

Instructive, covering the whole range.

Copious references and full index are included and should be of great value

■to all entomologists, particularly those engaged in the study of ‘controls’ and

I strongly recommend it to students because of its completeness.

A reference to Phoridae on page 201 reminds me of some disappointing

•experiences in relaxing and setting choice specimens of the Lepidoptera group

here in India and 1 strongly advise collectors to beware of this pest.

An interesting robber is described in the Wax Moth, quite a harmless and

■somewhat pretty insect.

Penicillium and other moulds have attention. Also the unwelcome clothes

moth.

The section dealing with predatory insects is very interesting and describes

some surprising examples, one deserving special mention is Rodolia cardinalis

•and its food Icerya purchasi ; this ladybird has been specially bred at the

Entomological station at Kodaikanal, South India for control of the Icerya

pests on the Acacias and results have been very satisfactory ; specimen tubes

tiave been presented to the Bombay Natural History Society by that station.

Figure C on plate XIV shows a very useful control of that terrific defoliator

the Gipsy Moth which reminds me of a special visit I paid in 1941 to the

Kangan Willow plantation at the request of the Forest Department of the

then Jammu and Kashmir Government.

Personal observations of Asilidae in this country are recalled by the refer-

ences on Page 267.

The section dealing with Parasites is particularly interesting and surpasses

my lengthy experience ; I am sure all readers will enjoy this section and 1

hope I am not optimistic in anticipating a complete mounted collection

of hosts and parasites of Indian groups for the Museum for the benefit and

guidance of all who follow in the steps of the former famous entomologists who

made entomology known in India.

After several readings I feel I have only skimmed the surface of this

•wonderful book hut take my advice, read and enjoy it.

J. I. Alfrey, f.r.e.s.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

i.— TIGER EATING PANTHER.

With reference to Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian Adams’s note in the;

April 1949 Journal I have referred, in earlier issues to two cases

of tiger attacking panther that had the temerity to feed on the

tigers’ kills. In the first instance I was sitting up over a tiger

kill when along came a panther which I shot. The tiger turned

up an hour later, caught sight of the panther ; and immediately

stalked and leaped on it. Having duly killed the panther as it no

doubt thought, the tiger then proceeded to drag it away, presum-

ably to make a meal of it. I then intervened, wounded the tiger,,

and later recovered it.

In the second case a tiger killed a cart bull on our main ghat

road, and dragged the kill into the jungle. The tiger later came

on a panther eating the kill and killed and devoured most of the

panther.

Now, the third case within my knowledge occurred in April

this year. A very hungry tiger that had, unsuccessfuly, been endea-

vouring to kill bison(both a solitary and from a herd) eventually took a

bait. After having been missed twice by a guest and alarmed by

the light thrice (in five approaches to the kill in one night) the

tiger returned again 3 or 4 nights later to a very decomposed kill.

Just prior to its arrival however a panther rolled up, ‘sawing’,

and was shot. The Mger came about half an hour later merely

pushed the panther aside, and got down to eating the putrid flesh

of the kill, being now ravenous. Whether the tiger would have

turned its attention to the panther later I am unable to say ; but

I think this probable. What was remarkable however is that the

tiger appeared to recognise that the panther was no longer in

a position to feed on the kill ; otherwise, judging from the first

two cases, the tiger would hardly have left the panther lying there.

Honnametti Estate,

Attikan P.O., (Via Mysore), COL. R. C. MORRIS.

15th September, 1949.

2.— AMBUSH TO CAPTURE CROWS BY YELLOW-

THROATED MARTEN (CHARRONIA GWA7ACINSI)

I witnessed a most extraordinary sight the other evening,

which I think might interest you.

I was sitting on a rock at the edge of the grassland over-

looking a big patch of scrub, hoping to get a shot at a pig. At

about 6 p.m. a very large flock of crows (I counted up to 100 of

them) flew over me at a height of about 50 feet. As they passed

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

803-

they started to circle over a spot about 50 yards beyond me. At

first I thought I was the centre of attraction, but after a minute

or two I realized that they were interested in something further

along the ridge. I moved up very quietly and saw a blackish

object moving about on top of a big flat-topped boulder out on

the grassland. I got my glasses onto it and saw what appeared

to be an orange-throated marten. He was rolling about on his-

back rathe-r sluggishly. The crows, were now alighting on several’

rocks round about, cawing, and in a great state of excitement.

Suddenly three or- four crows which had been sitting on a group

of rocks nearby, rose in the air making a tremendous commotion.

I got my. glasses onto this rock and saw one crow flapping about

there in its death agonies, with another marten holding it in its'

teeth.

The main body of crows had by now all taken to the air,.,

and after a good deal of chatter, flew on to their roosting place.

At this the marten which had been rolling about got off his

rock and . ran to join the animal which had killed the crow. Very

shortly afterwards they were joined by a third marten which appear-

ed to come from another group of rocks. After a bit of bicker-

ing they settled down to pull the crow to pieces and eat it.

I think there can be no doubt but that .this was an organised-

ambush for the crows, which flight every night on this line.

The marten which I saw first was obviously the decoy, and the

other two which had been lying in hiding were the attackers.

I got up and approached the martens so as to get a good

view of them as they moved off. They saw me almost at once,

but were very loath to leave the kill. After some chittering they

ran down the grassland past me — I was between them and the

shola — and I got a very good view of them.

The colour all over was a very dark brown, except for the

throat, which was a brilliant orange. A very long thin body,

with a slim, pointed head. The tail very long and not very bushy.

I had never seen one of these animals before but I think they

must have been orange-throated martens.

I had a look at the scene of the kill afterwards, and found

patches of old crow’s feathers in various places round about. I

wonder if this is a daily procedure ; it obviously had been done

before the day on which I observed the spectacle as well.

Guderale Estate,

Munnar P.O., C. J. GOULDSBURY

Travancore,

ijth September , 1949.

3.— CHARGE BY UNWOUNDED BISON

Lt.-Col. Phythian Adams’s note on the above subject is of

interest, the incident having occurred only 4 months before a

somewhat similar experience which befell myself and a guest. I

have already sent the Society a note on the occurrence which will

S04 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

presumably appear in the next number of the Journal', so I need

not go into the details again.

R. Unwin, in an interesting article in the Planters Chronicle

■recently, referred to the death of a young friend in the Geological

Survey in Burmah (before the War). He was examining the

steep banks of a very narrow stream and, round a corner came

on a bull bison. To drive the animal away he threw stones

at it and was promptly charged and killed. Possibly the bull

had been fighting; or it may have imagined itself being driven

into a cul-de-sac. Either may have been the cause of its

* exceptional behaviour. Years ago I was charged by a bull im-

mediately on downing another larger bull near it. In self-defence

I had to shoot the aggressor, and then found it had been badly

mauled by a tiger some days previously. The wounds were septic

. and maggot-ridden.

Honnametti Estate,

Attikan P.O. (Via Mysore), COL. R. C. MORRIS

15 th September, 1949.

4.— HOW DO PREDATORS KILL PORCUPINES?

Porcupines, by virtue of their formidable armature of sharp quills

would appear to have few enemies in the forest. Most animals,

not excluding tiger and panther seem to have a healthy respect

for them. Yet, the tiger, panther and the lesser cats are known

to prey upon them regularly. Exactly how this is done still

remains an enigma.

A conjecture is however contained in an article by H. B. Gabb

in the ‘Field’ for April 1945. While out shooting porcupines

in the Darjeeling district, Gabb’s shikaris took him to a

porcupine’s cave on the side of a hill. Close to its main entrance

there was a bolt hole above and a little to the side. Arranging

with his men to light a fire in front of the entrance with a view

to smoke out the occupants, he took up position close by. Strange

sounds soon began to emanate from the cave. Peering into it

through the clearing smoke, he saw the crouching figure of one

of those rare felines — a clouded leopard. He shot it and upon

dissection its stomach was found to contain porcupine meat. A

few days later, walking past the same spot and looking in he

found the dead body of a second clouded leopard with its tail

hanging out of a crevice in the cave. Dislodging it with difficulty

he found it to have been dead some days having presumably

been smoked to death inside the cave. Evidently the animals

were hunting in concert, one entering through the main entrance

to draw the porcupine’s fire, while its companion crept in through

the bolt hole to attack it on the head, the animal’s most vulner-

able point during its backward rush.

1 Published Vol. 48, p. 578.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

805

Is this, then, the normal modus operand i adopted by predators

to circumvent the porcupine? Observations from readers on this

point would be welcome.

1 14, Apollo Street,

Fort, Bombay, EDITORS

1 2th October , 1949.

5.— NOTES ON THE INDIAN PANGOLIN (MANIS

CRASSICAUDATA, GEOFFER St. HILAIRE)

A specimen was obtained (by a friend) alive in the Nilgiris

.at 7,000 feet and brought to the Anamallais to 3,000 feet where

it survived for three days.

It drank a little water and ate some carrot tops but would

not touch white ants (termites). It would not drink milk or eat

cooked rice.

It was extremely active and climbed all over the chairs in

the sitting room. After it died it was given to me as I asked

for it to mount it in my collection.

Measurements.

Length total 35".

,, of tail to vent 15". Weight. 10 lb. 2 oz.

,, of tongue 12". Sex. female.

,, of forelegs 3£".

,, of backlegs 4".

,, of claws (forefoot) . . . 1J", 2", I", J" (5 claws)

>1 of ,, (backfoot) . . . i", |", |", f", J" (5 ,, )

,, snout to eye . . . 2J".

,, eye to ear . . . 1J".

Girth at midbody . . . 20".

,, of tail at base . . . 12".

,, of neck behind ears . . . 8".

Sharp scales at sides of tail : 16 on each side. Scales from tip of

tail to forehead : 46. Longest scale (on back at root of tail

2f" x 2".

Colour. Sandy grey above and buff below on the fleshy parts.

Centre of scales darker. Scales at side of tail brownish.

Tongue. Purple.

Eyes. olive and green-grey.

Stomach contents consisted of 20 stones, some J " diam., with

some vegetable matter.

Intestines contained remains of black ants, beetle wing sheaths,

remains of cockroaches and what appeared to be the leathery

skins of grubs and worms.

Anal gland contained J oz of evil smelling yellowish fluid which

smarted like iodine on coming into contact with a wound (cut

finger). Under nearly every scale there were ticks of several

11

806

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, V ol. 48

kinds the longest some f" in size. The fleshy under-parts were

slightly hairy. Most of the scales had a hair or two sticking out

from underneath.

Injipaarai Estate,

Yalpara P.O. ANGUS F. HUTTON

Via Poolachi,

Coimbatore Dist.,

26th September, 1949.

6. — WHITE-CAPPED REDSTART [ CHAIM ARRHORNIS

LEUCOCEPHALUS (VIGORS)] FEEDING ON BERRIES.

On October 1st, 1949, at Sahiya, below Chakrata, U.P., at

a height of 3,500 feet, while the bus was waiting for the gate

to be opened, my companion, Rev. John Bishop, noticed a White-

capped Redstart by the stream. We watched it for some time,

flycatching in the orthodox manner of the species, but it then

flew up into some overhanging bushes and we saw it twice settle

in a bush, possibly a Berberis of some kind, and pick off and

swallow a berry. Mr Salim Ali, following other authors, says

in his new book, “Indian Hill Birds” that its food consists entirely

of aquatic insects. One is almost tempted to suggest that this

bird, having become aware of a change of political regime in

India, was trying to impress on two western observers the im-

portance of adapting one’s food habits to the environment.

24, Rajpur road,

Delhi, H. G. ALEXANDER

10th October, 1949. .

7.— THE VALIDITY OF HARPAOTES FASCIATUS LEGERLI

KOELZ

In the Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington [52,

(June 5, 1939): 79] Dr. Walter Koelz described, on the strength

of a single specimen collected by him in Orissa, a new race of

the Malabar Trogon as follows :

' Harpactes fasciatus legerli, new subspecies.

Type : Adult [ <$ ] collected in the forests at the foot of

Mahendragiri, Orissa, on January 22, 1937, by W. Koelz.

Differs from malabaricus in my collection from Londa, Bombay

Presidency, the Malabar Coast, and the Nilgiris, in being paler,

especially on the back and in having the white of the wing barring-

more extensive. The wing may average longer. In the single

specimen it measures 130.5 mm., while in 20 specimens from the

Western Ghats only one has so long a wing.’

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

807

In the absence of adequate material from the eastern side of

the peninsula it was difficult to assess the value of the characters given

and Dr. Koelz’s airy statement that ‘the wing may average longer’

did not tend to add to the readiness of ornithologists to accept

the new race.

Peters in his Checklist of the Birds of the World [V (1945) : 161]

synonymises legerli with malabaricus whose distribution he defines

as follows: ‘Western India from Khandesh to Travancore, east

to the Wynaad, the Nilgiri and Nelliampathie Hills; also recorded

from Western Bengal south to the mouth of the Godavari River.’

Recently I have been able to collect series of trogons both in

the Surat Dangs (c. 21 0 N , x 730 30' E), an area of hilly moist

deciduous forest country at the northern extremity of the Western

Ghats, south of the Tapti River, and also in Bastar District,

Central Provinces, in biotope more or less topotypical of legerli, at

the same latitude as Mahendragiri in Orissa but about 200 miles

westward of that locality.

The Bastar birds, although not showing more extensive white

wing barring, clearly belong to the population described by Koelz

from Mahendragiri, Orissa, and to my mind amply justify recog-

nition of his race legerli. As compared with birds from Travancore

and Kanara they average larger in the wing (thereby confirming

Dr. Koelz’s inconsequential conjecture !) and are brighter in color-

ation. In these particulars they agree fairly well with the good

series from the Surat Dangs thus extending the distribution ot'

legerli to the western side of the peninsula, presumably over the

Satpura trend.

It will be recalled that Mr. Whistler remarked [/ .B .N .H .S .,

38 (i) : 29] on 3 Khandesh specimens in the British Museum

collection (one collected by Davidson in the Dangs) that they were

markedly paler than Malabar birds but that he was not satisfied

about this difference being subspecific.

Between the male from Bastar and those from the Dangs there

is no difference in coloration above or below. As compared with

Travancore and Kanara birds these examples are a brighter

yellowish brown above, less suffused with chestnut particularly on

the upper tail coverts. The breast is more sooty black or grey-

ish-black as against deep black in southern specimens.

1 As tlhe Surat Dangs and Bastar specimens were measured in the flesh,

2 mm. may be taken off the wing length for comparison with dry museum

skins.

808

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

In both the Bastar females, however, the upper back has a

darker olive tinge making- it more or less concolorous with the

head and contrasting- with the bright rufous-orange of the rump and

upper tail coverts. In females from the Dangs, while the upper

back is sensibly darker than the rump there is a distinct contrast

between it and the much darker olive-washed head and nape.

Dangs birds are clearly a stage in the colour cline between

Travancore birds ( malabancus ) and Bastar examples ( legerli ), but

seem closer to the latter.

For the sake of convenience I would now arbitrarily define the

distribution of malabaricus as ‘the Western Ghats country north to

the 20th parallel’. Individual specimens from about the Bombay

neighbourhood would pass with either race.

33, Pali Hill, Bandra,

Bombay, SALIM ALI

loth November, 1949.

8.— THE INDIAN BUTTON QUAIL (TURNIX MACULATUS) :

A NEW RECORD FOR BOMBAY

At about 10 o’clock one night at the end of May, as we

walked into Nazaz Restaurant on Malabar Hill, a small bird flew

in from the opposite side of the building, hit the ceiling and

fell to the ground. It may be remembered that the rains had

started on May 23rd and on the night in question there were

heavy showers accompanied by thunder and lightning. The bird

had obviously been frightened by the storm, and was so dazzled

by the lights and bewildered by its unaccustomed surroundings

that it was an easy matter to catch it and carry it home for

identification. A casual glance showed that it was a quail of

sorts, and the fact that it had only three toes pointed to the fact

that it must be either a Button or a Bustard-quail. This narrowed

down the search considerably. The chief characteristics of our

bird were its broad collar of chestnut, and its yellow beak and legs.

On consulting Whistler’s Handbook of Indian Birds, under the

heading of Little Button-Quail, we found the following note :

‘The male of the Indian Button-quail ( Turnix maculatus) is very

like the Little Button-quail, but has a yellow bill and lacks the

long pointed tail feathers. The female is distinguished by a broad

rufous collar.’

We tried for some days to keep the bird in captivity in a

large wire cage, but it was wild and injured itself so badly by dash-

ing- against the wire that we were obliged to release it when it

flew straight away. It was suggested that the bird might have

been one which had escaped from captivity, but its extreme wild-

ness and the strong desire it showed to escape from the cage

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

809

seemed to negative this idea. As the Indian Button-quail is not

included in the list of birds in ‘The Birds of Bombay and Salsette’

I should be interested to know if this is a new arrival in Bombay?

53, St. Paul’s road,

Bandra, Bombay, DORIS FERREIRA

19 th August, 1949.

[This quail is fairly well distributed throughout India, but

there is no previous record from near Bombay. Butler shot it

near Poona (Hume & Marshall II, p. 187) and Major W. B.

Trevenen also lists it among the birds shot at Poona but without

comment (J.B.N.H.S. Vol. XXVIII, p. 1081) —Eds]

9.— KENTISH PLOVER [ LEUCOPOLIUS ALEXANDRINUS

(LINN.)], BREEDING ON WEST COAST OF SAURASHTRA

Although I had visited Porbunder before, I had not spent much

time along the coast. Last hot season, from May to July 1949 at

Porbunder, gave me enough time to study the shore birds, and

I was glad to find the Kentish Plover ( Leucopolius alexandrinus)

breeding fairly freely there and on the coast, in small numbers.

Actually, near Navibandar there were quite a number of small

congregations of these plovers, but only sporadic pairs were found

breeding just above the high tide level. It seems a common

occurrence for their nests and eggs to be lapped by the high tides.

Both sexes incubate a clutch of 2 to 3 eggs. Some eggs have

a greenish tinge. The nesting site varies from hard rugged

limestone to dry soft sand of the typical dune. When the nest

is approached both parents try to sham injury, however, some-

times, only one parent bird is seen. The birds become very

worried when one is very close to the nest. This ruse of feigning

injury was the attraction of a very unusual incident which

happened on May 18th at Gossabara, while watching one of a

pair of the Large Stone-Curlew ( Esacus recurvirostris ) which was

feeding. Although at fairly long distance I suddenly noticed the

appearance of a small plover, (Kentish plover), fluttering its wings

in front of the stone-curlew. Suspecting a nest, I walked up and

began searching but was much surprised not to find any eggs

or young. Nevertheless, knowing that such behaviour could not

have been evoked without there being eggs or young I continued

my search. Eventually I found two scrapings, which were

obviously made by the plovers but were quite empty. Then I notic-

ed near one of the scrapings some ams gathering on what seemed

like a small spot of wet sand. On closer inspection I found that

it was some yolk. This evidence immediately caused me to suspect

the stone-curlew of some mischief; it had by then walked quite un-

concernedly some 60 yards away. This stone curlew was shot

immediately, and a post-mortem revealed freshly broken eggs and

yolk of the Kentish plover, in its gizzard. However, the most

11a

810

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

interesting part of the incident was that the stone-curlew left no.

trace of the eggs having been eaten, except for a few drops of

yolk it had spilt. The eggs had almost been swallowed entire.

This incident recalls the agitation of a pair of Kentish plovers at

the approach of a Great stone-curlew at Victor, when I first dis-

covered the former species breeding there. (Recorded Vol. 46

No. 4, page 728.) The Great stone-curlew may eat the eggs of

this plover, but I very much doubt whether it makes a habit of

searching for them since these small plovers are not common

breeders in Saurashtra, but it evidently has an appetite for eggs.

Dilbahar,

Bhavnagar, K. S. DHARMAKUMARSINHJI

25th September , 1949.

[K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji has recorded the nesting of this

species at Victor, Bhavanagar State on 2nd June (J.B.N.H.S. Vol.

46, p. 728). The Fauna rightly states that it breeds numerously

in Sind, but the addition “as far south as Guzerat in Cutch” is

hot supported by Salim Ali in ‘The Birds of Hutch’. Bulkley

however found it nesting at Kharaghoda (/ .B .N.H.S . Vol. VIII,

p. 325) and Whitehead ( J.B.N.H.S . Vol. XXI, p. 161) saw two

pairs in breeding plumage at Sehore, Bhopal State, Central India,

on 1st May suggesting that they were not far from their nesting

haunts. — Eds]

10.— OCCURRENCE OF THE BLACK STORK CICONIA

NIGRA (LINN) IN TIBET.

Mr. H. E. Richardson writing from Lhasa on 22 September

1949 gives the description of what was obviously a Black Stork

( Ciconia nigra ) seen by him on the bank of a river in Pembo Valley

to the north of Lhasa.

Although Tibet is within the general distribution of this bird,

no specific instance of its occurrence in this area seems to be on

record.

Black storks breed in Germany, Austria and Eastern Europe to

North Central Asia. They visit Africa, India and China in winter.

1 1 4, Apollo Street,

Fort, Bombay, EDITORS

15 th October, 1949.

11.— ‘PECULIAR BEHAVIOUR OF THE DARTER

( ANHINGA MELANOGASTER PENNANT)’

I read Mr. Humayun Abdulali’s Miscellaneous Note (Vol. 47,

p. 549) about the peculiar behaviour ot the Darter with consider-

able interest. Towards the end of the Great War, I was stationed

in Bharatpur and in 1918, a year in which the heronry in the-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

811

Keoladeo Ghana reached vast proportions, thanks to a favourable

monsoon, I noticed this same habit. I would like to point out that

it is not only adult Darters which are wont to drop plumb into the

water with closed wing's. It must be an instinctive habit tor even

small nestlings when frightened will hurl themselves over the side

of the nest, unfeathered downy young which can have no chance of

gelling back to the nest.

In Vol. 30, No. 2 p. 309, in an article describing this heronry,

1 wrote of the Darters, ‘. . . when the young birds had been

hatched long enough to take an active interest in what was going

on around and below them, to approach anywhere near needed

considerable courage. The moment one got well beneath a tree

full of them, a general panic appeared to set in. Before, I had

only heard the expression ‘sick with fright’, but these birds in-

troduced me to the reality. One was greeted with a shower of

disgorged sprats ranging from an inch to three inches in length,

which pattered into the water and into the punt like hailstones.

Occasionally, a large plop informed one that a youngster, anxious,

to efface itself completely, had dived overboard. I hardly ever

saw these adventurous spirits come to the surface again, although,

even at this age, when they were still but black downy morsels,

they were expert swimmers and divers. I was able to follow them

under water occasionally, until they dived into the submerged

branches of some bush, where I suppose they came up to look

round, or, what is more likely, where they became entangled and

were drowned. I fear they must all have met with a watery death,

as they were still unable to stand upright, and I saw numbers

floating dead on the surface. In fact after a time I avoided their

vicinity altogether, as it was really cruel to disturb them.

It may also interest readers to know that many huge Monitor

Lizards were frequently to be noted in the heronry at this time

lying in the water or on the half-submerged branches. The young

Darters must have provided them with many a meal, but there

were, of course plenty of casualities amongst both young and adults

of all the species nesting in the Ghana to supply them with the

food they required.

Ben Rhydding,

Ilkley, R. S. P. BATES

Ociober, 1948. Lt.-Col.

12.— ‘THE BIRDS OF DELHI AND DISTRICT’

In ‘Stray Sport’ by J. Moray Brown (1893) a chapter is devoted

to small game shooting within a few miles of Delhi, from which

attention might be drawn to statements which add to or differ

from the recent lists of Delhi birds published in the Journal

(‘The Birds of Delhi and District’ N. F. Frome, J.B.N.H.S. Vol. 47,

pp. 277-300 and additional notes by E. C. Benthall and H. G.

Alexander, J.B.H.N.S. Vol. 48, pp. 368-372).

Megalaima zeylanicus — The Green Barbet. This is mentioned

among other common birds seen by Brown and presumably Lelies-

-812 JOURNAL, BOMBAY [ NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

Frame’s theory that this species is a new arrival in Delhi ‘as it is

not in Basil-Edwardes list and has not been noted in Delhi before

1939’. Psittacuia eupatria and Psittacula krameri are mentioned

as common, and ‘a parakeet curry is not to be despised. It is

also a great favourite with the British soldier. When I came home

from India with my regiment we had 900 parakeets on board.’

Chalcophaps indica — Emerald Dove. The author refers to this

species as ‘a not unworthy dish when hard up for food’, though

considering the quantity of buck, chinkara, peafowl and other game

shot over a three-day trip, this eventuality is hardly likely to have

arisen. This species may have got included in the Delhi list in

error.

Botaurus stellaris — The Bittern. Four were bagged in the

course of a snipe shoot at Mongolpoor where 3 guns got over a hundr-

ed couple of snipe on 26th November.

Published in 1893, Brown refers to these notes having been

made some years before, but it is interesting to remember that

there was a time when a single gun could make a mixed bag of

60 odd head including antelope, hare, common and painted sand-

grouse, black partridge, quail, snipe, mallard, teal, pochard and

whistling teal, all on and within 3 miles of the Ridge !

1 14, Apollo Street,

Fort, Bombay EDITORS

1st November , 1949.

13.— A COBRA’S STRANGE MEAL

A correspondent, Mr. Ramesh Bedi, sends us the stomach

contents of a cobra he recently captured at Haradwar. Under

excitement of capture, it seems to have thrown up the remnant of

a recent meal which consisted of the following items : —

(1) the remains of a juvenile mouse, partially digested,

(2) a piece of khadar cloth 17" fx 14", and

(3) a small lump of cotton.

It is probable that the cloth was used by the rodent to line its

nest with, and the snake relying mostly on its sense of smell

swallowed its prey together with the nest all in one meal.

The sense of taste in snakes is poor as shown by the fact

that they will sometimes swallow pieces of cloth, stick etc. which

have come in contact with and absorbed the scent of rats.

A. F. Abercromby (J.B.N.H.S. Vol. 28, p. 812) records an instance

of a python in the London Zoological Gardens which swallowed

a rug kept in its cage to keep it warm, while in the Society’s rooms

there once lived a 12-foot Malay python along with another slightly

longer than itself which when a dead partridge was introduced into

the cage swallowed not only the bird but its companion as well,

plus a red blanket to round off the meal !

1 14, Apollo Street,

Port, Bombay, EDITORS

20th October , 1949

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

813

14.— A NOTE ON THE OCCURRENCE OF A GIANT

BALANOGLOSSID AT KR US AD A I ISLAND

During an instructional tour of the B.Sc. senior students under

our guidance, on the morning- of 24-8-1949, at the Galaxea Reef

at low tide a remarkable Balanoglossid was collected by the party.

It was pulled out from its burrow about 20 feet from the

shore-line. The area was completely exposed during low tide. Its

total length measured 26^ inches (Twenty six and half inches) from

the tip of the proboscis to the anus. The diameter measured half

an inch throughout. The specimen was kept alive for a day in

a basin of fresh sea-water.

A specimen of this length was never recorded from Krusadai

before. Another point of interest is its solitary occurrence on the

Galaxea Reef area, though there is a separate Balanogiossus area

near the Bushy point of the Island.

It is proposed to work out the systematics, and anatomical

peculiarities of this giant specimen.

Department of Zoology,

Presidency College,

Chepauk, Madras-5,

2nd September, 1949.

15.— ‘A HONEY-BEE IN THE NEST OF A MASON-WASP’

In the Journal of August ’48, a note of mine describing- the

finding of a honey bee in the nest of a mason-wasp seemed to have

given rise to some uncertainty as to the true identity of the

captive, and the question whether any of the mason-wasps did in

fact select honey bees to store in their clay nests.

I was therefore interested to come across the following passage

in ‘The Tribes on My Frontier’ by EHA, (p. 80.) recently: ‘In

making calculations, however, it must be remembered that all these

waspy tribes do not combine to exterminate grass-spiders. A large

fellow of the hornet pattern always appears dragging along fat-

green caterpillars, another prefers the smaller caterpillar of a

particular kind of moth, another collects house-spiders, another

aphides, another flies, one is said to stock its nest with honey-

bees. . . . ’

In another book that I found in the Nilgiri Library at

Ootacamund — ‘The Mason-wasps’ by J. H. Fabre— there is a foot-

note referring to his 2nd volume under the same title and in which

he discusses the capturing and storing of honey bees, by another

species of mason-wasp ; but, unfortunately, I have not been able

to find the volume referred to, in that Library. However, in the

light of these two references, I feel that what I found in a mason-

wasp’s nest actually was a honey bee.

‘Walmer’,

Lovedale, (Nilgiris), K. BOSWELL

8th July, 1949.

P. JOHN SUNDARA RAO

S. RANGA RAO

814 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48

16.— NOTE ON THE LARVA OF AMBLYPODIA CENT A URUS

Mr. D. G. Sevastopulo remarks (Some Suggestions for Entomo-

logical Work in India, Vol. 48, No. 1, p. 81) that as yet no Indian

Lycaenid larva is known to be unable to survive by reason of the

honey gland becoming choked with mould if the attendant ants are

removed.

In 1948 I observed this phenomenon in connection with a small

series of larvae of Amblypodia centaurus , though I should like to

confirm my findings with a much larger series.

On 2 1 st July I found 7 larvae of centaurus feeding on a low

secondary growth of Lager stroemia flos-reginae, all attended by

the common red tree ant ( OecophyUa smaragdina ) ; of these larvae

6 were nearly fully grown, and one but newly changed into its

last larval skin. One larva was lost, and the remaining 6 were kept

in a metal glass-topped breeding tin, without ants. I give their

respective fates in the order that they spun up for pupation: —

No. 1. Pupated normally, but the resulting imago was

deformed.

No. 2. Spun up and pupated, but within 24 hours of pupation

a patch of mould appeared on the dorsum just anterior to

the cremasteric pad. Subsequently the pupa liquified.

Nos. 3-5 Spun up, but before pupation could take place a

patch of mould appeared on the dorsum at the position of

the honey gland, resulting in death.

No. 6. The youngest larva of the series. Died before it

was fully fed.

At the end of July I found 3 more nearly fed larvae, which

1 foolishly left on the bush till they should grow larger. When

2 had disappeared I collected the remaining one and put it, together

with 2 or 3 of the attendant ants, in the breeding tin used for

the former batch. The ants were replaced by fresh individuals when

necessary, and the larva completed its life history without a hitch.

This larva, like the previous 6, was in captivity for approximately

a week before spinning up for pupation.

The larva of centaurus has a curious characteristic, which I have

not seen in any other species. Whether walking or at rest it is

in a state of constant vibration. This cannot be seen by the naked

eye but is most noticeable to the hand, even when held on a piece

of paper.

The honey-dew glands on the roth segment are unusually large

and resemble a pair of miniature electric bell pushes, being with-

drawn or protruded at will.

Seleng T. E.,

Seleng Hat P.O.,

Upper Assam,

nth September, 1949.

T. NORMAN

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

815

17. — OBSERVATIONS ON APHIS ASCLEPIADIS PASSERNI

(APHIDIDAE: HEMIPTERA).

The common yellow aphid, Aphis asclepiadis Passerni, occurring

oil Calotropis and other plants of the Natural Order Asclepiadaceae,

has been reported in India from Lahore (Das, 1918), Delhi, Rohtak

and Karnal (Ullah, 1940), Poona (Deshpande, 1937), Coimbatore

and Rellary (George, 1927) and Mysore (Krishnamurthy, 1928) under

the name of Aphis nerii Fonscolombe. Goot (1917), gave a list

of specimens of aphids in the collection of the Indian Museum

and referred to this species as occurring in Calcutta and on

Barakuda Island of the Chilka Lake, Orissa. Recently, Mukerji

and Behura (1948) proposed the name A. asclepiadis for this

species. There is no previous record^jo£<this species in the main-

land of Orissa, but A . asclepiadis has J^een observed by me on

Calotropis gigantea Br., and C. procera Br., in various parts of

the district of Cuttack e.g. Chandgapatna, Harinabe, Rohia,

Bilipada and Rokida in the Balikuda sub-division. In the city of

Cuttack, between 10-10-1945 and 7-11-1945, host plants were heavily

infested with A. asclepiadis.

Two species of ants viz: — Acantholepis frauenfeldi Mayr,. and

Cremastogaster dorhni Mayr., attend on A. asclepiadis in India

(Mukerji and Behura, 1947)- Ayyar (1935) intimated that

Camponotus (T anaemyrmex) compressus Latr., though associated

with other species of aphids, does not usually attend on aphids and

membracids on poisonous plants like Calotropis . However A. asclepi-

adis infesting Calotropis plants, in the various parts of Orissa men-

tioned above, were without exception being attended by minor workers

of C. compressus. The ants were also found in fair numbers on

the lower leaves of the plants feeding upon the honey dew rejected

by the aphids.

My observations thus imply that A. asclepiadis occurs in Orissa

and that the species although found on poisonous host plants is

attended by C. compressus.

Department of Zoology,

University of Edinburgh,

Edinburgh, Scotland, B. K. BEHURA

237'd October , 1949.

References

Ayyar, P. N. K. (1935) : The biology and economic status of the common

black ant of South India — Camponotus (T anaemyrmex) compressus Latr. Bull.

Ent . Res. 26 (4) : 583.

Das, B. (1918) : The Aphididae of Lahore. Mem. Ind. Mus. 6 (4) : 204-206.

Deshpande, V. G. (1937) : A preliminary account of the Aphididae of

Poona. Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. 39 (4) : 743.

George, C. J. (1927) : Some South! Indian Aphididae. Journ. Asiatic Soc.

Bang. N.S. 23 : 5-6.

Goot, P van der (1917) : Notes on Indian Aphides. Rec. Ind. Mus. 13 (4) :

183.

816

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 48

Krishnamurthy, B. (1928) : Aphididae of Mysore, journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist

Soc. 33 (1) : 214.

Mukerji, D. and Behura, B. K. (1947) : Observations on the biology of

Aphis nerii (Fonsc.). Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. 46 (4) : 684.

(1948) : Remarks on Aphids on Nerium odorum

Sol., and Calotropis gigantea Br. Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. 47 (4) : 774-775.

Ullah, G. (1940) : Studies of Indian Aphididae I. The Aphid Fauna of

Delhi. Ind. Journ. Ent. 2 (1) : 17.

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