hy ik Pt ah De Tihs ie ie CO Pk eee Ck aT ee et) ra yd was ea EE ie eg aa yet g,

‘ fi

Uthat ses a aaa SAN a PARADA A SR LER CNM EL OR OE 4s eg cn ae a

gre edd 8 me Gk i Me AT a tee Cais ag dt Sha a neg WH Mata eS hy

Ht eT ge ed ae gg Wan ot ge MCE CTIT MRL At CRIT AMIE A HATH tare Anite th sewage Hane eS yori

Gat Ke Mg WH dh We ee aed god itd g CC Wa, Wid! ap cane inyiniaiesys aeab'L hetero: a vee RE ay RRA RS

Va wget Pc A PR A TO OCC TE nc RA NIN eg At ar re AL Ra Pt soe

CA OR CO Widide gid tte ey ee ato Gd We bald ty ty cae sia ica aa

te Pig ot 8 age La Qe anhalt We a Se a ot AY AE Ra EAMG SHE

Wr eG

BUA ob a cy aia

qh Pad Wie a a WR ee eae be AL MG ec eran Oo reas “

4 Ve 4) feu Wet Co ee Og ey 1 eS We) Oe Ta i YY Da wa | i

, PUR ANEN A GAUL AD aE CEAMA HK A ei Eh e et

MRNA hie RM RRL Mt LM LE BW 4

Pat beg bee UTE GCE 9 ME ey ae

DURUM ICR DTIC ea BS Ie ALD that

ti Ad die ath Ao Co ag hg Pe Te HE Ag ap Wl blo

AAA CU AM Biel ul MANGO CR RAH MR MCS

Li Mie og a aed Atel ae can a a yd faa ey

‘ PMSA CRTOR RR Or RH. Ea Ka a cE va Le tae

Vee hg a Tl a! ag We CT ee ae Ae

“

id tet

. oe ‘ weg %

( Lk se Sea

fis

” fy ait

Fils 1M AP Ae

4a 4

utara

oe wy Waite ay

eye PAULL

te he wow

~~ aoa SAL Ue UAC ERED MUN UG AH SOLE LO et Bie Aah ie eT meus 4 " :

‘ CeO Cw tab a PSP Lye Tw yb PU ea ey UH rE pean Aan id aa sbaeeahie ve AAT rn’ y ances

Ce ae ir arene aan a wid DNL RM TLR I) YL eA RT Pa rf wif ¢ fen pat ts ee Hats

ef ABET tae Ma “ we Pa CR AC wot Janne csi) it 6 tetany ne Ma ys se 7 ayy rene Heit

CAT A eh ago ye Padre ovat te We a AR Pe ee PO od ¥ AY. ‘ FO ow EB! ree AC ae of ae

ies ee LUC acces eran Wh Pa art ya Yh b Sh eG ee SLA cde 2 a oh ‘ ? 2824 sii! = 18 9s a Tah he fs neg ‘aie Ee Bt

fd doh ai Bg eas SU en DOTA IU He UR RCS AE rR Pm ara anaes a ” a aol ans ef Sis te

PU Re Guta Wot ad duanted + WOO LS EMRE Ti tae WNT ap iege Di Sete ated ve i a A, elias ers

cae Parca RR ea a PPLE ARAL OU LIL IPL ALICE ATLA CL ia GG En a TA an % tie Ci

14 4 ya OH Vitae Wag a a 1 ‘ ee OT oul Inara ie ig aldabed AN $8 eG Tr ib

Hoe Ce) ne ga ean ON ARIE ERR OOS GNA AUR CRRR ND aC ” HA ab i OM SAL

qe Ga ge we aria OA TTC UN NL VL A Wri olk in Che tay wi F f ; ts saa 2 he

ee oe aug Care oe on ec rg ytg “| Wea eee i al nos ey t it

Pa Meat Cen a MTEC Ta Con a Bi PUVA tah 20 Oe f PAU Ah Sh ea owe ii pO ted

wit ates te baad Yaw PN SR RRR “ ep es Pe RAE ae eat

MW eb A Gea ot a AVC way Ye ’ ce 4 beard hen Ea cy

A WLS Mc Be at a ee ea yaa ite i feat 1 a

VS a anh aa Ml a eg Hea gent eal QA YAW MAT OLS Ye HL pena a b ;

ai RR eC i B FERS eH BoA Bee RL MUTT : LA 'y alana: a)

. Pid re ed ai te dk WA ee WGI eR we AE 0a Ne Ma ley

Pe ACRE Tu ea UC PPE Mana yan Lean H te

Te aa te Ly tary bad diene a acid Ge ey ne

4 papaya SO aie ee a

dae ee has ROU NS ar Be aes ANN RGN peneea as

UL Gee OPC Wie Wien tin We ee es or Oe WS ALI ST aL AT “a a

aydy Fie Sa Se MEMO ER ME LH ey

€¢ tsa ck Mate PYG MAE Wat ee es

i ps Ae ih g ase Pal A ee ed

” + 145 8 wy

Pe ye

} nat Y

al 4 (ey ecw ver: a

Gag

Soudan t 4 ¥ M ty ti ‘" ’ iH M :

a We : it Woy ’ "i Wy ele

a Baba uch e th ig ae aie We Pek AE AN matt a Micaatars ants ber, { DOR OS FOLL

aban DY a paral yey Renee h Unt Haran ae tee

yt , eva ge aoe yy dah illedys fsa ue ay

aad ep ite mary ia. Sa aed re iad ‘4

eden

ci Lael

i itt

3 : 4 LG Ot ey

‘< sh attahy Gh Sth bey A ts

PO ey Citra erie Oy

Wy Ore VB Ypon Woe Mec Wt ka

NHAC eC ICED

Pa Peale Le

14 Vee at ee ee

aire yeh es

POLS

vu cae | 4

at La ai

Act site ih \\4 4

2 ae

oye ; ea eo

ite ity Hite ni AeA

Caress ¥.

Si Witt £r 4 { r7

; : ' A Sey RE a RAUF Lin os ot A Hiciigl A

4 « i J Pave’ { race " tae be yey frig y ‘ sabe

the ge sg ly Hye ; Peed Log hres care. ages wal Wad A DX 5 eae

es iy

Mase AV e

OLSON KE

iv Ce ee eer ew ey

ee ee ae SRN Has MEK oa Oe

ROME OC Re RCC a

quasd pee

ety wage

Hark yay

‘

fx Vg ory

Lr See

aks yt

aligh F198 fit

CT eee

i Petey ey

ity

p Lea

ban 0. BA A

wy ue;

alte ie Rat

aye aa

ibs

Mi ny t

oe heey ; iia

; PERE $

ie es Sieh

& a

dup

Gay ve {

vat nig oe

POO

Uo OB

Ms i

yar ay Buy

iWin Gye

Deets RY NS)

re De a * ‘

ON AEC aM

sie On OR OL A We A

Ae rp

chen yay

oe hi b tae

ny AN Psat

Bye a TP

CRUE,

Lee Ms A SL 1

TR er eat aOR:

' COR Me iM n G

TALS SAAT Ne

eee dat SA RB

Pee eae ey

mt, t PRR Oe Ae

beer A kw a a iw aby

HL Tt ‘

f fs

witpihy atts if

He y ya AS aye

Peas ath i

aed eae NG en } ney ¥

ay On) ON arial

i ' ho ta yh

ny We CWE

‘ 4 rt 4

RRR RIK RY MPU ‘ at tient tl

‘ we Ca Ceara dat CALL ESCM WG iy shit 4

LOW W ee Ce igay Ce ik Vai Wy Vga 1 Gan A

nen PA Alm OS ROCs , ihe SW pei 5

‘ oases tt CACO wm Oa edi he ee " i x

4 2 SOUR RECs Co ‘ Poets ta aera ite ah aie

a SAL il) | SA ALS BAS WJ eC Ce 4 an 4

tet Wea te @ite LA OUR CW Gal ati a Satie ns anaes

se A COR: ies Oh a Wet ik a P we ae he Pne ont

Deh ee NLL oe See Vi a Wee LO aOR " “ i

ARR ACCOR eH RC Rn VERS oa ea vied’ a

eq se a al a4 eal WP es Gut BW Oe Hey

4 ACS ea Ca tr aCe a ar Wr

on eh hr

Pity

7 a m ihe *

if " ’ : : ‘ :

| | : , '

: & 7 iia :

> i 7 re

. i

i i

=-¥

‘ ; . cet a i

a a 1

Le 7 _ .

i -_

| i

; mn

| : ? a % @ ‘ {

poh e

; | t

' 1

t y :

5 ,

THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

INDEX AND TITLE PAGE

VOL. 49

i VA : OMA,

( auG 20 1952

NOS. 1 & 2 \ al

Ss. LIP RAT |

Price Rs. 3-0-0

MADRAS

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS

1952

INSTRUCTIONS TO BINDER

The contents of these two parts should be arranged in the

following order when they are being bound: ~—

Title page eA

List of contributors

List of plates...

Index to illustrations

Index to species

e@o

Contents of Nos. 1 & 2 of Vol. 49

, To follow frontis-

piece in this order.

the two numbers.

‘i. go at the end of

THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

EDITED BY

SALIM ALI, S. B. SETNA, Ph.p., and H. SANTAPAU, s,J,

VOL. 49

Nos. 1 & 2

Containing 24 black and white plates, 2 photographs, 4 maps

and 24 text-figures

~ Dates of Publication

Part 1. (Pages 1 to 136) ... April, 1950

Se ae a i372 to 354) ... August, 1950

LONDON AGENTS

DAVID NUTT (A. G. BERRY)

212 Shaftesbury Avenue, .

LONDON, W.C. 2.

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS

1952

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 49

No. 1

Y JunGLe Meworins. Part V—Basars. By Lt.-Col. E. G.

Phythian-Adams, 0.B.E., F.Z.S., IA, (Retd. e Mai two

plates)... Bere caren iawesetectentes te PONT er ao

SoME Nose ON THE ee Phytiowepu IN ‘Kasain,

By itorace: Gx ALR AM GCI eins ta5isiecc. see vcad vosrve diese sdisee'ows ¥0e

A NOTE ON THE RORQUALS (BSaluenoptera spp... By

C. A, Gibson-Hill, M.A., F.z.s. (With 3 plates)......cs00008

BUTTERFLIES OF SIND. By N. H. Menesse, 0.B.E., I.S.8.......

NOTES ON THE SCROPHULARIACEAE OF BoMBAy. By H. San-

UD Aline SiUlnt Ee Sekine raids senses seeds eecle sets ctiecsiccvices sce sancre Neue

Notes ON Zurdus merula IN SOUTH INDIA. By S. Dillon

Mee, eueaee teen tee eo tibdsc aad eches teediatstowsl couse onic nba en mente

A NOVEL METHOD OF DESTROYING MAN-EATERS AND

CATTLE-LIFTERS WITHOUT FIREARMS. By S.R. Daver.

Wala plate Gnd VN lO 12217 ES) cscs acbienr say cosicsselesse.

THr TROPIC- BIRDS OCCURRING IN THE INDIAN OCEAN AND

ADJACENT SEAS. By C. A. Gibson-Hill, M.A., M.B.O.U.

(GLEE LE? TIES EOP OPT Ce Eo ee

WILp LirE RESERVES IN INDIA: Assam. By E.P. Gee, m.a.,

C.M.Z.S., F.R.G.S. (Wzth two plates, a mapand a lable)...

THE FOULING ORGANISMS OF PEARL OySTER CAGgEs. By

George K. Kuriyan, M.sc., F.z.8. (With a text figure)...

CHAMPARAN BUTTERFLIES—NorTH Binar. By A. C, Har-

FINA WISE Poca ee memmo rien cles jeeuinn soe cae a uatbuce tan aeaSe ius Sevecccute

OBSERVATIONS ON SOME LARVAL AND POST-LARVAL STOMA:

torops. By K.H. Alikunhi. (W7h two plates).............

OBITUARY :—

Eee Ber craves... (Asst. da IM ocr capssee Acton aera

REVIEWS :—

1, External and Internal Anatomy of the Buffalo»

Louse, Haematopinus tuberculatus Burmeister. By

M.A.H. Qadri (S. Mahdihassan)............. BS's)asiee-

2, Wild Flowers at a Glance. By M. C. Carey and

Dorothy Hitchew (Hs Santapaw). <0... coc eessseeee

PAGE

| 67

101

108

109

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 49

The Ocean. By F. D. Ommanney, Ph.D., A.R.CS.,

F.L.S. (H. Santapau)...

4. Birds of the Coast. Bo C. Re ‘Ginoe Hill, M.A,,

MeB.O.U. (CE. 2\.)).e

Additions to the once s pees since eAueuee 1949

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

10.

11.

18.

Ho:

Longevity in Elephants. By Hamid A. Ali........

Wild Elephants dying in Assam. By E.P. Gee

A bull Bison’s abnormal behaviour. By Randolph

C. Morris..

The large Red Fiying Suite Pye e inor-

natus Geoffroy. By B. B. Osmaston..

Scent. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, 1a. (ene

The southern limit of the Red Junglefowl (Gallas

g. murghi Robinson and Kloss). By A. J. Brock

Occurrence of the Blue-breasted Quail { £xcalfac-

toria chinensis sala in’ Mysore. AByG ay aks

Frend.. Re an ;

Two Birds bon aimee more ST ufota aoe is cea!

ed. By S. Dillon Ripley... Brose

Possible occurrence of the Black Tern [ Chlidonias

niger (L.)| near Delhi. By H. G. Alexander...

Status of the Red-crested Pochard (Netia Se

Pallas) in South Indiay By A. J Brock one.

Occurrence of the Scaup Duck [Aythya marila

(L.)] in the Bombay Deccan. By Brig. W. B.

Aspinall... Seer Pilanpeys

The occurrence ik the neon Saipe teas:

nemoricola Hodgs.) near Poona. By M. Suter

Field identification of Birds. By H.G. Alexander

Freak Shots. By P. H. Sykes... eke.

Occurrence of Russell’s Viper aera Passel

(Shaw)| in Kathiawar (Saurashtra) By G. A.

Kapadia... 8 oi chlkl A Uae pee

The record ising Fart eee pas johni oy

sell)] By V. K. Chari. S

Effect of atmospheric pressure aie ‘asiuae: ee

i. ©..Gee: (With a photo)... Meas

Whale Sharks in Indian Wetcis ‘By Baitors. Spc

Specific names of the two common Indian Colzas

Butterflies. By D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R.B.S.......

131

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 49

20. A Honey-Bee in the nest of a Mason-Wasp. By

D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S..

-21, The male genital armature of Vane chasers

Karny (With a text cay By T. N. Anantha-

Keishinans B.SC. (ELONS.)rs-2% chesense

22. Observations on the occurrence aE Nite, Tick

Aponomma gervaist (Lucas) on Varanus sp. By

Basant Kumar Behura..

23. Reduplication in the nee of Wao com ee

J. L. Kantarao and V. Venkateswarlu. (With

GD LERULTLBUKE snes vwcece seeaeaweenue

24. A Note on the enti in ihe neterint specimen

of Portulaca tuberosa Roxb. By A. T. Natarajan.

LITE Oil e LAURIN Es seaes as hae Seen enw cel Sbecs seemieaces

ANNOUNCEMENT.....: Ce ee ee ee ee ee ce ee ee ee ee Oe ee ee

No. 2

/ Juncte Memorigs. Part VI—Bison, TSINE, ETC. By

Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian-Adams, 0.B.E., F.Z.S., LA. rae

(With a plate)... SIRE coc csefowsitesiaas weteen'ece voaits

NOTES ON SOME reat MEROPIDAE (oninsy, By Daniel

Marien. (With a map)... Setateamta dine ae caites

Two NEW SPECIES OF J/schaemum FROM BOMBAY. By

Nadee Bor. Geayeee vata Nees etiael «cletasts

LIFE-HISTORY AND nen OF THE ee FLEA Ca Neie

lides felis BoucHE. By K.R. Karandikar and D. M.

Winslet 5 CW/2778 St 2092 IP GUHES) fae ae Sev cevicdtass vos

THE LOWER SIND VALLEY, AND SOME FURTHER OBSERVA-

TIONS ON BIRD PHOTOGRAPHY. By Lt.-Col. R.S. P.

Bates, M.2.0.U., 1A. (Retd.) (Wik 4:Dlates)... ..ccecccse+o+e

SomEe WassT BENGAL PLANTS. By J.C. Culshaw................

THE MysorE LAC INSEcT. ByS. Mahdrhassan. (With two

plates and 1 text figure)... ee ee Aen

THE LESSER FLORICAN [Sypheotides indica (Quieeaye ins

CourRTSHIP DISPLAY, BEHAVIOUR, AND Hapirts. By K. S.

Dharmakumarsinhji. (Wzth a plate and 2 text figures)...

Notes ON THE Lentibulariaceae oF BomBay. By H,

ACA Uo oeiog HalesStiocaicce senace. so sice scab acaaes adios cased sbicetevece

A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BiG GAME HUNTING AND SHOOTING IN

INDIA AND THE EAST, By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, 1.4.

GRICEC Serica cha cet see nc ses ie dei ven sens's

133

134

136

137

165

169

178

188

197

201

217

222

vi CONTENTS OF VOLUME 49

A NEW VARIETY OF Cucurbita maxima. By C. Rajasekhara

Mudaliar, mia. (With two plates) sitions ee csten seen

NOTES ON BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF MINBU’

DistrRIicT, BurMA. By W. L. Roseveare, 1.8.E. (Retd.)

(With two sketch maps)... oi saslicnidee coeiteser sesetmecner es

CERTAIN OBSERVATIONS ON Bde papyriftera Venn. AND

Boswellia serrata ROXB. IN RELATION TO TRAUMATISM.

By Miss R. Shah, B.Ag. ea M.S. Sn (With a

plate)... sid Sicesaeteise Selanne aatcheuaise woeiceeee cece estehnealdcieius ecfeesioee

OBITUARY :—

Ww PF. Wickham, ((BBsO0 en tee ces eweee cere

REVIEWS :—

1. A Naturalist in Sarawak. By E. Banks. (H.A.)

2. A Bird Photographer in India. By E. H.N.

Lowther. (W.T.L.)... Scout ceigetect esesse

3. Oxford Junior Bacyelesacate “Velie II.

(Natural History). (CRM Ga) iin eaecener cents sect

4. Flowering Trees and Shrubs in India. By D. V.

Cowen. (R.M.C.)... sates ae

Additions to the Society’s eee since sagen 1950.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

1. Wild Elephants dying in Assam. By E. P. Gee.

v 2. Abnormal clavicle bones in Tiger. By W. H.

Gibbs. (With a photo)...

3. On the young of the Cesion iene epotcah Cat

(Prionailurus rubiginosus phillipst ee By

W. W.A. Phillips... 5 ete Satie

4, The Fishing Cat (rami 7 viverrinus ebeanetty

By -A, otc J... Macdonmalldiste: sarepeess stereo cee:

Vv 5; Feral albino and ae Rats. By C. A. Gibson-

6. The ‘Burwness Wild. Dog. tse Lt.-Col. R. W.

Burton, 1.A. (Retd.)... whe

7. The Burmese Wild eee zis leihses Se

canine. By Capt, K. Boswell, 1.A.m.c. (Retd.).

8. Occurrence of the Chestnut-bellied Nuthatch

(Sitla castaneiventris castaneiventris) in Sind— A

correction. By Humayun Abdulali............000...

9, Black Drongos fostering a Koel. By T. EB. H.

Sith... cccneseesne voy ene ene nny teecey coenge soe 09g sme ceresene

PAGE

242

244

296

297

298

300

301

303

304

10.

El.

12.

13.

14,

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

ale

Zee

23.

24.

7a)

26.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 49

On the status of Aurystomus orientalis laetior

Sharpe. By W. Meise..

‘On the Blue-tailed Bee- he: (inode supereiinees

javanicus Horsf.) in Bombay. By Humayun

Abdulali.. sucsmbceens

Occurrence i the Ginereoue) intro eaten

monachus Linnaeus) at Ahmedabad, North

Gujarat. _By Hari Narayan G. Acharya............

A brief summary on the Chukar Partridge in

Nevada, U. S. America. By Glen C. Christensen

Occurrence of the White-winged Black Tern

[Chlidonias leucopterus (Temm.)] in Bombay.

By Humayun Abdulali.. sees

Kentish Plovers eee pas alexandrinus( Lie I

at Bombay. By H.G. Alexander... ee

The Snow Goose (Anser Pi periiveia. Palla). in

Kashmir—An addition to the avifauna of India.

By Editors.. ; iy naey

Geese and Buck ¢ on Attic! Chilka bares Oricon. 7

E. C. Benthall and L. A. Craven... ...... ccc cessccacs

Gleanings... mea CE ne Tee

REinceuent ee fades i in A chakoe By F. Gordon

Cawston, M.D., F.Z.S.. ESOP

A biometrical study a Weise ilisha (ie in

the Godavari River. By P. I. Chacko and

B. Krishnamurthy... me ies

Breeding habits of iy hes te Quy Ey

Wo Ky Caanic” (Wie 1X1 T22U7ES). Jc cexcsatr ows

Occurrence of the fresh water Medusa (Limnoc-

nida indica) in South-west India. By P. A.

Ramakrishna, B. S. Bhimachar & M. K.

Subramaniam.. ee Oe ener

The flowering ae ‘Strobilanthes. Bo H. Santapau,

S. J.. aire

iS pohlanines Pies (Nees) ae Sacae sane in sane

rashtra. By G. A. Kapadia... she

Mecardonia dtianthera ey Pennell ‘By A. P.

Benthall... nee

A note on tie a occurrence nat the: Alga PDair:

diopsis near Kakinada, Madras Presidency. By

B.S. M. Dutt.. Pe

Catalogue of Books in athe Hoban PN abaeel. Pistons

Society’s Library, Part [V—Entomology.......,.

vil

PAGE

305

307

309

310

311

312

314

315

317

318

ALPHABETICAL: LIST (OF, CONTRIBURORS

VOLUME 49

Nos. 1 and 2

PAGE :

ABDULALI, HuMayun, Occur- chaetophora Karny. (With

rence of the Chestnut-bellied a lext figure).

Nuthatch (Szt/a castaneiven-

tris castaneiventris) in Sind—

A correction

Won the

' Blue-tailed Bee-eater Cievors

superciltosus Javanicus

Horsf.) in Bombay ...

—--——,, Occur-

rence of the White-winged

Black Tern [Chlidontias leu-

coplerus (Temrm.) 4 in

Bombay me

ACHARYA, HARI a G.,

Occurrence of the Cinereous

Vulture (Aegypius monachus

Linnaeus) at Ahmedabad,

North Gujarat ns

ALEXANDER, HORACE G., Some

notes on the Genus Phyd-

luscopus in Kashmir :

——-—, Possi-

ble occurrence of the Black

Tern [Chlidonias niger cake Vd

near Delhi

; "Field

dentification of Birds

—_——_—_ Kent-

ish Plovers [Leucopolius

alexandrinus (Linn.) at

Bombay awe 5c

AI, HAMID A., wopeevitysl in

Elephants

ALIKUNHI, K. H., Pe oie nities

on some Daca and Post-

larval Stomatopods. year

two plates) —«. ans

ANANTHAKRISHNAN, T. N.,

B.Sc. (Hons.), The fate

genital armature of Ayyaria

303

307 |

310

311

101

| ASPINALL, Brig. W. B., Mocca

rence of the Scaup Duck

Aythya marila (L.) in the

Bombay Deccan

BATES, Lt.-Col. R.S. P., M.B.

0.U., I.A. (Retd.), The Tener

Sind Valley, and some further

observations on Bird Photo-

graphy. (With 4 plates) ...

BEHURA, BASANT KUMAR,

Observations on the occur-

rence of the Tick [dponomma

gervatst sees” on Varanus

sp. ive

BENTHALL, A. P., Mcamone

dianthera (Sw.) eeedene

BENTHALL, E. C., andCRAVEN,

L. A., Geese and Duck on

the Chilka Lake, Orissa

BHIMACHAR, B.S8., see RAMA-

KRISHNA, P. A.

Bor, N. L., Two new species

[schaemum from Bombay

BOSWELL, Capt. K., I.A.M.c.

(Retd.), The Burmese Wild

Dog and other’ matters

canine

Brock, A. J., The southern

limit of the Red Junglefowl

(Gallus g. murghi Robinson

and Kloss)

—, Status ho: i

Red-crested Pochard (Nelta

vutina Pallas) in South India.

Burton, Lt.-Col. R. W., 1.4.

(Retd.), Scent. oie

SE aN

bibliography of Big Game

hunting and shooting in India

and the East ms

PAGE

abet

122

178

132

322

312

165

301

118

121

116

222

LISLE ORF CONTRIBUTORS

Burton, Lt.-Col. R. W., I.A,;

(Retd.), The Burmese Wild Dog.

CAWSTON, F. GORDON, M.D.,

F.z.S., Replacement of fangs

in Snakes ie ae de

CHacxo, P. [., & KRISHNA-

MURTHY, B., A biometrical

study of Ailsa tlisha (Ham.)

in the Godavari River

CHART, Ver Ki;- Phe® record

Black Earth Boa [Aryx

johni (Russell) ] ae

——, Breeding ha-

bits of Thais bufo (Lamarck).

(With two text figures)

CHRISTENSEN, GLEN C., A

brief summary on the Chukar

Partridge in Nevada, U.S.

America er

CRAVEN, L. A., see BaN ATES

H.C,

CuLSHAW, J.

Bengal ee

DAVER, S.R., novel Hcthod

ot destroying Man-eaters and

Cattle-lifters without fire-

arms. (Wiha plate and 11

text figures)

DHARMAKUMARSINHJI, K. 5.,

The Lesser Florican Sypheo-

tides indica (Miller) : Its Court-

ship Display, Behaviour, and

Habits. (With a plate, 2 text

figures and 2 tables) ;

Dutt, B.S. M., A note on the

occurrence of the Alga

Draparnaldiopsis near Kaki-

nada, Madras Presidency

—_—

, Some West

Epitors, Whale Sharks in

Indian Waters Efe

—, The Snow Goose

(Anser hyperboreus Pallas)

in Kashmir—An addition to

the avifauna of India

FREND, G. V. R., Occurrence

of the Blue-breasted Quail

[ Bxcalfactoria chinensis

(Linn.)] in Mysore ae

Gren, E. P., M.A., ¢.M.Z,S.,

F.R.G.S., Wild Life Reserves

in India: Assam. (With 2

plaies,a map and a table) ...

PAGE

314

127

OH,

309

188

201 |

311

118

| GEE,

BE. Pe MAN,

F.R.G.S., Wild

dying in Assam

, Effect of ents

pheric Breesare while fishing,

(With a photo)

C.M.Z.S.,

Elephants

——_—_——, Wild Blepuants

dying in Assam

| Gripss, W. H., Abnormal ste

vicle bones in Tiger. (With

a photo) ihe oe

GIBSON-HILL, C.A., M.A,,

F.Z.S., A note on the Rorquals

(Balaenoptera spp.).

a eee AT Ehe

Tropic-birds occurring in the

Indian Ocean and adjacent

seas. (With 3 plates)

ee ; Feral

albino and piebald Rats

HARMAN, A. C., Champaran

Butterflles—North Bihar

KanTARAO, J. L., & VENKA-

TESWARLU, V., Reduplication

in the epicalyx,of | Aibis-

CUS Ts: (With a_ teat

figure) ae

KarapiA, G. A., Occurrence of

Russell’s Viper [Vipera rus-

sellz (Shaw)] in Kathiawar

(Saurashtra) ee are

—-, Strobilanthes

callosus (Nees) at Junagadh

in Saurashtra :

KARANDIKAR, K. R., & NUN

sHI, D. M., Life-history and

bionomics of the Cat Flea

Ctenocephalides felis Bouche.

(With six text figures)

KRISHNAMURTHY, B., see

CHACKO, P. I.

KURIYAN, GEORGE K., M.Sc.,

F.z.8., The Fouling Organisms

of Pearl-oyster Cages. (With

a text figure) oats ea

MACDONALD, A. St. J., The

Fishing Cat (Prionailurus

viverrinus Bennett)

MAHDIHASSAN, S., The Mysore

Lac Insect. (With two plates

and 1 text figure)

eee

113

296

298

133

169

298

197

MaRIEN, DANIEL, Notes on

some Asiatic Meropidae

(Birds). (With a map and 3

tables)

Muise, W., On the ets of

Eurystomus orientalis laetior

Sharpe ‘ “ ves

MENESSE, N. H., 0.B.E., I.S.E.,

Butterflies of Sind

Morris, RANDOLPH C., A bull

Bison’s abnormal behaviour.

MuDALIAR, C. RAJASEKHARA,

M.A, A new variety of

Cucurbita maxima. (With

two plates) —« ine ee

MunsuiI, D. M., see KARANDI-

KAR, K.R.

NaTARANJAN, A. T., A note on

the growth of a herbarium

specimen of Portulaca tuberosa

Roxb. (With atext figure) ...

OsMASTON, B. B., The large

Red Flying Squirrel—

Pteromys inornatus Geoff-

roy : Nae aes

aver Lt.-Col.

wAG,, O.B.E., 8:2Z.S.,. 14:

(Retd.), Jungle Memories.

Part V—Bears. (With two

plates) ... eee owe

Jungle Memories, Part VI—

Bison, Tsine, etc. aes a

plate) ae é a

PHILLIPS, W. W. Py. ‘on the

young of the Ceylon Rusty-

spotted Cat (Prionailurus

vubiginosus phillipst Pocock).

RAMAKRISHNA, P. A., BHIMA-

CHAR, B. S., & SUBRA-

MANIAM, M. A., Occurrence

of the fresh water Medusa

(Limnocnida indica) in South-

west India

PAGE

151

305

134

114

137

297

318

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

RipLEy, S. Ditton, Notes on

Turdus merula in South

India ss ts wee

RIPLEY, S. Dero Two birds

about which more informa-

tion is needed ack

ROSEVEARE, W. L., L.S.E.

(Retd.), Notes on Birds of

the Irrigated Area of Minbu

District, Burma. (With two

sketch maps) mee

SANTAPAU, JH, Sa, 28.8),

Notes on the Scrophulariaceae

of Bombay

Notes on the Lentibulariaceae

of Bombay ..

a ee

The flowering of Strobilan-

thes. (Witha diagram)

SEVASTOPULO, D.G., F.R.E.S.,

Specific names of the two

common Indian Colias But-

terflies AY

——_—_—_ —_—_— a Bonevies

in the nest of a Mason age ae

SHAH, Miss R., B. AG. (Bom.),

M.S. (Mich.), Certain obser-

vations on Broussonetia

papyrifera Vent. and Bos-

wellia serrata Roxb. in

relation to Traumatism.

(With a plate) ;

SmitH, T. E. H., Black Dron:

gos fostering a Koel

SUBRAMANIAM, M. K.,,

RAMAKRISHNA, P. A.

SuUTER, M., Theoccurrence of

the Wood-Snipe (Gallinago

see

nemoricola Hodgs.) near

Poona ae

SVYKES, P. H.. Piel: Shots:

VENKATESWARLU, iOVz.., see

KANTARAO, J. L,

PAGE

119

244

217

320

131

288

304

123

125

HELO Ohi Ad 73:5

VOLUME 49

Nos. 1 and 2

PAGE

Jungle Memories.

Plate I. A sloth bear at a waterhole see Ao de 4

Plate II. Asloth bear returning from the night’s foraging An)

A Note on the Rorquals (Balaenoptera spp.)

Plate I. Anadult Fin Whale, about 70 feet long, being pulled on

the deck of a factory ship off the South Shetlands ae, JG

The upper jaws and baleen plates of a Fin Whale about

65 feet long, seen from below.

Plate II. A foetal Fin Whale, about 6 feet long, removed froma

dead cow on the flensing re Leith Harbour,

South Georgia tals eee |7/

Plate IIl. Semi-diagrammatic representations: of the ieee larger

rorquals, the Blue Whale, the Fin Whale and the Sel

Whale aa see eee “218

Phases in the iuevenienta of a large Blue Whale coming”

up to the surface to breathe.

A Novel Method of destroying Man-eaters and Cattle-lifters without Fire-

arms.

Plate: A ‘ Soori Phanda’ in action See ARS oe 56

The Tropic-birds occurring in the Indian Ocean and adjacent Seas. |

Plate I, Anadult of the Long-tailed Tropic-bird—Phaethon I. leptu-

vus, in flight, taken at sea 200 miles east of the Cocos-

Keeling Islands are eee e . 74

An adult of the Christmas Island Long-tailed rope: ge

P. lepturus fulous, in flight

Plate II. An adult of the Red-tailed Tropic-bird—P. rudricauda

westralis, in flight. ie ae «75

A Red-tailed Tropic-bird—P. rvubricauda eiraiee on its

nest ‘in a rock crevice ‘on Christmas Island (Indian

Ocean).

Plate III. A juvenile of the Christmas Island race of the Long-tailed

Tropic-bird—P. lepturus fulvus a

A juvenile of the Red-tailed Tropic-bird—FP. yibecauae

westralis, photographed two or three days before

leaving its nest.

Wild Life Reserves in India: Assam.

Plate I, A half-grown rhino is cine-filmed by Dr. Dillon Ripley and

Mr. Salim Ali in Kaziranga,Game Sanctuary « oO

This herd of wild buffalo in the Pabha Reserve stood oF

their cine-picture, and then disappeared into cover.

Plate II. This full-grown bull rhino in Kaziranga Game Sanctuary

charged us once, and was thinking about repeating his

charge as this picture was taken a9 cS

“I

(op)

xii LIST“OF PLATES

PAGE

A catch of fourteen wild elephants in a stockade in Assam.

Observations on some Larval and Post-larval Stomatopods.

Plate I. Sguilla nepa: Modification of structures during metamor-

phosis from pelagic larva to post-larva Ass .. 104

Plate Il. Sguilla nepa: Modification of structures during metamor-

phosis from pelagic larva to post-larva Ah oe LOS

Jungle Memories,

Plate: A solitary bull Gaur. '

A herd of bison in tall grass Si gekey)

The Lower Sind Valley, and some iurther Sicervatiane on ‘Bird Photo-

graphy. |

Plate I. White-breasted Kingfisher with giant mole-cricket for young 178

Plate II. Kashmir Pied Woodpecker at nest-hole eh ee 179

Piate III. Rufous-tailed Flycatcher on nest “ie des ... 184

PlatelV. Red-wattled Lapwing approaching nest.

Male Indian Blue Chat at nest - AP wae pp ediets)

The Mysore Lac Insect.

Plate: Figs. 1&2. Lakshadia mysorensis on Shorea talura 24 A 98

Plate: Fig. 3. Lakshadia mysorensis all insects excepting one, freed

from all secretion

Fig. 5. Rhyncosia cana, infected with Lakshadia mysorensis 199

The Lesser Florican Sypheotides indica (Miller).

Plate: Male Floricanin angry pose, with male decoy.

Male Florican mating on female decoy ... ae of tele

A new variety of Cucurbita maxima.

Plate I. Cucurbita maxima Duch, var. badagarensis. Mudaliar,

C.m. oes Aas wists lise ee 242

Plate II. Figs. 1, 2,3. Flower, fruit and seed of Cucurbita moschata.

Figs. 4,5, 6. Flower, fruit and seed of Cucurbita maxim 243

Certain observations on Ayrcussonetia papyrifera Vent. and Boswellia ser-

vata Roxb. in relation to Traumatism.

Plate: I. A four-month old sapling of Broussonetia papyrifera

Vent., five of the eight lateral roots of which had been

detached from the soil and damaged As we. 288

Il, Another ‘four-month’ old sapling of Broussonetia papy-

vitera Vcnt. of which all the roots including the tap-root

were damaged and detached from the soil wen 208

PNP TO WTLEOSTRATIONS

VOLUME 49

Nos. 1 & 2

PAGE

Atmospheric Pressure while

Fishing : Effect of Photo... 128

Ayyaria chaetophora

Text fig. Le Hoe 152

Balaenoptera borealis |

Plates ec. ae 18h

—__—_——— musculus

Plate III. én cee 18

— —— physalus

Plate I. ex ase 16 |

Plate: il: sa eas 17 |

Plate ILI. is 8 |

Bhoma Hill, Khandala: Tie

gram showing the pe of

the top. ca. soe 321 |

Birds of the Irrigated Area

of Minbu District, Burma :

Map ait ae 244

Map oa s6c 245 |

Broussonetia papyrifera

Plate re , 288

Biue Chat at nest: Male

Indian

Plate IV. fs es 185 |

Clavicle bones in Tiger ; |

Abnormal

Photo er 297 |

Ctenocephalides felis

ext oe i 2.6, aes 170

pa 2 os yal

+B) ) 3 : 174

” ” 4

Toe s| re 175

” ” 6

Cucurbita maxima var. bada-

Larvensis

Plate 1. i coe 242

Plate 2, Figs, 4, e Gratis 243

—————. moschata

Blate 2. Kieset2.-3) 2. 243

Flycatcher on nest : Rufous-

tailed

Plate III ee sot 184

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis

Text fig. eas

Jungle Memories. Part V—

Bears

Plate I.

Plate II. aun

Jungle Memories. Part VI—

Bison, Tsine, ete.

Plate : i or

Kingfisher with Bian oie

cricket for young: White-

breasted

Plate I.

Lakshadia mysovensis

Plate: Figs. 1&2

Piate: Figs.3 & 5

Text Fig. 4 :

Lapwing approaching meee

Red-wattled

Plate IV.

Man-eaters and Cattle- fers. :

A novel method of destroy-

ing without firearms

Plate ; nae

Text fig. are

Text fig.

Text figs.

Text figs. sas

Meropidae (Birds): Notes on

some Asiatic

Map

Phaethon I. bias

Plate I. a

———-— lepturus fulvus.

Plate I. Rec ‘2

Plate III. ee eee

— rubricauda westra-

lis

Plate II.

Plate III.

Portulaca tuberosa

Text fig.

PAGE

US7,

178

198

199

165

134

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

xiv

PAGE

Sguilla nepa

Plate I. nae 104

Plate Il. 0 105

Sypheotides indica

Plate .. ee 204

Text figs. 1 & 2 206

Thais buto

Text fig. 317

Text figs. 1, 2,3

& 4 coo’ 318

Wild Life Reserves in India :

Assam

Map ..

Plate I.

Plate II.

Woodpecker at

Kashmir Pied

Plate II.

nest-hole :

PAGE

179

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE PAGE

Abisara echerius angulata... Poi. oe | aMiiamala Spy pen! een Nl seb- toe 1) OL

Abrota ganga_... oo vee 100 Anagallis arvensis aa is os ~=«190

Acacia arabica... se a .» 20° Anas acuta <a oe oe iu6° '286

leucophloea ee 20 we 245 | orecea Pe mee ive’ | ZOO

Acalypha indica ... wee oe oc | peeetuce poecilorhyncha Gerinetoni) . 286

Acridotheres tristis ... 258, 304 | querquedula see Whale Seen 8i7

Acrocephalus bistrigiceps 254 | Anastomus oscitans 283

?— —— concinens (or agricola). 254 Aneilema nudiflorum 195

? ——- stentoreus (&/or : -— scapiflorum .., 195

arundinaceus) 254 -— vaginatum 196

Actitis hypoleucos .» 258 | Anhinga melanogaster ... 282

acutorostrata (Balaenoptera) 14, 16,18 | Anisomeles ovata 194

Aegypius monachus 307, 308 | Anogeissus latifolia 57

Aegithina tiphia ... 247 Anser anser wee 286

Aerua lanata 190, 194 hyperboreus 311

aethereus (Phaéthon) 77 | indicus... ae we 286

ZEthiopsar fuscus oe 259 | Anthoecium inferius 165, 167

Ajuga macrosperma breviflora 194 -— superius 165, 167

Alaemon es .. 80 | Anthus cervinus ... 265

albiflora ( Stigaye: oa 44 - gulgula 265

Albizzia lebbek .. 244 - hodgsoni 264

Alcedo atthis sen 270 - richardi ... 265

alcippoides ze -rufulus ... ove 265

alcmeone is wet Zz -similis ... ada 265

Alectoris ... oe ses ae 310 | Antirrhinum majus 46

-—graeca ssp. ... ah se. 309 maurandioides ... 47

alexandrinus 290, 299 ' Apharitisacamas hypargyrus... ay 24

Alhagi camelorum oe 20 | apiaster ee 106

Alima F » 105 | ————, (M.) 152, 158

Allophylus Cobbe .. 195 | Aponomma 00 eis eon 2 12

Alpheids ... oes c: as 91; — -— gervaisi 132, 133

_Alysicarpus Dep earirolius var, nel —— laeve a. 262

lis oss ne .. 193 | ——- pattoni 132

-—— vaginalis sen 290 -—— trimaculatum 132

Amandava amandava ... 261 | Appias albina darada 94

Amaurornis phoenicurus 276 - lalage ms ag 94

Amblypodia alemon se 98 | ——-— libythea nBe Hes ees 94

amantes aientts 98 - lyncida hippoides 94

Ambulia wes 32 | Apus pacificus 271

—--—— conferta 33 | Aquila clanga as 273

* Ammannia 155 31 | Archimenes sesamoides 36

——-— cordata 180,193 | Ardea cinerea ... ee ave 284

——.-—— salicifolia ... 195 | ——— imperialis 284

INDEX OF SPECIES

Bauhinia racemosa

——--———- vahlii

Belenois mesentina mesentina

beludschicus ane

benghalensis, (T.)

Bibos gaurus

biloba, (I.)

birmanus cee

Blainvillea latifolia daa

Blepharis molluginifolia 4,

Blumea bifoliata

| blythii en eee

xvi

PAGE

Ardea purpurea 284

?——-—- sumatrana 284

Ardeola grayii =... 285 |

Arenaria interpres Sr |

Argya earlii 246

—— gularis eh 246

Argynnis hyperbius Eero teias ee

Artamus fuscus te se 253

Artanema longiflora 36 |

-———--— longifolia te Oy |

asiatica, (S.} . 43, 44

Astropecten indicus 92

Astycus augias augias - 100

————-— pythias bambusae 100

Atella phalanta ... <o See Pade ecitte aa

Athene brama Oe

athertoni 164 |

———, (N.) 162 |

atlanticus ... S12" |

Aulacospermae ... 26 |

australis 7

Axis axis ass 87 |

Aythya fuligula ... 287

—-— marila 122

——-— nyroca 287

Ayyaria chaetophora Lon

Azanus ubaldus ... 23, 100

———— uranus 23, 100

Bacopa wae 29, 30

- floribunda SOR Si

——-—=- hamiltoniana 30

- monnieri 30

———— monnieria 30

Badamia exclamationis ... 24, 99

Balaenoptera acutorostrata 14

————— brydei 19

————-——-— indica 19

—————— musculus ... 16

—————-— spp 14, 15

Balanus rr me : 91

—_—-—-— amphitrite var. venustus 91

= tintinnabulum var. communis 91

Balistes 92

Baoris bevani pena 24

guttatus bada 100

——— mathias mathias 24, 100

cama - thrax ‘s 24

——— sinensis subochracea county, 00

zelleri cinnara ... 100

Bauhinia... “ 20 snail

——-—-— purpurea 193

Boerhavia aoe var. diffusa

Bombax malabaricum

Bonnaya a

— brachiata

——_——- bracteoides

——- —— estamiinodiosa

—-—— grandiflora

-—— -———- h yssopioides ...

——-——- micrantha

| ———-—. oppositifolia

———-— parviflora

-——— — quinqueloba

— verbenaefolia

— veronicaefolia

var.

grandiflora

— ——__-——-— var.

verbenaefolia

borealis, (B.)

Bos frontalis

Boswellia serrata

Bothrospermae

brachiata, (S.)

Brami

Bramia.... aoe

floribunda

- indica

———- monnieri

- monnieria

brevicaudata

brevicaudata, (N.a.)

Broussonetia papyrifera

brunnescens

brydei, (B.)

Bubulcus ibis

Buchanania latifolia

Buchnera asiatica

-— densiflora

———-— euphrasioides

PAGE

ae 57

56, 58, 60

. 24, £4

160

310

eae &6

190

160

193

194

195

194

244

de 36

39, 195

Ai 40

See

. 40, 190, 194

16, 17, 18, 19

147, 148

.. 07, 288, 289

164

288, 289

254

25, 16, 18

285

43°

INDEX OF SPECIES XVil

PAGE PAGE

Buchnera foetida a i ae 28 | Celsia coromandeliana Se Me 25

_ -— gesneroides ... uae ae 42 -- cretica eae Ha Pe bie 26

= hirsuta ays os in 43 | ——--viscosa ... a ald pie ee)

——-— hispida yeeros Wiss “at 42 | Centranthera hispida ... oe ue 46

- -— hydrabadensis ose aks 42 | ———--— humifusa oe 194

i longifiera 4. a ——--— nepalensis ep nr een

-— orobanchioides Pe. ty 42 | Centratherum anthelminticum E Pree (ls, 0)

Budorcas taxicolor Vs oe ee 86 , Centrocircus urophasianus... we 309

Burhinus oedicnemus ... ae ... 277 | Centropus sinensis ees oa ie 205

Burmannia coelestis ... =o wwe-~—S—«d'94 | «Cephalostigma hirsutum ae ee OS

? Butastur liventer fr ind .. 273 | Ceratophyllus fasciatus des ie kT:

————-- teesa wae ee Sees SOO cm ee gallinae see wv. 173

Butorides striatus Sin ot .. «285 | ———-——— 8p. its ats eae nn

eaptliea, (is.)*~ <2: nh tes aioe 28 | ————-—— Styx a a Sete 4

Cacomantis merulinus ... ts a 264. Ceryle-rudis ae ie ae via, ceeO

Caesalpinia Bonducella iy. .. 195 | Cethosia cyane ... a ode we 97

Calandrella brachydactyla ... .. 265 | ceylonicus se au xen Bee all)

FA raytal ae ae se 265 | Chaenostoma aes ee sare a 29

Calotropis procera ame eee es 290 | Chaetomorpha ... Aa Soe ee 92

? Calidris minuta ne eae .. 281 | Chaetophora bees ats oat Bee B23

— ruficollis ae ay .. 281 | Chaetura gigantea ae at cen 2g

— temminckii...- Ae .. 2el | Chaptiaaenea ... ae oe cm 0S:

22. testacea ~ iM .. 282 | Charadrius dominicus ... Seis a 279

callinara ... ae a uy a 23 -—-— dubius vale awe 279, 311

Calliope calliope oe a .. 259 | ——--—— mongolus ... ie he eo

Calytriplex Sai aa ee bss 29 | Charaxes fabius fabius ot i 96

Capella gallinago ae aoe .. 282 | Charybdys annulata.... ae fs 91

- stenura ati nes ... 282 | Chibia hottentotta oe eh sve 4254

Capparis ah ae a 94,95 | Chilades laius laius a8 one sie 98

—— decidua See ee 20 1) Olilasa clydawlyua gee. ote 9S

Capraria crustacea Ae wes a 37 - —~—- ——_ v. dissimilis ... 93

— dissecta Mac ae se 28 - v. dissimillima 93

—— gratissima... NE a 33 | Chlidonias hybrida a ie Dey ths:

Capricornis sumatrensis ane 500 86 —-leucopterus ... sie esa

Caprimulgus asiaticus ior sin 20k —- niger erie se Ge ZO

macrourus ai .. 271 | Chloropsis aurifrons ... tee we. 247

Caprona ransonnettii saraya aan 99 | Chrozophora plicata... Sco ee asses @ aLOS

Carvia callosa_... dee aN .. 320 , Chrysomma sinensis ... ve tte, 924)

Casarca ferruginea _... ee ... 286 | ? Ciconia ciconia see re ss | 200

Cassia fistula wee ACG ‘es aes 20 —Nigra . sas a ses 2 COS

mimosoides a pas ... 193 | Cinnyris asiatica ee a0 J. 206

Castalius caleta decidia ine oa 98 | Cirrochroa tyche mithila ae, oes 97

— rosimon rosimon a wa 98 | Cisticola juncidis a aes Sree sb)

Catachrysops strabo .., eae 24,98 | Citrus sp. Spe Nar ies ase 200

‘Catopsilia crocale SHC Fes 21,94 | Clamator coromandus er Ae Acre:

——-—— florella gnoma aes 21, 95 -—— jacobinus ... oe ve =. 267

-_—-— pomona es ee 21,94 | Cleistanthus collinus ... Sse ses 57

—_—-— —--— Vv. catilla ... re 94 | cleopatra oe ae fer 159

-— pyranthe minna ie 21; 95 | Clerodendron infortunatum ... wis «95

Celastrus paniculata... ee - 192 | cochinchinensis, (C.) ... ae ees 46

Celsia wee see oc ce 25; 26 | Codium’ ©... sas aP ms ves 92

INDEX OF SPECIES

XViil

PAGE

ecoemiuea (0) 2. 11

Coldenia procumbens 196

Coleus barbaratus 135

Colias 131

Colias croceus : 131

——-— ——-— edusina 95

——— electo fieldii 131

——— erate erate 31

——— tyale 131

Colotis amata amata 22

——— danae dulcis 22

etrida etrida 22

_- fausta fausta ae

protractus 22

— vestalis 22

Columnea longifolia 36

Commelina salicifolia ... 196

Companularia 91

Copsychus saularis 250

Coracias benghalensis 269

Corvus macrorhynchos 245

——— splendens eelet aque

Cotula anthemoides 190, 193

cristatellus, (4Z.) 209

Crithidia ... 176

crocale 21

Crotolaria sericea 193

Crypsirhina cucullata 245

Ctenocephalus felis 177

Ctenocephalides 175

Ctenocephalides canis ... 1725 17

- — felis 169, 172.176

Cuculus canorus ae 267

— bakeri 305

- poliocephalus ... 267

Cucumis sativus : woe. 243

Cucurbita maxima e 242, 243

— —- ——— var. badagarensis 242

-— moschata 243

Cuon 302

—-— alpinus eaenie 300

——- - dukhunensis 300

——-- —~—-—- infuscus ... 300

——-Sp. ... c 300

Cupha Smenthie lotis 97

Curetis bulis 500 98

thetis 98

cyanophyrs 159

Cyanotis tuberosa 195

Cypsiurus parvus aoe 2/1

Cyrestis thyodamas thyodamas 97

Cyrilla aquatica

cyrus “be oe

Danais aglea mecranoides a

_———- chrysippus

v. alcippoides

—- ——-— /" dorippus

——- limniace mutina

——-— melissa septentrionis

——-— plexippus

Dasicone cingulata

Delias aglaia :

——-- descomhbesi fecencantnay

—-- eucharis a

thysbe pyramus

Dendrocitta vagabunda

Dendrocyena fulva

—- javanica

densiflora, (S.)

—

Desmodium gangeticum var. pacuiem

Diandrocarpa brackenhelmi ..,

Dicaeum cruentatum

Diceros

Dicrurus ieavopnaene

macrocercus ...

Digera arvensis ... eee ace

diphilus

Diphylidium canium

Dissemurus paradiseus

Dissoura episcopa

Dodartia indica ... 508

Dopatrium junceum

dorippus -

Draparnaldiopsis adie

Dryobates analis

————. mahrattensis

? Dryonastes caerulatus

dubius, (C.)

dukhunensis, (C.)

Dupetor flavicollis

Ecbolium Linneanum var. Aas

Echis carinata

edeni, ‘ ae

edeni, (B.) “ae

Eegretta alba

— garzetta

— intermedia

Elatine

Elatinoides Bab

——-——-— ramosissima

Elephas maximus

eGe

var. multiloba

ore

323

266

267.

246

311.

300

286

195

127

284

INDEX OF SPECIES xix

PAGE

Eleusine coracana 43, 44

Elymnias hypermoestra undularis~ ... 96

Emberiza aureola-. 5 ve ZOD

Emerita... $3 ene 102, 105

Enhydra Auetans) Sc oe ie age

Enterolobium saman ... wait eee 244

Enteromorpha ... dee a hpese 392

Epinephelus ae 5 a6 he 92

Ergolis merione fapeataina es ee 97

Eriboea athamus athamus sae oe 96

Eriocaulon sp. ... cis S86 Fo 40)

Erythroea Roxburghii ... jae fey kD

Eryx johni ses aan ies tae ey

Hsacus'recurvirostris ~... “ ..: aces pune?

Euchrysops cnejus iss as cae 98

—-——- contracta Sontinaces ae 23

- -—— pandava minuta ... re 23

Eudynamis scolopaceus 268, 304

Eumiyas thalassina ae ae eget 20

Euphorbia cae due wer | 135

Euphorbia tisidalensis: aes ce GO

(neriifolia?) ... es tage! Lod

euphrasioides, (S.) as its ae 44

Euploea core core tng ey cee 95

————. -——- vermiculata ne Mie 95

- crassa crassa... ani cies 95

——- —-- kollari ... se ‘ie 95

oe —KIMoHeKIMC 67: cs a, 95

——-— mulciber mulciber she ae 95

Eupolia_... wae lies wis an 95

Eurystomus laetior eH se see G09.

—_—_ — 0. laetior ... 305, 306

—_-—_————- orientalis is “a 30S

——_—_—_——_— O. orientalis , 305, 306

Euthalia garuda suddhodana. ... on 96

- — lepidea lepidea ae ae 96

————~ lubentina indica de e 96

—__—— nais oe ie Re ees 96

Everes parrhasius assamica (?) ee LOO

Evolvulus nummularis 190, 195

Excalfactoria chinensis oe 118, 119

excelsa, (P.) sae wae cn re aS

Falco jugger Bee be ah fee 273

- peregrinus... on fed 5H) Loe 2273

—- tinnunculus aes ee ea)

fausta 5 ane aisle eee i eee"

felis, (C;) ... “a aiF a 170, 176

filicaulis ... bok sae td elite sl

fimbriata, (Th. i He oF bk 21

flavirostris.. ais et ote aa 74

Foliorum Satna’ ee vee 165, 167

PAGE

Francolinus pintadeanus (phayrei) ... 276

Franklinia gracilis Bee as ee. 200

——rufescens ... ae seeks 200

frontalis, (B.) ... abe sve ah 86

frugivorous ase res 290, 299

Fulica atra “ee oie ote Wig, moh

fulvais, -(P.1:) Bye hels teh)

,{P. lepturus) ... ses on 76

Gallicrex cinerea see ee i 240

Gallinago nemoricola ... 500 «ss Led

Gallinula chloropus Te seis ey 471.0)

Gangara thyrsis clothilda ae 3 99

Gardenia gummifera .., ‘a’ «- 193

Gegenes nostrodamus karsana +7 24

Gerardia delphinifolia ... eee des 45

— scabra ... ‘be a ne 45

gesneroides, (S,) ... sai ast dee 43

Glareola lactea ... ae ae ae eth

-— maldivarum ... wie ern ////

Gloriosa superba ... aed a «» 196

Glossostigma diandrum .. “se ve Soll

——-— Sper naleeanl act fn Sad

Gnaphalium luteo-album var. multi-

ceps S35 nae és oa se. 193

Gomalia elma iitoralis ... ies Mae 24

gracilis, (M.) Ses ane es ves 3]

Gracillaria ox ‘ie ee ey, 92

Gracupica burmanica ... 40 258

———-— nigricollis ... 258, 305

grandiflora es ED he ss 40

Gratiola ... as ve eek Sere 29

-- ciliata ... aes io es 39

——— cordifolia tet 5 i 38

——-— grandiflora _... oes wee 39

——-~— hyssopioides ... as is 38

——-— juncea ... ae dee aa aoe

——-— lucida ... art Bo uiths ote, Sees y

—-—-— micrantha ves ee sie 47

——-— monnieri 29, 30

——-— monnieria wes oe aap 30

——— oppositifolia ... eae Sager 18)

——— parviflora vee sap see 38.

——— reptans re mae eae 39

——— ruelloides ee se ecg 39

——— serrata ... as deh) = “Ze eere9

——— verbenaefolia .... -40

= yeronicifolia:. .:. 560 ait 39

gratissima, (L.) 33

Graucalus javensis iat its Suleh256

Grewia humilis ... 191-192

vee wie pez odes

Gyps indicus ove see

XX INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE PAGE

Haematopinus ... 7 ann .. 109 | Hypolimnas misippus ... & ace Oy OH

tuberculatus?) \... . 109) -——- ——_——- V. alerpnodes ed 97

Haicyon smyrrensis.... Kc ee AU + -—— ————- vy. inaria ats 97

hamiltoniana, (B.) -«. af st 31 Hypothymis azurea a a8 eee 44-258

Hasora alexis alexis... 5 “ony 24, 99 | hyssopioides, (L.) _... ae Gs 39

—— badrabadra ... ve od 99 | Ibis leucocephalus ie des jee eee

Hebomoia glaucippe glaucippe ve 95 | ? Ichthyophaga sp. ae a3 ide yqt@ee

Hectopsyllides ... & ble ie» odo ahysanthese.. te ef ae a oOyroo

Hedyotis hispida ... oa or ... 193 | Ilysanthes hyssopioides ... aes — 38

———— maritima tes dhs ae 41, ——- oppositifolia ... Fee ott takoay 40

———— pinifolia ott ae .. 193 | ——-——parvidora .. PEN ae 38

Heliotropium marifolium Tn « 193) =——- reptans es ae pins 39

ovalifolium ada aes 195 | —-—— ruelleodes ae 500 cies 39

Hemidesmus indicus .. + .. 195 | ——-—— serrata tee oe ove 39

Hemiprocnecoronata ... ... it 9271. | = veronicitolia ... aes hi cant | ee

Hernandea peltata Efe aft ae 75 | incana, (L.) Westie 3) aide: Mees +h pee oe

Herpestis ... ae ae bic is. 29 | indica ae aoe aes ‘iss 5c 17

——-—— floribunda ... ba ae 31 | indica,(B.) Re ee ous ... 14, 15

—-—— hamiltoniana ... RE fe 30 | indicus ... se aa site sox OOS 74

———— monn‘eri Be = 39 | indicus,(P.a.) >": = = dese tgs

———— monnieria... ie Efe 30 | —--—,(P.aethereus)... ... dis 78

———— rugosa... oss im ses 33 | Indigofera arborea sad AG eenenmliga

Hibiscus... ine de ay a. ped33 | imornatus (Pic). ont 5 534 12

— rosa-sinensis ... a «2/1133 | Hole virescens > .;. aa ee waswtl peas

? Hieraetus fasciatus... i .. 273 | Ipomoea hispida... st oF Berio o'!

Hilsa ace any ave tee 315; 346 | —=————— ODSCUTA, se. aa i sce ITS

--—- ilisha ke , es .. 315 | ———— Pes-caprae .... eee 199, 194

Himantopus namentonte aac e260 | se CS ICTICIS neat Sas .. 194

Hippolysmata vittata ... St fe 91 Iraota timoleon timoleon anh aes 98

Hirundo daurica . Se a .. 263 | Ischaemum “de cp biot we | oaéS

an rustica Garin cies oe .. 263 | Ischaemum bombaiense bi 165, 166

——-— —-— tytleri ... a 1.5. weet 263 — imbricato ... a eae OL

——-— smithii ... mae a ee 2OG | ee LOO SEO bap ise Boe INS

Hoplopterus duvaucelli... ae . 29|-—-——— rugecsum .. aS ose. 66,

Hoppea dichotoma sae eed 25) — santapaui ... fe, 165, 167

——-—— fastigiata san shi 191,193 |) remene (Ml): Sag ais aes 22

Hornemannia viscosa .. eae ae 37 | Issoria sinha pallida... he sie 7,

horsfieldi ... ae ee be .. 120 | Ixias pyrene satadra ... i ee 22

Horsfieldia anita dina ... ae .. 100 | Ixobrychus cinnanomeus Bs oo. SS e28S

Hottonia indica ... ses ae ae 34 -—— sinensis ... 463 dt ORAS

— sessilifora ... as ae 34 | Ixora parviflora ... Hoe aoe so | 196

imei’; *:.. : ove ay 12 |, lynxtorquilla_..., ce Ace .». | 2O7

Huphina nerissa eyaece pn ies 94 | Jambheri... tee ae “Bt ase GO

Hyarotis adrastus adrastus.... as 99 | Jamesbrittenia ... & ae “aie 29

Hydrilla ... ane BC oie -. 323 | Jamides alecto SHEA bs a3 98

Hydrophasianus chirurgus aes ee 2a — bochus bochus ase oe 98

Hydropityon ste oe as 32 —celeno celeno ... mee ate 98

Hygrophila Serphyltam | re io 43 | japonica ... ate aoe ite stl |) 68

Hymenolepis diminuta.. tee sce) L/Gy| awanieus.... ote 506 i: we 6307

hyperboreus aoe ae oon .. 311 | Kallima inachus inachus eee ae 97

Hypolimnas bolina ... Ae «» 22,97 | Kickgia ... eo bee ae rg

INDEX OF SPECIES

42 |

PAGE !

Kickxia incana ... ate Suaeeege 27,

— ramosissima 27

Kittacincla malabarica 250

Kydia calycina 56

laetior 207

Lagenipora ae 91

Lakshadia chinensis 197, 198

—— communis 197, 198

—— mysorensis ... ... 198, 199, 200

Lalage melaschista 253 |

Lampides boeticus . 24, 98 |

Lanius colluroides ZZ

—cristatus.. 252 |

Larus brunnicephalus ... ‘ Die |

lathami sa Sele ase eee 74)

Leonotis nepetaefolia ... 195

Lepas tunuivalvata hs ove 91

Lepidagathis cuspidata

Lepidonotus carinatulus 91

Leptoptilos dubius 283

Leptosia nina nina ae OA

lepturus .. 74, 80

lepturus, (P.) ees see 73

= (Pel) 72, 74, 78

———-, (P.lepturus) ... ue 76

-, (Phaethon 1.) ... 80

Lethe confusa confusa ... 96

——- (europa ?) ... 95

Leucas Cephalotes 196

montana ... 194

Leucopolius plerandeinas 279, 311

Lyperia 29

Libythea myrra panels 97

Limenitis procris procris be 96

Limnocnida indica 318, 319

Limnophila ee 32

Limnophiia aquatica .. 33

aromatica 32, 33

conferta ... ane 32, 33

_——_——_--— elongata ... 34

———_-—— gratioloides 34

——_——_-——- gratissima 33

——_——_-—— heterophylla 34

——_————- indica sls use ... 30, 34

——_——_-—— myriophylloides i 34

———-—— polystachya oe sles

polystachyoides .., 33, 34

——_——_-—— racemosa .. 560 34

—— — Roxburghii 33

-_— rugosa : 325.33

—— - sessiliflora ees vee OS, 34

XXi

PAGE

Linaria BY sc 205 27

Linaria cabulica .. 27

—- ——— var. paneer 27

- incana ... orgies

- ramosissima 20,527

- sp. : 27

Lindenbergia indica 45

————_-—— polyantha 45

—__—~~——— rulderalis 45

————_——- urrticaefolia Se 45

Lindernia esos //

= - aera 37, 38, 39

—_-——- ——_-.——_ var. aaa 39

——~—— bracteoides 37, 40

——-——- ciliata ... er — Se Oy Oo

——-—— cordifolia 36, 38

——-—— crustacea 30,/07,

—— -—— estammodicsa 37, 40

——-—— hirsuta 38

——-~—— hyssopioides ... 36, 38

—— -—— japonica ae a 48

——-—— oppositifolia ... 8 «. 37, 40

——-—— parviflora .. 36, 38

——-—— pedunculata ... 38

——-—— quinqueloba ... 37, 40

——-—— ruelloides 37, 39

——-—— sessiliflora ... sa soe 36, 40

— -—— verbenaefolia 37, 40

——-——- viscosa 36, 37

Linum mysorense 220

Lippia germinata 196

Lobelia trigona abe aa 193

Lobivanellus indicus 297

longifolia, (P.) oes 114

Lophospermum scandens ses 47

Lophura leucomelana moffttti... 119, 120

lorenzii, (P. collybita) ... 13

Loxura atymnus 88

lucasi 132

Ludwigia proce 180, 193

Luscinia svecica ae As 250

Lycezenesthes emolus emolus ... 98

Lyceenopsis cardia dilecta 98

- -—— puspa gisca 0 ae 98

Lysimachia monnieri AR = 2930

Lyncornis macrotis cerviniceps 271

Lysiosquilla 101, 103, 105

| ——-- —— eusebia 102

-—— excavatrux : jee 02

——-—— maculata 103, 105, 106, 107

aes tigrina a ae 103, 167

Xxii

PAGE

Lysiosquilla multifaciata 103 —

Lytocarpus ha

maculipennis, (P.) |

magnirostris, (Urocissa e.) 305 |

mahrattensis 51 |

Manulea ae 234)

Manulea Wrist. 28

Marsilea quadrifoliata .. 196

Martynia diandra 194

Matapa aria 99 |

Maurandia Berehinifora 47

—— personata 47

_—— scandens 47 |

— sem perflorens 47

Maurandya antirrhiniflora 47

—- antirrhinifolia 47

-—— semperflorens 47

Mazus japonicus 48

McCannii 48

rugosus 48

Mecardonia se 29

Mecardonia dianthera ... 322

Medicago lupulina 190, 193

Megalaima hemacephala 267

Megalurus palustris 256

Melanitis leda ismene ... 222,296

melanota ee emer 120

Melittophagus revoilii ... 152

Mella iu 29

—- floribunda 31

——- hamiltoniana 30

Membranipora 91

memnon, (P.) 100

Menippe rumphii oF

Merops se 151

apiaster ... au auliod

—-— leschenaulti 151,' 15255153>!

154, 370

ieschenaulti anadamanensis... 155

fee lesckenaulti 152, 153

—<—$=s« > —_ —- quinticolor Mei JOSE

orientalis 159, .269

os —— beludschicus... 162.

—_ —_ —_ ——-_ orientalis. 161

philippinus philippinus 159

——-— superciliaris Be 269

-- superciliosus javanicus 307

—— persicus.... 158, 307 -

Merremia tridentata perl Od

Merula simillima. 50

Metopidius indicus a 277

INDEX OF SPECIES

Microcarpea cochlearifolia

—-————. muscosga ...

——_—— —— spathulata

Micropternus brachyurus

micropterus, (C.)

Microsarcops cinereus

Mimulus gracilis

———— strictus

Mirafra assamica :

mofftti ae 50

Molpastes cafer ...

Monniera

—-—- enuneitolia

——-— floribunda

- hamiltoniana

Monticola solitaria

moschata, (C.)

Moschus moschiferus

Motacilla alba (ocularis)

——-——_-- alboides

——-——. cinerea

—-—--—— citreola (calcarata)

— —- —--—- (citreola)

——-— flava

— leucopSis .

Munia atricapilla

murghi, (Gallus g.)

muscatensis

musculus, (B.)

Mycalesis malsara

—- mineus mineus

———--— perseus typheus

——_——- visala visala

Nacaduba dubiosa indica

—- nora nora

najdanus

neglectus, (P.)

Nemorhedus és

Neopithecops zalmora ...

Neptis columella ophiana

hordenia hordonia

hylas adara

nandina susruta

Neptunus pelagicus

Netta rufina

Nettapus corona ndclene

nigropileus

Nosopsylla faciaius

Notocrypta curvifascia

Nyctanthes arbortristis

Nycticorax nycticorax .

PAGE

(idl

ate 41

eat 26%

305

280

-266

120

247

-30

vest 21 BQ

5318250

242, 243.

a oo

264

. 264

“A ar 264

264

we «=6: 264

. - 260

118

159

14, 15, 16, 18, 19

95.

159

fav BH

see > 100-

- 96

-Q7-

- 96

dee ee 96

ides seo — Oke

121

INDEX OF SPECIES

. PAGE

Nyctyornis a ety, Peake):

Nyctyornis athertoni 152, 162, 163

—athertoni ... ~=—162

Obelia Re ie van a ea 91

occipitalis, (P.) lee 3

Oldenlandia ita dod ae a 4]

—- panichlatay., 4778 sr ons al OS

-—— sp. ... a ee sae, ee0

orientalis ... Ne wae ee se | 160

-——, (M.O. _ e oh ge 1152

Oriolus chinensis ae an eae 200

- xanthornus at ie ee 208

Orobanche indica sis She aes 42

Orsotrioena medus medus AS ae 96

Orthosiphon rubicundus var. rigida... 194

Orthotomus sutorius ... ae Ate ea 45):

Ostrea cucullata moe ae bes sil

Ozius rugulosus ... Bbc see Sf 91

Padina ~ . ... oe eae 92

Padraona pretltg Pre iltis ie ae 99

Pandion haliaetus Som ae eee) RAR A ie

Panolia eldi ie re re ale 86

Pantoporia nefte inara... Pe ae 96

- —— perius en wan See 96

—— selenophora selenophora 96

Panulirus dasypus ae one wee 2

Papilic demoleus demoleus seen eae

—w—- helenus helenus ibe ee 93

- Memnon agenor “ies Aas ss)

—- ——- vy. alcanor ... 93

—- —— v. butleria-

nus 93

- polymnestor polymnestor ... 100

- polytes romulus Berar 4) east [6

_——-- V. Cyrus. a. 94

Paranemonia hati e Cues aes eee 91

Pareronia valeria Ep pia Ai ah 95

—-—— - v. philomela 95

Passer domesticus Bee aos ear ecZOp

flaveolus ... fen o soe 202

montanus ae oe col weZOZ

Pathysa nomius nomius te es 94

ayetta indica ..2 .. ... ‘ice ste dal

Pedicularis zeylanica ... eee Ree 46

Pediculus vestimenti... Ses we 09

Pelecanus philiprensis ... See Sel 44

Pellorneum ruficeps__... Nes acl beni ZA

—- ————- minor ... ae e247

Pennaria disticha 405 wes Ge, 91

Pentaceras herdmani... iS see 92

Peplidium humifusum ... ee Scie 4]

X xiii

PAGE

Peplidium maritimum ... vee ice 4]

Periclimenus spineferus iat wee 9]

Pericrocotus erythropygius ... Solow Wey)

peregrinus obi sae 202

Perineris sais er a oF 91

persicus ssl56, 157,158

—=———, (M.5. Nee 00) Lo7, 159

——_——, (M. eipercinos is) oe see hog

Petroskirtis leinardi Sere ae - 92

Phaethon ... A ia 74, 76, 80

Phaethon aethereus es ee, Sig 69

Sea a ere NCUCUISN my OU 2015 4

————- lepturus a te «a. 09, 73

2a) Bea — fulvus topes 7G

-————-- rubricauda Seceralig: eee 76

————- spp. ... ee Gad ae 79

Phalacrocorax niger... de. eae MCOL

Phaylopsis parviflora .., Sp we ==196

philippinus 156, 157, 158

——, (M.)... i ws we 156

——, (M.p.) 152, 156, 157, 158

?Philomachus pugnax ... ree ee ZOU

Phragmaticola aedon ... abe ww =. 256

Phylloscopus oo 2h, 3

—-—— affinis 105257

——— fuscatus ... Sa Prin i 7)

= griseolus ... ae ae 10

ee inornatus humei an 1

ia Be magnirostris .., es 9

————- — neglectus .., wae ae i

——. occipitalis ee oa 10

—— — reguloides vee os || (2

?—_—.—__—- schwarzi ... cos owe 206

—— tytleri nae ah see 10

Phyllydoce spp. : ; 9]

physalus, (B.) mn 15, 16, 17, 1S F119

Picus canus des “Ac x ioe) 200

——- viridanus ... ose sa « 266

Pieris brassicae ... jes tes gas 94

—-— canidiaindica .., A Scr 94

Platajea leucorodia te des tes) 282

?Plegadis falcinellus ... Ay «- 283

Ploceella chrysaea ae oes coe ~ 260

Ploceus manyar ... site ae sos 200

- passeriaus cea saa we 259

Plumbago zeylanica ... one Sie oO

Podiceps ruficollis ees as was) E287

Pogostemon plectranthoides ... oon LOG

Polycarpa on ry sea ae 92

Polycarpaea corymbosa “ts rhe ee

Polydora hornelli bas one a gl

XXIV

Polygonum plebejum

pomona aa

Porphyrio Polincepaatte

Portulaca sp.

-— tuberosa2

Portunidae Ss

Porzana pusilla opesiies

Potodrilus sp.

Pratapa cleobis ...

Precis almana almana ...

atlites

hierta hierta

— iphita iphita

—— lemonias letonias

——_——- vaisya...

Prinia flaviventris

inornata ...

Prionailurus rubiginosus phillies

viverrinus

protractus sae

Pseudogyps bengalensis

Psittacula alexandri

-— cyanocephala

—__—_—-— eupatria

-— himalayana

—— krameri

Pterocarpus marsupium

Pteromys inornatus

Pulex irritans

——- Sp. os

Pulicaria Fonolosa

Pycnonotus blanfordi

-~—— flaviventris

jocosus

Quamoclit pinnata

quinticolor (Merops 1.) ...

ramosissima, (K.)

Raiaphalcyon capensis ...

Randia longiflora

Rapala melampus

- schistacea -

? Rallus aquaticus

Rattus norvegicus

- rattus

reguloides, (P.)

Regulus

Regulus cristatus

reticulatam, (U.)

Rhamphicarpa longiflora

orithya swinhoei...

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE :

196 Rhinoceros sumatrensis

21 ——- unicornis

277 | Rhinoplax vigil

we 41 | Rhipidura albicollis

134, 135 4. —— aureola

91 | Rhodonessa caryophyllacea

276 | Rhodophila ferrea

91 | ——.—.—— melanoleuca

190 | Rhopodytes tristis

.. 23, 97 | Rhynchops albicollis

a 97 | Rhyncosia cana ..

.. 22,97 | Rickettsia ctenocephali

97 | Riparia paludicola

97 - riparia

23 | romulus

22,97 | rostrata

257 | Rottleri, (C.)

257 | rubricauda ;

297 | rubricauda, (P.)...

298 | ——--——, (P-r.)

22 | Ruellia anagallis

272 ~—-— suffruticosa

269 | Russelia equisetiformis ...

259 — floribunda

268 | ——-—juncea ... see

269 | rutilans, (C.)

268 | Salmacis virgulata

57 | Salvadora persica

114 | Sarcopsyllides

172, 173, | Sargassum -

175, 176 | Sarkidiornis melanotos ...

177 | Saron marmoratus

190, 193 , Saxicola caprata

248 — torquata

248 — — leucura

248 | Schizodactylus monstrosus

196 | schlegelii ...

153 | Scoparia dulcis

28 — grandiflora

270 | Seicercus 5A

190,193 | Semecarpus ene

99 | Septas :

99 | sericea, (Pica p. )

276 | Shorea robusta

292, 299 talura dae

290, 299 | sibbaldii ... a Bae

12 | simillimus

13 | simulata

13 | Siphia parva

220 | Sitta castaneiventris

44 tephronota

PAGE

woe 6 85

.. 82, 86

251

86, 119

249

268

Wai eS

199, 200

176

263

262

oe 297496

74, 77, 78

73,77, 78

dee ae 13

ee, eee 192

eve eee 29

ao ite tT SOS

. 57, 118, 192

198, 199, 200

1 JROSMY

, 50, 51

250

303, 304

303

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Sopubia delphinifolia 45

-- trifida 45

Spalgis epius epius 100

Sphenandra nae 29

Spicula pedicellata 166, 167

—-— sessilis 165, 167

Spindasis elima elima ... 24, 99

-—— ictis ictis 99

———-— vulcanus vulcanus ... 99

? Spizaetus limnaetus , 273

Squilla ee LONG 103, 107

Squilla desmaresti 103

empusa 101, 102,

103, 107

— — hieroglyphica sescu LOZ

—w— holoschista 103, 105

mantis 103

——— nepa 103

quadridens 302, 103

———. quinquidentata 193

— raphidea sui eee 103

——— wood-masoni 103

Staurophragma ... 26

Stemodia ... Sloe

Stemodia aquatica 34

- menthastrum 33

=. tuderalis 45

——-—— serrata 32

Stemodiacra ss om

Stemodiacra viscosa... es 32

Stenopus robustus 91

Sterculia trens ... é oF,

Sterna albifrons 278

sairantia =... 278

—--— bengalensis 80

?—-— hirundo (tibetana) 278

—-- melanogaster 278

striata 276

strictus, (M.) Si

Striga asiatica 42, 43

—-- -— — var. Albion 44

—-- coccinea .., 00 aa s 42

—-- densiflora 42, 43

——-- euphrasioides 42, 44, 94

—-- gesneroides oe 42

—_- — var. minor 43

Striga hirsuta 43

lutea <a 44

orobanchioides ... z 42

sulphurea ; . 42, 44

Strobilanthes ... oa 320, 321

Strobilanthes callosus ...

Sturnia malabarica

Sturnopastor contra

Suastus gremius gremius

subviridis, (P.)

superciliosus, (M.)

Sus salvanius

Sutera

Sutera dissecta

elliotensis...

foetida

glandulosa

hispida

Sa ey Sete)

Syllis gracilis

—- variegata

syntarucus plinius

Sy pheotides indica

Syrichtus evanidus

——-—— galba ...

Tajuria cippus cippus

~- jangala ravata...

——-— jehana

taprobana .., aoe

Taractrocera maevius sagara ...

Tarucus alteratus

——-— callinara

——-— extricatus

——-— nara

——-— nigra... ae

——-—— theoprastus indica

Tchitrea paradisi

Telchinia violoe is

Tephrodornis gularis

Tephrosia pumila

Terebinthina aquatica ...

—--——-——-_ punctata ...

-~—_—__-——. rugosa

sessilifora

Terias blanda silhetana

—— hecabe hecabe

——— —— simulata...

——— laeta laeta

Tetrodon .,, ee

Thais bufo

Thalamitta admetta

SEER prymna

— wocdmasoni

Thalamporella rozierii....

Thespesia Lampas

Threskiornis melanocephalus .,.

XXV

PAGR

o21 322

258

ets 1259.

.. 24, 99

153

: 86

«. 28, 29

oe 29

see 28

28, 29

oui 91

« 22, 98

201

020,

.. 24, 99

PAa

“317, 318

eae 91

192

282

XxXVi

PAGE

Timalia pileata ... ae aes ie 246

Tittmania grandiflora ... on ace 38

Torenia ... ahh oo an ae 37

Torenia bicolor ... er aes Sh 36

——- cordifolia se at sh 35

— lucida... eae Ae tas 37

Torgos calvus .. wr B00 sas Che

Trianthema monogynum Be .2 195

Tribulus terrestris ae eis be G2

thinervis, (Ls.), s.. Se Ve aes 42 |

Tringa erythropus apy one Aocmtret?4.010)

- glareola nce ee Preah? 40}3,

? ——- eouttifer net ies A Swriage’43y |

———- nebularia He Re i. OL

- ochropus A aa rs 7) 280

- stagnatilis Sey oe oy. 2250

- totanus ea one 240 Pe280

trochiloides, (P.) Soe Bo aes 13

Troides aeacus Ses ies ena 010

- helena cerberus eee aad 93

Tros aristolochiae aristolochiae 21,193

——- varuna astorion ... des sao atO0

Tunga penetrans ane we sie 1S

Turdus merula bourdilloni ... ates 51

- - kinnisii ed ie ol

ee -nigropileus... ah 51

——- ——-- simillimus ... pe 51

—--- -- spencei ate fe 51

- nigropileus AY. HA 50

- similJimus mahieetense ~ 51

Tylocarcinus styx ae eee 0 92

tytleri, (P.) ay oe sae ve a

Tyto alba ine ase he sent 420.2

Udaspes folus__... dee aes cay 99

Ulva ae ate Bes vile ay 92

Upupa epops was 270

Urocissa Syeiirorienerel nee woe 245

Uroloncha punctulata a en a2O

—- striata eee voc 20H

Utricularia F 27 i221

Utricularia affinis a: bone edo)

———— albo-caerulea 2189221

——-—— arcuata Aa 218

———— —— brachypoda sae wer 2218

———— caerulea 219, 220

——-— conferta... ache pe ye. be)

————— decipiens... ae core 9 aks)

—— —. diantha siee aap scee S2S

——— — equiseticaulis dee eshm2z1

——— exoleta nee ae ee 2S

-——--—— fasciculata ... ese «» «=—.2:18

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Utricularia flexuosa... 500 cos AG

—— glochidiata ... 60 aer74)

——— graminifolia 219, 220, 221

———_ nivea sie aa Spent (0

-——— ogmosperma soe bea, Gale

~-—---—— orbiculata ... vee Ppa 4)

—_——-- — pedicellata ... wos amine)

————_——- purpurascens 219

pusilla a Si tes eeu,

——_———. racemosa 191, 194, 220

—- var. filicaulis 191, 194

—-—-—— reticulata 219, 220

—— — —— -—- var. parviflora 220

—— — stellaris 1957217 acs

-————— squamosa ... Soc ies wma

————— Striatula... SH aie -74))

—— ——— uliginoides ... oft iy lis)

-—-_——— uliginosa 218, 219

Vanda Roxburghii ie lee)

Vandellia ae e736; a7,

Vandellia angustifolia ... 5 194

——-—-— brachiata ace sya 39

SEE cordifolia... ath dG 39

—-——crustacea ... wee ah 37

——-—- hirsuta 37, 190, 194

———- oppositifolia ae eae 40

———- scabra 190, 194

——-— sessiliflora ... oft ae 40

—- veronicaefolia ont ad’ 39

Vanessa canace canace Fae bos 97

— cardui os 205 OF

Varanus bengalensis ... ie Sogn, be

——_—— sp. Siete bee

Verbascum Bee sa ZOO

Verbascum arcturus ... iB aes 25

— celsoides ... wee ve 25

— coromandelianum tf 25

— virgatum ... Sie ode 25

Vernonia Roxburghii doy) US

Veronica anagallis safe ae ser 4]

—-—-——_- ————-_ var. calycina Son 4]

——-——- beccabunga var. attenuate 4]

Vicoa auriculata ‘ 193

Vinea pusilla... a sau aon wes}

Vipera russelli ... Bas i SAGs eed i7/

Virachola isocrates .. 24, 99

viridis, (M.) ee wit ies Peres wen bye)

viridissimus oat : eee ela,

Vitex Negundo ... Jes ane Scme ne fs)!

Wahlenbergia gracilis ... 4og a. aS

westralis 77, 78

westralis, (P. r.) BEB

——_——,, (P. rubricauda)

Woodfordia floribunda

Xantho euglyptus

Xenopsylla cheopis

Xenorhynchus asiaticus

Ypthima asterope mahratta

— avanta avanta

——— baldus baldus

———— hubneri hubneri

Ypthima inica

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

193

a 91

170, 176

283

A 22

Nae 96

ae 96

Xxvii

PAGE

Zeltus etolus ue 5 99

Zesius chrysomallus _... aa ee 99

Zetides agammemnon agammemnon 94

- bathycles chiron aes 100

- sarpedon sarpedon we 94

Zizeeria gaika 98

——_——-lysimon .. 23

——— otis otis ... eae dis ae 98

———- trochilus putli ... ae ... 23, 98

- — — trochilus 23

Zizyphus jujuba 20

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS—19-5-1952. (C5470

Hi IG Gage Do ie cet ty.

a aes

1TH

ofsqthe notes

Silliva: Pi soe

2 pee

| eG

;

> Re

25 . Ss iol eee ee

’ + e ; iy a, ny a

NE ee ee ,

t re jo =

See

SS «at ee

wp oP epee:

< Tay

ee a ee ae

.o my . - tema 4 u i

eT ees | 7

fy 5 a

4 3

Sy . \

JOURNAL OF THE

- BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Vol. 49, No. 1

Editors

SALIM ALI, S. B. SETNA, H. SANTAPAU

ei ae men, |

(SONIAN INST; Tap

ox Gy,

JUL1 9 1950

ATrovay gseO.,

APRIL 1950

Rs. 15

The All-Proof ‘“Sowar Prima” is com.

pletely protected from every risk to

which a watch is subjected in every

day wear at work or play. It is

positively queeksereck: water-proof

and stain-proof. You will be proud to

own one of these superb time-keepers

whose permanently brilliant case

hermetically seals the thoroughly

reliable and fully jewelled movement.

The West End

; : ALL-PROOF “SOWAR-PRIMA”

Positively - Shock e Proof, 104" Medium Size

Stain-Proot & Water-Proof | w, 5. Patent Everbright Steel Case ... Rs. 156

WEST END WATCHC°

BOMBAY CALCUTTA

ae ae ee

_—- se

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 49, No. 1

PAGE

JUNGLE MerEmorisgs, Part V. By Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian-Adams,

O.B.E., F.ZS., L.A. (Retd.). (With 2 plates) wa ibe Beis 1

Some NotrrEs ON THE GENUS Phylloscopus IN KaSHMIR. By Horace

G. Alexander, \ ... Si esi ee ies ~ 9

A NorE ON THE RORQUALS (alaenoplera spp.). By C. A. Gibson-Hill,

M.A., F.Z.S. (With 3 plates) Bed V4

BUTTERFLIES OF SIND. By N. H. Menesse, 0.B.£., 1.S.E. REA eds 20

NotES ON THE Scrophulariaceaeé OF BOMBAY. By H. Santapau, S.J.,

BalusSe oe Sy see oe eee a 25

Notes on Zurdus mevula iN SoutH Inpia. By S. Dillon Ripley i 50

A Novet METHOD OF DESTROYING MAN-EATERS AND CATTLE-LIFTERS

WITHOUT FIREARMS. By 8S. R_ Daver. (With a plate and 11 text-

figures) aes ses sat et aos ws 52

THE TrROPIC-BIRDS OCCURRING IN THE INDIAN OCEAN AND ADJACENT

Seas. By C. A. Gibson-Hill, M.a., M.B.0.U. (With 3 plates) oe 67

WILD LIFE RESERVES IN INDIA: ASSAM. By E. P. Gee, M.A., C.M.Z.S.,

F.R.G.S. (With 2 plates, a map and a table) wai ies ews 81

THE FOULING ORGANISMS OF PEARL-OYSTER CAGES. By George K.

Kuriyan, M.sc., F.z.S. (With a text-figure) ies a ve 90

CHAMPARAN BUTTERFLIES—NorTH BinaR. By A. C. Harman ies 93

OBSERVATIONS ON SOME LARVAL AND Post-LARVAL STOMATOPODS. By

K.H. Alikunhi. (With 2 plates) see ‘es lee sc 101

OBITUARY :

H. B. Hayes see see aie Set cs «= KOS

REVIEWS :—

J, External and Internal Anatomy of the Buffalo-Louse. (S. Mahdi-

hassan) ... Se. eos - a oeelOd

2. Wild Flowers ata Glance. (H. Santapau) ... oe .. 109

3. The Ocean. (H: Santapau) i a ve Teo

4. Birds of the Coast. (H.A.) ae eee sins vale

Additions to the Society’s Library aa tae ee |

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES:—

1. Longevity in Elephants. By Hamid A. Ali (p. 113). 2. Wild Elephants

dying in Assam. By E. P, Gee (p.113). 3. A bull Bison’s abnormal behaviour,

By Randolph C. Morris. (p. 114). 4. The Large Red Flying Squirrel (Péeromys

tnornatus Geo#roy). By Bb. B.Osmaston (p.114). 5. Scent. By R. W. Burton

JUL 1 2 1950

ii CONTENTS OF VOLUME 49, No. 1

(p. 116). 6. The southern limit of the Red Junglefowl Gallus G. Murght

Robinson & Kloss). By A. J. Brock (p. 118). 7. Occurrence of the Blue-breasted

Quail (Zxcalfactoria chinensis) in Mysore. By G. V. R. Frend (p. 118). 8

Two birds about which more information is needed. By S. Dillon Ripley (p. 119)

9. Possible occurrence of the Black Tern [Chlidonias niger (L.)] near Delhi. By

H.G. Alexander (p. 126). 10. Status of the Red-crested Pochard (Vetta rufina

Pallas) in South India. By A. J. Brock (p, 121). 11. Occurrence of the Scaup

Duck [Aythya marila (L.)] in the Bombay Deccan. By W. B. Aspinall (p. 122).

12. The Occurrence of the Wood Snipe (Gatlinago nemoricola Hodgs.) near

‘Poona.- By M. Suter (p. 123). 13. Field identification of birds. By H. G.

Alexander (p. 123). 14. Freak Shots. By P. H. Sykes (p. 125). 15. Occurr

rence of Russell’s Viper (Vipera russelli Shaw) in Kathiawar, Saurashtra. By

G. A. Kapadia (p. 127). 16. The Record Black Earth Boa (Hyryx johni Russell).

‘By V.K. Chari (p. 127). 17. Effect of atmospheric pressure while fishing. (With a

photo). By E. P. Gee (p. 128). 18. Whale Sharks in Indian waters. By the Editors

(p. 129). 19. Specific names of the two common Indian Colas Butterflies. By

D.G. Sevastopulo (p. 131). 20. A Honey-bee in the nest of a Mason-Wasp. By

.D. G. Sevastopulo (p. 131). 21. The male genital armature of Ayyaria chaetop-

hora Karny. (With a text-figure). By T. N. Ananthakrishnan (p. 131). 22.

Observations on the occurrence of the tick Aponomma gervaisi (Lucas) on

Varanus sp. By Basant Kumar Behura (p. 132). 23. Reduplication in the

-epicalyx of Hibiscus L. (Witha text-figure). By J. L. Kantarao and V. Ven-

kateswarlu (p. 133). 24. A note on the growth in a herbarium specimen of

Portulaca tuberosa Roxb. (With a text-figure). By A. 'T. Natarajan (p. 134).

Announcement. see ae eS ae ae 136

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

1950 VoL. 49 No. 1

nel

JUNGLE MEMORIES

LtT.-CoL. E. G. PHYTHIAN-ADAMS, O.B.E., F.Z.S., I.A. (Retd.)

PART V—BEARS

(With two plates)

In previous sections I have endeavoured to describe jungle episodes

not only for their interest, but also to point the moral. My experiences

with bears, however, are so limited, that I can do little more than

describe incidents as they happened, and must leave it to the reader

to extract, if he can, any information which may be of use to him.

I remember very well how, many years ago, I was showing my

shikar photos to my aunt’s head-keeper in Perthshire, as fine a type

of sportsman as one could meet anywhere. He was obviously in-

terested in the prints of tiger, panther and elephant, but what impressed

him more than anything was a photo of a bear—a beast he said that

he definitely would not like to meet. I suppose it was some sub-

conscious memory of the days when bears were found in Scotland,

but it struck me as rather remarkable, for I think most sportsmen

in India have a sort of amused contempt for a bear, and until they

strike trouble, are not inclined to take them very seriously, That

certainly was my own outlook, until a certain episode caused me to

some extent to modify my views.

HIMALAYAN BEARS

When I came out to India in 1904 my first station was Dalhousie

in Chamba State and in those days Red bears were comparatively

common. But of course it was impossible for a newly-joined subaltern

to obtain leave long enough to try for them, and as my subsequent

service was spent in South India, Burma and overseas, I have never

yet had an opportunity of bagging one. All I could manage was to

slip away on Sundays to try for the Black bears which used to raid

the fields not far from the station, so my shikari assured me, and

I think he was probably right, though I was far too inexperienced

2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

to be able to judge correctly. Often I spent a moonlight night try-

ing to intercept a crop-raider, but never saw one, though I was shown

fresh tracks reputed to be bears. So it happened that I did not

meet a Himalayan bear till years later, and then it was in Burma.

That was in 1913 at Magyigon, while I was searching for the

wounded rogue elephant as already described in a previous section. We

were going along in the jungle looking for tracks, when I saw a

bear asleep in the fork of a tree, a good 30 feet up and some 50 yards

in front of us. I fired a conical bullet from the left barrel of my

10 bore (if the right was fired first both barrels used to go off to-

gether), and down the perpendicular trunk came the bear like a

flash—I think she must have fallen most of the way. The roars

got fainter and I thought she had gone some way, but really she

was lying dead at the foot of the tree. I had no tape with me, and

as we had to take the skin off at once I was unable to take measure-

ments, but the dried skin in a photo shows that she was a very large

beast, and my diary says very fat too—gallons of it. Unfortunately

this fat made it impossible to dry the skin satisfactorily under

monsoon conditions, and it proved rotten when sent to the taxider-

mist, in spite of every attention and frequent scraping. Probably

I should have done better to salt it and keep wet in brine—one lives

and learns!

A Lucky MIstaKxt

In the course of many years of shikar one inevitably has a number

of lucky shots, but the most extraordinary I ever made was in Burma

in 1920. I had got week-end leave from Meiktila and was trying for

tsine near Yinmabin on the Kalaw ghat. We had been out from

dawn but could not find fresh tracks till too late to be of use, so had

to give it up till the afternoon. On our way back we came across

very fresh bear droppings, and my mokso Ko Po said it was probably

lying up in a thickly bushed nulla close at hand. Cautiously work-

ing along it I suddenly saw a black mass moving in the dense

cover on the opposite bank about 4o yards away, so thinking it was

the bear I fired for the shoulder, and brought it down. Ko Po,

who was literally dancing with delight shouted out. ‘You have got

them both’, and when I asked what he meant he said it was a couple

of pigs! And so it was—they had been moving side by side on the

sloping ground, one slightly in advance, and my bullet had taken

the top off the head of the lower one and then passed through the heart

of its companion. No wonder the mokso was pleased, as they were

a couple of huge sows, and he anticipated selling the meat for up-

wards of Rs. 100.

That a bullet should pass through the animal aimed at and wound

another beyond, must be within the experience of many sportsmen.

Only a few years ago a case occurred at Mudumalai where a spotted:

stag was shot, and the bullet wounded a doe and fawn standing

beyond; but the extraordinary point in the case I have related is.

that both animals were killed dead with a single shot. I am afraid.

some readers will doubt my veracity, but I can assure them that the

incident did occur exactly as described. Of course it was a most

amazing fluke, but at the same time it is an unforgettable jungle

memory.

JUNGLE MEMORIES 3

MALAYAN BEAR

It was while I was stationed at Bhamo in Upper Burma that IL

bagged the only Malay bear which I have seen. This must have

been in July 1914 (my diary of the period is very condensed and.

omits dates), as I had my Chinese munshi, Hwan Jhi Lieng with

me, and I know that I passed my examination in Yunnanese short-

ly afterwards and before the outbreak of war.

On this particular occasion we went up the Irrawaddy by boat

to Thapanbin and beat the jungles on the left bank for anything

which might turn up. In the first beat a sambar cantered past me

at 9o yards and I got it with a lucky shot from my No. 2 Express—-

the Burmans would not believe I had hit it till I showed it lying

dead. Two beats later I was watching with some amusement my

little Chinese munshi as he tried to draw a bead on a sambar pass-

ing him, when suddenly a Malay bear came out in front of me. My

right barrel missed fire, but the left rolled him over and another shot

finished him. The skin was a very fine one with short thick glossy

fur and a wide orange V, but unfortunately three days’ heavy rain

prevented my saving it, and now I have not even the skull to remind.

me of the affair. What pleased my Burmans most was that he

was full of honey, which ran out of his mouth all the way back to

camp—those who know Burma will realise that it was not wasted!

What happy care-free days those were before two World Wars

upset everything, and what cheerful and willing helpers the Burmese

villagers were, if one could speak their language. Never shall I

forget another trip to Thapanbin when, after beating the jungles

across the Irrawaddy, we had to return in a violent thunderstorm.

There were some 30 of us in a Burmese racing boat with only 2

inches of free-board, and the water was very rough, but I think I was the

only one who worried at all!

SLOTH BEAR

When I first visited Chanda in the Central Provinces in 1906,

sloth bears were very common, and since a number of villagers had

been mauled, Government paid a reward of Rs. 5 on each skin

brought in. It was here that I bagged my first, a large female which

we suddenly came across standing up and eating out of her paws,

which were full of white ants. She was off before I could shoot,

but rushing after her I found her lying under a thick bush with

her paws over her face. A soft-nosed bullet from my Jeffery .400

roused her and she bolted into some thick cover, where a few seconds

later we heard her ‘yodel’. Cautiously approaching I gave her

another shot but it was unnecessary.

The timid behaviour of this bear was in marked contrast with

that of another which I encountered in the following year. At the

time I was in camp at Soorsa near Moharli, and during our first

night there two bears were either fighting or making love close

by—the noise was a ‘whoo-hoo’ like a child crying and suddenly

bursting into violent sobs. Next day we heard them at it again

some miles away while working the jungle, but could not contact.

4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Voi... 49

They returned close to camp that night, the attraction no doubt

being our water supply, as there was little available elsewhere. On

the following morning I started off at 4.30 a.m. for distant bison ground,

and at 5.15 suddenly heard a grunting noise quite close behind us.

[ thought it was a pig but the shikari said it was a bear, and I had

scarcely time to change rifles when he was charging downhill at us

making a most disgusting uproar. It was of course too dark to

see the sights, so I decided to reserve my fire till he was close on

us. He was going so fast that almost at once he was within 5

yards when I fired both barrels of my No. 2 Express in rapid succes-

sion. ‘The flashes lit up the whole scene as he reared up and fell

over sideways and backwards, leaving a picture of claws and black

hair, but above all of the big white V which showed up very clearly.

The shikari had bolted and got up a tree, but my orderly stood like

a rock, and just before I fired I heard him click down the safety

catch of the .303. The bear went off slowly but it was too dark to

follow, so I left that till we returned the same way at 9 a.m. We then

found that both bullets had hit and that there was a heavy blood

trail which we followed some way till it led into such bad ground

that we had to give it up. I sat up over the nearest waterhole that

night but he never came to it, and I think he must have died not

far from the scene of the encounter. This was one of the closest

calls I have had in the jungle, and shows how aggressive a bear

can be at times, though without the slightest provocation.

BOMBING CAVES

As a rule bears feed at night and lie up in caves during the day-

time, and if one can get a shot as the animal returns at or soon

after dawn, well and good. Otherwise it may be possible to smoke

it out, though in my own experience this method seldom produces

results.

While I was at the School of Musketry, Satara, in 1908, a friend

and I managed to get week-end leave, and went out to prospect some

ground reported to hold bears about 25 miles away. Before dawn

next day I put T. to sit up over a cave where there were fresh

tracks, while I went off to wander through the jungle. The bear

came alright and obligingly stopped at the mouth of the cave to sniff

at a ginger biscuit which T. had inadvertently dropped—he fired

but missed, though not more than 20 feet above. I heard the shot

so returned, and after we had had breakfast, decided to smoke the

bear out. We made a huge fire of grass and green brushwood ai

the mouth of the cave, with chillies added to give it pungency, but

though we kept at it from 10 a.m. to 1 p.m., we were unable to move

the animal and had to give it up as a bad job.

No doubt that cave went too far into the hill for the smoke, or

the fireworks which we subsequently tried, to have any effect, but

when caves are shallow it is possible to bomb them out. While I

was on recruiting duty in 1915 I camped for some days at Kangundi,

a small raj in the N. Arcot district, where I was anxious to establish

a recruiting connection. The local men were keen on shikar, so ]

thought it would help matters if we had a bear hunt, and a fine chase

one gave me! The whole country there is a mass of small hills

‘QOyI9JeM & 7e IeIq Y}OTS V

yojoy fo ovavyo yy H “H ojoyd 143YYsv7 7

‘SuiSvI0F $.Jy8tu oy} Wor SurTuInzor Ie9q YWO[S V

yvjoy fo ovsvyv yy *H *“H 0j0Yq

oe SS

5 eae

The atv id ‘90S ‘LSIFT “IVN AVaWwog ‘Nunof

JUNGLE MEMORIES 5

covered with jungle, and with caves everywhere. An old bear was

located on the afternoon of 30th May, so I started after him

next morning, but found he had got into a cave. I took an uphill

position, but when bombed out he bolted down and gave no shot.

‘Next beat, positions were reversed and he bolted up while I was

‘below—incidentally he nearly caught the shikari. We followed him

across a plateau and half-way down the other side, and bombed him

out of his third cave. This time he broke past me but gave no

shot, and the same thing happened in the following beat. It was

now after 1 p.m. and I was nearly done with the heat, but the beat-

ers were very keen on one more attempt, so I agreed. My post was

on a rock downhill and when the bear was bombed out of his refuge

(an open cave), he came past me along the hill-side about 50 yards

away. I was using my 12 bore with ‘Destructor’ bullets and aimed

for his shoulder, but he stopped as I fired, and took it in the neck

instead. He proved to be a very fine old bear with a huge head

and worn teeth, and we carried him up to the cave he had just vacated

and had a long rest there before starting back. We got the bear

to camp by 5 p.m., and [I presented a haunch to the Dowager Rani

at her request. In return she sent a troupe of dancing girls to cele-

brate my success—some of them were quite attractive, but my

orderly whispered to me that all were boys! However that may be,

they certainly put up a good show, and their graceful movements

provided a pleasant climax to a very arduous day. A heavy thunder

storm that night made me wonder whether I should have my usual

bad luck with the skin, but treatment on both sides with Taxinine

powder prevented the hair slipping, and luckily I was able to get

it in next morning to a taxidermist in Bangalore who made an excellent

job of it.

NILGIRIS

Seventy or eighty years ago bears were quite common on the

plateau, and old shikar books record their being shot in the grounds

of Government House at Ootacamund. But those days are gone,

never to return, and nowadays the only bears which remain on the

Nilgiris are found in the low country, in the Anaikatti and Mudumaiai

forest reserves. Even there they are few and far between, and since

their habits are largely nocturnal it is seldom that one is encountered.

In the past 24 years I have fired at only 4, and perhaps the incidents

are of sufficient interest to merit inclusion in this series.

In February 1929 ' went into camp at Anaikatti to try for a very

fine bison reported te be in the vicinity. At 2 p.m. on the afternoon

of our arrival, from the verandah of the bungalow, I spotted a fine

black bull crossing the spur to the east of the Honey Rock, some 14

miles distant, so went after him. When we reached the spot we

found a herd, and as the bull, though a grand animal, was not the

one I wanted, we sat down and watched them for some time, and

then started back about 5.30 p.m. We soon came across fresh

traces of bear, and shortly after, while passing below a small cliif

face, heard subdued growls in front. The noise was only some 19

vards away, but to get a view into the cave was impossible owing

to the slope of the ground, unless one crept round the corner to the

mouth of it, which was asking for trouble on so steep a slope. We

6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY ‘NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 29

withdrew and tried to look in from the top, but it overhung so that

we could see nothing. As no alternative offered we then returned

to our original position, and my shikari Kala threw a couple of

stones round the corner without effect. I was wondering what to do

next, when with angry growls a black ball rushed out in front of me

and disappeared in the long grass downhill. I had no time for a

shot, but before I could lower my rifle, another followed. A quick

‘ssnap-shot hit, and the bear turned offering his side at not more than

40 yards. I could see only his upper half above the grass, but a

shot at the shoulder knocked him over, and after floundering about

he disappeared from sight. Shortly after we heard the death wai!

some way below and found that he had rolled a considerable distance

down the very steep slope. My shikari said there was probably a third

animal, as three bears had on several recent occasions chased villagers

below the Succoth Estate not far away. I thought it unlikely after

the firing, but went and examined the cave—it was only a sheltered

overhang of rock with no depth and obviously empty. We then went

down to examine the one shot and found it to be a young but full

grown male—the pads of the fore-paws were badly abraded—one had

maggots in it and the other an ingrowing claw, which cannot have

iamproved his temper. The first bullet (soft nosed .423 Mauser) we

found had broken the bear’s left shoulder, and the second his right

and carried broken bits of bone through the heart, a shot which I

have found far more effective than if placed behind the shouldex

when the animal is broadside on. This point has already been refer-

red to in the article on tigers.

Three days later I beat the big ravine two miles east of the forest

bungalow, as there were numerous fresh bear tracks in that

direction, and a lot of open caves which could be easily bombed. The

second beat held a bear but it broke out to one side and offered no

shot, so I moved about a mile upstream. About 2.45 p.m. I got

into position on a huge rock covering the bed of the ravine some

50 feet below me, and also the opposite bank so far as intervening

trees and bushes permitted—my shikari Kala was up the slope be-

hind me as stop. About 3 p.m. the beat was audible in the distance,

and shortly after I heard Kala shouting and throwing stones, which

were answered by the angry grunts of a bear. Standing up and

turning round to command the slope behind me, I saw a bear about

35 yards away, evidently annoyed that its attempt to break out had

been frustrated—its ears were laid back, making its head look very

well brushed and smooth. I fired at once for the shoulder; and

after carrying on for 20 yards or so it went out of sight behind a

bush, and gave the death wail. When the beaters came up, I had

a little fun with them, saying that I had shot a large monkey, and

it was most amusing to see how their long faces brightened up when

they saw what it really was. It proved to be a female, and was

probably the companion of the one shot previously—this one also had

a raw patch on one fore-paw and only 3 claws, of which 2 had

‘grown in circles but without entering the foot. I noticed that the

pads of both bears were well stained with the juice of prickly-pear

fruit. Huge areas were covered with the latter in those days and

bears were then common, but since the unfortunate introduction of

the cochineal insect and the consequent elimination of most of the

JUNGLE MEMORIES 7

prickly-pear, bears are now seldom to be found in that locality, and

there has been a very marked diminution in peafowl and jungle-

fowl, which also are so fond of that fruit.

I have fired at only 2 other bears at Anaikatti since then. The

first of these was at Xmas 1936 when, going along a jungle path

on a cold misty morning soon after dawn, we spotted a bear grubbing

about in a thicket only 45 yards away. The light was so bad that

it was difficult to make out, but when it reached an opening in the

bushes I had a steady shot. I was surprised to see it go off apparent-

ly untouched as I felt sure I had hit it, so ran after it, but the bear,

whose progress had till then been fairly leisurely, soon got into top

gear and left me winded. I then went back to the thicket to look

for blood, and found that my bullet had hit a twig about an inch

thick and had been deflected. He was a fine big brute and it was

hard luck to lose him like that.

The last bear I have met was when. after small game early in

1948, some 6 miles downstream from Anaikatti. We were beating

a long ravine thickly covered with bushes and scrub, and I heard

the men shouting that a bear was coming towards us. At Anaikatti

it is as well always to carry a few ball and buckshot cartridges, as

one never knows what will turn up. I therefore reloaded with those,

and shortly afterwards heard the bear grunting as it tried to break

past the stops on my left. There was a small game-path leading

out of the bushes 11 yards in front of me and the bear suddenly

appeared there, but stopped on seeing me. Though at such close

range it was very hard to make him out in the thick cover, but it

was obviously necessary to fire at once, and I did so, aiming for

his throat. The bullet turned him, and as he went off, I gave him

the left barrel at the back of the head, but neither shot seemed to

have much effect, and a minute later he bolted past the gun on my

right, who got in two useful shots in the open. That, I am sorry

to say, was the last we saw of him, for though we followed the

blood trail some way, we never came up with him. Bears are extra-

ordinarily tough animals and unless the bullet is very accurately

placed (not too easy on account of their long hair) the chances are

they will get away.

Talking of their long hair, I am surprised that so many shikar

books refer to it as more suited to Arctic conditions than to the

climate in which they live. But the hair though long is comparat-

ively thin, and can hardly be hot. It seems to me more likely to be

a non-conductor of heat, just as those who have served in Iraq wilt

remember how the Arabs during the hot weather are in the habit of

‘donning additional black clothing. I imagine the bear’s long hair

is intended mainly to protect him from bees when he raids the combs,

as he is so fond of doing.

BEAR KILLED BY TIGER

From time to time when wandering in the jungle one comes across

the scene of a jungle tragedy, In 1908 I was shooting in the Kauria

Zemindari of the Raipur district, C.P., and one afternoon having nothing

better to do, as I was tying up for tiger, I climbed the big 800 foot

hill above my camp. In a hollow at the top we found the skeleton

of a bear which had obviously been killed by a tigress a few days

8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

before, as it was comparatively fresh. The place showed signs of

the conflict quite clearly—tufts of hair were lying about and a mass

of pug marks of both the tigress and the bear showed beyond doubt

what had happened. It also explained why the tigress refused to

take any of the baits I was tying out for her. She could hardly

have come out of the fight altogether unscathed, and had presumably

moved to other quarters.

SALLY

It was while I was at Bhamo in 1915, after my return from recruit-

ing duty, that a Burman one day brought in to the fort a coupie

of very small Himalayan bear cubs. I bought one of them and a

brother officer the other, for the small sum of Rs. 5 each if I

remember rightly. Sally and George, as we named them, were a

source of endless amusement. They were tied up to adjacent posts

on the verandah of our quarters, and I remember we found it neces-

sary to shorten their chains, after we had returned one morning from

parade, and found that Sally had got several turns of it round

George’s neck and was, no doubt unintentionally, strangling her

brother. One very peculiar habit they had of putting their paws

over their faces and inhaling deeply when having an easy after

their evening meal. Exactly why they did this we could never dis-

cover—they were not sucking or licking their paws so far as we could

see. Every now and then one would get loose and make for the

nearest tree, and sometimes it would be hours before we could get

it down.

George unfortunately did not survive long, but Sally throve apace

and was quite a big girl when the regiment moved to India. She

took the river steamer and the sea voyage as a matter of course, and

was perfectly happy so long as she was with the men, with whom

she was a great favourite. Within 48 hours of our arrival at St.

Thomas’ Mourt, we received a signal to mobilise on field service

scale and re-embark at Madras by 1 p.m. on the following day. We

did it too, with 5 minutes in hand, but I had to leave Sally behind

with my orderly, who had charge of my bungalow. And it was

while I was away that on one occasion she caused some ‘alarm and

despondency’, to a worthy padre who after dining well, took a short

cut to his bungalow through my compound, in the early hours of

the morning. Hearing footsteps, Sally came out from behind her

tree and waddled towards him, no doubt with the most friendly

intentions, but it gave the padre the shock of his life!

I then went off to a Staff job and when the regiment proceeded

to Mesopotamia in 1916, joined it en route, so had no chance of

seeing Sally again. She was left with the depot at Secunderabad, and

though full grown was entirely without vice. A playful habit of hers

was to sit up as one approached and deliver a round-arm swing,

and unfortunately this proved her undoing, as one morning her claws

caught in the C.O.’s breeches and removed most of them—so she

departed to the zoo. When I returned from Mesopotamia I tried

to find her; but was unsuccessful, so all that remains to me of

Sally is her photo and a very happy soelonys though perhaps hardly

a jungle one.

(To be continued)

SOME NOTES ON THE GENUS PHYLLOSCOPUS IN KASHMIR.

Horace G. ALEXANDER

I was in the Liddar Valley, Kashmir, from June 12th to July

4th, 1949, with Pahlgam (7,000 feet above sea-level) as base. All.

my observations were made between that height and 10,000 feet,

apart from brief excursions higher and lower.

The phylloscopi have always interested me, and I have spent

many hours standing trying to get satisfactory views of these tiny

birds as they flit about in trees or bushes, and much oftener failing

than succeeding. The notes that follow must only be regarded as

a first essay (as far as I am concerned at least) on Kashmir

phylloscopi. It will be seen that I am by no means clear about the

status, even in this limited area, of several species. Ticehurst, in

his excellent monograph of the genus, warns his readers against

field identifications. This warning should be taken to heart, and

the field observer should always either present his evidence for

identifications, or should only give his identifications as tentative.

On the other hand, the observer today has the inestimable advantage

of Ticehurst’s book to help him. I never go on a holiday in India

without it, and even when I leave it behind when out on a day or

two’s trek, I generally regret its absence.

In what follows, I try to deal with the species observed in order

of their size, beginning with the largest. In general it may be said

that the main divisions of the genus, from the point of view of the

field observer, are four: first, large or long-tailed species with no

wing-bar; secondly, large species with a wing-bar; thirdly, smal!

or short-tailed species with no wing-bar; fourthly, small species

with a wing-bar or wing-bars. All four types are represented in

Kashmir. I do not follow the sub-divisions in the above order in

what follows. The three long-tailed species with no wing-bar are all

smaller than the two with wing-bars, so I take the latter first. On

the other hand, the only small species without a wing-bar is slightly

larger than those with wing-bars, so here I take it first.

Phylloscopus magnirostris.

This species, the largest of all Indian phylloscopi, is common in

the Liddar Valley, Once you have learnt its very distinctive song,

which apparently is hardly subject to any variation, its presence is

easily detected. The song is a clear bell-like cadénce of five notes:

‘twee—ti-ti tu-tu’. The call-note is of the same character, a double

note, the second note much higher than the first. I noted between

forty or fifty of them, nearly always close to running water. It is

a strictly arboreal bird. I think I only three times saw one come

down to within ten feet of the ground, and I never got wholly satis-

factory views of them. The rather broad and dark bill is a useful

character. There is one pale wing-bar at the tips of the wing-coverts,

but it is difficult to see.

10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Phylloscopus occipitalis.

This is by far the commonest species of the genus in Kashmir

indeed, I think it is the commonest bird of any kind in the Liddar

Valley. It occurs from 6,o00 feet upwards, wherever there are trees.

Its various songs and call-notes seem to form almost exactly the

same repertoire as that possessed by the European Coal Tit, but I

fear that may not be much help to Indian ornithologists. The

commonest of these notes, apparently the song, is a constantly re-

peated, cheerful, rapid, chi-wee, chi-wee, etc. Sometimes it is

reversed, with the emphasis on the wee: wee-chi, wee-chi, etc. This

species has one or two fairly distinct wing-bars, but it is the mark-

ings on its head that are diagnostic. The dark bands above the

eye-stripe and through the eye are often very strongly marked,

contrasting with the long yellowish eye-stripe between them. The

usual English name for the bird, ‘Crowned Willow-Warbler’, is

given it because of the pale coronal streak, greeny-yellow, somewhat

variable in intensity, running from the bill over the top of the head

to the nape. Another good field character is the orange base of the

bill. This feature, adjoining the beginning of the yellow superciliary

stripe, and a yellowish throat, gives the bird a decidedly yellow

appearance about the face, in marked contrast to the last species.

Phylloscopus tytleri.

This bird is somewhat smaller than the last two, but it belongs,

with them, to the species having reasonably long tails. It has no

wing-bar, I only saw a few, and it was some time before I identified

them satisfactorily, as they were browner than I had expected. In-

deed, I think the field observer may be pardoned for thinking, when

he first sees them in Kashmir, that he is watching a Siberian

Chiffchaff. The first that I saw at close quarters, in low bushes,

was carrying food, so it may have had a nest nearby. I only once

heard the song: whittle-di-wee-you was the way I syllabified it.

After watching several at very close range I described them as rather

dull brown all over the upper-parts, the tail showing a trace of rufous

or fulvous on the edges of the feathers. The wing-quills seemed to

show a very faint trace of greenish, but only very faint. In the

hand, the very narrow bill is a good character, but I did not notice

this in the birds I saw. Perhaps I should have noticed it with more

extensive observation.

Phylloscopus affinis.

On June 30th, in juniper scrub at about 10,000 feet, I saw one of

these, and probably a second half a mile from it. It is very easy to

identify, being uniform brown above and bright, almost canary, yellow

below. At altitudes above 10,000 feet it 1s probably common.

Phylloscopus griseolus.

On June 18th I saw what appeared to be a bird of this species

at the edge of some woodland about 8,500 feet, above Pahlgam. If

the identification was correct, it was presumably a bird of passage

‘or a wanderer. It is not difficult to identify, as its upper plumage

SOME NOTES ON THE GENUS FHYLLOSCOPUS IN KASHMIR 11

is a peculiar grey-brown, and its under-parts are oily yellow. It has

no wing-bar. In its winter quarters, in Indian jungle, it is fond of

hopping about the boles of big trees, and usually keeps near the

ground, associating with other small birds.

Phylloscopus neglectus.

This is a short-tailed species without the least trace of a wing-

bar. Indeed, I believe it is the only one in the whole genus that

combines a short tail with absence of wing-bar. Ticehurst could not

trace a single specimen from Kashmir. It appeared to me to be one

of the commoner species, so I must present my evidence. On June

22nd and 23rd I came on small parties, the first near Pahlgam not

much above 7,000 feet, the second at Lidderwat, at over 9,000 feet,

In both cases they were feeding in low scrub near the main Liddar

stream, and they were absurdly tame, but extremely skulking, so

that I sometimes saw them at barely six feet distance from my eyes,

and below me, but only for a split moment, except once or twice

when two chased. However, subsequently, on June 28th, 29th and

3oth and again on July 3rd, I saw others, latterly singly or in pairs,

which were sometimes as polite to the observer as any Phylloscopus

ever knows how to be. That is to say, I saw individuals at close

quarters, below me, which stayed in one spot, in full view, for at least

five seconds.

The first I saw were more or less in company with the first P.

iytler. that I saw, and as both species are brown above and dirty

white below without any wing-bar, this caused me some confusion.

Happily, this got disentangled later. I had to make up my mind

why I was certain that these small brown phylloscopi were not

Chiffchaffs. From the first day, my first and most decisive answer

was, ‘the short tail’. Perhaps it will be sufficient if I quote what I

wrote after the final observation on July 3rd. ‘My last observation,

to-day, is the most satisfactory of all. I was exploring the scrub

and boulders of a ‘‘marg’’ about 9,000 feet up, and heard a little three-

note song, ti-wish-1, in some bushes to my left and below me. Soon

I saw a P. neglectus, and it was under close observation for the next

ten minutes, showing itself on top of bushes from time to time, and

sometimes coming within ten feet of me, and all the time below me.

It was mostly silent. Then I heard a very faint peep behind me,

and presently a second bird appeared. The first, in response to the

gentle ‘‘peeping’’, came up the hill and fed it, while the second bird

shivered its wings. The first then sang several times, there was a

little chasing and then they separated again, and I only saw the male.

Had the female (for I feel confident it was the mate, not a young

bird) come off the nest?—or were they courting? As to colour, I

have not much to add [to what I had written in my notes on earlier

days.| Plain brown is the colour of the body feathers, from crown to

tail. There is no suggestion of a wing-bar, In certain lights the

wing-quills and the tail-feathers look slightly fulvous, in others al-

most olive-green; possibly they reflect a somewhat different coiour

at different angles. (The birds were seen in bright sunshine at just

about noon). The under-parts show no trace of yellow, but are

decidedly streaky. I still have no very satisfactory account of the

12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol: 49

colours of the soft parts. I should say: Eye nearly black, biil brown,

legs rather pale brown. The pale superciliary extends a little behind.

the eye, but is much shorter than in most phylloscopi’.

It will be seen that my evidence suggests that birds of this species

were appearing in small parties in the Liddar Valley in mid-June,

and beginning to nest there, at heights between 7,000 and 9,000 feet,

by the end of the month.

Those in parties were mostly silent, but I occasionally heard a

sharp chip note, and in chasing one uttered a double chi-ip.

Phylloscopus reguloides.

Now we come to what, in Kashmir at least, is the most difficult

group, namely the small phylloscopi with wing-bars. Here my in-

formation is certainly very incomplete, even for the area in which I

was observing. P. reguloides is the greenest of this group, its upper

plumage appearing a rather bright green, or yellow-green, when it

is seen at close quarters. Also, it has a pale occipital streak. I

notice that Salim Ali, in his new book on ‘Indian Hill Birds’ describes

it as the Kashmir Crowned Willow-Warbler. I am afraid this

strikes me as an unfortunate name, since the ordinary Crowned

Willow-Warbler (P. occipitalis) must outnumber it in Kashmir by a

hundred to one. But if the word ‘Small’ were added, it’ would

emphasise the fact that this species, like that, has a pale occipital

stripe. This, together with its short tail and greenish upper-parts,

should suffice to identify it under favourable conditions. On June

25th I had a close view of one, and a few days later I saw some in

a mixed party, but those are all I was sure of, and it appeared to

me to be a rather scarce species.

Phylloscopus inornatus humei,

I do not favour the use of trinomials by field observers, as the use

of the subspecific name is normally a mere assumption based on what

is written in books, It is rarely possible to distinguish one sub-

species from another in the field. But in this case, not only is the

form of the so-called Yellow-browed Warbler that occurs all over

India (except in the extreme north-east) known to be humez, but also

it is in fact paler and less yellow than P. i. inornatus, so that it is

not impossible to distinguish. This is alleged to be one of the

commoner species in Kashmir at the altitudes IT was exploring. My

experience suggests otherwise. I only twice tieard its very distinctive

double call-note, tiss-yip, which one can hear almost any day in

the gardens of New Delhi in the winter; apart from this I only saw

it for certain on two or three occasions in mixed parties of small birds

in the woods.

Phylloscopus pulcher.

On June 27th, following a heavy downpour of rain, I found a

remarkable concourse of small birds, flycatchers, tits, warblers, etc.,

in the scrub close to the Forest Rest-House at Pahlgam. Twice,

while I stood watching, a bird of this species appeared, its orange

wing-bands instantly marking it out. On one, I also caught a

SOME NOLTES;ON THE GENUS PHYLLOSCOPUS IN KASHMIR 13

glimpse of the white in the tail-feathers, a feature that is hardly

found in any other Indian Phylloscopus, though it is characteristic

of course of the Grey-headed Flycatcher-Warbler, of the nearly re-

lated genus Seicercus. This bird, by the way, so common at most

hill stations in the: Himalayas, I did not see: in Kashmir.

Phylloscopus proregulus.

This, the smallest Indian Phylloscopus, appeared to me to be the

most abundant after P. occipitalis. Its song 1s weak, a rapid, rather

unmusical, feeble trill, suggesting a Regulus. The call-notes I heard

included a rather flat chi-wee, and, near the nest, a plaintive twee.

It is readily distinguished by the lemon-yellow coloured rump, often

visible when the bird hovers, goldcrest-like, to pic insects off the

foliage of the pine trees. When this cannot be seen, the vellowish

wing-bars and superciliary streak and occipital streak, the latter rather

variable, should help in identification. The general plumage is browner

than that of the other small wing-barred phylloscopi of Kashmir.

It must not be forgotten that the Goldcrest, Regulus cristatus, is

also common in Kashmir. Its general plumage is olive-green. There

is a single pale wing-bar and a second pale bar at right angies to it.

The occipital stripe is orange or yellow, except in the young birds,

which lack this feature. And at the sides of the crown there runs a

black line. But below this, the whole face is uniform greenish, with

no pale superciliary stripe, and no dark eye-strip, features which are

characteristic, in varying degree, of every Phylloscopus known to me.

At least four species of Phylloscopus may occur at higher eleva-

tions in parts of Kashmir which I did not visit. These are P. collybita

lorenzi, P. trochiloides, P. subviridis and P. maculipennis.

A NOTE ON THE RORQUALS (BALAENOPTERA SPP.)

C. A. GIBSON-HILL, M.A., F.Z.S.

(Raffles Museum, Singapore)

(With three plates)

SYNOPSIS

An attempt is made to analyse the published records of rorquals

(Balaenoptera spp.) stranded on the coasts of India and Ceylon with

the object of determining the species occurring in this area. Positive

identifications apparently exist for only one species, the Blue Whale,

B. musculus (Linn.). It seems -highly probable, but not certain,

that two others, the Fin Whale, B. physalus (Linn.), and the Piked

Whale, B. acutorostrata Lacép., also arrive here at least occasional-

ly. The great majority of the records are merely generic, and to

assist in the production of more precise identifications in the future

a brief account is given of the external characteristics of the five.

known living species. The paper finishes with a summary of the

records from the Malaysian sub-region, which includes the seas im-

mediately to the east of the northern Indian Ocean.

THE RORQUALS KNOWN FROM THE COASTS OF INDIA & CEYLON

In a recent number of this journal N. G. pillai (1949: 358)

provides an interesting note on an immature rorqual caught alive

off the coast of Bombay on 12 April 1949. Unfortunately no specific

diagnosis is given. The balance of probability is that the specimen

was a Lesser Rorqual, Balaenoptera acutorostrata Lacép., but this

cannot be regarded as certain on the information available. Similarly,

the list of whales stranded on the coasts of India published by S. T.

Moses (1947: 377-8) includes only two precise identifications of

Balaenoptera spp. in a total of more than 25 strandings. The two

that Moses cites are an immature Blue Whale, B. musculus (Linn.),.

length about 35 feet, which came ashore at Nirodumunai (Ceylon).

in 1932, and a specimen described as ‘B. edeni’ which is said to have

been stranded in the Sittang estuary in June 1871. B. edeni (Anderson,

1878: 551-64) is a synonym of the Piked Whale or Lesser Rorqual,

B. acutorostrata, but this does not give us a definite record for the

latter mammal on the Indian coast as Sittang is situated in Burma,

about 75 miles east of Rangoon.

In addition to the Nirodumunai whale cited by Moses, Dr. A.

Aiyappan tells me (in litt., 18-3-49) that the Madras Museum con-

tains an entire mounted skeleton of B. indica Blyth (= B. musculus)

which came ashore at Mangalore in 1874. I am also strongly of

the opinion that the 61-foot whale figured by Kinnear (in Prater,

1915: 577), which was stranded at Viziadrug near Ratnagiri in August

1912, belonged to this species. No doubt also any of the additional

records on Moses’s list with lengths of over 80 feet can fairly safely

be ascribed to it; these are Quilon 1848, Amherst Island (Arakan=

Burma again) 1851, Quilon 1858, near Cherai (Cochin) November

NOTE ON RORQUALS (BALAENOPTERA SPP.) 15

1927, between Suratkal and Moolki 1939, and probably Mulvel

(Okhamandal) March 1939. The last of these must be treated with

some reserve, aS the whale is said to have been 79 feet long but

with a flipper length of only 6 feet (see Moses 1941: 896); this is

much too short for any rorqual with the body length quoted.

Similarly I have not included the 160-foot whale, Pondicherry 1757,

cited by Moses from Ananda Ranga Pillay’s diary, as the length

given is too large for any known species. Even without these last

two records, however, we have ample evidence that the Blue Whale,

B. musculus, does come ashore at intervals on the coasts of India

and Ceylon.

There is also, in my opinion, a fairly definite Indian record for

the Fin Whale, B. physalus (Linn.). This is the 41-foot whale re-

ported by Prater (1915: 576) which was stranded at Dhabool, 97

miles south of Bombay, on 11 December (?) 1913. It is not, seem-

ingly, listed by Moses. Prater identifies it as B. indica, but from the

description of the colouring and the size of the flippers (measuring

1/gth of the total body length) it must almost certainly have been

an example of physalus. Probably, though there is no_ direct

evidence to show this, some of the other records attributed non-

specifically to ‘rorqual’ belong to the Fin Whale. The information

by which the different Balaenoptera spp. can be distinguished from each

other is not readily available, but the genus as a whole can be

separated from any others occurring in these waters without much

difficulty. As a result many identifications have no doubt been left

at the level of rorqual on the assumption that that was as far as the

matter could be carried.

The rorquals are a group of whalebone whales distinguished from

all other members of the sub-order Mystacoceeti by ,a particular

combination of a few characters. They have a series of parallel grooves

or ‘pleats’ on the chin, throat and pectoral region, a dorsal fin and

fairly short flippers (equal to about 1/7th, or less, of the total length).

Taken together, these features are diagnostic of the genus. Five

species are known. From the three paragraphs above it would

appear that we have undisputed records of only one of these, the

Blue Whale, from the coasts of India and Ceylon. On the other

hand it is probable that at least two others, the Fin Whale and the

Piked Whale, have occurred in our area. Any of the five might

reach this region during their wanderings in tropical waters. Even

Bryde’s Whale, B. brydei Olsen, which seemed to Olsen to be con-

fined to the cooler waters off South Africa, from Angola to Natal,

has been reported from Granada in the West Indies (Norman and.

Fraser, 1937: 235). It would accordingly appear to be of general

interest to give a summary of the external characters of the known

rorquals, in the hope that on future occasions it may be possible to

obtain more precise identifications.

The sizes of the living rorquals can be shown most satisfactorily

by the following table, taken partly from Gibson-Hill (1948: 61) and,

in the case of the whales of commercial importance, based originally

on the ‘Discovery’ Reports (1929, continuing). The lengths given are

measurements in feet from the tip of the snout to the notch of the

tail flukes. Oil yields are only very approximate estimates, as there:

16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

is considerable individual variation: as an example, one might refer,

to Olsen’s statement (1913: 1079 and 1083) that in Bryde’s Whale

the yield ranges from 2-3 barrels in an ill-conditioned animal to 15-20

barrels in a very fit one. The highest recorded yield for any species

is 305 barrels taken from a Blue Whale flensed at Walvis Bay,

South Africa. The measurements of length are as follows:

TTI

Average length at Approx.

Sete: sexual maturity Approx. | Average pate of

Species ae 7 maximum oil yield iene

Rei | length |in barrels A °

Male Female length

B. musculus ... 23 74 77 | 100 1u0 U7

B. physalus ... 21 63) ysterws6O) Vy 1682 50 1/9

Biboréalis .... 15 44 | 43 60 17 1/10-1/12

B. Ory det... ... P12 about 30-35 48 3 1/10-1/12

B. acuto- |

vostvata ... Pog about 25-30 | 33 ae 1/8

The following are the principal external features distinguishing

the five species: the data is taken partly from Norman and Fraser

(1937: 218-41) and, in the case of Bryde’s Whale, from Olsen (1913:

1073-81). The general colouring and the size and position of the

dorsal fin can be used, under favourable conditions, in determining

the identity of a rorqual seen at sea. In a stranded specimen at-

tention should also be paid to the grooves on the throat, the size of

the flippers and, above all, the form and colouring of the baleen

plates. There are also differences in the agility, speed and manner

of movement among the larger rorquals at least, but no attempt is

made to go into these points here. A certain amount of experience

at sea in areas where whales are relatively numerous is essential

before the distinctions can be mastered adequately. As in all cases

of identifying freely-moving animals, the faculty can only be acquired

by practice, and continued practice is needed to maintain it. In the

early part of 1946 I was able to separate the three large rorquals

at a moderate distance and under reasonable conditions. Now I

would not like to attempt to do so. Regular whalers, on the other

hand, habitually spot the species and gauge the approximate length,

rapidly and surely, except in the case of the Sei and Bryde’s Whales,

which have even been confused on the flensing platform. Apart from this

one instance, no appreciable difficulty is likely to be experienced in

identifying a stranded or beached whale, using the points given below.

Observers should, however, remember that the body colour, as in

man, is affected by post-mortem changes, but there is little immediate

alteration in the colouring of the baleen plates.

The Blue Whale or Sibbald’s Rorqual Balaenoptera musculus (Linn.),

This species has a relatively longer head than other rorquals,

with the sides almost parallel for part of their length. The general

colouring is a dark slate blue, with the tip and under surface of the

flippers whitish; but there is some individual variation in the colour-

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PreArp L

An adult Fin Whale, about 70 feet long, being pulled on the deck of a factory ship off

the South Shetlands.

Photos 7 as = SS ECE Ae Gator

The upper jaws and baleen plates of a Fin Whale, about 65 feet long, seen from below.

‘e181005) YINOS ‘MoqIeP] YYo'T ‘w0j;zeI[d Sutsuoy oy} UO MOS pvap & WOIF PIAOUIL ‘SUOT JooF Q JNOQe ‘oTeY AA UL [P}O} V-

1tH-V0SQ1D “V "DO 0j0Yd

Yippasvisd>:

ity

Uys Yes

tye i ] y ty G YY

ie tivid ‘90S ‘LSIFT ‘LVN AvdWwog ‘Nunof

NOTE ON RORQUALS (BALAENOPTERA SPP.) 17

ing and it may be modified by paler mottling. Whales which have

been resident in cold waters for a long period often acquire a cover-

ing film of diatoms. This may be so thick as to make the under

parts appear glaucous or even yellowish, a feature which has earned

ior it the alternative name of ‘Sulphur-bottom’. The dorsal fin is

low, small and placed well back towards the tail. The flippers are

long and tapering, measuring about 1/7th of the body-length. There

are usually about 80-100 ventral grooves, and in the mid-line they extend

back to the umbilicus, about half-way between the planes of the

fippers and the dorsal fin. The baleen plates, including the fringes

-on the frayed inner border, are jet black; this feature is character-

istic of the species. The synonyms used in the literature of our

area include sibbaldii (Gray), indica Blyth and ‘Great Indian Fin

‘Whale.’

The Fin Whale or Common Rorqual B. physaulus (Linn.).

The head in this and the next two species appears wedge-shaped

‘when seen from above. The general colour of the Fin Whale is

grey above and white below, including the under surface of the flippers

and tail flukes, but the pattern is slightly asymmetrical in the region

of the head and shoulders. The outer surface of the right lower

jaw and the side of the neck is white, while the left lower jaw and

adjacent areas of the neck are grey. Inside the mouth the change

is reversed, the right side of the lower jaw and the neighbouring part

of the tongue are pigmented, while on the left side these areas are

without colour. This feature is characteristic of the species. The

‘dorsal fin is fairly tall and triangular in shape, while behind it is

-a sharp-sided median ridge. The flippers measure only 1/oth of the

total bodylength. There are usually about 60-90 ventral grooves,

running back to the umbilicus .as in the Blue Whale. The baleen

plates share the asymmetry of colouring of the jaws. The plates

-on the right side, for about one-third of the distance back from the

tip of the snout, are white; the remainder on that side and all those

on the left mandible are a dull blue-grey streaked with pale ash-grey

and yellowish grey. The fringes are in all cases yellowish white.

The synonyms used in the literature of the Indian Ocean include

australis (Des.), blythii And. and ‘Razor-back.’

The Sei Whale or Rudolphi’s Rorqual 7?. borealis Less.

The dorsal surface is a bluish black, with the flanks grey and an

area on the under surface, stretching back from the chin, white; the

extent of this white patch varies to some extent individually, but it

never runs as far as the tail and the under surface of the flippers

and flukes is always dark. The dorsal fin is relatively larger than

in the preceding two species and placed further forward. On the

other hand the flippers are still smaller and measure only about 1/r1oth-

a/12th of the total body-length. The ventral grooves range from

36-60 and extend only as far back as a point about midway between

the line of the flippers and the umbilicus. The baleen plates are

mainly black, with the frayed inner edges white; the latter are quite

‘characteristic, being much longer, softer and silkier than in any of

tne other rorquals. The synonyms include schlegelii (Flower).

18 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST., SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Bryde’s Whale 8. brydei (Olsen).

This species is very similar to the Sei Whale, with which it is

often confused. The dorsal surface is bluish black, with the chin

and throat a dark bluish grey; the under sides of the flippers are

grey; the remainder of the lower surface is white or whitish. The

dorsal fin is small, and the flippers only about 1/1oth-1/12th of the

total body-length. The ventral grooves, 42-54 in number extend as

far back as the umbilicus, as they do in the Blue and Fin Whales,

a point which distinguishes this species from the Sei and Piked

Whales. The baleen plates are short, with long stiff bristles; in the

anterior part of the jaw they are whitish, sometimes with greyish

stripes, while further back they are greyish black. The long stiff

bristles on the frayed, internal edges of the plates should be diagnostic

of this species. At the present time this whale is known with

certainty only from waters off South Africa and off Granada.

The Piked Whale or Lesser Rorqual 8B. acutorostrata Lacép.

This species has a short head which appears almost triangular

when viewed from above. The general colour is blue grey on the

upper parts and white underneath, including the under side of the

flippers and the tail flukes. There is also a prominent white patch

on the outer surface of the flippers, which is characteristic of this

species. The dorsal fin is smaller than in the Sei Whale, but it is

placed about the same distance forward. The flippers measure

roughly ith of the total body-length. There are about 50 ventral

grooves which, again as in the Sei Whale, only extend back to half-

way between the flippers and the umbilicus. The baleen plates, in-

cluding the fringes, are entirely yellowish white, The synonyms.

include rostrata (Miller) and edent And.

Some of the points given above can be tabulated as follows:

Species | Flippers Flukes Baleen Plates

: Maca

B. musculus slate-blue above, slate-blue, both jet black, including

whitish below. surfaces. frayed edge.

B. physalus | grey above, white below fore part right side

white, remainder

dull blue-grey.

B. borealis grey (both surfaces) ;black with frayed

edge long, fine and

| whitish.

B. brydez dark bluish grey dark bluish grey anterior plates whit-

above, grey above, whitish ish, posterior black-

below. below. ish ; long _ stiff

bristles.

B. acutorostrata blue grey with a biue grey above, yellowish white, in

prominent white | white below. cluding frayed

patch above, ‘edge.

' white below.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Puate IIL

Blue Whale

DYTTTN ION ULC MLL SLT =

—

Fin Whale

set) (CUA tee

Sei Whale

o (S go 43 60

Semi-diagrammatic representations of the three larger rorquals, the

Blue Whale, the Fin Whale, and the Sei Whale.

Phases in the movements of a large Blue Whale coming up to the

surface to breathe. The sequence shows the short period during which

the back and dorsal fin are exposed, and the manner in which the whale

dives again without raising its tail flukes out of the water. The

Humpback Whale (Megaptera nodosa), which also occurs in tropical waters,

always throws its tail flukes well in the air as it turns to sound.

NOTE ON RORQUALS (BALAENOPTERA SPP.) 19.

It is perhaps of interest to note here that we have only one record

of a rorqual trom the coasts of the Malay States. This is a suckl-

ing Blue Whale, B. musculus, about 42 feet long, which was stranded

on the beach about 18 miles south of the town ot Malacca on the roth

june 1892. The skeleton’ is at present on exhibition in the Raffles

Museum. The only report of the occurrence of the Fin whale, B.

physalus, in Malaysia is from the south coast of Java, though it is

possible that a large rorqual stranded near Lundu, on the coast of

Sarawak, towards the end of the last century belonged to this species

(see Gibson-Hiil, 1950). The Sei Whale, B. borealis, is known from

java and the inner Gulf of Siam (ashore at Kandhuli), (Chasen, 1940,

108). Recently, while examining the materia! in the Sarawak Museum,

I found on exhibition there the skeleton of an immature example of

this species, approximately 23 feet long. It had come ashore at

Pusa, at the mouth of the Saribas River, in January 1go0g, but no

attempt appears to have been made to publish the record.

REFERENCES

Anderson, J. (1878): Anatomical and Zoological Researches, London.

Blanford, W. T. (1891): The Fauna of British India ‘etc., Mammalia, Pt. 2,

Ist ed., London.

Chasen, F. N, (1940): ‘A Handlist of Malaysian Mammals’, Bull., Raff. Mus.,

XY.

Gibson-Hill, C. A. (1948): (Notes on the fauna communicated in) The Antarctic

Pilot, 2nd ed., Admiralty, London.

Gibson-Hill, C. A. (1950): ‘The Whales, Porpoises & Dolphins known in.

Sarawak waters’, Sarawak Mus. Journ. xvii (in the press).

Moses, S, T. (1941): ‘Whales’in Baroda, etc.’, Journ.,: Bombay Nat: Hist.

Soc., xli (4): 895-7, |

Moses, S. T. (1947): ‘Stranding of Whales on the coasts of India’, Journ.,

Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., xlvii (2): 377-8.

Norman, J. R., & Fraser, F. C, (1937): Giant Fishes, Whales & ‘Dolphins,

London. |

Olsen, O. (1913): ‘On the External Characters and Biology of Bryde’s Whale

(Balaenoptera brydei) a new Rorqual from the coast of South Africa’, Proc. Zool.

Soc. Lond., 1913: 1073-90.

Pillai, N. G. (1949): ‘A Whale near Bombay’, Journ,, Bombay Nat. Hist.

Soc., Xlviii (2): 358.. |

Prater, S. H. (191&): ‘Note on a stranded Great Indian Fin Whale (Balaenop-

tera indica) at Ratnagiri: with a note by N. B. Kinnear’, Journ., Bombay Nat,

Hist. Soc., xxiii (3): 576-7,

BUTTERFLIES OF SIND

N. H. MENESSE, 0O.B.E., I.S.E.

Superintending Engineer, P.W.D., Sind, (Retd.)

The desert province of Sind, with its scanty rainfall, scorching

‘Summer temperatures, hot dry winds and dust, would appear to have

‘little attraction for butterfly life. Nevertheless butterflies are to be

found, at times sparsely, but often in large numbers even in such

arid and unexpected places as on the stony hills near Tatta, in the sandy

wastes of the Thar Desert and along the desolate frontiers of Upper

‘Sind. The number of species is however very limited as this naturally

depends on the lepidopterous fauna available. For this reason the

Lloyd Barrage and its extensive network of perennial canals which

commenced operating in 1932 have up to now had practically no effect

on the butterfly life beyond slightly extending the range of a few

species, because although hundreds of thousands of acres of rice, cotton,

wheat, etc. are cultivated annually in the canal zone such seasonal

crops afford little or nothing in the form of food plants for the butterfly

larvae. Consequently they have to depend mainly on the natural vege-

tation of the country, which itself is limited both in extent and variety.

The principal larval food plants are thus provided by the babul (Acacza

arabica), ber (Zizyphus jujuba), ak (Calotropis procera), kirir

(Capparts decidua), kandera (Alhagitcamelorum), khabbar (Salvadora

persica), and other natural desert vegetation. Larval food plants

are also available in the flower gardens of Karachi and in the cultivated

citrus groves found scattered about the canal zone. Also by the

occasional amaltas (Cassia fistula) and Bauhimia trees that have been

planted at some of the canal inspection bungalows. No provincial

list of the butterflies of Sind has previously been published and very

little has been written on the subject. In the Sind Natural History

Society’s journals for October 1935 and 1936 respectively, C. J. Rae has

-described ‘Some Karachi Butterflies’ and ‘Some common Sind Cold

Weather Butterflies’, but the main work still remains the ‘ List of

Butterflies from Karachee’ by Lt.-Col. Swinhoe, which appeared in the

Proceedings ot the Zoological Society of London, 1884, and which that

author subsequently enlarged and rewrote in his article ‘On the Lepi-

doptera of Karachi and its Neighbourhood ’, published in the Journal

ot the Bombay Natural History, Society, Vol. I, No. 4 (October, 1887).

In that article Swinhoe mentioned that due to the recent introduction

of the Karachi Water Works gardens were springing up everywhere

and all kinds of new trees were being cultivated, and he thought it

possible that the list of Karachi butterflies might go on increasing every

year with the growth of vegetation until it somewhat resembled that of

Bombay. It is therefore interesting to note that this increase has not

yet materialised and that now, after some 60 years, the list of Karachi

species is still very similar to what it was in Swinhoe’s days. The

following provincial list has been prepared from observations made all

BUTTERFLIES OF SIND 2h

over Sind between 1932 and 1947, and for the purpose of this list the

Lower-Upper Sind boundary has been taken as an east-west line through

the town of Nawabshah. Examples of most species are met with more

or less throughout the year, but the best season is from July to Nov-

ember, and butterflies are particularly numerous in the occasional years

of heavy summer rain. The notation followed is according to that given.

by Brigadier W. H. Evans in his ‘ Identification of Indian Butterflies ’.

1. Tros aristolochiae aristolochiae F. The Common Rose.

The form dzphilus Esp. is not rare.

Karachi and Lower Sind. Common. Not noted in Upper Sind.

2. Papilio polytes romulus Cr. The Common Mormon.

Swinhoe does not include this in his final list although in his earlier

list he had noted it as rare. It is now common in Karachi, rare

in Lower Sind and has not yet extended its range north of Nawab-

Shah.

The & forms that occur are vomulus Cram. and cyrus Fabr.

3. Papilio demoleus demoleus L. The Lime Butterfly.

Common all the year round. The brownish-yeliow insect is also:

cominon.t

4. Belenois mesentina mesentina Cr. The Pioneer.

Common and numerous.

5. Catopsilia crocale Cr. The Common Emigrant.

& form alemeone (Cram).

2 form crocale (Cram).

The Emigrants are found throughout Sind, their numbers generally

depending locally on the presence of amaltas and Bauhinia trees, which.

provide their principal larval food plant. Out of the four species that.

occur all except domona F. are common.

6. Catopsilia pomona F. The Lemon Emigrant. °

7. Catopsilia pyranthe minna Herbst. The Mottled Emigrant.

8, Catopsilia florella gnoma F.2 The African Emigrant.

9. Terias laeta laeta Bdv. The Spotless Grass Yellow.

In his first list of Karachi butterflies Swinhoe has noted this as.

‘June. Rare’, but in his final list states, ‘ A common insect at Karachi

and very plentiful in May and June.’ It is now scarce both in Karachi

and in the rest of Sind.

10. Terias hecabe simulata M. The Common Grass Yellow.

This is the grass yellow met commonly everywhere. In order to

ascertain whether 7. 2. fimbriata Wall occurred in Sind a series of

grass yellows were taken at various places in different months of the

veat. All were identified by the B.N.H.S. and confirmed by Brig.

Evans as szmulata. .

% In the experience of Mr. M. A. Wynter-Blyth these brownish-yellow insects

are old examples whose coloration has been faded by the elements.—EDs.

2 Nos. 7 and 8 are now considered the wet season form and dry season form,

respectively of the.same species. M.A.W-B.

22 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL FIST? SOCIETY, Vol. 49

[1l. Ixias pyrene satadra M. The indian Orange-tip.

This is shown in the Identification of Indian Butterflies as occurring

in Sind. Swinhoe does not record this insect nor did 1 ever come

across it. |

12. Celotis amata amata F. The Small Salmon Arab.

The colotis group (except protyvactus and fausta) are found every-

where and are the commonest butterflies in the Province.

13. Colotis protractus But. The Blue Spotted Arab.

Locally common throughout Sind.

14. Colotis vestalis But. The White Arab.

15. Colotis fausta fausta Oliv. The Large Salmon Arab.

Taken near Karachi, Dabeji, Oderolal and Sukkur. Rare.

16. Colotis etrida etrida Bdv. The Little Orange-tip.

17. Colotis danae dulcis But. The Crismon-tip.

18. Danais limniace mutina Fruh. The Blue Tiger.

Common in Karachi in July and August after rains. Scarce in the

rest of Sind.

19. Danais plexippus L. The Common Tiger.

Occurs only in years of heavy rainfall. Entirely absent from 1938

onwards and then appeared in large numbers in Karachi from July to

September, 1944, after abnormal rains.

20. Danais chrysippus L. The Plain Tiger.

One of the commonest butterflies in Sind, seen everywhere and in

every month of the year. v. alcifpotdes M. and v. dortppus Cr. both

occur.

21. Melanitis leda ismene Cr. The Common Evening Brown.

Karachi. Very rare. Swinhoe took one in 1879 and two in

1886.

22. Ypthima asterope mahratta M. The Common Threering.

Karachi. Very rare. Swinhoe records taking one in 1886. [I did

not come across this insect or 1Z. l. zsmene although constantly on the

lookout during the past 15 years.

23. Hypelimnas bolina L. The Great Eggfly.

Karachi. Very rare. Swinhoe notes 2 specimens in 1882 and 2 in

1886. This insect and the two listed above now appear to be

extinct.

24, Hypolimnas misippus L. The Danaid Eggfly.

Common in Karachi after heavy rain from July to December. Not

common in Lower Sind. Not noted in Upper Sind.

25. Precis hierta hierta F. The Yellow Pansy.

The Yellow, Blue, and Peacock Pansies are common in most months

of the year.

96. Precis orithya swinhoei But. The Blue Pansy.

BUTTERFLIES OF SIND 23

27. Precis lemonias vaisya Fruh. The Lemon Pansy.

Swinhoe took one in 1885 at Karachi.

In 1936 not uncommon near Jacobabad, but Aieewnete in Sind I

came across none until I took one in Karachi in 1942. Suddenly

became numerous throughout Sind from October to December 1943.

After 1944 became occasional in Karachi and Lower Sind and was-not

seen again in Upper Sind.

28. Precis almana almana L. ‘The Peacock Pansy.

29. Vanessa cardui L. The Painted Lady.

Common. Often numerous.

30. Atella phalanta Drury. The Common Leopard.

Karachi only. Very rare. Swinhoe took one in July, 1882, and I

took one in Sept. 1942.

31. Tarucus callinara But. The Spotted Pierrot.

The blue pierrots are found in most months of the year. 34 speci-

mens taken in the Hyderabad and Karachi Districts between Sept.

1938 and June 1939, were identified by Brigadier Evans, through

A. Jones, as follows: callinara 5, nigra 21, alteratus 6, nara 1,

theophrastus indica 1.

32. Tarucus theoprastus indica. The Pointed Pierrot.

33. Tarucus extricatus But. The Rounded Pierrot.

34, Tarucus alteratus M. The Rusty Pierrot.

35. Tarucus nigra BB. The Spotted Pierrot.

36. Tarucus nara Koll. Tne Striped Pierrot.

37. Syntarucus plinius F, The Zebra Blue.

August to November. Not common.

38. Azanus ubaldus Cr. The Bright Babul Blue.

Very numerous around babul trees from June to November.

39. Azanus uranus But. The Dull Babul Blue.

Is greatly outnumbered by 4. uwbaldus.

40. Zizeeria trochilus trochilus Freyer. The Grass Jewel.

41. Zizeeria trochilus putlit Koll. The Grass Jewel.

The two Grass Jewels are found in the vicinity of Karachi, gene-

rally in the grasses along the coastline.

42. Zizeeria lysimon Hub. The Dark Grass Blue.

Very common all the year round.

43, Euchrysops contracta contracta But. The Small Cupid.

Very common in all months of the year.

44. Euchrysops pandava minuta,. The Plains Cupid.

Scarce. Possibly often overlooked. Several taken in Nov. and

Dec. 1943 near Umerkot.

ee ee

1 Mr. M. A, Wynter-Blyth questions this record since this is a South Indian

‘butterfly. —Epbs.,

24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Vol.. 49.

45. Catachrysops strabo F. ‘The Forget-me-not.

Locally common Nov, to March.

46. Lampides boeticus L. The Peablue.

Common.

47. Apharitis acamas hypargyrus But. The Tawny Silverline.

Small broods met occasionally. Rare.

48. Spindasis elima elima M. The scarce Shot Silverline.

Not observed by me, but Swinhoe states ‘ Several taken in the

Hubb River by Capt. Becher in Sept. 1885.’

49. Virachola isocrates F, The Common Guava Blue.

Karachi. Rare. Rae found it in one particular orchard in Karachi

in 1935 and I took it in June, 1944.

50. Hasora alexis alexis F. The Comtnon Banded Awl.

Karachi. Very rare. Swinhoe records one in July 1882 and I noted.

one in July 1944 after abnormal rains.

51. Badamia exclamationis Fab. The Brown Awl.

Karachi. Very rare. July 1944, and one in June 1885 by Swinhoe..

52. Gomalia elma litoralis Swin. The African Marbled Skipper.

Karachi. Recorded in July 1879 by Swinhoe.

53. Syrichtus galba F. The Indian Skipper.

Found iocally throughout Sind. Not common.

54. Syrichtus evanidus But. The Sind Skipper.

Rare.

55. Suastus gremius gremius F. The Indian Palm Bob.

Very rare. A few taken in Karachi in Sept. and Oct. 1943.

56. Baoris mathias mathias F. The Smali Branded Swift.

This and B. m. thrax (below) are common in all seasons.

57. Baoris mathias thrax Hub.

58. Baoris bevani bevani M. Bevan’s Swift.

Karachi. Recorded in Oct. 1885 and July 1887 by Swinhoe.

59. Gegenes nostrodamus karsana M. The Dingy Swift,

Not rare but often overlooked.

NOTES’ ON THE SCROPHULARIACEAE OF BOMBAY

H., SANTAPAU,; (S.J 2,478;

VERBASCUM Linn.

Verbascum coromandelianum (Vahl) Kuntze (‘coromandelicum’),. °

Rev. Gen. Pl. 1: 468, 1891; Pennell, Scroph. West. Himal.

395. 943°

Celsia coromandeliana Vahl, Symb. Bot. 3: 79, 1794; Roxb.,

Bi. .Ind.. 3: 100, 1832, Nees in Trans; Linn. Soc: 17: So,

1837; Benth. in DC. Prodr. 10: 246, 1846; Hook. f., FI.

Brit. tnd...4s 251, - 1883; Dalz. &-Gibs:, Bomb, Fl. 176;

Woeht.. icon. “t.. 1400; Cooke, Fl, Press, Bomb. 22. 231,,

Gamble, Fl. Madr. 945; Murbeck, Monogr. Gatt. Celsia

120, 19625.

Celsia viscosa Roth, Catal. Bot. 2: 69, 1800; Wight in Hook.

Jour. Bot, 13) 228, 28aa; Nees, loc: cit., 313; (Don, Gen:

Syst. 4: 499, 1837.

Verbascum. celsoides Benth, loc. cit.,: 229; Hook. f., Fl. Brit.

Ind. 4: 250, 1883.

‘By Linnaeus these two genera (Verbascum and Celsia) were:

placed in different classes, Verbascum in Pentandria, with five sta-

mens, and Celsia in Didynamia, with four stamens in two pairs .

Linnaeus concluded his account of Celsia with the comment that his.

adduced characters show how well it differs from Verbascum, an

acknowledgement of the real relationship of the two.

‘After Linnaeus’s time many species were added to both genera

until by 1846, when Bentham revised the Scrophulariaceae for De-

Candolle’s Prodromus Systematis Regni Vegetabilis (10: 224-248), the

two were placed next each other, with 92 species in Verbascum and

24 in Celsia. Only the number of stamens could be counted upon to

distinguish them, while parallel species and sections were recognised

in each genus. Most of the species now put in Celsia had relatively

simple foliage that suggested in aspect Linnaeus’s group of Verbas-

cum; in fact one of his species, which further acquaintance had shown

to have only four stamens had been transferred to Celsia. In Ben-

tham and Hooker’s Genera Plantarum (2: 928-929) of 1873 the two

genera were kept apart, but with the comment under Celsia: ‘Genus

a Verbasco non differt nisi staminis quinti defectu, et a nonnullis cum

eo jungitur’.

‘It was in 1891 that Kuntze (Revisio Generum Plantarum, 1: 468)

definitely combined Verbascum and Celsia, making the necessary

specific combinations under the former. He commented on the exist-

ence of Verbascum celsoides Bentham with either 4 or 5 stamens, on

the close resemblance of Celsia coromandeliana Vahl to Verbascum

virgatum With., and of Verbascum arcturus L. and its associates to”

26 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL FIST? SOCIETY. Vol 49

Celsia cretica L.f., on the didynamy of the stamens apparent in much

of Verbascum as well as in Celsia, and finally on Nees’ evidence that

the fifth posterior stamen is often sterile or incomplete in Verbascum.

‘In his recent studies of these genera, the most detailed ever

made, Murbeck maintains the validity of these two genera, but his

eventual treatment involves considerable shifting of species. First

appeared his monograph of Celsia in Acta Universitatis Lundensis

. in 1926. Later in the same journal... im:1993, Came his mono-

graph of Verbascum. Comparing the keys to the species in these

papers one discovers that in both genera there is a primary division

into Aulacospermae (with seeds longitudinally 6-9-suleate and -cost-

ate), containing 1 species of Verbascum and 6 of Celsia; and Bothro-

spermae (with seeds transversely foveolate), containing 251 species

of Verbascum and 68 of Celsia. The flowers were in fasciculate

clusters in 199 species of Verbascum and 1 of Celsia; while they were

solitary in each axil in 53 species of Verbascum and 73 of Celsia.

The indumentum consists of branching hairs in most species of

Verbascum, and in 9g species of Celsia; but of simple, often gland-

tipped, hairs in the remaining species of Verbascum and in most

species of Celsia. In the later monograph Murbeck transfers to

Verbascum from Celsia a number of 4-stamened species clearly related

to 5-stamened species of Verbascum, thus eliminating from Celsia

all fasciculate-flowered species.

‘In all this there is little convincing difference. Capsule distinct-

ions, and especially placental ones, were introduced to distinguish

both these genera from Staurophragma Fisch. & Mey., rather than

to contrast Verbascum and Celsia. But there are definite trends

between the latter, which might be summarized as follows: Verbas-

cum has stamens usually five, flowers usually fasciculate, and hairs

usually branching; and Celsia has stamens nearly always four, flowers

always solitary to an axil, and hairs always simple. But surely such

trends should not constitute genera.

‘Murbeck says that he cannot see the necessity of combining Ver-

bascum and Celsia, and that this is not practicable until one can see

where the Celsia species will fit into an enlarged genus. From his

presentation it is clear enough that Verbascum is a simple coherent

group, with an amazing preponderance of species in the Levant.

‘It seems to me that Kuntze’s reasons for uniting Verbascum and

Celsia into a single genus are most cogent, and that we need a

phylogenetic rearrangement of the species of the enlarged genus

Verbascum. Doubtless, the resurrection of the fifth stamen has

occurred in more than one sub-group and is of less significance taxo-

nomically than other characters that should be stressed . . .’ (Pennell,

Scroph. West. Himal., 36-39).

KICK XI1A Dumort.

Wetsttein in Engl. & Prantl, Pflanzenfam., 4 (3b): 58, 1801,

separated the Indian Linaria ramosissima Wall. from the genus

Linaria and placed it under Elatinoides (Chav.) Wetstt. The oldest

name for the genus is Elatine Hill, Brit. Herb. 113, 1756; but the

name is already preoccupied by Elatine Linn., Sp. Pl. 367, 1753, which

NOTES ‘ON THE: SCROPHULARIACEAE: OF BOMBAY 27

is- applied to quite a different genus. The oldest valid name is then

kKickxia Dumort., Fl. Belg. 35, 1827, and this is the name proposed

by Pennell, ‘in spite of the tact of the existence of: Kickxia Blume,

1828, for a genus of the Apocynaceae. The genus Linana is still

accepted as a valid one by both Wetsttein and Pennell; the differences

between the two genera are given in the following key taken from

Pennell, Scroph. West. _Himal., p. 58:

Seeds angled or flattened-winged; capsules dehiscing

by irregular distal ruptures: corolla large, the spur

(15-20 mm. long) as long as the remainder of the

corolla; flowers nearly spicate; leaf-blades lance-

ovate, sessile; plants erect, glabrous. fi 18. Linaria.

Seeds reticulate-alveolate or spinulose; capsules irregu-

iarly rupturing or over most of the side, or the side

abscissing as a_ plate; corolla small, the spur

2-5 mm. long, mostly shorter than corolla (4-7 mm.

long); flowers on slender pedicels; leaf-blades ovate,

rounded or hastate near base, petioled; plants twin-

ing, glabrous to villose. ote 19. Kickwia.

The following key to the species of Kickxia of India is taken

from Pennell, loc. cit. :

Whole plant, including the external surface of the co-

rolla, glabrous; corolla yellow throughout, 6 mm.

long, the spur strongly curved forward; pedicels

frequently much longer than the length of the

sepals and capsules. oe LS dR vamostssinia:

Whole plant, including the externally pubescent sur-

face of the corolla, hairy, mostly hirsute; corolla

7 mm. long, with the upper lip purplish and palate

purple-spotted, the spur deflexed, straight or only

slightly curved forward; pedicels usually about the |

length of the sepals and capsules, occasionally

longer. ses 2. K. incana,

1. Kickxia ramosissima (Wall.) Janchen, in Oesterr. Bot. Zeit-

SGlipeso2 2052, 1939 Pennell lOc. cit. p.759:

Linaria ramosissima Wall., Pl. As. Rar. 2: 43, t. 153, 18313

Hook. f., Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 251; Dalzell & Gibs., Bomb. FI.

wow VWieht, Hist, 165.)..\Cooke, 282° Gamble, Fli-Madr.

946.

Linaria sp. Graham, Cat. 142.

Elatinoides vamosissima (Wall.) Wetstt. loc. cit.

A tolerably common plant about Bombay on old walls; abundant

on the ruins of Bassein Fort, near Bombay; fairly abundant also on

the walls of Purandhar Fort near Poona.

2. Kickxia incana (\Wal!.) Pennell, Scroph. West. Himal. 59,

1943.

Linaria incana Wall., Pl. As. Rar. 2: 43-44, 1831; Benth. in

De. Prodr. 105 270, 1846; Hook: t., Fl. Brit. Ind: 4: 252,

1883.

Linaria cabulica Benth. in DC. Prodr. 10: 270, 1846.

Linaria cabulica var. pubescens Hook. f., Fl. Brit. Ind. 4:

258, 1592.

28 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

The identity of Linaria incana with L. cabulica is suggested by

Pennell, loc. cit.; I have examined all the sheets assigned to either

species in Kew Herbarium and am inclined to agree with Pennell, as.

I can see no constant difference on which these two species may be

distinguished. There is considerable variation in the size of the

flowers, and this seems to be the main difference between the two

plants. Prain, Beng. Pl. 2: 757, 1903 for L. incana, Haines in Bot.

Bih. & Or. 619, 1922, and Cooke, 283, for L. cabulica state that the

spur of the flower is longer than the corolla tube; Wallich, loc. cit..,.

definitely states that the spur is only half as long as the corolla tube,

and all my specimens agree with Wallich’s remark.

In Cooke’s Flora, 283, this plant is placed among Excluded!

Plants, as there is no evidence of its occurrence within the boundaries

of Bombay Presidency proper, except a doubtful specimen from

Baluchistan. Bentham, loc. cit., gives the plant as occurring on:

wails in the Deccan on the authority of Perrottet’s specimens which

Bentham has examined. I have found the plant on several occasions.

on the walls of Purandhar Fort near Poona, and in consequence there:

remains no doubt as to the occurrence of this plant within the limits.

of Bombay Presidency (Santapau 5307, 23-10-1944; 5582, 23-12-1944;

7193, 3-9-1945; 8184, 22-12-1945). In habit it is very similar to

K. ramosissima, but the leaves are not hastate, the flowers are

smaller with a very small spur, and the whole plant is pubescent, at

times densely so.

SUTERA Roth.

Sutera dissecta (Del.) Walp., Rep. 3: 271, 1844; Bruce in Kew

Bull. 1940 (2): 63-64.

Caprana dissecta Del. Fl, Heypte o5, 1. 92, 4.2, 13612.

Sutera glandulosa Roth, Nov. Pl. Sp. 291, 1821; Hook. f., FI.

Brit, Ind. 4: 258, 1884; Benth: ig) DG. Prodr. ioe soc.

1846: Wight, Icon. t. 856; Wetstt. in Engl. & Prantl,

Pflanzenfam. 4 (3b): 69, 1895; Cooke, 285; Gamble, FI.

Madr. 946.

A monotypic genus extending from North Africa through ‘Arabia

to India. Found on the banks of rivers or on drv river beds over

Western India; the small white flowers, pinnatifid leaves and visco-

sity of the whole plant are typical and distinguish it from the rest

of the Scrophulariaceae.

: :

There has been some slight confusion over this genus as it was

reduced by Willdenow and later revived by Roth. In 1807 Roth pub-

lished the two species Sutera foetida and S. brachiata; the former

was founded on Buchnera foetida Andr. and is the type of the genus

Sutera, the latter is a synonym of Manulea hispida Thunb., for which

the new combination Sutera hispida (Thunb.) Druce has been made.

In 1809 Willdenow reduced Sutera to Manulea, but twelve years later

in 1821, Roth revived the genus and added another species Sutera

glandulosa Roth. This species is, however, synonymous’ with

Capraria dissecta Del. and the new combination Sutera dissecta

(Del.) Walp. was made. In 1836 Bentham founded three new genera,

NOTES ON ‘THE SCROPHULARIACEAE OF: BOMBAY 29

‘Chaenostoma, Lyperia and Sphenandra and incorporated Sutera foe-

tida and Manulea foetida in his genus Chaenostoma. In 1891 Kuntze

replaced Bentham’s Chaenostoma into Sutera Roth (1807) and created

a new genus, famesbrittenia, for the species founded on Sutera

glandulosa Roth. In 1897 Diels revived Chaenostoma but treated

Lyperia and Sphenandra as sections of this genus. A few years later

Chaenostoma, as conceived by Diels, was again reduced to Suteru

‘by Hiern. Hemsley and Skan adhered to this arrangement but still

considered Jamesbrittenia, founded on Sutera glandulosa, to be a

‘distinct genus. They separated this from Sutera on the character

of the shortly two-lobed style. The type of Jamesbrittenia has been

examined and the minutely bilobed style is present, but this is also

present in Sutera elliotensis Hiern, so cannot be taken as a separat-

ing generic character. There appear to be no characters on which

Jamesbrittenia can be excluded from Sutera Roth 1807. Sutera

Roth 1821 is therefore synonymous with Sutera Roth 1807, and the

generic name Jamesbrittenia ‘s not required and becomes a synonym.’

(E. A. Bruce in Kew Bull., loc. cit.)

BACOPA Aublet.

From the point of nomenclature, probably the most confusing

name in the Scrophulariaceae is Herpestis or Monniera. Bentham &

Hooker in Gen. Pl. 2: 951, give Herpestis as the correct name for

the genus, and this, as Kuntze remarks, in spite of all the rules of

priority; Herpestis was only published by Gaertn. in 1805. The

‘oldest name for the genus seems to be Moniera B. Juss. ex P. Browne,

Hist. Jamaic. 269, 1756. The beginning of the confusion must be

attributed to Linne’s publication in 1758 of Monniera for a plant of

‘the Rutaceae.

As regards the specific name, Linne published in 1756 his Lysi-

machia monnieri in Cent. Pl. 2: 9 the name being changed to

‘Gratiola monnieri in 1759 in Syst. Nat., ed. 10, 851 (June 1759), and

to Gratiola monnieria in Amoen. Acad. 4: 306, Nov. 17509.

O. Kuntze in Rev. Gen. Pl. 462, 1891, gives the following names

as synonyms for the same genus, by order of priority: Monniera P.

Browne, Gratiola Linn. p.p., Bram: Adans., Bramia Lamk., Mella

Vand., Septas Lour., Mecardonia and Calytriplex R. & P., Herpestis

‘Gaertn. Wettstein in Engl. & Prantl, Pflanzenfamilien 4 (3b): 76,

1895, and Merrill, Enum. Phil. Fl. Pl. 3: 435, 1923, take Bacopa

Mublet, Hast, P!. Gui. Branc. 1; 128, t. 40, 1775, as: the real and

‘legitimate name.

Pennell in his earlier works recognised the following genera as

valid: Herpestis Gaertn., Bramia Lamk., Bacopa Aublet, and Mella

‘Vand. Of these he considered Herpestis and Bacopa as two American

genera without any representative in the Old World; Mella and

Bramia are also American plants, but they extend to the tropics of

the Old World. Pennell in the latest paper on the present question

‘has re-examined the whole problem and decided on the fusion of

‘most of the four genera under a single generic name, Bacopa, the

‘genera he had previously accepted being reduced to sections of

380 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY,. Vol. - 49

Bacopa. In this new arrangement of the genus, Pennell follows

Wettstein loc. cit.

Key to the Bombay species of Bacopa:

Corolla campanulate ; outer sepal ovate, 2-3 times wider’

than the innermost sepal; leaf blades cuneate, round-

ed, l-veined; prostrate or creeping plants. fae B. monniert.

Corolla zygomorphic; outer sepal rotund, more than 4

times wider than the innermost; leaf blades linear-

lanceolate, attenuate to an obtuse apex, pinnately-

veined; erect plants:

Flowers sessile — solitary. bes B. hamiltoniana.

Flowers pedicelled, several in an axil. ee B. floribunda.

Bacopa monnieri (Linn.) Pennell, in Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad.

98: 94, 1946.

Lysimachia monnieri Linn., Cent. Pl. 2: 9, 1756.

Gratiola monnieri Linn., Syst. Nat. (10) 851, 1759 (June).

Gratiola monnieria Linn. in Amoen. Acad. 4: 306, 1759 (Nov.).

Bramia mdica Lamk., Encycl. 1: 459, 1783.

Monniera cuneifolia Michaux, Fl. Bor. Amer. 2: 22, 1803.

Herpestis monniert H.B.K.,. Nov. Gen. Sp. "Plo%: 366; 1s17-

Benth, in DC. Prodr. 10: 400, 1846.

Herpests monmera’ Benth., Scroph: Ind 30), 18355 "look. =:

in F.B.I. 4: 272, 1884; Graham, Cat. 144; Sayeedud-Din

in Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc.. 41: 324-323, 4930.

Herpestes monnieria Dalz. & Gibs., Bomb. FI. 178.

Moniera cuneifolia Cooke, 2: 285; Gamble, Fl. Madr. 953.

Bacopa monmeria Wettst. in E. & P., Pfam. 4 (3b): 76, 1895;

Merrill Enum. Phil Pl. Pl 3) aera soe:

Bramia monnieria Drake, Fl. Polyn. Franc. 142, 1893.

Brania monnieri Pennell, Scroph. South. U.S., in Proc. Acad.

Nat. Sci., Philad., 71: 243, 1920;,id. in Scroph. Cuba, iop.

cit:, 75:10, 19233 1d. ‘Scroph. Hast. “lemp...N. aernsseo

1935; 1d. Scroph. West. Himal. 23, 1943.

Up to 1943, Pennell considered this plant ‘a genus, probably

monotypic, occurring through the tropics of both hemispheres, grow-

ing especially on and near sea coasts’. (Scroph. West. Himal. 22).

This is a common plant in Western India; in Khandala on the

Western Ghauts it is abundant in shallow water in the village tank

and in ditches near it. The flowers are blue, generally pale blue, very

occasionally pure white.

Bacopa hamiltoniana (Benth.) Wettst. in E. & P., Pfam. 4 (3b):

77, 1895; Pennell in Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philad., 98:: 92.

Herpestis hamiltoniana Benth. in Wall., Cat. 3898, 1831 nom.

nud. i’ id. ‘in’sSeroph. dnd. /g0,/ur835¢ssHook. tion Balin:

272, 1884; Dalz. & Gibs., 178.

Monniera hamiltoniana Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Plant. 163, 1801.

Monniera hamiltoniana Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bombay 2: 286, 1904;

Gamble, Fl. Madr. 953. :

Mella hamiltoniana Pennell, Scroph. West. Himal. 43, 1943.

NOTES ON THE SCROPHULARIACEAE OF BOMBAY ak

In general appearance this plant is very similar to Ammannia sp. 3.

in Kew Herb. there are several sheets showing a mixture of these two

plants; the leaves of B. hamiltoniana are entire, not serrated or sub-

serrated as those of Ammannia; the capsules are practically of the

same size in both species and very similar, but the capsules of Bacopa

are more finely tuberculate than those of Ammannia.

Bacopa floribunda (R. Br.) Wettst. Lc.; Pennell, Proc. Acad.

Nat. -Sce,« Philad.)-90S:3.92:

Herpestis floribunda R. Br., Prodr. 442, 1810; Hook. f. in

BH, Belg 32.2720 1884:

Bramia floribunda Muell., in Fragm. Phyt. Austr. 9: 167,

1875.

Monniera floribunda Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Plant. 463, 1891.

Monniera floribunda Cooke, 2: 286, 1904; Gamble, Fl. Madr.

953:

Mella floribunda Pennell, in Journ. ‘Arn. Arb. .24: 248, 1943.

In general this plant is very similur to the preceding species ;

it differs, however, in having several flowers in most axils; the

pedicels may be so short as to be very obscure.

MIMULUS Linn.

Mimulus strictus Benth. in Wall., Cat. 3918, 1830; Scroph. Ind.

28, 1835; Pennell, Scroph. West. Himal. 32, 1943.

Mimulus gracilis auct. plur., non R. Br.

Grant in her monograph of the genus, in Ann. Missouri Bot.

Gard. 11: 134, 1925, followed Bentham in identifying MM. strictus

with M. gracilis. Pennell has separated them as being two different

plants; his reasons seem convincing: ‘Although this was reduced to

the synonymy of the Australian Mimulus gracilis R. Br. by Bentham

himself in 1846 (in DC. Prodr. 10: 369) it seems distinct by possess-

ing wider and longer leaves, longer calyces, and shorter pedicels, the

Australian plant . . . having linear-oblong to oblong leaves up to

3 cm. long, calyx only 5 mm. long, but pedicels 4-6 cm. long. The

two seem to differ also in colour, the corolla of M. gracilis being de-

scribed by Ewart as ‘“‘violet, purple or blue with yellowish pro-

tuberances’’ while that of the plant of India is stated by J. D. Hooker

(F.B.I. 4: 259) to be “‘white or pale blue”’.’ (Pennell, loc. cit., 32.)

M. strictus has the general appearance of one of the Limnophilas,

but its flowers are larger, calyces longer, and leaves always opposite,

never verticillate nor dissected. In Kew Herb. I have seen no speci-

mens from Bombay; its occurrence in the Presidency is given on the

authority of Cooke 2: 287. For critical notes on this species, see

Blatter and Hallberg, in Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 25: 423,

1918.

STEMODITIA Linn.

The generic name Stemodia was published by Linne in Syst. Nat.,

ed. 165.1118, .1759, and is, therefore, posterior to Siemodzacra P.

32 fOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SSOCTERY Volt 49

Br., Hist. ‘Jam. 269, 1756; but “Stemodia ‘is ‘included’ “among ‘the

nomina conservanda in the latest edition of the Intern. Rules of

Bot. Nomencl. (1935), published in 1947. ‘As here understood, this

(i.e. Stemodia) is quite a natural group, distinguished by separated

anther-cells, corolla usually pubescent anteriorly, pedicels short and

bibracteolate, and leaf-blades sessile or clasping. Such a characteriza-

tion is only achieved by the recognition of several tropical groups

as distinct genera, as partially indicated by Minod and further deve-

loped in my recent papers on the Scrophulariaceae of Colombia and

Cuba. The structure of the zygomorphic flowers indicates pollination

by bees.’ (Pennell, Scroph. East. Temp.,N. Amer. 102.)

Flowers clearly pedicelled. aise S. wiscosa.

Flowers sessile or nearly so. ae S. serrata.

1, Stemodia viscosa Roxb., Pl. Cor. 2: 33, t. 163, 1798; Hook.

fy Eh. Brit. Indsasi205,00 8844 Grahan, "Catie. eDaiz:

& Gibs., Bomb. Fl. 176; Wight, Icon. t. 1408; Cooke, 288;

Gamble, Fl. Madr. 949.

Stemodiacra viscosa Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 466, 1801.

The viscosity of the plant is one of the characteristics that may

help to distinguish it from other members of the family. It is not a

common herb, but by no means rare, in rice fields and in dry river

‘beds.

2. Stemodia serrata (Hochst.) Benth. in DC. Prodr. 10: 381,

1846; Hook. f., Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 265, 1884; Cooke, 288.

Sutera serrata Hochst. in Flora 24 (1): Intell., 43, 1841.

This seems to be a rare plant in the Presidency; I have seen no

‘other specimens but those in Kew Herb. In general appearance it is

very similar to some of the Linderinias, from which it is clearly dis-

tinguished by its capsules, which are linear oblong and shorter than

the calyx, and by its flowers and fruits which are sessile or nearly so,

sessile flowers not being common among the Lindernias.

LIMNOPEHILA R. Br.

The generic name Limnophila R. Br., Prodr. 442, 1810, is given

as nomen conservandum in the latest edition of the Intern. Rules of

Bot. Nomencl., as against Ambulia Lam., Encycl. 1: 128, 1783,

Diceros Lour., Fl. Cochinch. 381, 1790, and Hydropityon Gaertn.

i. Feruct.’-3 219, ""1805.

Key to the species of Limnophila adapted from Cooke:

‘Leaves pinnately nerved; no whorls of pinnatifid leaves:

Calyx not striate in fruit; leaves opposite, petiolate ;

flowers sessile. ace) shes GUpeOSa.

Calyx striate in fruit:

Flowers sessile .. LL. conferta.

Flowers pedicellate woe Lit aromatica.

NOTES ON THE. SCROPHULARIACEAE OF: BOMBAY: 33

Leaves with 3-5-parallel nerves running from base to tip,

uc iowes leaves whorled, pinnajifid or multifid ;

fruiting calyx not striate.

Flowers sessile or nearly so:

Flowers white in terminal spikes -

Upper leaves crenulate, bracteoles linear-lanceolate,

calyx segments deltoid-ovate, acute tis L. aquatica,

Upper leaves serrulate, bracteoles triangular-

acute, calyx segments narrowly triangular

subacute or obtuse nh L. polystachyoides.

Flowers pink, usually axillary, solitary vais L. sessiliflora.

Flowers pedicellate; pedicels usually longer than the

calyx fis L. indica.

1. Limnophila rugosa (Roth) Merrill, Interp. Herb. ‘Amb. 466,

1917, &-Enum. Phil. Fl. Pl. 3: 434, 1922; Pennell, Scroph.

West. Himal. 26, 1943.

Herpestis rugosa Roth, Nov. Pl. Sp. 290, 1821.

Capraria gratissima Roxb., Hort Beng. 47, 1814; Fl. Ind.

3: 92, 1832 (non L. gratissima Blume).

Limnophila Roxburghii G. Don, Gen. Syst. 4: 543, 1838;

Hook. f., Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 265, 1884; Graham, Cat. 143;

Dalz. & Gibs., Bomb. Fl. 177; Cooke, 289; Gamble, FI.

Madr. 951.

Stemodia menthastrum Benth. in DC. Prodr. 10: 386, 1846.

Terebinthina rugosa Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 468, 1891.

A stout plant for the genus, with leaves (including the petioles)

up to 10x3 cm.; flowers sessile, clustered in small, nearly sessile

heads. Not common in the Presidency.

2, Limnophila conferta Benth. in DC. Prodr. 10: 387, 1846;

Hook. f., Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 266, 1884; Dalz. & Gibs., Bomb.

Fl. 177; Cooke, 289; Gamble, Fl. Madr. 951.

Ambulia conferta (Benth.) Baillon, Hist. Plant. 9: 454, 1888.

Terebinthina punctata Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Plant. 468, 1891.

When the plant is fully developed, it has the typical looks of most

Limnophilas ; in the young stages it is a difficult plant to classify.

I have found it in rice fields in Khandala; but it is rather rare.

3. Limnophila aromatica (Lamk.) Merrill, Interpret. Herb. Amb.

466, -1o17s;Enum. Philo 1, Pl: 3) -432) 19023.

Ambulia aromatica Lamk., Encycl. 1: 128, 1783.

Limnophila gratissima Blume, Bijdr. 749, 1826; Hook. f., FI.

Brit. Ind. -4.: 268, 1884; Graham, Cat. 144; Dalz. & Gibs.,

Bomb. Fl. 177; Cooke, 290; Gamble, Fl. Madr. 951 (non

Roxb.).

‘The leaves of this plant are mostly in whorls of 3, and sharply

serrate, but not divided.

4, Limnophila aquatica (Willd.) Santapau, comb. nov.

Stemodia aquatica Willd., Sp. Pl. 3: 346, 18or.

34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Limnophila polystuchya Benth., Scroph. Ind. 26, 1835; Hook.

f., Fl. Brit. Ind.: 4: 269, 1884; Wight,’ Icon. t.* 860. Cooke,

290; Gamble, Fl. Madr. 952. |

Terebinthina aquatica Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Plant. 468, 18091.

5. Limnophila sessiliflora (Vahl) Blume, Bijdr. 749, 1826; Hook.

f., Fl. Brit. Indi*'42"27o,*a884e"Cooke, ‘260.

Hotiona sessiliflora Vahl, Symb. Bot. 2: 36, 1791.

Limnophila heterophylla Woodrow, in Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist.

Soc. 12: 174, 1898 (non Benth.).

Terebinthina sessiliflora Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Plant. 468, 1891.

6. Limnophila indica(Linn.) Druce, in Rep. Bot. Exch. Club Brit.

Ish s::33 1420, to1a;- Merrill). Enum) (Phil oP Pls 3% 433, 1923:

Pennell, Scroph. “West. Himatsi26,,.01n943;

Hottonia indica Linn., Syst. Nat., ed. 10, 919, 1759.

Cyrilla: aquatica, Roxb., Pl. Cor. 2: 47, t..189, 1798; Fl. Ind.

3: 115, 1832 (non Stemodia aquatica Willd.).

Limnophila. gratioloides R. Br., Prodr. 442, 1810; Hook. f.,

Fl, -Brit..\ Ind.) 4: 274, 7884 \Graham, ’Cat: -143; . Dalz.. &

Gibs.,, Bomb. Fl. 177; Cooke; 291; Gamble, ‘Fl. Madr. 952.

Limnophila racemosa Benth., Scroph. Ind. 26, 1835; Hook. f.,

lace citus ¢ Graham, loc, ‘eit 's\" Dalai & Gibbs: loc. cit: 5; WV1esht.

Icon. t. 861; Cooke, 290; Gamble, loc. cit.

Limnophila myriophylloides Roth, Nov. Pl. Sp. 294, 1821.

Limnophila elongata Benth. in Wall. Cat. no. 3903.

Limnophila indica Druce, as here understood, is extended to in-

clude both L. racemosa and L. gratioloides and the several intermediate

varieties. I have come to this conclusion after a careful study of the

literature and examination of all the Indian specimens preserved at

Kew. Often the basis for the separation of the various species and

varieties is a question of size; but there seem to be too many inter-

mediate types merging into one another for this distinction to be

accepted. Similarly the presence or absence of pubescence is made a

specific distinction; most authors make L. racemosa _ pubescent,

L. gratioloides glabrous; Gamble in the key to the Madras species

omits this point and merely mentions that L. racemosa has glabrous

calyx in fruit, whilst L. gratioloides has a pubescent calyx; the

specimens preserved at Kew do not show any constant distinction

between pubescent and glabrous forms. The strong scent of tur-

pentine is again a doubtful character, as both species possess it in a

greater or lesser degree. For the past several years I have been

having constant difficulties when dealing with the classification of

TL. racemosa and gratioloides, as the typical characters assigned to

either plant seemed easily to be found in the other species.

7. Limnophila pelystachyoides Blatter in Journ. As. Soc. Beng.

(NES2) 262-3528 1940.

The following is the description of the plant given by Blatter,

loc. cit.: ‘A paludine herb, go cm. long, erect or ascending from a

NOTES ON THE .SCROPHULARIACEAE OF BOMBAY 35

floating portion which is densely ‘clothed with capillaceo-multifid leaves.

Stem stout, sparingly and finely muriculate, here and there with a

straight hair; upper (flowering) part pentagonal in transverse section.

Lower leaves all capillaceo-multifid; upper ones opposite or in whorls

of 3 (in the same plant), 2 cm. long, 7 mm. broad, entire; lanceolate-

acute to linear in the highest region and much shorter, sessile, serru-

late (not crenulate), 3-nerved from base running up to the tip, mostly

with an additional pair running half-way up. Flowers sessile in ter-

minal spikes about 6 cm. long’; lower part of inflorescence lax, upper

very dense with very small floral leaves which are shorter than the

flowers. Bracteoles triangular-acute, a little more than 1 mm. long.

Calyx 3.5 mm. long, divided half-way down; sepals rounded-keeled on

back, slightly subequal, central part of each sepal green; teeth 5,

narrow-triangular, as long as tube, subacute or obtuse, finely muricu-

late on margin and on central line of back with a few hairs at the tips.

Corolla at least twice the length of calyx, white, woolly inside.

Capsule entirely enclosed by calyx, 4-5 mm. long, ovoid, minutely

papillose, glabrous, shining. Seeds brown, elongate, 4 mm. long,

broader at apex than at base, 4-5- sided, truncate at both ends, finely

tuberculate.’

DOPATRIUM Buch.-Ham.

Dopatrium junmceum (Roxb.) Buch.-Ham. ex Benth., Scroph. Ind.

Bt, 1935; Hook. 7; Fl * Brit. Ind. “4: 274, 18384; Graham;

Cat. 142; Dalz. & Gibs., Bomb. FI. 178; Cooke, 292; Blatt.

& Halib. in fourd. Bomb. Nat. Hist. “Soc. 45.426" 1418;

Merit nim. Philo BE -Pl; a: >445, 192¢5 Gamble, Pl.

Madr. 954. "

Gratiola juncea Roxb., Pl. Cor. 2: 16, t. 129, 1798.

A very typical herb, often unbranched, occasionally much branched

at or near the base, fleshy below, slender above; fairly common in

rice fields or swampy places during the rains. ‘An inconspicuous plant.

For corrections and additions to the description as given by Cooke,

see Blatt. & Hallb., loc. cit.

Dopatrium junceum var. multiloba Blatt. & MHallb. in. Journ.

Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. 45: 426, 1918.

The most typical part of the variety seems to be the 5-7-lobed

lower lip of the corolla. Corolla is lilac with purple veins.

TORENIA Linn.

For a key to the species, see Cooke.

1, Torenia cordifolia Roxb., Pl. Cor. 2: 32, t. 161, 1798; Hook,

f., Fl, Brit. Ind. 4: 276; Graham, Cat.. 144; Dalz. &. Gibs.,

Bomb. Fl. 180; Bot. Mag. t. 3715; Cooke, 292; Blatt. &

Hallb., loc. cit., 422; Gamble, Fl. Madr. 956; Pennell,

Scroph. West. Himal. 32, 1943.

36 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

The strongly winged calyx is typical of this plant among all the

native Scrophulariaceae of Bombay.

2. Terenia bicolor Dalz. in Kew Journ. Bot. 3: 38, 1851; Hook.

f., Fl. Brit. Ind..4: 278, 1884; Dalz. & Gibs., Bomb. «FI.

181; Cooke, 293; Gamble, Fl, Madr. 957.

Calyx strongly ribbed, but not winged and much longer than

broad; the whole flower is much larger than that of T. cordifolia Roxb.

ARTAN EMA Don.

Artanema longifolia (Linn.) Merrill, Enum. Phil. Fl. Pl. 3: 436,

1923.

Columnea longifolia Linn., Mant. 1: 71, 1767.

Archimenes Sesamoides Vahl, Symb. 2: 71, 1791.

Artanema longiflora Wetstt. in Engl. & Prantl, Pflanzenfam.

4 (3b): 79, 1895.

A large herb, with relatively large leaves; a fruiting specimen

may prove difficult of identification, as the plant has little at that

stage that is clearly typical. The plant, however, is a rare one in

‘the Presidency.

LINDERNIA All

This genus has been extensively treated by Pennell in Scroph.

East. Temp. N. America (Acad. Nat. Sci., Philad., Monogr. 1, 1935)

and more recently by Mukerjee in the Journ. Ind. Bot. Soc. 24 (3):

127-134, 1945. Most of the rearrangements necessary after the fusion

of Lindernia All., Vandellia Br., Ilysanthes Raf. and Bonnaya Link &

Otto have been made by Pennell and Mukerjee. In the following

pages, the species of this genus from Bombay are listed for the con-

venience of Bombay botanists; the order followed here is that of

Cooke, p. 295 & foll.

Key to the Lindernias of Bombay, adapted from Mukerjec :

Capsule about equalling the calyx or shorter:

Glabrous or sparsely hairy; calyx not divided below the

middle i L. crustacea.

Pubescent with spreading hairs; calyx divided to the base

or nearly so 5 L. viscosa.

Capsule twice as long as calyx or longer :

Perfect stamens 4:

Flowering calyx not divided below the middle

Flowering calyx divided to the base or nearly so

. sessiliflora.

cordifolia,

Perfect stamens 2:

Leaves parallel-nerved :

Leaves entire; pedicels up to 3 cm. long; -corolla

3-4 times as long as calyx i

Leaves often serrate or subserrate; pedicels rarely

more than 1 cm. long; corolla twice as long as or

shorter than calyx xe L.. parviflora.

L. hy'ssopiotdes.

NOTES ON THE SCROPHULARIACEAE OF BOMBAY aq

Leaves penninerved :

Corolla white or red:

Staminodes present:

Staminodes hairy :

Leaves sessile, corolla 6-7 mm. long, fruit 12-

15 mm. long ae L. ciliata,

Leaves petioled; corolla 18-20 mm, long, fruit

25-30 mm. long sos L. ruelloides.

Staminodes glabrous :

Leaves. very sharpfy spinous-serrate, teeth

1-1.5 mm. apart Ss L. bracteoides,

Leaves shallowly serrate, teeth about 3 mm.

apart L. guinqueloba.

Staminodes absent L. estaminodiosa.

Corolla blue or violet:

Corolla 12 mm. or more long:

Capsules linear-subulate, leaves broadly elliptic to

ovate-oblong hs L. anagallis.

Capsules narrowly cylindric; leaves linear or

narrowly lanceolate a L. verbenaefolia.

Corolla 6 mm. or shorter; leaves distantly and

shallowly toothed, oblong oe L. opposittfolia.

1. Lindernia crustacea (Linn.) F. Mueller, Cens. Austral. Pl. 97,

1882; Wetstt. in Engl. & Prantl, Pflanzenfam. 4 (3b): 8o,

r595; Merrill), Enum)’ Phil) Bie OPI. 3i 437, 1923; Pennell,

Scroph. West. Himal. 29, 1943; Mukerjee, loc. cit., 130.

Capraria crustacea Linn., Mant. 87, 1767. ;

Vandellia crustacea Benth., Scroph. Ind. 35, 1835; Hook. f.,

Ki Brits Indi 42-279, 1884; Graham, -Cat.144¢ Dalz. &

- Gibs., Bomb. ‘Fl. 180; Wight, Icon. t. 863; Cooke, 295;

Blatt. & Hallb. in Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. 45: 420,

1918; Gamble, Fl. Madr. 959.

Torenia lucida Wall., Cat. 3962.

Gratiola lucida Willd., Sp. Pl, 1: 103, 1798.

Fairly common about Bombay in rice fields after the harvest, or

in moist soil generally throughout the year. I have found it parti-

cularly abundant about Khandala. ‘Based upon Capraria crustacea

Linn. of Amboyna this Oriental plant has had a disturbed taxonomic

history, having been placed successively in Torenia, Vandellia and

Lindernia . . .” (Pennell, Scroph. East. Temp. N. Amer. 139, 1935).

The whole plant is glabrous, the capsule somewhat truncated at the

apex and as long as or a little shorter than the calyx. For a full

description of the plant, see Blatt. & Hallb., loc. cit.

2. Lindernia viscosa (Willd.) Merrill, Enum. Phil. Fl. Pl. 3:

439, 1923.

Hornemannia viscosa Willd., Enum. Pl. Berol. 654, 1809.

Vandellia hirsuta Buch.-Ham. ex Benth., Scroph. Ind. 36,

ro35; EHook. ‘f.,7 Fl. Brit. Ind. 4:* 280, 1884: Dalz. & Gibs.,

Bomb. Fl, 179; Cocke, 295; ‘Blatt. & Hallb., loc. cit., 421;

Gamble, Fl. Madr. 959.

38 JOURNAL, ‘BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol... 49

Lindernia hirsuta Wetstt. in Engl. & Prantl, Pflanzenfam. 4

(30): 79, 1805; .Mukerjee, toc: cit., 1307-46, |

Vandellia viscosa Merrill, in Phil. Journ. Sci. (Bot.) 7: 246,

LOI2. . )

Not quite as common as the preceding species. In the vegetative

stages, this plant might at first sight be taken for one of the Blumeas,

with which it has remarkable resemblance. For a full critical de-

scription see Blatt. & Hallb., loc. cit.

3. Lindernia cordifolia(Colsmann) Merrill, Enum. Phil. Fl. Pl. 3:

437, 1923; Pennell, Scroph. West. ~ Himal. 30; “Mukerjee,

lOC SCIie 11.32:

Gratiola cordifolia Colsmann, Prodr. Desc. Grat. 15, 1793.

Lindernia pedunculata Wetstt. in Engl. & Prantl, Pflanzenfam.

4 (3b): 79, 1895. -

Vandellia pedunculata Benth., Scroph. Ind. 37, 1835, & in DC.

Prodr. 10: 416, 1846; Hook. f., Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 282, 1884;

Dalz. & Gibs., Bomb. Fl. 179; Cooke, 295; Gamble, FI.

Madr. 959. :

Vandellia cordifolia G. Don, Gen. Syst. 4: 549, 1837; Haines,

Bot. Bih. & Or. 633, 1922.

Tittmania grandiflora Wall., Cat. 3949.

In general appearance, very similar to Lindernia anagallis (Bonnaya

Veronicaefolia Spr.), especially when in fruit. I have not found the

plant in Bombay.

4. Lindernia hyssopioides (Linn.) Haines, Bot. Bih. & Or. 635,

1922; Mukerjee tec, “cit: 192:

Gratiola hyssopioides Linn., Mant. 174, 1767.

Ilysanthes hyssopioides Benth. in DC. Prodr. 10: 419, 1846;

Hook. f., Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 283, 1884; Dalz. & Gibs., Bomb.

Fl. 179; Cooke, 296; Blatt. & Hallb., loc. cit., 419; Gamble,

Fl. Madr. 961.

Bonnaya hyssopioides Benth., Scroph. Ind. 34, 1835, ®& in

Wall., Cat. 3866;.Graham, Cat. 143:

For a full description of the plant, see Blatt. & Hallb., loc. cit.

5. Lindernia parviflora (Roxb.) Haines, loc. cit., 635; Pennell,

Scroph. West. Himal. 29; Mukerjee, loc..cit., 132.

Gratiola parviflora Roxb., Pl. Cor. 3: .3, t. 203; 1819, &. F.

Ind. 1% 740;.1832,

Ilysanthes parviflora Benth., in DC. Prodr. 10: 419, 1846;

Hook. f., Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 283, 1884; Cooke, 296; Blatt. &

Hallb., loc. cit., 420; Gamble, Fl. Madr. 96r.

Bonnaya parviflora Benth., Scroph. Ind. 34, 1835; & in Wall.,

Cat. 3867. |

Bonnaya hyssopioides Wight, Icon. t. 857 (non Benth.).

A very common plant at all times of the year, often frequenting

rice fields during the dry season (Blatt. & Hallb., loc. cit.). My

NOTES. ON THE SCROPHULARIACEAE OF BOMBAY 39

experience in Khandala is that generally this plant prefers moist soil,

but it also grows well in dry rice fields even during April and May.

The length of the corolla generally distinguishes this from the pre-

ceding species, but often one and the same plant may show rather

large corollas said to be typical of L. hyssopioides. For a key to the

species of Ilysanthes, see Blatt. & Hallb., loc. cit.

6, Lindernia ciliata (Colsm.) Pennell, in Journ. Arn. Arb. 24:

253, 1943, &, Scroph. - West.; -Himal.: 32:;..Mukerjee, -lot:

CIE .3.) 233%

Gratiola ciliata Colsmann, Prodr. Desc. Grat. 14, 1793.

Bonnaya brachiata Link & Otto, Ic. Plant. Sel. 25, t. 11, 1820;

Hook.7i.55 Fl, Brit..Ind: 4)2 A418, , 1884); Graham), : Cat) 143);

Dalz. & Gibs., Bomb. Fl. 178; Cooke, 297; Blatt. & Hallb.,

loc. Clie 413)

Gratiola serrata Roxb., Fl. Ind. 1: 140, 1820.

Ilysanthes serrata (Roxb.) Urban, in Berl. Deutsch. Bot. Ges.

2: 436, 1884; Gamble, Fl. Madr. 962.

Vandellia brachiata Haines, loc. cit., 632.

Very common near Bombay and in Khandala during the rains; I

have seen specimens in flower only 2 cm. high; towards the end of

the rains, it may reach 25 cm. in height. The close serratures of the

leaves are typical. For further details, see Blatt. & Hallb., loc. cit.

7. Lindernia ruelloides (Colsm.) Mukerjee, loc. cit., 133.

Gratiola ruelloides Colsm., Prodr. Desc. Grat. 12, 1793.

Gratiola reptans Roxb., Fl. Ind. 1: 140, 1820. :

Bonnaya veptans Spr., Syst. 1: 410, 1825; Hook. f., Fl. Brit.

Indsi a: 284, 1884; Dalz..'& Gibs., Bomb.’ F1)*179; ' Cooke,

297; Gamble, Fl. Madr. 962.

Ilysanthes reptans Urban, loc. cit., 2: 436, 1884.

Ilysanthes ruelleodes Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 462, 18091.

8. Lindernia anagallis(Burm.) Pennell, in Journ. Arn. Arb. 24:

252, 1943, & Scroph. West. Himal. 31, 1943; Mukerjee, loc.

Gin, S33.

Ruellia anagallis Burm., Fl. Ind. 135, 1768.

Bonnaya veronicaefolia (Retz.) Spr., Syst., 1: 14, 1825; Hook.

f., Fl. Brit. Ind. 4:.285, 1884; Graham. Cat. 143; Dalz. &

Gibs., Bomb. Fl. 178; Wight, Icon. t. 1411; Cooke, 2098;

Blatt. & Hallb. loc. cit., 418; Gamble, Fl. Madr. 962.

Graitola veronicifolia. Retz.,. Obs.. 4: 8, 1786; Willd.,, Sp. PI.

i) 109, 1708.

Ilysanthes veronicifolia Urban, loc. cit., 436.

Vandellia veronicaefolia Haines, loc. cit., 633.

Lindernia anagallis var. grandiflora (Retz.) Mukerjee, loc. cit.,

133- :

Gratiola grandiflora Retz.,. Obs. 4: 8, 1786; Willd.; Sp. PI.

fi, 10541799 5, Roxb: Pl. Corn. 2.2. 42) 4. 070,170:

40. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Bonnaya grandiflora Spr., Syst. 1: 41, 1825; Blatt. & Hallb.,

| loc. cit., 418. Graham, Cat. 143;.Dalz:,.& Gibs.. Bomb. I.

179.

Bonnaya veronicaefolia var. grandiflora Hook. f., Fl. Brit. Ind.

4: 285, 1884; Cooke, 298.

Blatter & Hallberg, loc. cit., state that this variety is the commoner

plant in Bombay, the typical variety being rather rare in the Presidency.

I have collected a number of specimens especially in Khandala and

most of them seem to belong to the variety grandiflora.

9, Lindernia verbenaefolia (Cols.) Pennell, in Scroph. West.

Himal. 31, 1943: Mukerjee, loc. cit., 133.

Gratiola verbenaefolia Colsm., Prodr. Desc. Grat. 8, 1793.

Bonnaya verbenaefolia Spreng., Syst. 1: 42, 1825; Benth. in

DC. Prodr. 10: 421, 1846; Dalz. & Gibs., Bomb. Fl. 178;

Wight, Icon. t. 1412.

Bonnaya veronicaefolia var. verbenaefolia Hook. f., Fl. Brit.

Ind. 4: 295, 1884 ;-‘Cooke,. 208:

10. Lindernia oppositifolia (Retz.) Mukerjee, loc. cit., 134.

Gratiola oppositifolia Retz., Obs. 4: 8, 1786; Wiilld., Sp. PI.

I: 105, 1798 (non Linn, ut scribit Mukerjee).

Bonnaya oppositifolia Spr., Syst. 1: 41, 1825; Benth. in DC.

Prodr. to: 421, 1846; Hook. f., Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 286, 1884;

Graham, Cat. 143; Dalz. & Gibs., Bomb. Fl. 179; Cooke,

298; Gamble, Fl. Madr. 962.

Ilysanthes oppositifolia Urban, loc. cit., 445.

Vandellia oppositifolia Haines, loc. cit., 634.

11. Lindernia bracteoides (Blatt. & Hallb.) Mukerjee, loc. cit., 133.

Bonnaya bracteoides Blatt. & Hallb., loc. cit., 416.

12. Lindernia estaminodiosa (Blatt. & MHallb.) Mukerjee, loc.

Citi, 133.

Bonnaya estaminodiosa Blatt. & Hallb., loc. cit., 416.

13, Lindernia quinqueloba (Blatt. & Hallb.) Mukerjee, loc. cit.,

eee

Bonnaya quinqueloba Blatt. & Hallb., loc. cit., 417.

14. Lindernia sessiliflora (Benth.) Wetstt. loc. cit., 79; Mukerjee,

IOC, Cit. ,, 232.

Vandellia sessiliflora Benth., Scroph. Ind. 37, 1835 & in DC.

Prodr:* 16: 416, 18465" Hook.f, hi Brit. Ind. 4: 282, 1884.

Bonnaya micrantha Blatt. & Hallb., loc. cit., 417.

Dr. S. K. Mukerjee, to whom I had sent some of Blatter and

Hallberg’s type specimens of Bonnaya micrantha, informed me in a

private letter that he was certain of the identity of B. micrantha with

Vandellia sessiliflora. For my part, I have checked the type sheets

of the Bombay plant with those of Vandellia sessiliflora in Kew

Herbarium; both sets of sheets clearly belong to the same species. A

NOTES ON THE SCROPHULARIACEAE OF BOMBAY 41

point worth noting, however, is that several of the Kew specimens

show hypogeal fruits, and such fruits are absent from Blatter &

Hallberg’s specimens or from those I have myself collected in Khandala

and Purandhar. Moreover, at the latter place, I found this plant to

be fairly abundant and widespread especially near Vazirgadh Fort.

PEPLIDIUM Del.

Peplidium maritimum (Linn.) Wetstt. in Engl. & Prantl, Pflan-

zentana:i41i(3b) 2178, (18455. Gamble) Fl -Madr:: 963.

Hedyotis, maritima: Linn. f.,: suppl. 119, 1781.

Oldenlandia maritima Roth, Nov. Pl. Sp. 97, 1821.

Peplidium humifusum Del., Descr. Egypt. 148, t. 4, 1812;

Hook.od.5, Wl. Brit.; ind. 4: 1287; 1884 :\\Graham, Cat, 142;

Cooke, 299.

Microcarpaea cochlearifolia Sm. in Rees Cyclop. 23, no. 2,

1813; Wight in Hook. Bot. Misc. 3: 95, Suppl. t. 29, 1833.

At first sight this plant is remarkably similar to Portulaca sp.

There are no specimens from Bombay at Kew; but McCann has found

the plant near Bombay. The only specimens from Bombay which I

have seen are those collected by McCann, I have failed to find the

plant in spite of persistent searching for a number of years.

GLOSSOSTIGMA Arn.

Glossostigma spathulatum(Hook.) Arnott ex Benth. in Comp.

Bote Mae. 2: 59,, 1936; Hook. 1.,.\Fl: Brit. Ind. 4: 2388,

1884; Dalz. & Gibs., Bomb. Fl. 180; Cooke, 299, Gamble,

Fl. Madr. 964; Pennell, Scroph. West. Himal. 36, 1943.

Microcarpaea spathulata Hook. ex Wight in Bot. Misc. 2: 101

Supple ti. -1,° 1831; Graham, Cat. 142.

Glossostigma diandrum Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 461, 18g91.

VERONICA Linn.

1. Veronica anagallis Linn., Sp. Pl. 12, 1753; Hook. f., Fl. Brit.

Ind. 4: 293, 1884; Cooke, 301; Wetstt. in Engl. & Prantl,

Pilanzeniam. 4 (30): <66,.1805; Blatt. & EHallb. loc’ cit, 427.

Veronica anagallis var. calycina Blatt. & Hallib., loc. cit., 427.

Blatter & Hallberg found this new variety near the Tapti river

in Khandesh in Dec. 1916 (No. 1634); I have not seen the specimen,

as apparently it has disappeared from the Blatter Herbarium.

2. Veronica beccabunga Linn. var. attenuate Blatt. & Hallb., loc.

Cia wo.

The authors confess that the plants were not in flower at the time

they were collected; I have examined the type sheets, but found them

in too poor a state for an exact determination.

42 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

BUCHNERA Linn.

Buchnera hispida Buch.-Ham. in D. Don, Prodr. Fl. Nep. gr,

1825; Hook. f., Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 298, 1884; Dalz. & Gibs.,

Bomb, ‘Fl.) 132 ;, Wight, Icon, ,T...1413 ; Cooke, 301; Gamble,

Fl, Madr. 966; Pennell, Scroph. West. Himal. 95-

An erect, generally unbranched herb; Cooke mentions that the

colour of the corolla is ‘light purple’, but I have often seen this plant

in the field and the corollas were mostly deep purplish blue turning

slightly paler with age. When the main stem is damaged, the plant

produces a number of long branches from near the spot of the injury.

Common in grass fields. H. L. van Buuren in Poona Agric. Coll:

Mag. vols. 5 & 6 writes that this plant is a root parasite on grasses ;

I have often tried to find the connection between this and the host

plant, but without success, the reason possibly being the fibrous and

delicate nature of the roots of grasses.

STRIGA Lour.

Key to the Strigas of Bombay adapted from Cooke.

Calyx 4-5-ribbed :

Parasitic on roots; leaves scale-like ne S. gesneroides.

Not parasitic; leaves linear, not scale-like Pe S. densiflora.

Calyx 10-ribbed; flowers yellow or white eke S. asiatica.

Calyx 15-ribbed :

Corolla white, tube much longer than calyx .. SS. euphrasioides.

Corolla yellow, tube about as long as calyx ite PL S.astelphiurea:

]. Striga gesneroides (Willd.) Vatke ex Engl. in ‘Abhandl. Preuss.

‘Akad. Wissensch. 28: 1894; Pennell, Scroph. West. Himal.

97, 1843.

Buchnera gesneroides Willd., Sp. Pl. 3: 338, 1801.

Buchnera. hydrabadensis Roth, ‘Nov. (PliSp.. 202;) 1827.

Orobanche indica Spr.,. Syst. 2: 817, 1825.

Buchnera orobanchioides R. Br., App. salt. Voyage Abyss. 74,

1814, nom. nud.; & ex Endl. in Plora 22 487, 1. 2; 1832:

Striga ovobanchioides Benth. in Comp. Bot. Mag. 1: 361, t.

£9, 18363. Hook, t.,. Fl Brit. Ind.e4)) 209, 1834 )Dalze&

Gibs., Bomb... Fl. 181; Wight, Icon., t. 1414; Cooke,/ 302;

Gamble, Fl. Madr. 967.

Striga coccinea Graham, Cat. 145 (non Benth.).

A parasitic herb growing on the roots of some Acanthaceae; in

Bombay, Khandala and Purandhar I have often found this plant on

Lepidagathis cuspidata Nees, occasionally on L. trinervis Nees. It

is a large herb, generally about 30 cm. high, and extensively branched ;

stems purple, mostly dark purple; leaves scale-like, of the same colour

as the stem; flowers lighter purple. The whole plant dries black.

This is what I consider the typical variety; the stem varies from 15

to a little over 4o cm. (the largest plant collected was 46 cm. high).

The tuberous root mentioned by Cooke, is seldom present in Bombay

plants; I have never seen this plant growing on rocks.

NOTES ON THE SCROPHULARIACEAE, OF BOMBAY \ 43

Striga gesneroides Vatke var. minor Santapau, in Kew Bull.

1948: 491, 1949.

A very striking small plant, with the floral structure of S. ges-

neroides but ditfering in the following particulars:

(a) The host plant I have always found to be Hygrophila

Serpyllum Anders. The presence of the parasite generally reduces the

amount of flowers and fruits in the host, or delays flowering, but

seldom prevents it altogether.

(b) The total length of the stem varies from 1.8 to 8.5 cm. at

the flowering stage.

diam. when fully open.

(d) The bracteoles supporting the flowers are either not ciliolate

at all, or only very sparsely and minutely so.

(e) Branching of the stem from below is rather rare.

(f) Stems are generally purple, flowers a little lighter purple;

in Khandala I have found plants with green stems and white flowers

(Santapau 3416! 3545! 5462!); both types of plants, however, dry

black.

A common plant in Khandala, but easily missed on account of its

small size; often it scarcely appears above the ground. The white-

flowered plants I have only found scattered among numerous purple

ones in a rice field on Kune Plateau.

2. Striga densifiora Benth. in Comp. Bot. Mag. 1: 363, 1836;

Hooke ‘t., Fi. Brit. Ind. 4: 299, 1884; Dalz. & Gibs., ‘Bomb.

Fl. 181; Cooke, 303; Gamble, Fl. Madr. 967.

Buchnera densiflora Benth., Scroph. Ind. 41, 1835.

In general appearance it is very near S. asiatica Kuntze, but

differs in the structure and number of calyx ribs; it seems to be much

less common than S. gesneroides Vatke or S. asiatica Kuntze; I have

seen it in cultivated fields at the foot of Purandhar Hill, where the

parasite was abundant and did much damage to crops.

3. Striga asiatica (Linn.) Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Plant. 466, 1891;

Micra nm Vrans. Amer. Phil. Soc., N.5.,.024, (2) 353, 1035.

Buchnera asiatica Linn., Sp. Pl. 630, 1753.

Striga lutea Lour., Fl. Cochinch. 22, 1790; Hook. f., Fl. Brit.

Ind. 4: 299, 1884; Cooke, 303; Gamble, Fl. Madr. 968;

Pennell, Scroph. West. Himal. 96.

Buchnera hirsuta Wall., Cat. 3860.

Striga hirsuta Benth., in DC. Prodr. 10: 502, 1846; Dalz. &

Gibs., Bomb. Fl. 181.

‘A common plant in Western India, in cultivated fields, parasitic

on roots of grasses, especially of Eleusine coracana Gaertn. The

calyx is always (at least in Khandala and Bombay) ro-ribbed; in flower

it is narrowly tubular or cylindric; in fruit it widens considerably.

Hairs on stems, leaves and calyx are either simple or more often from

a broad whitish tubercular base. Tube of corolla very faintly pubescent

44 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

outside. The branching of the stem varies considerably, from a

slender, simple, unbranched stem to a profusely branched, stout one.

Corolla yellow.

Striga asiatica var. albiflora Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Plant. 466, 1891.

Striga lutea Lour.: Hooke. f.,, Cooke,'Gamble, ‘et alior. Il.

CC." PLO" parte,

Generally I have found in the field that plants with white flowers

are considerably stouter and more extensively branched than the yellow

flowered ones. A very common plant in Khandala, parasitic on the

roots of Eleusine coracana Gaertn., to which it causes severe damage.

It is very similar to S. densiflora Benth.* but the calyx in every speci-

men examined was to-ribbed.

4. Striga euphrasisides (Vahl) Benth., in Comp. Bot. Mag. 1:

364,. 1836; Hook..,f.,,.F1.,Brit. .Ind.,.4,:, 299; Graham; Cat,

1453, Dalz. &, Gibs.., .Bomb. -F1.,.181 ; Cooke,, 303; Gamble AFI.

Madr. 968; Pennell, Scroph. West. Himal. 96.

Buchnera euphrasioides Vahl, Symb. Bot. 3: 81, 1794; Wight,

LCOM 2 04-655.

Pennell contrasts this plant with S. asiatica so that the plant with

white corolla, the tube of which is externally pubescent, and much

branched stems is S. euphrasioides, whilst the plant with yellow

corollas, the tube of which is externally glabrous or merely puberulent,

stems simple or much branched is S. asiatica. This would suggest

that S. aSiatica var. albiflora should be made synonymous with S.

euphrasioides; the difference however, in the calyx ribbing seems to

be constant, to ribs in S. asiatica and its variety albiflora, and 15 ribs

in S. euphrasioides, and in consequence I consider this a good point

for the differentiation of the species.

5. Striga sulphurea Dalz. & Gibs., Bomb. Fl. 182, 1861; Hook.

f., Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 300, 1884; Cooke, 304.

Very similar to the preceding species, from which it differs mainly

in having yellow flowers and a calyx nearly as long as the corolla tube.

RHAMPHICARPA Benth.

Rhamphicarpa iongiffora(Arn.) Benth., in Comp. Bot. Mag. 1:

368, 1836; Hook. f.,. Bl. Brit. Ind. :,,300,\ 18845\-Graham,

Cat. 1457. Dalz... &Gibs., sBomb:. Fl...1825\, Wight,-iieons yp

415; Cooke, 304; Gamble, Fl. Madr. 969.

Buchnera longiflora Arnott, in Nov. Act. Nat. Cur. 18: 356,

1836.

This is a common and pretty herb growing in grass lands from

about July till October. Flowers open at nightfall, and remain open

during the night and early hours of the morning; if the day is cloudy,

flowers may remain open till about midday, otherwise by about 9 a.m.

most flowers have closed. On several occasions I have noticed these

NOTES. ON THE .SCROPHULARIACEAE OF BOMBAY | 45

flowers fully open at or a little after midnight. Cooke, loc. cit.,

attributes the name of this plant to Benth. in DC. Prodr. 10: 504,

1846, and sees no incongruity in citing as a reference Graham,

Catalogue p. 145, published 1839!

SQPUBIA_ Buch.-Ham.

Corolla purple; calyx teeth in flower about twice as

long as calyx tube: ies S. delphinifolia.

Corolla yellow; calyx teeth in flower. about as long as

the tube: teh S. trifida.

1. Sopubia delphinifclia (Roxb.) G. Don, Gen. Syst. 4: 560, 1837;

Hook. f., Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 302, 1884; Graham, Cat. 145;

Dalz. & Gibs., Bomb. FI. 182; Cooke, 305; Blatt. & Hallb.,

loc. cit., 428; Gamble, Fl. Madr. 970.

Gerardia delphinifolia Roxb., Pl. Cor. 1: t. 90, 1795.

Common in cultivated lands and in grass fields at the close of the

rains and the first part of October. Flowers are rose coloured or

light purple. Capsules are conspicuous and very distinctly one-sided,

the remains of the stigma always being inclined to one side. An

elegant herb when in full bloom. For the many variations in the

species, see Blatt. & Hallb., loc.. cit.

2. Sopubia trifida Buch.-Ham. tm D. Don, Prodr. Fl. Nep. 88,

1325 Oo, i; Mi Bot, Inds 4: -3o2,- 1884;1.Cooke, 306;

Blatt. & Hallb., loc. cit., 429; Gamble, Fl. Madr. 970;

Pennell, Scroph. West. Himal. 95, 1943.

Gerardia scabra Wall., Cat. 3880.

A rare plant in the Presidency, according to Cooke.

LINDENBERGIA Lehm.

Lindenbergia indica (Linn.) Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Plant. 462, 1891.

Dodartia indica Linn., Sp. Pl. 633, 1753.

Lindenbergia ruderalis Voigt, Hort. Sub. Calcut. 501, 1845;

Kuntze, loc. cit., 462; Pennell, Scroph. West. Himal. 25,

1943.

Stemodia ruderalis Retz., Obs. 5: .25, 1789.

Lindenbergia urticaefolia Lehm., in Link & Otto, Ind. Sem.

Hort. Hamb.. 1820'; 5, 17830;;:Hook. f:, Fli Brit.. Ind. 4:

262, 1884; Graham, Cat. 143; Dalz. & Gibs., Bomb. FI.

i705 ook, olcom. bli1t.8755 Cooke. 3075) Blatt., & Hallb.,

1OCy- Gils, 242:

Lindenbergia polyantha Royle ex Benth., Scroph. Ind. 22,

1935; Hlook..¢.,' Fl.’ Brit. ‘Inds 4':' 262, :°1884; Cooke, 307.

As is clear from the list of synonyms, I have followed Blatt. &

Hallb., in reducing L. polyantha to L. urticaefolia; the oldest name

for the group is Dodartia indica Linn., from which the new combina-

tion was made by Kuntze. For a full discussion of the reasons for

46 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

the fusion of the two hitherto accepted: species into one, and for the

many intermediate forms between the two extremes, see Blatt. &

Hallb.;: :loc.. cit.

CENTRANTHERA R. Br.

Centranthera nepalensis D. Don, Prodr. Fl. Nep. 88, 1825;

Pennell, Scroph., West. Himal. 03, 10942.

Centranthera Iuispida Hook. f., Fl. Brits <inds.42.4 308; 18845

Graham, Cat. 145; Dalz. & Gibs., Bomb. Fl. 182; Cooke,

308 ;} Merrill, Enum. Phil. Fl. Pl. 3: 442, 1923 (mon R.Br.)

In modern Indian floras this plant is generally placed under

C. hispida R. Br.; Pennell, however, loc. cit., has called attention io

the clear differences between C. hispida R. Br. and C. nepalensis Don.

Speaking of C. nepalensis Pennell states that the descriptions .. .

give the corolla as purple, Roxburgh calling the tube ‘a deep purplish

red’ and the lobes ‘rose coloured’. This furnishes the most obvious

difference from C. cochinchinensis (Lour) Merr. (C. hispida R. Br.)

with which it has long been placed... .

Corolla yellow, 17-20 mm. long; both pairs of filaments villose-

ciliate; seeds spirally ridged, not reticulate; bracts shorter than the

calyces; stem 4-10 dm. tall. C. cochinchinensis.

Corolla purple, 13-15 mm. long; filaments less hairy, the posterior

pair glabrate, the anterior villose-ciliate; seeds evidently reticulate,

not spirally marked; bracts (unless occasionally the uppermost) longer

than the calyces; stem o0.5-5 dm. tall. C. nepalensis. (Pennell,

loc. cit2)

A common plant in Bombay Presidency; I have examined a fairly

large number of specimens from Khandala and in every detail they

correspond to C. nepalensis Don as described by Pennell. A very

variable plant; flowers in Khandala often reach 20 mm. long; the

colour of the corolla is deep purple inside the corolla tube, pale rosy-

purple in the limb, occasionally entirely and uniformly white. The

seeds are distinctly reticulate, but the reticulations have a slight

spiral twist.

PEDICULARIS Linn.

Pedicularis zeylanica Benth., Scroph. Ind. 54, 1835; Hook. f., FI.

Brit. Ind. 42317; “Wieht, “Icons 't/'1419; Prain; Spee.Pedic,

in ‘Ann.’ Roy? (Bot:? Gard asCaleuttaie\ 15 3)rot aetna oa

1891; Cooke, 309; Gamble, Fl. Madr. 972.

A rare plant in the Presidency; I have seen no specimen from

Bombay; it seems to be fairly common on the Nilgherries.

ANTIRRHINUM Linn.

Antirrhinum majus Linn., Sp. Pl. 617, 1753; Dalz. & Gibs., Bomb.

Fl., Suppl. 64; Wetstt. in Engl. & Prantl, Pflanzenfam. 4

(3b): 42, f. 18D: 45, £. 22’ L-M,:1895; Cooke, 309; Pennell,

Scroph. Basti; femp; N:) Amer? 317,.11935.

NOTES ON THE SCROPHULARIACEAE OF BOMBAY 47

A north American plant. Bentham, in DC. Prodr. 10: 291, 1846,

states that it has been cultivated for a long time in gardens, from

which it has escaped and in now in consequence found almost natural-

ized in middle Europe, in India, etc. I have seen the plant in gardens

both in Europe and India, but have not seen it growing wild anywhere.

MAURANDIA Ort.

1, Maurandia antirrhiniflora H. & B. ex Willd., Enum. Hort.

Berol. 659, 1809; Pennell, Scroph. East. Temp. N. ‘Amer.

315, 1935.

Maurandia personata Lag., Gen. et Sp. Nov. 19, 1816.

Maurandya antirrhiniflora Graham, Cat. 142.

Mauvrandya antirrhinifolia Dalz. & Gibs., Bomb. Fl. Suppl. 64.

Antirrhinum maurandioides A. Gray in Proc. Amer. Acad. 7:

370, 1868.

2. Maurandia semperflorens Ort., Nov. Plant. Descr. Decad. 21,

1797. Dalz. & Gibs., Bomb. FI., Suppl. 64; Cooke, 309;

Pennell, Scroph. East. Temp. N..Amer. 314, 1935.

Maurandya semperflorens Bot. Mag. t. 460; Graham, Cat. 142.

3. Maurandia scandens (Don) A. Gray in Proc. Amer. Acad. 7:

377, 1868; Cooke, 309.

Lophospermum scandens D. Don, in Trans. Linn. Soc. 15:

353, 1827; Dalz. & Gtbs., Bomb. FI., Suppl. 64.

RUSSELIA Jfacg.

Russelia equisetiformis Schlecht & Cham. in Linnaea 6: 377, 1831.

Russelia yuncea Zucc. in Flora 15 (2) Betbl.: 99, 1832; Dalz.

& Gibs., Bomb. FI., Suppl. 64; Cooke, 310.

Russelia floribunda Woodrow in Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc.

12% 174, 1893 (non H.B.K.).

SCOPARIA Linn.

Scoparia dulcis Linn., Sp. Pl. 116, 1753; Hook. f., Fl. Brit. Ind.

Az* 289, 1384; Cooke,- 310; Blatt..& dallb;:.loc. cits, 426;

Gamble, Fl. Madr. 964; Merrill, Enum. Phil. Fl. Pl. 3:

441, 1923; Pennell, Scroph. East. Temp. N. Amer. tog,

1935, & Scroph. West. Himal. 22, 1943.

Gratiola micrantha Nutt. in ‘Am. Journ. Sci. 5: 287.

Scoparia grandiflora Nash in Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 23: 105,

1896.

For the distribution of this plant in India, see Blatt. & Hallb.

loc. cit. I have found it to be a common herb all over Bombay and

Salsette islands; along the railway line in Karjat at the foot of the

Ghauts, in Khandala along the main road, and at the foot of Purandhar

Hill, 27 miles S.E. of Poona.

48 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

MAZUS Lour.

1. Mazus japonicus (Thunb.) Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Plant. 462,

1891; Pennell, Scroph. East.¢Temp. N..Amer. (137, 19353

Merrill_in, Trans,., Am, Phil, Soc. (2 set.) i24nle)\eie349) 1935:

Lindernia japonica Thunb., Fl. Jap. 253, 1784.

Mazus rugosus Lour., Fl. Cochinch. 385, 1790; Dalz. & Gibs.,

Bomb. Fl. 176; Blatt. & Hallb., loc. cit., 424.

For the occurrence of the plant in Bombay Province, see Blatt.

&, Hallb., loc, cit.

2, Mazus McCannii Blatt. & Hallb., in Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist.

Soc. 25: 423, 1918.

MICROCARPAEA Br.

Microcarpaea muscosa R. Br., Prodr. 436, 1810; Hook. f., Fl.

Br. “lid,” 43/9286; 1684" Benth... td Were i Todt: 16 area,

1846; Gamble, Fl. Madr. 963; Santapau, in Journ. Bomb.

Nat! Hust. S0c!"462" 2814"1046%

For the description of this plant and its occurrence in Bombay,

see Santapau, loc. cit.

REFERENCES

Note.—Onl, works dealing with the Scrophulariaceae have been included in

this list; for more general references, see previous papers by the same author.

Bentham, G.: 1. Scrophularineae Indicae . . . 1835.

2. Synopsis of the Buchneareae, a tribe of the Scrophulariaceae. In Comp.

Bot. Mag. 1: 356-384, Pl. 19, 1836.

3, Observations on some new or little known Genera and Species of Scrophul-

aviaceae. . . In op. cit., 2: 53-60, 1836.

‘4. Scrophulariaceae in DC. Prodr. 10: 186-586, 1846.

latter, E., & FF, Hallberg: New Indian Scrophulariaceae and some notes

on the same order. In Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. 25: 416-429, 1918.

Colsmann, J.: | Prodromus Descriptionis Gratiolae sistens Species a D. Konig

detectas’ «1. Giliee.

Eadlicher, $.: Stirpium Pemptas, iconibus et descriptionibus illustrata. In

Flora 1832: pt. 2: 385-399, pl. i-v.

Grant, A. L.: A Monograph of the Genus Mimulus. In Ann. Misssuri Bot.

Gard, 11: 99-388, pl. 1-10, 1945.

Mukerjee, S. K : A Revision of the Indo-Burmese species of Lindernia Allioni.

In Journ. Ind. Bot. Soc. 24: 127-134, 1945.

Murbeck, Sv.: 1. Monographie der Gattung Celsia. Act. Univ. Lund., N.S

22 (1): 1-239, pl.-1-16, 1925. "

2. Monographie der Gattung Verbascum. Ibid., 29 (2) 71-630, ph?-,1-31,

ff, 1-11, 1935.

Nees von Fsenheck, C. G.: Monograph of the East Indian Solanaceae. In

Trans, Linn oSoe, 17% (37-82, 1837,

NOTES ON THE SCROPHULARIACEAE OF BOMBAY 49

Pennell, F. W.: 1, The Scrophulariaceae of the Southeastern United States.

In Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 71: 224-291, 1920.

2. Scrophulariaceae of Cuba. Ibid. 75: 1-21, 1923,

3. The Scrophulariaceae of Eastern Temperate North America. Acad. Nat.

Sci, Phila, Monogr. 1, pp. i-xiv, 1-650, 1935.

4. A Second Summary of the Scrophulariaceae of New Guinea. In Journ.

Am, Arb, 24 (3): 243-274, pl. i-v, 1943.

5. The Scrophulariaceae of the Western Himalayas. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila.

Monogr. 5, pp. i-vii, 1-163, pl. 1-25, 1943,

6. Reconsideration of the Bacopa-Herpestis Problem of the Scrophulariaceae.

In Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 98: 83-98, 1946.

Urban, I. : Studien uber die Scrophulariaceen-Gattungen Ilysanthes, Bonnaya,

Vandellia und Lindernia. In Bericht, Deutsch. Bot. Gesell. 2: 429-442, 1884.

Wight, R.: Illustrations of Indian Botany: Principally of the Southern Parts

of the Peninsula, By Richard (sic!) Wight, M. D. In Hook. Bot. Misc. 3:

“84-104, 1833.

NOTES ON TURDUS MERULA IN SOUTH INDIA

S. DILLON RIPLEY

In the winter of 1947 I collected a number of blackbirds in the

Nilgiris and Biligirirangan Hills. which on later examination in the

Museum at Yale appeared highly provocative. For assistance and

the loan of material of this species I am grateful to Mr. J. L. Peters

of the Harvard Museum, and to the authorities of the American

Museum of Natural History. I am most grateful also to Lt.-Col.

E. G. Phythian-Adams and Randolph C. Morris, Esq., for assistance

in collecting specimens. ;

Whistler and Kinnear in the Eastern Ghats Survey (1932) have

discussed exhaustively the range of the non-Himalayan Indian black-

birds but I cannot entirely agree with their conclusions. In the first

place published records of the occurrence of one race or the other in

an area are without subspecific value unless substantiated by speci-

mens. In the second place my collections show the occurrence of

two forms of the blackbird in the Nilgiris thereby reversing Whistler

and Kinnear’s systematic conclusions.

Specimens taken by me were collected in March and were pre-

sumably on their breeding grounds, as some birds were coming into

breeding condition and all were singing. Birds were taken north of

Ootacamund at Kalhatti on the northern fringe of the Nilgiri Plateau

at 5,250 feet, and on Dodabetta, the hill south-east of Ootacamund,

at 8,650 feet and at Avalanche in the south-western part of the

Plateau at 6,500 feet. These birds definitely divide into two groups.

The lower altitude birds from the northern part of the Plateau may

be listed as Type A. They are distinctly brownish below and grayish-

brown above, with, in the male, a tendency to a paler brown nuchal

ring and a well-defined black cap. The birds from the higher altitudes

and the more southerly parts of the Plateau may be listed as Type B.

They are distinctly grayish-brown below and darker blackish-gray

above with a black cap which shades into the back without any well-

defined demarcation.

Through the kindness of Mr. J. L. Peters, specimens of both

these phenotypes have been compared with Lafresnaye’s type of

Turdus nigropileus in the Harvard Museum of Comparative Zoology.

Although the type is old and very faded, as well as being in worn

plumage, it has a distinct black cap and auriculars and appears to be

the black-capped brown bird of the northern part of the Nilgiri

Plateau, my Type A above.

Jerdon (1862) discussing his Merula simillima, describes it as

‘entirely black, conspicuously darker on the head and back of neck;

somewhat lighter beneath, and tinged with dusky-brownish.’ He

gives its range as the summit of the ‘Neilgherry’ and ‘Pulney’ hills.

From the above it seems quite clear that simillimus is my Type B.

From the above it will be seen that two populations occur in the

Nilgiris, one in the lower parts from Ootacamund north, the other

NOTES ON TURDUS MERULA IN SOUTH INDIA 51

on the higher slopes to the south of that town. I hereby restrict the

type locality of nigropileus to ‘Kalhatti, Northern Nilgiri Plateau’,

and of simillimus to ‘Avalanche, higher Southern Nilgiri Plateau’.

Comparing specimens from the Western Ghats, Biligirirangan

Hills and northern Nilgiris it seems apparent that there is a dis-

tinct cline in color, the palest birds being found naturally to the north

and the darkest being my Kalhatti specimens. In addition Kalhatti

birds have the most rounded wings. However, I do not believe that

these differences are sufficient to require the retention of the name

mahrattensis proposed by Whistler and Kinnear (1932).

I would, therefore, retain the following forms:

Turdus merula nigropileus (Lafresnaye).

Synonym: Turdus simillimus mahrattensis Whistler and Win-

near.

Range: Evergreen biotope in the Western Ghats from Surat to

Malabar (probably including Coorg), Biligirirangan Hills and Bandi-

pur in Mysore and northern fringe of Nilgiri Plateau. On the eastern

side of the Peninsula to the Nallamalai Hills (Ferahabad vide Whist-

ler 1933). In winter northern birds apparently wander south as far

as the Cardamom Hills and the Travancore ranges where individuals

may be found from November at least through March.

Turdus merula spencei Whistler and Kinnear

Range: Evergreen sholas in Eastern Ghats from the Seshachalam

Hills and probably the Palkonda and Velikonda range north to the

hills of Bastar and Jeypore. Apparently intergrades with nigropileus

in south-eastern Hyderabad (Nallamalai Hills).

Turdus merula simillimus Jerdon

Range: Evergreen sholas in the higher hills of the central and

southern Nilgiri Plateau, the Brahmagherries and south to the Palni

Hills where it intergrades with the next race. <A _ resident, non-

migratory race.

Turdus merula bourdilloni (Seebohm)

Range: Evergreen forest in the higher hills of Travancore north

to the Nelliampathies and Palnis where it intergrades with simillimus.

A resident, non-migratory race.

Turdus merula kinnisii (Blyth)

Range: Dense evergreen and pines in the central highest hills

of Ceylon. A resident race.

LITERATURE CITED

Jerdon, T. C. (1862): The Birds of India. Calcutta. 1: 524.

Whistler, H. and Kinnear, N. B. (1932): The Vernay Scientific Survey of the

Eastern Ghats (Ornithological Section). Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 38:

75-77:

[Whistler, H.] (1933): In The Hyderabad State Ornithological Survey, by

Bate Ali. With notes by Hugh Whistler. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 36:

A NOVEL METHOD OF DESTROYING MAN-EATERS AND

CATTLE-LIFTERS WITHOUT FIREARMS.

S. R. DAvER

Deputy Conservator of Forests, C.P. and Berar Forest Service.

(With a plate and 11 text figures)

FOREWORD

In introducing this article I need only explain that Shri S. R. Daver,

Deputy Conservator of Forests started his career in the Central

Provinces as a Range Officer in 1916 and has been serving in these

forests for 33 years, of which nine were spent as Chief Forest Officer,

Bastar State and seven as D.F.O. Bilaspur. The article itself

is, however, sufficient evidence of its genuineness. Whether tigers

of other parts would show sufficient boldness to fall a victim to

‘Soori Phanda’ is a matter for debate but in many parts, where one

has had experience of the extreme cautiousness of tigers and their

-disinclination to return to kills which have been disturbed, it would

appear doubtful. Perhaps it depends on the relative ease with which

a tiger or panther can obtain a second kill.

I commend the article as a slice of real life which will, I am sure,

provide plenty of discussion.

@. E.. HEWETSON

1.F.S.

INTRODUCTION

During recent years man-eaters and cattle-lifters have increased

in the Central Provinces and Berar at such an alarming rate that

very few districts are free from these pests. The district in which

the writer is serving is not only overrun with cattle-lifters, but a

man-eating tigress played havoc for more than a year before she

was brought to book. This fact led the writer to investigate the

methods adopted by Baigas to destroy such carnivora. There is no

tribe or people in the world who could master the art of trapping

animals better or outdo a Baiga in it. Someone has said that Nature

never yields her secret lightly. A Baiga is Nature’s child, and as such

so secretive that one can get very little information out of him.

But when the questions and information sought refer to trapping

animals, one is treading on delicate ground, particularly when the

questioner happens to be a Forest or Police Officer. In spite of all

these difficulties the writer succeeded in winning the Baigas’ confidence

and they demonstrated their method of destroying cattle-lifters, when

an actual ‘kill’ occurred during his tour in May 1949 in Mandla District.

Unfortunately in this instance the tiger was not destroyed.

A NOVEL METHOD OF DESTROYING MAN-EATERS 53-

The writer does not claim originality in the device adopted for

killing tigers and panthers. He has merely attempted to describe

in words and explain by sketches, how tigers and panthers are destroy-

ed by aboriginals. If by chance any reader succeeds in destroying

cattle-lifters or man-eaters by this method he should thank and

remember our simple friends—the Baigas.

MAN-EATERS AND CATTLE-LIFTERS

(1) Abnormal increase of Cattle-lifters and Man-eaters in Central

Provinces and Berar:

‘With the departure of shikar-minded people from India, the

cattle-lifters have increased’ said one of the senior ministers of this

Province. To prove how true this observation is, one has only to

turn over the pages of C.P. and Berar Gazette. The writer has:

analysed the notices in C.P. and Berar Gazette, dated 6-5-1949 in

Part IV, pages 210-214 as detailed below :—

(2) (i) Total number of separate rewards

offered = Rs. 40

(1i) Total amount of rewards offered Rs. 3,580

(iii) Highest amount of single rewards

offered Sis sa ...Rs. 400

(iv) Minimum reward offered ... we. IXS:. /O))( LOL WOlE)

(v) Number of rewards offered for killing

man-eating tigers ale

(vi) Number of rewards offered for killing

man-eating panthers

(vii) Number of rewards offered for killing

cattle-lifters vy ses PAN

(viii) For wolf inet ee re 1

Total” 2. 40

(b) If the area infested by proscribed cattle-lifters and man-

eaters is analysed district by district, we get the following result :—

(1) Bhandara, (2) Balaghat, (3) Sarguja, (4) Wardha, (5)

Chanda, (6) Jubbulpore, (7) Hoshangabad, (8) Mandla,

(9) Bastar, (10) Chhindwara, (11) Nimar, (12) Bilaspur,

(13) Buldhana, (14) Raipur and (15) Amraoti.

Since the notices are published once every month, the list

of districts infested is not exhaustive. In the writer’s opinion, there

could be no district free from cattle-lifters in the C.P. and Berar.

(2) Once a cattle-lifter, never a game-killer :-—

When tigers take to cattle-lifting, it becomes increasingly

dificult for them to catch and kill agile wild game. Firstly, the

tiger finds it very easy to strike down a domestic animal. Secondly

by eating bovine cattle, it develops into a heavy and weighty animal

unable to chase and obtain wild game in the battle-field of jungle life.

‘D4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. ‘49

(3) Heavy economic loss to cattle owners :—

(i) Man-eaters are mostly disabled animals. Either they are wound-

ed by shikaris or by porcupine quills, or their canine fangs have

decayed due to old age. Whenever possible they kill bovine cattle

and sometimes human beings also. Hence a cattle-lifter in pursuit

of its food requirements is also quite frequently a man-eater.

(11) All sportsmen agree that a tiger or a panther must kill an

animal at least once a week for food. Even on the very conservative

estimate of only 3 kills per month, the number of cattle required by

a single cattle-lifter works out to 3x 12=36 a year.

Therefore, the 39 man-eaters and cattle-lifters notified in C. P.

Gazette of 6-5-1949, if not destroyed for a period of 12 months, would

require to kill 39x 12=468 bovine animals. If the present value of

a buffalo or a cow is taken only as Rs. too then the economic loss

entailed would be 468x100=Rs. 46,800.

(4) Reasons for increase of carnivora:—

The increase .of ‘carnivora in the C.P.''and'’Berar'/is'\ due to

the following reasons :—

(i) Departure of shikar-minded people from India :—

Every year civilians and army officers used to visit forest blocks

and thin out tigers and panthers in almost every district of the C.P.

But now-a-days civil officer’s tours in forest lands have diminished

considerably owing to pressure of heavy office work. On the other

hand, few young officers of the Army, Navy and Air Force are keen

to spend money and time on shikar The writer has suggested that

a copy of notices regarding offer of rewards, appearing in the C.P.

‘Gazette should be supplied by the C.P. Government to Army, Navy

and Air Force Headquarters and young officers should be made

shikar-minded not for the sake of the rewards but to get training

in jungle warfare. It is said that ‘the jungle is the battle field of

our play hours’.

(ii) Withdrawal of ordinary rewards :—

A few years back, rewards used to be paid in the C.P. for

destroying carnivora as follows:—

Tiger Ae Rs. 15

Wild Dog be Rs. 15

Panther i Rs. 10

These rewards were no inducement to the class of sportsmen who

used to reserve shooting blocks in Government forests. Only local

village shikaris used to sit up over ‘kills’ and shoot tigers or panthers,

and draw rewards from the nearest treasury on production of a skin.

Now-a-days, firearms as well as ammunition are very costly; and

on top of this, Government, instead of increasing the rate of rewards,

have withdrawn the ordinary rewards. No local shikari would care

to waste his precious shot and gun powder in shooting a tiger or

panther. The writer estimates that local shikaris used to destroy or

thin out at least 50 tigers and panthers a year in the C.P. and draw

the prescribed rewards from treasuries. In the C.P. Gazette of

A NOVEL METHOD OF DESTROYING MAN-EATERS 55

6-5-1949, Government have announced an enhanced reward for destroy-

ing carnivora so that the total amount for these 4o cases now comes

to Rs. 3,580. If all these carnivora had been destroyed by local

shikaris on payment of the ordinary reward, it would have cost

Government 40 x 15=RKs. 600 only. Is it not more economical for Govern-

ment to keep down the number of cattle-lifters and man-eaters by

reintroducing ordinary rewards?

(iii) Increase of Wild Dog's :—-

Owing to withdrawal of rewards, wild dogs have _ increased

by leaps and bounds. In one shooting block, a permit holder witness-

ed a pack of twenty in one day in the Bilaspur Division, in May 1949.

Wild dogs destroy and wipe out game in forest, consequently

tigers or panthers are forced to turn their attention to men or cattle

for their food. The sooner the Government restore or even enhance

the ordinary rewards for destruction of wild dogs, the better for

the wild game and lesser chances of tiger and panther becoming

man-eaters and cattle-lifters.

(iv) Increase of gun licences and decrease of herbivora:—

In many tracts, herbivora have been over shot due to the liberal

grant of gun licences. In such tracts tigers and panthers have

of necessity to depend on bovine cattle or even take to killing human

-eings. Gun licences should be restricted and strictly controlled, and

Pardhis should not be allowed to trap game animals.

SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS

(a) Restoration of ordinary rewards for the destruction of tigers,

wild dogs and panthers.

(b) Encouraging Army, Navy and Air Force officers to shoot in

Government and private forests.

(d) In the wildest inaccessible areas, where sportsmen cannot

readily reach, or in areas where man-eaters or cattle-lifters are a

menace, the ‘Soori Phanda’ device, described in the following pages

should be encouraged.

‘Soorrt PHANDA’

The Baigas of Mandla District destroy cattle-lifters by a device

known as ‘Soori Phanda’. Being past masters in the art of trapp-

ing wild animals, they have used this device to destroy cattle-lifting

panthers or tigers for generations.

In feudal ages, the game laws were so strict, that it was a grave

offence for an ordinary man to shoot or kill a game animal. In India

the tiger is considered the king of the forests, and only a few privileged

persons like rajas, nawabs and high officials could shoot it. The

shooting of tiger by a common person was viewed with great dis-

favour. Against such a background no wonder the Baigas consider

it unwise and unsafe to advertise their ‘Soori Phanda’ to the world.

Unofficially the writer came to know of the killing of one cattle-

lifting tiger and two panthers within 3 years in one Range by means

of the ‘Soori Phanda’ method.

56 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

‘Soori’ in Baiga language means spear-head. ‘Phanda’ means.

trap. The spear-head together with a wooden shaft is also called a

‘Soori’ but a detached shaft separated from spear-head is called

‘ganj’ or ‘gauj’. The sketch below will give a better idea.

Bamboo shaft or : Pn |

Ganj” dr Gauj” or

Spear head

a ae a anes =

Spear-head inserted into bamboo shaft.

Both together, also called ‘“‘ Soori ”

EQUIPMENT AND CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR ‘SOORI PHANDA’.

The whole object of this device is to make the tiger or panther

fall on a number of spears planted in the ground with spear-heads

pointing skywards. To be successful, the following equipment and

conditions are necéssary :—

(1) There must be°a “kill” by a tiger or panther.” The, kill? amay

be a bovine carcass or a human body.

(2) There must be two young trees, forking at a ‘height of

13 feet to 15 feet from ground level and standing 10 feet to 12 feet

apart.

(3) A barked pole made from Kydia calycina known as bargha

or Baranga in Hindi.

(4) 12 to 16 iron spear-heads with an equal number of bamboo

shafts.

(5) Rope made from the Mahul climber (Bauhinia vahli).

(6) A pole for levering up and lifting a heavy carcass.

(7) Green branches and twigs for camouflage.

(9) A number of villagers to help in lifting the carcass and

for arranging the ‘Soori Phanda’.

I will take up the above nine items separately and explain in

detail the precautions necessary. ‘he

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Camouplage

RRR EES

Pr ee

LILLY DIY TTT |

eee

A ‘Soort PHANDA”’ IN ACTION

(Sketch by author)

ERR RES GSE OS

SRSES oes

Sie ERPS S NEU RARER SB parses gry.

RE ayy Ve SEPP ECON ey Seek

2s EEE Pee

ESE

A NOVEL METHOD OF DESTROYING MAN-EATERS 57°

t me “Kin

If the ‘kill’ happens to be a small animal, ‘Soori Phanda’ is.

organised with ease. For this reason the number of panthers destroy-

ed is much larger than that of tigers. Tiger ‘kills’ are usually large

bovine animals, sometimes even fullgrown buffaloes. To sling and

litt such heavy ‘kills’ 15 feet above the ground level by means of

props requires about 30 to 4o men.

In Mandla District and elsewhere a cattle-lifter frequently kills

more than one animal at a time. At Ramnagar, a village 4 miles.

from Karanjia, a cattle-lifter attacked 5 cattle and killed 3 outright.

Of these, the tiger finished off one young cow during the night,

and dragged and collected the remaining two in one spot—this was.

in May 1949. Hence before arranging ‘Soori Phanda’, it is essential

to search thoroughly the jungle in which a ‘kill’ is discovered. If

there are more than one ‘kill’, it is useless to expect a tiger to visit

‘Soori Phanda’. To be successful there must be only a single ‘kill’,

or if more than one the others must be removed or destroyed.

2. SELECTION OF TWO STANDING TREES

To support a horizontal pole of ‘Bargha’ two forked trees should

be selected. They must be 1o to 13 feet apart. The forking points

should be 14 to 15 feet from ground level. Such ideal conditions do

not often exist close to the ‘kill’. If the ‘kill’ is heavy, it is difficult

to move it a long distance, and moreover such removal may make

the tiger suspicious. To get over these difficulties in the jungle,

the Baigas sometimes select one or both the trees without a fork.

In such cases, they cut one or two forked poles without disturbing ~

the jungle, and these poles are strapped upright to the selected

trees and the transverse pole of the Bargha rests on these props.

Size of the trees.—If the trees selected are too thick and large

in girth, the tiger or panther finds it difficult to climb them. On the

other hand, if the trees are too thin and small in girth, it is equally

difficult for the tiger to climb. In making a selection the Baigas

preter trees of 2 feet to 3 feet in girth.

Choice of species.—If there be a choice, they always select Bia

(Pterocarpus marsupium) trees. Tigers for no apparent reason

always delight in climbing Bija trees. This is common knowledge

among Baigas and forest officials in Mandla forests. One can see

numerous Bija trees with the tell-tale marks of tiger climbing

them. If a Bija tree is scratched with a sharp instrument, an as-

tringent blood-coloured gum exudes. A tiger’s claws are full of

septic particles of the decomposed flesh of its victim, and sometimes

the claws may have wounds. It is possible that the oozing astringent

Bija gum may have a healing effect, or it may act as disinfectant.

Research on the antiseptic properties of Bija gum may prove beneficial

in medical treatment.

Other suitable tree species are Karra (Cleistanthus collinus), Amti

(Bauhinia racemosa) and Sal (Shorea robusta). Baigas believe that

tigers do not climb Dhaura (Anogeissus latifolia), Salai (Boswellia

serrata) and Kulu (Sterculia wrens).

58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

_«\s a general guide any tree of suitable size (2 feet 10.3 Teet garth)

with rough bark may be selected. Two such standing trees are

required.

3- A BarKED POLE oF BarGHA OR BARANGa (Kydia calycina)

In the forks of the two vertical trees a horizontal pole of Baranga

is fixed and secured with rope made of Mahul (Bauhinia vahlii) bark.

The whole success of ‘Soori Phanda’ rests upon selecting only Bargha

or Baranga pole 15 inches to 18 inches in girth. Before fixing this pole

between the two uprights, it is barked and its cambium layer (living

park) is also removed. The smooth texture of Baranga wood and

its sap make it so slippery and soapy that a tiger or panther cannot

walk along the pole and reach its middle without falling off. This

greasy property of the Bargha pole can be maintained and refreshed

for a number of days, by sprinkling water on it in case the tiger

does not visit the ‘Soori Phanda’ on the first or second day. No

other species of tree is used for this purpose. The ‘kill’ is slung

from the middle of this horizontal pole with ‘Bakkal’ (rope made

from mahul bark) in such a way that the carcass dangles and swings

freely. A twig of green leaves is slipped into the winding portion of

the ‘bakkal’ for camouflage. It may be noted here that tigers or

panthers do not reach the middle of the transverse pole, nor do they

normally fall off on to the upright spears from this point. This

slippery pole is merely a ruse to baffle a tiger or a panther, to rouse

its anger and exhaust its patience. Only one out of a hundred tigers

or panthers could possibly succeed in reaching the middle of the pole,

and even then it would certainly fall on the spear-heads below and

meet its death.

4. SPEAR-HEAD AND SHAFT

Spear-heads are forged by Agarias from iron ore smelted locally

in Bilaspur and Mandla Districts. A Baiga pays 8 annas to 12

annas per spear-head according to its size.

Size of the spear-head.—The total length of a spear-

head varies from 8 in. to 10 in. from tip to tip, of which

the blade portion is 5 in. to 6 in. long and the hind-

The widest portion of the blade

end about 3 in. or 4 in.

varies from 1} in. to 2 in. The spear-head is thick in

the middle portion of the blade tapering down to a pointed

tip and to sharp edges. The thickest portion of the

spear-head is situated at the junction of the tail-piece with

the widest part of the blade so that the spear-head may

not break or buckle up by the weight of a falling object.

Baigas call a spear ‘Sang’ or ‘Barchhi’.

Shape of the blade.—The two edges of the blade of the

spear-head are not symmetrical. One edge is prominently

convex and the opposite one more or less straight

in general outline, (see figure). The Baigas believe

that when an impaled animal struggles on a planted spear, the

straight edge functions as a lever and the bulging edge cuts deeper

‘into its flesh, and the spear-head thus penetrates deeper and deeper

A NOVEL METHOD OF DESTROYING MAN-EATERS 59

into the victim’s body. But the writer has also seen many spear-

heads with symmetrical blades being used in ‘Soori Phanda’.

Margin of the blade.—The margin of the blade should not be

‘entire’ (to use a botanical term) but

according to Baigas, the general out-

crenulated or serrated Jine of the edge should be slightly and

—» margin greatly irregularly crenulated or serrated (figure).

exaggerated They consider that such a jagged margin

hastens cutting action when the impaled

animal struggles on the spear-head.

Spear-head in the shape of arrow-

head more effective.—A spear-head made

in the shape of an arrow-head with 2

barbs, and known as ‘Bissar’ by the

Baigas, is more effective (figure). A tiger killed by ‘Soori Phanda’

at, Bhilki village, in Pandaria. Zamindari, in

December 1947 carried away three spears of

which one was an arrow-headed_ spear. It

extracted one spear and hurled it about 30 feet

away from ‘Soori Phanda’. The second was

found lying just near the trap, but the third

arrow-headed-spear remained in the tiger’s bedy.

The animal was found dead at a distance of

24 furlongs from the ‘Soori Phanda’ on the

following day. The Baigas had to cut open the

body to retrieve their precious weapon. A tiger

or panther cannot cast out an arrow-headed spear

from its body nor can a Baiga afford to lose his arrow-headed spear.

The writer suggests that if ‘Soori Phanda’ is conducted under official

supervision, such barbed spear-heads should be used.

Shaft.—Shaft or handle of the spear is made preferably of well-

seasoned bamboo 3 to 5 feet long. The thinner end of the bamboo

ERRTIER RAAT VOU yyy yy Letts

barb —

is split longitudinally into four parts and only upto the first inter-

node as seen in the figure. This end receives the tail-piece of the spear-

head. After inserting the tail-piece, the split end of the internode

is tightly wound with ‘bakkal’ (rope made from ‘mahul’ climber).

It is essential that the widest part of the spear-head blade should

invariably be larger than the diameter of the shaft, i.e. if the diameter

ef the shaft or bamboo is 14 in., then the widest part of the spear-

head should not be less than 2 in., so that the slit made in flesh of

60 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

the tiger or panther may permit the shaft to penetrate deeply with ease..

The split end of the shaft is tapered at its tip to help in this.

Shaft of unequal length.—The Baigas make two sets of ‘Soori’

or spears of different lengths. They erect one long

and one short spear alternately. The longer set

may project 3 to 34 feet above ground level, the

buried portion of the shaft being 14 to 2 feet. The

shorter set may be 24 to 3 feet above ground and

13 to 2 feet deep below it. This arrangement is

considered important because a falling tiger or

panther received on fewer spear points has the

probability of deeper penetration. The difference in

-+ taper.

two sets may be g in. to 12 in. It stands to reason

that if a tiger or a panther drops on large number of

spear points all in the same plane its weight will be distributed over

- a large bearing surface and consequently the

( penetration of spear-heads will be more super-

ficial. The object is to impale the tiger on one

i iy or two spears only so that the penetration may

! i Bamboo spikes as substitute for iron spears.

i f In backward tracts where iron implements are

valuable and scarce, the aborigines substitute

them with some handy forest product easily

obtainable. A typical example is the wooden bell for cattle which one

can see in forest areas only. |

At the time of a ‘Soori Phanda’ the villagers may not be able

ly 16. In such a case they select a dry and strong piece

of bamboo, of which one end is pointed like the blade of a

spear-head (see figure) and the other firmly planted into the

ground.

The writer suggests that a few of these bamboo spikes

should always be used along with the iron spears as they

harmonise so well with the surrounding objects and would

never be used for making these spikes as they are ineffect-

ive. When the man-eater of Talaidabra dropped from a

height of 15 feet 2 inches on one of these green bamboo

spikes, the point of the spike bent over and the man-

eater got only a_ superficial wouna in its neck, hardly

skin deep. Where bamboos are not available, shafts for

spear-heads and spikes are made from ‘Khirsari’

be deep and prove fatal.

to collect the required number of ‘Soori’ (spears) normal-

not arouse the tiger’s suspicion. Green bamboos should

(Nyctanthes arbortristis) poles.

5. Rope MADE FROM Mauut (Bauhima vahlit)

Fibre from the mahul climber (Bauhinia vahlii) also called

‘Mohlain’ in Mandla district makes very strong ropes and this is

freely used by Baigas in ‘Soori Phanda’ for the following purposes:

(i) Fastening the two ends of the Bargha pole firmly in the ferks.

of the two selected trees. :

A NOVEL METHOD OF DESTROYING MAN-EATERS 61

(ii) Strapping upright forked supports to selected trees, where

matural forked trees of the right kind are not available, and securing

the horizontal bar on to these props.

(iii) Tying the four legs of the carcass together for hanging it

from the middle of horizontal Bargha or Baranga pole.

6. A SLINGING. POLE FOR LIFTING HEAVY ‘KILL’

When the kill is a heavy carcass, it is lifted in the following

manner :—

The three or four limbs of the carcass are drawn together and

tied up with mahul rope. A tiger usually eats the hind leg of its

‘kill’ first, hence a carcass may have only three legs.

A pole of any species, strong enough to carry the weight of the

animal is prepared and inserted between the limbs of the ‘kill’.

Forked poles of different lengths 8 feet, 10 feet, 12 feet

and 15 feet are prepared in sets of two, and with the help of these

the carcass is lifted in stages, first say 8 feet, then to feet and so on

till the desired height of 14 to 15 feet from ground level is gained.

Then one or two men climb up to the transverse Bargha pole by

means of a crude ladder propped against it and suspend the ‘carcass’

from about the middle of it. When this operation is completed,

the props and the slinging poles are withdrawn.

Note of warning.—Until the above operation is completed and the

men working on the Bargha pole have come down, never set the

‘Soori Phanda’ on the ground. Otherwise the men working on Bargha

pole may get killed, should they accidentally slip and fall.

7. GREEN BRANCHES OR TWIGS FOR CAMOUFLAGE

In order to conceal the rows of spears, the inter-spaces between

the upright spear-heads or ‘Soori’ are planted with branches of green

leaves. However, if there be tali grass of the proper height,

(3 feet to 4 feet) or bushes in the place where ‘Soori Phanda’ is set,

then the artificial comouflage is not necessary. But a green leaf is

stuck on the tip of each spear-head so that this unfamiliar object may

not be visible from above.

A branch or two of green leaves is also stuck in the middle of

the Bargha pole where the ‘kill’ is tied with rope. This is done to

hide the strong rope with which the ‘kill’ is attached to the pole.

The kill should swing freely but its position must be such that the

head and tail ends always point towards the two supporting trees.

8. “KHANITA’ (ALSO CALLED ‘SABAR’ BY BAIGAS) OR AN IRON

CROW-BAR

To dig holes in the ground for planting about 16 spears upright,

an iron crow-bar locally known as ‘Khanita’ or ‘Sabar’ is necessary.

The holes are 1} to 2 feet deep according to the nature of the top-soil.

g. NUMBER OF VILLAGERS REQUIRED

When the ‘kill’ is heavy, about 30 to 40 men are required to lift

it by means of props to a height of 15 feet from ground level. It is

not difficult to collect this number for ‘Soori Phanda’. Villagers are

62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

generally willing to help in the destruction of a cattle-lifter or a man-

eater.

Any portable mechanical equipment which can easily lift a heavy

‘kill’, upto 15 feet off the ground, would be a great improvement.

Owing to the labour and trouble involved in the crude devices usually

employed, ‘Soori Phanda’ is now practised rather sparingly.

How To SET ‘Soort PHANDA’

In the proceeding section all parts of ‘Soori Phanda’ are described

in detail. The operation of the ‘Soori Phanda’ is described here and

illustrated by a rough diagrammatic sketch.

Having located the ‘kill’ of a cattle-lifter, the first step is to search

for the possibility of other ‘kills’ in the same locality. When a

tiger can get his food on the ground he is naturally not going to

take the trouble to climb the tree and oblige the ‘Soori Phanda’

trappers. In the Baiga demonstration carried out for the benefit of the

writer the cattle-lifter was given no inducement to climb the tree,

as the Baigas had neglected to remove the two other kills in the

same locality.

The second step is to find two ideal trees, forking at a height

of about 15 feet from the ground and as close to the ‘kill’ as possible.

If such are not available it is best to bring from a distance two

props with forks. If the ground between the two selected trees

supports tall grass or bushes in the right position, do not clear the

ground. If not, then branches of green leaves for camouflage be-

tween the spears may be used. Stick a green leaf or two on the

tip of every spear-head ; camouflage the rope tying the kill with the

Bargha pole. Take a pole of Bargha or Baranga (Kydia calycina)

15 to 18 inches in girth and slightly longer than the distance between

the two selected trees. This should be barked and the cambium layer

removed. Fix the pole horizontally in the fork of the two trees or

props by means of ‘bakkal’ (rope made out of mahul fibre). It

would be unfortunate if the special species is not found for the

horizontal pole within a reasonable distance in the forest, but perhaps

a pole of some other species, well coated with grease or fat may serve

equally.

With the help of a slinging pole and a set of forked props, raise

the ‘kill’ until it reaches the level of Bargha pole. One or two

men are required to climb up to its level with the help of a crude

ladder in order to suspend the ‘kill’ from its middle. The slinging

pole and props supporting it should be withdrawn after this and the

men asked to come down.

Just below the dangling ‘kill’ arrange to plant about 16 spears

in the ground in a space about 4 feet x 4 feet. This spot is irregular

in shape and the spears are neither equidistant from each other nor

are they arranged in regular lines or rows. The Baigas look up to

the dangling kill while fixing position for digging holes for erecting

each spear. As mentioned previously, spear-shafts are of two different

sizes the shorter and longer ones being planted alternately in the ground

in holes 15 in. to 24 in. deep just below the carcass. The spears are

firmly fixed with their tips pointing skyward.

A NOVEL METHOD OF DESTROYING MAN-EATERS 63

If the head and neck of the kill hangs too close to the ground,

it must be drawn up with ropes or removed because a tiger is tempted

to jump and grab at the nearest part of the ‘kill’ from the ground

and in doing so he gets the shortest drop on the spears—merely

wounding the animal. The higher the drop, the deeper the penetr-

ation of spears is what must be kept in view. The minimum drop.

should be about 8 feet. :

Camouflaging is the last operation. After this the men return

to their village. When a tiger visits the place and finds its ‘kiil’

hanging on a pole, he surveys the neighbourhood with great caution.

When fully satisfied of the coast being clear, he climbs one of the

trees supporting the pole. He tries to approach the ‘kill’ by walking

on the pole, and is baffled and irritated when he finds it slippery.

Instinctively he clings to the tree with one of his forepaws, while

with the other forepaw he either tries to grab the ‘kill’ or strike

with force so as to bring it down to the ground. Whether the

action is for grabbing or for striking down, it is difficult to say but

in either case, the hanging ‘kill’ swings away from the tiger. In

his attempts the tiger soon over-reaches himself, loses his balance

and drops on the labyrinth of spears below like a sack of potatoes.

Being heavy and powerful animals, tigers often carry away spears

some distance from the ‘Soori Phanda’ but are usually found dead

within a few hundred yards. Panthers succumb within 30 to 60

yards and are sometimes even pinned down where they drop.

Near Daldal Forest Village, a panther which apparently succeeded

in reaching the middle of Bargha pole dropped plumb on_ his

bottom. A spear entered his rectum and ploughed right through

his body. He was impaled in this position and his rampant dead

body was found on the following day. The Baigas were in roars of

laughter while describing the fate of this panther !

There are no authenticated instances of man-eaters being destroyed

by ‘Soori Phanda’. The reason for this is not far to seek. When a

person dies a violent death, the dead body is not interred unless a

responsible police officer has examined the same and a police panchnama

held. On rare occasions there are cases of actual murder and the

murderer tries to pass it off as death due to attack of a wild animal.

Therefore police officers have to take extra precautions and obtain

clear evidence that the victim was actually so killed. These formali-

ties react on the mind of aborigines, and when a person is killed by

a man-eater, anxiety to preserve the body is uppermost in their mind,

When the man-eater of Talaidabra forest village killed Jungi Bhootia,

the villagers searched for his dead body and when it was recovered,

they strapped it on a branch of a tree 11 feet above the ground. This

was done not for baiting ‘Soori Phanda’ but to preserve the body

until it was examined by a police party. But the man-eater climbed

the tree, chewed the ‘bakkal’ ropes, brought the body down and

left nothing of Jungi’s remains, except a few bones for identification

by a police official.

MAN-EATERS EASIER TO TRAP THAN CATTLE-LIFTERS

Man-eaters are mostly wounded or disabled animals. They secure

their unnatural food with great difficulty, and having secured their

‘64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

prey, they are desperate. Maiku Gond, a forest villager of Bindawal,

Bilaspur Division, was killed by the Talaidabra man-eater at 9 a.m.

on roth April 1949. Villagers of Bindawal, with the help of other

villagers recovered his body within a few hours, giving no time to

the man-eater for sufficient feed. Maiku’s body was strapped to two

standing trees 15 feet above ground level. Not being expert in

setting ‘Soori Phanda’, they fixed spears and spikes of green bamboos

below the body. The man-eating tigress climbed the tree the same

night, and due to sagging and swinging bamboo poles, she lost her

balance and fell on a green bamboo spike, and escaped with a super-

ficial wound in the neck. On 12th April Maiku’s body was

brought down at the suggestion of the Range Officer, Kota, ag bait

for the man-eater. The tigress visited the place at night, dragged

the body about 300 yards and ate a portion of it. On 13th April

a beat was organised but the man-eater did not turn up. However,

the Range Officer sat up over the kill the same night and shot the

animal at about 8 p.m. in the act of holding the prey in her jaws.

This instance shows that the man-eater visited and revisited her

human kill four times, and she did not leave the locality for 34 days

(84 hours).

There is a belief that a man-eater becomes habitually addicted to

human flesh. The writer, therefore, strongly advocates the use of

‘Soori Phanda’ for man-eaters in the same manner as employed for

ccattle-lifters, and would suggest that police officers should not insist

on examination of the corpse until the negative result of ‘Soori Phanda’

becomes known. The corpse of a human victim is easier to handle

than a bovine carcass and ensures better success if used as bait for

‘a Man-eater.

Whether the tips of the spear-heads are coated with poison or

not, is a moot point, and Baigas speak on this subject with mental

reservation. The writer feels the application of poison is_ perfectly

justified and legitimate when ‘Soori Phanda’ is set for a man-eater.

AN APOLOGY FOR ‘AN IGNOBLE DEATH FOR A NOBLE ANIMAL’?

Tradition and the finer points of sportsmanship perhaps demand

that such a noble animal as the tiger—the king of the forest—should

not end his life by such an ignoble death.

As long as a tiger is a game-killer, he is a gentleman; he never

interferes with man or his property. And so long as a tiger remains

a gentleman he has our admiration and respect. But cattle-lifters

and man-eaters adopt new ways of life, (perhaps compelled to do so

by man himself) which make them a source of danger and menace

to man and his live-stock. Such creatures are in no way better

than ‘Goondas’ among human society, and surely nobody feels any

compunction about how a Goonda ends his life.

The writer, therefore, feels no qualms of conscience for the method

suggested for the destruction of cattle-lifters and man-eaters. To

the tiger-shooting enthusiast, the writer owes no apology for sending

the cattle-lifter and man-eater to the scaffold of ‘Soori Phanda’ to

put an end to their nefarious career.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The writer of this article is indebted to Shri C. E. Hewetson,

1.F.S., O.B.E., Officiating Conservator of Forests, Eastern Circle,

A NOVEL METHOD OF DESTROYING MAN-EATERS. 65

Central Provinces for going through the draft and making useful and

necessary modifications. In fact, his words of encouragement in-

duced the writer to prepare this article—a task beyond the province

of a practical forester.

Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, 1.a. (Retd.) to whom this article was sent

by the editors, comments as follows :—

“There is much to interest members in Mr. Daver’s article.

In various parts of the world primitive peoples have evolved a

number of ingenious ways of destroying animals for one reason or

another—for food, for clothing, for gain, and to be rid of pests.

This ‘greasy pole’ method now described is somewhat elaborate and

would, as suggested by Mr. Hewetsou in his foreword, almost certainly

fail in case of most tigers, whether those ‘educated’ through ex-

perience or naturally wary. Only in quite exceptional circumstances

would it be likely to succeed.

When beyond Myitkyina in the Upper Irrawaddy country in 1931

the writer came to know that the people of the ‘Triangle’, as the

area between the Mali and ‘Nmai’ rivers is termed, destroy tigers

by a ‘spiked bamboo’ method. When it is noticed that a tiger has

the habit of using one of the cane and bamboo bridges he is given a

‘hangman’s drop’ of some 4o feet more or less on to spiked bamboos

fixed in the ravine bed beneath the place where a few slats have

been suitably adjusted for the occasion. The fall is almost always

fatal and a somewhat ignominious end to a splendid beast not particular-

ly harmful to the human beings of those parts.

A device of strewing leaves covered with sticky substance was

used in the days of the Emperor Akbar for dealing with tigers which

it was desired to kill or capture. ‘Sport in Indian Art’ by Col.

T. H. Hendley, c.1.£. in the Journal of Indian Art and Industry, (1915).,

and J/.B.N.H.S. Vol. 25. pp. 491 and 753 may be seen in this regard.

On p. 753 it is recorded that the device had survived up to the year

1890-91 in the Sambalpur forests of the Chattisgarh division of the

Central Provinces. This might be a more effective and less trouble-

some method than the ‘Soori Phanda’ of the Baigas of the Maikal

Hills; that is to say if it is considered necessary to increase the

destruction of tigers. The birdlime is spread on broad leaves around

the kill or along a path and the tiger struggles and rolls about in

order to free it from his paws, claws and body. The leaves stick

to the face in such number as to blind the animal which can be

approached and killed or netted while in this helpless and worried state.

It may be of interest to remark that a birdlime method for kill-

ing sloth bears was in use a hundred years ago, and may be even

at the present day, by the people at the foot of the hills in the

Tinnevelly District of South India as related by General E. F. Burton

in his book, ‘An Indian Olio’ {1890). Powerful Poligar dogs tackle

the bear, and the hunters, armed with long spears cross-barred close

to the two-edged blades run to the spot where two or three of the

party having ten foot bamboos smeared with birdlime at the ends

dash up on either side, poke the bear in the ribs and adroitly twist

the ends in the long hair thus holding the animal fast on either

flank for the spearmen to complete the kill by repeated spear thrusts.

66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Man-eaters and cattle-lifters.

‘With the departure of shikar-minded people from India the cattle-

lifters have increased.’ It is true that an increase of cattle killing

by tigers has taken place since August 1947 in far apart areas, but.

the cause of the increase may be not so much the departure of shikar-.

rainded people as the very great increased lawless killing of deer by

the people themselves. That, in all probability, is the main reason

for increase of cattle-lifting by tigers and to some extent of man-

eaters also. When the balance of nature between the larger carnivora

and their natural prey is unduly disturbed, tigers are bound to in-

creasingly turn upon the cattle, and learn also to kill the herdsmen.

who continually drive them off their kills. .

Heavy economic loss to cattle owners.

It may possibly be more pecuniarily economic to the Government

to restore rewards for the destruction of tigers, but the long view

loss to the Government and the people of India through the immense:

destruction of wild life which is proceeding almost unchecked in most

parts of the country is incalculable. It is possible that through the

giving of rewards and other methods of destroying tigers, were a

campaign against them to be instituted, their population would be

reduced to vanishing point. It has indeed taken place in many areas.

to the knowledge of the writer during his sixty years experience of

this country. When the unchecked slaughter of deer has resulted.

in the disappearance of these animals, and the tigers also have gone,

it will be seen whether the people of the forests and their vicinity

are better off or worse off, for the pig and other crop raiders will

remain. All interested in these matters are asked to read and study

the several Wild Life preservation articles by the present writer and

others in the Society’s Journals:— e.g. Vol. 47, pp. 778-784, Vol.

47, pp. 602-622, Vol. 48, pp, 283-287, Vol. 48, pp. 290-299, Vol-

48 pp. 588-5901.

Increase of wild dogs.

As, in the opinion of the writer, the restoration of tiger rewards

will be a retrograde step, so—it has been found—the discontinuance

in some areas of rewards for destruction of wild dogs has been proved

a great mistake. As has been remarked in the literature referred to

above, rewards for destruction of wild dogs should be substantial

and continually in force where these pests exist. Wild life preserv-

ation would be considerably assisted by their extinction.

Increase of gun licences and decrease of herbivora.

This has been going on for a number of years, and for the past

two years the deer population is being in many areas reduced to

vanishing point. The time has arrived when a complete embargo

for a period of years should be enforced as to killing of deer through-

out the country; also all trapping of game animals. and birds should

be ended.: .

The contents of Mr. Daver’s article once again emphasise the

need for.a: Wild Life organisation in all Provinces and States.’

THE TROPIC-BIRDS OCCURRING IN THE INDIAN OCEAN

esi AND ADJACENT SEAS

C. A. GrBson-HILL,. M.A., M.B.O.U.

(Raffles Museum, Singapore)

(With three plates)

The tropic-birds form a small but interesting group of tropical

sea birds. In general appearance and the manner of their flight they

are not unlike large, heavily-built terns. They differ most markedly

in the shape of the tail, which is cuneiform and in the adult has the

centre pair of feathers much elongated. When fully developed these

feathers are about as long as, or slightly longer than, the head and

body of the bird together. When it is in the air they trail conspicu-

ously but gracefully behind it, and provide a field character by which

a normal adult of the group can always be recognised. The tropic-

birds have short, weak legs, and can neither walk nor stand properly.

They always rest with their bellies on the ground, and when moving

forwards collapse on their breasts between each step. When frighten-

ed or otherwise in a hurry they help themselves along with the

wings and bill, as some of the penguins do. A bird that is approached

on its nest makes little attempt to escape, but remains, screaming

harshly, and tries to defend itself with short, vicious stabs of its beak.

The feet are webbed, and they swim well. nen bodies are compact,

the neck short and the bill stout and pointed.

The moult of the two central tail feathers is abnormal in that

they are not shed and replaced synchronously at the end of the breed-

ing season. Specimens of the Redtailed Tropic-bird usually have one

old, fully developed central feather, and one shorter new one, still

partly in sheath at its base. The same arrangement may be found

in the other two species, or these birds may have two growing

feathers, of which one is much older and longer than the other. It

seems probable that in the Redtailed bird one feather is lost at each

annual moult and the new one takes about a year to grow to its full

length. The other feather is then shed at the next general moult.

Presumably the same alternation occurs in the whitetailed birds

but here it is spaced less regularly, the old feather being dropped as

soon as the new feather is full grown, without ‘reference to the time

of the annual moult. Dr. A. Wetmore (1914: 497) describes a some-

what similar condition in the Helmeted Hornbill, Rhinoplax vigil

(Forst.). It is probable, as Chasen (1933: 73-4) suggests, that this

system of alternate moulting occurs in some of the other birds which

possess a single pair of elongated centre feathers, since it presents

the only mechanism whereby there can always be at least one feather

of full, or almost full, length.

With one exception, which is noted below, the adults are largely

a lovely satiny white with a black crescent running across the eye

and a black bar on the wing. The white of the neck and underparts

may be suffused with a roseate or a golden yellow bloom, depending

on the species, but the colour is fugitive and varies considerably in

68 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

intensity with the condition of the feathering. In the field the adults

can be separated by the colouring of the bill and the form and colour

of the elongated tail feathers. Juveniles lack the elongated centre tail

feathers, and have the feathers of the upperparts and flanks marked

with crescentic black bars. They cannot be distinguished specifically

in the field, though no great difficulty should be experienced in identi-

fying a bird in the hand.

As their name suggests, these birds are normally confined to the

warmer seas and oceans. They are not very plentiful, but they are

found on a number of small, isolated islands in or near the tropical

zone all round the world. Murphy (1936, {2): 796) draws attention to

an interesting point in regard to their distribution in the Atlantic and

Pacific Oceans. The eastern sides of the great continental masses are

washed by warm currents flowing out towards the poles, while the

western sides have cool currents flowing in towards the equator. The

spread of the warmer waters is therefore much wider in the western

portions of these oceans than it is in the eastern. Similarly the known

ranges of the tropic-birds there are more or less wedge-shaped. To

some extent the picture is obscured by the fact that there are more

suitable islands in or near the tropics in the western halves of the

two areas than there are in the eastern. Nevertheless it is significant

that in the Atlantic tropic-birds breed only from St. Helena (16°S.

lat.) to the Cape Verde Islands (15-17°N. lat.) on the east side, stop-

ping short of Tenerife, the Canaries and Madeira, while on the west

they nest from the Abrolhos Islets (18°S. lat.) to the Bermudas

(32°N. lat.). In the Pacific they occur only. from the coast of Ecuador

north to Panama in the east, while in the west they nest from the

Kermadecs and Lord Howe (3198S. lat.) to the Bonin Islands (27°N.

lat.). In the Indian Ocean the temperature spread is modified con-

siderably by the great land mass of the continent of Asia which forms

its northern boundary. The only cold inflow is along the southern

portion of the west coast of Australia, turning west short of the north-

west coastal region. Here on the east side of the ocean we find tropic-

birds nesting in suitable localities from nearly 29°S. lat. on the latter

coast north to (in all probability) the southern portion of the Bay of

Bengal, while in the west they can only range from Réunion (2198S.

lat.) to the Persian Gulf, just north of the Tropic of Cancer. Accord-

ingly, though they still keep approximately within the area bounded

by the 64° mean isotherm, they appear to be spread much more evenly

over the Indian Ocean than over the Atlantic or Pacific.

The tropic-birds differ from the majority of the more conspicuous

tropical sea birds in that some individuals at least normally leave the

nesting grounds outside the breeding: season and range widely over

the open sea. Bennett (1860: 89) records several specimens of the

Short-tailed Tropic-bird from a point almost midway between the

Cape Verde Islands and the Bermudas, nearly t,o00 miles from the

nearest land. The same species has also been seen about halfway

between the Laccadives and Socotra, on the border of the Arabian

Sea. On these occasions tropic-birds are usually met with singly

or in pairs, and they show a peculiar interest in passing ships. They

generally fly high above the water, and when they see a vessel turn

TROPIC-BIRDS OF THE INDIAN OCEAN 69

towards it and circle round several times, calling out harshly as they

do so. Then, after a brief, raucous inspection they make off again.

It would seem that they do not normally follow a boat for any length

of time, and it is certainly most unusual for them to attempt to feed

in the wake. Their short inspection is, however, generally sufficiently

conspicuous for them to be noted and identified. In the Indian Ocean.

they are most likely to be encountered in the north-west corner, from

about the region of the Maldives, Laccadives and Seychelles up to-

wards the Arabian Sea.

The tropic-birds feed almost entirely on flying fish and squids.

These are taken from near the surface of the sea by diving from the

air. They usually drop down, with half-folded wings, from a height

of about 20-60 feet. They take a considerable splash as they enter

the water, but they return quickly to the surface. Often they seem to

be back in the air again before the spray raised by their immersion

has settled fully. The young birds are fed by regurgitation.

The tropic-birds lay only one egg to a clutch. The choice of

nesting place, as shown below, varies considerably, but apparently in

all cases they make use of a hole or a crevice, or select a spot where

a bush or rock gives them partial shelter. They seem, in fact, to

have a marked predilection for a protected or even an enclosed and

confined site, in strong contrast to the great majority of the world’s

sea birds. A detailed account of one species, the Redtailed Tropic-

bird, has already been given by the present writer in thts journal

(1949¢ : 230-33). Here one would merely stress an interesting point

which seems to be common to the group. The youngsters are aban-

doned by their parents when they are fully grown. They then make

for the open water alone, and do not normally return to the vicinity

of the nesting grounds until they have acquired the complete adult

plumage. In spite of this there are very few records of juvenile birds

observed or taken at sea.

Three species are known:

The Short-tailed Tropic-bird, Phaéthon ethereus Linn.

The Long-tailed Tropic- bird, Phaéthon lepturus Daud.

The Redtailed Tropic-bird, Phaéthon rubricauda Bodd.

all of which are represented in the Indian Ocean. In the following

notes an attempt is made to summarise what is known of the dis-

tribution of these birds in our area, with the inclusion of some un-

published data. Consideration is also given to the information avail-

able on breeding habits and seasons. In some respects the volume

of published data is meagre. For this reason a brief statement of

the essential characteristics of each species, as seen on the wing, has

been added at the end of the section dealing with it.

Phaethon aethereus Linn.: Short-tailed Tropic-bird.

Only one subspecies is found in our area, P, @thereus indicus

Hume (type locality, the Mekran coast, Baluchistan).

This species has a restricted breeding range in the Indian Ocean.

The race indicus apparently prefers small, isolated, © fairly’ barren

islands for its nesting sites. It is known principally from the Arabian

Sea and adjacent waters, in parts of which it is not uncommon. The

only other records from our area are old visual notes from the Bay

70 JOURNAL,’ BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

of Bengal and an immature bird taken by Cantor in the Strait of

Malacca, .all of which are seemingly based on strays. The only

‘breeding site known outside our area is in the Paracel group in the

South China Sea, about 165 miles from the coast of Annam (Dela-

cour & Jabouille, 1931 (1): 31). In spite of the presence of this latter

colony the only published record for Malaysian waters is Cantor’s

specimen mentioned above.

Holdsworth’s visual records of P. rubricauda off the coast of

Ceylon (1872: 482) must certainly be ascribed to this bird, this

‘constitutes the southerly limit of its known spread in this region.

Betts (1939: 386) reports two birds seen between the northern

Laccadives and the mainland, also in February. He saw none during

his stay in the archipelago, and it is of interest to note that there

are apparently no records of any tropic-bird from islands in the

Laccadive group. Hume (1876: 427 & 481) lists a specimen taken

about 30 miles from the Cherbaniani atoll at the north end of the

Laccadives in February. He also says that it is fairly common all

up the west coast of India in a zone between about 7 and 30 miles of

the shore. Further north Butler (1877: 285) reports three or four

birds seen between the Gulf of Cutch and Karachi in March. Hume

(1873: 147) says that he saw a number of birds off Ormara headland

on the Mekran coast, of which he collected six (¢ ¢ 5, @ 1). Tice-

hurst (1923a: 461) also says that it is apparently fairly common at

times off the coast of Sind and more particularly off the Mekran coast.

Butler (1877: 302) mentions it from between Ormara and Gwadar in

this area, and says that it is not uncommon up the Gulf of Oman. It

would seem, in fact, that the Short-tailed Tropic-bird is fairly com-

mon in off-shore waters from the Gulf of Oman eastwards along the

Mekran coast to Sind, and then, probably in decreasing numbers,

southwards off the west coast of peninsular India to the northern

limits of the Laccadives, or even as far as Ceylon. Few breeding

sites are known from this region. Ticehurst et al. (1925: 725) say

that it probably nests on the Great and Little Quoins, two rocky

islets near the headland of Oman, but no eggs or fledglings appear

to have been found there. Seemingly the only authentic specimens

taken so far have come from the little island of Nabi-u-Tanb, at the

eastern end of the Persian Gulf. It lies 7 miles south-west of the

lighthouse island of Tanb, and is described as one mile long and

three-quarters of a mile broad, with a rocky hill 116 feet high; it is

said to be barren, uninhabited and without water. Young and old

birds and a year-old egg were taken in the first week of April, 1921,

and a single egg, almost ready to hatch, on 24 March 1923 (Ticehurst

et al., 1925: 729-30).!

There do not appear to be any definite records for the Hadramaut

coast of Arabia, but this bird is fairly well known, and several breed-

* In addition to these two eggs Ticehurst et al. refer to another egg in the

‘Cox-Cheesman collection taken on Nabi-u-Tanb on 23 April 1923, and Stuart

Baker (1929: 291) to an egg taken by Major Pitman from a crevice on an

unspecified barren island in the Persian Gulf in April 1916, and one collected

from the same neighbourhood by Irvine in 1898. In none of these cases was the

parent bird identified, but it seems almost certain, as Stuart Baker says, that it

was P.a. indicus.

| TROPIC-BIRDS OF THE INDIAN OCEAN 71

ing grounds have been located in the Gulf of Aden, at the southern

end of the Red Sea and off the Somali coast. North (1946: 490-1)

found two nests with young birds almost ready to fly on Mait Island,

in the Gulf of Aden, at the end of November. Jones (1946: 228-31)

discovered birds breeding on the Geziret Saba, in the Bab-el-Mandeb

Straits, about g miles south of Perim, in August. Von Heuglin

{quoted in North loc. cit.) says that it breeds (?lays) in the Dahlak

Archipelago, in the Red Sea off Massawa, in June and July. Bulman

(1944: 480-92) makes no mention of this species in his account of

the birds of Safaga, a small island further up the Red Sea and only

235 miles south of Suez. Archer and Godman (1937 (1): 19-20) say

that it may be found as far north as Tor on the Sinai peninsula, but

it seems that the Dahlak Archipelago is the most northerly recorded

breeding ground in this area. These authors also say that the Short-

tailed Tropic-bird is known from Danakil Bay, about Jebel Saqur and

Annan, about Bab-el-Mandeb, on Bur da Rebschi, and about Sokotra

and Guardafui. I have myself twice seen solitary adults at sea in the

latter region, once about 10 miles north of Sokotra, in September,

and the other about halfway between ‘Aden and Sokotra, in February.

The records from the Bay of Bengal are less satisfactory, and no

direct evidence has yet been brought forward of breeding in this area.

Baker (1929: 291) makes no reference to its occurrence here, and

Peters (1931: 78) gives its range only as the northern Indian Ocean,

said to breed on islands in the Persian Gulf and the Dahlak Islands.

Hume (1874: 323) says that he had been told that this bird was often

seen on passages to and from the Andaman Islands, especially in the

neighbourhood of the Cocos Islands (north of the Andamans proper),

but he did not encounter it himself on his visit to the group. He also

mentions four birds which Davison is said to have met with in the

Bay of Bengal in lat. g9°N. (Hume, 1877: 303). Later Hume and

Davison (1878: 493) say that Davison met with this species almost

opposite the southernmost point of Tenasserim and again off Cape

Negrais. Are these the birds to which Hume referred in his earlier

paper? It is possible that they are. It is certainly significant that

there are no later records and no other citations of P.a. indicus from

this region. The birds may have been strays from the Paracel colony,

or they may possibly have been immature birds of one of the other

species.

There is one formal record for the Strait of Malacca; the last

reference to the occurrence of these birds in our area. It is an

example taken by Cantor, and now in the British Museum. It is

usually assumed to have been obtained near Penang, but there is no

indication of this in the earlier publications of the record. Sharpe

and Ogilvie-Grant (1898: 459) list the bird as an adult, but J. D.

Macdonald (in litt.) tells me that it is an immature bird, and there-

fore one of the few records of an immature bird taken at sea. On

the evidence available at present it must be assumed to be a stray

from the Paracel colony. Pulau Perak, a barren outcrop about 70

miles west of Penang Island, is a likely nesting place for this species,

but a search of the island early in April showed no indication of tropic-

birds breeding there (see Gibson-Hill, 1950).

72 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 49

It is of interest to note, as mentioned above, that indicus appar-

ently prefers barren or relatively barren islands as breeding sites.

This point is significant in relation to the only two parts of the Indian

Ocean where it is not uncommon, and is known to be nesting—the

eastern end of the Persian Gulf and along the Mekran coast to Sind,

and the region round the south end of the Red Sea and the Gulf of

Aden. At all the recorded sites the birds appear to have been making

use of crevices or fissures in bare rock faces or among boulders. In

addition only a few birds have been found at each place. von Heuglin

writes of small and_ thinly populated colonies, with the nests them-

selves in narrow deep clefts in the rock, in fissures, or under large

loose boulders. The entrances to these crannies are often so narrow

and low that it seemed that the bird itself would hardly have room

to pass. Here the female lays a single egg on the bare soil, on

blown sand, or on the bare rock. The holes I investigated extended

inwards for three or four feet, and the actual nesting-site was generally

behind a projecting angle of the rock so that it could not possibly be

seen from the outside .., .’ (quoted ,in Archer & Godman, 1937 >(1):

21-22). Ticehurst et al. (loc. cit.) say that there is a little scrub on

Nabi-u-Tanb but no trees; ‘at the base of the sea cliffs are many

water-worn fissures, mere cracks at the top and eight inches to two

feet wide at the base and going in some six feet, some ending in an

enlarged chamber; it was in these fissures that the Tropic Birds were

breeding.’ North (loc. cit.) says that Mait Island is completely devoid

of vegetation, and has no fresh water except after rain. He found

one nest in a crevice under a boulder and a second in a hole in a cliff-

face. Jones (loc. cit.) gives a rather similar account of two nests from

Geziret Saba.

The Short-tailed Tropic-bird is midway in size between the other

two species, but with the elongated centre tail feathers appreciably

shorter. Baker (1929: 291-3) gives the following measurements in

mm. for adult birds:

‘ Central

Wing Exposed acts t

=o ail. Longest

flat culmen | feather

: pe Rica ‘

P.a.indicus ... a 281)-301 55-60 25-28 | 215-301

| he 875,

P. 1. lepturus ... Ms 252-282 44-5] 21-23 ee Rech

P.r. rubricauda mee He 320-339 65-69 30-33 360-428

In the Indian Ocean the adult can always be identified by the

combination of white centre tail feathers and a red or orange-red bill.

The races of the Longtailed Tropic-bird occurring here have a yellow

or yellowish bill at all times, while in the Redtailed Tropic-bird the

elongated centre tail feathers have black shafts and thin, attenuated

red vanes. In addition the upper parts in the present bird are narrow-

ly barred with black, an instance of the retention of a juvenile

characteristic. Too much reliance should not be placed on this

feature in the field here, however, as it brings in the possibility of a

TROPIC-BIRDS OF THE INDIAN OCEAN 73

late immature example of one of the other two species being taken

for the Short-tailed Tropic-bird. The immature bird resembles the

adult except that the centre tail feathers are not appreciably longer

than those on either side of them, the bill 1s yellowish not red and

the markings on the dorsal surface are broader; on the head they

almost form a black occipital crescent. The immature bird can scarcely

be differentiated from the young of the other two species in the field.

In the hand first juvenile birds can be separated on the following

points, in addition to differences of size (as above) and the colouring

of the soft parts. The descriptions of the markings should be taken

as general indications of the patterns. There are apparently minor

individual variations, even between birds of the same age, and pro-

bably small subspecific differences, but these are not sufficient to

confuse the diagnosis.

P. rubriceuda

P. a. indicus * |

Outer prima- Black, witha broad| Shaft and outer} White, with a nar-

ries. white border to the) web black; tip and] row black shaft-stripe

inner web. ‘inner web white. broadening at the

| tip.

Inner prima-

White with very’ White with shaft

White, with black

ries. dark gray shaft- black. shaft and sub-apical

stripe. spot.

Outer second-| White, with shaft! White, with base| White, with shaft

aries.

Inner second-

aries.

Rectrices

blackish.

Dark grey border-

ed with white.

7 pairs. White,

centre pair with black

tips.

of shaft black.

White with black

half crescents on outer

web.

6 pairs. White,

with black shafts and

sometimes sub-apical

spots.

black.

Black, with irregu-

lar white border.

8 pairs. White,

with black — shafts

and small sub-apical

spots.

Phaéthon lepturus Daud.: Longtailed Tropic-bird.

Two races of this bird are known from our area, The typical

race (type locality, Mauritius) which occurs in suitable localities over

the greater part of it, and the Golden Longtailed Tropic-bird, P.

lepturus fulvus Brandt (type locality, Christmas Island) which is

known only from the neighbourhood of Christmas Island, 180 miles

south of Java Head.

The typical race of the Longtailed ‘Tropic-bird breeds at a number

of places in the Indian Ocean near or south of the equator. It is

usually found on oceanic islands with a fairly thick cover of trees or

palms, and is not known authentically from the hotter and more

barren localities round the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf and the Mekran

LE ee re SP ny ne a ON aE

* Not examined. Data from Ticehurst (1923): 71) and Baker. (1929: 291).

P. lepturus based on P. 1. fuluus (Christmas I.). P. rubricauda on P. r. westralis

(Christmas I.).

v4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

coast. In the western part of the Indian Ocean it nests in some

numbers in the Mascarene, Seychelle and Maldive groups and is

fairly common in their neighbourhood. Legge (1880 (2): 1174) men-

tions a dead bird picked up on the Galle face, on the Ceylon coast, in

1870. There is also a record of a bird killed on Ross Island in the

Andamans (Hume, 1874: 323), of one taken on the south coast of

Pegu, near the mouth of the Bassein estuary (Oates, 1883: 225), and

of a straggler collected from the Barak River, near Dilkushah in

morth-east Cachar, about 170 miles from the sea (Hume, 1888-9: 351).

Although this bird is always said to occur in the Andamans? these

records, which are almost certainly attributable to strays, are the

only authentic formal records for the northern Indian Ocean outside

the Maldive area. The only established nesting grounds outside the

Mascarene—Seychelles—Maldive region are the Cocos-Keeling

Islands, where there is a small colony which comprised about 10-15

pairs in 1941 (Gibson-Hill, 1949b: 230), and Diego Garcia (Chagos)

where Gardiner found a single pair in 1905 (1907: 110). The typical

race, P.l. lepturus, is not known from localities outside the Indian

‘Ocean.

In the Mascarene islands this bird is known to breed on Mauritius

and Rodriguez (Baker, 1929: 293). It almost certainly formerly

bred on Réunion, and may still be present there; the British Museum

‘collection contains several skins from this locality (Sharpe & Ogilvie-

Grant, 1898: 455). Vesey-Fitzgerald (1941: 530) says that this

bird is common around all the rocky islands of the Seychelles Archi-

pelago, and apparently nesting widely. Betts (1940: 502) says that

* Stuart Baker (1929: 293) gives the distribution of this bird as the ‘Red Sea

-and Persian Gulf, over the whole of the Indian Ocean’, but the first part of this

statement cannot be accepted. There are no authentic records of lepturus from

the northern part of the Arabian Sea and adjacent waters. Hume (1876: 481-2)

writing of indicus says ‘This is the only species of Phaéthon that I have seen or

‘known to occur in the Indian Ocean anywhere near our Indian coasts or in the

Gulf of Oman, or the Persian Gulf. Both flavirostris (=lepturus) and rubricaudu

have, I know, occurred in the Bay of Bengal and about the Andamans and

Nicobars, but I have neither seen nor heard of either of these in the localities

above alluded to.’ This still holds good. Archer & Godman (19387 (1): 20) say

that lepturus might at any time find its way into the Gulf of Aden ‘and any

definite record of its occurrence in the Gulf of Aden or the Red Sea would be of

the utmost interest.’ Personally I think it most unlikely that a true lepturus

would get into these warmer regions, but I agree fully that a definite record ol

its occurrence would be of the utmost interest. All the supposed records that I

‘have been able to trace are of the quality of those of Major Phillips, who nearly

‘saw five of the four storm petrels authentically known from the northern Indian

Ocean in one voyage from Suez to Karachi! He gives several records of P. i.

lepturus from the southern end of the Red Sea, including ‘15-45 Hours. Tropic bird,

with red-bill and long white tail feathers flew close across our bows, giving an

excellent view—definitely the White Tropic Bird (P. 1. lepturus); a beautiful

third.’ (Phillips. 1947: 608). A red bill and long white tail feathers: definitely

P. @thereus indicus, a very beautiful bird!

2 Accepting general statements such as those of Hume (1876: 481) and Smythies

(1940: 445), together with Kloss’s inclusion of this bird in his list of the avifauna

of the Andamans (1903: 330), I have myself helped to perpetuate the error, and

‘in a note in my Checklist of the birds of Malaya (1949d: 16) I give the Andaman

Islands as a breeding ground of P. 1. lepturus. Now, on a fuller examination of

the records from the Bay of Bengal, I am satisfied that there is not yet any

evidence that it actually nests in this region.

JOURN. BomBAy Nat. Hist. Soc. Prarie i

An adult of the Long-tailed Tropic-bird—Pheton 1, lepturus, in flight, taken at sea 200 miles

east of the Cocos- Keeling Islands.

Photos 7 | - -_ C. A. Gibson-Hill

An adult of the Christmas Island Long-tailed Tropic-bird—P. lepturus fulvus, in flight.

Journ. BomsBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PrAare ul

An adult of the Red-tailed Tropic-bird—P. rubricauda westralis, in flight.

Photos C. A. Gibson-Hill

A Red-tailed Tropic-bird—P. rvubricauda westralis, on its nest in a rock crevice on Christmas |

Island (Indian Ocean).

TROPIC-BIRDS OF THE INDIAN OCEAN 75

it nests in small numbers on Mahé, in this group, and that there were

over 1,000 pairs breeding on Aride at the time of his visit to the

island (25 April to 8 May). Vesey-Fitzgerald also reports its pre-

sence in the ‘Aldabra-Providence-Farquhar groups, south-west of

the Seychelles. Gardiner (1903 (1): 369) says that he saw it on

nearly every atoll in the Maldives, including Addu, and found it

nesting at Hebaridu in South Mahlosmadulu atoll. He also found a

single pair nesting on Diego Garcia, in the Chagos group; they were

stated to have bred for a number of years in a large Pisonia tree

(1907: 110). It cannot be common there; Bourne (in Saunders, 1886:

335) refers to frigate-birds and boobies on Diego Garcia, but he did

not apparently see any tropic-birds. I cannot trace any record for

the Laccadive Islands; Betts (1939: 386) does not list it.

The nesting site varies. Vesey-Fitzgerald (loc. cit.) says that on

the larger islands of the Seychelles, such as Mahé, Silhouette and

Praslin, this bird nests in hollow trees high up in the mountain forests,

while on the smaller islands, such as Cousine, Frigate and Aride, it

nests in holes in the ground and under overhanging rocks. The latter

sites are confirmed by Betts who says that on Aride the egg is

normally laid on the bare ground in a dark and sheltered spot in a

rock crevice or under a boulder, often at a considerable depth and

concealed by long grass. In the Maldive Archipelago Gardiner (loc.

cit.) found three nests in a hollowed-out branch of a Tulip Tree, Her-

nandea peltata, and his collector two others in a neighbouring tree.

Vesey-Fitzgerald does not give any breeding dates. Betts found most-

ly eggs and very young birds on Aride at the end of April. Gardiner’s

nests were located on 24 November; one contained an egg and three

had single nestlings. I found two nests on the Cocos-Keeling

Islands, one in May and the second in June, each contained a single

ege. They were situated on the ground, among coconut palms, and

partly in the shelter of scrubby bushes.

The Golden Longtailed Tropic-bird, P. 1]. fulvus, the other race

occurring in the Indian Ocean, is known to nest only on Christmas

Island where there were about 300-450 breeding pairs in 1938-40

(Gibson-Hill, 1947b: 95 & 143-6). It has been observed over open

water as far north as Java Head, and it is said to stray occasionally

to the edge of the Cocos-Keeling group, about 530 miles west of

Christmas Island. It has not been reported outside these limits.

Apparently it nests only in cavities in the trunks of dead or dying

trees, usually at a height of 25-50 feet from the ground. A favourite

place is a hollow that has rotted inwards where a main branch has

fallen away. This site is very similar to the ones recorded for the

typical race by Gardiner, and some of those noted in the Seychelles

by Vesey-Fitzgerald. It is possible that a few individuals breed in

each month of the year, but from notes made by the present writer

on Christmas Island it seems that the majority of the eggs are laid

between June and October.

The adult Longtailed Tropic-bird can be identified by its very

long, white tail feathers and (in the Indian Ocean) yellow, greenish

yellow or yellowish grey bill. Some birds have a lovely but fugitive

76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

golden apricot blush on the feathers of the breast, belly and back,

but this is scarcely discernible when they are in flight. The Golden

race from Christmas Island is most distinctive, and cannot be con-

fused with any other bird. The areas normally white in an adult

Phaéthon, including the elongated centre tail feathers, are here a rich

apricot yellow, seeming, when the bird is seen sunlit in new plumage

against a deep blue sky, as though they were burnished gold. Apart

from this conspicuous distinction there appears to be little difference

between the two races. The soft part colours are almost the same

and, as the following measurements show, there is no. significant

variation in size.’

| |

Coll. ; Total a) |) Wine" 7.. Expused | Bill to

No. Date taken Sex length Tail | gat Tarsus culmen | gape

| —_

P. lepturus lepturus (Cocos-Keeling Islands).

Vi2 13-3 val J | Gol 355 ear aes hata big

Wiel 16. Ba 41 :, 678 | 405 | 274 23 4810) (67

V15 2312 BsAV ag Tain 474, | 155.0 23hicei4Ors G2

V16 B02 or ne 707 | 416 | 279 23 50 a

V17 Ded ale al ae 636 384 | 274 24 | 50 74

V18 2:10:41 a | 640 | 356] 281 24 50 73.5

V19 17:10; 41 J 790 | 501) 273 | 23 48 72

V14 26: 2:41 Or tl oa V7 Ss be Seater 24 50 68

P. lepturus fulvus (Christmas Island). }

D38 ° 6:12:40 | ¢ 726 |. 415 1” 280 23 AOR ae

p39 | =—s-«6:12:40 | @ slo | 5241 285 23 By Os aD

1936 {1 fori AQHoW 1140 | Q 744 | 440 | 287 25 52 74:5

bs Qe WrA0) | 2 730) o\9 AST sh a79 23 50 69

| | |

Phaéthon rubricauda Bodd.: Redtailed Tropic-bird.

Two races of this bird are known from our area. The typical race

(type locality, Mauritius) which occurs in and near the Mascarene

Islands, and the Western ‘Australian race, P. rubricauda westralis

Math. (type locality, Houtman’s Abrolhos, West Australia), which

is found in the eastern portion of the Indian Ocean and in the Banda

Sea.

The typical race of the Redtailed Tropic-bird is not numerous and

has a very restricted range. It breeds on Round Island, near Mauri-

tius (but not on Mauritius itself), and on Assumption Island (Baker,

1929: 293), and on the Cosmoledo atoll and the southern island of

the Aldabra group (Vesey-Fitzgerald, 1941: 530). There are no

recent accounts of its status in the Mascarene group. From Vesey-

Fitzgerald’s account, and that of Betts (1940: 530), it certainly does

not appear to be plentiful in the Aldabra area. It is known from

open water in both these neighbourhoods, but there are no authentic

records of it from much further afield and no specimens have been

._—_— —_— +

‘ Measurements, in mm., in the flesh of specimens taken by the present

writer on Christmas and the Cocos-Keeling Islands (1940-41). The tail is

measured from the base of the longest rectrice,, the exposed culmen from the

tip of the bill to the beginning of the feather tract.

JOURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE LE

A juvenile of the Christmas Island race of the Long-tailed Tropic-bird—P. lepturus fulvus.

See

Photos ae C. A. Gibson-Hill

A juvenile of the Red-tailed Tropic-bird—P. rubricauda westralis, photographed two or three

days before leaving its nest.

TROPIC-BIRDS OF THE INDIAN OCEAN V7

taken north of the equator. Baker (loc. cit.) erroneously includes the

Red Sea and the Persian Gulf in its range, as he does for the pre-

ceding species. Some of the earlier visual records of the Short-

tailed Tropic-bird, P.a. indicus, were taken to be immature specimens

of the present bird, and Irvine incorrectly ascribed the egg which he

took on an island in the Persian Gulf in 1898 to it, but there is

nothing to show that it has ever really been encountered in these

areas.

The race P.r. westralis occurs in the eastern part of the Indian

Ocean. It is known to breed on Houtman’s Abrolhos off the west

coast of Australia! (Mathews & Iredale, 1g21: 81), on Christmas and

the Cocos-Keeling Islands, and on Gunong Api, in the Banda Sea (van

Bemmel & Hoogerwerf, 1940: 451-7). The present writer found a

population of about 400-600 pairs on Christmas Island in 1938-40

(1947b: 95 & 137-43), and one pair on the Cocos-Keeling Islands in

1941 (1949): 235). It is known from the open sea between the latter

two islands, and from this area north to Java Head and the entrance

to the Sunda Straits, but there do not appear to be any authentic re-

cords for the south coast of Java or the south-west coast of Sumatra.

The two areas given in the paragraphs above cover the known

breeding grounds of P. rubricauda in the Indian Ocean. It is pos-

sible, however, that there is another hitherto unlocated nesting’ site

somewhere in or near the southern part of the Bay of Bengal. Jerdon

(1864: 850) describes it as ‘frequently seen in the Bay of Bengal’.

This ‘s certainly an exaggeration, but specimens are known from

the neighbourhood of the Nicobars. Hume (1874: 322) refers to an

example of this species sent from these islands to Blyth, which the

latter erroneously called @thereus. In the following paragraph he

discusses ‘a very fine male’ from the Bay of Bengal, of which he

gives the measurements and a brief description. The wording is

ambiguous and these two entries may refer to the same specimen,

but at least they give us one undoubted rubricauda from this area.

More recently I have handled an example of this species, an imma-

ture male in the last juvenile plumage, which came on board a ship

passing between the Nicobars and the northern point of Sumatra

(1949a: 100-4). It is of interest to note that Hume gives the Jength

of the culmen in the bird which he measured as 2.6” (=66 mm.), and

the recent example has an exposed culmen of 69.5 mm. Mathews

made at least two attempts to frame a definition of his race westralis,

but the only character which really stands is its shorter bill. Mathews

(1912: 88) quotes 76-80 mm. for the length of the exposed culmen

in typical rubricauda. 14 adults from Christmas Island and 2 from

the Cocos-Keeling Islands which I have measured have a culmen

range of 58-65 mm. van Bemmel & Hoogerwerf (1940: 452) give

55-61 mm. for 3 adults from Gunong Api. The difference is very

small, but the two birds from the Nicobar area are certainly larger

than any known examples of weStralis. On the other hand Baker

* The type locality of westralis is Rat Island in the Houtman’s Abrolhos group,

but it is by no means common in the area. Six nests were located in the season

1947-48 (Serventy & Whittell, 1948: 121). A single nest was recorded on, the main-

land near Busselton in November 1939. a er

78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

(loc. cit.) gives the culmen length for this species as 66-69 mm., but

without disclosing the locality of his specimens. 66-69 mm. is well

below the published range of the typical rubricauda. It is just pos-

sible, therefore, that there is a so far unrecorded breeding ground

somewhere off the coast of Sumatra or in the Nicobars from which

these examples have come. If such a colony does exist it would be

quite natural for its birds to be intermediate in character between the

typical race to the west and westralis to the south-east. It was

partly in the hope of finding it that an examination was made of

Pulo Perak, an isolated barren islet in the middle of the northern

portion of the Malacca Strait, in April 1949, but unfortunately no

evidence was seen of tropic-birds breeding there.

No difficulty should be experienced in identifying the adult of

rubricauda. It is much bulkier than the other two tropic-birds, with

relatively shorter central ta'l feathers. Further these have very at-

tenuated webs, with the shafts black and the webs a deep red. The

bill ranges from orange-red to vermillion. Often the birds have a

fugitive roseate blush on the feathers of the breast, belly and back,

but this is a variable character and scarcely discernible in flight.

As noted above the two races occurring in our area cannot be dis-

tinguished in the field. Immature birds have the black-marked plum-

age common to all young tropic-birds, but the dark areas are more

extensive, and again they are bulkier and heavier in build. The

distinguishing points in the wing and tail feathers are given under

P.a, indicus. ;

SUMMARY

This paper gives a brief account of the tropic-birds occurring in

the Indian Ocean and attempts to summarise what is at present known

of their range here. All three recognised species nest in this area.

P. aethereus indicus is known to be breeding at the eastern end of the

Persian Gulf, and in the area round the lower end of the Red Sea and

the Gulf of Aden; its normal range would seem to be the Arabian Sea

and adjacent waters; there are doubtful records of strays in the Bay

of Bengal. P. 1. lepturus is breeding mostly in the Mascarene,

Seychelle and Maldive groups in the western Indian Ocean, with a

few pairs on Diego Garcia and the Cocos-Keeling Islands further east ;

it is known as a straggler to the Bay of Bengal. The race P. 1. fulvus

nests only on Christmas I'sland and is known from neighbouring

waters. P. rubricauda is breeding on Round Island (near Mauritius),

on Assumption and at the south-west end of the Seychelles (typical

race), and on the Cocos-Keeling Islands, Christmas Island and islands.

off the north-western coast of Australia (the race westralis); it is also

known from the neighbourhood of the Nicobar Islands, and there may

be a third breeding centre in this region.

REFERENCES

Archer, Sir Geoffrey, & Godman, Eva M. (1937): The Birds of British Somali-

land and the Gulf of Aden. 2 vols, London.

Baker, E. C. Stuart. (1929): The Fauna of British India, etc., Birds. 2nd

edn., 6. London. ;

TROPIC-BIRDS OF THE INDIAN OCEAN 723

Bennett, G. (1860): Gatherings of a Naturalist in Australasia. London.

Betts, F, N. (19389): ‘The Birds of the Laccadive Islands,’ Journ., Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc., 40 (3): 382-7.

Betts, F. N. (1940): Birds of the Seychelles. Pt. II, the Sea-birds—more

particularly those of aride Island, Ibis, (14) 4: 489-504.

Bulman, Capt. J. F. H. (1944): Notes on the Birds of Safaga. Ibis, 86:

480-492.

Butler, E. A. (1877): Astola, a Summer Cruise in the Gulf of Oman. Stray

Feathers, 5: 283-304.

Chasen, F. N. (1933): Notes on the Birds of Christmas Island (Indian Ocean)..

Bull. Raff. Mus,, 8: 55-87.

Delacour, J., & Jabouille, P. (1931): Les oiseaux de I’Indochine Frangaise,.

4 vols, Paris.

Gardiner, J. S. (1903): The Fauna & Geography of the Maldive & Laccadive:

Archipelagoes, 2 vols. Cambridge, England.

Gardiner, J. S. & Gadow, H. (1907): Aves, with some Notes on the Distri-

bution of the land-birds of the Seychelles. Trans. Linn. Soc,, 2nd series, 12,.

(1): 103-110.

Gibson-Hill, C. A. (1947a): The Normal Food of Tropic-Birds (Phaéthon

spp.). Ibis, 89: 658-661.

Gibson-Hill, C. A. (19476): Field Notes on the Birds (of Christmas Island,

Indian Ocean). Bull, Raff. Mus., 18: 87-165.

Gibson-Hill, C. A. (1949a): An Immature Redtailed Bo’sun-Bird. Bull. Raff.

Mus., 19: 100-104.

Gibson-Hill, C. A. (19496): The Birds of the Cocos-Keeling Islands (India

Ocean), Ibis, 91: 221-243.

Gibson-Hill, C, A. (1949c): Notes on the Nesting Habits of Seven Representa-

tive Tropical Sea-Birds, Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 48 (2): 214-35.

Gibson-Hill, C. A. (1949d): An Annotated Chiecklist of Malayan Birds. Bull.

Raff. Mus., 20.

Gibson-Hill, C. A. (1950): Pulau Perak. Malayan Nat. Journ. 5, (1):

(in the press).

Holdsworth, E. W. H., (1872): Catalogue of the Birds found in Ceylon.

Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1872 :404-83.

Hume, A. O. (1873): Contributions to the Ornithology of India. Sindh,

No. 2 Stray Feathers, 1: 91-289.

Hume, A. O. (1874): Contributions to the Ornithology of India. The Islands

of the Bay of Bengal. Stray Feathers, 2: 29-324.

Hume, A. O. (1876): The Laccadives and the West Coast, Stray Feathers,

4: 413-483.

Hume, A. O. (1877): Notes in Butler, 1877 supra,

Hume, A. O. (1888-9): The Birds of Manipur, Assam, Sylhet & Cachar.

Stray Feathers, 11: 1-353.

Hume, A. O., & Davison, W, (1878): A revised list of the Birds of Tenasserim.

Stray Feathers, 6: 1-&24+i—xxii.

Jerdon, T. C. (1864): Birds of India, 3. Calcutta.

Jones, R. Bark (1946): An account of a visit to the Brcethers (Jebel Teir)

Islands in the Gulf of Aden. Ibis, 88: 228-232. (=Geziret Saba, 9 miles south

of Perim, vide Corrigendum in Ibis, 90: 631),

Kloss, C. Boden (1903): In the Andamans and Nicobars, London.

Legge, V. (1880): <A history of the Birds of Ceylon, 2vols. London.

Mathews, G. M. (1912): Additions and corrections to my reference list to the

Birds of Australia. Austral Av. Rec., 1: 81-103.

Mathews, G. M. & Iredale, T. (1921): Manual of the Birds of Australia,

vol. 1, (no others published). London.

Murphy, R. C. (1936): Oceanic Birds of South America, 2 vols. New York.

North. Maior M. F. W. (1946): Mait Island—A Bird-rock in the Gulf of

Aden. Ibis, 88: 478-501.

Oates, E, W. (1883): A Handbook to the Birds of British Burmah, 2 vols..

London,

Peters, J. L. (1931): A Checklist of the Birds of the world. 1. Cambridge:.

Mass,

80 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Phillips, W. W, A. (1947): The Ornithological Diary of a voyage of S. S.

Samluzon. Journ,, Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 46 (4) : 593-613.

Saunders, H. (1886): On the birds obtained by Mr. G. C. Bourne on the

Island of Diego Garcia, Chagos Group. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond:, 1886: 335-337.

Serventy, «1s... & Whittell, H. M. (1948): Birds of Western Australia.

Perth, W, A.

Sharpe, R. B., & Ogilvie-Grant, W. R, (1898): Catalogue of the Birds in the

British Museum, 26. London.

Smythies, B. E. (1940): Birds of Burma. Rangoon.

Ticehurst, C. B. (1923a): The Birds of Sind, pt. 5. Ibis, (12) 5: 438-474.

Ticehurst, C. B. (1923b): Notes on downy young of Phaéthon, Sterna’ ben-

galensis, Alaemon etc. Bull. B. O. C., 43: 71.

Ticehurst, C. B., et al. (1925): Birds of the Persian Gulf Islands. Journ.,

Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 80: 725-733. (With Major-General Sir Piercy Z.

Cox and Major R. E. Cheesman.)

van Bemmel, A. C. V., & Hoogerwerf, A, (1940): The Birds of Goenoeng

Api. Treubia, 17: 421-472. $2

Vesey-Fitzgerald, D, (1941): Further contributions to the Ornithology of the

Seychelles Islands. Ibis, (14) 5: 518-531.

von Heuglin, (1873): Ornithologie Nordost Afrikas. (quoted in Archer &

Godman, 1937, and North, 1946.)

Wetmore, A. (1914): A peculiarity in the growth of the tail feathers of the

Giant Hornbill (Rhinoflax vigil). Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 4: 497.

A NOTE ON THE PLATES

Plate 'T;

1. An adult of the Longtailed Tropic-bird, Phaéthon 1. lepturus, in flight,

seen from below. The tail in this example is rather shorter than usual, and

very little longer than in the Shiorttailed species. Under these circumstances

the colouration of the bill (in the Indian Ocean red in indica and yellow or

greenish yellow in lepturus) is the only reliable character by which the bird can

be identified in the field, unless a really good view is obtained of the back. My

general experience, however, is that one does not often see the back of a tropic-

bird in flight at all clearly, unless one is in a position overlooking a nesting site.

2. The Christmas Island race, P.l. fulvus, of the Longtailed Tropic-bird in

flight, seen from below. Unfortunately the picture was taken almost dead into

the sun, but it gives a good indication of the length of a well developed tail

in this species.

Plate dT:

3. An adult of the Redtailed Tropic. -bird, P. rubricauda westralis, coming into

its nesting site. The picture shows the relatively short, narrow, whip-like centre

tail feathers. The right Jhand one is about fully grown and the left hand one

projecting only a few inches beyond the other rectrices.

4. A Redtailed Tropic-bird sitting on iits nest on Christmas Island. The

picture shows the manner in which the birds make use of small crannies or

crevices. In this case the end of the right wing and the elongated centre tail

feather are twisted sideways by the rock wall immediately behind the sitting bird.

Plate III:

5. An immature Longtailed Tropic-bird, P.l. fulvus, just after leaving its

nest. This bird was apparently, on its way out to sea, but failed to clear the

vegetation and came down on the ground in the jungle. It seemed to be unable

to get in the air again on lits own, but flew’strongly when it was -liberated over

open ground. The picture should be compared with No. 6 as it shows the much

lighter appearance and smaller markings in the young lepturus.

6. An immature Redtailed Tropic-bird, P.r. westvalis, photographed on its nest

on Christmas Island. The bird is fully developed and had flown when the site

was visited again 3 days later. The picture shows the much heavier dark mark-

ings on the dorsal surface on the young bird of this species, particularly on the

secondaries.

WILD LIFE RESERVES IN INDIA: ASSAM.

Be PP PGEe MAL CAMIZ Ss, FURS.

(With two plates, a map and a table)

Assam consists of two separate administrative set-ups: firstly

‘the province itself which includes all the plains areas, with only a small

part of the hills, and secondly the Tribal Areas, which are mountain-

ous, sparsely inhabited and in some cases unexplored. The province

itself is, of course, under the provincial government with the usual

Forest Department, in whose care are the forests and the wild life

contained therein. The Tribal Areas, on the other hand, are under

the Governor of the province—the Centre’s representative—and lis

Adviser. A completely separate political department with its own

Forest Officers looks after these areas with varying degrees of control.

And under the new Constitution it seems that the general relationship

of the Tribal Areas with the province will not be vastly different from

what it was before.

THE COUNTRY AND ITS FORESTS

As the forests of the plains are mainly close to the foothills, most

of Assam’s wild life is now to be found near the borderland of

these two administrations, provincial and political. It is for this

reason that there is all the greater need for a separate Game Warden

and/or Wild Life Department, which would be in a position to co-

ordinate measures for the protection of wild life in both the provincial

and tribal areas. This is particularly important as a large amount

of fauna is migratory and spends the cold, dry season in the plains,

but resorts to the hills in the rainy season when heat and floods compel

the seeking of higher altitudes. Thus they pass from one sphere

of control to another, often with disastrous results.

The area of Reserved Forests in the province itself 1s 6,675 sq.

miles, or about 11 per cent of the total area. An effort is being

made, it is understood, to increase this area of 11 per cent to some-

thing nearer the advocated 20 per cent by bringing in some of the

14,507 sq. miles of Unclassed State Forests. The gradual opening

of these U. S. Forests for cultivation in the drive for greater food

production has already caused a serious diminishing of this type of

forest and the wild life it shelters. The area of actual sanctuaries,

where wild life is completely protected, is only 426 sq. miles, or

6.4 per cent of Reserved Forests and .7 per cent of the total area

of the province.

With regard to the Tribal Areas it is reported that the authorities

‘concerned have taken steps to reserve some 1,700 sq. miles of forests.

A region of 800 sq. miles near the borders of Assam, Burma and China

has been declared as the Tirap Frontier Tract National Park, and

an access road to it is now being opened up from the Ledo Road.

82 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

As head-hunting and inter-tribal wars have ceased, peace and

‘civilization’ with increasing population is causing an increase in the

jhuming (shifting cultivation) for greater food production, with

resultant loss to forests and wild life, It is obvious that Sooner or

later more forest reserves, especially in the catchment areas of the

larger rivers, will need to be formed both for soil protection and

flood prevention as well as for the preservation of the diminishing

fauna and flora.

The type of terrain, in this part of India varies according to alti-

tude. Near the large rivers of the plains there are vast tracts of

bheels, swamps and lowland savannah, such as constitute. most of

Kaziranga Game Sanctuary-—ideal country for rhino, buffalo and deer

except when abnormally high floods occur. Midway between these

plains rivers and the hills are dense evergreen and mixed deciduous

forests, which extend far into the foothills. Higher up in the Tribal

Areas are thinner mixed forests with bamboo and plantain, and at

4,000 feet are to be found pine, oak, rhododendron and similar forests.

until the Tibetan type of country is eventually reached in the north.

The fauna, only migratory within certain altitudes, naturally con-

forms to the terrain in which it is usually found.

MEASURES TO PRESERVE WILD LIFE

Prior to 1930 little was done in Assam for the preservation of

wild life, except the formation of the Manas and Kaziranga Game

Sanctuaries for the protection of the Great Indian One-horned Rhino:

(Rhinoceros unicornis), which about 1905 had become very scarce due

to the demand for its horn. For the protection of the elephant, of

course, measures had been taken with the rest of India in | accordance:

with the Elephant Preservation Act 1879.

In the early thirties, however, the revival of interest in wild life

which was evident in-most parts of India found Assam with one of its

great Conservators of Forests—the late Mr. A. J. W. Milroy. It

was due to him that the Elephant Hunting Rules became law, and

catching operations were humanized and ‘properly supervised, with

immediate releases of cows with suckling calves caught in stockades.

Extensive poaching in the Manas area was cleaned up by a company

of Assam Rifles. Rhino horns were declared to be forest produce

wherever found. Energetic steps were taken to encourage bona fide

sport and study of natural history, and to prevent pose and:

illicit shooting of any kind.

Later the new Shooting Rules for the Preservation of Wild Tite

in Reserved Forests came into force in 1938, with limits and royal-

ties. fixed for each type of game shot by license-holders, and so forth,

Then came World War II in which Assam was the scene of prepar-

ations for operations in. Burma, with vast numbers of military

personnel stationed all over the province. The loss to wild life by

indiscriminate shooting, dynamiting, etc., was as one would expect

in war time, and was accompanied by a decline in effective interest

by the authorities and public alike.

Early in 1949 the Assam Government invited the Bombay Natural

History Society to send a party of. naturalists. to enquire into the wild

life of the province, and to offer recommendations for improving and’

-Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

| TIBET

SADIYA F.T.

ABORS MISHMIS

fom,

MIRIS \

“SUBANSIRI oo? *N.

Fit. A

ite ‘nap FL.

BALIPARA FT. -T AKHIMPUR 382

: Pf GMS

-—

BHUTAN

4 )

1 KAMRUP | 27 -

GOALPARA, i” NOWGONG + _ )

'W. BENGAL

Oe heated

; i

“ KHASIS I

BURMA

KEY

BOUNDARY OF ASSAM -——~

BOUNDARY OF PROVINCIAL N

AND TRIBAL AREA —-—-—

BOUNDARY OF DISTRICT .--------

SANCTUARIES SCALE

L1]MANAS GAME SANCTUARY | | =80 MILES

[2] SONA! RUPA

a MKE OF A38KM

[4] oraNG

[5] LAOKHOWA

[6] KAZIRANGA

(7) TIRAP F.T.NP.

WILD LIFE RESERVES IN.INDIAS ASSAM: ~ -\ 83

publicising: the sanctuaries. Mr. Salim Ali and Dr. Dillon Ripley

with another came to Assam in March, and visited the four main

sanctuaries. Mr. C. G. Baron gave them assistance and information

concerning the Manas Game Sanctuary, while the writer had the

privilege of accompanying them into Kaziranga Game Sanctuary and

Pabha Reserve. The Conservator of Forests, Mr. P. D. Stracey,

himself a keen naturalist, made all arrangements and maintained

contact with the party. Mr. M. C. Jacob, the Junior Conservator of

Forests also contacted the party in Kamrup.

In a memorandum submitted later to the Assam Government, this

commission made valuable suggestions for the improvement of. the

sanctuaries and for the protection of wild life in general. In particular

it exposed the optimistic complacency which had hitherto prevailed.

concérning the rhino population. The numbers of rhino are now

considered to be much less than previously estimated by the Forest

Department. ,

Witp LIrE SANCTUARIES

The Manas or North Kamrup Game Sanctuary consists of 105

sq. miles at an elevation of 200 to 700 feet above sea level, and was

formed in 1905. It is not quite so accessible as Kaziranga, being

some go miles by road from Gauhati, the nearest airfield. It is 10 miles

from Barpeta Road Railway Station, and a cold weather road runs

up through the sanctuary to the Bhutan Hills, along the Beki river

(the eastern branch of the Manas). It is. a place of great scenic

beauty, and has the additional asset of good: fishing in the rivers at

certain times of the year. er

The number of rhino in this sanctuary is variably estimated as

150 (Mr. Baron), roo (the Conservator), 4o-50 (the Divisional. Forest

Officer), and 8-9 (Mr. Sdlim Ali and Dr. Ripley, who saw only the

tracks of two during their six-day visit to the western portion of the

sanctuary). There is obviously scope here for further investigation,

and it is to be hoped that the Forest Department will arrange for

this. Pending more information on the matter, it would not -be un-

reasonable to put the figure at 45. Elephant are estimated at 250

and buffalo at 500, while bison would be in the neighbourhood of

100. Besides these there are many other animals and birds. The

proposed hydroelectric scheme of the Manas river must be taken in-

to consideration in any plans for the development of this sanctuary.

The Sonai Rupai Game Sanctuary consists of 85 sq. miles, is at an

elevation of 400 to 700 feet above sea level, and was formed in 1934.

This sanctuary is not very accessible, and game in it is extremely

difficult to find owing to the impenetrable nature of the terrain and

the restricted visibility. It is, however, an excellent Natural Reserve

and will continue to be so if poaching can be eliminated. It is estimat-~

ed to hold a few rhino (about 5), over 50 bison, some buffalo and

other game, «Like the Manas Sanctuary, this place is adjacent to

the hills and there are good tracts of forests’ to the east and west

with resultant migrations to the hills and movements laterally.

84 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

The Pabha Reserve or Milroy Buffalo Reserve is an area of 20

sq. miles at an elevation of 300 to 350 feet, and was made a sanctuary

in 1941. It is in a most inaccessible place and beyond the scope of

tourists and visitors except of the serious naturalist type. It contains

little beyond the buffalo, variably estimated from 50 to 150 head.

These are a useful stock, as the bulls breed with the domesticated

cows.

The Orang Reserve is a small sanctuary of about 24 sq. miles,

at an elevation of only 200 to 250 feet, and was formed in 1915. It

is on the north bank of the Brahmaputra, and is reported to contain

about 10 rhino.

The Lackhowa Reserve is another small sanctuary for rhino of

26 sq. miles, at an elevation of 200 to 250 feet. It is on the south

bank of the Brahmaputra, west of Kaziranga, and is supposed to

contain about 20 rhino. Being overshadowed by its more important

neighbour Kaziranga, this place is seldom visited and receives little

attention.

The Kaziranga Game Sanctuary is the chief sanctuary of Assam

for rhino and other game. It is 166 sq. miles in extent, is at an

elevation of 200 to 250 feet above sea level, and was formed in 1908

when as a Reserve it was closed for shooting in order to protect the

few remaining rhino from extinction. It became known as _ the

Kaziranga Game Sanctuary in 1928, and was opened to visitors in

1937 when it was known that rhino had considerably increased in

numbers. It stretches from milestone 116 to 140 on the main Assam

Trunk Road, mid-way between Gauhati and Dibrugarh, and is very

accessible to visitors. Only 50 miles from the regularly used airfield

of Jorhat, its fame as a show place should increase.

The number of rhino in Kaziranga was believed to have been about

300 in 1940, when one could go in on inspection elephants and see a

dozen quite easily. Nowadays, however, a_ similar visit would

produce only half that number, and a number of rhino are known to

have died of anthrax in 1947—no less than fourteen carcasses having

been found. The present population is reckoned as being 150 head,

and needs careful protection from trespass by domestic cattle.

In addition, there are about 500 head of buffalo in this sanctuary

and numbers of hog deer, barking deer and pig. Swamp deer are

becoming rarer, probably due to poaching. The bison have disappear-

ed, but a small herd of elephant still remains. Kaziranga is also a

valuable sanctuary for fish and wild-fowl which abound in and on its

numerous bheels, and the poaching of these bheels needs elimination.

It is to be hoped that the authorities concerned will pay heed to the

resolution passed by the recent UNSCCUR conference of UNESCO,

which urged that all steps be taken to make Kaziranga a good and

inviolate sanctuary, free from cattle trespass and other harmful in-

‘fluences.

The Tirap Frontier Tract National Park has only just recently

been gazetted. It is a mountainous region in the corner of Assam

where the borders of Burma and China meet, rather inaccessible and

JOURN. BomMBAY Nat. Hist. Soc. ; PLATE I

A half-grown rhino is cine-filmed by Dr. Dillon Ripley and Mr. Salim Ali in

Kaziranga Game Sanctuary.

This herd of wild buffalo in the Pabha Reserve stood for their cine picture,

and then disappeared into cover.

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I

This full-grown bull rhino in Kaziranga Game Sanctuary charged us once,

and was thinking about repeating his charge as this picture was taken,

Photos by Author

A catch of fourteen wild elephants in a stockade in Assam.

WILD LIFE RESERVES IN INDIA: ASSAM 85.

impenetrable. The official description of the park as a wild life

sanctuary is: “The area chosen is a meeting place of Burmese and

Indian flora and fauna and will be the only place in the world where

certain species such as takin, musk deer and serow are protected, and

it is believed that a few specimens of Rhinoceros suwmatrensis, which

is extinct elsewhere, survive in the proposed park.’

The writer has lately been making careful enquiries, however,

and it appears to be very doubtful if these rhino still exist. Musk

deer, takin and serow are probably to be found in greater numbers.

on the north bank of the Brahmaputra in the foothills of the Himalayan

Range, in less inaccessible places. In fact it seems doubtful if a

wise choice has been made by the authorities concerned for a National

Park in this forbidding area, which is more in the way of being a

Natural’ Reserve suitable only for the more serious type of scienti-

fic naturalist. It is five days’ march from the nearest road, and lacks

any kind of track except a few made by wild elephants. It would

be a pity if money was expended on a project of such doubtful value,

when other urgent proposals for the protection of wild life are having

to be shelved. There may yet be time to reconsider the necessity of

creating this park, and the present Adviser to the Governor has assured

the writer that the fullest consideration will be given to the views

expressed above. In the meantime the axe of economy has descend-

ed abruptly on this as well as on other similar projects.

THE More IMPORTANT FAUNA

Elephas maximus. The Indian Elephant is Assam’s most important

animal from the economic point of view. The revenue from elephant

royalty and monopoly fees collected after catching operations has been

considerable in recent years:

1945-46 282 elephants Ris 241,702

1946-47 350 elephants RS. 2423, 042

1947-48 370 elephants RS 14435832

In spite of these numbers having been caught and others having

been shot by holders of Control Licenses, the elephant population

seems to be in a strong position. If an average of 334 elephants

are captured or killed each year, it would mean that if their numbers

remained the same their total population would be in the neighbour-

hood of 5,350 head for both the province and the Tribal Areas. The

valuable stock of wild elephants should not be allowed to suffer too

severe a reduction. The policy of the Forest Department has wisely

been to allow catching operations only in those areas in which ele-

phants are known to be on the increase, or causing serious damage

to crops. In addition to this, holders of Control Licenses destroy

the occasional rogue or solitary male doing damage.

The recent epidemic which caused the death of at least 55 wild

elephants in the North Cachar Hills is a cause of great concern.

The outbreak, which occurred last June and July, has not yet been

fully investigated. A similar epidemic some ten years ago in exactly

the same area caused many deaths of elephant and bison, and it is

to be hoped that the Forest Department will be successful in their

efforts to prevent a recurrence.

86 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Rhinoceros unicornis. The Great Indian One-horned Rhinoceros

has the honour of being Assam’s most important animal from the

point of view of scientists and naturalists.. It is becoming rarer

each year, in spite of supposed protection. The rhino population

(as far as this species goes) is probably now as,.follows: Nepal 50

(6 were recently shot by two Indian diplomats), Bihar 5, Bengal Duars

30, Cooch Behar 20, Assam 240. Total 345. Assam’s total of 240

are believed to exist in these localities: Manas 45, Sonai Rupai 5,

Orang 10, Laokhowa 20, Kaziranga 150, and elsewhere 1o.

It will be realized, then, that it is on Assam that rests the main

responsibility. of preserving this valuable species from extinction for

posterity. This is especially important as it is thought that the

two other. species—the Smaller One-horned or Javan Rhino (RK.

sondaicus) and the Sumatran Two-horned Rhino (R. sumatrensis)—

have by now become extinct in India, though a few. may remain in

the Chittagong Hill Tracts of East - Pakistan.

Bibos gaurus. The Gaur or Bison is becoming increasingly rare

in Assam, and will soon be non-existent except in the sanctuaries.

It is believed that a herd still exists in company with buffalo in

the North Cachar Hills at Langrao Haju. The possibility of giving

this fine creature full protection wherever it may be found could be

well considered by the Forest Department. The wild bulls often inter-

breed with the domesticated Mithun (B, frontalis) or Gayal, in the

hills.

Panolia eidi. The Brow-antlered Deer or Thamin has become

practically extinct, except. possibly. near the swamps bordering the

Logtak lake in Manipur where they were reported in small numbers

recently. This is an animal needing complete protection. The other

species of deer appear to be holding their own in the localities which

favour them, except Swamp Deer which are in‘ need of more

protection. |

Sus. salvanius. The Pigmy Hog is found along the Himalayan foot-

hills in Goalpara and Kamrup coe but .is now become very

ScaLce.

The Carnivora are to be found in usual numbers, with an occasional

white tiger. and a fair number of black leopards.

The Pink-headed Duck (Rhodonessa caryophyllacea) used to be

Assam’s most interesting bird. Mr. Milroy reported it as being very

scarce in the early thirties, and it is not known.if it has been found

since that time. ae ae

The Takin (Budorcas taxicolor), the Serow {Capricornis

sumatrensis) and the Goral (Nemorhaedusi are found -in the Tribal

Areas. at varying altitudes, usually, many. days’ march from the near-

est road. Even more difficult to find is the Musk Deer cosets

moschiferus).

OTE FOR THE FUTURE

The writer recently ‘contacted: the provincial Hon. ‘Minister of

Forests and the Conservator, and was assured that the suggestions

WILD LIFE RESERVES IN INDIA: ASSAM 87

contained in the memorandum submitted by the Bombay Natural

History Society’s commission had been studied, and that proposals

were being drawn up for their implementation as far as_ possible.

It is intended, apparently, to proceed with the sanctuaries one by

one, with Kaziranga first where a tourists’ hut is to be constructed,

and a pen made for the ecological study of a pair of rhino. It is

hoped that a Game Warden will be appointed to work with and

under the Conservator, and that the game staff of the province will

be increased.

At the: same.time, however, it has become apparent: that owing

to lack of funds all proposals for new work have been shelved for

the time being. This is disappointing news. It is surely false

economy to postpone all measures. for the improvement of this

sanctuary, which is one of the most important in the world and has

such great potentialities as an attraction for visitors and _ tourists,

who should be encouraged so as to make the sanctuary self-supporting.

Moreover the recent news of intensive poaching in Kaziranga makes

us regard the future with concern. For a very small sum of money

it is obvious that considerable improvements of an urgent though

‘temporary nature can be effected as a gesture. The permanent and

costlier work could wait until more funds and staff are available.

It costs very little money to plan new sanctuaries, and these are

urgently needed before it becomes too late. In the province there

are several forests of great scenic beauty and still abundantly stock-

ed with wild life, which should immediately be formed into

sanctuaries, or even National Parks. In the northern portion of

Goalpara district, at the foot of the Bhutan Hills, are some delight-

ful Sal forests with streams for fishing and plenty of game including

Peafowl (rarely found elsewhere in the province), Florican, Spotted

Deer or Chital (Axis axis), and even a few rhino. While admitting

that the mere gazetting of new sanctuaries without a proper super-

visory staff lays them: open to the danger of increased poaching,

this procedure should not be detrimental if accompanied by publicity

and visitors in sufficient numbers. An interested pubiic intent on

sight-seeing, photography and fishing (with rod and line) should

prove to be the unpaid champions and protectors of the wild life of

their district.

In the Tribal Areas there are some places in the Balipara Frontier

Tract, such as Rupa, and in the Sadiya Frontier Tract, eastern

portion, where the creation of sanctuaries or National Parks could be

considered. Above all, the Logtak lake of Manipur State, now

merged with the Centre and possibly later to be merged with Assam,

is famed throughout the world as a paradise for wild-fowl and other

birds. The few Thamin reported to be surviving in that locality

require protection, and a National Park of this area could be formed

with controlled shooting of wild-fowl for bona fide license-holder

sportsmen only. In fact the whole stretch from Dimapur, where

there is some big game still surviving, via Nichuguard, Kohima,

‘Mao, Karong and Imphal to the Logtak lake could at once be a self-

‘supporting National Park of immense possibilities for the preserv-

ation of wild life and as an attraction for tourists.

There are signs of an increasing volume of public opinion in

Assam in favour of the preservation of fauna, and many sportsmen

88 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

are now more interested in shooting with the camera. Of late many

speeches and broadcasts on Assam’s wonderful flora and fauna have

emanated from important officials in Shillong. These cannot but

augur for the good of wild life. But they are not enough; they

must be followed up by at least some action and active encouragement

to all the junior categories of forest staff.

Much depends on the Conservator himself, and as Mr. Milroy

wrote: ‘No help from the centre, however, can make up for lack of

interest on the part of the officers on the spot, though an enthusiastic

Conservator can do much to overcome apathy ...’ It is to be

hoped that the Forest Department, on whose interest and endeavours

so much depends, will find the active support of the public and achieve

the ultimate success they deserve in the task of preserving Assam’s

fauna for posterity.

89.

WILD LIFE RESERVES IN INDIA: ASSAM

(sa]IUr Oct)

PlPayiry Heyney

(Seq QC)

pleyliy yeystor

(saqrat CT)

BUOBMON

(soyrai cT)

"U1 “ALY Jeqzey

(SaTIal QF)

pleysry yeysor

(So]Iar ¢Z )

Pleysry andfay

(soyrur 7)

"MIS ‘ALY Wemessiy

(sayit 06)

PIPUIYV Heyqnesr)

(saqIw@ QT)

"M1S ‘ALY peoy E}odieg

SIO}ISIA JOJ 9jnN0yYy

sievad PP

v9 :

spit "bs 977

90Ud}SIX9 UI U9eq sey AlvijouRSs YoIYM Jo} poised jsasu0Fy

QOUIAOIA JO VIIV 1¥jO} 0} UOIJE[AI Ul vale AlenjOUS Jo 988} U901ag

B91’ JS$91OJ 0} UOI}VISOI Ul Bale AleNjIUBS JO 98} 09019g

SOLIVNZOUES JO VII ]2JOJ,

sollenjoues Jo Joquinu [vO],

Spvol ON

00S o[vyng s]9eqq pue suIval]S

— wosig ssvis A]JSOW.0SZ-00Z GONPAITY Alenjoues sues)

OST ouluy JSaIOJ sTIOG sofia ‘bs gay] IBVSESqIS yeyse[oy | SO6T Bsuelizey 9

oS = oyegng Spvol ON

— uosigq Soo PUB SUIBITIS/0SZ:00Z TOI}BASTY

02 OuIyy SSBIL) sofiar “bs gz} Ssa08MON --- — dAIOSOY BMOYYOVT °S

— olegng Spvol ON

es uosiq STI94q pues IOATY!OSC-00¢g VOHBAS|Y

OL ouluy SSBIX) solar ‘bs Fz) suvlleq | Ivpl[esuey{ § SI6T DALBSOY SURIOQ 'F

OOL oleygng Speol ON |

_ wosig sjoayq pUL SMIBIIISIOSE NDF UOT] BATA Indwigyey |

— oulyy SS¥1IS PUY }SOIOY sopita “bs ag) andmiyyey UNION | TRET dAlOsey vyqed ‘§

02 oleygng SpBvol ON

0S UOSIG|SJI9Yq PUB SUIBII}ICINO-ODPUONVASTA Arenjouvg suey)

¢ OUINY|] °9}9 SS¥IS pUB }SOIOq soit "bs og SuUvIIEG — PS6I tedny ivuog ‘2

| Teg “Y dn peoy ‘sjeoyq

00S Ol¥yng|pue smvaijs ‘sIaAiy Asenjoueg suey)

\00T UOSTgspael pus SsvId—Y NOG (00/-00Z NOVAS Y dnimvy

SP OUI YY ysalOj YOIYJ—YIION sopiu ‘bs cot] dniwey eyodivg | SO6I YON Jo seuvy ‘T

i 9 ) P € G iE

UOISIAIp Ieoh

speuiuy SUOI}]IPUOD JOAOD eoly }911}S1qQ -qns *pisq Alenjoueg Jo ouleNy

SS ES PEP ST TP SR SP a SE SE SSS PP Ea SPSS 7S RRS SP SS 2 SSE

WVSSV NI SHITAVNLONVS GAIT WUM JO SAYVTINOILAVd

“THE FOULING ORGANISMS OF PEARL OYSTER CAGES

GEORGE K. KURIYAN, M.SC., F.Z.S.

(Published with the permission of the Director of Industries and

Commerce, Madras.)

(With a text figure)

Pearl Oysters are cultivated at the Krusadai Biological Station by |

the so called ‘raft or hanging method’ which has been so popular

along the coasts of Japan. They are placed in separate wooden cubicles,

covered with wire-net frames, tied to a ‘raft’ and anchored to the

bottom of the sea. While these are being cultivated, many animals,

sessile and free living, are found to attach themselves to the cages. --

Besides being a nuisance in the oyster park in many ways, these

‘fouling organisms’ also compete as food rivals of the oysters, so that,

‘in order to ensure a better and more rapid growth of oysters, it is

mecessary to clean the cages at frequent intervals.

Fartion of Ra f C

‘Oysley Cage

Ancho*

— §ea-bottom

The present note gives the occurrence of such organisms during

-the complete year from September 1947 to August 1948. The sea-

sons of ‘settling’ are also indicated. ©: "2 = ;

FOULING ORGANISMS. OF PEARL OYSTER CAGES 91

Coelenterata: The most common Coelenterates attaching to the

cages were Pennaria disticha Goldfuss, species of Companularia,

Obelia, Lytocarpus and Paranemonia....Hydroids were found to settle

throughout the year.

Nemertinea: A single specimen of Eupolia was observed amongst

the fouling organisms in July.

Polyzoa: Polyzoan colonies were found to attach to the frames and

at times to shell valves during the months from June to November.

The more important of the colonies settling down were Thalamporella

rvozierit Andouin, and_ species of Lagenipora and Membranipora.

The last mentioned genus was noticed in abundance during August

and September.

Mollusca: Rock oysters, Ostrea cucullata Born, were common

throughout the year.

Annelida: The tube-builder Dasicone cingulata Gurbe was abund-

ant throughout the year. Some of them were noticed to attach them-

selves to the shell valves of the oysters. Of the other genera the

following were found in the oyster cages in the months indicated

against them.

Polydora hornelli Willey >» «+ June dnd July

Lepidonotus carinatulus Gurbe ... August and September

Syllis gracilis Gurbe sig, ot) AUSUSE

Syllis variegata Gurbe e “1 september

» Phyllydoce spp. ... July and August

A few individuals of the heteronereid stage of Perineris were

collected during August and some Potodrilus sp. were found to in-

habit the cages in July.

Crustacea: The most common were the two species of Cirripedes

belonging to the genus Balanus De Costa; B. amphitrite Darwin

var. venustus; and B. tintinnabulum Linn. var. communis. Both

varieties attach themselves to the shells of cultivated oysters.

Lepas (Lepas tunuivalvata Annandale) was found in_ clusters

attached to the wooden frames of the cages from July to September

and in smaller numbers in May.

Of the sub-order Natantia, the following species were found:

Hippolysmata vittata Stimpson (June to September); Stenopus

vobustus Borradaile (September and October); Periclimenus spineferus

de Mann (June); Alpheids (September) and Saron marmoratus Oliver

(July).

Reptantia: Crabs belonging to the family Portunidae were most

abundant in the cages throughout the year. Charybdys annulata

Fabricius, Thalamitta prymna Herbest, T. admetta Herbest, T. wood-

masoni Alcock and Neptunus pelagicus Linn formed the majority.

The remainder belonging to the following families were also frequent-

ly noticed in the oyster cages.

1. Fam. XANTHIDAE: Ozius rugulosus Stimpson; Xantho

euglyptus Alcock; and Menippe rumphi: Fabr.

92 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

2. Fam. MAIIDAE: Tylocarcinus styx Herbest; and Shizophrys

aspera Milne-Edwards.

Juvenile specimens of Panulirus dasypus Labicille were also found.

in July to September.

Echinodermata: Small specimens of Pentaceras herdmani Lutken

were noticed in September and October; those of Salmacis virgulata

Agassiz in August; and o: Astropecten indicus Doderleir in June,

July and August. |

Tunicata: Compound ascidian Diandrocarpa brackenhelmi

Michaelson was observed encrusting the oysters and the oyster cages

during the months of south-west monsoon; the small dull reddish

leathery ascidian of the genus Polycarpa Heller was common in

November.

Pisces: Small specimens of the genera. Epinephelus, Tetrodon and.

Balistes have been found to frequent the oyster cages at Krusadai

Island. Specimens of Petroskirtis leinardi were also recovered

frequently.

Sea weeds: Sea weeds were noticed to be washed on to the cages

by the currents in the gulf. They settled more during the north-east

monsoon period than in other seasons. The important genera of

marine algae noticed adhering to the cages were Chaetomorpha,

Enteromorpha, Ulva, Codium, Padina, Sargassum and Gracillaria.

During the months of south-west and north-east monsoons, the

settling was greater. The gulf currents are mainly responsible for

the distribution of these animals; but when currents were too strong

the settling on the cages was considerably less.

I am grateful to Mr. M. Devidas Menon, B.sc. (Hons.), who

initiated this work in Krusadai and to Dr. Beni Charan Mahendra

and Mr. K. Chidambaram, M.aA., F.z.s., for their valuable suggestions

and’ constructive criticisms.

CHAMPARAN BUTTERFLIES—NORTH BIHAR

A. C. HARMAN

Before Ileft India some three years ago I had been making for

many years a survey of the butterflies of the district of Champaran —

but I do not think that I could have exhausted all the species to be

found there. To the north of Champaran is the forest belt (Bettiah

Raj and Ramnagar Raj) which is about 90 miles in length and

about 10 miles deep. This borders on to the Nepal Terai and is

separated from it by the Gandak River. The Himalayan foothills start

here and rise to about 500 ft. at Treveni. Treveni Hill in Nepal must

be about 3,000 ft. Thirty miles east of Treveni is Samashwa, where there

is a dak bungalow at 2,800 ft. Beyond the ridge one can get a most

gorgeous view of the Nepal hill ranges and snows.

I had not the facilities for exploring the jungies at ail seasons of the

year as it was almost impossible to get there in the rains—so certain

butterflies must have been missed. My collecting was done mostly in

the months September to May. For the purpose of this list I should

divide the butterflies into two groups —those taken in the forest belt and

those found in the cultivated area of the district. Stray forest species

appeared from time to tine in my garden near Bettiah—some 50 miles

from the nearest jungle.

Note.—These butterflies are named and listed according to Evans’s

Indentification of Indian Butterflies—2nd edition revised. The speci-

mens are deposited in the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun.

PAPiLIONIDAE

Al. Troides helema cerbarus Fd. Found along the Nepal border

at Ramgarwa and other places.

A?2. Tros aristolochiae aristolochiae F. Common most of the hot

weather and rains.

A3. Chilasa clytia clytia L. This form is iess common.

y.dissimilis L. Common form—appears March till December.

v. dissimillima Evans. Have taken one.

A4. 1. Papilio memnon agenor L. Strays seen and taken at

various times.

¢ v. butlerianus Roth. One seen on 18-6-’33.

Q vy. alcanor Cr. One seen on 14-6-’33.

2. Papilio helenus helenus L. One seen and one taken.

3. Papilio polytes romulus Cr. Common from March to

December.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 49

Q v. cyrus F. One taken by Mr. Gill at Japaha.

aoe

A6,

Bl.

B4.

Bo.

B8.

BY.

B10.

Bll.

4, Papilio demoleus demoleus L. Common most of the year.

Pathysa nomius nomius Esp. Appears about March and

April only.

Zetides sarpedon sarpedon L. Mr. Gill took one. |

Zetides agammemnon agammemnon L. One worn specimen

November ’45.

PIERIDAE

Leptosia nina nina F. Appears March-April and October-

November.

10. Pieris canidia indica Evans. Flies in jungle belt only,

November to March.

11. Pieris brassicae L. Appears end of January-February,

sometimes larvae are in pest form; it is double brooded.

Last brood hatches out middle April and disappears

at once, I should say it migrates back to the Nepal

hills as I have seen them on the road from Nepal,

miles from any food plant!

3. Delias eucharis Drury. Common most of the year ‘i

Larvae feed on ‘ ohangi’, also on pummaloe.

11. Delias descombesi leucacantha Fruh. Jungle belt. oe

August till December.

12. Delias aglaia L. Strays appear sometimes but mostly ea

in jungle belt : October to April.

13. Delias thysbe pyramus Wall. Taken in jungle belt, nape

ber—December ’28.

Belenois mesentina mesentina Cr, Appears October—Novem-

ber. Common March till June. Larvae feed on Ca pfaris.

have bred the dark ¢fafrobana form in June—July.

Huphina nerissa evagete Cr. Common most of the year.

Larvae feed on Capparvis.

2. Appias lalage lalage Db. Stray specimens appear only

for a day or two in early December evidently migrating

from Nepal. Mr. Gill and I each took one on the

same day in 1937 at a distance of 70 miles apart.. Have

only seen males.

4. Appias libythea libythea F. Mr. Gill took one at

Motihari—June ’38.

5. Appias lyncida hippoides M. Stray specimens found in

the rains.

6. Appias albina darada Fd. Stray specimens found in the

rains.

“4, Catopsilia crocale Cr. Common March till December.

2. Catopsilia pomona F. Flies in company of above.

vy. catilla. Not too rare.

Bid.

Vek

15;

iy,

18.

12.

28.

. CHAMPARAN . BUTTERFLIES—NORTH BIHAR 95.

Catopsilia pyranthe minna Herbst. Common June to.

December.

Catopsilia florella gnoma F. Not common as above.

Terias blanda silhetana Wall. Rare, but took a number:

of pupae—November 1934.

Terias hecabe hecabe L. Common.

Colias croceus edusina But. Appears March and April.

only.

Hebomoia glaucippe glaucippe L. One stray specimen

taken at Motihari by Mr Gill—June 1938.

Pareronia valeria hippia F. Common in rains. Breeds.

August to October.- Larvae feed on Capparis.

2 v. philomela. Not rare.

DANAIDAE

Danais aglea melanoides M. Jungle belt. Appears

November to April.

Danais limniace mutina Fruh. Common most of the

year.

Danais melissa septentrionis But. Jungle belt. October

to December.

Danais plexippus L. Common.

Danais chrysippus L. Very common.

v. alcippoides M.) Have seen exam-

v. dorippus Cr. {ples of both these,

but not taken.

Euploea mulciber mulciber Cr. Jungle belt. Strays

down to Bettiah during rains: June to October.

Euploea core core Cr. Very conimon.

Euploea core vermiculata But. Common.

Euploea klugii klugii M. One taken September ’°34.

Euploea crassa kollari Fd. Rare. Appears in the rains.

Euploea crassa crassa But. One taken by Mr Gill at

Japaha. .

SATYRIDAE

Mycalesis perseus typheus Fruh. Appears November

to March. Common in the jungle.

Mycalesis mineus mineus L. Jungle belt. Flies October

to March.

Mycalesis visala visala M. Jungle belt. Gill took them

at Japaha.

Mycalesis malsara M. Jungle belt. Fliesin March and.

April.

“96

D3,

.D14.

D16.

22:

F24.

Zo.

-F 26.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

13.

13:

28.

Lethe [europa ?] Examples cf this Itook many years ago

at Ramgarwa, but have never seen it anywhere else.

Mr. Inglis had it in his Durbhanga collection.

Lethe confusa confusa One taken at Samashawa (above

3,009 ft.) Nepal border, March 1928.

Ypthima inica Hew. Common March to December.

Ypthima hubneri hubneri Kirby. Common March to

December.

Ypthima avanta avanta M. Jungle belt. Flies Novem-

ber-December-March.

Ypthima baldus baldus F. Jungle belt. Flies Novem-

ber-December- March.

Orsotrioena medus medus F. Appears in the rains.

Melanitis leda ismene Cr. Common most of the year.

Elymnias hypermoestra undularis Drury. Jungle belt.

Flies October to March.

NYMPHALIDAE

Charaxes fabius fabius F. Rare. One taken September

1928; one seen 21—4—40.

Eriboea athamus athamus Dr. Two pupae found ona

babul tree December 1928. Not seen flying.

Euthalia lepidea lepidea But. Jungle belt. Appears

November to March.

Euthalia garuda suddhodana Fruh. Common most of

the year.

Euthalia lubentina indica Fruh. Rare. appears

February-March, September to December.

Euthalia nais Forst. Jungle belt. One taken October

1982.

Limenitis procris procris Cr. Jungle belt. September to

March ; strays taken in Bettiah.

Pantoporia nefte inara Db. Jungle belt. Two taken

March 1928. One 2 November 1928 and April 1938.

Pantoporia selenophora selenophora Koll. Jungle belt.

One 2 taken at Samashawa 2,800 ft. March 1926.

Pantoporia perius L. Jungle belt. Common September

to March.

Neptis columella ophiana. Jungle belt. One Q taken

2 April 1934 and 2 April 1937.

Neptis hylas adara M. Jungle belt. Appears October

to April. Some strays taken near Bettiah.

Neptis nandina susruta M. Jungle belt. October to

April.

P34.

F35.

‘G1.

G4,

Ol eae

CHAMPARAN BUTTERFLIES—NORTH BIHAR 97

Neptis hordonia hordonia Stoll. Jungle belt. October

to April.

Cyrestis thyodamas thyodamas Bdv. Jungle belt.

October to April.

Hypolimnas misippus L. Common in the rains,

Q vy. alcippoides But. One taken November 1935.

Q v. imaria Cr. Three or four taken.

Hypolimnas bolina L. Common. June to November.

Kallima inachus inachus Bdv. Jungle belt. Rare.

Precis hierta hierta F. Least common of the genus.

Some years absent.

Precis orithya swinhoei But. Common most of the year.

Precis lemonias lemonias L. do. do.

Precis almana almana L. do. do.

Precis atlites L. Not so common as above.

Precis iphita iphita Cr. Jungle belt only. November

to April. .

Vanessa cardui L. Generally appears from February to

April. One seen early : 17 October, 1937.

Vanessa canace canace L. Jungle belt. Flies October

to April. Rare.

Argynnis hyperbius hyperbius L. Appears October-—

November, March-April. Breeds.

Cuoha erymanthis lotis Sulz. Jungle belt. October to

March.

Atella phalanta Drury. Flies most of the year.

Issoria sinha pallida Evans. Jungle belt. November

to April.

Cirrochroa tyche mithila M. Mr Gill took them, July

1937.

Cethosia cyane Drury. Jungle belt. November to

April.

Ergolis merione tapestrina M. Common in the rains.

Telchinia violoe Fab. Rare. One taken at Bhikna Thori

(Nepal border) 17 March, 1937. Mr Gill took some

at Japaha.

ERYCINIDAE

Libythea myrra sanguinalis Fruh. Jungle belt. One

taken at Treveni, March 1930.

Abisara echerius angulata M. Jungle belt. Appears

November—December.

HI.

Hz.

lg Wa

H23.

H24.

H25.

H26.

H27.

H28.

H29.

Ip heyoy

H44.

H45.

H49.

HS3.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, ¥ol. 49

15.

16.

34.

otek

LYCAENIDAE

Castalius rosimon rosimon F. Appears most of the

year.

Castalius caleta decidia Hew. Jungle beJt. Taken during

October to Match.

Tarucus theophrastus indica. Flies June till September.

Syntarucus plinius F. Flies June till November.

Lycaenopsis puspa gisca Fruh. Jungle belt. Appears.

October to March.

Lycaenopsis cardia dilecta M. One stray specimen taken

July 1936.

Chilades laius laius Cr. Common most of the year.

Zizeeria trochilus putli Koll. Common June to Sep-

tember.

Zizeeria gaika Trimen. Common most of the year.

One rare aberration taken 1 April, ’°37 and sent to Mr

D. G. Sevastopulo.

Zizeeria otis otis F. Common most of the year.

Euchrysops cnejus F. Appears September to November.

Lycaenesthes emolus emolus God. Rare.

Appears.

October-November.

Catacnhrysops strabo F. Common most of the year.

Lampides boeticus L. Appgars February to April and

October-November.

Jamides bochus bochus Cr. Jungle belt. October to

December—March.

Jamides celeno celeno Cr. Jungle belt. October to.

December—March.

Jamides alecto eurysaces Fruh. Jungle belt. October

to December—March.

Nacaduba nora nora Fd. Common June to November.

Nacaduba dubiosa indica Evans. Common June to

November.

Curetis thetis Drury. Common April to November.

Curetis bulis Db. and Hew. Jungle belt only. October:

to March.

Iraota timoleon timoleon Stoll. One # taken 24-12-38.

Mr Gill took 3 (f' dQ) at Japaha.

Amblypodia alemon DeN. Jungle belt. Flies October

to March.

Amblypodia amantes amantes Hew. Jungle belt. Plies.

October to March.

| Loxura atymnus. Jungle belt. One talon October 1932. d

H57.

Hos:

- H60.

H84.

#85.

iD.

I 26.

I 28.

147.

157.

iss.

159.

164.

I 66.

1 88.

1S:

Bae

H81.

CHAMPARAN BUTTERFLIES—NORTH ‘BIHAR 9

Spindasis vulcanus vulcanus M. COmmDn. March to

November.

Spindasis ictis ictis Hew. Common March to November.

Spindasis elima elima M. One worn specimen taken

July 745.

Zesius chrysomallus Hub. Rare. Only females taken.

o taken by Mr Gill at Japaha.

Tajuria jangala ravata M. Jungle belt. One taken

November 733. .

Tajuria jehana M. Rare. One taken only.

Tajuria cippus cippus F. Appears March to December.

Zeltus etolus F. Jungle belt. One taken at Bikhna

Thori (Nepal border) December ’35.

Virachola isocrates F. Taken by Mr Gill at Japaha.

Rapala schistacea M. Jungle belt. Fiizs March to

November.

Rapala melampus Cr. nen at Bagaha September ’34.

Mr Gill took some at Japaha.

-HESPERIDAE

Hasora badra badra M. One stray sp2cim2n. 4 N svember

"40.

Hasora alexis alexis F. Appears April and July to

October. Larvae feed on Beech.

Badamia exclamationis Fb. Flies April to November.

Caprona ransonnettii saraya Doh. Jungie belt. One

taken March ’35.

Syrichtus galba F. Appears April to October.

Suastus gremius gremius F. Appears June till Decem-

ber.

Udaspes folus Cr. Appears April and August to

October.

Notocrypta curvifascia Fd. Jungle belt. One taken

March 732.

Gangara thyrsis clothilda Hb. One stray specimen,

‘November 732. |

Matapa aria M. Appears about soar October—

November. |

Hyarotis adrastus adrastus Cr. Onetaken August ’32,

one seen October 740.

Taractrocera maevius sagara M. Appears July to

September.

190. 20. Padxaona phellus phellus Mab. Jungle belt. Treveni

one taken November ’3?,

100 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

191. 1. Astycus augias augias L. Flies May to October.

Common.

2. Astycus pythias bambusae M. July to October.

I 97. 30. Baoris sinensis subochracea M. One doubtful speci-

men.

31. Baoris mathias mathias F. Flies nearly all the year.

32. Baoris guttatus bada M. do. do.

33. Baoris zelleri cinnara Wallace. One specimen July ’29.

The following additional species, taken in Darbhanga District

(N. Bihar) are in the collection of Mr. Chas. M. Inglis, F,z.s., C.M.B.0.U.

None of these have been taken in Champaran.

A 1. Troides aeacus Fd. @.

A 2. Tros varuna astorion Wd. One specimen.

A 4. Papilio polymmestor polymnestor Cr. Somewhere in

N. Bihar must be the meeting place of this form, and

P. memnon as I have seen many of the latter.

A 6. Zetides bathycles chiron

NYMPHALIDAE

F23. Abrota ganga M. This is interesting as the habitat given

of this species is Sikkim-Bhutan only. Evidently a migrant

and must have flown over 100 miles to where Mr Inglis

took it.

LYCAENIDAE

H 8. Spalgis epius epius Wd. A local species.

H12, Tarucus callinara But.

H14. 1. Azanus ubaldus Cr. 27-5-'19, 24-6-719.

2, Azanus uranus But. 17-5-’20.

Hi7. Neopithecops zalmora But. One specimen in 1925.

His. Everes parrhasius assamica (?) Tyt. 23-5-’19, 26-4-’20,

24-3-’21.

H25. Euchrysops pandava pandava Hors. One specimen.

H46. Horsfieldia anita dina Fruh. 2-3-’20, 29-4-’20, 17-11-20.

HS59. Pratapa cleobis God. 9-5-’20, ff¥

OBSERVATIONS ON SOME LARVAL AND POST-LARVAL

SLOMATOPRODS*

K. H. ALIKUNHI

Central Inland Fisheries Research Station, Barrackpore.

(With two plates)

SYNOPSIS

1. Habits of larval and post-larval stomatopods of the genera

Squilla and Lysiosquilla were studied by observation on specimens.

kept in aquaria.

2. The peculiar reactions of the pelagic larvae to light are de-

tailed.

3. The characteristic feeding habits of the larvae and adults are

described.

4. Pronounced cannibalistic tendencies are noted in the group.

5. The mechanism of larval and post-larval moults is described

and discussed.

6. Eye stalks, as in other crustacea, appear to control the develop-

ment of chromatophores. Removal of eye stalks does not affect moult-

ing, growth and metamorphosis.

7. Removal of eye stalks a few days prior to final larval moult

results in the production of blind albino specimens of post-larvae.

The rudiments of post-larval pigments are well laid in the advanced

pelagic larva.

INTRODUCTION

Though Stomatopods are quite abundant in the tropics they are

generally considered useless as food except in certain places in the

Far East where, like prawns, they form an article of human diet.

Living usually in burrows and crevices, they are seldom caught in

a state in which they can thrive in aquaria and therefore, very little

is known about their life habits. Recently Bigelow (1941) has given

an account of the habits of Squilla empusa Say after his observations

on live specimens in an aquarium at Woods Hole.

The observations detailed in the present paper were made when

the author was working on the stomatopod larvae of the Madras

plankton, at the University Zoological Research Laboratory, Madras’.

* Paper read before the 35th annual session of the Indian Science Congress,,.

Patna, 1948 and published with the permission of the Chief Research Officer,

Central Inland Fisheries Research Station,’ Barrackpore.

* The paper was written when the author was working at the Fresh-water

Biological Research Station, Madras, but was revised and finalised for publication

after his transfer to the Central Inland Fisheries Research Station, Barrackpore.

102 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Since specimens of post-larval stomatopods were then being reared in

the aquarium tanks, the author had ampie opportunities to observe

these animals alive at close quarters and study their habits. The

author is indebted to Prof. R. Gopala Aiyar, the then Director of

the laboratory and also to the University of Madras for the facilities

he was given to carry out the work. His thanks are also due to

Dr. B. N. Chopra for kindly going through the manuscript and

offering valuable suggestions.

FEEDING HABITS OF LARVAE

It has been shown that the late planktonic larvae could be made

to metamorphose into the post-larvae in the laboratory and that the

post-larval forms so obtained could, with proper care, be grown in

aquarium tanks to a fairly large size (Alikunhi and Ajiyar, 1942;

1943; Alikunhi, 1944, a, b). The larvae which generally keep healthy

in the aquaria are transparent. The feeding habits of these larvae

are peculiar. When minute bits of flesh of Emerita are introduced

into the aquarium the larvae quickly sense the presence of food, show

great activity, get hold of the bits by the help of their raptorial

claws, hold them firmly at the mouth by means of the maxillipeds and

begin to feed while actively swimming. The larvae being trans-

parent, it is interesting that at a casual glance the particles of food

appear as moving about apparently by themselves.

In the aquarium, the larva generally swims near the surface but

it also frequents the bottom layers. It therefore picks up the

particles of food even from the bottom of the aquarium.

REACTION TO LIGHT

The larvae generally show certain definite reactions to light. When

placed in a glass trough of sea water and when the maximum incidence

of light is on one side of the trough, the larvae are invariably found

to crowd on the opposite side of the vessel where there is less light.

When the light is obstructed by a piece of paper or even with

the palm of the hand, the larvae react almost instantaneously and

begin to swim about in the vessel normally in all directions. When

the obstruction is removed and the light again allowed to fall fully

cn the side of the vessel the larvae promptly swim away and crowd

on the opposite side as before. While keeping the larvae in the

aquaria, therefore, a sheet of brown paper was wrapped on that side

of the trough which had the maximum incidence of light so that uni-

form lighting was ensured in the container and the larvae behaved

normally.

MOULTING

It is interesting to note that till now the final pelagic larvae of

only a few species of stomatopods (Squilla empusa, S. quadridens,

Lysiosquilla excavatrix and L. eusebia) have been observed to moult

into the post-larvae. But even in these species the actual process

of transformation into the post-larva has not been described in detail.

OBSERVATIONS ON LARVAL AND POST-LARVAL STOMATOPODS 103

Faxon (1882) has seen a larva of S. empusa, 17 mm. long, meta-

morphose into a post-larva, 19 mm. in length. Bigelow (1894) deal-

ing with S. quadridens, mentions that ‘in the passage from the larval

to the adult form the body becomes broader and more compact at

the expense of its length, so that shortly after the moult it is but 1.1

cm. in length, while before it was 0.5 cm. longer’. Giesbrecht (1910)

observes that the final pelagic larva of S. mantis and S. desmaresti

measures 20-22.5 and 21-22.5 mm. respectively, while the first post-

larval stage measures 17-18 and 16 mm, respectively. My own

observations also go to show that there is a definite reduction in

length following the final larval moult, particularly in the larvae of the

S. nepa and S. quinquidentata groups in which the pre-labial region

is highly telescoped. Instances, however, are not wanting where the

reduction in length is rather insignificant as in the short, stout larvae

of the small-eyed species of the ‘Chloridella’ group. As noted by

Bigelow, generally, during transformation from the larval to the post-

larval stage the body becomes broader and stouter at the expense of

its length.

All the species of stomatopod larvae commonly occurring in the

Madras plankton have been correlated with their adults by rearing

the planktonic larvae and metamorphosing them into the post-larvae

in the laboratory (Alikunhi—unpublished). Observations on larval and

post-larval moults could, therefore, be made on 12 species of the

genus Squilla including the common forms S. nepa, S. holoschista,

S. wood-mason and S. raphidea, and on three species of the genus

Lysiosquilla namely L. maculata, L. tigrina and L. multifaciata.

Time of Final Larval Moult.

Larvae which are in the final pelagic stage could be recognized

under the binoculars by the outline of the post-larval carapace and

telson that is clearly visible through the transparent larval exo-

skeleton. This outline of the post-larval body appears only in the

final pelagic stage. Such larvae, if kept in fresh sea water aquaria,

are invariably found to metamorphose into post-larvae during the

night. It is remarkable that the frail, transparent pelagic larva

transforms itself into a totally different post-larva overnight, in the

course of 6 to 1o hours after definition of the post-layval body

outline.

To ascertain whether darkness had any particular effect in hasten-

ing the final larval moult and metamorphosis, 18 specimens of the

final pelagic larvae of S. nepa were placed in the morning in an

earthenware vessel containing fresh sea water and the vessel was kept

covered to avoid all light. Examination at 1 p.m. and at 4 p.m.

showed that the larvae remained unchanged. By next morning how-

ever, 15 of the larvae had metamorphosed. Similar larvae, from

‘the same collection kept in a glass trough of sea water, also meta-

morphosed overnight, and the early post-larvae in both the cases were

identical in the intensity of pigmentation, etc., showing that both

the groups had metamorphosed almost at the same time. On other

occasions also, larvae picked out from the tow-net collections in the

morning and kept in glass aquaria, metamorphosed into post-larvae

‘only during the night. It might, therefore, be inferred that in the

104 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

open sea also the final moult and metamorphosis normally take place:

at night, though darkness by itself does not appear to have any

particular effect in hastening metamorphosis.

In the laboratory the final larval moult invariably took place after

10 o'clock in the night. Unfortunately, the actual process of moulting

could not be observed in detail, but the complete moults and a series.

of specimens in the different stages of moulting have been collected

so as to furnish a full account of the process.

Final Larval Moult and Metamorphosis.

The following observations were made on larvae of S. nepa but

the statements are equally applicable to other species of stomatopods.

occurring on the Madras coast.

It is interesting to note that while the general broadening of the

post-larval body is effected at the expense of its length, in the case

of the carapace, only a narrow median strip of the larval structure

takes part in the transformation into the post-larval carapace (Plate

1, a-a’). This median strip is clearly indicated in the final pelagic

larva, but is more than double the length of the post-larval carapace.

During moulting the larval carapace, together with the peripheral’

skin falls off, exposing the median soft skin which soon gets hard-

ened. It is thrown into a series of folds anteriorly, thereby getting

shortened. With the quick hardening of the new carapace the folds.

also disappear and finally the general shape of the adult carapace is

assumed. While these changes are taking place, the terga of the

last three thoracic segments split longitudinally in the middle

and through the opening so formed the soft post-larval body which

by then is free from its larval coat, is gradually drawn out by a series

of convulsive movements of the abdominal segments. Quickly following

this the anterior limbs are also pulled out of their larval covering.

On completion of this casting off of the larval skin, the post-larval

body, being very soft, quickly undergoes some shortening. The

region between the antennae and the labium and the last three

thoracic segments get considerably shortened and assume proportions

totally different from those in the larva. With the hardening of

the new skin, the various organs show a closer approximation to

the adult condition than in the previous larval stage. During this.

quick process of transformation the following changes, besides the

general broadening of the body and the formation of the new carapace,

ate conspicuous: The eye stalks become short and stout, with the

cornea set more in the fashion characteristic of the adult (Plate 1

c-c’). The raptorial dactylus becomes provided with a series of well-

developed free spines which were just visible through the transparent

skin of the pelagic larva (Plate 1 b-b’). The last three thoracic

segments get conspicuously broadened and their lateral sides are

provided with characteristic processes (Plate II a-a’). The pleopods.

which in the larva had the gills in the form of compact bundles, now

have them branched and finely plumose (Plate II b-b’). The telson

and the uropods largely approximate to the adult condition (Plate

II :c-c’).

The frail body of the pelagic larva is singularly transparent and’

generally devoid of pigment. The early post-larva has the body

Prate I

bay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Journ., Bom

is from pelagic larva

Squilla nepa

f structures during metamorphos

10n Oo

ificat

Mod

to post-larva

a’. Same of early post-larva.

a. Carapace of final pelagic larva ;

b’. Same of early post-larva

c’. Same of early post-larva.

b. Raptorial claw of final pelagic larva

c. Eye of final pelagic larva

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Piatr II

Squilla nepa

Modification of structures during metamorphosis from pelagic larva

to post-larva

a. Last three thoracic segments of final pelagic larva; a’. Same of early post-larva.

b. Pleopod of final pelagic larva; b’. Same of early post-larva.

c. Telson and uropod of final pelagic larva; c’. Same of early post-larva.

OBSERVATIONS ON LARVAL AND POST-LARVAL STOMATOPODS 105:

opaque and several chromatophores are now distributed all over the

dorsal body surface, often forming definite patterns. With meta-

morphosis the pelagic existence is also abandoned and the post-larva.

confines itself to the bottom of the aquarium.

It is of interest to note that while most of the changes under-

gone during the final larval moult are already heralded by the more-

or less distinct outlines of post-larval structures in the late pelagic

larva, the very conspicuous transformation from the larval to the

post-larval body is remarkable in that it is achieved in the course of

a relatively short period of 6 to 10 hours.

Post-Larval Moult.

Post-larval specimens kept in the aquarium and regularly fed,,

undergo the first moult within 4$ to 6 days after metamorphosis.

Unlike the final larval moult, the post-larvae moult during any time.

of the day or night. It may be mentioned that early Alima larvae

also when kept in aquaria, moult into later stages during day time.

The post-larva when about to moult, becomes less active and repairs

to a quiet corner of the aquarium. The body then appears less bright.

than before. The process of moulting is essentially the same as in

the pelagic larvae. The terga of the last three thoracic segments

split longitudinally in the middle, the abdominal portion is first drawn

out of the old coat through the opening so created, the carapace.

comes off and falls away or sometimes may remain connected with

the rest of the moult by the anterior end, and finally the cephalic and

theracic appendages are also freed from their old covering. Occasional-

ly when the abdominal moult is completed, the specimen begins to

swim in an excited fashion (with the slough trailing) trying to get

the anterior limbs also free. It soon falls to the bottom as if ex-

hausted.

Immediately after moulting since the chitinous covering has

not hardened, the specimen is rather weak and unable to move about

actively. It often swims by an awkwardly synchronised movement

of the limbs and then more or less passively falls to the bottom.

During this period it is completely helpless and highly vulnerable to

attacks by enemies. Cannibalism is rather pronounced in the group

and if more than one specimen are kept in an aquarium and if any of

them undergoes a moult, it usually falls an easy victim to the predatory

leanings of its brethren. This destructive tendency is manifested’

also when specimens of different sizes are kept together in an

aquarium, the smaller ones being preyed upon by the larger.

The mechanism and periodicity of larval and post-larval moults

are similar in the genus Lysiosquilla also.

FEEDING Hasits oF POST-LARVAE AND ADULTS

The early post-larvae continue to live and grow in the aquaria

provided the water is. daily changed and they are regularly fed with

suitable food. In the present series of experiments, the mole crab:

Emerita asiatica which occurs in large numbers in the inter-tidal zone

of the Madras beach, was found to be quite an agreeable food:

106 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

for the post-larvae. Feeding can be effected either with live speci-

mens or with minced meat, depending on the size of the post-larvae.

For young specimens small bits of the soft parts of the body of the

crab are preferable. Older specimens will readily feed when small

live Emerita are introduced into the aquarium. The food is promptly

caught with lightning rapidly by the powerful raptorial claws, and

the maxillipeds by a quick movement grab the same and hold it in

position at the mouth when the mandibles begin to work at it. Soon

the entire bit is taken in and can be seen from the dorsal aspect as

a light brown mass inside, at the level of the anterior half of the

carapace. In the case of older post-larvae it is very often noticed

that while several of the crabs are caught and killed none of them

is completely eaten up, but in every case about 1/3 of the body at

the junction between the cephalothorax and the abdomen alone is

eaten. This happens to be the softest portion of the body of the mole

crab. The live Emerita is often pursued by the post-larva and repeat-

edly slashed with the raptorial claws, before it is actually caught.

Tc observe the specimens feeding is really very instructive and on

one occasion there was in the aquarium a specimen of Lysiosquilla

maculata which was apparently conscious of the usual feeding time

and which had the peculiar habit, on getting hold of a bit of food,

of lying at the bottom of the aquarium on its back, with the head

and tail curved up, busily engaged in munching at the morsel.

ALBINO SPECIMENS

That in the eye stalks of crustacea are situated the centres which

control the development of chromatophores over the body could be

clearly demonstrated in the case of stomatopods also. But for a few

yellow chromatophores on certain regions of the body and the

characteristic reddish tinge in certain species, pigment is generally

absent in stomatopod larvae. However, in the course of about 12

hours during which the final larval moult resulting in metamorphosis

into the post-larva takes place, numerous chromatophores make their

appearance, all over the body.

Active, final pelagic larvae of S. holoschista were taken and the

eye stalks were chopped off. On releasing into water they began to

swim about in an aimless fashion. By next morning like the normal

larvae, they metamorphosed into post-larvae. These however, were

pale white in colour. Under the microscope the chromatophores over

the body appeared as minute dots unlike the normal post-larvae in

which the chromatophores are generally large, blotch-like, stellately

branched or irregular. The arrested development of chromatophores

results in almost albino specimens. In other respects they behave

normally ; they take food when they come across the same and thrive

in the aquaria.

A few advanced larvae, not quite in the final pelagic stage, were

subjected to similar experiments. Three days after the removal of eye

stalks the larvae moulted and metamorphosed into post-larvae which

were more or less perfect albinos. Chromatophores were either

absent or if a few were present, they were extremely minute and

‘inconspicuous. Fed regularly, these post-larvae also thrived in aquaria

OBSERVATIONS ON LARVAL AND POST-LARVAL STOMATOPODS 107

and moulted regularly like the normal specimens. After the second

post-larval moult a small feeler like structure appeared in place of

the eye. The much pigmented L. maculata also behaves likewise,

and if eye-stalks are removed the final pelagic larvae metamorphose

into post-larvae which are devoid of pigment.

It is clear from the above that even though the frail pelagic larvae

are transparent, the rudiments of post-larval chromatophores are well

laid even before the final pelagic stage and their further development

is arrested by the removal of the eye stalk. The removal of the eye

stalk does not adversely affect the specimens in any way other than

in inhibiting pigmentation.

REFERENCES.

Alikunhi, K. H. and Aiyar, R. G. (1942): On some Squilla larvae from the

Madras plankton. Curr. Sci., Xi, 2.

Alikunhi, K. H: and Aiyar, R. G. (1943): Growth in some Stomatopods.

Curr. Sci., xii, 3.

Alikunhi, K. H. (1944a): Growth stages of Lysitosquilla tigrina Nobili. Curr.

Sci., xiii, 1.

Alikunhi, K, H. (19446): Final Pelagic Larva of Squilla hieroglyphica Kemp.

Curr. Sci., xili, 9.

Alikunhi, K. H. (unpublished). An account of the Stomatopod larvae of the

Madras Plankton.

Bigelow, R. P. (1894): Report on the Crustacea of the order Stomatopoda

collected by the steamer Albatross between 1885 and 1891, and on other specimens

in the U.S. National Museum, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., xvii.

Bigelow, R. P. (1941): Notes on Squilla empusa Say-Journ. Wash, Acad. Sci.,

Xxxi, 9.

Chopra, B. (1939): Report on Stomatopoda. Sci., Rep. John Murray Exped.

1933. 34, vi, 3.

Claus, C. (1871): Die Metamorphose der Squilliden, Abh. Ges. Wiss. Got-

tingen, XVi.

Faxon, W. (1882): Selections from Embryological Monographs, I. Crustacea.

Mem. Mus., Comp. Zool. Harvard Coll. ix, 1. .

Giesbrecht, W. (1910): Stomatopoda: Faune und Flora du Golfe von Neapel.

Monogr. 33.

Kemp, S. (1913): An account of the crustacea Stomatopoda of the Indo-Pacific

Region. Mem. Ind. Mus., iv.

Schmitt, W. L. (1940): The Stomatopoda of the west coast of America.

Rep. Allan Hancock Pacific Exped. vy, 4.

OBITUARY

H.By HAYES

_ Hugo Basil Hayes who died in Bombay on the 7th January of

this year at the age of 57 was a member of the Society since 3-1-1943,

during which time he served on the Executive Committee from

5-6-1947 to the time of his death.

His wide and varied experience of both big and small game shoot-

ing and fishing in Northern India, Bihar, Orissa, Bengal and Bombay

was unrivalled. Unlike most of us who laid on expensive bundobast

for shikar trips, with tents, carts and servants, Mr. Hayes would

rough it in true style; a small box of stores, a stove for cooking and.

perhaps a camp-cot, and he would go off into the forests in pursuit

of his most cherished sport, be it shooting or fishing, or both, mix-

ing and living with the jungle people, who held him in high esteem.

Unfortunately he kept no diary of his many years of shikar ex-

cursions, but to spend an evening, or a few days with him in a camp

was a joy. He had the gift of relating shikar experiences, without

being boring or repeating himself. To see him get down to cook-.

ing a meal and then washing up after a long day, at his age, was.

indeed a fine illustration of the old school, and an example to many

of us younger men.

His great charm lay in his unselfishness and his kindly help to

strangers. My own acquaintance with him only developed in 1944,

while stationed in Bombay, when through an introduction from the

Society, I came to know him and got the benefit of his experience

of both the fishing and shocting around Bombay, besides introductions

to others interested in the sports I sought myself.

The foundation of the Bombay Presidency Angling Association

with its headquarters at Powai Lake near Bombay and the introduction

of the fry of Rohu, Mirgil and Catla from Patna in 1935-1936 will

remain a monument to his great services to the angling fraternity

in Bombay. Good catches and huge fish have been recorded in the

past four or five years, after he introduced tank angling methods, so:

well developed in Bengal but hardly known in Western India.

His death will be felt by his many friends, and the Society

loses a valuable and able field naturalist, a progressive worker, and

a fine sportsman and gentleman.

A. St. J. M.

REVIEWS

i. EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL ANATOMY OF THE

BUFFALO-LOUSE, Haematopinus tuberculatus Burmeister. By

M. A. H. Qadri, Aligarh Muslim University Publications, Zoological

Series, 1948. Price Rs. 3.

It was not long ago that even the so-called university lectures

were all calculated to prepare students merely to answer questions

of the type ‘Write short notes on’. At least in chemistry there are

excellent text-books published in India, to mention two on Organic

Chemistry, from our own province, one by Karve and Advani, the

other by Nadkarni and Kothari. No book of a similar standard has

appeared in zoology from any centre of teaching in India and the

reason is not far to seek. Indian types of animal life have not been

studied properly. I believe Prof. B. Mirza even as a student, dis-

‘covered that the earthworm given for dissection in India did not

correspond with the type described in English text-books. His

attention having been thus drawn early, he has given the consideration

that the study of biological types rightly requires, for it is only such

monographic studies that can be subsequently incorporated into text-

books of Indian zoology.

Perhaps of all types specific to a country the foremost amongst

them belong to insects. Prof. Baber Mirza of Aligarh has therefore

announced several monographic studies on Indian insects, the one

under review being the first of the series. Here Dr. Qadri deals

with the Buffalo-louse, Haematopinus tuberculatus. The contents

cover 20 pages, with an additional page of 20 references and g plates

containing 20 illustrations. The printing is excellent. The illustra-

tions, which were done in pen and ink, are reproduced on art paper,

which, in these days of paper shortage seems a luxury rather than

a necessity. The price is Rs. 3 but appears reasonable considering

the present cost of paper and printing. The contents represent a

good average of the type of research work done in Indian universities.

Dr. Qadri cites, among others, the monograph of H. Sikora on

Pediculus vestimenti. She was a mere artist working for Prof. von

Prowazek of Hamburg, and the work indicates what a lady-technician

can do in Germany even during her spare time. She discovered an

organ containing symbiotic bacteria which she named ‘Magenscheibe’.

Ries (Zeit. Morph. Ok., 1931, 20: 147) went further into its details

and included in his thesis observations on more than one species of

Haematopinus. Unfortunately no mention is made of this monograph

by Ries nor even to symbiosis.

S. MAHDIHASSAN

2, WILD FLOWERS AT A GLANCE. By M. C, Carey and

Dorothy Fitchew. Pp. xi+275, plates 264; 17.5x11 cms. London,

J. M. Dent & Sons, Ltd. (1949). Price 10s. 6d.

This is one of the finest books written for the public at large;

botanical terminology has been reduced to the minimum, and even

110 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

the few terms used are clearly explained in the introduction. For

easy reference, plants are grouped according to the colour of their

flowers, and within each colour-group plants are arranged following

the system of Bentham and Hooker in their British Flora. Each

plant is fully illustrated in colour and has in ‘addition a clear and

simple description. Other interesting details given are the places

where the plant is found, the districts in the British Isles where the

plant is common, the time of flowering, the total height of the plant,

and short notes on the derivation of the Latin name. The colour plates

are a joy to see and botanically perfectly accurate. An index of

English names closes the book. A novel departure in such popular

books is the addition of a clear cut scale in inches embossed on the

back cover of the book; such a scale is often a necessity in the field,

and the publishers have done a good service to the forgetful tribe

of botanists in attaching such a scale to the book. The price is very

moderate considering the large number of colour plates and the

excellent printing and binding of the little volume.. Without hesit-

ation I recommend this book as a present for school children and

their elders. The study of the flowers of the field with the aid of

this book becomes such a real pleasure that the book could very

properly be called ‘Botany without Tears’.

HH. (SANTAPRAY,

3., LHE OCEAN. By F, D,;Ommanney, Ph p,, A.R,C4s., he lasin evan

ix and 1-238 with Plates I-IV and text figures 1-12. Oxford Univer-

sity Press, 1949. Price 5s.

This book forms volume No. 203 of The Home University Library

of Modern Knowledge, and is in no way inferior to the many excellent

little volumes already published in the series. The ten chapters of the

book read like a story; they are written in very simple style and

without the cumbersome technical terminclogy often found in such

books. Chapter II deals with Life in the Sea and discusses the very

controversial point of the origin of life; ‘there is no direct evidence

as to how’or ‘where ‘life’ first began ‘on “earth :.°. “The'sea’ 1s so

excellently suited to the development and maintenance of life that

it. is natural to look upon the shallow coastal seas as its birthplace:

and cradle’; with such charming scientific honesty no reader need

pick up a quarrel. In subsequent chapters the author discusses the

various kinds of life in the. sea, beginning’ with the lowliest; the

importance of plankton is very properly stressed forming as it does

the basic food on which higher sea animals depend. The printing

of the book is of the very highest standard and the text figures are

select and clear. At the end of the book there is a short but

very select bibliography, in which the names of a number of recent

books on the subject are listed with short notes on their contents and

method of dealing with the subject. This is a book that ought to

be read by every one who is interested in.the general subject. of

biology, and in the fascinating chapter of life in the sea.

H. SANTAPAU

REVIEWS 11k

4. BIRDS OF THE COAST. By C. A. Gibson-Hill, M.a., M.B.o.u.

Pp. 216. 16 plates; numerous sketches and distribution maps.

London, H. F. and G. Witherby Ltd. (1949). Price 10/6 nett.

Though one of the numerous books that continue to be written

about British birds, this is outstanding in so far as the author fairly

establishes his contention in the preface that the description of key

points assisted by black and white line drawings are often more

yaluable for recognition than coloured plates. While weather

coucitions in India do not ordinarily force us to attempt identification

in rain, snow and fog, we must admit that many of the numerous

comparative sketches in this book are clearer and more helpful than

detailed descriptions.

As the title implies, it deals mostly with ducks and geese and the

wading birds, followed by gulls and terns. But a few of the passeres

and birds of prey are also included. With the large variety of coastal

birds visiting India in winter, we sadly lack a work of this nature

and it is to be hoped that somebody who can sketch birds well will

make an attempt to fill the deficiency in the near future. Finn’s

‘How to know the Indian Waders’ was a good effort for its time, but

a modern work with illustrations of this type would be very welcome.

One cannot conclude without reference to the amazing versatility of

the author mostly in connection with oceanic birds but also covering

various other forms of life. The name re-appears in journal after

journal always accompanied by excellent photographs and sketches and

we hope that we will have his writings more often on forms nearer

to | us.

Te sys

The following books have been added to the Society’s Library

since ‘August 1949 :—

fie MARINE PELECYPODA OF BOMBAY. By TT. V.

Subramanyam, K. R. Karandikar & N. N. Murthi—A Reprint from

the Journal of the University of Bombay, Vol. XVIII, Pt. 5, March

eno

2. ON INDIAN INSECT TYPES—External and Internal Ana-

tomy of the Buffalo-louse, HZaematopinus tuberculatus Burmeister. By

M. A. H. Qadri. Aligarh Muslim University Publication (Zoological

series). Edited by Dr. M. B. Mirza 1948 (A Review copy).

3. WILD FLOWERS AT A GLANCE (with more than 260

illustrations of wild flowers in full colour). By M. C. Carey & Dorothy

Fitchew (J. M. Dent & Son Ltd., London, 1949) (A Review copy).

4. THE OCEAN. By F. D. Ommanney (Oxford University

Press, 1949) (A Review copy).

5. PROCEDURE IN TAXONOMY-—Including a reprint of

the International rules of Zoological Nomenclature with summaries

of opinions rendered to the present date (1907-1947). Completely

indexed—Revised edition. By T. Edward Schenk, H. John Mc-

Masters. Revised and enlarged and in part written by A. Myra Keen

i412 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

-& Williams Siemon Muller (Stanford University Press, California

1948).

. 6. SOME VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF CEYLON—Pictor-

jal Series. Vol. I. By P. E. P. Deraniyagala. The National Museums

‘of Ceylon. (Colombo, 1949).

7. BIRDS OF THE COAST. By C. ‘A. Gibson-Hill (H. F. &

G. Witherby Ltd., 5, Warwick Court, London, W.C. 1, 1949).

8. TROPISCHE SCHMETTERLINGE (Tropical Butterflies).

By Ernst Ritimeyer & Viktor Schiitz (Hallwag A. G. Bern, 1947).

9. ANNUAL REPORTS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF

FISHERIES, BARODA from 1937-1938—1947-1948. By Dr. Sele

Moses.

10. BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF FISHERIES,

BARODA STATE, Nos. 1-16.

Bulletin No. 1 of 1940 Fish-culture in and around Kosamba. By

Dr. S. T. Moses, 1940.

Bulletin No. 2 of 1940 Cold Storage of fish and its potentialities in

Baroda. By Dr. S. T. Moses, 1940.

Bulletin No. 3 of 1940 A Statistical Account of the fish supply of

Baroda City. By Dr. S. T. Moses, 1940.

Bulletin No. 4 of 1943 The Fisheries of Vishvamitri (Baroda).

By Dr. 5. -T... Moses, “1043:

Bulletin No. 5 of 1944 The Fresh-water Prawns of Baroda. By

Dr. S. T. Moses & -P. H. Joshi, 1944.

Bulletin No. 6 of 1945 Fishery Bye-Product Industries. By Dr.

S. T. Moses, 1946.

Bulletin No. 7 of 1945 Decomposition & Putrefaction of fish. By

pr. oS. 1, Moses, 1047,

Bulletin No. 8 of 1946 Dermestes vulpinus F.—An Insect pest on

«dried fish. By Dr.’ S.°1.j.Moses, :1647:

Bulletin No. g of 1946 Development of Indian Fisheries:

Objectives & Requirements. By Dr. S. T. Moses, 1947.

Bulletin No. 10 of 1947 Whales in Baroda (Orca Stranded at

Aramda in 1943 and Balaena at Ganjana in 1944). By Dr. S. T.

Moses, 1947.

Bulletin No. 11 of 1947 Baroda Fisheries. By Dr. S. T. Moses,

1947.

Balen No. 12 of 1947 Pearls & Pearl Fisheries in Baroda State.

By Dr. S. T. Moses, 1947.

Bulletin No. 13 of 1947 A Preliminary Report on the Cephalopods

of Baroda. By Dr. S. T. Moses, 1948.

Bulletin No. 14 of 1948 A Preliminary Report on Mushrooms of

Baroda. By Dr. S. T. Moses.

Bulletin No. 15 of 1948 Crocodiles in India. By Dr. S. T. Moses,

1948.

aa No. 16 of 1949 Sea-Weeds of the Baroda Coast. By Dr.

‘SS. T. Moses & T. V. R. Pillay, 1949.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1 LONGEVITY IN’ ELEPHANTS

In connection with a recent note of Mr. N. G. Pillai’s relating to the

age of elephants (J.B.N.H.S. 48: 356), I have a recollection of reading

that the elephant ridden by the Prince of Wales (later Edward VII) in

1876 in Delhi was the same as was used in 1803 by Lord Lake in

his triumphal entry into the Imperial Mogul-Maratha capital. Is this

a fact?

“SoUTHWOOD’, Mussorig, U.P. HAMID A. ALI

aoth November, 1949.

2. WILD ELEPHANTS DYING IN ASSAM

In August and September 1949 some brief reports appeared in

‘the press of wild elephants dying in the North Cachar Hills of Assam.

I immediately made enquiries, and thanks to the co-operation extend-

ed to me by Mr. P. D. Stracey, Senior Conservator of Forests, and

Mr. M. N. Pait, Divisional Forest Officer of Nowgong District, I

am able briefly to give a few facts about the case.

The epidemic apparently started about the first week of June,

end lasted up to the second week of July. There was a spell of

hot weather during this period. The area affected was the Langting-

' Mupa Reserved forest and the strip of Unclassed State Forest to the

east of it, an area of some 20 miles by 15 miles to the south of Lumd-

ing railway station.

A fair number of tusks of tuskers and tushes of makhnas and females

have been brought in, and the latest estimate of the D.F.O. of

Nowgong is that approximately 55 elephants must have died. It is

believed that two or three herds were affected, and that mortality

was greatest among the younger animals. The carcases of the dead

elephants were found chiefly in nine different places inside the area

referred to above. There is no news of any other wild animals such

as deer or bison having died.

The epidemic is believed to have been anthrax, but unfortunately

there is no proof, as no vet seems to have been available at the

time. In the early part of June there was an outbreak of the epidemic

‘at two villages to the east of Langting station, with heavy loss of

‘domestic buffaloes. It is not known if the elephants nearby contract-

ed the disease from the buffaloes, or vice versa.

It is an extraordinary thing that ten years ago a similar epidemic

occurred in the North Cachar Hills, in which elephants, bison and

‘sambar are reported to have died in considerable numbers in the

upper Kopili area of Garampani. Some 29 elephant tusks were re-

‘covered from a comparatively small area round the hot springs.

The epidemic raged from April 1939 till September of that year, and

114 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

the large herds of bison of the Krunming Reserve were said to have

been practically wiped out. The Sub-Divisional Officer of the North

Cachar Hills at that time tells me that the disease seems to have been

a form of rinderpest, but that there is no accurate information on

the point. Other such epidemics have taken place in Assam, such

as in the Kochugaon Forest of Goalpara District in 1933, when some

20 bison are reported to have died, and in Kaziranga Game Sanctuary

in.1947, when 14 carcases of Phino were picked up (many more may

have died, and no trace of them found).

An enquiry is to be held in the North Cachar Hills in the near

future, and it is to be hoped that more information will become

available. In the meantime all elephant catching operations in that

particular district have been cancelled.

oie dee

OaTInG P.O., Assam, ; eo ae

25th December, 1949.

3. A BULL BISON’S,; ABNORMAL ,. BEHAVIOUR

On returning to my estate after 5 days’ absence, on the 14th

December I was informed that a large solitary bull bison had visited

my. cart-bulls shed (surrounded by coffee) on the 13th and 14th,

demonstrating at the graziers. On the 15th I received word that

the same bull was grazing in my new coffee clearings, and again

showing hostility to the graziers on the grass slope nearby. On

arriving at the place I, sure enough, found the bull on the borders

of the new clearing and, on seeing me the bison at once walked to-

wards me in a most menacing manner. There was little doubt as

to his intentions and I shot it; a large brute, blind in one eye (the

eye was missing). It is just possible this may have accounted for

his ill-temper and curious behaviour.

HONNAMETTI Estate,

ATTIKAN P.O., Via Mysore (S. InpIA) RANDOLPH C. MORRIS

20th December, 19409.

4. THE LARGE RED FLYING SQUIRREL—PTEROMYS

INORNATUS GEOFFROY

Not much seems to be on record concerning the life and habits of

this squirrel. Early in my service from the year 1890 onwards 1}

held charge of the Jaunsar Forest Division, with Chakrata as my

head-quarters. My charge included the leased forests of Tehri

Garhwal in Tons valley from its junction with the Jumna river at 1,000

feet. altitude up to about 13,000 feet. The forests were mostly

coniferous. At low levels there were extensive areas covered with

the Chir. Pine (P. longifolia). Above 5,000 feet came the Blue Pine

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES — 11S

(P. excelsa) mixed with oaks of two kinds and from 7,000 feet up

to about 9,000 feet, Deodars, spruce firs and silver firs predominated,

with the high level. Karshu Oak. Above 10,000 feet the forest growth

consisted of the high level silver fir, birch and rhododendron, etc.

The flying squirrel was not rare throughout this area. In the

summer months they frequented the fir and oak forests between 7,000

and 9,o0o feet. They are’ nocturnal in their habits but in undisturbed

forest may often be seen on the move in the dusk after sunset. They

are, however, more often heard than seen, the cry being a rather

loud, penetrating and drawn-out whine.

The only nests I found were similar to the English squirrel’s dray,

a nest as big as that of a crow made of sticks and vegetable matter.

They have one young only.

A young one taken by me in May from a nest in a spruce fir

about 30 feet from the ground was unfortunately hardly old enough

to survive, and in spite of artificial feeding it died in a few days.

Their food consists I believe entirely of seeds chiefly acorns and

other fruits and leaves. They will take long flights, if necessary,

by gliding down the mountain side.

On one occasion I was standing in open fir forest near a forest

rest house at Deota. It was growing dusk. Suddenly I noticed a

flying squirrel sitting motionless on an excrescence from a_ spruce

fir about 2 feet from the ground. The animal was watching me and

evidently thought itself safe as it had the tree trunk at its back, up

which it could disappear if necessary. I began to advance on the

squirrel very gradually and the animal seemed to think all was well.

When only about 3 or 4 feet off I sprung forward and managed to

seize it in both hands as it endeavoured to run up the trunk of the

tree. I gripped her firmly and managed to avoid being bitten. I

took her up to the house and put her in a strong basket with a lid

for the night. In the morning I found she had eaten her way out

of the basket and was loose in the room. I captured her and took

her out intending to make her climb a tree and see how far she

would glide. There was no difficulty in inducing her climb up a

small spruce tree about 30 feet high. The tree was near the head

of a fairly steep valley leading down from 7,500 feet (Deota) to the

Tons river at 3,500 feet. I now endeavoured to persuade her ty

take off. She refused for some time but eventually gave in. I ex:

pected her to fly perhaps too feet or so and to alight on some big

tree below, but to my surprise she glided away right down the steep

valley. She was visible for only about too yards when the valley

curved. When I last saw her she showed no signs of alighting and

I imagine she may have continued her downward course for a very

long away. She was doubtless scared and wanted to put a consider-

able distance between herself and her enemy. 5

In the year 1892 I was iiving in Naini Tal. During my stay

there, a forest working-man brought me a young flying squirrel. It

seemed to be nearly full grown and was in good health. I was leav-

ing for England in a month or so, so I made arrangements to take

her (for she was a female) with me. I had a cage made and in due

course started off for Bombay with the squirrel in the cage and with

a small sack of apples.

116 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

The squirrel was very fond of apples and fed well on the journey

but felt the heat (it was July) intensely. I gave her a big lump of

ice in her cage which she much appreciated. Eventually I got her

safely on board ship and she survived the voyage and arrived at my

home in Sussex in very good condition. At first we housed her in

a small room in the tower above the house but she was not very

happy there, so she was relegated to an old glass house—a fernery

where she had lots of room. She lived in this house for over a year

being fed on apples, nuts, pie crust and other fruits. 7

In the meantime I had to return to India and my mother took

her in charge. She fed her every day.

When I returned two years later she was still in good health and

fairly friendly. One evening in July we heard her calling in the

park. We ultimately traced her to a big oak tree. On examining

the fernery we discovered a hole in the roof through which she had

evidently been in the habit of going out every night te feed on apples

or acorns, and then returning in the early morning. We did not

block up the hole and she returned as before. For some time she

‘continued her nocturnal visits to the park and garden and eventually

she strayed away and was ultimately found dead in Petworth, 4 miles

away, probably shot by some ‘sportsman’. Had we had a pair of

these squirrels I feel sure they would have done well and probably

would have bred, but I am inclined to think they could not survive

the winter in England unless fed, as I do not think they store up food

in autumn.

There is another large red flying squirrel which occurs in the

submontane sal forests of the tract from Jumna to Nepal. I saw it

on several occasions and it seemed to me to be exactly similar to

the one above described. The only one I saw at close quarters was

when I was sitting up in a machan in the Bahraich sal forest. There

was a tiger kill under my machan and I was keeping very quiet

ag the time had come when the tiger should return. Suddenly there

was some smack on the tree just above my head not 2 feet away

where a flying squirrel had alighted having doubtless glided down

from some distant tree. It gave me a jump! I do not remember

if the tiger returned or not.

It would be interesting to ascertain if this large flying squirrel

which inhabits the submountane sal forest is, or is not, the same as

the high level Himalayan species. Possibly the Bombay Natural

History Society may have specimens from both localities and could

settle the question?

116, BANBURY ROAD,

‘OXFORD, B. B. OSMASTON

28th November, 1949-

5. SCENT

Some sportsmen are apt to underrate the power of scent possessed

by certain animals. The tiger and the domestic cat are two instances.

In the article on the Indian Wild Dog published in the Society’s

Journal Vol. 41, No. 4, the writer remarked at page 710 that the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ey

scenting power of the species is extraordinary as shown by the fact

that the animals can follow a line in the hot weather when the ground.

is bone dry. They have been observed doing this during the hottest

hours of the day when the temperature is around 110° Fahrenheit.

This power of scent possessed by the Indian Wild Dog is superior

to that of most domestic dogs; but that in exceptional instances

the trained Alsatian dog can perhaps more than equal it is evidenced.

by the doings of ‘Captain Hall’, the Alsatian so named by the

Egyptian Police after his former English owner. The dog was three

years old when taken in hand, and though born of untrained parents.

took to the work at once and proved to be of amazing intelligence.

In his most interesting and informative book, ‘Egyptian Service—

1902-1946.’ Sir Thomas Russell Pasha, K.B.E., C.M.G. relates how

this dog, among many and remarkable cases, showed how he was

able to follow a scent several days old, and even on a tarmac road

over which motor cars had been passing for some hours after the

scent had been laid.

In one case every detail was personally known by Sir Thomas.

Russell as the Senior Police Officer in close connection with the

murder of his shikari, Guda. The dog Hall arrived with his handler

four days after the murder, and having had his nose pressed down

to the foot imprint of one of the three suspects picked the man out

from a number of men lined up in two ranks for his inspection. He

was then taken back to the place in the desert where the naked body

of the murdered man had been buried by the murderers and repeated

the process by detection of a second man in the identification parade;

being once more taken to the graveside he repeated the feat by

singling out the third suspect. Although the previous two were still

in the ranks he passed them by and seized the third man.

The tracks from the village hamlet to the desert grave showed

that a donkey had been used for conveyance of the corpse. The five

days old back track from the grave to the village was followed by

the dog which disregarded everyone of the many other overlying

tracks and led the following party of police and others to the hut

where the man had been strangled. For the first seven kilometres

the ground was soft and still showed the track, but a kilometre from

the desert edge sand and gravel gave way to flint and rock yet the

astounding dog took the track over a mile of stony country, over

ground fouled by the tracks of village flocks and herds and getting

yet more foul as it approached the village. Slowly he puzzled out

the line, took it half round by the outer wall of the hamlet, in and

along the village street, sniffing at each door till he found the house

he wanted when he gave tongue and demanded entrance.

This wonderful instance of power of scent and sagacity is here

related with presumed permission of the distinguished author in

whose book are also instances of the marvellous tracking powers of

some Arabs. In Upper India also there zre people who can perform

very wonderful feats of tracking as is well known to the police of

those parts of the country.

BANGALORE, R. W. BURTON,

November 1949. Lieut.-Col. 1.4 (Retd.)

118 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

6.. THE SOUTHERN :LIMIT OF THE RED JUNGLEFOWL

(GALLUS G..MURGHI ROBINSON & KLOSS)

I was always under the impression that on the east coast the

Grey Junglefowl was found south of the Godavari river and the Red

Junglefowl north of the river. Recently I have shot Red Junglefowl

at Polavaram on the right bank of the river and also at Devipatnam

on the left side of the river immediately opposite Polavaram. When

at Bhadrachellam shooting on the left bank of the river I was rather

surprised to find Grey Junglefowl in this area and two very fine cock

birds were shot.

c/o THE INDIAN LEAF ToBACcco

DEVELOPMENT Co. LTD.,

Post Box No. 20, A. }. BROCK

RAJAHMUNDRY,

16th December, 1949.

| The Godavari river above Rajahmundry has so far been accepted

as the southern limit of the range of the Red Junglefowl. Jerdon

writes that he has heard of its being shot further south at Cummum

{Cumbum?), but adds that he cannot vouch for this record. Jerdon

also says that on the Indravati, not far from its junction with the

Godavari, both the Red and Grey Junglefowl were heard crowing

a few yards from each other. In the Journal (Vol. 40, p. 379) Salim Ali

and Humayun Abdulali have referred to a sight record by Mr. C.

McCann near Bombay and have subsequently seen a young cock

tethered in captivity said to have been raised from eggs taken at

Khandala, Western Ghats. It might be interesting to draw attention

to the fact that Jerdon (Vol. 3, p. 537) refers to Blanford informing

him of its occurrence in the Rajpipla Hills, south of the Nerbudda,

though this is completely ignored in Blanford’s Fauna published 35

years later (1898).

In the main however, it seems to be true that the distribution of

the Red Junglefowl in India coincides in a striking measure with that

of the sal tree (Shorea robusta). The ecological factors governing

this parallelism need to be determined.—EDs. |

+, OCCURRENCE OF THE BLUE-BREASTIED QUAIL

[EXCALFACTORIA .CHINENSIS (LINN.)] IN MYSORE

Can you help me out’ over the identity of a quail? It had an

outstanding bright red eye and this being so I did not make a care-

ful note of the rest. On my return I find Frank Finn in ‘Indian

Sporting Birds’ makes no reference to a quail with such a coloured

eye, in fact makes little reference to the eye in any of the varieties.

I can also say the legs were bright yellow, only the one was flushed

and appeared to be mature. For the rest I think the throat was

white, chest. black. . -

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES eh.) 119

It was in a swamp with tall grass. I hope the colour of the eye

will give you a clue?

JKURADY: KHAN ESTATE,

SANGAMESWARPET P.O.,

CHIKMAGALUR DISTRICT, G. “V. RR. BREND

(MysoRE STATE)

Bist October, 1949.

[The yellow legs and red eye indicate that this was the Blue-

breasted Quail (Excalfactoria chinensis). It is the size of a Button

Quail and distinguished in the hand by its four toes as against three

in the latter. Though the Fauna (Vol. V, p. 370) implies that it is

widely spread and breeds throughout Peninsular India, there are

very few definite records even of its occurrence. Salim Ali failed to

meet with it in his several surveys except at Warangal (Hyderabad)

and in Bhopal (Central India). Bidie (Stray Feathers IX, p. 208)

procured two while snipe-shooting in Chingleput District, while

Jerdon ‘got it in the Carnatic’. Dewar lists it from Madras without

comment, and Ferguson found it in Travancore where he believed it

bred. Wenden obtained a stray specimen at Vehar Lake near Bombay

(Stray Feathers XX, p. 165) and also at Poona whence Major

W. B. Trevenen (J.B.N.H.S. XXVIII, p. ro81) lists it—-Eps.]

8. TWO BIRDS ABOUT WHICH MORE INFORMATION IS

NEEDED

PINK-HEADED Duck Rhodonessa caryophyllacea

While in the Manas, Kaziranga and other Game Sanctuary areas

in Assam in March, 1949, Mr. Salim Ali and I kept a sharp look-

-out for this rare duck and inquired about it from all possible sources.

One Forest Ranger made an unconfirmed report of having seen a

‘pair on the Belsiri River in the Balipara Frontier Tract in 1937. This

aberrant-looking bird, which seems to me to be transitional between

the river and diving ducks, has apparently not been reported by

anyone since the mid-thirties. Aside from the unlikelihood of ifs

‘occurring on a river when it has always been noted as an inhabitant

‘of quiet forest ‘Jheels’, or ‘bhils’, I am not at all certain of the above

record. I would welcome comment form the members of the Society

on the status of this bird, for failing new records I am inclined to

list it as extinct in my Handlist, now under preparation.

~Biack KALeEEJ. Lophura leucomelana moffitti |

This pheasant was described by Hachisuka in 1938 from captive

‘birds in the U.S.A. Delacour. (Ibis, 1949, Pp- 205) accepts this race

and lists its range as ‘unknown’. ‘One pair of these birds was shipped

‘from Calcutta to California in 1934, and one or more’ pairs‘to Japan

120 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

in the same year. The male is black all over with steel-blue reflect-

ions on the breast and upper parts, a black rump and black lanceolate

breast feathers, the latter with faint white shaft lines. The female is.

like the female of the Black-backed Kaleej, L. 1. melanota, with a

plain buff throat and central tail feathers finely peppered with black,

in this character approaching Horsfield’s Kaleej lathami (=horsfieldi

auctorum).

The range of melanota is Sikkim and western Bhutan, while

lathami occurs in eastern Bhutan, North-eastern Assam, the Garo and

Khasia Hill ranges, the Mikir Hills and on into Burma. It would’

be very worth while indeed if any information could be furnished to:

the Society about the occurrence of an all-black male kaleej pheasant.

Delacour (l.c.) suggests that the range of moffitti might be in central

Bhutan, in which case it should be found in northern Assam in the

Manas River area and west towards the Sankosh River. While

on the Manas Sanctuary this spring (1949), I saw a white-rumped

pheasant near a salt lick in the Bhutan foothills. It looked like the

usual lathami, although I could not see the breast. More information:

is badly needed to determine the status of the bird known as moffittt.

PEABODY MUSEUM oF NATURAL HisTory, S. DILLON RIPLEY

YALE UNIVERSITY,

NEw Haven ConnecTIcuT, U.S.A.,

7th February, 1950.

9. POSSIBLE OCCURRENCE OF THE BLACK TERN

[CHLIDONIAS NIGER (L.)| NEAR DELHI

On October 11, 1949, I was watching a number of terns, mostly

Black-bellied, sitting on a sand-bank in the middle of the river Jumna,

just north of Old Delhi, and flying round in the air above the sand-

bank, when I noticed one bird with a dull grey mantle and square

tail, flying round just over the water. It was clearly a marsh tern,

and the mantle looked much too dull for a Whiskered Tern. Then

I noticed, to my astonishment, that there was a distinct patch of dark

feathers on the side of the neck. This I had always believed to be

diagnostic of the Black Tern, which as far as I was aware does not

occur in India. In England, where I have frequently seen Black

Terns in autumn plumage, one regularly looks for that patch, hoping

some day to find a bird without it, which would be the rarer species

(in England) namely the White-winged Black. And here I was find-

ing the English species in India, where it ought to have been the

other way round, and the dark patch should have been lacking.

The bird would not come any nearer, and I had to be content

with a view at a distance of perhaps fifty yards. But my companions,

Mr. G. L. Cross and Rev. John Bishop, confirmed my impression that

the ‘bird had a dark patch on the side of the neck.

Fortunately, six days later, at a point on the river a mile lower

down the river, right opposite Old Delhi, I found the same bird’

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 121

(presumably) on sands on the near side of the river, and here I watch--

ed it, both resting and in the air, at distances of ten yards and even

less, in bright sunlight, the light behind me.

It was an immature bird, with some brownish feathers on the

nape and upper back and scapulars. The lower back and rump were -

whitish, the tail grey, very much the same colour as the wings. The-

neck patch was grey, not black. This patch was not very conspicuous,

apparently being formed by dark tips to only three or four feathers.

The beak was black at the base, but it appeared to be rather browner

at the tip, possibly due to the bright sunlight causing it to look

rather shiny. The eye was black, legs and feet dull reddy-brown..

Everything in these details fits the Black Tern best, with the possible

exception of the pale lower back, but that was not pure white, as I

believe it is in the White-winged Black Tern. In any case, the dark

patch on the side of the neck appears to be diagnostic, as there is

no evidence that either the White-winged Black or the Whiskered ever

shows such a patch.

The Black Tern appears never to have been recorded in India

before, but there is a single record from as far east as Tientsin; and’

since it is a regular migrant in central Asia, the occurrence of a

single bird on migration in north-west India is not surprising.

Whilst I am writing about marsh terns, I would like to comment

on one thing that puzzles me. Recently [I have seen a good many

Whiskered Terns, both in Kashmir at their nests in full breeding-

plumage, and in winter plumage in various parts of India. The

silvery grey colour of the mantle is quite distinct from the dull grey

of the other two marsh terns, and I do not understand why this very

obvious difference has not been noted as the most obvious and ready

means to identification.

24 RaypurR Roan, H. G. ALEXANDER™

DELHI,

8th February, 1950.

10. STATUS OF THE RED-CRESTED POCHARD (NETTA

RUFINA PALLAS) IN SOUTH INDIA

It might interest you to know that yesterday whilst shooting on»

the Godavari River near Rajahmundry there was a flight of approxi-

mately 50 of these ducks. We shot five male birds and one female.

The condition of the plumage was very good and the ducks were

easily identifiable from the illustration in Stuart Baker’s ‘Ducks’.

Three days earlier I also saw four male birds on the Godavari River

and was able to approach them closely and easily identify them.

It might also interest you to know that I have shot this species |

in Chirala and Ongole in the Guntur District in 1947.

EO. Box..No., 20,

RajaHmMunprRyY, M. & S.M. RLy., A. J. BROCK —

East GopDAVARI DISTRICT.

122 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST... SOCIETY, Vol. 49

[Subsequent to the above Mr. Brock wrote in advising that he

had seen more flights on the Godavari around Rajahmundry and also

between Polavaram and Bhadrachellam. He believes that they are

commoner this season than ever before. In a recent issue of the

Journal (Vol. XLVII, p. 750) we have referred to other records from

Madras Province, and while numbers may vary in different years,

this species is certainly much commoner than has been recognised.

—Eps. |

11. OCCURRENCE OF THE SCAUP DUCK [AYTHYA MARILA

(L.)] IN THE BOMBAY DECCAN

On 6th February 1949, a party of seven guns from Ahmednagar

‘visited a jheel some 19 miles away, known as White Temple Lake,

trom a small white painted temple on the top of a hill overlooking

the lake. It is a medium sized attractive lake formed by an

obviously ancient artificial bund of great thickness.

At the end of the shoot we collected to count the bag, and Major

S. D. Gupta, R.I.A. produced among his birds what looked like a

pochard but was unlike any of the pochards we knew. I therefore sent

the skin of this bird to the Bombay Natural History Society who

pronounced it to be a Scaup, an uncommon bird, and very rarely found

so far south as this. Indeed the last one recorded was at Panvel,

near Bombay in 1884.

Unfortunately, none of us, ignorant of the prize we had secured,

can say whether this was a solitary specimen.

Our bag that day was unusually varied, for besides the scaup,

it included pintail, gadwall, wigeon, red-crested| pochard, common

or red-headed pochard, white-eyed pochard, teal, shoveller and snipe.

Among so many, the absence of the tuftec pochard on that day is

notable.

1.A.C. CENTRE & SCHOOL, W BLL ASPINATI®

AHMEDNAGAR, Brigadier

1oth November, 1949.

|The females of the Tufted Pochard and the Common Pochard

occasionally also show some white round the face (normally much

less than in the Scaup), and it may thus be helpful to record the

other differences. The Common Pochard has no white wing-bar

though vermiculations on the back are present as in the Scaup. Both

the Scaup and the Tufted Pochard have white wing-bars.

The wing of the Tufted Pochard ranges between 189 and 208

mm. while in the Scaup it measures 210-230 mm. The bill of the

Tufted Pochard is shorter and narrower. According to Witherby

(Handbook of British Birds) it measures 38-42 mm. as against 41-

47 mm. jin the .Scaup.-

In the Tufted Pochard there are no vermiculations on the back.

The back, moreover, is less dark than in the Scaup. Of course these

di ferences need to be looked for only when the crest is not sisible:

-—Eps. |

MISCELLANEOUS. .NOTES 123

12, THE OCCURRENCE OF. THE WOOD SNIPE

(GALLINAGO NEMORICOLA HODGS.) NEAR POONA

The Wood Snipe which I handed over to you the other day was

secured in a nullah about a mile from the village of Mahalunge near

CChakan on the Poona-Nasik road in a region of. low scrub-covered

hills. The bird got up in a patch of swamp densely covered with

tussocks of waist-high grass where a few snipe were also put up. It

was very distinct from the other snipe on account of its size and

comparatively very slow flight. This was on the 15th January 1950.

116, KOREGAON Park,

Poona, Me SUPER

30th January, 1950.

[The barring on the underparts extending to the abdomen together

with its general duskiness gives the bird a ‘woodcocky’ appearance

but from which bird it is differentiated by the longitudinal stripe on

the head as compared with the transverse bars in the woodcock. In

addition to this the attenuated outer tail feathers, the buff borders

to the scapulars and the appreciably larger size separate this species

from all other Indian snipe. The Fauna (Vol. VI, p. 255) gives

the wing as ranging from 133-14t mm. but in the above specimen

it measured 152 mm. while we have others in the Society’s collection

measuring 148 and 150 mm.

The Wood Snipe has been obtained near Thana by Major M. L.

Ferrar, near Bombay by T. H. Moore and at Ambarnath (Kalyan

Taluka, Thana District) by H. M. Molesworth, ail records being for

January. In winter it has also occurred in Central India and in the

hills of Coorg, Wynaad, Nilgiris, Annamalais, Shevaroys, etc.—Ebs. |

13. FIELD IDENTIFICATION OF BIRDS

As one who has watched birds for fifty years, and does not shoot,

I was glad to see the note in the Journal (Vol. 48, p. 587) by the

editors warning against faulty identification. What I miss in the

editors’ note however, is any practical suggestion for ensuring

correct identification. May I attempt to fill at least part of this gap?

(1) I would suggest that when a record of a rare species is sub-

mitted, full particulars should always be given of the conditions

under which the observation has been made. Thus, how long was

the bird under observation? Was. it seen only at rest or only in

flight or both? At what approximate distance was it seen? Was

it seen above the observer’ or below? Was it séen_ through

binoculars (if so, of what magnification?) or only with the naked

eye? What were the conditions of the light? Was the sun shin-

ing, and if so was it behind the observer or behind the bird, or where?

(2) If. possible, comparison with some commoner species Sipe

be made, both as to colour and size and shape.

124 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

(3) In describing colours, it is almost useless to say, ‘Black on.

the head’, or ‘Pale on the wing’, or any other vague statement of

that kind. Which part of the head or the wing? Almost every

good text-book of birds has a chart showing how to name the

different parts of the plumage, e.g. crown, nape, scapulars, wing-

coverts, primaries, chin, throat, breast, etc. and it is often of vital

importance in making an identification sure to know exactly where

the striking colour (whether black, white, red, blue, etc.) really was.

Wihenever possible a full description of the bird seen should be

written down on the spot, not after you have begun to look it up

in the book. It is terribly easy to imagine afterwards that you saw

something which in fact you did not see. The whole description

should be written down, for sometimes the identification may rest

on some rather trivial detail, e.g. the extent of a pale eye-stripe

over the eye. Did it extend almost to the nape or did it end just

behind the eye?

Special points of shape should be noted, e.g. long tail, stout

beak, crest, etc. In some sea-birds, such a point as whether the

wings extend beyond the tail when the bird is at rest, or whether

the tail is slightly forked, rounded or square at the end, are important.

(4) Size and shape are very deceptive points. It is dangerous

to jump to conclusions. It is really amazing how different the size

of a bird may appear to be under different circumstances. Unless.

you have actually seen two birds of diferent species in company

with each other, it is unwise to say dogmatically that the bird you

are describing was smaller or larger than the other, commoner one.

Moreover, in flight, the shape of the wing may vary according to

the position of the bird and the conditions of wind etc. Anyone who:

has watched kites in the air will know that sometimes they fly in

such a way that for a time the observer, even after long experience,

may feel almost sure that he has quite another species under

observation. Again, one sometimes sees a number of large birds

soaring in the sky, and then you perhaps notice a bird that looks.

a good deal smaller. But in the end you realise that its apparent

smallness is simply due to the fact that it is much higher in the air.

(5) Song and call-notes can be a very valuable piece of support-

ing evidence of identification. Again, it is most necessary to record

the sound, as exactly as possible, at the time. It is extremely

difficult to recall the exact phrase of a bird’s call-note accurately

after an interval of an hour or two.

I would add that, especially with small birds, pipits, warblers

and the like, much patience is needed, and a capacity to stand quite

still for a long time. And it is well, whenever possible, to go a

second time, and try to see the unknown bird, or the suspected rarity,

again, in the light of the possibilities suggested by the books of

reference.

Finally, I hope field observers will recognise that, as a rule,

subspecies cannot be identified in the field, and it is better not to

pretend that you have gone further than identification of the species.

24, RaypuR Roap,

DELHI, H. G. ALEXANDER’

6th February, 1950.

————

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 125

14. FREAK SHOTS

I always find it interesting to read anything under the above

heading and therefore I was glad to see Mr. MacDonald’s letter in

Vol. 48, No. 3. If you are not already flooded out with similar

letters 1 would like to add one or two experiences of mine, in case

you are interested.

Shooting ‘into the brown’. I remember snipe shooting one early

morning 17 or 18 years ago with a friend at the Salt Lakes near

Calcutta when a large wisp of snipe, numbering about 60, flashed

past me just off ground level at such a pace that I completely failed

to get off a shot. As however they were heading for my friend (who

was looking the other way) I bellowed at him and was most amused

to see him swivel round and discharge both barrels almost

simultaneously into the pack. The resultant pick-up was 11 or 14,

I can’t remember which.

This however was not as remarkable as the effort of a game

keeper which I witnessed in Ireland in County Wicklow when I

was a boy. This man was absolutely first-class at calling down

Golden Plover, which he did with the aid of a penny whistle. We

lay side by side in a depression in the middle of a large sheep pasture

one cold November morning and Campbell was soon success-

ful in calling down a very large flock ot, I should think, a couple

of thousand Golden Plover. They settled very thickly all around

us and Campbell whispered to me to watch him ‘shooting for the

pot’, as he described it. He gave them the first barrel on the floor,

which did not seem to do much damage but his left barrel into the

flock as they wheeled away had the most devasting effect. We

picked up no less than 57 and I will never forget how horrified

and amazed I was.

Mixed bags. The following rights and lefts that I have myself had

may be of interesting :—

(a) A hare and a wood pigeon while shooting a bog in County

Wicklow in 1926.

(b) Two tiger in a beat in a block in Mandla Division in the

C.P. in January, 1943. The animal shot with the left slithered for-

ward on its belly, quite dead, right under my machan, so great was

the impetus of its charge.

State in 1933. In this case peafowl were pouring down the hill when

I heard a bear vociferating close ahead of me. I just had time to

‘slip a Contractile into my right barrel when the bear charged out and

I rolled him over at close range. Simultaneously I noted a lovely

peacock flying straight at me. He naturally got the left barrel.

Fluke shots. Flighting sandgrouse one morning near Ahmednagar

in March 1941 I had a strange shot. I was hidden in an oleander

bush and saw four sandgrouse about to pass me fairly close. I fired

at the leading bird, which dropped, and then found to my astonish-

ment that there was nothing to use my second barrel on, as the remain-

ing three birds had disappeared. I simply could not make it out

until I collected all four stone-dead close together. By some strange

126 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST..\SOCIETY, Vol. 49

coincidence of flight all four must have got dead in line at the critical

moment of the first shot.

I also well remember the, I should think almost unique, coincidence

of seeing three snipe killed by one barrel on no less than three occasions

in one day. This was whilst shooting a bog in the County Wicklow

many years ago. I did it twice within half an hour in the morning

and a friend repeated it once in the afternoon. On the first occasion

I was not aware that more than one bird had got up. That was

a close one and I dropped it at about 15 yards range. The other

two were in a straight line at about 35 yards and 60 yards respectively.

In each case they were marked by my Red Setter or I would not have

known of their existence. The other two were cases of birds getting

up in a bunch together and of lines of flight coinciding at moment

ef firing. ‘

Strange experiences. The following two stories may be of interest,

the first of which was actually witnessed by me and the second I

can vouch for as it happened to a friend, now retired from India,

who was not given to telling tall stories.

A party of us were shooting grouse in Scotland in 1936 and.

the grouse were few and far between. It was early September and

we were walking in line over some rough ground when an old cock

grouse got up and charged off low over the heather. A fusillade of shots.

followed him but he got away unscathed and we watched him more or

less out of sight. Two hundred yards ahead however there was a

noise of impact like the crack of a rifle and the bird disappeared. We

all heard this extraordinary noise and moved forward rapidly to

investigate. We found that a woodcock had happened to jump up

out of a patch of bracken directly in the grouse’s path. The grouse’s

head was driven right into the woodcock’s breast. The woodcock

was stone-dead but the grouse’s heart was still feebly fluttering when

we arrived on the scene. I think I am right in saying that this

incident was reported by my host to the Field.

The other incident concerns a kaleej pheasant. My friend was

shooting some years ago in the Naini Tal District and he had been

warned that there was a panther about so that he was carrying a

few Lethal. A kalee} got up and flew straight down the path and

was duly bowled over. The bird fell on the path but seemed to jerk

itself off the path and over the khud. My friend and his shikari

charged up and the shikari was lucky enough to recover the bird

many yards down the khud-side. When he came back it was found

that the bird’s head had been completely removed, which seemed

extraordinary as the shot had been fired at about 4o yards range.

The explanation was found to be that my friend had had a Lethal in

his right barrel and, in his excitement, had forgotten this and pressed

the wrong trigger. There was no mistake about it as he checked up

on the cartridge cases, which were of different colours. Do not blame

me if nobody believes this story but, as I said before, my friend 1S

a very honourable man!

c/o BaLMER LAwrle & Co., LTD.,

21, Netajr SuBHAS Roan, P:°'H.sSYKES

CALCUTTA,

25th January, 1950.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 7 127°

a3. ‘OCCURRENCE OF ‘RUSSELL’S VIPER [VIPERA RUSSELLI

(SHAW)| IN KATHIAWAR (SAURASHTRA)

As K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji desires to know (J/.B.N.H.S. Vol.

48, p. 595) of an authentic record of Russell’s Viper in Kathiawar I

may inform him that it occurs in the Sorath Region of Kathiawar.

I first came across a single individual some ten years ago in a

valley of the Datar range of hills. It was disturbed at a sun bath

and disappeared into the thickets.

In my college museum there are 3 specimens of this viper all

collected in the college compound. Two of these are preserved in

spirit while the third is a skin cured by myself and mounted on

khaddar cloth. This is 3 ft. 6 ins. in length.

The snake mentioned by Mr. Vasu in Vol. 48, No. 1 page 1go of

the Journal is too small for a full grown Russell’s Viper and may be,

as suggested by K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji, probably a Saw-scaled

Viper Echis carinata.

BAHAUDDIN COLLEGE, |

JUNAGADH (SAURASHTRA). . G2. KAPADIS

1st December, 1949.

16. THE RECORD BLACK BARTH BOA [ERYX JOHNI

(RUSSELL) |

The following measurements and lepidosis of a female Black Earth

Boa (Eryx johni Russell) seem worth recording. The snake was

acquired in August 1949 from a snake-charmer who said it had beer

caught off Thana near Bombay.

Total length 4’ 2”

Tail 3

Leptdosis :

Costals

(a) Two head-lengths

behind the head... 62

(6) Mid-body we 09

before the vent... 49

Wentrals: 2.7 213

Caudals ... 34

The specimen weighed 24 lbs. on the day it was brought in.

Boulenger and Smith in their Fauna of British India volumes on

Snakes both record a specimen measuring 3 ft. 3 ins. Major Wall

in his Handlist of Snakes of the Indian Empire, and Prater (Snakes

of Bombay Island and Salsette, (J.B.N.H.S., Vol. 29, p. 353 and

Wol. 30,,p.,21 respectively) write of one,3 ft. 74 ins. long. Ditmars

(The Snakes of the World, 1935) states that the Black Earth Boa

grows to about a yard in length while Col. Gharpurey (Snakes of

India, 1935) mentions its reaching 4 ft.

114, APOLLO STREET,

BomBay, V.K. CHARI

8th December, 1949. Asst. Curator

128 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

17, EFFECT OF ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE WHILE FISHING

(With a photo)

I was recently able to put my small pocket aneroid barometer to

further use while fishing. During the first five days of my fishing

trip to the Manas river last November the barometer was fairly high

-and remained steady, and the fish were on the take all the time.

The black mahseer on the left (93 Ib.) was the

only fish moving from II a.m. to I-30 p.m.

The four fish (including another 7 lb. black

mahseer) were caught in the evening when the

glass was rising.

On the sixth day, however, I fished a good long pool from 11 a.m.

till 1.30 p.m. without a bite (except for an incident which I will describe

later). I had fished this same pool at the same time, with the same

spoon, on a previous day, and killed 8 fish. But on this day not a

‘bite. I therefore consulted my barometer and found that the glass

hed fallen and was still falling. Scanning the horizon, I espied a

few suspicious clouds beginning to put in an appearance. I fished

a short time after this and then gave it up and did some photography

at a place where I had wanted to go but had previously been too

engrossed with fishing.

At 4 p.m. the glass stopped falling, and started to rise slightly.

I took up fishing again, and between 4.15 and 5 p.m. had the best

‘sport of the week—killing four fish, and losing one, in the short

space of three-quarters of an hour. The fish had really come on the

feed. .

MISCELLANEGUS NOTES _. 129

Now for the ‘incident’ referred to above. In the mid-day fish-

ing period, when nothing was moving at all, one darkish fish was

jumping out of the water in sheer joy, so it seemed, and was seen

to do so four or five times. I caught it, and it had taken the spoon

right down its throat, good and proper. Jt turned out to be a black

mahseer of g$ Ib. And it so happens that one of the fish caught

that same evening was also a black mahseer of 7 Ib. (no bokar were

caught on that day). It is possible, theretore that black mahseer (a

fairly rare fish in Assam) come on the feed, or at any rate are caught, on

days of low or changeable atmospheric pressure. In support of this

I remember a day on another river some years ago (the Koliani in

March 1947) when the sky became overcast and a few drops of rain

fell. Not a fish moved anywhere from 2 p.m. onwards—except at

4 p.m. when my companion caught a black mahseer of 4 Ib., and

a bokar of 2 Ib.

It would be interesting to hear if other anglers have any experiences

to prove or disprove the theory of the effect of atmospheric pressure

on fishing in general, and on black mahseer in particular.

Doyane T.E.,

OaTiIne:P:O.;, E. P: GEE

ASSAM,

15th December, 1949.

18. WHALE SHARKS IN INDIAN WATERS

To the records of Whale Sharks from the west coast of India

-cited by Prater (Volume 42, page 256) and by C. V. Kulkarni (Volume

47, page 762) may be added the recent capture of another leviathan

of the shark tribe from around Baba Islands off the coast of Karachi

early in November 1949 reported by Mr. Irfan Hussain in the Illustrat-

ed Weekly of India for 27th November 1949. The specimen, a

photograph of which was also published, is said to have been 38 feet

in length, 23 feet in girth and 4 tons in weight.

Whale Sharks are the largest of all living fishes but have none

of the rapacity associated with true sharks. ‘They are usually met

with floating on the surface of the sea and are so sluggish that they

let themselves be easily approached and harpooned. Even after being

wounded they seem to evince the greatest indifference to their fate

as is shown from the following account by Frank W. Lane in an.

article entitled ‘Scavengers of the Sea’ published in the Field of 24th

‘October 1949 and reproduced here with acknowledgment.

“‘The Whale Shark is the largest fish in the world. According to

Dr. E. W. Gudger, who has made a special study of this fish, a whale

shark 55 feet long has been known, and another specimen filled the

‘60-foot long fish-trap in which it was caught. Capt. Young writes

of an estimated maximum length of 7o feet for these sharks and

mentions a specimen landed at Miami which weighed 134 tons and

which broke the tackle as it was being hauled out on the marine railway.

Although the whale shark is so huge it is one of the most. in-

offensive and sluggish creatures in the sea. It is a plankton feeder,

130 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

using its sieve-like gill-rakers to strain small crustaceans and similar

fare from the water. Its mouth is equipped with some 6000 teeth,

only 4 of an inch long.

The body of a whale shark is covered with a rubbery gristle which

is 4 in. thick in a full-grown shark. A remarkable feature of this

‘armour plating’ is that the shark appears to be able to strengthen

it at will by tightening its dermal muscles. Dr. W. Beebe writes

that on one of his expeditions a whale shark was encountered and a

harpoon driven into it. But despite the utmost efforts to drive further

harpoons in they ‘bent as if they had struck steel’,

I have read another account in which a whale shark was fired at

between 4o and 50 times without visible effect, and when a shotgun

loaded with No 2 shot was fired at the shark from a distance of about

2 feet the shots ‘just bounced, leaving a little circular mark in his

skin’. Incidentally, Mr. Gilbert Whitley, of the Australian Museum,

has recorded that the hide of a large sun-fish, which is similarly

thick and leathery, has proved impervious to the bullets from a

Winchester rifle !

There can surely be few creatures which have a greater apparent

indifference to their fate than the whale shark. Even when harpooned,

lassooed round the tail and drawn along by a motor-launch, fired at

and made to suffer other indignities, these leviathans seldom make

any desperate effort to save themselves.

In one case reported by Capt. Charles Thompson a whale shark,

after undergoing the attentions mentioned above, did not seem ‘to

realise that anything in particular was happening to him, but kept

‘circling around, moving his great tail, in a slow regular way, draw-

ing the small boats after him with the greatest ease’. At last the

shark was headed, by poking it with a boat-hook, towards a sand-

bank and there made fast. The shark was eventually killed by having

a piece cut from the top of its head and its brain prodded with a

knife stuck on the end of a pole.

Another instance of the extreme indifference to man of the whale

shark was shown during the taking of a film of one of these sharks.

During one sequence the director stepped on to the back of the ‘star’,

stayed there for some five or six seconds, and then only climbed back

into the boat for fear he might be taken for a ride!

This amazing indifference to its fate is undoubtedly largely

responsible for the various encounters which have occurred between

whale sharks and ships. The whale shark is unmolested by anything

which swims and there is nothing in its ancestral memory to make

it fear its huge fellow travellers in the seas. ‘Therefore it goes placidly

-about its business of feeding and apparently it never occurs to its

dim brain that the huge iron-clad monster bearing down. upon it will

‘not swerve aside and may strike it with deadly force.

Of the manv accounts which could be given of such ship vs. shark

encounters, I have selected that by Capt. Klebingat of the schooner-

yacht ‘Navigator’. The Capt. writes :—

‘The vessel was struck on the starboard side by an immense shark.

‘The wheel was wrenched out of the hands of the steersman. The tail

of the fish rose 8 feet above the water-line. The engine stopped as

the fish struck the propeller. The shark, distinctly seen when it went

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 131

astern, was of a mottled colour, and at least 30 to 35 feet long.

After going into drydock, it was found that considerable damage had

been done to the hull and rudder of the ship.’’

114, APOLLO STREET, Fort,

BomBay, EDITORS

5th December, 1949.

19. SPECIFIC NAMES OF THE TWO COMMON INDIAN

COLIAS BUTTERFLIES

I notice that Mr. Wynter-Blyth in his article of An Expedition to:

Sangla in Kunawar [J.B.N.H.S. (1948): 373] refers to the ‘Dark

Clouded Yellow’ as (’. croceus and to the ‘pale’ as C. tyale. It is now

generally considered that the two common Indian species previously

known under these names are not conspecific with these Western

European species and that the correct name for the common orange

species is Colias electo L., fieldii Men., and for the yellow Colias erate

Esp., erate. Talbot, in the Fauna of British India, Butterflies, Vol. I

(2nd ed.) uses these names, but I am stili separated from my library

and so cannot give references.

KAMPALA, D. G. SEVASTOPULO,

1oth January, 1949. F.R.E.S..

20. A HONEY-BEE IN THE NEST OF A MASON-WASP

With reference to Capt. Boswell’s note under this heading [J.B.N.

H.S. 47 (1948): 771] and to Lt.-Col. Hingston’s comment, there is also

the possibility that the so-called Honey-bee was really one of the solitary

Mason-bees. Many of these build clay nests very similar to those

built by the Mason-wasps, except that they are provisioned with a

mixture of honey and pollen instead of with paralysed insects or

spiders. It seems very much more probable that a solitary bee had

built its nest unobserved in the rolled up tent and that the resulting

imago was on the point of emergence when the cell was broken into,

rather than that a honey bee had either crawled into, or been packed

in, the cell of a solitary wasp.

KAMPALA, D. G. SEVASTOPULO,

1oth January, 1949. F.R.E.S~

21. THE MALE GENITAL ARMATURE OF AYYARIA

CHAETOPHORA KARNY

(With a text figure)

The male genital armature of some of the Thysanoptera have

been described in detail by De Gryse and Treherne (Canadian

Entomologist,. 1924). But Ayyaria chaetophora, a member of the

subfamily Thripinae, exhibits some differences with regard to the

132 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

shape and the structure of the relative parts concerned. The coxal’

lobes which are heavily chitinised, bear anteriorly one pair and.

posteriorly two pairs of long setae and are easily distinguished from.

the subgenital plate or hypandrium. The coxites seem to be absent.

The periandrium with its arching sides (endapophyses), is well develop-

ed and between them carry the epiphallus and the hypophallus. The

epiphallus is wider anteriorly, gradually narrowing towards the

posterior extremity and the hypophallus is almost uniformly slender.

Seg.

Male genital armature of Ayyaria chaetophora. Karny

Hyp—hypandrium

CxL—coxal lobe

PA—periandrium

_ Eph—epiphallus

HpH—hypophallus.

T. N. ANANTHAKRISHNAN, B.Sc. (HONS.),,

LoyoLta COLLEGE, Mapbras, Lecturer in Zoology..

5th November, 1949.

22. OBSERVATIONS ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE TICK.

APONOMMA GERVAISI (LUCAS) ON VARANUS. SP.

The genus Aponomma is represented in India by four species.

viz:—A. gervaisi (Lucas) including var. lucasi Warb., A.-laeve Neum.,

A. pattoni Neum., and A. trimaculatum (Lucas). From Orissa only

the species A. gervaisi and the variety lucasi have been recorded. The

species A. gervaist is known only from the Barakuda Island of the

Chilka Lake on Varanus bengalensis, both: males and females having

been collected on the host’.

On the oth July, 1945 a ‘Godhi’ (Oriya)—Varanus sp. measuring

3 feet 74 inches from the tip of the head to the’ tip of the tail was-

* Sharif, M. -{1928) : ‘A revision: of theIndian Exididae. Rec. Ind.,‘Mus.. Cal.-

‘30: 333-341, ' }

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 133.

killed in the city of Cuttack. On examination I found that immediately

posterior to the anal aperture there was a cluster of silvery shining:

ticks. A total number of 32 females of A. gervaisi was collected in

this cluster and no male specimen was obtained.

Sixteen specimens. were measured of material preserved in form-

alin. The body length excluding the rostrum which is usually bent

almost at right angles to the body as is usually the case in members.

belonging to Acari, varied from 2.2 to 2.7 mm. with an average of

2.3 mm. in length and from 2.2 to 3.0 mm. with an average of 2.6

mm. in breadth. Thus the breadth was definitely longer than the

length.

The infection of ticks immediately posterior to the anal aperture:

may be due to the softer nature of the area.

My thanks are due to Mr. E. Browning of the British Museum

(Natural History) for the identification of the ticks.

LonpDon, BASANT KUMAR BEHURA.

‘23rd January, 1950.

23. REDUPLICATION'‘ IN FHE -EPICALYX OF HIBISCUS L..

(With a text figtire)

Malvaceae is a Natural Order where the flowers often possess an.

epicalyx. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L., (N. O. Malvaceae) is a species.

Two views of same Velox flower showing calyx and epicalyx only.

‘much cultivated and the flowers possess an epicalyx of a single whorl’

‘of free bracteoles at the base of the calyx tube commonly consisting<

“of 6-7 bracteoles.

134 JOURNAL, BOMBAY’ NATURAL’ HIST; SOCIETY, Vol, 49

It is interesting to note that in a few specimens brought for class-

work, and examined casually, the epicalyx is in three series of free

bracteoles. The bracteoles in the first series just at the base of the

calyx tube, where normally the epicalyx occurs, are 13 in number

disposed more spirally. The second and third series arise on the

pedicel disposed in whorls consisting of 8 and 9g respectively. This

feature of the epicalyx, though it seeems to be an horticultural freak,

common in cultivated plants, may be in the direction of securing

additional protection to the flower bud.

DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL SCIENCE, J. L. KANTARAO

Hinpu COLLEGE, MASULIPATAM, V. VENKATESWARLU

6th December, 1949.

24. A NOTE ON THE GROWTH IN A HERBARIUM SPECIMEN

OF PORTULACA TUBEROSA ROXB.

(With a text figure)

Portulaca tuberosa Roxb. (Portulacaceae) is a common herbaceous:

weed with tuberous roots in sandy situations near the sea’. In

* Maypranathan, P. V. (1933): Bulletin of the Madras Government Museum:

Natural History Section, Vol, 2., P. 33 (Government Press, Madras.)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 135

September 1948, while changing pressed plants collected at Picha-

varam (a seashore village) after fifteen days, certain fresh tiny buds

were found to be growing adventitiously on the dry terminal distal

ends of the herbarium specimen of Portulaca tuberosa Roxb. The

production of buds on dry specimens specially under abnormal con-

ditions of the plant-press aroused some interest, and a close observation

was therefore made on the very same specimen under similar condi-

tions for over 10 months. As a result it was found that the buds

continued to grow slowly under the drying sheets. The three buds

which continue to grow even now, measure 14 mm., 14 mm., and 8

mm. The leaves are reddish in colour and the tuberous root has

been pressed flat by the pressure of the plant-press.

This peculiar behaviour of P. tuberosa Roxb. is very interesting

and it demonstrates the enormous power of endurance of the plant

under the most unfavourable conditions of the pressure of the plant-

press, and lack of light and water. A similar phenomenon was

observed by Singh!’ in 1933 in herbarium material of Coleus barbaratus

Benth. from the North-western Himalayas.

I am much grateful to Professor T. C. N. Singh for his kind

suggestions and criticisms during the course of the preparation of

this note.

Botany LABORATORY, A. T. NATARAJAN

ANNAMALAI UNIVERSITY, ANNAMALAINAGAR,

25th July, 1949.

[A few years ago, one of us (H. S.) collected a specimen of

Euphorbia khandalensis Blatt. in Khandala, on the Western Ghats ;

the tuber measured 35 cm. long 6 cm. diam.; after removal of leaves,

etc., the tuber was left to dry in the sun for several months, and was

then placed in a cupboard, where formaline fumes were very strong.

After six months in such a cupboard, the specimen burst into flower,

after which fruits were produced in norma! numbers. After being

in this formaline atmosphere for over a year, the tuber was removed

and planted in a flower pot; the plant has been producing flowers,

fruits and leaves for the last eight years in succession. ‘ In the case

of epithytic orchids, it is a common experience in Bombay to find

them growing even after they have been dried, pressed and attached

to the herbarium sheets. But perhaps one of the most remarkable

cases that has come to our notice was one of Euphorbia (neriifolia?)

noted by Mr. C. McCann, formerly Joint-Curator of our Society; for

over a year Mr. McCann kept a branch cf Euphorbia on a shelf in

the Society’s office; the plant was not watered nor even planted in

soil, it was merely left on the dry shelves to wither and die. To

speed up the death of the plant, Mr. McCann plunged the lower part

of the plant into boiling water; in a day or two after such an immersion,

the plant burst into flower. In view of such experiences, it is a

eisingh, F.C. .N. (1933): A unusual growth phenomenon in Coleus barbaratus

Benth. Current Science, Vol. 1., p. 273.

136 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

good practice to have all plants properly poisoned with Mercuric

Chloride in alcohol before entering them into the collection of a

herbarium.—Ebs. |

ANNOUNCEMENT

We have been asked to announce the recent inauguration of the

Rajasthan Academy of Sciences with headquarters at Pilani. The

Academy aims at furthering the progress of science, both pure and '

applied, by encouraging research, organising meetings and scientific

discussions and, in due course, publishing a scientific journal. The

President of the Academy for 1949-1950 is Sri M. L. Schroff, a.s.

Hons. (Cornell), the Vice-President and Secretary being Dr. B. N.

Mulay, Ph.D (Bombay) and Shri K. R. Ramachandran, M.sc. (Wales)

respectively.

We wish the Academy all success.

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS,

18 CHURCH ROAD, VEPERY, MADRAS,—-3]-121950. C69

EDITORS: SALIM ALI, S. B. SETNA AND H. SANTAPAU

114 APOLLO STREET, FORT, BOMBAY

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the

editors by observing the following instructions :

1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for publica-

tion to other journals or periodicals, or have already been published

¥ elsewhere, should not be submitted. —

i 2. The MS should preferably be typed (double spacing) on

one side of a sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered.

All scientific names, to be printed in italics, should be under-

lined. Both in Zoological and in botanical references only the initial

letter of the genus is capitalized. ‘The specific and sub-specific names

» always begin with a small letter even if they refer to a person or a

4 place, e.g. Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni or Streptopzlia chinensis suratensis

or Dimeria blattert.

pa i finomials referring to cuentas should only be used where

identification has been authentically established by comparison of

specimens actually collected. In all other cases, or where identification

is based merely on sight, binomials should be used.

5. Photographs for reproduction must be clear and show good

+ contrast. Prints must be of a size not smaller than 34 x 24 inches

4 (No. 2 Brownie) and on glossy glazed paper.

La 6. Text figures, line drawings and maps should be in Indian ink,

preferably on Bristol board.

| 7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the

. 3 paper, alphabetically arranged under author’s name with the abridged

% titles of journals or periodicals underlined (italics), and titles of books

not underlined (roman type), thus ;

Roepke, W. (1949); The Genus Nyctemera Hubner. Trans. ent.

— ——-* Soc. Lond., 100 (2): 47-70.

Prater, S. H. (1948); The Book of Indian Animals, Bombay.

Titles of papers should not be underlined.

8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting

the author’s name and year of publication, thus: (Roepke, 1949).

g- Synopsis; As recommended bythe Royal Society Scientific In-

formation Conference (July 1948), the editors consider it desirable that

each scientific paper be accompanied by a synopsis appearing at the

beginning, immediately after the title. The synopsis should be factual.

- It should convey briefly the content of the paper; draw attention to

all new information and to the author’s main conclusions. It should

also indicate newly observed facts, the method and conclusions of an

2 experiment, and if possible the essential points of any new finding,

| theory or technique. It should be concise and normally not exceed

‘Ss 200 words. ,

When the synopsis is complete it should be carefully revised by

the author to clarify obscurities, and further compressed wherever

possible without detracting from its usefulness.

A ae Apollo Street, Fort, 7 EDITORS,

& | Bombay r. | Journal of the Bombay Natural

History Society.

THE SOCIETY’S PUBLIGATIONS.

Mammals.

Book of Indian Animals, by S. H. Prater, with many coloured and black and

white plates. | Rs. 16.

te (Price to Members Rs. 13).

Birds. |

Game Birds of India, Vol. III. Pheasants, 1st Edition. Rs. 32.

(Price to Members Rs. 24).

Beok of Indian Birds, by Salim Ali, with many colour and black and white

plates, 4th edition, revised and enlarged. | Rs. 16.

(Price to Members Rs. 12-8).

Set of 12 Coloured Picture Postcards of Common Indian Birds. Rs. 2-4 net.

Fish. ,

Circumventing the Mahseer and Other Sporting Fish in India and

Burma. Rs. 15.

(Price to Members Rs. 12).

Snakes.

Identification of Poisonous Snakes—

Folding Chart, Rs. 2-8.

Miscellaneous.

Wall Chart to distinguish a Wild Dog from a Domestic Dog or Jackal, —

etc. \ : Rs. 2-8,

Back Numbers of the Journal.

Back numbers of the Society’s Journal. Rates on application.

Obtainable from:

The Honorary Secretary,

Bombay Natural History Society

114 Apollo Street, Bombay I.

London Agents :

David Nutt (A. G. Berry)

212 Shaftesbury Avenue

London, W.C.2,

TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP.

Life Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 25 and a Life Membership fee of

Rs. 500. Ths.

Ordinary Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 25 and an annual subscrip

tion of Rs. 30. fe

The subscription of members elected in October, November and December

covers the period from the date of their election up till the end of the following

year.

MEMBERS RESIDING OUTSIDE INDIA.

The terms ate the same for members living outside Indi :

should pay their subscriptions by means of GEE on their chaste

amount of the subscription, plus postage—in all Rs. 31-12-0 to the Society in

Bombay on the 1st January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum

of #2-8-0 should be paid annually to the Society’s London Bankers—The

National Bank of India, Bishnpsgate Street, London, E.C. Ms

--: JOURNAL OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

iol, AG, Nowe

: Editors

+ §ALIM ALI, S. B. SETNA, H. SANTAPAU

AUGUST 1950

Rs. 15

RO VS

fe ett nie

in fostering this pride.

So it is with a ‘West End’ Watch. A very high degree of

craftsmanship, combined with modern design and the finest

materials, make your West End the best value-for-money in

watches today. We are proud of our watches, and of the

tradition for Reliability and Hard-wear which we have built

up over a period of 76 Years in India.

Due to overwhelming demands and inadequate facilities

for importing in sufficient quantities, we cannot guarantee

to supply from stock every watch advertised, but we do

our best in every case.

EST END)

lATCH CO.@

BOMBAY

CALCUTTAE

ALL - PROOF MULTIFORT AUTOMATIC

Self-Winding

The pride felt by the Captain and Crew in the perform.

ance of their fine, modern ship is easily understood.

Craftsmanship and skilful design have played a big part

Oye Sein Ley

West End Patent Everbright Stee! Rs.234. hy4 GD

rt! Me

MAGPIE-ROBIN

A BIRD PHOTOGRAPHER

IN INDIA

By E. H. N. Lowther

Royal 8vo, 162pp., 150 photographs, Rs 14

‘A BIRD PHOTOGRAPHER IN INDIA will find a permanent

| and honoured place in the records of Indian: ornithology for its

superb photographs and intimate observation.’ The Hindu

‘The photographs are in a class by themselves.’ Bharat Jyots

‘'The book is much more than a personal narrative or an assembly

of bird photographs. It contains matter of serious ornithological

interest.’ Mysindia

‘No one will deny the highly scientific knowledge of the author

as shown in the book.’ The Planters’ Chronicle

| Over

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

CALCUTTA BOMBAY MADRAS

ORDER-FORM

The Honorary. Secretary

Bombay Natural History Society

114, Apollo Street

Fort

BOMBAY

Dear Sir

Please sencdame @ Siayea. ons COPNis. ae eee of A BIRD

PHOTOGRAPHER IN INDIA’ by Bo Et. Ne owsher, Jprice

Ceo whole te cele iwi ie je: ja; ale fe ce ie 16) tay Je yes oie oa: utriesh a! (a: ae) Jui, a ie, 96: cw et ere? (ar “ela /ep ieunemlaerareer «a

* per V.P. Post/remittance enclosed

NOW BUILT

IN INDIA

SSS ee

—_—_—_——_

The Premier-Fiat of ltaly association has now

made it possible to assemble the World famous

Fiat Cars in India. This is another step towards

the complete manufacture of automobiles

in India.

—<— >»

(Gam

@ Dadajee Dhackjee & Co. Ltd.,

INDORE,

Fiat’s universal reputation is highlighted by tes

utility and economical value. Premiers will conti-

nue to maintain these standards and to. improve

them by application of the most modern manue

facturing processes and the latest equipment.

SH AGIEY

Contact your nearest dealer:

@ Metro Motors, Hughes Road, BOMBAY @ The Great Indian Motor Works Ltd., 33, Rowland

@ Dadajee Dhackjee & Co. Ltd., 4/28, General Patters Road, CALCUTTA.

Road, Mount Road, MADRAS. , ® Quilon Automobiles, Post Box No. 32, QUILON,

@ Bombay Cycle & Motor Agency of Secunderabad @Premier Motors Limited, Post Box No. 8%,

Ltd, 52-53 James Street, SECUNDERABAD. LUCKNOW.

Maharani Road, ® Rao Bahadur S. V. Govindrajan Bros. & Co. Lid,

6, Brigade Road, BANGALORE,

@Bombay Cycle & Motor Agency Ltd, 534, Sandhurst Bridge, BOMBAY, 7, for(Madhya Pradesh}

SISTA’S-PAL- 46 A

Lio

Animals shamming death...

are not more

dangerous than the malaria- carrying

mosquito. Malaria annually causes

3,000,000 deaths throughout the world.

Whilst in camp

protect yourself, friends and staff by

taking with you an adequate supply of

_ ‘PALUDRINE’. One tablet every three

days protects you against malaria.

106 tablets cost Rs. 3/- (plus tax).

AACIN

egg y Fe |

, 2 2 CCL _UWUWW”)r)” OCP B=EeE“y-EU DS.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 49, No. 2

JUNGLE MEwmorRIES. Part VI. By _ Lt.-Col. E. G. _Phythian-Adams,

- O.B.E., F.Z.S., L.A. (Retd.) (With a plate) es ;

NOTES ON SOME ASIATIC MEROPIDAE (BiRDS). By Daniel Marien (With a

map and 3 tables) sae ih das st ee

TwO NEW SPECIES OF /SCHAEMUM From BomsBay. By N. L. Bor

LIFE-HISTORY AND BIONOMICS OF THE Cat FLEA, Ctenocephalides felis

Bouché. By K. R. Karandikar and D. M. Munshi (With 6 fext-

figures) aa “es Le dee Mes hs

THE LOWER SIND VALLEY, AND SOME FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON BIRD

PHOTOGRAPHY. By Lt.-Col. R. S. P. Bates, M.B.O.U., 1.4. (Retd.)

( With 4 plates) sae big Bre tes Sia

SOME WEST BENGAL PLANTS. By J. C. Culshaw

THE MysQ RE Lac Insect. By S. Mahdihassan. (With 2 plates and 1

lext-figure) aoe SoS ee sie $03 Ses

THE LESSER FLoRICAN [Sypheotides indica (Miller)|]: Its CourtTSHIP

DispLay, BEHAVIOUR AND Hasits. By K. 8. Dharmakumarsinhji

(With a plate, 2 text-figures and 2 tables) fe Sea

Notrs on THE LENTIBULARIACEAE OF BomBay. ByH. Santapau,

S.J., F.L.S, Sa ae ae Sua Mae? vee ae

A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BIG GAME HUNTING AND SHOOTING IN INDIA AND

THE East. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, 1.4, (Retd.)

A NEw VARIETY OF Cucurbita maxima, By C. Rajasekhara Mudaliar, M.a.

(With 2 plates) ... wer ae és es ay

NOTES ON BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF MINBU DISTRICT, BURMA.

By W. L. Roseveare, I.S.E. (Retd.) (With 2 sketch ntaps)

CERTAIN OBSERVATIONS ON Sroussonetia papyrifera Vent. AND Soswellia

serrata Roxb, IN RELATION TO TRAUMATISM. By Miss R. Shah, B.Ag.,

(Bom.), M.S. (Mich.) (With a plate) ... es

OBITUARY :

W.P. F, Wickham (B.B.0O.) oes ae eos ene

REVIEWS :—

1. A Naturalist in Sarawak. (H.A.) eee eee nee

2. A Bird Photographer in India. (W.T.L.) ... oe ee

3. Oxford Junior Encyclopedia. Volume II (Natural History)

(R.M.C.) ... age ‘ a

4. Flowering Trees and Shrubs in India. (R.M.C.) se

Additions to the Society’s Library sée ‘see tes

169:

201.

217

222°

242:

244.

288:

291

292°

293.

296:

294.

295-

“e CONTENTS OF VOLUME 49, No. 2

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES:—

1. Wild Elephants dying in Assam. By E. P. Gee (p. 296). 2. Abnormal

clavicle bones in Tiger. (With a photo) By W. H. Gibbs (p. 296). 3, On the

young of the Ceylon Rusty-spotted Cat (Prionailurus rubiginosus phillipsi

Pocock). By W. W. A. Phillips (p. 297). 4. The Fishing Cat (Prionailurus

viverrinus Bennett). By A. St. J. Macdonald (p. 298). 5. Feral albino and

piebald Rats. By C. A. Gibson-Hill (p. 298). 6. The Burmese Wild Dog. By

Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton (p..300). 7. The Burmese Wild Dog and other matters

canine. By Capt. K. Boswell (p. 301). 8. Occurrence of the Chestnut-bellied

Nuthatch (Sitta castaneiventris castaneiventris) in Sind—A _ correction.,, By

Humayun Abdulali (p. 303). 9. Black Drongos fostering a Koel. By T. E. H.

Smith (p, 304). 10. On the status of Hurystomus orientalis laetior Sharpe. By

W. Meise (p. 305). 11. On the Blue-tailed Bee-eater (Merops superciliosus

javanicus Horsf.) in Bombay. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 307). 12. Occurrence

of the Cinereous Vulture (Aegypius monachus Linnaeus) at Ahmedabad, North

Gujarat. By Hari Narayan G. Acharya (p. 307). 13. A brief summary of the

Chukar Partridge in Nevada,. U.S. America.. By Glen C. Christensen (p; 309).

14. Occurrence of the White-winged Black Tern [Chlidonias leucopterus (Temm.)]

in Bombay. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 310). 15. Kentish Plovers ( Leucopolius

alexandrinus) at Bombay. By H. G. Alexander (p. 311). 16. The Snow Goose

(Anser hyperboreus) in Kashmir—An addition to the Avifauna of India. By

Editors (p. 311).° 17. Geese and Duck on the Chilka Lake, Orissa. “By ob). G:

Benthall and L. A. Craven (p. 312). 18. Gleanings (p. 314). 19. Replacement.

of fangsin Snakes. By F. Gordon Cawston (p. 314). 20. A biometrical study of

Hiilsa ilisha (Hiam.) in the Godavari River. By P. I. Chacko and B. Krishnamurthy

(p. 315). 21. Breeding habits of 7ais bufo (Lamarck). (With 2 text-figures).

By V. K. Chari (p..317). 22. Occurrence of the Freshwater Medusa (Limmnocnida

indica) in south-west India. By P. A. Ramakrishna, B.S. Bhimachar and M. K.

Subramaniam (p. 318). 23. The Flowering of Sirobilanthes. (With a diagram).

By H. Santapau (p. 320). 24. Stvobilanthes callosus (Nees) at Junagadh in

Saurashtra. By G. A. Kapadia (p. 321). 25. Mlecardonta dianthera (Sw.) Pennell.

By A. P. Benthall (p. 322). 26.-A note on the occurrence of the Alga Draparnal-

diopsis near Kakinada, Madras Presidency. By B.S. M. Dutt’ (p:323),

date PAGE

Catalogue of Books in the Society’s Library, Part I1V—Entomology ide, eee

fourn. Bompay Nar. Hist. Soc.

A sohtary bull Gaur.

Photos Sdlim Ali.

A herd of bison in tall grass.

~ JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

1950. Vou. 49 No. 2

JUNGLE MEMORIES

Lt.-Cot. E. G. PHYTHIAN-ADAMS, 0.B.E., F.Z.S., LA. (Retd.)

Part VI—Bison, TSINE, ETC.

(With plates)

BISON

It is, I suppose, the ambition of every budding sportsman to bag a_

bison. It certainly was mine from my earliest days in India, but many

were the fruitless tramps I had after this grand animal before I gota

shot. My first efforts were in Chanda in 1906, where rinderpest had

unfortunately cleared the best areas, but H. and I managed to secure

a block free of disease. The season (August) was a good one for

tracking, but bison were so few and far between that, as I now realise,

we were simply wasting our time trying to find a shootable bull. In

March of the following year I was again in the Chanda jungles, and

spent some time looking for an old solitary which was reported to be

very aggressive, and which the D.F.O. told me had a short time before

killed a buffalo calf tied up for tiger, but I was unable to contact him.

If there was any foundation for the story of his bad temper, then I feel

sure that he-must have been wounded, for my experience is that bison

normally are timid animals, and will not attack without cause. However

these trips, though unsuccessful as regards the main objective, afforded

other game, and above all gave me that experience of the habits of

bison and of the details of tracking which were to prove so useful in

years to come.

The first bison I shot was in North Canara, where I found them far

more numerous and much less difficult to contact than in the C.P,

Moreover the monsoon had broken, so tracking was easy. I reached

my camp at Pardhana on the 8th June 1909, and found Raya Gouda

waiting for me; he proved to be one of the best shikaries I have ever

met. Next morning we started off at dawn for a favourite locality, but

on atrival found the whole place a litter of confusion, with branches

lying about and bamboos broken down and smashed by a herd of

elephants. The shikari thought this would have scared everything else

away, so we moved further on. My experience of bison in the Central

Provinces was that they lie down to chew the cud between 9 a.m. and

3 p.m., but Raya Gouda assured me that during the monsoon we

should find them still feeding up to midday, and subsequent events

proved him correct.

pec 2 8 1860

138 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

About 10 a.tn. we came across very fresh tracks among wild melon

shoots, and shortly after saw a big bull looking at us about 100 yards

away. I aimed for his chest, but he turned and bolted before I could

fire, so I had to take a running shot which missed, as the bullet

glanced off a fallen tree just after the bull had jumped it. Half a mile

on the tracks led us toa herd uf some 20 animals which were feeding

away from us. We worked round and got ahead of them as they slowly

crossed an open glade. I had never seen bison in the herd before, and

though they were in full view, could not make out which was the bull.

To me they all looked the same, so I signed to the shikari that I did

not know which to take. He held up five fingers, by which I under-

stood him to mean that the fifth was the bull. It certainly was a very

black beast, and as they would soon be gone and the chance lost,

I fired at its shoulder. The herd bolted and there was no blood, but I

was certain that I had hit, though the shikari was sceptical. After

following the line for a short distance, I saw the wounded one staring

at me from the bottom of a nullah some 50 yards away. Only the head

was visible, so I moved up closer for a knock-out shot, but the animal

bolted before I could fire. Rain then came down in such torrents that

we had to take shelter for half an hour, but as soon as it cleared we

again took up the almost obliterated tracks. The shikari managed to

puzzle them out very slowly, and after about half a mile I saw the bison

standing very sick and broadside on some 100 yards away. I tooka

standing shot at the shoulder, and though the beast moved on, was

confident that I hit about about the right place. After a short distance

we found it lying down and apparently dead, but it tried to rise as we

approached, and I finished it off with a shot through the brain.

I wish I could record that it was a very fine head, but these jungle

memories are, as their name implies, a narrative of fact and not of

fancy, so leave it to my readers to imagine my dismay when I found

that I had shot a cow! And what made it far worse was that another

sportsman had committed the same offence only a short time before in

the same jungle, and the D.F.O. had therefore asked me to be parti-

cularly careful not to make a similar mistake. ‘The shikari also was

very upset, and asked me why I had fired at all when he held up his

hand to warn me to wait, as the bull was not in sight. Unfortunately I

had mistaken his signal, but that was poor consolation.

Others too have made a similar mistake over their first bison,

though it is not all who would admit it, and frankly, after 40 years

further experience, I am inclined to think that the shooting of an

occasional cow is rather a good thing. Comparatively few fall victims

to tigers, and so there is no check on their increase till Nature steps in

and wipes out whole herds with disease. However that may be, not

one sportsman in a hundred will deliberately fire at a cow, so let us

analyse the mistakes I made on this occasion.

First, colour is no guide—one will find old cows as black as any

bull. How then to distinguish the latter ? A shootable bull, apart from

actual horn measurement, is conspicuously larger than any cow and is

quite unmistakable if seen in company with them. If you come across

a herd and they seem to be ail much of a size, you may be quite sure

that no shootable animal is present. In that case do not be in too much

of a hurry, but sit down and wait, and sooner or later the herd bull will

JUNGLE MEMORIES 139

appear, when you can decide whether he is shootable or not. Some

books will tell you that a herd bull never carries a good head, and that

one should restrict oneself to solitaries, but in my experience it always

pays to examine a herd, in case it has been joined temporarily by

a solitary bull. In some parts of the country the shooting licence

prescribes definite limits of size for a shootable head. For instance, in

the Nilgiris it is 33 inch spread, or 18 inches in girth, the spread being

the horizontal distance between the outer edges of the horns at their

widest. How is one to judge whether a bull is up to this standard ?

Even with years of experience it is extremely difficult to estimate girth,

but if one remembers that from tip to tip of a bison’s ears when

extended is about 35 inches, one has a rough guide as to spread. If the

horns project beyond the ear-tips, you should be safe in firing.

What other mistake did I make? I was using solid bullets whies

certainly was correct, as they are necessary for penetration through

bone, but what [ did not realise is that a bison’s heart (like an

elephant’s) is situated lower than in the case of other animals, and

roughly speaking is only about one-third of the way up from the bottom

line of the body instead of half-way, so my shots were a bit too high.

To resume—Ii had one more chance at a bull in the same jungles,

but messed itup. After the regrettable incident of the cow, I decided

to stick to solitaries, but it was eight days before we came across one.

We had started at dawn, but it was not till 3 p.m. after many hours of

tracking, that we saw a big bull in the bushes only 60 yards away,

coming diagonally towards us browsing—only his back was visible.

Raya Gouda had impressed on me the importance of taking the first

good shot which offered, so as the bull’s head came out of the bushes,

I fired at his ear-hole at about 40 yards. I had hoped to brain him on

the spot, but was not too steady, and the bullet must have grazed the

back of his head, for he rushed off and we couid find only a few drops

of blood. We followed some way, but though he stood more than

once I was unable to get another shot in the thick cover, and finally we

had to give it up. The wound was obviously little more than a graze,

so I felt no compunctions about leaving him. My diary records that

we reached camp at 7 p.m. having been on the go for 13 hours.

The mistake I made over this bull was in not waiting till his

shoulder came into view. A bison’s brain is small, and one has to be

very steady to hit it. If I could have rested my rifle against the side

of a tree, I feel sure that I could have laid him out on the spot, but

no tree was available as we were in the open. ‘This bull carried a

magnificent head, his massive horns having a very wide spread, with

only a slight turn-up at the tips. It was entirely my own fault that I

failed to bag him, and it was many years before I saw his equal.

I hope that this account of the mistakes which I made in my early

days after bison may be of use to others.

BURMA

-Two years later my Regiment moved to Burma, and during the

64 years I spent in that country between 1911 and 1921, I was able to

renew my acquaintance with bison on a number of occasions. I soon

found that to secure the willing co-operation of the village shikaries

(moksos), a knowledge of Burmese was essential, so got on to that as

140 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

quickly as possible, and found it made all the difference. Most of my

shooting was done in the wet zone, where the jungle was far denser than

anything I had come across in India, and more often than not efforts

to view an animal merely resulted in his bolting, without affording the

chance of a shot. I know of nothing more exasperating than to find,

after many hours arduous tracking, that one’s quarry, though literally

within a stone's throw, is for all practical purposes invisible. ‘To show

the nature of the jungle, I will give two instances.

In June 19141 was in camp at Teinthaw some way north of Bhamo,

and on the 8th started out rather later than usual, as I had fever the

night before and was not feeling too fit. At noon we found fresh

tracks and followed them till 1 p.m. then halted for a couple of hours

as the bull would be lying up.. Kesuming tracking at 3 p.m. we found

his sleeping place half an hour later, and came up with him at 4.30.

He was only 20 yards off, but the jungle was so thick that I could see

only a small patch of black hide, and could not make out which way he

was facing, let alone the size of his head. Before I could get a better

view, a puff of wind betrayed us and he bolted. Camp was some

hours away, and as I did not feel it enough to sleep out, we left him.

Four days later, having moved camp in the meantime, I started out

at 4.30 a.m. and about 7 found the fresh tracks of a very large bull.

We came up with him at 8, and again at 8.30 and 9.15, but he was

moving fast and evidently suspicious, and I could get no chance of a

shot. The jungle was almost impenetrable, and though on one occasion

we got within 30 yards, I could see nothing of him. Finally we had

to give it up as a bad job.

Of course in both these cases I could have fired ‘ on spec’ in the

hope that the bullet would find the right spot, and that the head would

prove to be a good one. But I have alwaysconsidered it unsporting to

fire at any animal in dense cover where one cannot be certain of placing

an accurate shot, and little short of criminal to fire at a dangerous one

under such conditions. The chances are that the animal will escape to

die a lingering death, and it may prove a menace to some unfortunate

villager who happens to stumble onit. If sportsmen were more careful

over their first shots, we should hear less of animals lost, and of

regrettable incidents.

I had Government elephants with me in camp, and could no doubt

have got a shot off one at either of these bulls, but to my mind that

way of shooting bison is simply slaughter and not sport. It offends

against the cardinal principles of sportsmanship in that neither risk, nor

physical exertion, nor skill in jungle-craft is involved, while even a

third class shot should have no difficulty in hitting a bison gazing with

bovine unconcern at a range of 30 yards.

~ But I digress, and the impatient reader may well ask when I am

going to give an account of shooting a really worthwhile bull. I can

only reply that everything comes to him who waits, as the monkey

found when he had sat long enough on the bee-hive. But I should like

to make it clear that this is no tale of slaughter, and that of the

hundred or more bulls to which I have worked up, those fired at may

be counted on the fingers of one hand.

To resume. My experiences in the Pegu Yomas and elsewhere were

much the same as at Bhamo, and my memories of bison in Burma,

JUNGLE MEMORIES 141

apart from the wonderful bird and insect life of the jungle, are chiefly

of a sense of frustration, of the intolerable nuisance of the leeches, and

of the pouring rain. In connection with the last I had a useful object

lesson one day on how to make fire when our matches had become

sodden and useless. The moksos cut a section of dead bamboo about a

foot long and two inches in diameter and split it down. In one piece

they cut out a slot length-ways, witha small groove above it at right-

angles—the other was sharpened along the edge and the fine shavings

placed beneath the groove in the first piece. The sharpened edge was

then rubbed hard against the groove, and in under half a minute a

spark materialised which set fire to the shavings. All this was done

‘in pouring rain with very inadequate shelter. I kept the pieces of

bambo for many years asa memento of a very ingenious contrivance,

but borers got in, and they perished.

One other memory deserves recording. Going along a jungle path

one day during the monsoon, we met a couple of small murrel jerking

themselves forward, very literally ‘Fish out of water’. They were no

doubt making their way from one flooded area to another, but the path

they were on, though wet with rain, was definitely not under water. It

is of course well known that murrel can live out of water longer than

other fish, and that they bury themselves in the mud when tanks dry

up, but to meet a couple in the open, certainly 50 yards from any

water, seemed to me rather extraordinary.

NILGIRIS

The pursuit of bison in Burma was generally very arduous, and at

times involved sleeping out on the trail. In Canara conditions were

not so difficult, but it was not till I settled down in the Nilgiris that I

found how easy it can be to bag one of these grand animals. They are

of course no longer found on the plateau, except for a very occasional

wanderer, but in the low country they are so numerous that seldom a

day passes without seeing them, or at least finding fresh tracks. I am

referring here to the Mudumalai, Benne, and Muthunga forests, and

not so much to the Anaikatti range, where conditions are less suitable,

and where they are restricted mainly to the slopes of the hills. The

forest between Masinigudi and Teppakadu is a favourite locality, and

to show how numerous they are, I may mention that during a 3-day

camp in June 1949, [came across. no less than four herds, all containing

bulls with shootable, though not large heads, and quite a decent

Solitary, while G. working in another direction, met two solitaries, one

of which was considerably aboveaverage. In these jungles tracking is

seldom necessary, as the forest is open and the animals can be seen

from some distance. Once viewed, a cautious approach will bring one

within easy range.

The oft-repeated statement in shikar books that bison are shy

retiring animals and avoid human proximity, most certainly does not

apply to the Nilgiris. I have shot a bull within half a mile of the

Mudumalai Game Hut, and it is quite common to see a herd feeding

close to the main road to Mysore, and paying but little attention to

passing cars. Even solitaries when met with deep in the jungle show

little concern, provided of course that the wind is in one’s favour.

One I remember meeting up the Doddakatte path early one morning

142 JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL -HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

in June 1940. Atthe time we were sitting watching a herd of chital,

and trying to decide whether the stag, which was roaring, was worth

shooting. Suddenly we became aware of a bull which fed across our

front not 50 yards away and did not even favour us with a look,-

though we were right out in the open in very short grass, with nota

tree or an ant-heap anywhere in the vicinity. I saw that he was not

shootable, and as he was moving very slowly and I wanted to get on,

we left the path and went round by the right passing him at 30 yards.

We talked at him and even shouted, but he paid not the least attention,

and it was not till our movement so close caught his eye that he looked

up, gave a terrific snort, and bolted, the tuft of his tail SUES

comically as he jumped over a bush.

ARE BIsoN AGGRESSIVE ?!

The popular idea that bison are dangerous animals is not-borne out

by my experience of them, as shown by the incident above, which is

only one of many. A wounded animal may of course give trouble, but

if not molested they are, in my opinion, no more dangerous than

domestic cattle. My old Kurrumba shikari Kempa, (who is shown at

the head of the Doddakatti tigress in the photo with Part I of this

series), did however warn me that if repeatedly followed up and

disturbed, they might resent it. At the time I was trying to get

photos of a small herd, and my very inadequate hand-camera

necessitated so close an approach that at each attempt the animals

were alarmed and bolted before I could secure a picture. After three

abortive attempts Kempa advised me to give itup. ‘ You may move

bison twice and sometimes three times without trouble’ he said, ‘but

if you go on worrying them, they will turn nasty’. The old

man’s knowledge of the jungle was unrivalled, and I never knew him

wrong, so rather unwillingly I sles ome further attempts to

obtain photographs.

That was a good many years ago, and since then I have repeatedly

come across bison and have always found them timid and inoffensive—

so much so that I have not the least hesitation in walking straight

towards them in the open, and their re-action invariably has been to

bolt after a good look. But one never ceases to learn in the jungle, and

on the 2nd December 1948 an incident occurred which proved that old

Kempa was perfectly correct, and that a bull, if molested, may prove

aggressive even though not fired at.

At the time we were after small game some 6 miles downstream of

Anaikatti at the foot of the northern slopes. The covert to be beaten

was an isolated patch of jungle not of great extent, but heavily bushed.

I was the centre gun, and an open glade some 20 yards broad ran ina

straight line on either side of me. Soon after the beat started a peahen

came out past the left gun who fired both barrels at it, and I then heard

the beaters, who were still some 100 yards away, shouting that a bison

was coming towards us. A few minutes later I heard it moving

through the bushes in front. My rifle was lying on the ground close

by, ‘but I ae not bother to pick it cs as I had no reason to expect

2 This See has Abate appeared in the Journal for April 1949, but - is

republished here for the sake of completeness.

JUNGLE MEMORIES 143

trouble, and I knew there was no really good head in that area, I did

however, as a precautionary measure, move back a few yards towards a

tree, at the foot of which my shikari Kunmada, and my chokra were

sitting. Suddenly the bull’s head appeared from the bushes about 25

yards away on my right front, and I expected him to break past me on

the right, as he could easily have done. But after a good look he swung

round, put down his head and charged straight at me. There are

occasions when discretion is the better part, and this was obviously one

ofthem. I nipped back behind the tree just in time, and as he dashed

past saw him make a vicious sweep with his horns, but luckily we were

all under cover. Having made his point he swung half-right and went

off with his head up. He wasa young bull of deep chocolate colour,

and his horns had a spread of not more than 30 inches, but his bulk was

very imposing as he rushed past literally within arm’s length. As he

charged, Kunmada shouted loudly at him, but without the least effect.

This was no affair of a startled animal making a blind rush, such as any

sportsman of experience will have seen time and again, but a deliberate

head-down charge. He could have got away straight to his front, or to

his left, without coming any nearer to us, but I suppose that with the

beaters shouting behind he thought he was cornered. That seems to

be the only explanation, and it shows how the unexpected may occur in

the jungle at any time—Kunmada told me that he had never known

a similar case. It was extremely lucky for me that I had the tree

handy—as it was, though the bull had to cover 25 yards to my 5, he

nearly beat me to it. There was of course no question of using my

rifle, as it was out of reach lying on the ground—the bull went over

both it and my shooting stick but without touching either.

SoFT-NOSED versus SOLIDS™

- When one has shot a few bulls, my own feeling, with which I think

most sportsinen will agree, is to hold one’s fire unless one encounters an

exceptionally fine head. Bison are such grand beasts, and in the

Nilgiris at any rate, so easily bagged, that to continue shooting

ordinary bulls just for the sake of shooting, seems to me more slaughter

than sport— besides the meat is nearly always wasted, as very few jungle

tribes in India will touch it.1 The last bison I shot was in 1930, and

1 That bison meat should be repugnant to Hindus is only natural, but illogically

enough the same aversion extends in many places to the flesh of the Nilgai,

though the latter is of course an antelope, and except in name has no connection

with the Bovidae. The subject of cow-worship, though scarcely relevant to our

subject, is of such interest as to deserve mention.

Exactly how and when the cult of the cow originated is unknown, but: it is

certainly not of great antiquity. In early times the cow was the unit of value, and

cattle the measure of a man’s wealth, but it was not till the time of the Emperor

Asoka Maurya that any protection was afforded to them, and then only to a

limited extent. Pillar Edict V of 243 B.c. lays down an elaborate code of regula-

tions restricting the slaughter of many animals, but the killing of cattle for food

(except Brahminy bulls and milch cows) continued to be lawful. This is confirmed

by the Arthasastra of Kautilya, and the exceptions given seem to mark a definite

transitional stage in the cult of the cow, which till then had not been an object of

reverence. However that may be, the fact that bison meat is fadoo is a fortunate

cccurrence, as it may save this grand animal from the extinction which is rapidly

overtaking ‘the deer tribe, owing to the virtual abrogation of the Game Laws a,

the indiscriminate slaughter of all edible animals which now prevails.

144 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. “SOCIETY, «Val. 49

though I have met many solitaries since then none has come up to the

40-inch limit which I have set myself. As the story of my last bull

exemplifies the relative values of soft-nosed and solid bullets when

used on bison, I give it here.

We were in camp at Mudumalai at the time, and on the 7th May

I started up the Doddakatti path before dawn to visit a bullock which

had been tied up for tiger. We found the bait untouched, so turned

down the forest path towards Honurhatti, and soon heard a chital stag

roaring in the valley below us to the north. As we moved down the

slope towards it, we suddenly put up a solitary bull which galloped

away downhill. He was jet-black and [ could see that his horns were

fine ones, projecting well beyond his ears, I fired and knew that I had

hit, so followed and soon found a dropping anda pool of blood. The

tracks now led into some very thick stuff, and while watching the men

puzzle out the line, I noticed what looked like a large grey rock,

indistinctly visible in the bushes some 20 yards ahead. Suddenly there

was a tremendous snort, and the trackers wisely dived right and left

into cover as the grey rock materialised into the bison, which however

bolted before I could fire. I ran after him and got in two quick shots

as he went off, the first hitting rather far back, as we found later, and

the second a miiss. We again resumed tracking, and after about

200 yards came up with him again, still in such terribly thick under-

growth and long grass that I could not make out how he was standing.

However, with a wounded animal, it pays to take every possible chance

without loss of time, so I fired at what I thought was his shoulder, quite

forgetting that I was still using soft-nosed bullets. The shot knocked

him over, but he recovered and went off again with me in hot pursuit.

As I came to the edge of a clearing, I saw him standing tail-on about

45 yards away. I was out of breath from running and far from steady,

so moved forward a few yards to a sapling to get a side-rest for my

rifle. The bull must have heard me, as he swung round offering the

chance of a brain shot, and it was then only that I remembered what

bullets I was using. To open the bottom of the magazine, let the

cartridges fali on the ground and press ina clip of solids took only a

few seconds, by which time the bull had turned slightly to his right to

stare at the men following me, and exposed the point of his shoulder.

I fired at it, and the way he crashed down and out made me regret that

I had not changed to solids earlier. It was lucky for me that he did not

charge while I was reloading, but I felt that I simply had to take the

risk. My rifle on this occasion was a 423 Mauser. Had I been using

a lighter bore, I should probably never have seen the bull again after

the first shot, and certainly could not have anchored him so soon.

Undoubtedly I could have finished the affair more quickly if I had

reloaded with solids at once after firing the first shot, but I did not

think of it at the time. Soft-nosed bullets are all very well for a heart

shot inclining forward behind the shoulder, but for quick shooting when

large bones may be encountered, the greater penetration of the solid

‘tells every time. I have myself killed a bull with a single soft-nosed

‘405 bullet behind the shoulder, but I also know of two cases at

Mudumalai where sportsmen fired 17 and 13 shots respectively (all

soft-nosed °375 ordinary) before they could finish off their bulls, I shall

refer to this again later.

JUNGLE MEMORIES 145

A Forty INCHER

I am still waiting to bag a 40 incher. But I did put up a bull only

two years ago which certainly reached, and probably exceeded my limit.

As we were going along the Benne road one morning soon after dawn,

I heard a rustling in the long grass on the bank above us, My driver

quickly handed me the heavy rifle, but I could see nothing and did not

realise what it was till the bull, which had been watching us through

the tops of the grass not 20 yards away, swung round and went off,

giving a momentary glimpse of magnificent horns with those very

blunted points which not only indicate age, but add so much to the

value of the trophy. Before I could raise my rifle he had disappeared

in the dry 6-foot grass, where I soon found it hopeless to follow him,

and: though we spent several days looking for him we never met again.

Whoever shoots that bull will obtain a very worthwhile trophy.

BISON KILLED BY TIGER

Bison at times fall victims to tigers. In May 1939 some miles from

Mudumalai, I found the remains of a large cow which had met its fate

in this way. The kill was about a month old when I came across

it, but sufficient remained to show a badly twisted hock, no doubt

where the first attack was made, and claw marks on the face. The

horns had been removed by the Forester who assured me that there

could be no doubt that the kill was by atiger. I heard of similar kills

towards Benne and at Doddakatti, and a party of American sportsmen

some years before the last war, came across three tigers feeding on a

cow bison which they had killed down the Thoraipalli road, and bagged

one of them. All these cases occurred in the Mudumalai forest of the

Nilgiris, where bison were, before the war, particularly numerous. At

Anaikatti also, where comparatively few are to be found, a mature bull

was killed by a tiger in August 1938. The skull of this animal can be

seen in the forest bungalow there—the horns are of good girth, but the

spread is poor. Besides cases reported, there must be a number of

bison killed in this way whose remains are never found, and it seems

probable that more are killed by tigers than is generally realised.

Some Hints

The following notes will, I hope, prove useful to those who have

not yet gone after bison :—

The sportsman who restricts himself to solitaries, should not be in

too great a hurry to fire at a single animal on the assumption that it must

necessarily be a bull. Twice I have encountered solitary cows, very

black aged beasts, which for some reason had left the herd, probably

on account of sickness or old age. In such cases the size of the tracks

should arouse suspicion before the animal is sighted, but the tracks

even of a bull are not necessarily proportionate to the size of his head.

The biggest tracks I ever saw were of a herd bull on Kortaybetta hill

near Kollegal. We had to follow some way before coming up with

their owner, and then found a herd of some 20 animals in such long

grass that a clear view of the buil’s'‘head was impossible. I climbed a

tree to have a look, and was disappointed to find that it was after all a

146 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

poor one. Incidentally, in such cases the morale of your men will be

improved if you send them up the tree first—otherwise they may think

you are frightened !

The traditional idea that a solitary is always an aged worn-out beast

which has been turned out of the herd by a younger animal is not

supported by facts. It is very seldom indeed that a herd bull carries a

really fine head, whereas the solitary nearly always does, and moreover

is generally an animal of such physique that he could knock any herd

bull into a cocked hat. There are of course afew which are really

solitary on account of old age or sickness, but there can be no doubt

whatever that the great majority of solitaries are so only temporarily,

and rejoin a herd fora short time at the mating season. It therefore

pays always to examine a herd in case this has happened. Solitaries

are often accompanied by a young bull, which whether intentionally or

not, acts as guard while the senior takes his siesta. Iftherefore you

put up a young bull, you may be pretty sure that the old gentleman is

close by—it is most unusual to find a youngster on his own.

Horns vary enormously, not only in length and spread, but also in

girth, and it is for this reason that some game licences very reasonably

lay down an alternative definition of a mature bull—spread or girth.

In some heads girth is comparatively poor, though the spread is

good; others have good girth, but the horns are short with little

spread; others again have great spread, but with the points of the

horns worn down and blunted—it is these which discerning sportsmen

prize most. When mounting horns with only the skull, as is usually

the case, appearance is improved if the latter is kept complete, less of

course the lower jaw. A mere frontlet of bone detracts from the

appearance of the head. As already stated, when estimating the head

of a living animal, provided that the horns project beyond the tips of

the ears, the bull should be a shootable one.

The poetry of big game shooting is to finish the business with a

single shot, and if you can get close enough, a bullet in the brain or in

the centre of the neck will do the trick. If you have to take a body

shot make sure, so far as possible, that the first shot is a disabling one,

and for the necessary penetration use solids. As regards the rifle, no

bore smaller than -400 H. V. should be used, in fact this is generally

laid down in the conditions of the licence. I have already referred to

the difficulty experienced by two sportsmen in killing their bulls with

the ordinary (not Magnum) ‘375, and for the sake of comparison of

various bores, I give below a table showing the relative striking

energies at 100 yards range—the figures have been extracted from

Major Burrard’s Votes on Sporting Rttles.

°318 bullet 250 gers. ... 2,580 foot Ibs.

*375 (ordinary), bullet 270 grs. cra vie al) rs

°375 (Magnum), bullet 270 grs. ... ~3,400 x

‘404, bullet 400 ers. wee sa 3,30 i

*405 (Winchester), bullet 300 grs. ... 2,510 7

-423 (Mauser), bullet 347 ers. .. 2,940 i

‘470, bullet 500 grs. .-- 4,060 rr

I leave readers to draw their own conclusions from the above, but

J might mention that a brother officer who used an ordinary :375

JUNGLE MEMORIES 147

extensively in East Africa during the First World War, informs me that

he found it useless for the larger antelope, and that a service +303

proved far more effective, even for a side shot at rhino.

Sooner or later, you will almost certainly have to follow up a

wounded bull. In that case it is better to leave the tracking entirely to

the shikaris, and to concentrate on watching for the animal, which may

be lying up awaiting a chance of reprisal.

. Bison shooting is grand sport, but it should never degenerate into

slaughter. Stalk your bulls fairly, and do not degrade yourself. by

shooting them from an elephant or out of a car. When you have shot

one or two restrict yourself in future to really good heads. How many

you shoot is of course a matter of personal inclination, but half a dozen

bulls in a man’s lifetime should be enough for most people. My own

modest total has not reached even that figure, and the single head

which I have kept looks down from my walls to remind me of the final

scene of our encounter when the bull faced me in the open, and I had

to reload with solids behind that very inadequate sapling.

WILD CATTLE

Apart from bison, were there at any time wild cattle in S. India ?

To many the idea will seem ludicrous, but I once picked up an old

book entitled Nilgzrz Sporting Reminiscences, in which the author

quotes that well-known sportsman of old days, General Morgan, as

having come across a solitary wild bull in, the valley behind Bangi

Tappal about 1850. Gen. Morgan describes the animal, which he

viewed from a distance of only 25 yards, as follows: ‘ Let the reader

fancy before him a magnificent Brahminy bull, the blackness that of

midnight, of a stature far surpassing anything seen in the domestic

state, with an enormous hump and dewlap; white blaze on the

forehead; straight horns gently curving upwards, set on at right

angles to the head, like an English bull and about a foot in length;

head small, muzzle thorough-bred; legs as fine as an Eland antelope,

with four white stockings, and a tail with a bushy tuft that almost

swept the ground. Now let us contrast this with a bull bison I

killed the next morning—hump low but long, blaze on face grey, horns

semi-circular, legs thick and dirty white stockings, tail ending at hock

with but a small tuft of hair. The two animals were as different as

they well could be.’ Gen. Morgan fired at the bull, but was deceived

by the enormous hump, and the bullet was too high. It entered a

shola, and while following it up, he came across the fresh droppings

of an elephant, which he went after, being sure that the bull was

mortally wounded. But, as so often happens when one changes one’s

objective, he failed to locate the elephant, and then when he returned,

could not find the bull either. After relating his disappointment,

Gen. Morgan continues: ‘I may mention that Dick Sullivan when

Assistant to the Collector of Coimbatore, told me when I mentioned

the case to him, that he was well aware that wild cattle came down

close to the Kullar river at Metapoliam from the upper sources of the

Bhavani. I firmly believe that in those vast forests and unexplored

tracts, wild cattle, the Bos trontalis of naturalists, may- and will yet be

found by future sportsmen.’

148 JOURNAL, BOMBAY” NATURAL SHISTIVSOCLET VY, Vol219

In those days the Gayal or Mithan (Bos frontalis), was classed as a

distinct species, though it is now known to be merely a hybrid between

the bison and domestic cattle, being kept in a partially domesticated

condition by the hill tribes of Assam and the Indo-Burmese hill

ranges. The possibility of its existence in the distant Kundahs of the

Nilgiris intrigued me, and I decided to investigate. I knew the valley

behind Bangi Tappal where Gen. Morgan met his bull, and was quite

certain that wild cattle were no longer to be found there or in its

vicinity, but some miles beyond is an area known as ‘ Big Bison

Swamp ’so cut off by nature and difficult of access, as to be seldom

visited by any human being. The Badagas who graze their herds of

buffaloes and cattle in the Kundahs during the hot weather, never

penetrate so far, while to the Kurrumbas in the Bhavani valley 4,000

feet below, access is denied by the precipitous slopes covered with

almost impenetratable primeval forest—nor indeed is there anything to

attract them. From enquiries which I made, it did not dppear that

anyone had visited the spot since the early eighties, and there if

anywhere might be found corroboration of General Morgan’s story.

In April 1932, after 3 days marching, I reached Nadgani, some

8 miles beyond Bangi Tappal, and camped there since this was as far as

pack-ponies could conveniently be taken. At dawn next day we started

on our voyage of discovery. After descending about a mile to the

Yemavipuzha stream, we climbed the steep ridge to the left, which

brought us on to the more or less level ground running up to Anginda-

malai, the pyramid-shaped peak which can be seen from Ootacamund.

The going was very bad indeed, as the long tangled grass concealed

many rocks and loose stones over which we were constantly stumbling.

‘There were no game paths, and since the Badaga herds never come so

far, the grass had not been burnt for very many years. Fortunately

pefore long we struck an elephant path, such as I had previously seen

in the low country between Masnigudi and Teppakadu. It was some

18 inches broad,’ beaten down hard and flat by the passing of countless

herds, and so smooth that one could have cycled along it quite

comfortably. From its direction it obviously connected up somewhere

with the Sispara bridle path, and would have afforded a much easier,

though longer, means of access to Anginda than the route we took. We

ascended the peak, and found elephant droppings on the bare summit

which the map showed to be 7,819 feet above sea-level—what induced

the animals to climb up there I cannot imagine.

From this projecting bastion of the Nilgiris the view was superb.

Far below lay the picturesque patchwork of Kerala’s paddyfields and

homesteads, clumps of bamboo and jungle, interspersed here and there

with the gleam of water, the whole merging gradually into the darker

belt of coconut palms which fringe the coast, and beyond that again the

sea rose like atilted wall. So clear was the air that with the naked eye

I could see a steamer and several dhows to the south of Calicut, while

the glasses revealed numerous small fishing boats, though over 40 miles

away. It was hard to tear oneself away from such an entrancing

spectacle, but time was passing and our objective lay still some distance

away, as we could see. So we descended to our ‘ Grand Trunk Road’

which soon after led us along a knife-edge with a nasty drop on either

side, and then to the top of a cliff. I wondered how we were going to

JUNGLE MEMORIES 149

negotiate it, but the track went on down in zigzags, wonderfully

engineered, till it again reached the level. It is, no doubt, this

section of the path to which General Hamilton refers in his Records of

Sport in Southern India, in which he says: ‘One cannot help

being struck with the skill with which these paths are traced; the

gradients are truly wonderful, avoiding every steep and difficult ascent

by regular zigzags, and I could not help thinking what a knowing old

engineer the first maker of the track must have been’.

From the bottom of the cliff the ground rose, and still following the

path, we at length reached Big Bison Swamp. ‘There I made a most

careful search for signs of wild cattle, but could find none, nor indeed of

any other animals except elephants, which obviously visit the spot in

considerable numbers every year. Beyond the swamp the track led

over a col down into the ‘Silent Valley’, still mostly unexplored, and

concerning the deadliness of which my shikari, ‘Old’ Anthony,

had some wonderful stories of shooting parties which had entered it

and never returned! Whether its evil reputation is due to innumera-

ble leeches, or to the presence of hamadryads, or to some other

cause, it is, I believe, a fact that with the exception of elephants,

no animal is to be found there. We ourselves noticed the complete

absence of bird and animal life once we had reached the base of the

cliff which I have mentioned above, though till then there had been no

dearth of it. A dead silence seemed to brood over the area, and no

apter name could have been given to it than the ‘ Silent Valiey’. ‘The

shikaris were most unwilling to explore further, and anyhow there was

no time, so we started back. Of our return journey there is little to

relate. After ascending the cliff and passing round Anginda, we came

across a herd o: Nilgiri ibex and I had a fleeting chance at a saddle-

back, but the clouds had come down and visibility was poor, which

must be my excuse for missing it.

And so ended a trip, which if unsuccessful.as regards the main

objective, stil] remains a most interesting memory. Though we found

no traces of wild cattle, still I think that Gen. Morgan’s story may

be accepted without reserve, as he was a very experienced sportsman.

I imagine that the bull he saw was either a hybrid bison, or else the

descendant of domestic cattle which had gone wild during the fourth

Mysore war, which after ail was not so many years previous to his

unique experience. Whatever the solution, I can hardly believe that

any wild cattle exist in the Nilgiris today. Perhaps some younger

and more energetic sportsman will be encouraged by this account to

follow my footsteps and make a further search. To the best of my

belief, no one has visited that area since I was there.

TSINE

While I was in Burma, I spent a good deal of time, on and off, in

the pursuit of tsine, which I soon realised were far more alert than even

bison. Yinmabin, on the Kalaw ghat and some 30 miles from Meiktila,

‘Was in those days an excellent centre for them, but I was greatly

handicapped by my military duties, which allowed me only an occasional

day in the jungle. The latter being fairly open, I managed on a

number of occasions to work up to both herd bulls and solitaries, but

150 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 49

failed to find one up to the standard I had set myself as shootable. I

wanted a really good head or none at all, a policy which, I am afraid,

was not very popular with my zoksos. There was one very fine old

bull near Yebokson, some 6 miles beyond Yinmabin, and I tracked him

often but never could get a shot. He always spotted us first, and all

that happened was a snort, a crashing through the jungle, and very

occasionally a fleeting glimpse as he bolted. I have mentioned

previously how important a factor luck is in big game shooting, and it

was luck pure and simple which eventually gave me this bull with a

minimum of effort.

On the 13th April 1920 I left the Rest House at dawn for Yebokson,

intending to pick up the tracks which we had abandoned the evening

before. Ten minutes after leaving Yinmabin, my Burmese driver

suddenly pulled up the car, and said ‘ What is that’? Looking to the

right, I saw a fine bull not 40 yards away, staring at us. A moment

later he went off, and running after him I managed to get in two shots,

- the second of which brought him down with a crash. i shouted to the

driver to go on to Yebokson and bring the trackers, and when I

turned round again, I found that the bull had picked himself up and

disappeared. I decided not to wait for the men, but to track him

myself. There was no blood for 50 yards, then quite a lot, light-

coloured and frothy, so I knew a lung was pierced, while it appeared

that a hind leg also was broken. I soon saw the bull going off slcwly,

sO ran on and as I came up, he turned round to face me, pawing the

ground and snorting. I fired two hurried shots, but was unsteady, and

one missed. I expected a charge, but he went off again and dis-

appeared from sight. Knowing the tsine’s reputation, I followed the

tracks very cautiously, but had not gone far when I saw something

waving in the grass on my right front. It was a hind leg feebly

kicking—my third shot had passed through the neck, but he had

covered another 14Q yards before collapsing, and then required a

finisher. The bull proved to be avery old one, with the mark ofa

previous bullet wound on one hind leg, while the horns had an

unusually fine spread. I must confess that it was in a very satisfied

frame of mind that 1 sat down to smoke a cigarette and await the

arrival of the men. It was only half a mile or so to the road, so it was

not long before they arrived, beaming at the idea of so much meat.

“My mokso, Ko Po, then pointed out to mea fact which Ll had overlooked

in the excitement of the chase, viz.: that this was the identical animal

which had previously given us the slip so often. Admitting the

amazing luck of my meeting the bull asI did, still I think I am justified

in regarding this aS one of my most Satisfactory jungle memories,

since I was single-handed, and had to rely on myself alone. Not that

the tracking presented much difficulty, for though the ground was hard,

there was a tair blood traii—but I had to both track and keep a good

look-out at the same time, which was not so easy.

(Zo be continued)

NOTES ON SOME ASIATIC MEROPIDAE (BIRDS)!

DaNniEL MaRIEN

(With a map)

(Communicated by Dr. Ernst Mayr—New York)

INTRODUCTION

Receipt of 267 specimens of bee-eaters (Meropidae) in the Koelz

Collection from India and adjacent countries has permitted a revision

of the Indian species of this family. The family Meropidae is re-

presented in India by the genera Merops (5 species) and Nyctyornis

(1 species); related species of these genera are distributed throughout

most of the Old World tropics and sub-tropics. In habits and

appearance the Indian forms agree with other members of this family.

Although these species are fairly well known taxonomically, there

is still much to be learned about their distribution, migrations,

plumages, and molts. Statements in the literature on these points

are often misleading or lacking. In this review particular attention

has been given to plumage sequence, seldom discussed in the

standard references, yet in some instances a useful zoological character.

I am grateful to Dr. Walter Koelz for the privilege of examining

his extensive collection. Drs. Ernst Mayr and Dean Amadon have

directed and encouraged me in thig study and I am greatly indebted

to them for their helpful suggestions and kind advice. My thanks

are due also to Capt. Jean Delacour for measurements of M.

leschenaulti in the British Museum.

PLuMAGE AND Mouts: The sexes are alike in coloration; females

average smaller in size. The immature plumage somewhat resembles

that of the adult but is generally duller. In those species with elongate

central tail feathers these are acquired, along with the fully adult

plumage, before the second summer. The post-juvenal molt normally

takes place during the late summer and autumn but certain exceptions

are to be found.

There is always one complete molt annually. The time and

progress of this molt varies among the species; details will be found

in the discussion under each form.

The primaries apparently initiate the molt or at least start

concurrently with the body molt. They are replaced progressively

and singly fram the innermost; each wing is normally at the same

stage. The secondaries are among the last feathers renewed; molt

* Notes from the Walter Koelz Collections, Number 5. The previous papers in

this subseries are: Number 1, American Museum Novitates, no. 1406, 1949;

Number 2, American Museum Novitates, no. 1424, 1949; Number 3, American

Museum Novitates, no. 1425, 1949; Number 4, American "Museum Novitates, no.

1459, 1950.

152 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HISP. “SOCIETY. Voir 49

is begun at each end of the series and proceeds to meet at the middle

of the row. The tertials are probably replaced independently of the

secondaries. 5%

The tail molt does not begin until the fourth or fifth primaries

are already out of their sheaths and is completed before the end of

the wing molt. Friedmann’s paper on the caudal molt of some non-

passerine birds (1930, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 77(7): 1-6) states that the

tail molt of Melittophagus revoilu is irregular. This was the only

bee-eater studied by Friedmann and suggested an investigation of

the present material to determine the order of rectrix renewal in the

six Indian species. The sequence. of the caudal molt wag found

to be constant within each species, and for convenience will be expressed

by means of a simple formula. For example, in M. apiaster molt

begins with the central pair (1). The pair next alongside these (2)

follow shortly, then the outer tail feathers (6) are replaced, and after

these the third pair from the centre (8). Molted next are the pair

inside the outermost feathers (5), and lastly the next inner pair (4).

The tail molt pattern can thus be written: 1, 2, 6, 3, 5, 4. The

order of rectrix renewal is given in Table 1 below.

TABLE 1

Order of rectrix renewal of six Indian bee-eaters

Species/Subspecies | Tail Molt Pattern

Merops Ll, leschenautti ee i oa J, 2; 6, 35 =, i?

M. apiaster ap oe Mae ies 1525 Os Opc oe

M. superciliosus persicus ak ee pe 15:2, 3, gerd

M. p. philippinus ... a = Sou 1 2220,.3 04

M.o. orientalis eae ee a Bas 126,32, 9

Nyctyornis athertoni ... a sted is: 1,236. 554

(a) full sequence indeterminable with present material.

In these forms the pattern of rectricial ecdysis does not appear

to have systematic significance above the specific level. It ig possible

that the molt sequence would be found to vary geographically if a

large series of molting individuals of different subspecies were studied. —

MEASUREMENTS: All measurements are given in millimeters. Bill

length refers to a measurement taken from the anterior border of

the nostril to the tip of the culmen. The length of the wing was

taken with the wing pressed flat on the rule. Wing-tall index, where

given, is the ratio of the length of the \tail to the length of the wing

expressed as a percentage of wing length. Similarly, the tail-bill

index is the ratio of bill length to tail length expressed as a percentage

of tail length. With the exception of M. leschenaulti and N. athertona

the measurements are only those of the specimens in the Koelz

Collection and are of fully adult unworn birds.

a3 ee

~ NOTES ON SOME ASIATIC MEROPIDAE (BIRDS) 153

Locauities: Under each species and subspecies heading a list is

given of the specimens collected by Dr. Koelz. These previously

unpublished records should be useful in mapping the ranges and

migrations of these species.

Merops leschenaulti |

The Bay-headed Bee-eater is widespread in the Indo-Malayan

Region, but in the Greater Sunda Islands it occurs only on Java

and Bali. A very similar species, M. viridis, is present on Sumatra

and may replace it ecologically, though both species occur in south-

easterr Asia, Java, and Bali.

There is some individual variation in color in the species, chiefly

in depth of color of the head and back, but there igs considerable

geographic variation among populations. The Java and Bali birds,

quinticolor, are, even in freshly molted specimens, bluish on the

upper surface of the tail and the tips of the secondaries. Members

of the other populations have these areas normally green, but they

often become blue through wear. The chestnut pectoral band bordered

posteriorly by a black band is absent in quinticolor; only the black

band is retained.

There is also considerable geographic variation in size; Table 2

shows the measurements of three populations within the species.

These measurements indicate that the Andaman Islands birds

are larger, with longer tail and wings; the Java and Bali birds

are shorter-winged and shorter-billed; the mainland birds are inter-

mediate in size.

On the basis of the above-mentioned differences Merops leschenaulti

can be divided into three subspecies as follows:

Merops leschenaulti leschenaulti Vieillot

Assam: Khasia Hills, Nongpoh, May 2-6, 1949, 4 ad. g, 38ad. @.

United Provinces: Kumaon, Tejan, June 4, 1948, 1 ad. ¢, 1? imm.

9; Kathgodam, August 19-20, 1 ad. ot, 2imm. o. Nepal: Hitaura,

May 20-June 13, 1947, 5 ad. 6, 4 imm. 6, 2 unsexed imm.

Bastar: Korher, March 25, 1949, 1 ad. co. Southern Madras

Presidency: Nilgiri Hills, Kunjapanai, February 19-20, 1987, 3 ad.

o&; Nilambur, March 8, 1 ad. co. Southern Bombay Presidency:

Jagalbed, February 21-March 4, April 14, 1938, 5 ad. of, 5 ad. Q;

Castle Rock, March 5-6, 2 ad. of, 2 ad. 9.

Type locality: Java, error=Ceylon.

Range: Ceylon and the west coast of India north to Belgaum;

the United Provinces, Nepal, Assam, Orissa, eastern Bengal, to

Burma, Yunnan, Siam, and French Indo-China. Chasen (1939, Bds.

Malay Peninsula, 4: 100-101) says he knows ‘. . . of no reliable

record from south of Kuala Kangsar in Perak .. .’. There are,

however, several specimens from Pahang in the collection of the

American Museum of Natural History, two from Gunong Tahan and

two from ‘Sungei Lebih’. Therefore, about five degrees north latitude

seems to be the southernmost limit of the range in Malaya.

Freshly molted birds are dark green on the back and a rich chest-

nut brown on the crown and nape. Like other members of the genus,

Vol.

SOCIETY,

JOURNAL,

154

BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.

9 (6-08)

a a

[rey

: C0) =. 0} 0 Op

9T= 9a Ll = 02

oP (0-66 ) zot-Z6 oP |

P¢ 666.) SOI-S6 Parag es ig ws. Weg ‘waxy

ds (4.801) zIt-zor | 8 ‘ oe

Pa (Z.0UE) SSTTLOT eg me (ee " “ suemepay:

dos | g(o-90t) ztt-oor | dee Bos

See | PGe = | 7olt 201) eeti-or “| Pee & Tae " f pugley

wee SUI N ‘uoey me

anpuayIsay SdOAIPT JO s\Npe jo s]USTUOINSvaT

‘] BIAV

NOTES ON SOME ASIATIC. MEROPIDAE (BIRDS) 155

this bee-eater nests in holes along the banks of streams; as a conse-

quence the plumage of breeding birds becomes worn, causing the

feathers of the back, wings, and tail to acquire a bluish tinge and

the feathers of the head and nape to become paler.

_Immatures are distinguishable by their smaller bill and by having

the crown and nape concolorous with the back, which is green. The

breast markings of immatures are indistinct.

_-The annual post-nuptial and the post-juvenal molt may take place

from late May through October.

Merops leschenaulti andamanensis, new subspecies

Type: A.M.N.H. No. 641320, Rothschild Collection ; adult male;

Port Blair, South Andaman Téland: December, 1897; A: L.. Butler,

collector.

Agrees in coloration with the nominate race but differs in being

larger, with longer tail and wings.

Range: South Andaman Island and probably other islands of the

group. Hume (1874, Stray Feathers, pp. 163-164) says, “This

species .. . is also found. . . in the Great and Little Cocos, Strait Is.,

etc.,. etc. We never met wih this species in the Nicobars’. Nest-

ing is apparently in the middle of May. ay

Merops kesehan gute quinticolor Mieilloy

- Type locality : Ceylon, error=Java.

Range: Java and Bali. | ) |

Similar to the nominate race but distinctly bluer. on the tail,

lege the chestnut pectoral band, and being smaller. ;

_ Because the breeding season on these islands differs from that

on. the..mainland, the post-nuptial molt occurs during the winter

months. November birds in the material studied were very worn,

while March and April birds were in fresh plumage. 3

Merops apiaster Linnaeus

Khorasan: Bardu, August 16, 1940, I unsexed imm.; Rokat i

Khan, September 1, 1 imm. 9.

Enizintan.: and April. 21, 1941;.-1. ad. o',. May 7, 1 ad... 9,

May 17-28, 1941, 8 ad. 9, May 24-25, 1940, 4. ad. &, 1 ad. 9,

September Ftd 1 eY3(5 WY oicaned Lmagab aspera tiecn 5

. Afghanistan: Turuk Pul, May 10, 1987, 2 ad. OF Baghlan, July.

1, 1 imm. co; Khanabad, July 3-4, August 31, 1. ad. .ot,::2,.imm.: oo;

1. imm; 9 ; Takia, Kishm, July .6,, 1. ,imm....° ;. Gumbaz;, Kishm,

July ewe? inamas ir aieabade July ayer ie unsexed imm. 0. Iskan,

‘August 8, 1 ad. ‘9; Doao, August 23,..1989,.1. imm..:¢f; Balkh,

September 19: 4937.01 adic, |. imm-.ots, 1.1mm."

India: ; Northwest Frontier Province, Parachinar, May Z, 1936, 1

adi: O's = 7

Merops apiaster is very Serer over ite extensive. range across

cue Eurasia from the Iberian Peninsula to western. Siberia and

there are no subspecies. In southwestern Asia this species breeds

in Iran, Baluchistan, Afghanistan, and Kashmir. It is. highly

156 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

migratory, wintering principally in southern Africa. The material

collected by Koelz seems not to differ from other Indian specimens

nor from examples from other parts of the range.

It is known that the molt of this species does not conform to

the simple pattern of a single complete molt found in most of the

Indian bee-eaters. After the breeding season, in August and September,

adults of apiaster have a complete body molt into an eclipse plumage

somewhat resembling the juvenal feathering. The adults in eclipse

plumage may be distinguished from immatures by their worn rectrices

and remiges, elongate central tail feathers, and yellower scapulars.

On the wintering grounds in Africa adults and immatures alike under-

go a complete molt during which both age classes acquire the nuptial

plumage. ‘The period of this winter molt falls between the months

of October and February.

The molts of this species are reminiscent of those of the Ainerican

tyrant flycatchers, Tyrannidae, which, according to Dwight (1900,

Annals N.Y. Acad. Sci., 18: 186-1387), postpone molting after nesting

until reaching the winter quarters. Such cases of delayed molts

may possibly be adaptations to permit early or extensive migration.

Kipp (1986, Mitt. Vogelwelt, 35: 77-78) in a study of migratory

Palaearctic passerine birds found that those species whose winter

quarters lie south of the Tropic of Capricorn have a winter molt which

may be partial or complete. In some instances there is also a partial

or complete molt during the summer preceding migration. The

condition in M. apiaster agrees well with these observations since

it winters in southern Africa and has its annual molt while in its

southern quarters.

Measurements: Wing; males, 147, 149, 149, 150, 150, 153; females,

141, 142, 148, 148, 146, 148, 148. Tail: males, (central rectrices)

109, 109, 118, 114, 115, 115, 117, 119, (outer rectrices) 88, 89,

89, 90, 90, 92, 98, 94; females, (central rectrices) 102, 104, 105,

106, 108, 110, 118, (outer rectrices) 87, 88, 88, 89, 91, 91, 95. Bill:

males, 27, 29, 29, 30, 30, 32, 32, 34; females, 24, 25, 25, 26, 27,

Pim Oo Ly ,

Merops superciliosus and Merops philippinus

Some authors, most recently Peters (1945, Birds of the World.

volume V, pp. 284-235), treat M. philippinus as a subspecies of

M. superciliosus, but both groups are in fact quite distinct. There

is a western, large, green-tailed form, M. s. persicus, that meets the

eastern, smaller, blue-tailed form, M. p. philippinus, in northwestern

India. Because the morphological differences between philippinus

and persicus are not very striking and their ranges are contiguous,

one would expect to find clear evidence of intergradation. Yet despite

the similarity of appearance and the fact that except for a very

narrow zone of overlap they replace each other geographically, no

intermediates seem to have been reported. This, together with their

physiological differences in molt, migration, and ecological adjust-

ments to different climates suggest that they are not as closely related

as would appear—are, in fact, allopatric species rather than subspecies.

Distribution. The distribution of the two species in India is

shown in the accompanying map. Because the breeding season varies

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Merops

Superciliosus persicus

Philippinus philippinus

Both taken at same

tocality

Approximate boundary

between species

Text-figure 1. Distribution of Merops superciliosus persicus and Jlerops philippinus

philippinus during the breeding season in India, showing the narrow zone of overlap.

The breeding range of persicus extends westward to Egypt; the breeding range of

philippinus extends eastward to Malaya and Indo-China.

Triangles: JZ, 5s. persicus ; squares: JZ. p. philippinus. Explanation of the num-

bered symbols is given in the text.

NOTES ON SOME ASIATIC MEROPIDAEL (BIRDS) 157

somewhat in different parts of the country and the movements of

these bee-eaters are not well known, Mr. Salim Ali has called to

my attention the advisability of utilizing only those records of birds

actually breeding. All of the records are taken from the literature.

It will be noticed that there is very little overlap of breeding range;

indeed, several authors have pointed out that where one form is

found nesting the other is not known to breed.

The numbers refer to the positions on the map.

1. Bhavnagar, Kathiawar (Dharmakumarsinhji, 1947, J. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc., 46: 723-724).

2. Khainju, Sukkur Dt., Sind (Baker, 1934, Nid. Bds. Indian

Empire, 3: 398).

3. Draklan, near Kashmor, Sind (Ticehurst, Ibis, 1923, p. 30).

4, Quetta, Baluchistan (Christison, Ibis, 1941, p. 544).

5. Bannu, N. W. Frontier Province (Magrath, 1908, J. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc., 18: 685).

6. Peshawar, N. W. Frontier Province (Briggs and Osmaston,

ha J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 82: 755).

Lahore, Punjab (Oates, 1890, Hume’s Nests and Eggs of Indian

Bins, 8: 63- 65).

Sultanapur, Punjab (ibid.).

0, Ferozepore, Punjab (Baker, 1934, op. cit., p. 397).

10. Delhi (Oates, loc. cit.).

11. Agra, United Provinces (ibid.).

12. Allahabad, United Provinces (ibid.).

13. Mirzapore, United Provinces (ibid.).

14. Hoshangabad, Central Province (ibid.).

15. Nagpur, Central Province (D’Abreau, 1935, J. Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc., 38: 105).

16. Raipur, Central Province (Oates, loc. cit.).

17. Waltair, Madras Prov. (Abdulali, 1945, J. Bombay Nat, Hist.

Soc., 45: 342).

18. Rajahmundry, Madras Prov. (Neelakantan, 1948, J. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc., 47: 741).

19. Coorg (‘Feeding short-tailed juveniles’-—Communication from

Betts to Ali).

20. Gujarat (Littledale, 1886, J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 1:

196).

Feology. M. s. persicus appears to be more tolerant of dry

ground, and, at least in Iraq, may choose for a nesting site ‘. . . desert

mounds or perfectly flat bare ground.’ (Ticehurst, 1922, J. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc., 28: 300), but in Afghanistan marshy areas are utilized

(Whistler, 1944, J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 44: 291). For its nest

hole philippinus prefers the banks of streams. In India, the limit

of the range of persicus corresponds closely with the periphery of the

dry area where the average annual rainfall is less than twenty inches.

Physiology. Besides being morphologically and ecologically

distinct, these two forms differ physiologically. M. 8. persicus makes

a long southwestward migration in the autumn from its breeding

grounds to its winter quarters in central and southern Africa. The

post-nuptial molt is begun before migration (vide infra), but its

progress is soon arrested; upon arrival on the winter range the birds

undergo a complete molt. M. p. philippinus does not make such an

158 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

extended migration and the post-nuptial molt immediately follows the

breeding season. The direction of migration of this form is south-

eastward to southern India, Malaya, and the East Indies. }

The’ east-west migration of persicus from northwestern India

across Iran and Iraq to Africa suggests a recent range expansion

correlated with the progressive desiccation of northwestern India

in the not too distant past. A secondary zone of contact would thus

seem to have been established where the two forms meet and behave

like good species. It remains for Indian ornithologists to determine

whether occasional hybridization occurs in this zone or whether there

is complete reproductive isolation as it now appears.

Merops superciliosus persicus Pallas

Luristan: Beshedalan, June 13, 1941, 1 ad. &; Burujird, July 22-23,

ad. 9, 1 imm. 9, September 25, 1 ad. ¢, 2 imm. 6, October 7,

imm. ot, October 17, 1942, 2 ad. ot; Durud, October 15, 1941,

ind rey ; bi cadeu+Qu October A, diad.® ,. damm. 491:

Khorasan: Nishapur, September 20, 1940, 1 ad. of, 1 ad. Qe

Afghanistan: Baghlan, July 1, 1937, 1 ad. o&; Taliqan, July 5,

ad. ¢; Chah i Ab, August 20-28, 1 ok 3, 1 immi-g, tbading;

imm. 9; Khanabad, August 31, 1 imm. ¢; Aq Cha, Septemer 8,

ad. ot. 7 / : C

Breeds from Kathiawar, Sind, Rajputana, Delhi, southern and

western Punjab, west to Baluchistan, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Syria,

and Palestine to Egypt. In Egypt it is known chiefly as a migrunt,

but a few breeding colonies exist in the Nile delta (Meinertzhagen,

1930, Nicoll’s Birds of Egypt, vol. 1, p. 327). :

According to Salim Ali (1945, Birds of Kutch, p. 72) neither species

is found breeding in Kutch, but just to the south in Kathiawar persicus

reaches its southernmost limit on the Indian peninsula. Baker (New

Fauna Vol. IV p. 239) ascribes all the breeding birds of Punjab and

Rajputana to persicus, but that is not entirely accurate. It will be

seen from the distribution map that both persicus and philippinus

breed at Delhi. The range of persicus probably extends throughout

the lower, drier region of northwestern India as far east as Delhi

where it meets philippinus in the western section of the United Pro-

vinces. The latter race extends northwest along the mountains in

Kumaon and northwestern Punjab to southern Kashmir and Pesha-

war. In Rajputana, persicus has been found (though not breeding)

as far south as the Aravalli Hills and from there westward to Sind.

Winters in southern and central Africa. On migration it passes

regularly through Bombay (September-November).

There seems to be some tendency in this subspecies to begin

the post-nuptial molt before migrating. In numerous adults taken

between August and October there is evidence that some, but not

all, of the body feathers are being replaced. The scapulars and the

first three or four primaries are always renewed at this time. This

type of molting behaviour is intermediate between that of M. p.

philippinus and the complete molt into an eclipse plumage of M.

apiaster, but in the latter none of the primaries are shed in the pre-

migratory molt. Once on the wintering grounds there is a complete

molt, by both adults and immatures, extendimg from November to

January, with extreme dates October 1 (Gaboon) and March 29

et bd

NOTES ON SOME ASIATIC MEROPIDAE (BIRDS) _ "159

(British East Africa). Adults and birds in first year plumage are

indistinguishable after this molt.

Measurements (males only): Wing, 150, 158, 154, 157, 158. Tail,

ie eo 0.04. Bill “SD, oo, 04 oO, ot:

Merops philippinus philippinus Linnaeus -

Punjab: Kangra, Bhadwar, April 16, 1988, 1 ad. ot.

United Provinces : Kumaon, Lechiwala, September 1, 1948,

f 1mm. co:

Nepal: Hitaura, ha 3-7, ak 1 ads, ot, 3 ad.; 9 2 nme oe,

id imm. @, July 15-29, 1 ad. 9, 1 unsexed ad., 1 imm. 6, 3.imm.

Assam: Khasia Hills, Umran, April 15, 1949, 1 ad.- 9.

Bihar: Mohammadgan}, August 20-29, 1947, 2 ad. &, 1 imm. &,

2ad. 9,5 imm. 9, 1 unsexed imm., September Dela. Olsen

Central Province: Bheraghat, April 11-12, 1946, iad. CS. eer

Oo, April 25, 1.ad. O° May 11-19, 2 ad. cot, I ad.

Madras Province: Hllore, February 2, 1930, 1 Cb Q; Kasargad,

February 27, 1 ad. 9.

Southern - Bombay Province: Jagalbed, February 24-March 4,

19388, 2 ad. co, 3 ad. On 1 unsexed ad. ; ’ Castle Rock, March 5, Lad. ae :

Supa, February 27, 2 ad. 9. )

Breeds from Northwest Frontier Province, northeastern Punjab

and the United Provinces and east through Nepal, Bihar, and Assam

to Burma, Yunnan, Kwantung, French Indo-China and northern

Malaya. The southern limits of its range are obscure, but the

southernmost breeding record seems to be that of Betts (communi-

cation to Ali) who found it feeding short-tailed young in Coorg.

Stresemann (1940, Journ. Ornith., 88: 404) records this race breed-

ing on Celebes.

The post-nuptial and post-juvenal molts may begin as early as

July 4 (Nepal, female adult); some birds complete the molt as late

as September 23 (Cachar, immature male). Young birds acquire

the adult plumage through this molt. An immature female was taken

on December 3 at Singapore, in worn plumage except for the new

tertiaries and first six primaries, but such a late molt ig exceptional.

-Measurements: Wing, males, 151, 132, 182, 132, 132, 134, 135,

ian. -females=. 1212 1240 124) 125) 196 12% 127, 127, Lon 127,

127, 128, 128, 129, 131, 181. Tail, (outer rectrices), males, 87, 89,

91, 91, 91; females, 84, 86, 86,-87, 87,°88; 88, 89, 89, 89, 89, 90, 93.

Bill, males, 31, 34, 34, 34, 34, 36, 36, 37; females, 31, 31, 31, 32,

32, 32, 32, 32.5, 92.5, 33, 38, 34, 34, 34, 35.

Merops orientalis

The range of this species extends from northern Africa across

southern Asia to Annam. Nine subspecies are now recognized: two

in Africa (viridissimus, cleopatra), three in Arabia (cyanophrys,

muscatensis, najdanus), and four in the Iranian-Indo-Burmese area.

The races of the last-named region are ill-defined, for they appear. to

comprise a single large variable population, the extremes of which

160 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

are certainly separable, but which intergrade into each other through

an intermediate group. |

The easternmost subspecies, birmanus, occurs in Upper Burma,

Yunnan, Siam and Indo-China. It differs from the nominate race

in having the upper back, nape, and crown ferruginous; this area is.

only slightly tinged with rufous in orientalis. The latter race is

found throughout most of India and is morphologically and geographi-

cally intermediate between birmanus and the subspecies resident in

Sind, northwestern India, Baluchistan, and Iran. This western

race, beludschicus, is the palest, with only a golden sheen on the

green of the head.

Recently, Whistler (1944, Spolia Zeylanica, 23: 223) separated

the Ceylon population, describing the new race, ceylonicus, as having

the bill longer and stouter than the bill of nominate orientalis, but

approaching birmanus in the amount of rufous on the nape and crown.

Examination of seventy-six specimens of this bee-eater in the

Koelz Collection, twenty-two specimens loaned by the Museum of

Zoology, University of Michigan, and of a large series in the collection

of the American Museum of Natural History, including the type of

beludschicus, indicates that the racial differences reported in the

literature are greatly exaggerated. The subspecific characters are

slight and the nominate race itself occupies the unfavourable position

of an intermediate population between the distinct extremes. How-

- ever, if large enough series are compared it is frequently possible to

correctly place the specimens.

The Assamese population is usually referred to birmanus, but

I find the northern Cachar birds to be most like orientalis; although

approximating the richer color of the eastern subspecies the ferruginous.

color is restricted more to the nape.

In the northwest, birds from the Kangra Valley in Punjab are

orientalis, but just where the border between the nominate subspecies

and beludschicus is to be drawn is not apparent from the present:

material. It is not improbable that beludschicus will be found to

range into the dry lowlands of Rajputana and southern Punjab, as

does M. s. persicus, but, from lack of other evidence, it seems best

to consider Punjab birds as referable to orientalis and not, as Peters:

(1945, op. cit., p. 287) has it, to beludschicus.

Comparison of Koelz specimens from Iran with a series including

the type and a topotype of beludschicus fails to show any noticeable

differences. Four males from Tomogaon on the Iranian Plateau are

slightly larger. A female from Dirak, Baluchistan, in the Rothschild

Collection, shows characters of both orientalis and beludschicus. All

these, however, are best referred to beludschicus.

Two specimens from Ceylon in the Rothschild Collection, an adult

female and an unsexed adult, both collected in December, agree

with Whistler’s description as regards the amount of rufous on the

head and nape, but the bill, though scarcely stouter, is not longer.

It seems unfortunate that this population was named, especially

since the species has already been badly split, but I would want to

see more material before synonymizing ceylonicus with orientalis.

Considering the three Indian mainland races as one population, it

can be said that the easternmost birds are most rufous on the crown

fix

NOTES ON SOME ASIATIC MEROPIDAE (BIRDS) 16}

and nape; the intensity of color decreases towards the western iimits.

of the range. In the west the throat is a pale blue, the blue showing

a tendency to decrease and to be confined more to the cheeks toward

the easterly limits of the range. In the west the underparts tend to

be bluish-green and the upperparts pale green; the trend in an east-

ward direction is toward more yellow-green underparts and darker

upperparts.

There are no appreciable size differences affording any basis for

separating the four subspecies. The length of the central tail feathers

was found to be quite variable within each race; only some of the

variation could be ascribed to wear. Measurements are tabulated under

the subspecies headings.

Males display a tendency to develop the central pair of rectrices

more beyond the tip of the tail than do females.

Nesting takes place principally in April and May. The annual

post-nuptial molt is complete and takes place from July to September.

In birds of the year a complete post-juvenal molt occurs at about

the same season.

Merops orientalis orientalis Latham

Northern Punjab: Kangra Valley, Bhadwar, April 9-10, 1933, 2 ad.

Jan. 20-Feb. 1, 1983, 5 ad. ot, 2 ad. 9 ; Panwali, March 8, 1 ad. '9;.

Lahore, Feb. 9-17, 2 ad. co, 2 ad. Q. =

United Provinces: Gorakhpur, January 28, 1947, 1 ad. o; Nichlaul,

February 9, 1 ad. of, February 12, 1 ad. 9; Khada, February 26,

2 ad. ot; Lechiwala, September 2, 1948, 1 ad. co; Lucknow, December

fey lo56, | ad.-o,.2 ad.’ .O-.

Nepal: Simra, March 6, 1947, 1 unsexed ad.

Bihar: Raxaul, March 1, 1947, 1 ad. 9; Garhwa Road, September

mld, 3 ad: of, 3 ad. QO.

Bengal: Dacca, January 12-13, 1937, 3 ad. Cc.

Surguja: Ramanujganj, September 27-October 2, 1947, 2 ad. o&,

aad. 2.

Central Province: Seven miles north of Jubbulpore, February 23-

= 24, 1946, 1 ad. of, 1 ad. 9; Bheraghat, March 11, 1 ad. o‘,~-1 ad.

= Mandla, June 26, 1 imm. 9; Belwani-Kisli, September 28, 1

athe CG.

Bastar: Kesarpal, March 29, 1949, 1 ad. o&.

Mewar State: Udaipur, April 22, 1987, 1 ad. 9.

Madras Province: Foot of Mahendra, January 26, 1937, 1 ad

Q; Rati, January 31, 1 ad. 9; Sidhout, March 22, 1 ad. o&; Salem,

April 7, 1948, 1 ad. o&.

Northern Bombay Province: Junagadh, Jamwala, January 31,

feed, | ad. 9, February 11, 1 ad...o%, 1 ad. 9.

Southern Bombay Province: Londa, January 8, 19-20, 81,

February 1-4, 18-15, 1938, 2 ad. of, 8 ad. Q; Jagalbed, February

20-25, March 8, 1 ad. of, 2 ad. 9; Supa, February 26, 1 ad. ot.

Measurements: Wing, 20 males, 89-97 (93.6), 22 females, 89-95.

(91.4). Tail, 19 males, 68-74 (71.2), 24 females, 65-74 (70.4). Bill,

25 males, 20-25 (23.2), 27 females, 19-26 (22.6).

162 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Merops orientalis beludschicus Neumann

Iran: Iran: Tomogaon, February 3-4, 1940, 4 ad. o&, 5 ad. ‘9.

Kirman: Saadatabad, December 28, 1939, 1 - eis

Luristan: -Isin, December 16-19, 1939, 3 a oo, 2 ad. 9+ Bandar

Abbas, “December Di wade ieae

Fars: Borazjun, April 11, 1940, 1 aa! o.

India: Sind: Khinjar Lake, January 18, 19384, 1 ad. 9, Jan. 28-

Feb. 27, 8 ad. ot, 38 ad. 9; Karachi, December 3, 1939, 1 ad. Q.

Measurements: (Tomogaon birds listed separately) Wing: males,

94, 94, 95, 96; females, 86, 90, 95, 95, 98; Tail: males, 69, 70,

71, 78, 73; females,~68, 69,-70, 70, 73; Bills: amalesi:22;.23, 24

24, 24; females, 19, 21, 21, 23, 24. Tomogaon specimens: Wing:

males, 95, 98, 99, 100; females, 91, 98, 94, 96, 99; Tail: malés,

70, 78, 74, 77; females, 70,772). 75, 78; Bib: males, 725; 25. 2a, 26-

females, 22, 22, 24, 25. .

Nyctyornis athertoni athertoni (Jardine and Selby)

Nepal: Simra, March 4, 1947, 1 ad. o, 1 ad. 9; Amlekhganj, |

March 9, 1 ad. o&; Thankot, March 28, 1 ad. co; iitaura, May 28,

1 unsexed ad., June 8, 1 imm. ©, 1 imm. Q, 1 unsexed imm. , June

12-4 eons ee :

United Provinces: Kumaon, Kathgodam, August 20, 1948, lad:

o’; Lechiwala, September 1-2, October 28-30, 5 ad. o&, 38 ad. QO.

Bengal: Siliguri, December 29-30, 1936, 2 ad. 9; Darjeeling

District, Badamtam Forest, Rangit, December 24, 1 ad. ot.

Assam: Khasia Hills, Nongpoh, May 38, 1949, 1 ad. o. June 22-28,

1 ad. o,:1 ad;-Q, 2.imim. o; 4 imm. 9; Barni Hat, June 2.1 ad.

ot, 1 ad.-.05.f imm..o,-2 imam, Oy consexeds imma:

Surguja: Ramanujganj, October 2, 1947, 1 ad. co.

Central Province: Kanha, August 13-30, 1946, 1 ad. o&, 2 ad. &.

Southern Madras Province: Nilgiri Hills, Kunjapanai, February

20. 1957, dads Give ad. 2 On .

Southern Bombay Province: Jagalbed, February 18, 1938, 1 ad.

Nyctyornis athertoni is a forest bird of the Indo-Malayan region

ranging from Travancore and Belgaum in southern India, the Central

Provinces (but not yet reported from Chota Nagpur’), Nepal; and

the United Provinces, to Assam, Vizagapatam Hills, Bengal, Burma,

Siam, Indo-China, and Hainan. Its distribution in southern and

central India is curious, the bird being not very common and existing

for the most part in isolated ecological pockets. Salim Ali (1948,

Gujarat Research Society, Monograph No. 2) and Ripley (1949,

Evolution, 3: 150-159) believe that this species and many other Indian

species exhibiting similar distributions spread south from the

Himalayas or the Kaimur Ridge-Vindhyan chain of hills during periods

of low temperature and high humidity, only to become isolated during

following periods of higher temperatures and increasing desiccation.

In effect, N. athertoni is a relict species in southern India.

* Salim Ali has recently collected specimens in Keonjhar and the Simlipal Hills

(Mayurbhanj), Northern Orissa.—EDs.

163

NOTES ON SOME ASIATIC MEROPIDAE (BIRDS)

“(P) ZEA Z2l WL ‘Zét “MA : Seinseant ad41,,

(Z-2Z) Z8z-€-£22 |. (¥-S6) 0-26-0-F6 (F-GE) LE-SE

(2.0) Z-T€-Z-62 | (1-6) 6-F6-F-26 (0-86) 6&-ZE

(t-2z) $-0-6.zz | (2-96) 0-O0I-T-¥6 (6-PE) LP-6Z

(0:22) Z-62-T-bz | (1-96) 6:ZOI-0-€6 | (S-9€) OF-EE

XOpuy xopuy

Te La [le -SUl MA Ita

(4-221) $-LEI-S2I

(S.S@L) OF I-22

9(8-62T) 9ET-LZL

o(Z-SEL) OFI-ZZ1

(6-€§1T) 6ET-IET

(8.PET) SET-ZET

(S-PET) SEI-OE1

(S-68T) EPL-SET

SUIM

2U0JAAYJY SIUAOAJINAAT JO S}[NpYy Jo sjUataiInsvayy

¢ AIavy,

és

Ps soe seyepneoiasig

&el

eZ ae fuo}ONIV

N | sofoadsqus

164 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

It was formerly thought that this bird has no subspecies but

Koelz has since described a _ short-tailed race, brevicaudata, from

Hainan (1989, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 52: 79). At that time

there were available to him only six specimens of the nominate race

and twelve of the Hainan population. The collection of a fairly

large series of Indian material by Koelz affords an opportunity to

review the status of this subspecies.

Measurements were made only on unworn and non-molting adults;

included is the type and original series from which brevicaudata was

described. The measurements are presented in Table 3.

The races are not too sharply defined. The females of nominate

athertont were found to have tail lengths concentrated among the lower

values and it may be expected that further collecting will secure even

shorter-tailed birds. Three of the five Hainan females and two of

the five Hainan males overlap the mainland population in tail length.

The averages of the wing-tail index and the tail-bill index indicate

that the Hainan birds have a relatively shorter tail and, at least the

males, have a longer bill relative to tail length.

Fiven though the differences are not striking it seems legitimate to

vecognize N. a. brevicaudata. All mainland birds are best included

with the nominate race.

There is a single, post-nuptial, molt that is complete and takes

place between May and October. The post-juvenal molt occurs at

about the same time. Since the immature plumage is exactly like

that of the adult, birds of the year are best distinguished by their

somewhat smaller size, especially shorter bill, although not all short-

billed birds are necessarily immatures.

TWO NEW SPECIES OF ISCHAEMUM FROM BOMBAY

INS Bor

While working out a considerable collection of grasses from the

Blatter Herbarium Bombay, two ncvelties in the genus Ischaemum

were discovered and are described below.

Despite the fine work carried out on the grass fiora of Bombay

by Blatter and McCann, it is quite clear that much remains to be

done.

Bombay contains a disproportionate number of interesting genera

_ which are endemic, most of them monotypic, besides a large number

of endemic species. Nearly all of these are annuals and come into

flower at the end of the rains when plant hunting is not, in the

ordinary course of events, popular.

Be that as it may, this time of the year is likely to be very

fruitful and productive of new species. The neighbourhood of Castle

Rock is one place that may be recommended as an excellent hunting

ground. Other places in the province, however, may be expected to

yield much of interest. IJIschaemum santapaut was first collected

at the end of 1949, but it turns out to be a very common grass with

a fairly wide distribution—it was so common that it wasn’t worth

collecting.

Ischaemum bombaiense Bor, sp. nov. J. robusto Salisb. affinis sed

ab eo spiculis multo majoribus, gluma superiore dorso nodulosa

recedit. |

Gramen annuum. Culmi usque 30 cm. alti, graciles, laeves

glabrique, nodis ramosi. fFoliorum laminae usque 12 cm. longae,

7 mm. latae, lineari-acuminatae, ad basin attenuatae, utrimque pilis

e tuberculis ortis tectae, supra scabrae, brevissime petiolatae; petiolus

dense albo-pilosus; vaginae laxissimae et a culmis solutae, laeves,

striatae, marginibus scariosis et dorso apicem versus villosae vel dorso

omnino pilis e tuberculis ortis tectae; vaginae superiores sine lamina;

ligula scariosa, 2-3 mm. longa.

Racemi gemini; articuli rhacheos crassi, sectione triangulares,

7° mm. longi, 8 mm. apice lati, angulo exteriore villo-ciliati,

denticulati. Spicula sessilis: gluma inferior 8 mm. longa, 3-3°5 mm.

lata, oblongo-acuta, inferne coriacea, superne herbacea nervis multis

gracilibus viridibus, superne carinata, inferne marginibus nodulosa,

dorso convexo rugis transversalibus crassis ornata, sulfurea; glurra

superior 8 mm. longa, explanata 5 mm. lata, navicularis, inferne

dorso rotundata, superne valde carinata, 3-nervis, dorso inferne 2-3

_nodulis ornata, carina et marginibus apicem versus scaberrima.

Anthoecium inferius Qo; lemma oblongo-ellipticum, acutum, 8 mm.

longum, hyalinum; palea ei similis sed minor; stamina 3; antherae

3 mm. longae. Anthoecium supcrius 3; lemma 6 mm. longum,

ad 34 fissum, aristam geniculatam e fissura emittens; palea squama

hyalina 6 mm. longa; stamina 3; antherae 2°75 mm. longae; style 2;

stigmata plumosa, purpurea; arista 20 mm. longa; columna torta,

166 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

brunnea, 8 mm. longa. Spicula pedicellata: pedicellus sectione

triangularis, 1°5 mm. longus, altero margine villo-ciliatus; gluma

inferior glumae inferiori spiculae sessilis similis, sed altero margine late

alata, 7°5 mm. longa, 8 mm. lata; gluma superior navicularis, 7 mm.

longa, basin versus 2-3 nodulis instructa; nervi superne anastomosantes

anthoectum inferius vacuum; lemma _ paleaque elliptico-lanceolata,

acuta, hyalina. Anthoecium superius 9; lemma paleaque eis

anthoecii inferioris similes.

Ischaemum bombaiense Bor, sp. nov. An annual grass. Culms up

to 30 cm. tall, slender, smooth and glabrous, branching at the nodes.

Leaf-blades up to 12 em. long, 7 mm. wide, linear-acuminate, narrowed

to the base, covered on both surfaces with bulbous-based hairs, smooth

on the margins below, scabrid above, very shortly petiolate; petiole

covered with dense white hairs; sheaths very loose and slipping from

the culms, smooth, striate, villous on the scarious margins and near

the top, or covered with bulbous-based hairs all over, those near the

top of the culm without leaves or only with rudimentary leaves;

ligules scarious, 2-3 mm. long. ee

Racemeés in pairs seated at the tip of a stout peduncle, the lower

two joints of the rhachis being confluent. Joints of the rhachis very

stout, triangular in section, 7 mm. long, about 3 mm. across at

the top, villous-ciliate on the exterior angle, toothed at the upper

articulation. Sessile spikelets: lower glume 8 mm. long, 3 to

3°5 mm. wide, oblong-acute in shape, crustaceous-coriaceous ‘in the

lower half, herbaceous above with numerous very fine, green nerves,

rugose in the lower half with 8-4 very stout ridges, bright yellow

in colour, keeled above, nodular on the margins below, scabrid on

the -keels above, for the rest smooth and glabrous; upper glume

8 mm. long, 5 mm. wide when flattened, boat-shaped, rounded on

the back below, strongly keeled above, 3-nerved, the central’ nerve

dividing half-way up at the point of junction of the awn with the

upper lemma and afterwards nerves anastomosing above, with 2 or 3

nodules on the dorsal surface near the base, scabrid on the keel

and very scabrid on the two margins above. Lower floret o; lemma

oblong-elliptic, acute, 8 mm. long, hyaline; palea similar but smaller;

stamens 3; anthers 8 mm. long. Upper floret ¢#; lemma 6 mm.

long, cleft half-way down and armed with a geniculate awn in the

cleft; palea a hyaline scale 6 mm. long; stamens 3; anthers 2°75 mm. |

long; styles 2; stigmas plumose, purple: awn kneed, 20 mm. long; ~

column brown, 8 mm. long, twisted. Pedicelled spikelet: pedicel

triangular in section, very stout, 1°5 mm. long, villous-ciliate on

the outer margin; lower glume very. similar to the lower glume of

the sessile spikelets, but with a broad wing on one margin, 7°5 mm.

long, 3 nm. wide; upper glume boat-shaped, 7 mm. long, with 2-3.

prominent nodules on the dorsal surface at the base, nerves anastomos-

ing above. Lower floret empty; lemma and paleéa elliptic-anceolate,

acute, hyaline. Upper floret 9; lemma and palea hyaline, similar

to those of the lower floret. \ | “telaurl ©: eon Tene

_ Inpia: Bombay, Khandala. Tata’s Lake, Blatter 9904. (Typus.

in Herb. Kew. et: in: Herb.: Blatt., Bombay). . --.:-°-. (6; 52> ba

‘This is -a- most; remarkable species.. At first sight it. might be

taken. for Ischaemum rugosum Salisb. ,;were it not for the very large

TWO NEW SPECIES OF ISCHAEMUM FROM BOMBAY 167

_ spikelets. A further remarkable and unique feature in the genus

is the presence of nodules on the upper glume of both the sessile

and pedicelled spikelets. This grass should be sought for again and

should not be very difficult. to find.

| _ Ischaemum santapaui Bor, sp. nov. I. imbricato affinis sed ab

eo habitu annuo, culmis ramosis, spiculis minoribus recedit.

Gramen annuum, in oryzetis incolum, dense caespitosum. Culm

usque 2 mm. alti, in paludibus geniculato-ascendentes, e nodis

inferioribus radices aereas demum in solum penetrantes emittentes,

subrobusti, teretes, multinodes, laeves glabrique, purpurascentes,

nodis ramosissimi; e nodo rami 7-8, l-nodes, superne vaginam sine

lamina gerentes, ex vagina 1-2 racemos erittentes, nodis pilosi.

Foliorum laminae lineari-acutae, usque 15 cm. longae, 10 mm. latae,

basi rotundatae vel vix cordatae, utrimque glabrae scaberrimaeque;

vaginae laxissimae, glabrae laevesque, striatae, e culmis solutae;

ligula lacerata, membranacea, 2-3 mm. longa.

_Racemi numerosi, gemini, divergentes, usque 5-6 cm. longi;

rhachis fragilis; spiculae ad quemvis rhacheos nodum binae; articuli

3 mm, longi, triangulares, altero margine pilosi. Spicula sessilis::

gluma inferior (cum callo 0°5 mm. longo) 4°5 mm. longa, 1°75 mm.

lata, dorso plana, 10-1l-nervis, oblonga, acuta, inferne chartacea,

superne herbacea nervis multis viridibus, superne bicarinata, carinis

scabra, inferne marginibus rotundata, marginibus per totum decursum

anguste inflexis; gluma superior 4°5 mm. longa, navicularis, superne

carinata, inferne dorso rotundata, dorso prope carinam scabra,

membranaceo-chartacea, apice acuta, mucronata. Anthoecium

inferius of; lemma hyalinum, lanceolatum, acutum, 3°75-4°25 mm..

longum, 1°25 mm. latum; palea circiter 8 mm. longa, sed angustior;

stamina 8; antherae 1°55 mm. longae. Anthoecium superius |

lemma latiusculum, 3°5 mm. longum, ad 4 fissum, lobis acutis, “ex

fissura aristam geniculatam emittens; palea squama_ triangularis,

hyalina; stamina 3; antherae 2°5 mm. longae; styli 2; stigmata

plumosa; lodiculae 2, truncato-cuneatae; arista 15 mm. longa; columna

brunnea, torta; 6 mm. longa. Spicula pedicellata: pedicellus 2 mm.

longus, -2-angulatus, angulis ciliatus; glumae vestigiales, herbaceae,

multinerves. | a _

Ischaemum santapaui Bor, sp. nov. An annual grass growing in

ricefields and swamps, densely caespitose. Culms up to 2 mm.

tall, in wet places decumbent at the base, with many roots and _

numerous stilt-roots from the lower nodes, many-noded, smooth and

glabrous (purplish in colour), much branched at the nodes; branches

slender, 7-8 from each node, 1-noded, bearing at the tip, in a sheath

with reduced blade, a single or a pair of racemes, white, hairy at the

nodes. Leaf-blades linear-acute, up to 15 cm. long, 10 mm. wide,

rounded or shallowly cordate at the base, glabrous on the upper and

under surfaces, coarsely scabrid on both surfaces; sheaths very loose,

smooth and glabrous, striate, slipping from the culms; ligule lacerate,

membranous, 2-3 mm. long. .

Inflorescences very numerous on each plant; racemes binate at the

tips of the glabrous peduncles, divergent, up to 5-6 cm. long; rhachis

fragile, bearing at each node a sessile and a pedicelled spikelet;

168 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

joints of the rhachis 38 mm. long, 8-angled, long hairy on one angle,

smooth and glabrous on the other two, with an oblique articulation

at the tip. Sessile spikelet: lower glume (with a callus 0°5 mm.

long) 4°55 mm. long, 1°75 mm. wide, 10-1l-nerved, oblong, flat on

the back, tapering to an acute tip, chartaceous below, herbaceous

above with many green nerves, 2-keeled above with scabrid keels,

rounded on the margins below with margins narrowly incurved from

base to apex; upper glume 4°5 mm. long, boat-shaped, firmly keeled

in the upper half, rounded on the back below, scabrid on the back

near the keel, membranaceous-chartaceous in texture, acute at the

tip, mucronate. Lower floret ot; lemma hyaline, lanceolate-acute,

3°75-4°25 mm. long, 1:25 mm. wide; palea about 3 mm. long but

narrower; stamens 38; anthers 1:55 mm. long. Upper floret :

lemma rather narrow, 3°50 mm. long, cleft half-way down, with a

geniculate awn in the cleft; palea a triangular scale, 3 mm. long;

stamens 38; anthers 2°5 mm. long; styles 2; stigmas plumose;

lodicules 2, truncate, cuneate; awn with an elbow at its point of

juncture to the lemma, 15 mm. long; column brown, twisted, 6 mm.

long; bristle scabrid. Pedicelled spikelet, rudimentary, consisting of

rudimentary glumes, seated on top of a short pedicel; pedicel 2 mm.

long, 2-angled, ciliate on the angles; rudimentary glume often a

small scale but towards base of the raceme up to 2 mm. long,

herbaceous and many-nerved.

Inp1A: Bombay Presidency, Karjat, G.I.P. Rly. Riversides.

11-12-1949, H. Santapau 9665. (Typus in Herb. Kew. et in Herb.

Blatter, Bombay). Father Santapau states in litt. ““The plant is

very common all over Karjat in ricefields (after the harvest), along

hedges, and from Karjat upwards to Khandala along the railway

line, some of the specimens being from Khandala itself; before

reaching Karjat it is also found along the railway line in fairly good

abundance. ‘I'he grass grows in dense tufts or clumps, the number

of culms per clump being up to 50, in height up to a little over 1 m.

generally, occasionally to nearly 2 m.; in the lower part of the culms

the plant throws out adventitious roots from several nodes. The

branching or multiple proliferation of the nodes is very noticeable.

In ricefields the plant occasionally appeared prostrate at the lower

nodes, then erect for the rest.’’

LIFE-HISTORY AND BIONOMICS OF THE CAT FLEA’,

CTENOCEPHALIDES FELIS BOUCHE.!

| BY

K. R. Karanpikar AnD D. M. Muwnsui

(With six text figures)

CoNTENTS

PAGES

Life-history: Egg; Larva; Pupa aif & ... 169-172 |

Bionomics:

Hosts of fleas a Ae et ae he 173

Feeding habits af om 19 TA a 173

Mode of feeding ... ae ne 174

Locomotion and means of eisub ution 13: wef Ltd

Longevity x ih Ry 175

Fleas as vectors of diseases: st. ve 176

References : ue . By: ay eLT6: Ey

LIFE-HISTORY

Fleas are holometabolous insects. Hggs are laid generally in such

places where the host animal rests during the night and where the

larvae on hatching can obtain their food without much difficulty.

Some of the locations selected for egg laying are dirty corners, under

the carpets, in straw mattings, cracks and crevices in the floor, un-

clean chicken houses containing dried excrement, feathers, straw, etc.

Cienocephalides felis oviposits in the fur-covering of its host (cat)

and also near the breeding places of the same animal. Plenty of

eges were obtained from a blanket which formed the bed of a kitten.

Observations on the mode of oviposition were made with the help

of the draw tube technique described below.

A glass tubing was drawn out to form a fine narrow pipette with

a lumen which would hold a number of fleas in a single row. The

end of the pipette was closed, and flea specimens were introduced

into it and blown with mouth towards the closed narrow passage.

The movements of the fleas thus enclosed in the narrow passage

in a single row were observed with the help of a low power microscope.

Egg

Just prior to actual egg-laying, the flea wriggles about restlessly

and shows very rapid movements of the legs and the mouth parts.

Suddenly after this a little quantity of fluid excretion is ejected with

a considerable force through its genital aperture, and immediately

————-—-

' This paper forms a part of the thesis submitted by the junior authcr for the

M. Bes slegree to the University of Bombay.

170 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

afterwards, an egg is launched out and deposited into the fluid. The

process is repeated and more eggs are deposited in the same manner.

The flea under observation was found to deposit three eggs in quick

succession.

A female Xenopsylla cheopis is reported (14) to deposit from 2 to

6 or even more eggs at a time, and is capable of laying 300 to 400

eggs during its life-time. In the case of C. felis a female laid over

800 eggs during its life-time.

Eggs of C. felis are just visible to the naked eye, their average

size being about 800 microns (Fig. 5). They are broadly oval in

shape and glistening white in colour. The surface of a freshly laid

egg is perfectly smooth, but when dry, it shows a faint reticulum

spread all over in a discontinuous way. Unlike the eggs of other fleas

which become dull and darkish with age, those of the cat-flea remain

relatively unaltered in colour, except that they become a little opaque.

Minute micropylar openings which provide passage to the

spermatozoa during fertilization, are situated at each pole of the egg

and arranged in circular rows. There are 35 to 55 such openings at

i anterior pole of the egg of C.felis, and 20 to 30 at its posterior

pole.

Larva

The eggs hatch after 2 to 4 days into a tiny worm-like apodous

larva which moves about actively and away from light by means

of bristles which encircle its body segments (Fig. 1). When full grown,

it measures about 4 mm. in length. It has a distinct head, three

thoracic segments and ten abdominal segments. The midportion of

the body covering the seventh and eighth segments is the broadest.

The body tapers towards the anterior and posterior extremities, the

head and the terminal abdominal segment being the smallest. The

latter bears a pair of stout, blunt, hooked, chitinous processes called

Fig. 1. Larva of C. felis.

the anal struts. The head which is of the prognathus type is more

chitinized and darker in colour than the body-segments. It bears

a pair of slender cylindrical antennae. The ocelli are absent. The

mouth parts which are of the biting-crushing type, consist of the

labrum, a pair of mandibles, a pair of maxillae and the labium.

LIFE-HISTORY AND BIONOMICS OF THE CAT FLEA 171

The larva, unlike the imago, is not parasitic in its feeding habits.

It feeds on the organic debris found on the body of the host. An

examination of the contents of the larval stomach reveals the presence

of blood and blood-pigments. Obviously their source lies in the

organic debris which is usually formed of the faecal matter of the

adult fleas containing half-digested blood. Occasionally the larvae

occur on the hind region of the body and in the dirty pelt of the host.

Larvae of other species of fleas are also found at times on the body

of nestling birds and also on human beings with unclean habits.

Here they probably feed on the organic material present on the skin

of the host which at times contains blood defaecated by the parent

flea. The presence of this blood can be demonstrated in the form

of minute dark-coloured particles on the fur or feathers of such animal

hosts.

The larva passes through three consecutive instars. The length

of the larval life is not definite and generally varies according to the

temperature and humidity conditions of its surroundings. Generally

speaking the larval life extends over a period of 9 to 10 days. To-

wards the end of this stage, the larva surrounds itself with a

silken cocoon (Fig. 6) spun from its own salivary secretion. Pieces

of debris are incorporated in the walls of the cocoon with the result

that it resembles its surroundings so closely that it is very difficult to

spot it out. Often several cocoons adhere together to form masses

which then become visible to the naked eye. When the. cocoon is

completed, the enclosed larva moults into the pupal stage,

Pupa

The pupa resembles the adult. In a full-grown pupa which is

whitish in colour, the segmentation of the exoskeleton can be clearly

seen (Fig. 2). The head is bent ventrally and the palps and the

Fig. 2. Pupa of C. felis.

legs lie folded and well-pressed against the ventral surface of the

body. The duration of the pupal stage is from 7 to 10 days, after

which the pupa moults into the imago (Fig. 4). Thus the whole life-

cycle of the flea is completed within a period of about three weeks.

172 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

- “The life-cycle period may be shorter in the case of tropical fleas

living. under optimal conditions, with a temperature of 23°C. and

humidity from 80% to 90%. Observations on the development of the

dog flea (Ctenocephalides canis), according to Russel (17), indicate

the duration of the different stages as follows:—egg stage—2 days;

larval stage—6 days; pupal stage—8 days; total period of the life-

cycle—16 days. However, under extremely abnormal conditions, such

as low temperature and scarcity of food, the life-cycle of the flea

from the egg to the adult may take a much longer period, which, as

reported by Jordan (18), may in some cases extend from 18 to 20

months.

Very often the imago may remain quiescent in the cocoon for a

very long time before it emerges from it to lead a free active life.

Waterston and Jordan (25) state that a mechanical stimulus from

outside, however slight, is required for the resting imago to break

through its cocoon, and in the absence of that stimulus, the emergence

is very often delayed. They also state that the required stimulus is

usually supplied by the host itseli by brushing against the resting

cocoons which thus become activated, and emergence follows.

More striking is the behaviour of certain fleas such as Ceratophyllus

styx, which leaves the cocoon before the arrival of its emigrant host,

the sand martin, and instinctively waits for it near the entrance of

its burrow. This probably accounts for the sporadic outbreak of fleas

after long intervals.

After emerging from their cocoons fleas can live without food

for a considerable period of time. When sexually mature, copulation

takes place and the cycle starts over again.

BIONOMICS

Hosts of Fleas

The normal food of the fleas is the blood which they obtain from

the hosts on which they live a parasitic life. As a general rule, a

flea restricts itself to its specific or true host, but in the absence of

such a host, it will readily attack and feed on the blood of other

animals which may, therefore, be called the casual or accidental host.

The latter may belong to allied species or even to widely separated

ones. Thus the common cat-flea (Ctenocephalides felis) is also found

on dogs and may even attack man. Rat fleas feed on mice and

even moles. The common rat-flea (Xenopsylla cheopis) readily feeds

on the blood of man in the absence of its normal host. The Pulex

irritans, which is specific of man, also feeds on blood of the dog in

North China and visits man only when the dog is not available. In

Europe Pulex irritans lives normally on man. The dog-flea

(Ctenocephalides canis) is a common ectoparasite of the jackal and

is not often seen on the dog. It may even be found on cats. Many

animals exchange fleas with one another due to their living close

together. That is why the bird fleas are found on mammals or even

on bats. Beasts of prey are infested with fleas from the victims on

which they prey. Thus rabbit fleas are found at times on wild

-eats. Russel (17) has stated that a German naturalist collected

2,036 fleas from theatres, concert halls, ball rooms, schools and

LIFE-HISTORY AND BIONOMICS.OF THE CAT FLEA 173

barracks in the great Duchy of Baden and found that 50% of them

were dog-fleas. In zoological gardens cat-fleas are generally numerous

in most cages.

Probably more species of fleas hive been obtained from Insectivora

and Rodents than. from other Orders of Mammals taken together.

It may, however, be mentioned here that Ungulates and monkeys

are the only mammals generally free from the flea trouble. Russel

(17) suggests that Ungulates are immune to fleas, due to the fact that

their young ones always follow their mother from the time of their

birth, instead of leading a stationary, helpless life in their shelters.

It has also been observed that the relationship between a flea and its

specific host is often characterised by individual preferences. Thus

the human flea will readily feed on the blood of a particular person

and reject that of another although belonging to the same species.

Feeding Habits

Some fleas may remain attached to the body of their specific host

nearly throughout their life and thus prove to be highly parasitic

in habit, while others may act only as temporary parasites. Female

fleas belonging to the family Hectopsyllides (Sarcopsyllides) fix them-

selves to the body of their host and remain attached in one position

for a greater part of their life. The ‘Jigger’ (Tunga penetrans) may be

mentioned as an example of this habit. The females may even bore

through the skin and oviposit subcutaneously. Other species bite

occasionally, taking short feeds, and still others may take a long feed

and then hop away from the body of the host to return once more

after a lapse of time. Many species of fleas do not suck blood more

than once in their life. Ag a general rule, fleas are temporary parasites.

When the temperature is high, the process of digestion takes place

rapidly in fleas as in other insects. Thus the number of feeds is closely

correlated with the rapidity of digestion which, in its turn, is governed

by temperature conditions.

It is rather a remarkable fact to note that some fleas, under

conditions of starvation, will resort to taking in liquid food other

than blood. Thus a starved flea will suck a drop of water or even

insert its mouth parts into the skin of a caterpillar and suck its fluid.

Damph (6) introduced a number of common bird fleas (Ceratophyilus

gallinae) of both sexes on the body of a hairy caterpillar and observed

that the fleas immediately started sucking the body fluid of these

insect larvae. He also observed that a naked hairless caterpillar was

not, however, attacked by such fleas. Russel (17) has mentioned that

the larvae of Pulex irritans prey on caterpillars and feed on their juices.

The common belief that the capacity of oviposition of a flea depends

upon adequate feeding prior to that process, has been refuted by

Jordan (18) who states that a freshly emerged flea can start laying

eggs even before leading any parasitic existence, since enough nutritional

matter is stored by the larva and carried over to the adult stage to

enable a certain number of eggs to get ripened. Several successive

generations have been observed to have been produced in this way.

This fact easily accounts for the excessively large number of fleas

found sometimes in uninhabited huts and other locations such as

srain storage, etc., where the normal food is not available.

174 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Mode of Feeding

Observations on this point

were made with the following

technique. A kitten was first

laid on its back on a dissection

wooden board and its limbs were

tied by strings on to nails fixed

to the corners of the — board

(Fig. 3). Its head was then

adjusted in position by means of

a leather strap fitted across its

neck. Its belly was shaved .so

as to make the skin clean and

bare. A square piece of clean

white flannel with a median circu-

lar hole of about an inch in

diameter was spread and tied to

the belly. Another piece of soft

wire gauze with a close meshing

and of the same size as the

flannel piece was taken and had

a median circular aperture of the

same size cut . into, it. The

wire gauze was then spread over the flannel piece in such a way that

‘both the apertures coincided with each other. The gauze was then

fixed to the board and a flea starved for about a week, was introduced

on the portion of the belly exposed through the apertures. A watch

glass was immediately placed over the aperture in order to close it and

trap the flea within the circular area. Movements of the flea were

then observed with the help of a binocular dissecting microscope.

Before the stylet-like piercing mouth parts were inserted into

the skin of the host, a flea was seen wandering about on the surface

of the skin, as if for the purpose of exploration, making occasional

punctures here and there. When an appropriate spot was discovered,

it immediately took up a tilted position. The epipharyngeal and the

mandibular stylets were then thrust into the skin, while the furcate

labium was bent outwards, the palps forming an angle with the

submentum. The forelegs spread outwards and thus balance the

posterior region of the body high above the surface of the skin. So

long as it was not disturbed, it remained absolutely glued to the spot.

In this position it could be examined from all sides with the help of

a powerful lens or a telemicroscope. Within two or three minutes

one could see its abdomen gorged with red blood. Careful observations

also revealed the up-and-down movements of the mandibles and the

passage of blood through the pharynx into the pulsating mid-gut.

Fig. 3.. Demonstrating the mode

of feeding.

Locomotion and Means of Distribution

The normal mode of locomotion in fleas is by jumping from place

to. place. They can also glide their way easily through fluffy objects,

such as fur, cotton, wool, flannel, etc. Being habituated to this

type of locomotion in the furry coats of. mammals, birds and such

' LIFE-HISTORY AND BIONOMICS OF THE CAT FLEA 175

other hosts, certain structural adaptations have been developed by

them. They have a bilaterally compressed body covered with spines

and. bristles all of which are backwardly directed. In the case of the

combed fleas like Ctenocephalides, the spines of the comb are also

similarly directed. The antennae being delicate and sensitive, are

lodged within the antennal grooves, the eyes are protected by the

‘ocular’ and ‘frontal’ bristles. If disturbed, they often sham death

and rest with their legs tucked in tightly to the body, in which

condition they. may even be blown about. ‘With the help of their

powerful legs they jump over long distances. Patton (14) states that

Fig. 4. Adult of C. felis.

Fig. 5. Egg of C. felis.

Fig. 6. Pupa exposed by cutting open the cocoon.

the longest jump a flea can take, measures over 33 cm., and the

highest jump taken by it veaches a height of about 19°95 cm. When

off the host, the fleas remain confined to the ground and cannot

distribute themselves far and wide like winged insects. But they

are carried from place to place through the agency of their hosts.

Transport, especially sea-transport, helps a good deal in_ the

distribution of fleas from port to port. Also the eggs which are

frequently laid on the host are scattered about when the animal goes

to its resting place.

LONGEVITY

Observations made by Nicolle (12) on Nosopsylla faciatus indicate

that the average length of life of the flea is from 6 to 8 days under

ordinary temperatures. Experimentally however fleas have been kept

alive for several months. Bacot (2, 8) for instance, had kept Pulex

176 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,. Vol. 49

irritans in the living condition for 513 days. Xenopsylla cheopis

lived for 162 days [Webster and Chitre as quoted by Patton (14)].

Strickland (21) kept fleas living as long as 17 months without feeding

them at all during this period. Nicolle (12) states that under certain

conditions the larvae and pupae of fleas remain’ unmetamorphosed for

months and months. Jordan (18) also mentions that the pupa may

lie quiescent within its: cocoon for an indefinitely long period until it

receives the requisite mechanical stimulus for itg emergence. As

regards C. felis, it was observed that the flea could be kept alive for

over three months under experimental conditions. |

Fleas as Vectors of Diseases .

Many of human diseases are due to fleas. Their stylet-like mouth-

parts; when inserted into the skin of the host, render them liable

to carry pathogenic organisms from animal to animal, from animal

to man, and from man to man. Formerly with the exception of

Diphylidium canium, fleas were only suspects as carriers of diseases.

There was enough suspicion that fleas may be the cause of relapsing

fever, typhus fever, and kala-azar. But no definite proof was available

in support of this suspicion, until the findings of the Indian Plague

Commission (1), in connection with their role in the transmission of

the plague germs, were published. The common rat-flea (Xenopsylla

cheopis) is now known to be an effective vector of the bubonic plague

and the murine (endemic) typhus. Verjbitski (24) successfully trans-

mitted the plague bacilli from rat to rat by means of the Ctenocephalides

felis. The Indian Plague Commission (1), during their exhaustive

series of experiments, succeeded in the transmission of the same bacillus

with the human flea (Pulex irritans).

Ctenocephalides canis, Pulex irritans and C. felis have been shown

to be the intermediate hosts of certain helminths that affect man

(e.g. the tapeworms Diphylidium canium and Hymenolepis diminuta).

Haemorrhagic septicaemia of cattle is probably transmitted by C. felis

in tropical countries (7). The digestive tract of fleas is rich in bacterial

flora and protozoal fauna. That the flea is a potential reservoir of

protozoal infection, has been shown by various workers prominent

amongst whom have been Balfour, Cowdry, Korke, Laveran, Minchin,

Noller, Patton, Ross, Splendore, Swingle, Tyzzer, Wenyon, Yamasaki

and others. As a result of the laborious work done by these workers

in different parts of the world, remarkable facts about protozoal

and spirochaetal infection by fleas have been revealed. Recent re-

searches in insect microbiology have shown that C. felis has also been

found to be a carrier of some unnamed species of Crithidia (20) and

Rickettsia ctenocephali (20).

REFERENCES

1. Advisory Committee (1906-1914): ‘Reports on Plague Investigations in

India.» Vols: 4, 2,23: ,

2. Bacot, A. W. & Martin, C. J. (1914): Journal of Hygiene. (Plague supp.)

1914, p. 423, 1924, pp. 23-98. °

3. Bacot, A. W. & Ridewood, W. G. (1914): ‘Observations on the Larvae of

Fleas’. Parasitology, 7: 157-175.

4. Balfour, A. (1906): Herpetomonas parasites in Fleas. Journ. Hug., 6:

652.

face

LIFE-HISTORY AND BIONOMICS OF THE CAT FLEA 177

5. Cowdry, EH. V. (1923): ‘The Distribution of Rickettsia in the tissues of

insects and arachnids’. J. Haptl. Med., 42: 281-252.

6. Dampf, A. (1907): Die Ost und Westpreussische #lohfauna. Schriften der

Physikokonom. Gesellschaft zukonogsbergi-i-Pr., 48: 388.

7. Daubney, R., Hudson, J. R. & Roberts, J. I. (1934): J. Comp. Path, 47:

211.

8. Korke, V. T. (1916): On a nosema (Nosema pulicis, n. s.) parasitic in the

dog-flea (Ctenocephalus felis). Indian Journ. Med. Res., 3: 5,

9. Landois, L. (1865): ‘Anatomie des Hundeflohs (Fulex canis Duges)’. Nova

Acta Akad. Leop. Carol.

10. Laveran, A. & Franchini, G. (1914): Infection naturelle du rat et de la

souris au moyen de puces de rat parasités par Herpetomonas pattoni. C. R. Acad.

Sci., 158: 450.

11. Minchin, E, A. & Thomson, J. D. (1915): The rat trypanosoma, Trypanosoma

lewisi, in its relation to the rat-flea, Ceratophyllus fasciatus. Quart. Journ. Micro.

Sci., 60: 463.

12. Nicolle, C. & Sparrow, H. (19385): Arch. Inst. Pasteur Tunis, 24: 179.

13. Noller, W. (1914): Die Ubertragungsweise der Rattentrypano-somen II Teil-

Arch. Protist, 34: 295.

14. Patton, W. S. (1980): ‘Insect, Ticks, Mites and Venomous Animals.’

Liverpool, Part IL (Public Health).

15. Patton, W. 8S. & Rao S. (1921): Studies on certain Flagellate parasites of

Pulex irritans L. Part IV, Indian Journ. Med. Res., 8: 621.

16. Ross, E. H. (1909): A gregarine parasitic in the dog-flea, Ctenocephalus

serraticeps. Ann. Trop. Med. & Parasit., 2: 359.

17. Russell, H. (1918): ‘The Flea’,

18. Smart, J., Jordan, K. & Whittick, R. J. (1948): ‘A Handbook for the

Identification of Insects of Medical Importance’, London,

19. Splendore, A. (1920): Sui parassiti delle avicole. Annali d’Igiene, 30:

445, 560, 622.

20. Steinhaus, E, A. (1946): ‘Insect Microbiology’. New York.

21. Strickland, C. (1914): ‘The Biology of Ceratophyllus fasciatus Bosc.. the

Common Rat-flea of Great Britain’. Journal of Hygiene, Cambridge 14: 129-142.

22. Swingle, L. D. (1911): The transmission of ‘Trypanosoma lewisi’ by Rat-

fleas (Ceratophyllus sp. .and Pulex sp.), with short descriptions of three new

herpetomonads. Journ. Infect. Dis., 8: 125.

23. Tyzzer, HE. E. & Walker, E. L. (1919): A comparative study of Leishmania

‘infhntum of infantile kala-azar and ,;Leptomonas (Herpetomonas) ctenocephali

parasitic in the gut of the dog-flea. Journ. Med. Res., 40: 129.

24. Verbitski (1908): ‘The part played by insects in the epidemiology of the

plague’. (In Russian).

25. Waterston, J. & Jordan, K. (1942): ‘Fleas’. Brit. Museum (Nat. Hist.)

‘Economic series, No. 3.

26. Yamasaki, S. (1924): Uber Leptomonas ctenocephali, Trypanosoma lewisi

und pathogene Trypanosomenarten im Hundfloh. Arch. Protist., 48: 136.

THE LOWER SIND VALLEY, AND SOME FURTHER

OBSERVATIONS ON BIRD PHOTOGRAPHY

Lr.-CoL. R. S. P. Bates, M.B.0.u., 1.4. (Retd.)

(With 4 plates)

In the spring of 1943 I had an enforced spell in hospital. The

hackneyed saying that it is an ill wind that blows no one any good

operated well to my advantage on that occasion. For, after the

surgical specialist had removed what he called a foreign body, a

considerate Medical Board granted me a month’s sick leave to regain

the use of my leg. I joined my wife in Murree, where I soon found

I was capable of getting about fairly well on even ground. That being

so, we decided to make at once for the Vale of Kashmir to see what

‘transpired in June between Ganderbal and Kangan in the lower reaches

of the Sind Valley.

In Srinagar I gleaned some useful information from Bob Lowther,

whom I contacted in the Chenar Bagh. He had just come in from

Shalabug after working around Ganderbal in the hopes of netting

photographs of the elusive Ibisbill. I fear the nesting of that intrigu-

ing bird in the Lower Sind has in all probability now been brought

to an end through the reclamation of the larger islands and the avarice

‘of certain unscrupulous egg-shikaris. Whether the present unsettled

state of the country will re-act to the advantage or detriment of the

species, and allow it to rehabilitate itself in the area, it is impossible

to say, but I live in hopes.

The late Colonel ‘Bingie’ Phillips, whose recent death in Mombasa

we all mourn, is, I believe, the only bird-photographer in India to

have tried successful conclusions with that bird of superlative interest.

He had a considerable amount to say about it in Vol. 45, pp. 347-52.

It lays its eggs in April, so his nest of 4 eggs, found by him on the

toth of that month, was by now finished with, and Lowther reported

seeing both birds on the 4th May still in the vicinity of the nest but

‘unaccompanied by their young. Some disaster appeared to have be-

fallen the family. A mile or so further upstream another pair were

accompanied by 4 small young, so at least one couple still appeared

to have a chance of bringing a brood to maturity.

I saw what must have been the abandoned nest of Phillips’s birds.

It was a flat mosaic of small stones covering a circle of about 8

‘inches diameter amongst the coarser shingle tailing off a small island.

It was placed on the highest part of the ridge to be above normal

flood level. A point to which I would draw attention is the even

‘curve of the bill in the living bird portrayed in Colonel Phillips’s

photographs. Is it possible that the bill in museum specimens assumes

the more peculiar shape shown in the woodcut in the Fauna through

-shrinkage during the process of drying? |

JOURN. BomBay Nat, Hist. Soc. PLATE I

White-breasted Kingfisher with giant mole-cricket for young.

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE II

Kashmir Pied Woodpecker at nest-hole.

LOWER SIND VALLEY AND BIRD PHOTOGRAPHY 179

It is not really of this bird that I wish to write, for I could

hardly expect to get even belated information about it of which I

could make use. It was the news brought by L regarding a nest-

ing pair of White-breasted Kingfishers which most intrigued me.

Previously I had only seen this bird with any regularity in the Jhelum

Valley as far up as Garhi, and in the Kishenganga at the lower end

of the Tithwal Gorge, though once, many years ago, I heard a

bird calling near the Nasim Bagh. But here it was, actually nesting

m a quarry-face at Ganderbal. L noticed the nest on 12th May when

he saw both birds leave the tunnel. At that time they seemed to

be feeding on small fry and frogs. His shikari recognised the bird

and testified to having once seen a nest in the Vale, but this find

of Lowther’s is, I believe, the first authentic record of this King-

fisher’s nesting so far into the Himalayas at this point. It appears

to be extending its range, for later on Colonel Phillips wrote to me

that he had been coming across it in the Vale at all seasons of the

year, in small but seemingly increasing numbers.

When, on 6th June, I photographed the parents, the nest al-

most certainly contained young, for they were constantly bringing

food to the nest-hole. It was difficult to recognise of what this

consisted since it was often crushed into an unrecognisable mass.

Frogs certainly figured on the menu, occasionally a small fish, and

I think a lizard, but the most intriguing item was a huge mole-cricket

with the most wonderful digging apparatus I have ever seen. In

fact, besides scrapers and shovels, it appeared to have capacious

grabs with which to scoop up and eject the waste material behind it.

Its scientific name is, I gather, Schizodactylus monstruosus, and it

is really a desert species. The lower slopes on the northern side of

the Vale around the larger side valleys are of rather an arid stony

nature, so the insect may have reached this perhaps unusual but

congenial habitat from across the watershed from Ladakh and the

Indus Valley. When Colonel Phillips photographed this same bird

on the 12th June, he averred that the nest then contained well-grown

fledglings and that the food being brought to them ‘always consisted

of frogs or the battered remains of lizards’ (Vol. 46, p. 99). In this

photograph facing p. 91 the victim looks to me like a frog which

has also undergone the violent crushing treatment which appears to

be the fate meted out to all but the smaller and softer items when

intended for the young brood. |

The kingfisher proved very easy to photograph, posing time after

time on a large pile of stones facing the nest-hole. These stones

were a godsend, since the only position for the tent and camera, if

focussed on the hole, faced the strong light coming over the top of

the quarry bank. I built up another stack to get myself level with

the bird on its favourite perch, and it is this mound, and the hiding-

tent upon it, which are clearly reflected in the bird’s eye.

On 8th June we left the houseboat at Ganderbal and moved up

to the Akhal rest-house. This is a somewhat dilapidated forest hut,

seldom used I should think, about half a mile from the left bank of

the river opposite Kangan (elevation 5,800 ft.).. A very dirty tonga took

us along the so-called new motor road as far as the Kangan D.B.,

180 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

and I hobbled the remainder of the way with a few rests which served

to give me a chance of observing the birds around us.

I have always considered Kangan to be the point in the Sind

Valley where the returning trekker first meets with a predominantly

‘Vale’ fauna. This certainly holds good for. the valley bottom where

fields and parklands slope up to the forest rim. Starlings, House-

Sparrows, Mynas, White-cheeked Bulbuls, Drongos, a Roller or two,

and Tickell’s Thrushes, were all noted on that first walk. And,

before we left, we had seen many of the common fry of the drier

parts of the Vale with the notable exception of the Paradise Flycatcher.

Indian Orioles were not uncommon, but surely Stuart Baker has got

his data wrong in recording orioles nesting at Sonamarg! Did he

mix up Sonamarg with Sonarwain, I wonder? I have never seen

orioles at any distance from the Vale, except of course below it in

the Jhelum and Lower Kishenganga Valleys.

Black Bulbuls were noted as being fairly numerous, especially

along the forest edge. That was to be expected, since they winter

in small numbers in the Vale and in large numbers below it, moving

up to the Vale in flocks in the spring, to spread themselves in May

about the lower ends of all the side valleys where they breed on their

lower slopes.

As soon as we entered the mixed forest, a few hundred feet above

Kangan and the river, we were in another world. A Forktail was

disturbed within fifty yards of the hut, and Black-and-Yellow Gros-

beaks were calling as they fed their way through the summits of the

tall pines. Willow-Warblers, Red-breasted Flycatchers, and a pair

of Small-billed Minivets were seen as we crossed a little glade; while

Meadow-Bnntings were moving about the undergrowth. The harsh

cacophony of a Small Cuckoo drifted down from the slopes of a thickly-

wooded nullah, to be followed shortly by the hoopoe-like notes of a

Himalayan Cuckoo. I felt I had chosen well, and even if a mile in

any direction were to remain my limit of travel, I would have plenty

to do.

My first victims were a pair of Kashmir Pied Woodpeckers. June

seems to be late for finding nest-holes still in use. As most of my

incursions into the hills had started from halfway through that month,

I had not had many opportunities of photographing this bird. The

few occupied nest-holes which I had noted at odd times, had often

been in difficult, some in well-nigh impossible, situations in bare

trunks 40 or more feet from the ground. I have noticed, however,

that in the mixed forests of Kashmir, this woodpecker shows a decided

preference for boring its nesting hole into the trunks and branches of

chestnut trees.

On our very first outing, on the morning of the oth, I heard the

unmistakable squealings of young woodpeckers emanating from the

far side of one of these trees. On going round, I could at first see

no signs of the nest for I was looking well up into the tree. Imagine

my delight when I glanced down at the main trunk to discover that

I was standing with my elbow almost blocking their lair. I have

never seen quite such a low nest; the majority run from say 12 feet

to almost any height. We returned to camp and put the hide in

position that evening. ye

LOWER SIND VALLEY. AND- BIRD PHOTOGRAPHY “181

Surrounding trees rendered the light rather poor, added to which

the 1oth proved to be a cloudy day. I perforce had recourse to the

silent shutter and slow speeds, but between 1o o’clock and 1.15 p.m.

exposed a dozen plates. Of these only half were worth keeping, for

the birds proved altogether too tame, moving their heads in charact-

eristically jerky fashion in the middle of exposures taking no notice

whatsoever of the shouts and whistles whereby I attempted to make

them freeze. The five negatives which showed no movement are all

very good, so really I have nothing to complain about. The food

brought to the young was varied but hard to recognise. One item

appeared to be a small cocoon, no doubt with its larva or pupa within,

while another was a large butterfly or moth.

I had sent Khalik Khan a mile or so up river to where I had

made out some large islands. He failed to trace the presence of any

Ibisbills, but on cne of the larger and more accessible were no fewer

than 4 sandpipers’ nests, a Hodgson’s Pied Wagtail’s, and a Red-

wattled Lapwing’s. I visited this island on the 15th and found the

sandpipers’ nests to contain c/4, c/4, c/3, and c/2. On that day the

Red-wattled Lapwings completed their clutch with the laying of the

fourth egg. A close inspection of this nest showed it to consist of

some 200 sheep droppings, many bits of dry horse dung, and tiny

pieces of wood and bark, the flotsam of the island’s rim, as well as

small clods of earth and some pebbles. This lapwing is by no

means uncommon along the side rivers in their lower reaches where

there are islands or waste land along the banks. As is usual with

this annoying bird, any man, bird, or beast foreign to the island was

invariably met with a torrent of abuse and much ostentatious flying

as soon as their boundary was violated. I cannot say that I find the

Red-wattled Lapwing protectively coloured to any marked degree. The

large expanse of deep black on the breast and head contrasts too

highly with the adjacent white parts. The earthy back is inconspicuous

enough, but there is little difficulty in picking out the sitting bird from

either the front or side, however still it remains.

I wasted a whole morning on that island, obtaining no photo-

graphs of the sandpipers, in spite of having had rough hides up for

a couple of days, but with no dummy lens in position; and some

mediocre negatives of the Pied Wagtail on its nest where the patchy

light and strong shadow cast by the sun proved too much for me. I

tried shading the nest with an old umbrella, but even these birds

kicked at that treatment and I had to remove the offending gamp.

A number of useful paths radiated in all directions from the forest

hut. Two led directly up and down the valley following the lower

rim of the forest; two more ascended long spurs into the hills. The

more northerly of the latter probably joined the route over the Hyan

Pass, but we could not follow it far enough to see.

~ On the days between the 1oth and 15th we explored these different

tracks. Those along the edge of the trees disclosed that here was

primarily the domain of Rufous-tailed Flycatchers in large numbers,

Blue-headed Rock-Thrushes, and Dark-grey Bushchats. I found nests

of all three species, but two Rufous-tailed Flycatchers’ were in sites

of which I had had no previous experience. They were, in fact, in

identical situations in perrotia scrub, both of them built across small

182 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

horizontal forks, rather open to vetw and about 43 feet from the ground.

The small young ones in one of them were found dead on the 18th

so I examined the nest in detail, finding it to have been built almost

entirely of moss with some bits of bark skin intermixed. A quantity

of grey lichen plastered its exterior. The bulky little cup was lined

with fine hairs and three or four downy feathers. The cup measured

ig inches across and 1% inches deep.

The Rufous-tailed Flycatcher is one of the commonest birds in

I<ashmir. Leave the Vale in any direction you please, and it will

be amongst the first birds to be met with in any numbers, particularly _

along the edges of the woods; in the spruce and pine forests, into

the fastnesses of which it perhaps does not penetrate far owing to

the gloom and lack of undergrowth; in the mixed forests where it

will be found everywhere; and even in well-wooded parkland which

cannot be called true forest at all. It particularly delights.

in the edges of those forests where it gets varied types and heights.

of trees, and glades surrounded by well-developed undergrowth such

as the perrotia scrub mentioned above. In spite however of its numbers.

it is not an obtrusive bird, for it makes no spectacular dashes into the

open after winged prey but catches its food while flitting quietly from

one perch to another or when fluttering about the middle foliage and

in amongst the boughs of the pines. In its nesting habits it is equally

versatile, this adaptability perhaps accounting for its success as a

colonist, for its nesting sites vary to a considerable degree. The nest

may even be found on the ground, particularly on very steep hillsides.

where it is sometimes placed at the foot of a small bush or in a

depression in a nearly vertical bank, These ground sites are, I think,

exceptional. In bushes it is generally about 4 to 6 feet up, but when

we come to the trees, it chooses sites such as against the trunk where

a horizontal branch springs out at 10 to say 15 feet up. It may at

times be placed across a horizontal fork in the smaller branches at a

considerable height from the ground. Amongst the twigs springing

from the crowns of pollarded trees is also said to be a favoured site.

During my peregrinations to and from the Rufous-tailed Fly-

catchers’ I noticed four other species nesting within sight of the path.

Two pairs of Red-breasted Flycatchers had their homes not a hundred

yards from the hut, one in a 4-inch sapling. This type of site seems

to be chosen above all others, so much so that the thinner the stem,

the more inclined I am to tap it if it shows a knot-hole or slit

auguring a hollow interior. The fact that the space within must

often be very cramped and preclude anything but the scantiest use

of nest materials does not seem to matter: it may in fact be an

advantage, for I have seen a nest which consisted of half a dozen

skeleton leaves and a little debris requiring but a minimum of time

and labour to construct. Occasionally large cavities are used, that

is, large for the size of the bird, but it is the little holes in little

trees which are most favoured, and these at no great height from

the ground, frequently only three or four feet up.

The other species referred to were the Hoopoe, the Indian Blue-

chat of which more later, and the Eastern Meadow-Bunting. On the

morning of the 18th, I walked past this last nest twice. The first

time would be about 7.30, when I noticed: nothing suspicious. Im-

LOWER SIND VALLEY AND BIRD PHOTOGRAPHY 183.

agine then my surprise and interest on returning a couple of hours

later to find the three young ones scattered in a line below the nest,

two about 6 inches from the rim, already dead and being attacked

by vicious red ants, the third, just by the rim, lethargic but still alive.

Two inches. from the opposite rim there lay a Cuckoo’s egos, «l of

course knew that there was an Asiatic Cuckoo in this area; indeed

I had heard the bubbling note not so long before, probably proclaim-

ing the deposition of this very egg. But what had transpired to

bring about this extraordinary situation? From the egg’s colouration

I judged the Cuckoo to be victimizing Rufous-backed Shrikes, but

Forktails too would no doubt have accepted this egg. These lovely

birds were, or had been, present on the little stream which provided

our water, for I found traces along its banks of five nests, one possibly

new. Cuckoos will, I know, ‘condition’ their supply of nests by destroy-

ing the odd one when occasion arises, and are at times even forced

by adverse circumstances to lay in nests of birds whose eggs are not

in the right state or belong to species with eggs widely divergent in

colour from their own. But this is the first time I have ever heard of a

cuckoo attempting to introduce its egg into a nestful of young. That

this bird had been compelled to lay in a nest belonging to other than

its usual fosterer was in this case patently obvious—Meadow-bunting

Cuckoos have evolved a bunting-like egg—but had the cuckoo, or

some subsequent marauder, pulled out the chicks? Or was this the

work of frenzied parents, who, in the extremity of their anguish

and excitement, had destroyed their own nest and sacrificed their off-

spring in the act of rejecting this monstrous imposition? Since the

cuckoo’s egg was also outside the nest, about the construction and

position of which there was nothing to have prevented the cuckoo

from depositing the egg well and truly in the cup, I feel the latter

must have been the case. But there the mystery must remain and I

will pass on to the Bluechats.

I had put up a dummy hide on the 11th, the day on which we

found their nest. Now, on the 18th, it contained callow young. The

site chosen was in the bottom of a narrow water-course in the forest.

It lay in a cavity amongst some earth and stones on a raised hump

which might be calculated to avoid the flood in the event of a spate.

It was a gloomy spot, fairly open in itself, but the proximity of the

trees and undergrowth, and the narrowness of the ravine, precluded

much light. It was, in fact, one of those typical sites so beloved of

this species which seldom comes out into the open in the nesting

season. A pity this, since the penetrating notes of the highly coloured

males commence to be heard throughout all the woods and gorges

of Kashmir from quite low elevations to 10,000 feet or so from late

May or early June, according to elevation. The song is quite un-

mistakable, a rapid jumble of rather thin notes warmed up, as it

were, by three exceedingly penetrating whistles proclaimed unseen

from the depths of the viburnum or other scrub which it frequents.

I have on the odd, but very rare, occasion seen one mount to a lower

branch of a pine tree to broadcast its calls.

Though cautious, Bluechats are not hard to photograph. Un-

fortunately the differences in depth of tone between the dark blue

upper plumage and the dull chestnut of the lower parts when reduced

184 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIsT. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

to shades of grey, seem beyond the powers of the monochrome plate

to portray. Perhaps a judicious choice of filters in order to exagger-

ate or restrain one colour or the other may be the answer. - Both

sexes came freely to my nest and remained sufficiently still for me to

make use of time exposures of some length with the silent Luc shutter.

A point of interest in an otherwise rather dull session was that both

parents were noted to swallow the capsule containing the faeces instead

of removing it and dropping it at a distance from the nest. Does

this habit persist throughout the youngs’ sojourn in the nest or only

in the opening stages of their lives? I have noted the habit in the

case of newly-hatched Reed-Warblers.

_ I have little else regarding our stay at Akhal worthy of discours-

ing upon. The Ibisbills were seen no more. I failed to trace the

position ‘of the nest of a pair of Short-billed Minivets, so filled in

time at one of the Red-breasted Flycatchers’, attempting to catch the

characteristic stance with tail cocked up at an angle and wings slightly

adroop. The light was poor and the results still poorer. On the

way down to Kangan on the day we returned to the boat, I saw a

Brown-fronted Woodpecker. The elevation here, 6,000 ft., is, I think

about the limit of this species’s upward travel. It is a woodpecker

of the lower levels in the foothills but some are resident in the Vale,

their numbers being augmented in the spring by fresh arrivals from

lower down.

* * *

As I have talked about the silent Luc shutter, before I close I

would like to add a few observations to what I wrote in ‘Bird Photo-

graphy in India’ in Vol. XL, pp. 666-680. That paper was written

eleven years ago. A lot of water has flowed under the bridge since

then, but what I said in it in the main holds good, requiring little

correction but some considerable amplification. I said nothing about

shutters, insufficient on the subject of cameras, and only little really

about lenses. In fact, on the last point a definite slip of the pen

remained undetected even when correcting the proofs. On page 674,

talking of lenses for use in bird photography, I remarked that their

focal length should lie between 8 and 12 inches, preferably nearer the

latter. I intended to write, nearer the former. With lenses beyond

8-inch focal length, the bellows extension required when _photo-

graphing small birds at a distance of 3.to 4 feet from the hide is

altogether too great, and even if the camera front can be racked out

sufficiently far, its stability comes into question. The tele-anastigmatic

lenses will of course give a large enough image with a comparatively

small bellows extension, but they give little depth of field which mili-

tates against their use for normal subjects. The size of image on the

plate should be not much less than an inch or 3/4 of an inch in length

if one is not to lose feather texture and minute detail, so it may not

infrequently be necessary to place the camera as close as three feet

from the smallest birds and their nests, requiring, even with an

8-inch lens, a very long bellows extension. ,

This brings me to another point. I related how I had come to

the conclusion that it might be found possible to reduce the size of

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist, Soc, PLaTE III

Rufous-tailed Flycatcher on nest.

‘ysou }e VeYUD ON[G UeIpUT ee ‘ysou Sutyoroidde Surmdey poy}}eM-payqz

“saw “d “SH sojoyd

4 RP hts al vo te is

AI S1Lv1g ‘00S ‘ISIH[ ‘IVN AvVaWog ‘Nunof

LOWER SIND VALLEY AND BIRD PHOTOGRAPHY 185

negative material to 34 by 24 inches, which would render a consider-

able saving in expense, weight, and bulk of apparatus, all three very

important factors. Since 1939 I have used that size of plate, and

all I hoped for in those respects has certainly proved in favour of its

use. In practice, however, certain limitations have come to light,

and those limitations are so serious as largely to outweigh the favour-

able considerations.

As previously suggested, the image on the plate of even the small-

est bird has to be little if anything under one inch in length. Measure

off a lozenge of that length about the middle of a 34 by 24 inch

plate and it may appear to give ample space above and below, and

on either side of it, for sufficient surroundings from which to compose

a picture which will tell a story as well as give balance to the whole.

Remember, however, that a bird is an independent agent over which

we have little or no control. We cannot caution it to remain still

in the exact right place for our photography. And if our calculations

as to the position it will occupy go astray, with such a small plate

we may well find the bird cut in half, or at best right on the edge

‘where we have no scope at all for composition in the final result.

When I at length succeeded in getting a good photograph of a

female Blue-headed Rock-Thrush, the bird unexpectedly landed on a

stump so close to the camera that its image filled most of the plate.

In this case it did not matter so much as all else except the top of the

stump was distant and quite out of focus. All things considered I am in

favour of the quarter plate, although the other day I heard a very well

known bird photographer say that he was contemplating reverting to the

5 by 4 plate. I can imagine situations where the quarter plate of 4+

by 34 inches would prove inadequate, particularly when contending

with the birds of a heronry or those massed cohorts of waders on the

edge of the tide. ‘Estuary photography’ may and often does call for

getting a large number of birds all in focus over a wide area and

through a considerable depth of field. And that leads to the consider-

ation of cameras.

There is really no such thing as an all purpose camera. But where,

owing to the depth of one’s pocket, a single camera has to be considered,

then it must in my opinion be a reflex. For work from the hide

I would much prefer one of those contraptions usually known as the

field camera, that is a bellows camera capable of long extension and

provided with various movements, the most important of which is the

swing back. A fixed and very limited tilt can be imparted to the back

of a reflex without much difficulty in the way of structural modification,

but to get the best results, and obtain the extreme depth of field so

often essential in bird photography, a camera with a back which can

be swung through a considerable arc is imperative. So many of my

photographs can be considered only of second rate value, thanks to

out-of-focus foregrounds and a narrow belt of sharp focus across the

middle of the plate. The depth of this strip can of course be increased

by stopping down—which, don’t forget, proportionately increases the

exposure times—but two controls, tilting the back and stopping down,

whereby to obtain an area of perfect definition enclosing the whole of

the foreground to some way beyond the bird so as to include at least

the further rim of the nest and its immediate background, are better

186 JOURNAL, “BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCKET ¥;=V or. 29

than one. And it is the swing back which provides us with the

greater control of the two over the depth of field, a control which in

the event of poor lighting may enable us to get a well-focussed picture

with a comparatively large stop and so with a length of exposure the

bird can stand. No reflex camera can have such a swinging back with-

out it ceasing to be usable as a reflex, so where possible leave the:

reflex for its specialized uses and in the hide employ the field camera.

Modern plates are so fast and have such great latitude compared with

those of say 25 years ago that the bird photographer’s task has un-

doubtedly been simplified in many ways. But I am quite sure that no

present day B.P. would dream of using that plate speed on birds at

the nest merely to make certain of eliminating all signs of movement

in his subjects by the employment of rapid exposures. Rather does he

make use of this increased emulsion speed by stopping down further

than of yore, say to f22 or even f32, thereby increasing the depth of

his belt of sharp focus. There are now silent or near-silent shutters

which give him a better chance of success with the comparatively long

exposures he has always been wont to employ. My advice is to stick

to those exposures, even though it will still entail throwing a propor-

tion of the negatives on to the rubbish heap after development.

For years I put up with the clatter of focal plane shutters; or

rather I induced the birds to put up with their devilish noises. And

it is extraordinary how soon most birds do become oblivious to the

sudden bangs of the descending blind. Nevertheless, the use over the

last ten years of the Luc silent shutter has served to show me just

what I missed by failing to indulge in a shutter of this type as soon as

it came on the market. For, excepting a slight click or scratching

noise after the exposure is virtually over, the Luc shutter is to all in-

tents and purposes quite silent in operation. A postwar British-made

version is now on the market, so there is no excuse for any serious-

minded B.P. not possessing one. The fitting of it may of course

entail some structural alterations to cameras, such as the provision of

an extension box between the lens and the original lens panel, since

in my view it is quite wrong for the photographer to have the

shutter fixed on to the front of the lens where the bird can see the

opening and closing of the leaves.

This shutter, incidentally, has three settings. Open, for focussing

and to enable one to use for rapid exposures the focal plane shutter

if so fitted to one’s camera. Secondly, a time setting for long exposures ;

and thirdly, an instantaneous setting whereby the speeds are controlled

by the rapidity with which one manipulates the antinous release. The

shortest 2xposures obtainable with practice are in the neighbourhood.

of 1/40th second. Personally I have found the time setting the most

silent and the most useful. With it short exposures of from 2 to 1/10

second are quite feasible and in fact I often use much longer exposures

than these.

On reading over the last couple of pages, I feel I have perhaps

given the impression that the reflex camera is a handicap rather than

an asset in the hide. This is by no means the case. I merely wish

to stress the advantage which the swing back of the field camera un-

doubtedly confers on the bird photographer when he is faced with the

necessity of obtaining extreme depth of focus, or of obtaining sufficient

LOWER SIND VALLEY AND BIRD PHOTOGRAPHY 187

depth of focus in gloomy surroundings where the antics of the bird

entail the certain use of comparatively short exposures.

This brings to an end the last of the three articles I had in

mind on the subject of Kashmir’s birds. Whether I shall ever have

the opportunity to collect further data is in the lap of the gods. I hate

to think I may never again wander with field glass and camera along

those wonderful valleys, climb the wooded hill-sides, fragrant with

the scent of the pines, to the upper margss and flower-starred pastures,

or idle in a shikara through the shady waterways of the Vale listening

to the flutings of the orioles and the songs of the thrushes. Perhaps

I shall: one never knows one’s luck.

SOME WEST BENGAL PLANTS!

J. OC CunsHaw.

In his introduction to ‘Bengal Plants’, published in 1903, the

late Sir David Prain is extremely modest in hig valuation of his

work. He makes no claim to be comprehensive. ‘Of Northern

Tirhut we know very little. . . Our knowledge of the Chota

Nagpur flora is still far from adequate: much has yet to be done. . .

Our knowledge of this most varied and interesting province (sc.

Orissa) is almost blank. . . Of Tippera we know even less than we

do of Orissa. . . Our acquaintance of the southern portion of this

tract (sc. West Bengal) is of the slightest: but for some references

by Roxburgh to interesting species from the ‘‘Midnapur jungles’’ it

would be altogether blank. . . The time for the preparation of a

complete local flora of the Lower Provinces has not yet come: much

special work is still called for in many of the outlying districts.

Yet something must be done, if the attention and interest of those

capable of rendering the necessary assistance is to be invoked. . .

The assistance that it is hoped many of those who use the present

work shall be willing to give must be awaited before an attempt

can be made to issue what should aim at being a complete Local

Flora.’

After such modest words in the introduction one is almost

surprised to find that his work includes a list of just over three

thousand species and varieties. But Prain thought there should be

more. The assistance he hoped for may have been offered. If so

we have seen very little of the results of it in print. Meanwhile

Bengal has been partitioned, reunited, and partitioned again. Tirhut,

Bihar and Chota Nagpur form a province of their own. Orissa forms

another. Hast Bengal is no longer politically a part of India and a

botanical exile is tempted to wonder whether she has now to cast

her eyes to Lahore rather than Sibpur—again botanically speaking,

of course. Perhaps some enterprising citizen of Pakistan is already

contemplating a Flora of Hast Bengal. However that may be, it

seems quite clear that Prain’s ‘Bengal Plants’ will never be re-

printed, but will remain a valuable curiosity to be handled with

care in libraries, while the assistant librarian keeps a wary eye on

the handler for fear that he might damage or decamp with so valuable

a prize. Meanwhile what is to happen to “Plants of West Bengal’?

Prain admits that his records of that area are limited. Western

Bengal for him does not correspond exactly with the modern political

province. For him it stretches westward from the Bhagirati and

the Hughli to the eastern base of the Chota Nagpur ghats, its

composition being a narrow belt of deltaic alluvium along its eastern

In this paper I have followed Prain’s nomenclature throughout, except for

species not mentioned by Prain, for which I take the names from Hooker’s Flora

of British India.

SOME WEST BENGAL PLANTS 189

edge, with a non-alluvial ‘plain to the west, passing gradually into

the submontane forests below the eastern ghats of Chota Nagpur.

Prain says in his introduction, “We owe to many collectors, but more

than any others to Kurz and Ball, our fairly adequate knowledge

of the northern half of this non-alluvial tract’. ‘Fairly adequate’

seems a high claim indeed from Prain, when one remembers his

oft repeated confessions of ignorance of the area covered. For

Central Bengal, part of which is also included in the modern political

province of West Bengal, his claims are even higher. ‘Of this tract,

as of the Sundribuns, we possess a knowledge that is probably

practically complete.” There remains however the southern half of

Western Bengal, of which, says Prain in a passage already quoted,

‘our acquaintance is of the slightest: but for some references by

Roxburgh to interesting species from the “‘Midnapur jungles’’, it would

be altogether blank.’

It was my good fortune to be stationed in this area from 1944 to

1947, and during that period I made some casual collections of herbs

and blossom. The following lists are the result. They make no claim

to be comprehensive: in fact they are definitely the result of casual

rather than intensive collection, and there must still be scores or

more of interesting plants that have been overlooked. A glance at

the lists will show that they contain no grasses, reeds or rushes, merely

because I nurse a prejudice against those families and have never

made the effort to identify them. Apart from this, the most re-

markable thing about the lists seems to be that they have not been

recorded from West Bengal before. |

All the plants in these lists have been picked in the southern

half of the Bankura district, or along the northern edge of the

Midnapur district: from Bankura in the north to the former R.A.F.

station south of Salboni in the south, on the railway line between

Bankura and Midnapur: and from the western borders of the

Bankura and Midnapur districts to Amlagora in the east. The vast

majority of them were picked in the Raniband and Raipur thanas of

the Bankura district. Out of a total of 820 species I have not included

in the lists 181 which Prain records from all the provinces, 38 cultivated

species, and 50 already recorded in Prain as from Western Bengal

or the western provinces. The remaining 101 comprise :—

1. List A. 62 plants not recorded by Prain for either Western

or Central Bengal, or (with three exceptions) the Sundribuns—the

area which covers most of the present political province of West

Bengal.

2. List B. 18 plants recorded in Prain for Central Bengal, but

not for Western Bengal... “Having regard to the composite nature

of West Bengal as a botanical province’, says Prain in his introduction,

‘and to the fact that its alluvial rice-plain is neither very extensive,

nor at all distinctive, the province has not been cited in the list under

any species that belongs to West Bengal merely because it occurs in

these rice-fields. Whenever therefore a plant is cited as occurring

in West Bengal, it' is to be understood that it has been collected to

the west of the narrow semi-aquatic rice-plain, in the non-alluvial

portion of the province.’ Many of the 18 species recorded in this

list are species one might expect to find in association with an

alluvial rice-plain: they have been recorded here however because

190 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. “SOCIETY; Vol! 49

they do in fact occur in the western non-alluvial portion of the

province, and qualify therefore for inclusion as West Bengal plants

according to Prain’s definition.

3. List C. 21 species recorded in Prain as occurring in most

of the provinces. This list merely suffices to record that ‘most’ in

these particular cases does in fact include “West Bengal’.

List C then calls for no particular comment. The same may

be said of List B, except perhaps for an exclamatory comment of

‘and how!’ on Prain’s remark that Evolvulus nummularius L. was,

though confined to Central Bengal, in 1903, rapidly spreading. One

notices also a slight admixture of Chota Nagpur elements in a list

of what one may consider chiefly as Central Bengal plants. This

tendency is even more marked in List A, in which 48 of the 62 species

are already recorded in Prain for Chota Nagpur. This is only to be

expected as the greater proportion of the plants on the list were

collected in an area with a strong sal-forest association (Shorea robusta

Gaertn. f.). They have not however been previously recorded from

either the botanical or the political province of West Bengal. The

same applies to the remaining 14 of the 62 species but their associations

are somewhat different.

Of these 14, three are recorded from Bihar—Cotula anthemoides

L. is recorded for Bihar alone with the additional note ‘very rare’.

I myself found it on only one occasion, but Haines, in his “Botany

of Bihar and Orissa’, records it ‘on the Gangetic plain from Rajmahal

(Santal Parganas) westward’, which would seem to argue a fairly

wide distribution. Pulicaria foliolosa DC. is also recorded by Prain

as occurring in Tirhut and North Bengal as well as Bihar, and Haines |

comments, ‘banks of the Ganges, Santal Parganas, Kurz.’ Acrua

lanata Juss. is recorded by Prain as from East Bengal as well as

Bihar, but Haines’s comment, ‘a common weed, usually in open

village lands’, makes it surprising that it has not been recorded from

other districts also.

Of the 11 remaining, seven—Medicago lupulina L., Ammannia

cordata W & A., Ludwigia prostrata Roxb., Randia longiflora Lamk.,

Vandellia hirsuta Bth., Vandellia scabra Bth., and Bonnaya

veronicaefolia Spreng. var. verbenaefolia Bth.—are recorded by Prain

as occurring in either North or East Bengal, in some cases in both.

The most remarkable fact about these seems to be that they have

never been recorded from similar situations, of which there must be

any number, in Central Bengal, but they no doubt occur in individual

herbaria collected in that area, and it would be interesting to know

how many of them have occurred. The four plants remaining in

List A call perhaps for individual comment.

Ipomoea Pes-caprae Sweet. (I.biloba Forsk.) is included in this list

without real justification as Prain has already recorded it from West

‘Bengal. It has however its own interest. Of this plant Prain says:

‘Orissa; Sundribuns: Chittagong: on the seashore among sand,

common. Mr. Kurz once found the plant growing on a hill near

Raniganj in W. Bengal: how it found its way there is unknown.’

I enter this plant on the list to record that it has been found again

in the southern portion of West Bengal, some 90 miles south of

Raniganj, north of the village of Amjhor in the Raipur thana of

the Bankura district. Prain speaks of it as a sand-binding, littoral

SOME WEST BENGAL PLANTS 191

creeping perennial, and it may be that it was introduced for this

purpose as it grows profusely on the embankment of a bandh, built

as famine relief work, over which the main road passes.

Utricularia racemosa Wall. var. filicaulis Cl. is not recorded in

Prain. I find this difficult to account for except by the supposition

that Prain did not recognize Clarke’s variety, as he already records

Utricularia racemosa Wall. from Chota Nagpur and Bengal. This

plant I have recorded in list A. The distribution of var. filicaulis

Cl. is given as ‘from Nepal and the Khasia Mts to Ceylon and

‘Tenasserim’ in the Flora of British India iv. 333. This variety is

recognized by Haines as commoner than the type. It is not of course

to be confused with U. coerulea L. of the Flora of British India,

though it has sometimes been known by that name. Haines ‘Botany

of Bihar and Orissa’ p. 645 is of course the locus classicus for clear-

ing up this confusion, which is said to go back originally to Linnaeus

himself. of

The last two on the list are rather more surprising discoveries.

Hoppea fastigiata Cl. was found in November 1945, quarter of a

mile west of Gadara on the main road between Sarenga and

‘Chandrakona Road railway station. Its distribution is given in the

Flora of British India iv. 100 as ‘S. Deccan peninsula, Mysore,

Moulmein and Ceylon’, and in Gamble’s Flora of Madras as ‘North

Circars, in Ganjam; Deccan, in Mysore; West coast from South

‘Canara to Travancore’. It is not recorded in either Prain or Haines.

Nor is Grewia humilis Wall., which is recorded in the Flora of British

India i. 390 as from ‘Ava, on the Irrawaddy, Wallich; Burma, Kurz.’

It was found in July 1946 in sal-forest between the villages of

‘Tantidanga and Telijant, in the Raipur thana of the Bankura district.

The appearance of these two plants seems extremely difficult to account

for. It is, I suppose, conceivably possible that seeds of Hoppea

jastigiata Cl. may have been imported into West Bengal together

with rice seed from South India, during the famine period of 1942-3.

For the appearance of Grewia humilis Wall. I can see no way of

accounting except by the apparently incredible but not completely

impossible assumption that it has previously been overlooked by

-collectors in Bengal.

Prain’s ‘Bengal Plants’ records 3052 plants (including 35 in the

Appendix and 153 varieties). Of these only 168 are recorded from

‘West Bengal. There are in addition 457 recorded as appearing in

all the provinces, 48 recorded from ‘the western provinces’, and

163 recorded from ‘most of the provinces’, which would make a

possible total of 836 species and varieties for the botanical province

of West Bengal. Out of a possible total of 836, a collection of a

mere 320 species makes a somewhat meagre showing, but of that

320, no less than 80, a quarter of the total number collected, may

be looked upon as new records. For the political province of West

Bengal, the record must be far greater as the majority of the 268

plants recorded in Prain for Central Bengal, but not West Bengal,

would have to be included, in addition to the plants of the Sundribuns,

and of course the Darjeeling plants, which Prain never attempted to

include in his work. Statistics are dangerous material for argument,

but it might not be too rash to assume that a collector who found

192 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

all the 886 species recorded by Prain for West Bengal might find

at least another fifth or sixth as new records, which would bring the

list for Prain’s botanical province of West Bengal to over a thousand

species and varieties, and increase the number for the political province

to a total past my powers of computing. This paper is written in

the hope that it may inspire some patriotic citizen or denizen of

West Bengal to achieve this!

In the lists appended the second column of figures indicate the

serial number of the species or variety in Prain’s ‘Bengal Plants’.

In the three cases where no such number occurs the plant named

not included in Prain. The abbreviations indicate the distribution

recorded by Prain and are for the most part self-explanatory. A

list of them is however added for the purpose of greater clarity. |

May I, in concluding these notes, express my thanks to Dr.

S. K. Mukherjee and the staff of the Sibpur Herbarium for in-

valuable help in the identification of specinfens, and also to Dr.

W. B. Turrill and the staff of the Kew Herbarium for their clarification

of certain points.

Abbreviations

CN Chota Nagpur

O Orissa

Bh Bihar

uy Tirhut

N North Bengal

C Central Bengal

aD East Bengal

S Sundribuns

Ch Chittagong

LIST (A.!

(62 Plants not previously recorded by Prain for West or Central

Bengal)

Caryophyllaceae

Le 11d. -Polyecarpaea corymbosa

Lamk. see Bh NE

Dipterocar paceae

2, 145. Shorea robusta Gaertn. f. CN N

Malvaceae

3, 195. Thespesia Lampas Dalz.

& Gibs. we. CON, Bh

Tiliaceae

4. Grewia humilis Wall.

Zygophyllaceae

5. 259. Tribulus terrestrisL. ... CNO BhT

Celastraceae

6. 334. Celastrus paniculata Willd. CN N

Anacardiaceae

7. 392. Buchanania latifolia Roxb. CN O

8. 400. Semecarpus AnacardiumL. CN Bh

SOME WEST BENGAL PLANTS 193

| Leguminosae

| 9. 549. Tephrosia pumila Pers.... CN Bh

| 10. 436. Crotolaria sericea Retz. CN NE Ch

11. 580. Medicago lupulinaL. ... N |

12. 610/2. Desmodium gangeticum

DC. var. maculata Bak. CN Bh. T

13. 625/2. Alysicarpus bupleuri-

folius DC. var. gracilis

Bak. 72 LCN Bh

14. 643. Indigofera arborea Roxb. CN

15. 662. Cassia mimosoides L. ... CN NE

16. 673. Bauhinia purpureaL. ... CN Bh NE

Lythraceae

17. 827. Ammannia cordata W&A. E

18. 832. Woodfordia floribunda Sal. CN Bh N

Onagraceae

19. 846. Ludwigia prostrata Roxb. NE

Rubiaceae

20. 942. MHedyotis pinifolia Wall.... CN Bh

21. 943. Hedyotis hispida Retz. ... CN Bh Ch

22. 971. Gardenia gummifera L.... CN

23. 980. Randia longiflora Lamk. E Ch

Composttae |

24. 1024. Vernonia Roxburghii

Less. ey Bh

25. 1063. Gnaphalium luteo-album

L. var. multicepsHk.f. CNO

26. 1068. Vicoa auriculata Cass. ... CN Bh T

27. 1070. Pulicaria foliolosa DC. ... BhT N

28. 1084. Blainvillea latifolia DC.... CN

29. 1103. Cotula anthemoides L, ... Bh

Campanulaceae

30. 1132. Lobelia trigona Roxb. ... CN NE

31. 1140. Cephalostigma hirsutum

Edg. tes, JN

32, 1142. WahlenbergiagracilisDC. CN Bh N Ch

Oleaceae

33. 1191. Nyctanthes Arbortristis L. CN Bh

A pocynaceae

34, 1212.* Vinca pusilla Murr. ao CN Bh

Gentianaceae

OD: Hoppea fastigiata Cl

Boraginaceae

36. 1307. Heliotropium marifolium

: Retz. Leo CN Bh

194. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Convolvulaceae

37. 1335. Merremia tridentata Hall. CN Bh

38. 1344. Ipomoea hispida Roem.

& Schultz. StL Bh

39. 1345. Ipomoea Pes-tigridis L. CN Bh

40. 1357. Ipomoea Pes-Caprae Sweet. O S Ch

(and Raniganj)

Scrophul aviaceae

41. 1441. Vandellia hirsuta Bth. ... ; NE

42. 1442. Vandellia scabra Bth. ... . NE

43. 1445. Vandellia angustifolia

Bth. at MON

44, 1450/2. Bonnaya veronicaefolia

Spreng. var. verbenae-

folia Bth. beg E Ch

45. 1463. Striga euphrasioides Bthe CN Bh NE

46. 1465. Centranthera humifusa

Wall. we TEN Bh

Lentibulariaceae

47. 1480. Utricularia racemosa Wall. CN N

48. Utricularia racemosa Wall.

var. filicaulis Cl.

Pedaliaceae

49. 1496. Martynia diandra Glox ... CN

Acanthaceae

50. 1512. Blepharis miolluginifolia

Pers. 43. CN

51. 1523. Ruellia suffruticosa Roxb. CN BhT N

Verbenaceae

52. 1603. Vitex Negundo L. ie CM BhT NS

Labiatae

53. 1630/2. Orthosiphon rubicundus

Bth. var. rigida Bth. ... CN Bh

54. 1660. Anisomeles ovata R. Br. CN Ch

55. 1673. Leucasmontana Spreng. CNO_ Bh

56. 1683/2. Ajuga macrosperma Wall. |

var. breviflora Hk. f.... CN

Nyctaginaceae

57. 1685/3. Boerhavia repens L. var.

diffusa Hk, f. «. GN '@

Amarantaceae

58. 1709. Aerua lanata Juss. “ne Bh E

Burmanniaceae

59. 2017. Burmannia coelestis Don. CN Bh T N Ch

SOME WEST BENGAL PLANTS 195

Commel\linaceae

60. 2246. Aneilema scapiflorum Wight. CN T Parasnath

61. 2249. Aneilema nudiflorum R. Br. CN O S

62. 2253. Cyanotis tuberosa Schult. f. CN

LIST B.

(18 plants recorded in Prain for Central but not for West Bengal)

Sapindaceae

1. 377. Allophylus Cobbe L. oe O C E

Leguminosae

2. 688. Caesalpinia Bonducella Flem. CN G Nees

Lythraceae

3. 826. Ammannia salicifolia Monti. BH Oe Das

Ficotdeae

4. 898. Trianthemamonogynum L. CN CAlce

Rutiaceae

5. 957. Oldenlandia paniculata L. ... CE

Com positae

6. 1042. Blumea bifoliata DC. Ins Cc

7. 1082. Enhydra fluctuans Lour. ... Cac’

Primulaceaeé

8. 1150. Anagallis arvensis L. Res CN BH ae CG IN

Ascle piadaceae

9, 1235. Hemidesmus indicus R. Br. CN O Bh C S

Gentianaceae |

10. 1284. Erythraea RoxburghiiG.Don. CNE

11. 1285. Hoppea dichotoma Willd. CN Bh C Ch

Boragtnaceae

12. 1305. Heliotropium ovalifolium

Forsk. ee T =Bb CN

Convolvulaceae

13. 1324. Evolvulus nummularius L. C

Scrophulariaceae

14. 1448. Bonnaya_ brachiata Link

and Otto. 22 CN Bh C0 OB

Lentibulariaceae

15. 1472/2. Utricularia stellaris L. var.

inflexa Hk. f. | or Ces

Acanthaceae

16. 1560. Ecbolium Linneanum Kurz.

var. dentata Hk. f. aa Cy Gs

Verbenaceae

17. 1614. Clerodendron infortunatum

Gaertn. es GN: Bh CN

Euphorbiaceae —

18. 1888. Acalypha indica L. Ae CN E

196 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

(21 plants recorded in Prain as occurring ‘in most of the provinces ’.

LIST C.

This list merely suffices to record that ‘most’ includes ‘ West Bengal’

Leguminosae

1. 622. Alysicarpus vaginalis DC.

Rubiaceae

2. 985. Pavetta indica L.

3. 988. Ixora parviflora Vahl.

Compositae

4. 1020. Centratherum anthelminticum O. Kuntze.

Plumbaginaceae

5. 1147. Plumbago zeylanica L.

Boraginacené

6. 1312. Coldenia procumbens L.

Convolvulaceae

7. 1360. Ipomoea obscura Ker.

8. 1366. Quamoclit pinnata Boj.

Acanthaceae

9. 1529. Phaylopsis parviflora Willd. —

Verbenaceae

10. 1581. Lippia geminata H.B. and K.

Labiatae

1l.. 1645. Pogostemon plectranthoides Desf.

12. 1666. MLeucas Cephalotes Spreng.

13. 1676. Leonotis nepetaefolia R. Br.

Amarantaceae

14. 1694. Digera arvensis Forsk.

Poly gonaceae

15. 1727. Polygonum plebejum R. Br.

Euphorbiaceae ! "

16. 1881. Chrozophora plicata A. Juss. (So Prain, but for the

confusion in nomenclature vide Duthie, Flora of the

Upper Gangetic Plain: iii. 105 on C. Rottlerz A. Juss.)

Orchidaceae .

17. 2081. Vanda Roxburghii Br.

Liliaceae

18. 2221. Gloriosa superba L.

Commelinaceae

19. 2239. Commelina salicifolia Roxb.

20. 2251. Aneilema vaginatum R. Br.

Marsileaceae | |

21. 2854. Marsilea quadrifoliata L.

THE MYSORE LAC INSECT

S. MAHDIHASSAN

(With two plates and 1 text tigure)

An orthodox systematist should look upon a given insect as the

duplicate of a type kept in some museum. ‘This means that in that

species any one individual is so much like another that any two of them

can be easily compared. This is usually so when morphological

characters are well developed and of which many are present. On the

contrary the lac insects, Jike many other coccids, are morphologically

degenerate organisins, with very few features to distinguish. This

apparent degeneration has been brought about by their high physiolo-

gical activity which could be very well exploited in their classification,

although it has not been done so far. There is a similar problem in

systematic biology where some yeasts are classed as unknown fungi

when there is every suspicion of their being ascomycetes which have

only lost their property of forming ascospores. ‘The microbiologist is

therefore contented to differentiate them into varieties, or ultimate

biological units, even though he cannot properly place them in genera.

When yeasts are examined the cells of one type resemble those of the

other so closely that their shape cannot form the basis of any recognition.

Further, within the same species, the cells may vary so much that their

morphology cannot be specified. Even their ordinary colonies look so

much like one another that they cannot be recognised thereby But

once they are allowed to form giant colonies each reveals its own

special feature. Comparable with yeasts we find that individual lac

insects show many characters in common so that the specific features

are not well indicated and further there is often so much polymorphism

that its interpretation becomes difficult. This explains how the majority

of entomologists believe that there is only a single species from Kashmir

to Travancore and from Sind to Tonkin.

The lac insect is a highly gregarious insect. It normally forms

what may be called a giant colony or stick lac and the minute morpho-

logical and physiological differences, difficult to observe separately, are

obvious in their totality by comparing specimens of stick lac belonging

to two different species of lac insect. On the contrary it is more

difficult to examine the same lac insects as individual specimens. Just

as it is easy to tell at a glance a honey comb built by a small bee from

that formed by a larger species, so can two specimens of stick lac be

characterised when properly studied. Microbiologists have tried to

interpret the difference between the smooth and rough colonies of the

same species of bacterium. When likewise we try to analyse the

difference in the final structure of stick lac belonging to two lac insects

we get to some concrete results. The species Lakshadia communis,

even in the larval stage, does not spread out its colony so intensely as

does Lakshadia chinensis. The result is that, by the time the giant

198 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

colony is formed, many individuals are dead but in different stages.

This feature, which is hardly morphological, is nevertheless observable

and has been illustrated already (1). Pressed by their neighbours the

competition for space makes their bodies assume bizarre forms, another

feature not found in any other species. When we come to the Mysore

lac insect we find certain features not existing in other species, and these

are being illustrated in this communication.

Lakshadia mysorensts is the only insect which has three life cycles a

year, and while its productivity has increased its size has decreased, just

as is the case with the polyvoltine silk worms. All lac insects, when

they settle on a horizontal twig, settle only on the side facing the earth.

On a vertical twig they settle all around it forming a regular envelope.

But no vertical twig would be ideal so that even what appears as per-

pendicular may have its ventral and dorsal aspects, slightly inclined to

the earth or away from it. When a cross section of such a twig is

taken even the structure of the wood shows that the side inclined to the

earth has more concentric lines while the dorsal side has relatively flat

circles. The insects feeding on the ventral side also grow better than

those on the dorsal. Thus the growth of the rings in the section of a

twig and of the insects on that side show a distinct harmony. Fig. 1 is

such a section of a Shorea talura twig, represented by the white inner

circle, surrounded by a number of lacinsects of Lakshadia mysorensts

fixed to its periphery. ‘The season of collection was at the end of the

monsoon season, when the best growth, both of the wood and of the

insects can be seen, asin Fig.1. The insects on the ventral half, mark-

ed V, of the cross section ot stick lac, are larger than on the other haif,

representing the relatively dorsal side of the twig, D.

Fig. 1 shows a wheel-like figure. The central white portion, as

mentioned, represents the twig with its rings of wood; the periphery is

occupied by lacinsects separated from one another by a spoke-like

partition, being a thin membrane of lac secretion. The architecture

of stick lac has been dealt with separately and on consulting it (2)

the value of the present paper would be greatly increased. What is

obvious is that the insects, even the largest of them, are small com-

pared with others so far illustrated. Fig. 1 shows one insect marked

‘a’ as very much elongated and its length can be looked upon as

the ideal for ZL. mysorensis. Yet it does not compare with that of

L. communis or of L. chinensis previously illustrated elsewhere (2).

Fig. 1 shows an empty cell ‘b’, typical of this species, almost like

a narrow ellipse.

In 1901, George Watt (3) wanted to publish a monograph on lac

which was issued in 1904. He probably had samples collected from

different parts of India. Mysore must also have contributed to this

collection which was partly deposited in the Economic Museum,

Bangalore, where specimens dated 1901 are found. Mr. Trimulachar,

the former Superintendent of the Museum, kindly gave me one piece

from this collection, Fig. 2 shows across section of the dry twig asa

white circular central: portion. The dorsal periphery, comparable with

D in Fig. 1, shows insects less developed than on the ventral half,

(Fig. 2.V). The dried insect (marked‘a’ in Fig. 2) compares with

‘a’ of Fig. 1, already mentioned. Likewise empty cells in Figs. 1

and 2 (marked in both as ‘b’) show a narrow elliptical outline. The

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Fig. 2.

(Explanatien at end)

Journ., Bonibay Nat. Hist. Soc.

(Explanation at end)

THE MYSORE LAC INSECT 199

lac insects arranged all round the twig, in Figs. 1 and 2, have very

small bodies compared with other species.

Fig. 3 shows the Mysore lac insects devoid of their secretion pro-

ducts where one individual marked ‘a’ compares well with the objects

represented in Figs. 1 and 2 with the same indication. A picture, such

as Fig. 3 represents, is not obtainable from any other lac insect and

the individuals shown there represent a fair average. Taking one

typical specimen and treating it with alkali, to indicate the thickly

chitinised structures, we get the picture shown in Fig. 4. It would be

given by a Specimen such as Fig. 3 a, repre-

sents. It is a pen and ink drawing of an

insect seen more from its side. The ventral

side, where the mouth is situated, is shown

by the stylets of the proboscis, marked M,

protruding. The dorsal side shows the anal

tubercle (A.T.) and in front the spinoid

tubercle (S.T.) and the brachial tubercles

(B.T.) which form a pair attached to the

upper spiracular openings, one of these being

seen at the base of the brachial tubercle as a

round hole.

One feature of Lakshadia mysorensis is its

restricted choice of host. Itis so fond of

Shorea talura that practically no other tree

competes with it. Samples of stick lac, when

sectioned, would give a picture as in Fig. 2,

which shows the twig of Shorea talura after

it had long been preserved in a museum.

Repeated attempts to infect other trees with

the brood of Lakshadia mysorensis have

shown that the insect can grow on a few

other plants also (4) but even then the range

is much more restricted than is true of other

species. One herb, Ahyncosia cana D.C.,

was found naturally infected at the end of

a monsoon season. The entire plant was

not over two feet in height and was on ee

removed into a pot for being photographed imm, ©.

(Fig. 5). The length shown here repre- WG d

sents about 4 inches height of the original ae

plant. The encrustation eventually produced young larvae showing

that it was otherwise quite healthy. But although the insects had settl-

ed all around the base of the plant they did not completely envelope it

as is normally the case in Shorea taluxa. The plant &. cana is quite a

common herb in Bangalore, more so in the plantation where Shorea

talura trees are exploited for lac cultivation. Nevertheless all attempts

to introduce lac experimentally on this herb completely failed,

indicating that a predisposition of the tree to lac infection is necessary.

This phenomenon is not very obvious but nevertheless important,

as has been explained before (5). If lac is produced accidentally on

one plant it does not mean that other individuals of the same host,

even in the same locality, would do so, notwithstanding a conclusion

often mentioned in the literature. This particular plant was finally

200 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

uprooted when it was found to be attacked by termites and in a

condition which would hardly be called healthy. This again is an

observation not in harmony with the classical views on lac cultivation.

SUMMARY

Lakshadia mysorensis is the smallest lac insect growing, for all

practical purposes, only on Shovea talura. Its stick lac, when sectioned,

reveals specific features, particularly small sized insects, long and

elliptical in shape. An instance is recorded of its rare infection on

Rhyncosia cana which could not be made to bear the infection experi-

mentally.

REFERENCES

—

S. Mahdihassan (1948) : On the Chinese lac insect. Hos, Madrid, 24: 441,

2. 8S. Mahdihassan (1938): Die, Struktur des Stocklacks und der Bau der

Lackzelle. Zeit. Morph. Okol, 33: 527.

3. George Watt (1901): Zachardia lacca. The Agricultural Ledger, No. 9.

Ca Ic utta, 1904.

4. S. Mahdihassan (1926): The range of host selection and the specific

differentiation of lac ard other parasites. Arch. f. Naturgeschichte. 5: 1.

5. S. Mahdihassan (1936): Predisposing factors and infection by lac and

other scale insects. Zeit. f. Angw. Entom. 23: 265.

EXPLANATION OF FIGURES

Fig. 1. Lakshadia mysorensis on Shorea talura, monsoon season, Bangalore.

Cross section of a twig growing vertically but not ideally so. The side marked

V, ventral, was slightly inclined to the earth where the growth of wood and of lac

insects is better than that shown on the opposite, or dorsal side, D. Insect marked

‘a’ is typical, long and short bcdied individual. The empty cell ‘b! is also

characteristic of this species. Magnification 38 : 10.

Fig. 2. Cross-section of stick lac of Lakshadia mysorensis on Shorea

talura represented by a vertical twig and thus comparable with that shown in

Fig. 1. It was probably collected in the monsoon season of 1900 and was

deposited at Bangalore in 1£01, Magnification 38 : 10.

Fig. 3. Lakshadia mysorensis all insects, excepting one, freed from all secre-

tion after treating stick lac with alcohol. Magnification less than 3 diameters.

Fig. 4. Lakshadia mysorensis, full grown female, with a typical elongated

body and narrow diameter. A.T.=Anal Tubercle; S.T.=Spinoid Tubercle ;

B.T.=Brachial Tubercle; M=Mouth parts protruding.

Fig. 5. Rhyncosia cana, infected with Lakshadia mysorensis. The length

seen here represents a height of about 9 inches.

THE LESSER FLORICAN [SYPHEOTIDES INDICA (MILLER)]:)

ITs COURTSHIP DISPLAY, BEHAVIOUR, AND HABITS.

K. S. DHARMAKUMARSINHJI

(With a plate and 2 text figures)

SYNOPSIS

This paper contains descriptions of the male florican’s courtship

display (as newly seen) in presence of the female, mating, the

method of snaring florican with decoys, the male’s aggressive

behaviour towards a male decoy, and some useful information as

regards migration, and the influence of weather upon the species in

its breeding habitat.

Various ornithologists and sportsmen have written on the court-

ship display of the Lesser Florican. They have described the display

of the male as commonly seen. I have tried to add to this, describing

the whole display in detail. My field observations on the display

of the male have been supplemented by a semi-slow motion cine

film in which the action of the entire nuptial flight can be seen clearly.

Some writers suggest that the female florican also displays in the

manner of the male. The majority agree, however, that it is the

male alone that does so and with this I concur.

I have also described in this paper the aggressive pose and method

of attack of the male towards rivals. These studies were made in

the field when engaged in banding floricans for a number of years

in catching which, stuffed male decoys were employed. The male’s

courtship display and sexual behaviour were studied with the help

of a stuffed female decoy. :

As regards the voice, feeding, nesting, and parental habits, I

have quoted the observations of others as well as given my own.

A connection between the male’s display and internal and external

stimuli is suggested.

Studies on the: florican’s methods of escape from predators were

made by using falcons trained to catch these birds. It is concluded

that Man with his gun and snares is the most serious menace to the

species.

Data on migration have been obtained by observational methods

and also from banded birds.

COURTSHIP AND ‘DISPLAY

The peculiar courtship display of the Lesser Florican has attracted

much attention from sportsmen and ornithologists alike, and the

accounts of the display differ little. Most writers refer mainly to

the display of the male, but there is some reference e.g. by Wenden

and Stuart Baker, to the female also displaying in a similar manner.

202 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Oates (Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds: 382) quotes Lieut.

F. Alexander as follows:

‘The mating season commences at the close of August or the

beginning of September at which time the male bird commences

to jump in the grass; this jumping is almost entirely confined to

the male bird, and ceases as soon ag the mating season is over

. . . a8 the act of jumping is always accompanied by a call (very

like a frog’s croak) and they can be followed thereby.’

By using the word ‘almost’, the writer implies that the female

may also occasionally display in the manner of the male.

In none of the published descriptions do we get a detailed account

of the courtship display, but most writers agree that it is only the

male that displays to attract a flemale or to challenge a rival male.

As regards the female displaying in a similar manner to the male,

much is left in doubt. It is well known that at the commencement

of the breeding season (chiefly June and July, but depending much

upon the rains), the male florican assumes a conspicuous black and

white nuptial plumage in which some strikingly elongated feathers

(three on each side) situated just under the ear are visible, but I

shall not speculate on what their true significance may be. The

general impression gained of the male in his courtship display is

that he springs perpendicularly upward emitting a frog-like croak

and then falls downward to the spot from where he commenced.

This performance is repeated almost regularly at intervals of three

or more minutes irrespective of whether a female is present or not.

Nevertheless, it seems desirable to give a more detailed explanation

of the display itself. The male birds behave in this characteristic

manner while in their established territories or while still in the

process of acquiring them. Before he commences on his leap, the

male usually stretches up his neck to take a full view of the

surrounding country-side and often looks or turns around to make

sure that there is no danger lurking, or to listen to or watch a

rival bird displaying. In fact, the stretching of his neck and body

to its full height is a sure sign of his being about to commence upon

his leap. (This can only be seen when the bird is in short grass

or crops). He bends his legs and springs perpendicularly into the

air, the wings helping him to reach the climax of the leap. When

at the zenith he arches his neck and almost rests it on his back, and

emits the frog-like croak. His wings, which are partially outstretched

and almost horizontal to the body, rapidly beat the air. At this

moment the legs are pulled in as in a sitting posture. The bird then

falls straight downward keeping his wings loosely at his sides thus

often breaking his speed. Finn aptly describes this as “parachute-

fashion’. During descent, the legs, as a rule, are semi-outstretched

and are often moved alternately in order to maintain balance. The

bird lands at the same spot from where it had commenced its leap.

The whole display is a rapid performance carried out in a matter of

seconds. The height of the leap which may be about four to six feet,

does not seem to vary much; in fact it is surprising how accurately

the same height is attained at each jump. The whole display may

be broken up into three phases: first, the upward leap; second, the

climax which includes arched neck, rapid fluttering of wings, and

call; third, downward descent. The overall time taken is about four

THE LESSER FLORICAN [SYPHEOTIDES INDICA (MILLER)]: 203

seconds. The interval between each display depends on internal and

external stimuli such as weather, breeding condition of the individual,

presence of a rival male in sight or within hearing distance, and the

presence of a female in view or otherwise. Normally, there is no

doubt that the birds display regularly during the early mornings

(before dawn until about an hour after sunrise) and again in the

evenings before sundown to after sunset. Birds which are suspicious

of lurking danger or in close proximity of human beings or cattle

tend to display less persistently. Moreover, when the breeding season

is on the wane, the calls become weaker in intensity, and the display

is seen in an irregular manner.

The weather influences the birds’ display to a great extent. I

have constantly seen birds displaying throughout on cloudy days

and when there are short breaks of clear weather in the monsoon

season. In contrast to this, when a long stretch of dry weather

intervenes, the birds seem to call only during the early mornings

and late evenings. They are attracted to areas where the monsoon

has broken early and the rainfall is good. From where it is scanty

and insufficient, birds tend to emigrate into areas where grass and

other vegetation sprout quickly. With a favourable monsoon, and

easy availability of food, the birds soon begin to occupy territories

and to display. In rare cases and where food is plentiful, one may

see a bird which has not yet assumed its nuptial plumage, or only

partially, displaying even before the first rainfall. I have noticed

this in places where there was an outburst of grasshoppers and locusts.

It thus happens that in areas where the monsoon has been early

* and food is plentiful, birds tend to commence their display earlier

than elsewhere. Here the displays also wane earlier than in areas

Where rainfall is late. In an abnormally late monsoon, birds may

commence to display at the end of August and even the beginning

of September, whereas, in a normal monsoon, when the rains break

after the 15th of June to the first week of July, birds commence to

display at the end of July. I have known birds to arrive in certain

districts and begin calling as late as end of September. However,

before the grass is sufficiently tall to give concealment, they do not

commence to call but seek cover of vegetation or old grass such

as grass-hedges or “shedhas’ and scrub-jungle. On the whole, the

birds prefer areas where there is a more constant rainfall, in which

food and cover are easily available.

WAXING AND WANING PERIODS

What I consider the waxing period of the male’s display, though

to a certain extent it varies individually, is, from the time the male

bird commences to display and has either occupied or is in the pro-

cess of occupying his territory, to the time when the crops and grass

are high at the end of the monsoon. The waxing period is often

signalized by the male flying up into the air at almost sixty degrees,

with a flutter of wings, emitting his frog-hke croak, corresponding to

his characteristic display, when flushed by human approach. This

behaviour is usually seen at the beginning of the waxing period when

he is at the height of his pugnacity. However, all individuals do not

react in this way. The sign of the waning period is when the birds

204 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

are inclined to display irregularly and at long intervals when also the

voice loses its intensity. The waxing and waning periods are in-

fluenced by the monsoon to a great extent. Individual birds, may

' have their waxing or waning periods in various stages, depending upon

internal or external stimuli, so that one male bird may be in a waxing

condition of the display whereas in a neighbour the display may be

on the wane. This, however, is not the normal case in one and the

same area but may occur where one district has had early and con-

tinuous rainfall while in another rain has been scanty, delayed or

irregular.

If disturbed while displaying in his favourite spot, a male bird

may move off some distance and begin displaying from there. He

may also display while walking from one place to another or while

feeding, but he will not leave his established territory as a whole.

The favourite displaymg ground or ‘arena’, known to the Bhavnagar

Bhall trappers as the ‘akhali’, may vary in area from 50x50 yards

to almost 4 ft. square, or less. This ‘arena’ is regularly resorted to

by the male bird, and by his constant jumping the grass becomes

trampled and the ground often stamped bare. The birds often choose

natural open spaces for their ‘akhalies’ which are sometimes indicated

by their excreta. The local trappers believe that the male bird will

continuously display in their ‘akhalies’ once they have established

their territory. This may be true to some extent since the birds are

often snared on their ‘akhalies’, but it ig not so in all cases. I have,

however, observed that where the grass is close, high and extensive

with only rare open patches, the birds resort more regularly and

constantly to their favourite ‘akhalies’, especially in flat country.

The birds prefer raised ground for their displays, from where they

can get a better view of the surrounding countryside and from where

their calls can carry longer distances. Also in order that the display

may be seen clearly by rival males and eligible females alike from

a long way off. A stream or a ravine, or perhaps a road, may act as

a barrier between the territory of two rival males, and I have often

seen two birds displaying vigorously and challenging each other from

across, not very far away. Owing to the preference of displaying

cocks to show themselves off, they frequently step out into either

short grass or low crops. Thus the birds are often seen displaying

in the recumbent ground-nut crop for which they appear to have a

special liking. In such places the regular ‘akhalies* or arenas are

rarely met with, though the birds are often attached to one particular

field or small area.

With regard to external stimuli which play an important part

in the active display of the bird, I have noticed that although a male

bird may display regularly irrespective of whether another male is

within hearing distance or not, there is no doubt that the presence

~of a rival in the neighbourhood has a stimulating effect on him. In

fact, experimenting on this, I have caused birds to commence ‘calling

by smartly clapping on the under-side of the fingers of my hands,

in imitation of the call of a rival male, and have thus kept male birds

calling continuously for some time. The presence of a female flying

low in the vicinity of many male birds has a very stimulating effect

on them. A female bird flying over an area sets off the males dis-

playing almost simultaneously, when just a moment before none were

Journ. BomBay Nar. Hist. Soc.

Male Florican in angry pose, with male decoy.

Photos K.S, Dharmakumarsinhyji.

Male Florican mating on female decoy.

(Note position of auricular feathers).

THE LESSER FLORICAN [SYPHEOTIDES INDICA (MILLER)]: 205

so engaged. The whistling call of the female also attracts the atten-

tion of the male. The trappers, knowing this, imitate the whistle of

the female to locate a male bird which has been lying low. The male

responds immediately by stretching his neck above the grass in

anticipation of seeing the female, thus betraying bis position. I have

tried this method but have not found it very successful.

The male birds have been known to display silently without their

characteristic frog-like croak. I have noticed this in a number of

birds and the reason seems obscure. But birds which have been

hunted fairly often display without calling, especially when suspicious,

though I have observed some birds displaying silently when I was

clearly visible and which apparently were quite unsuspecting. I have

also seen a male bird displaying, calling once and then not calling

at the next jump. The birds sometimes also call without leaping.

This is usually during the hot time of the day when they are reluctant

to rise, or where they have been persecuted on their displaying grounds.

However, there may be much uncertainty about the sexes and ages

of these unseen birds since I have known females to call while

concealed in the grass, in identical manner. If one listens carefully

to different birds calling, one can often discriminate in the tone

and volume of individual birds; some have a comparatively shriller

voice, in others it ig deep and more resonant. I have not yet ascer-

tained whether it is the younger birds which have the shriller voice,

but some birds shot while emitting the shriller call, were those that

had not assumed a complete black head, and still showed traces of

brown feathers.

With regard to the display of the female, in similar manner to

that of the male, Mr. Stuart Baker (Game Birds of India, Burma

and Ceylon, 2: 206-7) quotes Mr. Wenden as follows:

‘On the 16th I went out and watched this bird for more than

an hour, just about the time at which she had been flushed, on

the morning before, from the single egg. From the tree on which

I sat, with my binoculars, I saw her running rapidly out of the dense

preserve, across the open and into the scanty patch in which was

her egg. Here she moved about for some minutes feeding and

every now and then sprang into the air with a low clucking cry

which was answered by the male bird from the preserve, though

at first sight I could not see him. Then, as though a sudden

thought had struck her, she darted to the nest and after one or

two springs and walking round and round the egg, she squatted

and deposited another. While she sat she was silent, but the

male bird who had now advanced closer to me, kept springing in

the air and crying continually. The operation of laying of the

egg seemed to last about twenty minutes, i.e. from the time she

sat to the time she rose, and having made another spring or two

walked around the eggs; she then made straight tracks for the

dense grass where the male bird was calling. I went out quite

alone on this watching expedition and all was quite quiet, and the

birds were at their ease, but while I was still in the tree a man came

into the preserve with some cattle, and then I saw both birds

spring several times silently and after that I saw or heard nothing

of them.’

206 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

From this account it would appear that the female definitely

displays in a similar manner to the male, and Mr. Stuart Baker

(ibid: 206) comments as follows:

‘Allusion has already been made to the curious habit displayed

by this bird of jumping into the air, to some height above the

surrounding vegetation, in order to attract the notice of the opposite

sex. Generally, it is the male alone that resorts to this trick,

but sometimes, at all events, the female also does indulge in it.’

Personally I do not believe that the female displays in the manner

described of the male, and although I have sometimes seen female

birds springing up above the grass and in the crops, I ascribe these

jumps to feeding activity, corroborating Hume—(quoted by Mr. Stuart

Baker, op. cit. 2: 206-7) that, ‘this is only for the purpose of catch-

ing flies, etc. as they are disturbed from the grass.’

CouRTSHIP OF MALE

So far I have described the male’s nuptial display and nothing

has been said regarding the behaviour of the male in the presence

of the female. It is quite possible to miss seeing this phase owing

to the wariness and the

secretive habits of the

females. Except when

a female wishes ‘to

mate with a male, the

sexes rarely, if at all,

come together. I have

occasionally watched

female birds alighting

next to a displaying

male and have only

<< ie XN ie

LAI a Pe

~ VS

se es i aS

CELE AS

isa wale

Meese. ee Ys

x re

2 eee once flushed them to-

ae % gether. In order to

EAT witness the reactions

of the male bird in the presence of a female, I placed a stuffed female

decoy close to where a male was displaying—regularly. The result was

very interesting and successful;

for the first time I witnessed an

entirely new courtship display of

the male, which has never been

described before. The male, hav-

ing become conscious of the

female decoy’s presence within a

yard or two of him, immediately

craned his neck forward to its full

extent. Raising his forehead and

chin feathers and slightly inflating

his pouch, he moved towards the

decoy, swaying his stiff neck from SS

side to side, arching it slightly ee AS

in a characteristic manner.

(Fig. 1.) Then, he stopped sudden-

ly and jerked it backwards to rest it almost on his back, at the same

—— A=

“A

Fig. 2.

THE LESSER FLORICAN [SYPHEOTIDES INDICA (MILLER)]: 207

time emitting a low wheezy croak. (This wheezy croak is not always

heard or emitted.) He did this twice in front of the decoy, on both

occasions clearly showing the characteristic arching of his neck prior to

jerking it backwards. In this act, the head and particularly the black

chin feathers were raised and the tail was depressed. Following this

courtship, the male attempted to mate with the decoy. But because the

female was not in an appropriate position for mating, the male

stepped over the decoy from the posterior side and could only make

vain attempts, often pecking at her head. Finally, he worked himself

up to such a pitch of excitement that he sat down on his tarsus,

beside the decoy with his wing stretched out over it in a position of

mating, reminiscent of a turkey in the act of copulation. This charac-

teristic courtship is so strikingly different from the usual leaping

displays that it is worthy of record. Further experiments on the same

lines revealed that the full courtship was not gone through in all cases,

although the male invariably stretched out his neck arching it in the

characteristic manner, puffing out his forehead, crown and chin

feathers while approaching the decoy. Along with this, another aspect

of the courtship was also seen in which the male bird, while pressing

the neck backwards and resting it on his back with the head and

bill pressed in slightly downwards, spread out his tail-feathers fan-

wise. (Fig. 2.) His posterior was slightly raised while the neck

rested almost on the back, and the body swayed lightly to and fro.

Here then are two types of courtship proceedings seen in the presence

of the female, of which the former is unique, while the latter resembles

the aggressive pose of the male.

MATING OF MALE BIRD WITH FEMALE DECOY

When a female decoy is placed in an attitude conducive to mating,

the male bird, invariably copulates with her. But in cases where

the female-decoy is not appropriately poised, the male invariably

pecks at the head and makes vain attempts at mounting. It appears

from these studies that the female must sit down and spread her

shoulders in order to allow the male to copulate successfully. During

copulation, the male bird balances himself on his tarsi, his feet resting

on the back and wing-shoulders. This I found to be, to a certain

extent, necessary for the male in order to maintain his position while

in the act. The head and neck are slightly drawn and somewhat

raised and are kept in this position. The wings droop on both sides

of the decoy.

AGGRESSIVENESS OF MALE

It is well-known that the males, during the breeding season,

guard their established territories against rival males pugnaciously,

and Jerdon (Birds of India, 3: 624), writes:

| ‘This (jumping and croaking display) is probably intended to

attract the females who, before their eggs are laid, wander greatly;

or perhaps to summon a rival cock, for I have seen two in such

desperate fight as to allow me to approach within thirty yards

before they ceased their battle.’

In order to witness the fighting pose and behaviour of the male

when in his own territory, towards an encroaching rival. it is only

208 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

necessary to introduce a stuffed male decoy in a position from where

the owner can see it. I have tried this experiment very frequently,

in order to catch male birds for banding. The best situation for

introducing the decoy is where a male displays regularly, i.e. at

his ‘akhali’, but he can also be easily attracted away from this spot

if it is placed within reasonably seeing distance from him. After

placing a decoy in position, the observer must withdraw some distance

TABLE ‘A’

Showing reactions of male towards female decoy

SPECIMEN POSE OF FEMALE CoURTSHIP

No. DATES DECOY OF MALE MaTING

A 9-9-49 | Head and neck arched, Complete. No.

wings close to sides.

By- 11-9-49 Head and neck ott-

stretched, wings and fe ts

shoulders close to

sides.

C 11-9-49 ”? ” 29 9 9

D 14-9-49 | Neck outstretched, Incomplete. Yes.

wings and shoulders

slightly apart, and

the female decoy

fixed close to ground,

*D 14-9-49 99 99 ”? 99 a” 39)

E 14-9-49 %) 3 29 99 ” ”

F 16-9-49 ” ” ” i) oe) No.

away from the calling bird and the decoy, since the males are some-

times very wary if he is not well hidden. The male bird may not

always perceive the decoy’s presence immediately, but it is surpris-

ing how quickly he usually does detect it inspite of its immobility.

The invariable sign of a male bird having detected the decoy is that

* The same male mated twice within a few hours.

THE LESSER FLORICAN [SYPHEOTIDES INDICA (MILLER)]: 209

he immediately stops displaying. If the observer remains quiet he

will presently see him advancing towards the decoy. He usually

creeps up towards it, making use of the best cover possible and raising

his head from time to time, possibly to look out for danger or to see

whether the rival bird has moved. If the male does not suspect

any danger, he moves quickly up towards the decoy and gets there

in a very short time. A few yards from the decoy he becomes more

cautious, and finding the rival completely motionless, he does not

always attack immediately. At this time a sudden anger coupled

with diffidence seems to come upon him and he turns his back to

the decoy, with tail and upper feathers raised. He may remain

in this position for even upto 15 minutes sitting down or moving but

slightly. Then, as is invariably the case, he suddenly seems to

gather courage and vigorously turns upon the male decoy, pecking

at its head with hig sharp pointed bill, the feathers of his back and

scapular raised and his tail erected. The onslaught on the decoy is

usually from the rear, but in his attempts to overcome the ‘rival’,

he is seen to attack from all sides as well. If the decoy is placed

slightly above his reach, he makes no hesitation in leaping on to it

to reach the head, the legs often hitting the decoy. The attack of

the male ceases temporarily after the first bout but is presently

resumed until he either gets tired and loses self-confidence or, until

the decoy is knocked down. When a decoy has falien to the ground,

he still continues to peck at it for a short while, his tail feathers

still being raised and often spread-out. Occasionally, one may see

a male bird coming to the attack on the run with wings spread cut,

reminiscent of the Sun-bittern in display, but this is unusual. During

the attack the eyes, sides of the head and nape of the decoy are

the main targets, and even though the decoy may not have any eyes,

he is still seen to concentrate his jabs on the place where the eyes

should have been. I have seen a bird swallow pieces of cotton wool

stuffed in the head of a decoy, and also remove the whole head of

an old decoy by repeatedly attacking it. Towards the waning period

of the breeding season, males do not attack a decoy so readily;

therefore at that period it is seldom that the birds can be snared,

by this method. During the waxing period, however, the males are

_ so pugnacious that several birds may be caught at the decoy in one

morning. Moreover, it is interesting to note that I have re-captured

the same male bird on the same decoy, on the same day, after it

had once been caught and released. There is no doubt that the

ageressive pose of the male is when the feathers of the upper parts

are raised, wings slightly drooped at the shoulders, and the neck

arched and resting on the back. Inspite of this species being so shy

of man, it is surprising how male birds caught during the waxing

period, if held opposite to each other even soon after capture, will

show their pugnacity by pecking at each other’s heads. When

attacking a male decoy, a bird sometimes becomes so engrossed as

to allow close approach. JBesides, a bird vigorously attacking a decoy

around which snares have been set, may continue to do so biindly

even though one of his legs has got caught in a noose. He often

does not realise his captive state until he decides to rove away.

Then, suspecting that his trapped leg is the decoy’s doing, he will

suddenly turn round and resume his attack on it. ©

210 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

VOICE

Male: Apart from the frog-like croak that the male emits during

the display, he utters a short whistle-like call when frightened—

also heard when captive birds are released. I have also heard a wheezy

croak uttered during the courtship display in the presence of a

female decoy but this is not always the case; it is emitted at the

time when the male suddenly throws his head backwards. As

mentioned earlier, birds may vary individually in their tone and volume

which again may depend on age or waxing and waning periods.

Female: The female utters a croak resembling that of the male

during his display, but slightly shriller. There can be much confusion

in the male and female calls if heard in the grass or crops. She also

has another call which can be syllabilised as “Peeoo’. This is a whistle

which appears to attract the attention of the male, and, as mentioned

earlier, is imitated by the trappers. She has another clucking call or

quirk which she emits when put off her nest, and a similar note

reminiscent of Nukhta (Sarkidiornis melanotos), which can be heard

at times when she is flying. In general, it can be said that the

voice of either sex is not often heard except in special circunistances,

and that the frog-like call of the male during the display is the

most characteristic one.

It is interesting to compare the above personal observations with

those of others. Mr. Stuart Baker, (Game Birds of India, 2: 214)

wrote as follows:

‘The voice of Lesser Florican during the breeding season, is said

to be a harsh croak, this keing indulged in by the bird during its

nuptial flights. The voice of the hen at this time is described

by Wenden as “‘a low eclucking ecry’’, but whether this differs from

that of the male or not he does not say. According to Jerdon “‘it is

said to have a feeble plaintive chirp or piping note when running

or feeding’’, and he also says that ‘“‘when flushed it utters a kind

of sharp quirk or note of alarm’’. A personal friend of mine who

has spent much time in watching these birds, gives them credit

for a rather large vocabulary. He remarks in epistola, ‘‘‘These

Floricans have many notes besides the drum or croak they give

vent to in the breeding-season. When moving about feeding they

constantly utter a low chuckle and also the chirp or piping note

referred to by Jerdon. Males and females also call to one another

in a croak like that just mentioned, but softer and lower’’.

With reference to the last statement, I can well believe males

and females calling to each other in a croak-like manner, but I

have never heard them constantly utter a low chuckle while feeding.

SociAL BEHAVIOUR

As regards the social behaviour of Florican, I am inclined to

agree with what Stuart Baker writes in his ‘Nidification of Birds of

the Indian Empire’ (4: 335-6), that it is indiscriminate in its love

affairs. Males are certainly not polygamous in the sense of having a

bevy of wives which keep to him throughout the season. Neverthe-

less, a male may mate with one or more females during the season..

Likewise, a female may be mated to one or more males until fertilised.

THE. LESSER FLORICAN [SYPHEOTIDES INDICA (MILLER)]|: 211

But on this point further evidence is required, and experiments need

be carried out scientifically.

MIGRATION

We know that the Lesser Florican is a local migrant in India,

and breeds wherever conditions are favourable for it. In Kathiawad,

it is a regular immigrant from the Indian mainland, and birds arrive

from the end of May, June and July to August. I have often seen

many birds arriving a few weeks before the monsoon had broken in

Kathiawad, and which were still in their post-nuptial (non-breeding)

plumage. Some individuals, however, had assumed their black dress

and were beginning to show their auricular plumes. At this time

the birds. seek-cover of dry grass and hedges and resort to babul

thickets. Most of them, however, take protection of extensive dry

grasslands, and they may be seen moving here and there almost

aimlessly in fields and across the roads. I am inclined to believe

that as soon as the heavy rains break in South and Central India

the birds tend to migrate northwards and westwards, respectively.

By observational methods I can say that the birds cross the Gulf of

Cambay and first touch the east and south-eastern coast of the

Kathiawad peninsula from the direction. of Gujarat and Bombay.

From here they spread to all parts of Kathiawad. Birds may be

seen arriving in heavy rainfall, and they tend to follow the course of

the main current. If there is insufficient rainfall in one area then

the birds. migrate into adjacent areas where the rainfall is better.

This immigration has been well recorded by birds shot and seen

from Botad to Port Albert Victor all along the eastern Kathiawad

coast-line. It may be safely said that birds migrating into Kathiawad

follow a direction from south-east and east to north-west and west.

The birds remain in Kathiawad throughout the breeding season.

Some have been recorded crossing the Gulf of Cambay towards Gujarat

after the harvest of the monsoon crops in October. But, there is

insufficient data on this. To obtain proper information, birds should

be recorded arriving on the opposite coast-line in Gujarat. This

return migration takes place about October-November. Some birds

remain in Kathiawad during the winter months in cover of wheat

crops, but the majority, I believe, emigrate to the mainland. Birds

banded in Kathiawad during the breeding season have been recaptured

in the same general area the following or in subsequent breeding seasons,

but there is no tangible evidence of the banded birds having returned

to the mainland in the interval. Some birds—mostly solitary

females—have been recorded in the hot season, and these may be

stay-backs. Evidence from banded birds reveals that florican are

not particular about returning to the same areas for breeding in

which they did the previous year, though we have had some such

recoveries. (See Table ‘B’).

The banding scheme of His Highness the Maharaja Saheb of

ne carried out by me from 1943 to 1947 gives us the following

ata.}

* K. 8. Dharmakumarsinhji (1943): Banding of Lesser Florican in Kathiawar,

Journal, Bom, Nat. Hist. Soc., 44, 2: 299.

~*~

212 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

TABLE ‘B’

RECOVERIES OF LESSER FLORICAN BANDED IN BHAVNAGAR. (KATHIAWAD),*

DATE OF DATE OF PLACE OF

RING NO. | Ringing: | PEACE OF RINGING | Racovery | RECOVERY

BF 5 23-7-43 Mithapur, (Bhall) 29-7-44 | Badudi, Bhall

(Gohilwad). (Gohilwad)

BF 67 15-8-43 Badhada 30-7-44 | Badudi, Bhall

(Gohilwad)

BF 68 25-8-43 Malankun, 28-8-43 | Malankun

(Gohilwad).

BHF 93 7-9-44 Trapaj 8-7-46 | Velavadar,

Bhall

BHF 94 7-9-44 Trapaj 8-7-46 | Velavadar,

Bhall

BHF 95 7-9-44 Gadhada near Trapaj 4-8-47 | Bhall

BHF 124 28-7-45 Mithapur, (Bhall). 12-7-46 | Mithapur,

(Bhall)

BHF 205 27-8-45 Sathara near Trapaj 15-8-49 | Mithapur,

(Bhall)

BHF 207 27-8-45 | Sathara near Trapaj 6-8-47 | Mithapur,

(Bhall)

BHF 229 12-7-46 Mithapur, (Bhall) 18-7-47 Halor Dist.,

8 miles east of

| Rajkot

BHF 232 12-7-46 Mithapur, (Bhali) 5-8-47 | Bhall area

THE LESSER FLORICAN [SYPHEOTIDES INDICA (MILLER)]: 213

TABLE ‘ B’—(cont.)

DATE OF : DATE OF PLACE OF

Rinc No. RINGING: REACH On RINGING RECOVERY RECOVERY

BHF 236 12-7-46 Mithapur, (Bhall) 7-8-47 | Mithapur,

(Bhall)

a fal SM ps Se ee ee rk we ee eee ee eee

BHF 237 12-7-46 Mithapur, (Bhall) 7-8-47 | Mithapur,

(Bhall)

BHF 248 14-7-46 Mithapur, (Bhall) 7-8-47 | Mithapur,

(Bhall)

BHF 251 18-—7-46 Palania vid. 16-8-46 | Palania vid.

| (Gohilwad)

| ay bail oa ol oe

BHF 281 29-846 Allapur near Hathab 23-8-47 | Allapur near

(Gohilwad). Hathab

BHF 295 7-9-46 | Trapaj (Gohilwad). 5-8-47 | Bhall

BHF 343 6-8-47 Bhall area, (Gohilwad).| 15-8-49 | Mithapur,

(Bhall)

* BHF 391 16-8-49 Mithapur, (Bhall) 14-7-50 | Baroda

From 22-7-43 to 24-9-48, one hundred male floricans were banded,

out of which two were recovered the next year. One of these was

caught in the same district as it was formerly ringed in. A bird

banded on 25-8-43, with number BF 68, was found dead three days later

in the same area. From 27-7-44 to 8-9-44, ninety-nine male floricans

were caught and banded. In 1945, from 20-7-45 to 1-10-45, one

hundred and eleven males and one female were banded, but none

have been recovered. In 1946, one hundred floricans were banded,

all of which were males. In this season, four birds were recovered

of which two were in the same locality as banded (for details see

table). In 1947, sixty-seven male birds were banded between 25-7-47

to 24-9-47. Nine birds were recovered of which seven were of the

* This record was received when the paper was in the press. The author

Wishes to draw attention to the fact that this is the first record of a ringed bird

obtained outside Kathiawad. He suggests that the bird was about to cross the

Gulf on its westward journey to its breeding grounds.

214 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

previous year, one was of 1944, and one of 1945. Of these, five

birds were recovered from the same respective ‘vids’ first caught.

In 1948, it was a famine year and no birds were caught although

some were seen as passing migrants. In 1949, I managed to catch

eleven males out of which two proved to be birds banded in 1945

and 1947. One of these was caught from the same area where it

was first ringed two years earlier. Altogether four-hundred and

eighty-nine birds were ringed in seven years of which eighteen were

recovered, giving an average recovery of 36%. (See Table ‘B’.)

It is quite possible that some of the banded birds are caught by

poachers, and useful information thus lost.

It is desirable to recover ringed birds during the non-breeding

season in order to understand the direction and goal of their migrations.

When migrating, florican fly singly, but during this period a number

of birds may be seen scattered close to one another. During migration,

the birds do not seem to fly very high. I have no evidence of the

female arriving on their breeding grounds earlier than the males,

but there is no doubt that early in the season they are seen more

frequently than later on. Once the grass has grown and the crops

are up, it is difficult to locate the hens. When the birds first arrive,

they may be seen in completely open ground and are fairly conspicuous

from a distance. The presence of birds in such open spaces usually

indicates that they have recently arrived.

FLORICAN AND THEIR PREDATORS

From the time when the birds arrive (just before, and at the

break of the monsoon), the birds may seem open to attack by

predators, owing to the lack of cover at the time. But when the

monsoon has broken, and the winds are strong, it is unlikely that

any birds of prey feel tempted to attack them. Moreover, just before

and after the monsoon breaks, birds of prey are surprisingly few.

And the abundance of other birds and animal and insect-life at this

time, would naturally supply sufficient food for the birds of prey and

terrestrial predators. However, once there is plenty of vegetation,

the birds may suffer from terrestrial predators, e.g. wild cats, jackals.

But in all my experience, I have not seen or heard of instances of

this kind (except one when a jackal caught a male that had been

snared), nor have I seen remains of any florican having been killed

by predators at this time of the year, though it is possible that

an occasional bird may be surprised and killed. It may appear that

the male, while displaying, would be particularly open to attack by

predators but his good hearing, keen eye-sight, and method of escape

on the ground usually provide effective protection. I have hunted

male birds with falcons, and can testify that without the aid of men

to flush the birds, it would have been practically impossible for the

falcons to catch them. While having a falcon ‘waiting on’ I have

many times, with ample beaters, gone over and over the same piece

of grassland or crop without putting up a florican which had been

properly marked down. This shows that it is almost impossible to

flush a florican if it has decided to lie close. While out shooting

these birds, I have noticed that they often move out of the way

THE LESSER FLORICAN [SYPHEOTIDES INDICA (MILLER)]|: 215

of the line of beaters by running across or in circles. I have also

noticed that florican will readily fly only while the falcon is facing

away while ‘mounted’ or ‘waiting on’ or when it has ‘raked’, in-

variably flying against the wind—a definite handicap for the falcon

if it has raked down-wind. One of the methods of escape for a

florican, when it is hard-pressed by a falcon, is to drop itself into

the grass or crop, and if still pursued, it will leap up to land a

few yards further into cover again. If followed up, he may repeat

the manoeuvre or fly away rapidly out of range of an immediate

attack. The flight of the florican appears slow on account of its.

steady wing-beats but I have always underrated the speed. When

pursued by a falcon, the bird does not always fly in a straight line,

but in zigzags. But when hard pressed, they seem to put on extra

speed by rapid wing-beats. On account of their stiff and pointed

primaries, rain does not seem to hinder their progress and they can

fly comfortably even in heavy rainfall. I have observed displaying

birds for hours together but have never noticed a bird being flushed

due to a predator’s attack. Nevertheless, a dangerous period for

the species appears to be during the breeding season when hen-

birds are on their eggs or are rearing their young. This is a critical

time for the hen-birds, but, what has been mentioned regarding

cover, and food available to predators, and the wariness of the species,

applies to her safety also. Yet, the most dangerous period seems to

be just after the harvest when there is little cover and when hordes

of different kinds of birds of prey are seen to be migrating and arriving

in large numbers. This period commences in October and continues

throughout the winter months. At this season, i have found the

remains of floricans on the eastern Kathiawad sea-board, the birds.

obviously having been caught by Peregrine Falcons, while attempting

to emigrate across the Gulf of Cambay. The greatest danger to the

florican is the man with the gun and perhaps more so, the man with

snares and nets. Hume and Marshall (Game Birds of India, Burma

and Ceylon, 1: 86) write as follows:

‘Pardis, the professional poachers of the Deccan, snare them

along with Partridges and Quail, simply by setting a rope of snares

down the grassy bank of a dry “‘nala’’ and then beating the bushes.’

It is with much reluctance that I have mentioned the method

of attracting the florican with male decoys, a secret known by the

Bhavnagar Bhall trappers since a very long time, not only because

the method is so infallible during the breeding season, but because

if used indiscriminately it would, no doubt, exterminate the species

in a very short time.

FrEDING Hapits

Florican generally feed during the early mornings and evenings.

However, when the birds have newly immigrated, at which time they

are in a lean condition, they feed at all times of the day. ‘During

the breeding season, a male may be seen feeding and displaying alter-

nately. The birds may be seen running to catch insect-life, and I

* A term in falconry for when a ‘waiting on’ falcon circles some distance away

from the falconer.

216 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

have seen them jumping or springing up to catch insects which have

been above their reach, or when flushed by them. However, they

usually catch their prey by creeping up to it and then with a sudden

thrust of the neck, catching with the sharp pointed bill very much

in the manner of the Cattle-egret. Because of their habit of springing

up to catch insects above their reach, some naturalists have mistakenly

recorded females as displaying. Normally, when a male bird in breed-

ing season is feeding, he stops calling the while; and he usually

keeps to his own territory while feeding. Females, during’ the

monsoon, feed anywhere, and are often seen close to marshes and

swamps whiere they come to feed regularly. While feeding, the

birds often raise their heads above cover to have a look round, and

then resume. For feeding purposes they seem to prefer shorter

grasses or low crops. With birds in captivity, kept in a large enclosure

during the hot season with sparse grass and many fallen teak leaves,

the birds were noticed to search for their natural food which was

scanty. Their method is worth noting. The birds erected and spread

out their tail fan-wise and with their necks arched, they moved

slowly and deliberately, often swaying their body forwards jerkily as

they stalked for the purpose of flushing insect life. It was observed

that if an insect was flushed, the bird suddenly darted forwards to

catch it. It was also found that males, in post-nuptial plumage, could-

tolerate each other in the same enclosure, although I never saw two

birds feeding together at the same trough. This experimental enclosure

was L-shaped and approximately 4600 sq. yards. The birds were

fed on flour mixed with egg and liver. In their natural environ-

ment, florican feed on a great variety of insects but in captivity I

have seen them feeding on plant seeds also.

In conclusion, I wish to mention that pending complete experi-

ments as to their nesting and. parental habits, I do not wish to say

anything further except that the female, which is slightly the larger

of the two sexes, nests on the ground in cover of either some bush

or grass, generally preferring short grass for the purpose. As a

rule, nests are not found close to each other, though I have seen a few

nests in the same patch of grass and not far apart. The normal clutch

is 4-5 eggs which vary in colour from brownish dark green, olive

green, greenish brown to almost a greyish blue. Some eggs have

darker markings. The young birds are reared entirely by the fentale.

They have a distinct U-shaped mark on the neck near the throat.

REFERENCES

1. Cott, Hugh B. (1940): Adaptive Coloration In Animals.

2. Finn: Indian Sporting Birds.

3. Hume and Marshall: The Game Birds of India, Burma and Ceylon, Vol. I

4. Hume and Oates: Game Birds of India, Burma and Ceylon, Vol. I.

5. Hume and Oates: Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds.

6. Jerdon: Birds of India, Vol. III.

7. Stonor, C. R. (1940): Courtship and Display Among Birds.

8. Stuart Baker (1929): Fauna of British India, Vol. VI.

9. Stuart Baker: Game. Birds of India, Burma and Ceylon, Vol. TI.

10. Stuart Baker: Nidification of Birds of the Indian Empire, Vol. IV.

11. Thompson, A. Landsborough (1926): Problems of Bird Migration.

NOTES ON THE LENTIBULARIACEAE OF BOMBAY

H. SANTAPAU, S.J., F.L.S.

Among the recent papers on the family and in particular on Utricu-

daria, much has been written on the morphology ani physiology of the

various species ; the literature on the taxonomy of the family asa whole

or of C/tricularia in particular is rather scanty, the only paper dealing

in a comprehensive manner with genera and species of the ‘ Utricul-

ariaceae’ being that of Benjamin, (1847). Of recent years Barnhart

published an interesting paper on the ‘Segregation of Genera in

Lentibulariaceae’, but unfortunately this author stopped at this one

paper, at least as far as I have been able to trace in Kew Herbarium

and Library, A monograph on the family or at least on the genus

Utricularia is long overdue; but we may have to wait still for many

years before such work is undertaken.

The genus Uiricularia isa very difficult one to deal with and to

study in herbaria ; most of the specimens are rather imperfect, as the

leaves and stems are often omitted from the herbarium sheets; this

may be due to carelessness on the part of the collectors, but often it is

due to the fact that flowering takes place either before or after the

appearance of the leaves, and a leafy Utricularia is very difficult, not to

say impossible, of identification in the absence of flowers and fruits.

It is greatly to be hoped that special care will be taken in the

collection and preservation of specimens of this family, so that in

time enough material may be gathered in our herbaria for the complete

study of the genus Utricularia. If at the same time collectors take

particular care to take down ample notes on the fresh plants, their

habitats, associations, etc., there is hope that satisfactory work may be

done on this interesting and intriguing group of monsoon plants.

UTRICULARIA

1. Utricularia stellaris Linn. f., Suppl. 86, 1781; Clarke, in

Hook. f., Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 328, 1884; Graham, Cat. 165;

Wisht- Icon; t-°1567; Dalz.* é& Gibs., Bomb, Fl.. 135;

Oliver in Journ. Linn. Soc. 3: 174, 1859; Gobel, in Ann.

Jard. Bot. Buitenz. 9: 89-91, f. 122, 1890; Kamienski, in

Engl. Phanzenfam, 4 (3b): 112, f. 47E, 1895 ; Cooke, 2: 316;

Gamble, Fl. Madr. 980; Pellegrin, in Lecomte FI. Gen.

Indoch. 4: 470, 1930.

This is one of the commonest species of the genus found in Bombay ;

it is a water plant, seen often in tanks, with the flowers floating over

the surface of the water. Typical of this species are the floats placed

on the pedicel a little below the flowers; such floats seem to be

transformed leaves, the float as such being the petiole of the leaf, the

blade at times appearing asa bundle of filiform segments at the tip of

the floats. The colour of the corolla is yellow.

218 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

2. Utricularia flexuosa Vahl, Enum.1: 198, 1805; Clarke, 329;

Oliver, 175 ; Gobel, 87-89, f. 101-105 & 115-117 ; Kamienski,

122; Cooke, 316; Merrill, Enum. Phil. Fl. Pl. 3: 466, 1923;

Gamble, 980; Pellegrin, 471, f. 52 (1-2) & 53 (2).

Otricularia fasciculata Roxb., Fl. Ind. 1: 143, 1834; Wight,

Icon. t. 1568.

In many respects this is very similar to U. stellaris Linn. f.; it floats

in tanks and talaos, its flowers are also yellow; but it has no floats on

the inflorescence peduncle.

3. U. exoleta R. Br., Prodr. 430, 1810; Clarke, 329; Cooke, 2:

317; Gobel, 91-97, f. 106-114; Kamienski, 122 ; Gamble,

980; Merrill, Enum. Phil. Flow. Pla. 3: 466; Pellegrin,

473, f. 53(1).

Utricularia diantha Roem. and Schult., Syst., Mant. 1: 169,

1822; Wight, Icon. t. 1569 ; Oliver, 176.

This is also an aquatic plant growing in tanks, and in general very

similar to the other two aquatic plants, but usually smaller. The

most typical parts are the seeds which have a corky flat wing of about

the same width as the seed is thick. A rare plant in Bombay.

4, Utricularia albo-caerulea Dalz. in Kew Journ. Bot. 3: 279,

1851; Clarke, 330; Dalz. and Gibs., 135; Oliver, 177 ; Cooke,

(gece ho 3) WY ie

A terrestrial herb, growing in very damp soil or on wet rocks.

Pedicels are recurved in fruit ; the spur of the flower is rather stout and

shorter than the lower petal. It is not a common plant.

5. Utricularia arcuata Wight, Icon. t. 1571, f. 1, 1850; Clarke,

330; Dalz. and Gibs., 136; Cooke, 2: 318; Gamble,

981.

One of the biggest-flowered species. It is a gregarious plant often

seen growing on rocky ground, occasionally in grass fields at the

height of the monsoon or towards the close of the rains; it requires a

well-watered ground, at times it grows on almost water-logged ground.

The colour of the corolla is generally of a striking purplish blue

with a white spot at the base of the lower lip; occasionally the

whole flower is white or uniformly salmon pink. As compared with

other terrestrial species, the pedicels are aiso recurved in fruit, and the

spur is about the most conspicuous feature of the flower, being falcately-

curved and about as long as the lower lip. A common plant in

Khandala, rare elsewhere.

6. Utricularia uliginosa Vahl]., Enum.1: 203, no. 25, 1805;

Gamble, 981.

Utricularia attinis Wight, Icon. t. 1580, f. 1, 1850; Clarke,

330; Oliver, 178; Gobel, 73-75, f. 19-21; Kamienski,

120; Cooke, 2: 318; Pellegrin, 479.

Utricularia brachypoda Wight, Icon. t. 1578, 1850; Oliver,

178.

Utricularia decipiens Dalz. in Kew Journ. Bot. 3: 279,

1851.

NOTES ON THE LENTIBULARIACEAE OF BOMBAY 219

Terrestrial, growing often among grasses on grassy slopes; hence

it is very difficult to collect the leaves of this plant, as they are almost

embedded in the soil and mixed with various mosses and liverworts. I

have often found it in Khandala in grass fields; pedicels are not

recurved in fruit but erect; the lower sepal is said by Cooke to

be entire and not 2-toothed, but most of the specimens which I have

found in the field, and many of those kept at Kew show the notching

of the apex of the lower sepal; both 2-toothed and entire sepals may

~ be found on the same plant. The spur is short and almost straight,

nearly conical.

7. Utricularia graminifolia Vahl., Enum. 1: 195, no. 3, 1805;

Gamble, 981; Kew Herb. (1947).

Utricularia caerulea Clarke, 331; Oliver, 179; Cooke, 2: 318, et

alior. auct. (non Linn.).

Utricularia pedicellata Wight, Icon. 1578, f. 2.

Utricularia uliginoides Wight, Icon. t. 1573.

Utricularia conterta Wight, Icon. t. 1575.

Utricularia purpurascens Graham, Cat. 165 (fide Cooke).

Typical of this species are the large leaves, about the largest

undivided leaves of the genus in Western India. The lower sepals are

said by Cooke to be 2-toothed, but this is not an exclusive characteristic

of this species, as it occurs also in U. uliginosa. The pedicels are

erect in fruit.

In the synonymy, attention is called to the fact that U. caerulea is

the name given to this plant by Clarke, Cooke and others, but the plant

is not the same as U. caerulea Linn. which is a valid name, see below.

Comparing U. graminifolia with U. caerulea Linn. (non alior.), the

differences between the two species are at one apparent: U. gramini-

folia has large leaves and a rather lax inflorescence which is composed

of 6-8 flowers, each flower being on a rather long pedicel; whilst in

U. caerulea Linn. the leaves are much smaller, the inflorescence in close

racemes or spikes composed of a large number of flowers, the pedicels

short or even O.

8. Utricularia reticulata Sm., Exot. Bot. 2: t. 119, 1805; Clarke,

331: Dalz. & Gibs., 135; Wight, Dlust. t. 143 ; Oliver, 180 ;

Cooke, 319; Gamble, 982; Gobel, 79-81, f. 80-83 & 86;

Pellegrin, 477, f. 52 (5-6), & 53 (4 & 8-13); Kamienski

120.

Utricularia uliginosa Wight, Icon. t. 1574 (right hand figure

only).

Utricularia graminifolia Graham, Cat. 165 (non Vahl).

The flowers of this species are the largest among Bombay U/¢ricul-

arias ; the scape is filiform and up to 60 cms. long, generally twining

among grasses, or in the absence of any support several scapes may

entwine among themselves to form a many-stranded stout ‘rope’.

A gregarious herb, very showy and pretty when in full bloom; its

flowering season is towards the end of the rains or shortly after them.

In Khandala, where the plant is abundant, the colour of the corolla

is generally between ‘Spectrum Violet’ and ‘Amethyst Violet’

(Ridg. 59-61); the bullate process on the lower lip is white with a few

purple lines ; occasionally a flower is practically white.

220 JOURNAL, BOMEAY NATURAL AHIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

9. Utricularia reticulata Sm. var. parviflora Santapau, var

nov.

Accedit ad U. veticulatam, a qua tamen differt scapis floribus et

fructibus saltem dimidio minoribus.

A bright flowered plant, asort of miniature copy of UW. reticulata

Sm. Scapes from 6 to12 cms. long, filiform; bracts and bracteoles

as in the typical plant, but much smaller; pedicels filiform, up to 9 mm.

long and winged in the upper part in fruit; calyx in flower 2-2:5 mm.

long, broadly ovate, upper sepal slightly larger than the lower, both

acute; in fruit the sepals enlarge to6x4mm. Corolia 6-8 mm. in dia-

meter, the lower lip with a small ballate process of the sam? structure

and colour as in the typica! plant ; capsules about 3--3°5 mm.

A gregarious plant growing in association with various grasses, and

other plants (Linum mysorense, Oldenlandia sp., Eriocaulon sp. etc.).

This plant has only been observed once in Khandala, on 31 Oct. 1944

(Santapau 5422) on Behran's Plateau; it was growing near, but scarcely

mixed with, Uivicularia reticulata Sm.; it can scarcely be said that the

small size of the whole plant is due to ecological conditions different

from those in which the larger plant grows, for when found the smaller

plants were growing onthe same sort of soil, and had about the sam?

amount of water as the typical plant; at that particular s sot there were

two large patches of these two varieties, there being but little intermixing

at the point where the two patches met.

10. Utricularia caerulea Linn., Sp. Pl. 18, 1753; Gamble, 983;

Stapf in MS. in Kew Herb. (non Clarke, nec Cooke, nec

alior. plur auct.)

Utricularia nivea Vahl, Enum. 1: 203, 1805; Wight, Icon. t.

1582; Oliver, 186; Cooke, 319; Merrill, Enum. Phil. Fl. Pl.

3: 466.

Otricularia racemosa Wall. Cat. 1496; Clarke, 333; Pellegrin,

485.

For the differences between this plant and U. caerulea Clarke see

above under U. graminzfolta.

11. Utricularia striatula Sm. in Rees Cyclop. 37: no. 17, 1819;

Cooke, 320; Gamble, 983; Pellegrin, 474.

Utricularia orbiculata Wall., Cat. 150); Oliver, 187; Dalz. &

Gibs., 136; Clarke, 334; Kamienski, 121; Gdbel, 53-60, f.

28-36 and 68-70.

Utricularia glochidiata Wight, Icon. t. 1581.

Otricularia pusilla Graham, Cat. 165. ©

About the most noticeable of the Utricularias of Bombay. It grows

both on wet rocks and on tree trunks; it is remarkable, however, that

on either rocks or trees it generally occupies vertical surfaces, possibly

because though requiring abundant water for its growth, it cannot stand

water-logged conditions.

The more common colour of the flowers is purple with a yellow

spot at the base of the lower lip; not seldom the colour is pure white

with the yellow spot mentioned; between these two colours, there is a

great range of shades; often the outer rim of the lower patal is purple

NOTES ON THE LENTIBULARIACEAE OF BOMBAY 221

or rosy pink, and between this rim and inner yellow spot there is a ring

of pure white.

This plant is also noticeable on account of its being the first U¢rz-

cularia to come into flower; in Khandala I have seen plants in flower

about a week after the first rains of the monsoon.

When this plant grows on rocks, it is fairly easy to collect the whole

plant including stolons with leaves and bladders ; from tree trunks it is

not SO easy, as it is associated with mosses and liverworts which cannot

be separated from U/rizcularia without more or less extensive damage

to both plants. Leaves are orbicular, reniform or spathulate. Bladders

very numerous. Seeds glochidiate all over, the glochidia being about

as long as or a little longer than the diameter of the seed.

* 12. Utricularia equiseticaulis Blatter and McCann, in Journ. Ind.

Bot. Soc: 10 : 122-123, pl. 1—2, 1931.

‘Similar to U. graminitfolia Vahl, but different by its branching

stem, its many ovate-acuminate or ovate-acute scales of the scape, the

broadly ovate or orbicular, acute. superior and the bifid, ovate-oblong

inferior lobe of the calyx, the fruiting pedicel not being recurved, the

{ruit compressed, seeds subglobose, marked with elongate fusiform

areoles longitudinally arranged.’ Blatt. and McC., loc. cit.

At first sight, this new species looks rather similar to, if not identi-

cal with, U. sguamosa Wight; its description seems to fit Wight’s

specimens in Kew Herbarium; but having no authentic specimens of

the new species, this point cannot be satisfactorily settled for the present.

13. Utricularia cgmosperma Blatter and McCann, loc. cit., 123-

25etigoot lool:

‘Similar to U. albo-caerulea Daiz., from which it differs by its broadly

oblong-obovate bracts, the narrowly obovate upper lip of the corolla,

the short and thick style, the fruiting pedicel not being recurved, the

broadly ovoid, almost orbicular, much compressed fruit, the obliquely

ellipsoid seed, the Jongitudinally and profoundly multi-sulcate testa.’

(Blatt & McC.,, loc. cit.).

REFERENCES

Note—This list is not meant to be complete; on purpose all the usual

stendard works on the botany of India or of the State of Bombay have been left

out.

Barnhart, J. H.: Segregation of Genera in Lentibulariaceae, In Mem. N. Y.

Bot. Gard. 6: 39-64, 1916.

Benjamin, L.: Neue Gattungen und Arten der Utricularien rebst einer netien

Einteilung der Gatlung Utricularia. In Linnaea 20: 290-320, 1&47.

Blatter, E. & C. McCann: Two new Utricularias from the Western Ghats. In

Journ. Ind. Bot. Soc. 10 : 122-125, tt. i-iv, 1931.

Goebel, K. : Morphologische und biologische Studien. V. Utricularia. In Ann.

Jard. Bot. Buitenz. 9: 41-119, tt. vi-xv, 1890.

Kamienski, F.: Lentibulariaceae. In Engler and Prantl, Pflanzenfam. 4(36) :

108-123, tf. 46-55, 1895. 3

Oliver, D.: The Indian Species of Utricularia. In Journ. Linn. Soc. 3:

170-199, 1859.

Pellegrin : Lentibulariaceae. In Lecomte, Flor, Gen. Indoch.4: 467-487,

1930.

Smith, J. E.: Exotic Botany, consisting of coloured figures and scientific

descriptions. . . The figures by James Sowerby. 1€04-1805.

A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BIG GAME HUNTING AND SHOOTING

IN INDIA AND THE HAST

Lrt.-CoLt, R. W. Burton, I.A. (RErp.)

When India achieved political freedom in August 1947 it occurred

to the compiler of this bibliography that one eventual result would

be the gradual fading from memory of the very existence of many

books on hunting and shooting in India and the Kast.

It seemed therefore that it would be well to have a list of all such

books published in the Society’s Journal as a permanent record. It

was also in mind that when going through the notebooks of the late

Major H. G. H. Munrowd for the purpose of the serial (published

in the Journal) ‘Some Reminiscences of Sport in Assam’, his biblio-,

eraphy of shikar books, would form a nucleus for the purpose. He

possessed 45 titles and had read others.

The regret of the Society’s Committee that the old sportsinan

did not live to see his experiences published in the Journal was ex-

pressed at close of Part V of the series. ‘To that will now be added

the gratitude of present and future members that it is owing to his

initiative this more complete bibliography is made available to them.

This further use of the notebooks is made with the consent of- Mrs.

Munrowd.

The thanks of the compiler are due to the Secretary of the Library

of the British Museum; the Librarian of the India Office Library,

Commonwealth Relations Office; the Librarian, Book Department,

Messrs Rowland Ward Ltd.; the Mitchell Library, Glasgow, for

research assistance helpfully afforded; and to Colonel R. ©. Morris and

Lieut.-Col. EK. G. Phythian-Adams for their valuable aid.

It is hoped the lists are fairly complete. Members able to suggest

additions or amendments are asked to send these to the Honorary

Secretary.

AUTHOR TITLE PUBLISHED

1. ‘A Late Customs

Officer’ ... Past Days in INDIA; oR SPoRT-

ING REMINISCENCES OF THE

VALLEY OF THE SOANE AND

THE BASIN OF SINGROWLEE. 1874

2. ‘A Planter’ ... SOPORT IN CEYLON: NortTH CEN-

TRAL PROVINCE: [KLEPHANTS,

Bears, BUFFALOES. 1888

5, Adair, Capiaan

| PhS: .. A SumMER In Hica Asta. 1899

4. Adams, A. L. .... WANDERINGS OF A NATURALIST IN

InpIA: WESTERN HIMALAYAS

| AND KASHMERE. 1867

5. Aflalo, F. G. .. THE SPORTSMAN’S Book FOR

| INDIA. 1904

Gis 3 .... A Book oF THE WILDERNESS AND

JUNGLE. 1912

Illustrated. 2nd _ edition. 1927

~ Aléxanderz Ri. Ds.

and Martin-Leake, A. SoME SIGN-pPosts To SwiKar. 1932

A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BIG GAME HUNTING AND SHOOTING

AUTHOR

eo Ajax’

10.

iam

12.

13.

14.

ey.

16.

ILE

ikep

ng.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

21a.

28.

‘An Old Shikari’

Pepponyi, Count

Hendrik Me

Arbuthnot, James

Baden-Powell, Sir

Robert, K.c.B. yer

Badminton Library ..

Bagot, A. G.

Baikov, N.

Baillie, Mrs. W. W.. ...

Bairnsfather, Lt.-Col,

Jee Bie A

Baker, E. B.

Baker, E. C. Stuart ...

Baker, 8S. W.

Baker, Sir Samuel ...

Baldwin, C ap tain

Juma -

Ball, Valentine

Barclay, Edgar N.

Barras, Col. Se riline ns

Baxter, E. H.

223

TITLE PUBLISHED

Goop HuNTING; oR WHAT TO DO

AND How To Do It. 1913

NiuGir1 SpPorRTING REMINISCEN-

CES. 1880

My Bic Game Huntine Diary. 1937,

A Trip to KasHmir. 1900

InDIAN MEMORIES. 1915

Bia GaME SHOOTING (2 Vols.) 1894

SPORT AND 7'RAVEL IN INDIA AND

CENTRAL AMERICA. 1897

Bic GAME HuntInG In MANCHU-

RIA. 1936

Days AND NIGHTS OF SHIKAR. 1921

SPORT AND NATURE IN THE HIMa-

DAY st) idited by. i. G:

Aflalo. 1914.

Sport IN BENGAL: AND How, _

WHEN, AND WHERE TO SEEK

IT. 1887

MisHiI THE MAN-EATER, AND

OTHER TALES OF BiG GAME. 1928

HicguHt YEARS’ WANDERINGS IN

CEYLON. 1855

THE RIFLE AND HowunpD IN

CEYLON. 1854.

New edition. 1874.

EigHt YEARS IN CEYLON. 1884.

New edition. 1891

Witp BEASTS AND THEIR WAYS. 1890

LARGE AND SMALL GAME OF

BENGAL AND THE NortH WEstT

PROVINCES OF INDIA. 1876

2nd edition. 1883

JUNGLE LiFe IN INDIA. 1880

Bic GAME SHootTiInG ReEcorDs. 1932

InpDIA AND TIGER HuntTIne. ‘2° |

vols. 2nd series. 1885

THE NEW SHIKARI AT OUR INDIAN

STATIONS. 2 vols. (This is not

exactly “Big Game Hunting’

but an account of coursing,

falconry and other pursuits

by a facile and amusing pen,

so deserves to be saved from

oblivion. ) 1885

From SHIKAR AND SAFARI: A

Bic GAME ANTHOLOGY.

193]

224

(pie) borer

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

AUYHOR

. Berg, Bengt

. Bergman, Sten

Best, Gon, J. We

??) 2?

2) 3?

9?) 99

. Braddon, Sir Edwar

. Bradley, J. PS.

. Brinckman, A.

. British Museum (Nat-

ural History)

. Brooke, Sir Victor

2. Brown, J. Moray

: Bune R, St Ge al

Norah

strain Wen ce

. Burrard, Major Geraid

. Burton, Lieut.-Gen.

: Burton, Brig.-Gen.

RenG

Vol. 49

TITLE

TIGER AND MeEwnscu. [in German;

a sumptuous work dealing

mostly with tiger. 63 plates

(photos) |

SPORT AND EXPLORATION IN THE

Far East. Kurile Islands.

SHIKAR NotTES FOR NOVICES.

ob) et) a7

2nd edition titled ‘SHIKAR

Notes’.

TIGER Days.

THE MarkED MAN-EATER.

Forest Lire in Inp1ia.

GUIDE) T 0 SHPKAR EN TIE

NILaGiris.

TuHrrTY YEARS OF SHIKAR.

A NARRATIVE OF TRAVEL AND

Sport iN Burma, SIAM AND

THE MALAY PENINSULA.

THE RiFLE IN CASHMERE. A

NARRATIVE OF SHOOTING Ex-

PEDITIONS IN LADAK, CASH-

MERE, PUNJAB ETC.

SPECIAL GuIDE No. 10. Illus-

trated pp. 82.

Bia Game In Inpia. (A bio-

graphy of Sir Victor Brooke,

edited by O. L. Stephen, was

published in 1894.).

SHIKAR SKETCHES: WITH NOTES

oN [INDIAN FIELD SPoRTS.

PoWDER, SPUR AND SPEAR: A

SPORTING MEDLEY.

Stray Sport. 2 vols.

JUNGLE Days: A Book oF BiG

GAME HUNTING.

THe ‘InpiaAn’- FIELD’

Boor. 6th edition.

5th edition.

Big Game HUNTING IN THE

HIMALAYAS AND TIBET.

SHIKAR

REMINISCENCES OF SPORT IN INDIA.

An INDIAN OLIO.

Sport AND WILD LIFE IN THE

DECCAN.

A Boox or MAN-EATERS.

THE Book OF THE TIGER.

THe TIGER HUunTERS.

PUBLISHED:

1985

1933.

1921

1922.

1931

1934

1935

1924

1895

1876.

1862.

1932:

A- 55.

56.

57.

58.

58a.

60.

61.

62.

63.

+ 64.

65.

66.

OT.

A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BIG GAME HUNTING AND SHOOTING

AUTHOR

= Butler, Major John...

Caldwell, Harry H. ...

Campbell, Lieut.-Col.

James A,

Campbell, Col. Walter

(of Skipness)

Carruthers, Bs

Vander Byl, P. B.,

Kennion,” Bh." iy,

Millais, J. G., and

others noe

. Casserly, Major Gor-

don a

. Caswell, John (of

U.S.A.) ie,

Clam pion de

Care's pine my," * Sir

Claude, Bart

Champion, F. W.

Chauduri, K. N.

Christopher, Sydney A.

Church, P. W.

Clarke, Alfred

Cobbold, R. P.

TITLE

SKETCHES oF ASSAM BY AN

OFFICER OF THE Hast INDIA

CoMPANY’s BENGAL NATIVE IN-

FANTRY.

Buve. TicerR. (Hunting in

Southern China.)

Excursions, ADVENTURES, AND

FIELD SPORTS IN CEYLON, 2.

vols. (Of interest to sports-

men of the present day.)

2nd Edition.

3rd. Edition.

4th Edition.

THe OxLpd Forest RANGER: Wild

Sport on the Neilgherry Hills,

the Jungles of the Plains, etc.,

1820 to 1886.

My InpIAN JOURNAL.

THE Bia GaMeE oF ASIA AND

North America (Vol. IV of

The Gun at Home and

Abroad).

LIFE IN AN INDIAN OUTPOST.

SPORTING RiFLtEs AND RIFLE

SHootine. (Of interest to all

sportsmen. )

Memoirs. Edited by George

A. B. Dewar. (Contains one

chapter on India.)

With A CAMERA IN TIGER LAND.

THE JUNGLE IN SUNLIGHT AND

SHADOW.

SPORT IN JHEEL AND JUNGLE:

BENGAL AND BIHAR.

Bic GAME SHOOTING IN

BuRMA.

CHINESE TURKESTAN WITH CARA-

VAN AND RIFLE.

Sport IN THE Low CouNTRY OF

CEYLON.

INNERMOST AsIA: TRAVEL AND

SPORT IN THE PAMIRS.

LOWER

225

PUBLISHED

1842.

1864

1912-

1915

1920

226

68.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST’ SOCIERY, Vella

AUTHOR

Country Life Library

of Sport

. Cooch -Bihar, H: H.

the Maharaja of ...

70. Corbett, Jim

rhe) ,?

. Cumberland, Major

C23: nae

. Cumming, Lieut.-Col.

Gordon

. Dane, Sir Richard

; Darah) Velez

) Dawson, Gee. Wie oe

. Demidoff, E.

. Digby, Basset

. Drury, Col. Heber

. Dunbar-Brander. A. A.

+ elmo, | hve lel aN vee,

. Durand, Sir Edward,

Bart

. Eardley-Wilmot, Sir

re ta

; Edye, Surgn.-Captain

Re IS me

. Elliott, R. H.

9? Pie)

.- Ellison, BoC:

. Encyclopaedia of Sport

. Einie’ vee

. Eitherton, P. T. ae

: Hivans, ” Major G.. P.

. Fayrer, Sir Joseph

TITLE PUBLISHED

Vou. Il. Big GAME SHOOTING.

37 YEARS BiG GAME SHOOTING IN

CoocH BIHAR, THE DUARS AND

ASSAM.

THE MAN-EATERS OF JKUMAON,

THE MAN-EATING LEOPARD OF

RUDRAPRAYAG.

SPORT ON THE PAMIRS AND TouR-

KESTAN STEPPES.

Witp MEN anp WiLp BzAsts:

SCENES IN CAMP AND JUNGLE.

SPORT IN ASIA AND AFRICA.

SPORT IN THE HIGHLANDS OF

JXASHMIR.

NILGIRI SPORTING REMINISCENCES.

AFTER WILD SHEEP IN THE ALTAI.

T1iGERS, GOLD AND Witca Doc-

TORS: ADVENTURES IN SIBERIA

AND MONGOLIA.

REMINISCENCES OF LIFE AND

SPORT IN SOUTHERN INDIA.

WiLpD ANIMALS IN CENTRAL INDIA.

HUntTING IN THE HIMALAYA.

RiFLE Ropd AND SPEAR IN THE

FEAst.

Forest LIFE AND Sport In INDIA.

LEAVES FROM INDIAN FORESTS.

SPoRT IN INDIA AND SOMALILAND

with Hints to YounGa SHI-

KARIS. |

EXPERIENCES OF A PLANTER IN

THE MysorE JUNGLES 2 vols.

GOLD, SPORT AND COFFEE PLANT-

ING IN MyYSsorE.

Tur Princk oF WALES’sS SPorT

In INpDIA.

An article by J. D. Inverarity.

TEN ‘Days ‘CASUAL’ WITH Lab

AFTER TIGER.

ACROSS THE ROOF OF THE WORLD.

Big GAME SHOOTING IN UPPER

BURMA.

THE RoyaL TIGER oF BENGAL:

His Lire anD DEATH.

1905

~1911

1912

1870

A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BIG GAME HUNTING AND SHOOTING 227

AUTHOR TITLE PUBLISHED

94. ‘Felix’ ... RECOLLECTIONS OF A BISON AND

* TiGER HUNTER. 1906

95. Fenton, L. L. ... Tue Rirte in Inpia: being the

Sporting Experiences of an

Indian Officer. 1928

96. Fergusson, W. N. .... ADVENTURE, SPoRT AND TRAVEL

ON THE TIBETAN STEPPES. 1911

O7 FE. EF. S. A. _. Sport in LapaKk: Five Letters

. From ‘The Field’. 1895

97a. Field, Sir Donald,

Gil. E. , JUNGLE JoTrinGs. Vol. Lf. 1936

Nol ue 1946

98. Fife-Cookson, Lt.-Col. TIGER SHOOTING IN THE Doon

Ce ; AND ULWAR. 1887

99. Fletcher, F. W. ie _.. SPORT ON THE NILGIRIS AND IN

WYNAAD. 1911

100. Foran, W. BR. ... ASILL oR BE KILLED. 1933

101. Forbes, G. S. _. Witp Lire In CANARA AND

GANJAM. 1885

102. Forsyth, Capt. James ‘HE SPORTING RIFLE AND ITS

PROJECTILE. | 1863

New edition. 1867

HOS. ,, ; _.. Tne HIGHLANDS OF CENTRAL

: ane INDIA. 1871

Second edition. 1872

New edition. 1889

New edition. 1919

104. Fraser, Col. T. G. ... RECORDS OF SPORT AND MILITARY

. LirE In WESTERN INDIA. 1881

105. Fraser, Sir A. H. L. AmonGc Inpisn Rasans and

Ryots: 8rd edition. A Civil

Servant’s recollections and

impressions of thirty-seven

years work and sport in the

Central Provinces and Bengal.

(Contains 2 chapters on tiger

and elephant.) 1912

106. Gardner, Mrs. Alan... RIFLE AND SPEAR WITH THE

Raspoots: Winter Travel and

Sport in Northern India. 1895

107. Gerard, Lt.-Gen. Sir

Montague Gilbert... LEAVES FRoM THE Diary OF A

SOLDIER AND SPORTSMAN. 1903

108. German Crown Prince,

His Imperial High-

ness the From My Huntine Day-Boox. 1912

109. Gilmore, Parker (Ubi

que) .. LEAVES FROM A _ SPORTSMAN’S

Diary. 1893

110. a ‘ ... HNCOUNTERS WITH WILD Beasts. 1905

228

Mata be

ue yen ae

. Glossop, B. R. M.

Tal sy. C.

. Grant,

_ Greenwood, James ...

. Grew,

Hamilton,

9. Handley,

. Hardinge,

. Hayden,

Hiemidiei S01;

. Hicks,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY

AUTHOR

Glasfurd, A. I. R.

Gouldsbury, i.

Jie:

. Gryll, J. W.

Douglas

Penshurst

. Harrison, Axghibatd

. Haughton, H. L.

. ‘Hawkeye’

Sir

and Cosson, César .

Kee @ as:

. Hewett, Sir John

Sone

. Hornaday, W. T.

. Horne, W. O.

. Hubback, T. BR.

NATURAL HIST.

Gen.

Leonard H.

Lord, of

Henr y

Mrs.

TITLE PusLisnEep

LEAVES FROM AN INDIAN

JUNGLE. 1903:

Ru'LE AND ROMANCE IN’ THE

INDIAN JUNGLE. 1905:

8rd edition. 1913

MUSINGS OF AN OLD SHIKARI. 1928

SPORTING TRIPS OF A SUBALTERN. 1906.

TIGER SLAYER BY ORDER. (Digby

Davies). Edited by C.E.G. 1915

2nd_ edition. 1916

TicgkR LAND: REMINISCENCES OF

Forty YEARS’ SPORT IN

BENGAL. 1913

New edition. 1915

THE SHIKARI::A HUuNTER’S GUIDE. 1914

WILD Sports oF THE WORLD. 1864

SPORT AND TRAVEL IN THE FAR

Fast. 1910:

THE OUT-STATION: OR JAUNTS IN

THE JUNGLE. 2nd edition. 1848

RECORDS OF SPORT IN SOUTHERN

Inpia. (Between 1844 and

1870.) 1892

ELUNTER’S Moon. 19384

On Hint AND PLAIN. 1933.

INDO-CHINA: A SPorTSMAN’S

OPPORTUNITY. (Privately

printed by his daughter and

brother after his death.) 1983:

SPORT AND FOLK-LORE IN THE

HIMALAYA. 1913.

(TAME, 1876:

2nd edition. 1881

SPORT AND TRAVEL IN THE H1GH-

LANDS OF TIBET. 1927

THE SPORTING ADVENTURES OF A

Mem SAHIB. 1918

JUNGLE TRAILS IN NORTHERN

INDIA. 1938

Forty YEARS AMONG THE WILD

ANIMALS OF INDIA FROM MYSORE

TO THE HIMALAYAS. 2 vols. 1911

Two YEARS IN THE JUNGLE. 1885

WorkK AND SPORT IN THE OLD

LOwsr 1928

ELEPHANT AND SELADANG HuvUNT-

ING IN THE FEDERATED MALAY

STATES.

SOCIETY, Vol. 49

184

. Koenigsmarck,

Kinloch .Gen.

AUTHOR

India, Government otf

(Published by)

. Inglis, James (Maori)

2? ava

Parby, Lt.-Col, A. Hit..

. Ivanov, Serge and

Mack, Gertrude

Peadio, Ko b.. Bach i...

. Jenkins, Lady

. Jepson, Stanley

. Johnson, Daniel

. Journals of the Bom-

bay Natural History

Society ae

me UALS.

Count

Hans von

fm Kennion, 2.) 1.

. ‘Killdeer’

makanesid., C. A’.

Kinloch,

Gen.

A. A.

. Knowles, G. H.

9 ‘)

2? a”

A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BIG GAME HUNTING AND SHOOTING

229

"TITLE PUBLISHED

Bia Game HuntInG In INDIA AND

THE GAME ANIMALS OF INDIA.

(Author: lLieut.-Col. R. W.

Burton.) 1949

Tent Lirn In TIGERLAND. 1888

Sport AND WorK ON THE NEPAL

FRONTIER; or ‘T'welve Years’

Sporting Reminiscences of an

Indigo Planter. 1892

THe Diary oF A HUNTER FROM

THE PUNJAB TO THE KARAKORUM

Mountains. (Published posthu-

mously by a brother). 1863

Big GAME HuntTING In MAvN-

CHURIA. 1936

A GuIDE ro TIGER SHOOTING.

SPORT AND ‘TRAVEL 1N’ BOTH

TIBETS. 1909

Bia GAME ENCOUNTERS. 1936

SKETCHES oF INDIAN’ FIELD

Sports. 2nd edition. 1927

1883 To 1950 AND. ONWARDS.

THE SPORTSMAN’S VADzE-MECUM

FOR THE HIMALAYAS. 1891

THE MarxkHor: SPORT IN

KASHMIR. 1910

SPoRT AND WILD LIFE IN THE

FurTHER HIMALAYA. 1910

By Mountain, LAKE AND Puain:

being Sketches of Sport in

Eastern Persia. 1911

DIVERSIONS OF AN INDIAN POLI-

TICAL. 1932

TimELY Hints To AMATEUR

SHIKARIS. 1909

InpIAN LIons. 1938

LarRGE GAME SHOOTING IN THIBET

AND THE NortH WEST. 1876

LaRGE GAME SHOOTING IN

THIBET, THE HIMALAYAS, AND

NortTHERN INDIA. . 1885

Bra Eaition: 1892

TERRORS OF THE JUNGLE. 1982

IN THE GRIP OF THE JUNGLES. 1933

JUNGLE Haunts. 1934

230

156.

162.

163.

164.

165.

166.

HOP:

168.

169.

TO;

171.

172.

173.

fee 174,

175.

176.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL? HIST. “SOCIED VY, Vol 49

AUTHOR TITLE PUBLISHED

Larking, Col. Cuth-

bert ... BUNDOBAST AND KHABAR: REmI-

NISCENCES OF INDIA. 1888

. Leatham, A. E. Sport IN FrvE CONTINENTS. 1912

iieshc, uae)» WILDERNESS TRAILS IN THREE

. CoNnTINENTS. 1931

. Leveson, B.A. WRINKLES: OR Hints TO SPoRTS-

| MEN AND TRAVELLERS. 1874

. Leveson, H. A. Sia

Old Shikari’) Tre ForEST AND FIELD. 1874

Another edition. 1879

. Leveson, H. A. See

Old Shikari’) Sport 1N Many LAnpDs.

2 vols. 1877

Leveson, H. A. aoe

Old Shikari’) Sport iN Many LAnps: Europ

AND ASIA. 1887

Liscomb, Herscha Astor: A JOURNAL OF SPporRT

AND TRAVEL. (Reviewed in

BIN. Se Jounal. vols. sp:

911). 1888

‘Loris’ THE JOURNAL OF THE CEYLON

GAME AND FAUNA PROTECTION

SOCIETY.

Vols. I, U1, Ul-: 1936" to: 1945;

| and onwards.

MacIntyre, Maj. Gen.

Donald, V. C. Hinpu Kow. WaANDERINGS AND

; WILD SPORT ON AND BEYOND

THE HIMALAYAS. 1889

New edition. 1891

Mainwaring, H. G. .... A SOLDIER’s SriKar TRIPs. 1920

Malet, Rawdon WHEN THE RED GoDSs CALL. 1984

ape € UNFORGIVING MINUTES. 1934

Markham, Col. F. .... SHOOTING IN THE HIMALAyas. 1854

Maxwell, Sir George In Matay Forests: Sporr Aanp

TRAVEL. 1907

Maydon, H. G. ... Bic GAME OF INDIA. 1937

McCann, Charles anid

Stockley, Lt.-Col.

Cee ... A SHIKARI’S PocKET BOOK. 1927

Millett, M. W. JUNGLE SporT iN CEYLON-—FROM

| ELEPHANT TO SNIPE. 1914

Mitchell, K. W. S. ... TALES FrRoM SomME EASTERN

JUNGLES. Illustrated. 1928

Musselwhite, Arthur Brurnp THE Lens In TIGER

. LAND. 1933

Newall, Gen. 'D. J. F. THe Hicuuannps oF Inpia. Vol.

I. Geographical and Ethno-

logical. 1882

Vol. II. Field Sports and

Travel. 1887

)

‘

;

A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BIG GAME HUNTING AND SHOOTING 231

AUTHOR TITLE PUBLISHED

177. Newall, Capt. J. T. .... Toe Eastern HUNTERS. 1866

Bi. 53 ... Hoc Huntine In THE East, AND

OTHER SPORT. 1867

mo. 5; yh ... ScortisH Moors AnD EASTERN

JUNGLES. 1889

180. Niedieck, Paul ... Wits RIFLE IN FrvE Continents. 1908

180a. Okeden, W. P. 2D) PA RY AN Di oS POR Th NG

JOURNAL OF INDIA 1821-1841. 1906

181. Oriental Sportin

Magazine oe June 1828 to 1933, 2 vols.

and 1868-79, 12 vols.

182. Peacock, E. H. ... A GamEr Book FoR BURMA AND

ADJACENT ‘TERRITORIES. 1983

182a. Pester, Lieut. John... War anp Sport in Inp1A, 1802-

: 1806. Republished by J. A.

Devenish. 1913

183. Pigot, Brig.-Gen. R. Twenty FIVE Years’ BiG GAME

HUNTING. 1928

184. Pollock, Lt.-Col. Sportrina Days IN SOUTHERN

a Je es INDIA. 1894.

e185. Pollok, Col. F. W. .... Srort in BririsH BurMA, ASSAM

AND KoSSYAH AND |. JAINTEA

Hints: aLuso NORTHERN HILLY

Districts oF MADRAS PRESI-

DENCY. 2 Vols. 1879

186. Pollok, Col. F. T. .... Incrpents or ForEIGN SPoRT AND

TRAVEL. 1894

Mok 5, oe ee. Firry YEARS’ REMINISCENCES OF

INDIA. 1896

ae 188. Pollok, Col. F. T. an |

Thom W. 8. ... Wi~p Sports or BurMA AND

ASSAM. 1900

iso Prater, S. H. ... WinLD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN

EMPIRE AND THE PROBLEM OF

THEIR PRESERVATION (B.N.H.S.

Journal). 1936

Le) ee . ... THE Book or INDIAN ANIMALS.

(Much in these two books is

of special use and interest to

the Big Game sportsman.) 1948

191. Quincey, J. Wong ... CHINESE HunTER. 1989

192. ‘Red Heather’ ... MEMORIES OF SporTING Days. 1923

193. Rice, William .. TIGER SHOOTING IN’ INDIA—

Raspootana 1850 To 1854, 1857

194. Rice, Gen. William INDIAN GAME. 1884

195. Ronaldshay, The Earl

of ... ‘SPORT AND POLITICS UNDER AN

EASTERN Sky. 1902

196. Roosevelt, Theodore TRAILING THE GIANT PANDA. 1929

#97. Rundall, L. B. ... HE Ipex or Sua Pina. 1915

198. Russell, C. E. M. BULLET AND SHOT IN INDIAN

Forest, PrnAins AND Hit. 1900

232

199;

200.

201.

. Sinha,

i stg ea Vi cle

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

AUTHOR

Sanderson, G. P.

Savory, Isabei ea

Selous, F. C.

Sewell, His iD:

. Shakespear, Major H.

204. She field,

Ltr=Col.

Frank oe

. ‘Silver Hackle’

7 he 2)

. Simson, F. B.

Kirtya-

nand ae

R. Saran

Singh, The Ivama-

naj of

. Smith, Mervin A.

. Smythies, HE. A.

papular te @ (Henry

Dixon) wee

. Somerville, Augustus

. Sowerby, A. C.

. ‘Spy-Glass’

. Stebbing, EH. P.

99 9

+,” 9)

. Stephens, Martin

. Sterndale, R. A.

. Stewart, Col. A. E....

Vol. 49

TITLE PUBLISHED

THIRTEZN YEARS AMONG THE

Wiutp Breasts or Inpra. Ist

edition.

Other later editions up to 6th in

1907.

A SPORTSWOMAN IN INDIA.

SPoRt AND ‘TRAVEL HAST AND

West. (Pp. 1 to 95 contain

Asia Minor; The Maimum

Dagh and the West Asiatic

Red Deer (Cervus maral).

THE LoG or A SPORTSMAN.

(Much cricket, a little shoot-

ing).

Tur Wiutp Sports or INDIA.

How I Kiuuep tHE Tigger. 2nd

edition.

MAN-EATERS AND OTHER DENIZENS

OF THE INDIAN JUNGLES.

INDIAN JUNGLE LORE AND THE

RIFLE.

LETTERS ON SPORT. IN EASTERN

BENGAL.

PuRNEA—A SHIKAR LAND.

TIGER SHOOTING.

SPORT AND ADVENTURE IN THE

INDIAN JUNGLE,

Bia GAME SHOOTING IN NEPAL.

Gun, RIFLE AND HounpD In EAST.

AND WEST.

SHIKAR NEAR CALCUTTA-——WITH A

TRIP TO THE SUNDERBANS.

SPORT AND SCIENCE ON THE SINO-

MoNGOLIAN FRONTIER.

TRAMPS IN THE INDIAN JUNGLES.

JUNGLE By-Ways IN INDIA.

STALKS IN THE HIMALAYA.

Tne DIARY OF A SPORTSMAN AND

NATURALIST IN INDIA.

Farr GAME—THE OPEN AIR OF

Four CONTINENTS.

‘SEONEE’, OR CAMP LIFE ON THE

SATPURA RANGE,

DENIZENS OF THE JUNGLES: A

SERIES OF SKETCHES IN PEN

AND Pencit. (Oblong Quarto).

TIGER AND OTHER GAME.

1878

1900

1936.

1887

1881

1927

A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BIG GAME HUNTING AND SHOOTING — 233

AUTHOR TITLE PUBLISHED

223. Stewart, R. M. --5 ROUND THE WoRLD witH RoD

AND RIFLE. 1024

224. Stockley, Col. V. M. Bic Game SuHoorine 1n_ INpIA,

BURMA AND SOMALILAND. 1913

225. Stockley, Lt.-Col.

Coe . Bic GAME SHOOTING IN THE

INDIAN EMPIRE. 1923

26. = se ... OHIKAR’, BEING TALES TOLD BY

A SPORTSMAN IN INDIA. 1928

22. 3 ip ... SOTALKING IN THE HIMALAYAS AND

NORTHERN INDIA. 1936

Zefa. Stone, 8, Jv; ... IN AND Bryonpd THE HIMALAYAS.

A. record of Sport and Travel

in the abode of snow. 1896

228. Storey, Harry 7 HuntTInNG AND. SHOOTING IN

CEYLON. 2nd edition. 1907

2 a ... A Cryton SportsmMan’s Diary. 1921]

230. Strachan, Arthur W. MavLep sy A TIGER. 1933

Sutton, R. L. ... TIGER TRAILS In SoutHERN Asia. 1927

282. Swayne, H. G.-C. ... THrouGH THE HIGHLANDS oF

SIBERIA. 1904.

mo2a. Taylor, John

(‘Pondoro’) Bic GaME AND Bic GaME Rirtes 1948

233. Taylor, Major Neville IBEX SHOOTING ON THE Himauayas. 1903

234. Tennent, Sir James

Emerson wi OEMLONG 42 vols. 1859

Zoo. The Hield’ .. THE British SPORTING EXHIBI-

TION. A fully illustrated

catalogue of the Game

Animals of the World. pp. 72. 1988

236. The Sportsman’s Lib-

rary YS OLLe ot DIG «GAME OF EN DITA, 1937

Bou. Todd, W. EH. wi PieER | TicEr ! ; 1927

Zoo. 4, ... Work, Sport AND Pray. 1928

238 a. Tulloch, Sell. Maurice THE ALL-IN-ONE SHIkAR Boox

(Illustrated). 1948

239. Tutein-Nolthenius, ‘A.

C 37 YEARS OF GAME PROTECTION

IN CEYLON. 1907

240. Tyacke, Col. R. H. ... THE Sportsman’s MANUAL FoR

KuLu, Lanoun, LapaKx, Spit1

TO THE Tso Morart LakEe. 1898

Another edition. 1929

241. Tyacke, Mrs. R. H. How I Suor my Bzars. 1893

242. Wallace, F. ... Bic GAME. 1934

243. Wallace, H. F. ... STALKS ABROAD. . 1908

244, Wallace, W. H. |... Bic Game oF CENTRAL AND

WESTERN CHINA. 1913

245. Ward, Col. A. E. .... THe Tourist’s AnD SPorTSMAN’S

GUIDE TO KASHMIR AND LADAK.

Ath and revised edition. 1896

234 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

AUTHOR TITLE PUBLISHED

~~246. Ward, Rowland F.z.s. Horn MEASUREMENTS OF THE

GREAT GAME OF THE WORLD.

10th edition. 1935

247. 5 >» «. THE SPORTSMAN’S HANDBOOK TO

PRACTICAL COLLECTING AND

PRESERVING TROPHIES. 1900:

248. Wardrop, Gen. Sir

Alexander, and

Morris, C.W.G. ... Days anp NIGHTS witH INDIAN

Bic GAME. 1923

249. Webber, Thomas W. Tue Forests or Upprer INDIA

250. Whistler, Hugh ..» LN THE HicH HIMALAYAS. 1924

251. Whitney, Caspar .., JUNGLE. TRAILS AND JUNGLE

PEOPLE. 1905

252. Williamson, Capt.

Thomas .., ORIENTAL Fietp Sports. Oblong

quarto. Coloured plates. 1807

253. Williamson, Capt.

Thomas -», ORIENTAL FIELD Sports. Crown

quarto. Uncoloured Plates. 1808

“+254. Wilson, Col. Alban ... Sport anp SERVICE In ‘ASSAM

AND ELSEWHERE. 1924

250. Wood, it.-Col. H. S.

I.M.S. ... SHIKAR MEMORIES. 2 19384

256. Woodyatt, Maj.-Gen.

Nigel ... My Sportiva MEmorizs. 1923

7. Wray, John Willough-

by ... WitH RIFLE AND SPEAR: REMINI-

SCENCES OF SPorT IN INDIA. 1925

Many sportsmen are interested in the natural history of the

big game animals they seek, and some of the other animals they

may meet with.

The following will supply the need:—

1. Phillips, W. W. A. .... MAnuAL of THE MAMMALS OF

CEYLON, 1937

2. Pocock, RB. I. oe GP AUNA © SOF, SB RETISE 219i NID TONG

MAMMALIA.

Violet: 1939

Vol, Ak . 1941

Sw eereieish lel 3.2 Nigiee 189- sand 190: SoLartihe

Bibliography. ;

4. The Journals, existing and future, of the Bombay and Ceylon

Natural History Societies.

A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BIG GAME HUNTING AND SHOOTING 235

Tn addition to these there are older, also more recent books which

some may wish to consult:

AUTHOR

ee lantord,, Wi. 1.

eoerdon, OC, T’.

. Kelaart, E. F.

Lydekker, KR.

cH 100 bo

@ Sterndale, RK. E:

o. 9) Je)

9. Tennent, Sir James

Emerson

. HKardley-Wilmot, Sir 8.

Hingston, R. W. Gare

Btlooker: Sir J oseph ea

~I o>

. Kipling, Lockwood ...

», Rudyard

8. 25) 99 f

9. Mockler-Ferryman, A

10. Selous, F. C.

11. Spittel, R:. L.

e093)

Lag |

2 o

Pigsticking is not ‘Big Game Hunting’.

TITLE

MAMMALIA: FauNa OF BRITISH

InpiA SERIES.

MAMMALS OF INDIA.

ProproMus FAauNAE ZEYLANICAE.

(Ceylon)

THE DEER oF ALL LANDS.

THE GREAT AND SMALL GAME OF

EUROPE, WESTERN AND

NorTHERN ASIA AND AMERICA.

THE GAME ANIMALS OF INDIA,

Burma, MaLayA AND ‘TIBET.

Second edition, edited by

3. G.’ Dollman.

MasMMALIA OF INDIA.

MAMMALIA OF INDIA.

abridged edition.

New and

NaturAL History oF CEYLON.

THe Lirk ors TIGER.

THE LIFE OF AN HLEPHANT.

A- NATURALIST IN HIMALAYA.

A NATURALIST IN HINDUSTAN.

HIMALAYAN JOURNALS: oR, NOTES

oF A NATURALIST IN BENGAL

AND SIKKIM.

BEAST AND MAN IN INDIA.

THE JUNGLE Book. illustrations

in colour.

THE SECOND JUNGLE Book.

THe Lire Story oF A TIGER.

HAST AND WEST.

WILD CEYLON.

PUBLISHED:

1891

1867

@ 852

1898:

1901

1867

LOTT

Lou:

1920

1923

1854

1892

1909

1895

1910

1900

1924.

It is, however, a famous

classic field sport—one of the principal sports of India—so the only

two books wholly devoted to the subject are here included :—

Baden-Powell, The Rt.

Hon. Lord

Wardrop, General

Alexander

Sir

Pia Stickinc, on HoGc-HuUNTING.

Revised and enlarged edition.

MODERN PIGSTICKING.

Second edition.

1924

19386

1912

1930

The following list of articles selected from the Journal of the

Bombay Natural History Society is by way of appendix to the

bibliography as affording information of interest to sportsmen which

236

JOURNAL, .BOMBAY NATURAL. AIST. SOCIETY, Vals 49

they will not be able to obtain without purchase of a number of the

books in the bibliography, most of which are out of print, and many

difficult to find.

ANIMAL

ibs

BEARS

2. BISON

. BUFFALO

. DEER

TITLE AND AUTHOR

The Black and Brown Bears of

Europe and Asia. <An_ illus-

trated scientific paper by R. I.

Pocock, “F7RsS.-. F-2 Scan Ok oor

pp. iil. ef seg, ands Wola s6:

pp. 101 to 158. (See No. 45

below).

The Indian Bison, with some

Notes on Stalking him. By

J. D. Inverarity, Vol. 4, pp.

294-310.

On the Gaur (Bos gaurus) and

its ‘Allies. By {W. T. Blanford,

EaR.S.; &. 7.8: Volk “6, ppm 222-

230.

The Gaur and the Gayal (Bos

gaurus. and Bos . fromealis).

By HE. C. Stuart Baker, F.z.s.

(With 16 text-figs) of horn

types. Vol. 15, pp. 227-248.

To be read with the above:—

The Gayal or Mithun (Bos

frontalis). By T. R. Livesey,

1 Ae (With 2 excellent

photographs) Vol. 35, pp. 199-

202; and Note at page 444 of

Vole. oo “by Je. O20 saeeime,

1.C 4S:

Some Notes on Bison (Bos

gaurus) in Burma. By W. 5.

Thom, 1.p. (Retd.). . (With

. four excellent photographs).

Vol 31,2 pp. 106-1239

The Indian Wild: Buffale. By

J. D. Inverarity. (Excellent

photographs of a bull, and ef

horn types from Central

Provinces). Vol.,105- pp.) 45

52.

Shooting Wild Buffalo in the

Kosi River Swamps. By

J. EK. Hall. (Good photo of

bull.) Vol. 88, pp. 585-592.

The Larger Deer of British India.

By ‘he 1. Rococlh; wR S., Bezas:

A scientific series.

Introduction and _— general.

(With 8 text-figures), Vol. 43,

pp. 298-517.

PUBLISHED

1932

1890

1903

1934

1995

1936

1943

A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BIG GAME HUNTING AND SHOOTING 237

ANIMAL TITLE AND AUTHOR PUBLISHED

Swamp Deer and Thamin.

(With 7 text-figures). Vol.

ASO ooet ones 1943:

The Sambar. (With 3 text-

figs). Vol. 44, pp. 27-87. 1943;

The Chital and Hog Deer.

Vol. 44, pp. 169-178. 1943:

10. DEER ... Notes on the Hog Deer (Cervus

porcinus) i Burma. - By

Veterinary Captain G. H.

Hvans, A.v.D. (With 2 plates

of the animai and the horns.)

Vol. 14, pp. 810-815. 1902

11. — -.. The Chital or Spotted Deer. By

JD jioverarity. (With

excellent plate of a stag and

Or thorn types, ©...) Vol. 9,

. pp. 481-485. 1899:

5 ie —— -- Notes on Sambar and Sambar

Shooting. By J. D. Inverarity.

(With excellent plate of a

stag.) Vol. 8, pp. 391-395. 1894

Note. For the Kashmir Stag,

and many other animals see

| Serial No. 45 of this list.

P13. — .. Notes on the Thamin, or Brow

Antlered Deer. By Veterinary

Captain G. H.: Evans. a.v.p!

(With plate showing horns). |

Vol. 9, pp. 326-333. 1895:

(This should be read with

Richardson, Vol: .7,.No. 2. and

Gibexnt: Vol {18 = Nowe 4:

1893 /94).

i — wee he now. (Cerous,.. wallienn)

Northern Bhutan, Sangpo,

and Brahmapootra Valleys and

Southern Tibet, is among the

largest of the red deer. (See

aisot Ward. ~Vol..30,. >No. 4

pp- 719-720 in item 45 of this

hist):

15, — es Thorold’s Stag (Cervus thoroldt)

from. Tibet,, and on the

Mammals of the Tibetan

Plateau. By Wl. Blanford,

HR Ses, HGZ.S. (With an

excellent plate of this rare

stag). Vol. 8, No. 4. pp. 540-

544, : 1894

238 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, . Vol. 49

Ii.

lliey.

19.

_, ANIMAL

. GOATS

SHEEP

. LIon

TITLE AND AUTHOR PUBLISHED

The Serows, Gorals and Takin of

British India and the Straits

Settlements. By R. I.

‘Pocock, F.RIS., FuZsS. > Pare

I. (With good plate of male

takin). Vol. 19, No. 74. pp.

807-824.

Part II. Coloured plates, and

text-figs. Vol. 22, No. 2. pp.

296-319.

Note on Takin (Budorcas taxi-

color) from the Mishmi

Country. By Captain F. M.

Bailey. (With 10 photo

illustrations of horns and

Skaulis 3). Viol 221, Noo. apa.

1059-1071.

Notes on a trip after the Ovis

pol.) By eColonel "Gla a.

Sullivan, late 4th D.G.’s. (A

good photograph of a ram, and

a head with 63 inch horns.)

Vols Loy Nor depp. Oveune

Notes from an expedition for

Ovis pol. By Walliana

Morden, American Museum of

Natural History. (Illustrated.)

Vol. 34, pp. 142-148.

Note. Other good articles on

hunting this now much more

rare sheep, record horns for

which are 75 inches but none

approaching that now obtain-

able, are in Vol. 10, (1895);

Vol. 18, (1901); Vol. 28, (1915).

A note on its distribution is

at page 216 of Vol. 37.

Ovis ammon hodgsoni. A good

photo of this, the largest

wild sheep in the world, is at

page 980 of Vol. 19.

Ovis vignei. Article—‘Notes on

Oorial’) By, tit-Col a ae

Stockley at pages 1126-7-8. of

Vol. 28. is of use and interest

to sportsmen. Records of horns

of the species in various locali-

ties are in Rowland Ward’s

book listed in the Bibliography.

The “lions -ot. Asia. By To

Pocock, F.R.S., F.Z.8. (With

5 plates, 4 text-figures of skulls,

1910

1918

1912

1907

1930

A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BIG GAME HUNTING AND SHOOTING

ANIMAL

38. LION

24. TIGER

Al.

. PANTHER

. PHOTOGRAPHY

239

TITLE AND AUTHOR PUBLISHED

and a map.) Nol. 34, pp. 6388-

655.

> The Kethiawarn Laon: «, By it.

Col. pile iLeenbou- «Vol. 19)

No. 1, pp. 4-15.

(Also see Vol. 48, pp. 493-514).

Tiger Shooting in Burma. By

Wie Thom, iP. «(etd,).

(With 2 plates.) Vol. 37, No.

3. pp. 577-603.

.. & Central Provinces Tiger. By

Gaptam, ©. iy 8. Pitman,

Bsa VOlse SUue NOt 2... pps

459-462.

Some Reminiscences of Sport in

Assam.” py EG EM im five

parts. Vols. 45 and 46.

digers: By iv. Pocock; E-8.s.,

F.Z.8. (With one coloured

plate and 12 black and white

plates. An exhaustive and

scientific article.) Vol. 38,

No. 3, pp. 505-541.

Note. For naturalists there

are the books previously listed,

of which Pocock’s ‘Mammalia’

deals with all the carnivora of

the Indian region.

The Panthers and Ounces of

Asia: By WL. Pocock, ‘WiR-s.,

F.z.S. (With. illustrations of

skins and skulls). Vol. 34, No.

1. pp. 64-68. Vol. 34, No. 2.

pp. 307-336.

The Panther as I have known

him. By Lt.-Col. A. E. Mosse,

I.A., F.Z.8. Vol. 34. (3 plates)

—>pp. 350-356. Vol. 34. (1 plate)

pp. 673-679. Vol. 34. pp. 1015-

10238.

Stalking a Herd of Saing. By

i fly Peacock, F.2:s.. (Wath

4 photographs.) Vol. 87, pp.

278-288. (Reprinted from ‘The

Field’.)

Where Big Game Takes the

Waters. By EH. H. Peacock,

F.Z.8. (With 3 plates.) Vol. 387,

No. 4, pp. 780-783.

The Malayan Gaur or Seladang

(Bibos gaurus hubbacki). By

Theodore Hubback, F.z.s.

1930

1909

1929

1930

1934

1935

240 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Yor wes

ANIMAL

833. ELEPHANT

ey)

Se)

88. RHINOCEROS

AQ. TAPIR

41. SHIKAR ARTICLES

TITLE AND AUTHOR PUBLISHED:

(With 5 excellent plates.) Vol.

40, pp. 7-19.

Wild Elephants in the United

Provimcess; Bye eae

Champion, 1.F.s., F.z.8. With

four “plates. -Wol. 32) Nos

pp. 126-1382.

Wild Elephants in Assam. By

J. EK. Hall. (With a plate.

Mostly about shooting.) Vol.

41, No. 8, pp. 563-572.

The Malayan Elephant (Elephas

MLLim ws Ind1cus\ By

Theodore Hubback, F.z.s.

(With 8 plates of outstanding

merit.) Vol. 42, No.3, pp:

483-509.

An Elephant Shoot in the

Baragur Hills, Madras Presi-

dency.’ By ~ Handoloh ee:

Morris, F.z.s. (With 2 photo-

eraphs of tusks.) Vol. 31, No.

3, pp. 720-725.

A Further Shoot in the Baragur

Hills. By Randolph C. Morris,

F.Z.8. (Photographs of the

elephant and of the tusks

8 it. 2m, each Ol dbs) Volk

33, No. 4, pp. 861-868.

A Note on the position of the

Rhinoceros in Burma. By

W. F. H. Ansell. (With map

and plate, also a full list of

references.) Vol, 47, No. 2, pp.

249-276.

Rhinoceros Shooting in Burma.

By W.-S: Thom, 1.P: 3(Retd).

(With 2 photographs.) Vol.

39; No. Lt) pp: 137-150:

The Malay Tapir (Tapirus

ndigas\< JBy: We “Son hhomac

1.p. (Retd). (With one plate.)

Vol. 88, No. 8, pp. 479-483.

Some experiences almonest

Elephant and other Big

Game of Burma from 1887

to 1951) By Wie as homes

1.p. (Retd.). (With 2 photo-

graphs.) Vol. 36, No. 2, pp.

821-833,

A Journey to Siam and back.

By 4it--Col C. EH. Stockley,

1938.

1927,

1940

1942.

A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BIG GAME HUNTING AND SHOOTING 241.

ANIMAT: TITLE AND AUTHOR PUBLISHED:

F.Z.8. (Illustrated.) In four

parts in .Vol. 29 and the last

part m= No, - 2. of Viele 30: 1925:

43. SHuxarn ArticnES ;:.. A Sporting Trip to the Pindari

Glacier. By W. H. A. Shortt.

(With three plates.) Vol. 30,

parts 1 and .2. 1923:

44. — ... Three Months up the Sutle]

Valley. By Lt.-Col R. W.

Burton, 1.a: (Retd). (Illustrat-

ed with photographs.) Vol. 31,

pp. 28-39. Vol. 31, pp. 352-

3867. 1920:

(Read with H. W. Waite’s article on ‘Birds of the Sutlej} Valley’

in Vols. 45 and 46; and Wynter-Blyth’s Sutle} and Baspa Valley

article on Butterflies in Vol. 47., these three accounts give about

all the available information concerning the valley of the Sutlej River:

and the Hindustan-Tibet Road).

45. KASHMIR Pan eel siom Game: soe OLO. tal Imo. (OL

Kashmir and the Adjacent Hill

Provinces.

2. The Mammals and Birds of

Kashmir and the Adjacent Hill

Provinces, being ratural history

notes,

(These two fully informative and illustrated series by the late-

Colonel A. EH. Ward, 1.4. (Retd.), are in Volumes 28 to 33 of the

Society's Journal, and are very necessary to the big game sportsman-

naturalist shooting in those regions. The series 2 was not fully

completed by the author.)

Tt has been suggested that a list of books on Angling should find

permanent record at this place.

1. Bhattachariya, P. N. Hints to AMATEURS IN TANK

ANGLING.

2. Conway, Capt. C. W.

WwW. 8: .. SUNLIT WATERS. 1942:

ee luacy,-G. H. THE ANGLER’S HANDBOOK. 1905

4. Macdonald, A. St. a CiRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER AND

OTHER SPORTING FISH IN

INDIA AND BURMA. 1948

5. ‘Skene Dhu’. oie (DHE }YANGLER IN INDIA, “OR

Micuty MAHSEER. 1923;

ee ethomas, Hi: 8. 2 Shae hop a1n Inpra, > Second

edition. (This is considered the

best of the several published). 1881

i Uhomas, H:. 8. ... TANK ANGLING.

No. 4 includes chapters on sea angling, and contains references

to the valuable articles on both freshwater and sea angling to be found.

in back numbers of the Society’s Journal.

A NEW VARIETY OF CUCURBITA MAXIMA

C. RajJASEKHARA MUDALIAR, M.A.

(Agricultural College, Coimbatore.)

(With two plates)

Cucurbita maxima, Duchesne var. badagarensis, Mudaliar, C. R.

War. nov.

Accedit ad Cucurbitam maximam Duch. colore foliorum, magni-

tudine et structura sepalorum, forma corollae et natura pedunculi

frutescentis, differt vero magnitudine, colore et forma fructuum;

-accedit etiam ad C. moschatam generali aspectu culmorum, foliorum

ef florum, differt vero distincte structura tubuli corollae, pedunculo ©

frutescente cylindrico et striato, pallido et uniformi colore foliorum

viridi.

Folia pallide viridia, orbicularia, 12 cm. long, 14 cm. lata. Flores

feminei 5-6 cm. diam., pallide lutei; corolla tubularis, tubo uni-

formiter lato et dimetiente 3.5 cin. diam.; flores masculi minores,

4.5-5 cm. diam.; corollae tubus uniformiter latus, 2.5 cm. diam.

Flores apparent intra 45 dies post seminationem; varietas haec valde

praematura est. Pedunculus fructifer cyiindricus, striatus, crassi-

tudine uniformi (nec striatus nec expansus ad basim); fructus longi

-et cylindrici vel breves et globosi.

Annual, trailing herb 3 to 3.5 meters long, stem nearly cylindrical,

slender, slightly prickly in the younger portions, almost glabrous when

mature. Leaves light green both when young and mature, orbicular,

12 cms long, and 14 cms broad, indistinctly lobed, margin denticulate

-and slightly serrate near the base. Flowers medium sized, light

yellow, monoecious (pedicel 2 to 3 cms in male flower and 5.5 to

7.5 cms in female flower). Calyx tube short, lobes linear 0.6 cms;

corolla of pistillate flower, tubular, 3.25 cms across both at top and

bottom (not expanding at top)—(plate 2). Staminate flower, com-

paratively small, 2 to 2.5 cms across. Ovary of pistillate flower long

and linear or globular, lemon yellow in colour. Fruit long, or short

and rounded, slightly: ribbed, lemon yellow when tender, ripening

to orange with stripes of light buff colour in the grooves (Plate 1);

fruit stalk cylindrical, striated, uniform in thickness (not expanding

near the base), (Plate 2; Fig. 5) flesh 2.5 cms thick at the’ middle

3-75 cms at the extremities. Seeds flat, smooth, white glossy, margin

‘dull white, mycropylar end oblique (Plate 2).

Madras Herbarium No. 93177 and 93178; (Malayalam—Vellari

mathan) cultivated commonly in Malabar District; a quick growing

plant flowering within 45 days after sowing; also a good yielder and

‘duration up to 34 months. The variety is named after the place,

Badagara where it is largely grown.

In general appearance ihe new variety approaches Cucurbita

‘maxima Duch. variety typical, in the colour of the leaf, size and shape

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

PLATE 1

CUCURBITA MAXIMA Duch. var. BADAGARENSIS Mudaliar, C. R.

S OFF ld

9'S“b “S34

e'Z 1 s8i4

"008 ‘ISIE ‘ENT Aequog ‘‘uanop

A NEW VARIETY OF CUCURBITA MAXIMA 243

of sepals, corolla shape, and nature of fruiting stalk, as recorded by

Oliver (1871), Clarke (1872), Woodrow (1898), Bailey (1902), and

Hector; but differs in the following characters, namely, the size,

colour, and shape of fruit, both when tender and when ripe, the time

of flowering and the maturity of the fruit, etc. It resembles

Cucurbita moschata only in the general appearance of the vine, the

leaf and flowers, but differs distinctly in the following characters :

(i) shape of the coroila tube which is of uniform width both at top

and bottom; while in Cucurbita moschata the corolla tube is expand-

ing gradually from bottom. (11) Cylindrical and striated fruiting

stalk as against the strongly grooved and widely expanding stalk of

Cucurbita moschata. (iii) light green colour of the leaves as opposed

to the dark green leaves with white blotches of Cucurbita moschata.

Tapley (1937) whe describes the different varieties of Cucurbita

maxima of New York, has not recorded this variety. A large number

of Cucurbita types were collected from different parts of the Madras

Presidency and studied. Classification of South Indian pumpkins

will form part of another paper.

The local name, Vellari mathan, suggested whether it may be. a

cross between Cucumis sativus Linn. (Vellart) and Cucurbita

moschata Duch. (Mathan). A large number of artificial crosses

were tried between these two species of different genera at the Agri-

cultural Research Station at Pattambi with no_ success. Inter-

generic crosses at Coimbatore between this new variety of C. maxima

and Cucumis sativus also © failed. Inter-specific crosses with

Cucurbita moschata were mostly unsuccessful; the few set fruits did

not have viable seeds at all. These are further evidences that

this plant is of a distinct species, Cucurbita maxima Duch. There

are two forms in this variety, one with longer fruits, 30 to 33 cms

by 11 to 14 cms and another with short and rounded fruits, 10 to

14 cms. (Plate 1). These two forms cross easily with each other.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The author wishes to express his thanks to the Superintendent,

Agricultural Research Station, Pattambi for permitting him to examine

and study the crop in the Research Station at Pattambi and to Rev.

H. Santapau for helping in Latin translation.

LITERATURE CITED

Bailey, L. H. (1902): Cyclopaedia of American Horticulture.

Clarke in Hooker’s Flora of British India (1882): Vol. 2.

Hector, J. M., Central News Agency Ltd.., Johannesburg, S. Africa.

Oliver, D (1871): Flora of Tropical Africa Vol. 2, p. 555.

Papley, W. TF. et.al (1937): The Vegetables of New York, part IV.

ou ge

NOTES ON BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF

MINBU DISTRICT, BURMA

W. L. ROSEVEARE 1.8S.E. (Retd.)

(With two sketch maps)

IN © RO DUC TON

The following notes cover observations made during the period from

October 1934 to February 1937. Except where otherwise stated, they

were made in that part of the Minbu district which is irrigated by the

government canals, in its immediate vicinity, or in the neighbourhood

of Minbu town. The area is indicated on the accompanying rough

sketch-map.

The notes are compiled entirely from visual observations, no attempt

having been made to secure specimens. For the most part, especially

under the headings ‘Identification’ and ‘Habits’, facts already recorded

in Smythies’ ‘Birds of Burma’ have not been repeated. The notes

are, therefore, mainly supplementary to that excellent volume, and

have been arranged under the same headings.

Particular attention was given to the status of each species

throughout the year. The information given under that head has

been compiled from a note-book in which each species was recorded

at the end of each month as having been either very common,

common, fairly common, uncommon or absent during the month in

question. In the case of migrants, earliest and latest dates were also

recorded.

GLOSSARY OF BURMESE WORDS

CHAUND i encase, Ares A stream-bed that goes dry, or peachicaly SO,

for (patton the jyear

Ue an eee ee (lit.) An umbrella. The word is applied to

- the metal ornament on the summit of a

pagoda.

1 TRAE RRA RI Be Mio 5 A shallow natural lake.

Indaing ..................« Dry dipterocarp forest, without bamboos.

| SOV EE Rese SACM AR ia e- Land in a river bed, exposed, and often culti-

vated in the dry weather.

USCA Bac Sch ee AP The low bank surrounding a rice field.

Kokkobin, Burmese .. Albizzia lebbek. <A forest tree.

Kokkobin, thimbaw ... Enterolobium saman. <A large common road-

side tree.

Let panbin ets. a ceree ae Bombax malabaricum. (The cotton tree). It

grows to a very large size.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

s ay

ah ee ar

= { Y CHINA

rd =

(

Zz, : )

é) f

a tate

| 4 ® Mandalay a be

iz )o» e

Mt Victoria a i

10085" 3 sy)

qi, BURMA Ss Le

i) 5

w Akyab MN e

8ey - Ye” e | a

= _ ) |

Bl = } ° SCALE

‘SS : ~S i E4120 waites, to 1 ineh

eS \ S ma

= 5

BAY

As 4 Sta M

ENGA ;

B GAL \

; ( / \3 Rangoon ; Ny me

aBassein, Moulmein ™.

% a

ag (

Journ.

, Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

MINBU DISTRICT

Sketch Map of Irri6ated Area

in 1937)

(as

e: €4,12 miles tol inch

Approx . Scal

extent of irrigated area

Approx.

S77/H

Ror

Add

ey aan a

SSS

ee — S>

GIA ITACOD

wore.

JaTIONNES

)

BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF MINBU DISTRICT 246

BVT ess cise Sue Sous Fee wees A rice crop grown during the dry weather,

and therefore practically restricted to the bord-

ers of ins. )

VOUN DIN ce ecceceserees Ficus sp. (The pipal tree).

MEE Te ctisah a eeeals ss oo 5 Indian corn (maize).

MEGMOUNS DIN. ....2. 460... Acacia. leucophioea. A roadside tree. of

moderate size.

Bert, Save Sic mut al A large area, adjacent to the Irrawaddy, in

the Minbu district, which is submerged only

by very high floods.

CAR eas en eat AR Dry (i.e. unirrigated) cuitivation, other than

kaing.

AUB BOR SEO IMAGE li, © oNIS

1 Bon Gah oN sar ae 7 Inspection bungalow.

BIB O Es Vd 8 hats wet slatsies winds ‘Birds of Burma’ by Smythies.

em yeilies eesctaa! Aes ns rs oe Fauna of British India (Birds).

ror. On. SPE CLES

Corvus macrorhynchos. The Jungle Crow.

Habits.—Frequents paddy fields, ya land, river beds, indaing jungle

and lakes. <A flock of 20 or more was seen one November on the mud

in the Mon river bed. |

Status. —Commou, or fairly so, throughout the year.

Corvus splendens, The House Crow.

Habits. —One June, in my compound in Minbu, I saw a bird catch

@ pat in flight. It carried it to a tree and dropped it.

Nesting.—Six or seven nests were observed in a single tree in

Minbu-on 3 April 1935. Two of these had only one egg each ard

some were empty.

Status.—Very common in every month.

Urocissa erythrorhyncha. The Red-billed Blue Magpie.

Status.—Seen once only, on 19 February 1935, when two birds

were in indaing jungle near Mezali headworks.

Dendrocitta vagabunda. The Tree Pie.

Voice.—Once in August I saw and heard two birds calling with

a subdued monosyllabic croak.

Habits.—Seen in compounds, indaing jungle, scrub jungle and

-ya land. Once in December I saw a bird on a telephone wire.

Status.—Not seen in June or July. Observed in most other

months, but never common.

Crypsirhina cucullata. The Hooded Racquet-tailed Magpie.

Voice.—On 14 September 1935 I saw a bird perched on top of

a tree and mewing rather like a Ring Dove.

Habits.—Sometimes seen in scrub and indaing jungle and in

compounds, but usually on ya land.

246 JOURNAL, BOMBAY “NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, “Vola

Status.—-Common in March and fairly so in April, but not seen

between 30 April and 10 June, and uncommon in other months.

? Dryonastes caerulatus. The Kachin Hills Laughing Thrush.

Status. —On 14 October 1935 a bird spent several hours in the

sitting room of my bungalow in Minbu. I did not see it myselt,

but from a description and sketch by my wife I have no doubt that

it was a wandering member of this species. It was about the size

and shape of a White-throated Babbler (Argya gularis), with the

long tail chestnut above and light coffee colour below. There was

some black on the nape or upper back, the flanks were grey and the

lower plumage white.

Argya earlii. The Striated Babbler.

Voice.--A party of 6 or more, seen on kaing land in May 1936,

were very noisy, uttering both a single whistling note rapidly repeated

and a loud trisyllabic whistle (‘keep quiet’) also repeated. Another

bird, seen in September 1935, was also uttering a loud whistle.

Habits.—Seen on kaing land, open grass land and marshes. Usual-

ly in bushes, but once feeding on the ground in long grass, with one

bird of the party clinging to the side of a post. One party I watched

in May was shy at first, but soon became inquisitive. Usually in ~

small parties. ,

Status.—Only 6 observations, in March, May, September,

November and December.

Argya gularis. ‘The White-throated Babbler.

Habits.—Only seen in scrub and indaing jungle, and on ya land,

not in compounds.

Nesting.—Fledglings, just able to fly, seen with parents on 3 May

and 8 June.

Status.—Very common in all months.

Timalia pileata. The Red-capped Babbler.

Voice.—In the cold weather I have seen birds uttering both a

soft crooning noise and a loud whistling call, with the same note

rapidly repeated. Once in October I saw one uttering a beautiful little

trilling call. I have no record of any song during the breeding season.

Habits.—Seen in kaing grass in the Man river bed, in bushes on

the bank of the Irrawaddy, and once in a bush growing in Paunglin

lake, but most often in scrub jungle and in thorn hedges of ya land.

I saw a party one July feeding in long grass on the bank of a chaung,

and bathing in a pool. From March to the middle of July it was

always seen singly or in pairs, at other times in small parties of up

to 6 or 8 birds. Once in May I saw a pair join three Yellow-eyed

Babblers, which were feeding in bushes.

Food.—Once, in October, I saw a bird eating a chrysalis.

Nesting.-—On 24 June 1936 I saw a nest in a thorn hedge, made

of old coarse straw with a slightly finer lining. It was cup-shaped

and had somehow been tripped up on one side. Two nestlings were being

fed by the parents, whe made no attempt to conceal the position.

A nest found on 6 September 1935, in a very exposed position one

BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF MINEBU DISTRICT 247°

foot up in a bush, was made entirely of coarse strips of bamboo

leaves or similar material, and looked like a lump of rubbish. It

contained three young birds. A pair of birds seen as late as 30:

October 1935 evidently had young close by, as they swore hard at

me and tried to drive me away.

Status.—Very local, but seen in every month except December. Fairly

common from April to October, uncommon in other months.

Chrysomma sinensis, The Indian Yellow-eyed Babbler.

Voice,—A bird seen in January was uttering a trilling song and two.

phrases which I rendered ‘ Why-are-you-here, keepoff’ and‘ Keep off’

cant you ’.

Habits.— Usually in ya land and scrub. Three birds seen once in

May in company with a pair of Red-capped Babblers.

Nesting. —No nests seen, but young birds observed with their

parents as late as 2 October.

— Status.—Fairly common from April to June, uncommon in other

months.

Pellorneum ruficeps. The Spotted Babbler.

Habits.—Seen in indaing, in jungle at the edge of cultivation,

and in bushes on river banks. One of the last-named birds flew down to:

‘mud in the river bed and then into long grass. Three out of four

observations were of single birds, the fourth one was of a pair. One

of the solitary birds was perching near the ground and jerking its

head in perky fashion. Later it was feeding on the ground and

under dead leaves. While watching it from hiding at ten yards

distance, I sneezed violently, but it took no notice—a_ striking

instance of birds’ insensitiveness to noise.

Status.—Only seen four times in the area, in March, April, June

and August. Probably all were P. ruficeps minor, though in only one

case were the streaks on the upper plumage noticed.

Aegithina tiphia, The Common Iora.

Identification——A male in full ite plumage was seen as

late as 7 August.

Voice.—On 13 September 1935, I saw a male calling with a loud

three-syllable whistle, which on first hearing I took for an oriole’s.

Habits.—Seen in scrub and indaing, villages and bungalow com-

pounds. I once saw one swallowing a caterpillar.

Status.—Common, or fairly so, throughout the year.

Chloropsis aurifrons. The Gold-fronted Chloropsis.

Status.—Only seen once, on 18 December 1934, at Linzin head-

works, when a single bird was feeding in a tree.

Molpastes cafer. The Burmese Red-vented Bulbul.

Habits.—Frequented ya land, scrub and indaing. A bird was

Once seen clinging to the trunk of a toddy-palm, like a futhatch.

Nesting. —Nest’ with 3 eggs found on 17 July. This and another

One seen in June, were both 6 to 8 feet up in bushes. The spots on

248 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

the eggs were pale mauve, dark brown and black, and concentrated

mostly in a wide ring round the larger end.

Status.—Very common throughout the year.

Pycnonotus jocosus. The Red-whiskered Bulbul.

Voice.—A_ shrill piping cail heard in December.

Habits.—Seen in bushes and trees in bungalow compounds, in

bushes in and on the edge of ins, and once in a hedge near a village.

Seen in pairs, and in docks of upto a dozen birds.

Nesting. —On 15 March 1936, I saw a nest under construction

4 feet up in a bush at the edge of an in. It was being made mainly

of coarse grass and leaves, with a little cotton from a cotton-tree.

Status.—Observed in all months except May and September, but

always uncommon. Was identified as the Burmese race by its con-

spicuous red whiskers, on 1 February 1935 and 15 July 1935.

Pycnonotus flaviventris. The Black-crested Yellow Bulbul.

Status.—Only seen twice in the area, firstly a pair in jungle

near Mezali headworks on 24 November 1935, and two days later

another pair in a tree on the Man canal bank near Aingma headworks.

lole virescens. The Olive Bulbul.

Status —Only seen once, on 26 November 1935, when 2 or @

birds were observed feeding on top of a tall tree near the inspection |

bungalow at Aingma headworks. Identified by absence of crest,

yellowish green of crown and whole upper plumage, brown flight

and tail feathers, pale yellow of whole lower plumage. Judging from

their size, which appeared slightly larger than a Red-vented Bulbul

perched close by, they were probably the Siamese race, which accord-

ing to F.B.I. is larger than the others. According to Hand list in

B. of B., not previously recorded from this area (Plains, S. Burma).

Pycnonotus blanfordi. Blandford’s Olive Bulbul.

Habits.—Found in ya land, scrub and indaing, and in compounds.

Nesting.—Several nests seen, all between 4 feet and 10 feet from

the ground. One was ai the end of a low branch of a mango tree,

the others in bushes. The nests were very loosely woven, the

material used in one being grass bents and cobwebs. Those found

on 15 May 1936 and 18 August 1936 each contained two young, one

found on 27 June 1936 contained 3 eggs.

Status. —Very common throughout «he year.

Saxicola caprata. The Burmese Stonechat.

Habits.—Seen on ya and kaing land, in scrub, compounds, and

on vegetation in lakes. On g January 1937, in scrub jungle, I saw

a male behaving in an unusual manner. It kept on returning to

one spot and uttering a shrill alarm cry, but I could not discover the

reason. :

Nesting.—The only nest seen was on 14 April 1935 in a hole in

a bank, a few inches deep, lined with grass.‘ Both birds were

feeding young.

BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF MINBU DISTRICT 249

Status.x—Common in March, uncommon in April, fairly common

in May, and very common in other months.

Saxicola torquata. The Bush-chat.

Identification.—At least one of. many males seen on 27 October

1935 had the usual black face, but the crown and nape dark grey.

In the White-tailed race (S.t. leucura) the absence of the rufous from

the abdomen is noticeable in the field.

Habits.—Seen in lakes, river beds, kaing and ya land, and in

paddy fields. Once in September, I saw a number of birds feeding

in water-hyacinth which had been left high and dry by a receding

flood. In January I watched a number of birds, perched on grass

‘stems, which were moving their tails slowly up and down, and at

the same time fanning them rapidly, exposing the SES on the

lateral tail-feathers.

Nesting.—On 1 March 1936, a pair of the White-tailed race were

feeding green caterpillars to their young just hatched. The nest was

at the end of a tunnel at least a toot long in a heap of straw on an

island in the Irrawaddy, and was unlined. The male was very wary

in approaching the nest, but, when the female appeared and went

almost straight to it, he plucked up courage and followed suit. Birds

were very numerous in the vicinity and at least one other female

‘was seen with food.

On 5 June 1936 a pair of birds, presumably of the White-tailed

race, were seen with 3 or 4 fledglings on an island in the river.

Status.—Very uncommon from May io August, uncommon in

September, very common October, November and December, com-

mon in January and February, fairly so in March, but not seen in

April,

Rhodophila melanoleuca. Jerdon’s Bush-chat.

Status.—Only identified once, on the Paunglin lake on the 4

August 1935, when a female was seen both in flight and perching on

the rushes, flirting her tail. The greater length of the latter, com-

pared with that of the female Stonechat was noticeable.

Rhodophila ferrea, The Dark Grey Bush-chat.

Status.—Only two good observations. The first was on 5

December 1935, when a male was seen in the river bed at Minbu

hawking flies from a perch on a snag. The other was on 12 June

1936, when a female was seen in open scrub near Minbu, flying about

and perching conspicuously. The more slender build and longer tail,

compared with the Stonechat, were noticeable, and, in the case of

the female, the white wing patch and the chestnut in the tail were

CONSspicuous.

On 4 ‘August 1935, several dark grey chats with white wing

patches were seen perched on rushes in the Paunglin lake. In spite

of the unlikely locality and terrain the plumage seems to identify

this species.

250 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Luscinia svecica. The Red-spotted Bluethroat. |

Status.—Only seen twice in the area, firstly on 27 June 1935,

when a bird was clinging to kaing, grass in the tazé area, and secondly

on 19 April 1936, when I had a very good view of a bird in the mayim

paddy fields of the Paunglin lake. It was very tame and was running

about feeding in the open on a dry kazin. The white supercilium

Was conspicuous, and the blue of the throat appeared paler than

usual.

Calliope calliope. The Common Rubythroat.

Status.—Only seen twice, both occasions being on 12 January

1936, alongside a stream near Kyauk-O. The first bird was flying

among bushes, calling ‘chuck-chuck’ throatily. Soon after, a male

perched conspicuously within 5 yards of me, calling and answered

by another out of sight.

Copsychus saularis. The Indian Magpie-Robin.

Habits.—Seen mainly in compounds and on ya land, but also in

riverbeds, lakes and indaing jungle.

Status.—Uncommon in September, common in all other months,

especially from January to March.

Kittacincla malabarica. The Shama.

Status.—Only seen twice, on 12 January 1936 alongside a stream

in scrub jungle near Minbu, and on 23 April 1936 in a jungle-filled.

ravine near Mezali headworks. The first bird settled on a bush,

The second one was perched on a tree, singing es

Monticola solitaria. The Blue Rock-Thrush.

Voice.—I have heard the whistle uttered in flight, and once in

March I saw a bird uttering a harsh call something like a Roller’s.

Habits.—One bird I watched in March was. bowing so vigorously

that its head nearly came down to the level of its feet. Seen in com-

pounds, indaing and scrub. Usually solitary, but I once saw a party.

of three in flight. |

Status.—Uncommon in this area. Earliest date Octcber 9g, latest

April 7. |

Siphia parva. The Red-breasted Flycatcher.

Habits:—Seen mainly in compounds, but. also in ya land, scrub,

and along canals. |

Status.—Common, or fairly so, from October to February, ~ un-

common in March. Earliest October 18, latest March 19. In 1936.

the first bird was not seen until December 15. November had beer

unusually hot, and possibly the southward movement had been de=

layed on that account.

Eumiyas thalassina. The Verditer Flycatcher.

Status.—Only seen three times in the area, all between December

4 and February 26, in I.B. compounds and scrub. All me birds: were

BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF MINBU DISTRICT 251

solitary, and one of them, instead of the usual hawking, was feeding

by flitting about a mango tree.

Tchitrea paradisi. The Paradise flycatcher.

Identification.—One bird I saw in April had chestnut back and

wings, sharply contrasting with pure white tail, which was as long

as the body oniy. This was presumably a male in its third year or

more, but the plumage appears unusual. Another seen in August

had the body all white, but only a short tail.

Habits.—Usually seen in flight along canals, within a few miles

of their heads, but also in scrub and indaing, and once flycatching

among mangoes in an I.B. compound. The last named bird, a female

or young male, was in company with White-browed Fantail Fly-

catchers. Usually seen solitary or in pairs, but once, on 15 April

1935, in a party which included two males in full adult plumage.

One adult male I saw in August was perched in a tree eating a large

beetle or similar insect. Sometimes it held it in its beak, sometimes

under one foot.

Status.—Seen quite often between 15 April and 13--Septemiber,

both in 1935 and 1936, but never outside those dates. On 6 May

1935 I recorded it as quite common at that time, while in April 1936

I saw 4 separate adult males on the 23, and 2 more on the 24, all

of them along the canals near Mezali headworks—a most unusual

influx.

Hypothymis azurea. The Indian Black-naped Flycatcher.

Status.—Only one good and one probable record in the area. On

1 December 1935 a solitary female was seen on a branch in scrub

near Minbu, eating a large butterfly. On 17 March 1935, a flycatcher,

which was most probably a female of this species, flew into my house

at Minbu. Near Yenangyaung, not far outside the area, I saw

several females on 10 November 1935. They were in a tamarind tree

alongside a stream, in scrub jungle.

Rhipidura aureola, The White-browed Fantail F lycatcher.

Habits.—Seen mostly along canal banks and on ya land, but also

in scrub and indaing, villages and bungalow compounds. I have seen

a party of 3 or 4 birds feeding among mango trees in my compound

in Minbu. I once saw a bird feeding in the bed of a stream near

Minbu.

Status.—Rather local in occurrence. I found it common, or fairly

so, from January to May, absent in June and July, and uncommon

from August to December.

a Gap *

Rhipidura albicollis, The White-throated Fantail Bence

Habits.—Only seen in indaing jungle. Its boldness was well shown

On one occasion, when it perched within two yards of me, though I

was unconcealed. 3

_ Status.—Never common, but observed in January, February, April,

June, and August.

252 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Lanius colluroides. The Burmese Shrike.

Identification.—One bird seen on 23 August had unusually large

and conspicuous white wing patches.

Voice.—On 7 September 1936 I saw a bird in a tree uttering an

unusual whining call.

Habits.—Found in bungalow compounds, paddy fields, ya and

kaing land, and in scrub and indaing.

Status.—No nests seen, but, as in Shwebo, young birds, with

their crowns still brown, were seen from June to August, the earliest

- being 27 June. Not seen between 18 March and 8 June, fairly com-

mon during the rest of June, common or very common in all months

from July to March.

Lanius cristatus. The Brown Shrike.

Identification.—_I saw a young bird with conspicuous black bars

on the breast on 29 September 1935.

Habits.—Seen usually in bungalow compounds and on ya land,

but also in paddy,fields, lakes, river beds, scrub and along canal banks.

Status.—Earliest 15 September, latest 27 April. Uncommon in

September, common or fairly so from October to February, uncom-

mon in March and April.

Tephrodornis gularis. The Nepal Wood-Shrike.

Status.—Only seen once, on 31 August 1935 among scattered

bushes on an open hillside near Minbu. A solitary bird was hawking

flying insects from perches on the bushes, and occasionally descending

to the ground. Although this method of feeding appears to be un-

usual, I have no doubt of the species. It appeared rather larger

than the Burmese Shrike, but had a short square tail. Plumage, bill

and legs were as in F.B.I.

Tephrodornis pondicerianus. The Common Wood-Shrike.

Voice.—A bird I watched in November was uttering a chattering

whistle. ,

Habits.—Seen mostly in indaing jungle, but occasionally on ya

land. I once saw a bird drink several times on the wing.

Status.—Observed in all months except July and August, but

never common, and not seen between 21 June and 3 September.

Pericrocotus peregrinus. The Small Minivet.

Status.—Three observations only. On 17 February 1935 two

birds were seen in indaing jungle near the Man canal head at Aingma,

one of them eating a butterfly. On 28 April 1936 a solitary male

settled in a tree on the Man river bank near Aingma. On 17 June

1936, in indaing jungle at the Mon canal head, a party of 5 or 6 was

seen hawking insects actively, first in a high tree, and afterwards

in low trees.

Pericrocotus erythropygius. Jerdon’s Minivet.

Habits.—Seen only in scrub jungle. Usually solitary or in pairs,

but family parties of 5 or 6 observed in December and January.

BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF MINBU DISTRICT 253

Nesting.—Nest found on 8 July 1936, twelve inches up in a low

bush. Grass cemented with cobwebs formed a perfect 2” circle on

horizontal fork. Ornamented outside with bark, as I have found

usual. Lined with a few pieces of grass, but the 3 eggs rested

directly on the branch. No protection whatever from rain. The

female looked ridiculous on the tiny nest. She was very bold, perching

within a few yards of me. The eggs were still being incubated 8

days later, and the mother sat very tight. .

Status.—Not seen in November or December, and uncommon

during the rest of the year.

Lalage melaschista. The Grey Cuckoo-Shrike.

Status.—Seen once only, on 24 November 1935, in jungle near the

Mon canals head, when a solitary female or young male was perched

on a bush and hawking insects.

Graucalus javensis. The Large Cuckoo-Shrike.

Status.—Only seen four times in the area, all betweer: 11 January

and 28 April. All observaticns were of solitary birds, and two of

them were in bungalow compounds. In one case, in January, the bird

was chased out of a tree by a Red-vented Bulbul.

Artamus fuscus. The Ashy Swallow Shrike.

Habits.—Found in villages and river beds, round lakes, in ya

land, scrub and indaing. Usually in flocks of ten to twelve, but

sometimes as many as twenty. I once saw a bird drinking on the

wing. In Minbu town they were fond of pagoda htis where they

seemed to find many insects. In February 1937, flocks were fre-

quently seen flying over Minbu from south to north at dusk.

Nesting.—On 2 April 1936 birds were seen flying about high up

with what looked like nesting material. On 8 May 1936 a pair were

nest building with grass bents in the hi: of a pagoda at Minbu, and

had been at it for a week or more. Crows were chased off with great

vigour. On 26 May 1936 one of the birds was sitting, the other

spending much time in courageously pursuing crows.

Status.—Uncommon in June and July, common or fairly so in all

other months. Certainly not only a summer visitor.

Dicrurus macrocercus. The Black Drongo.

Habits.—Ubiquitous. Usually solitary or in pairs, but between

January and March 1935 I several times saw parties of about six

flying up the Irrawaddy at dusk. On another occasion also at dusk,

I saw 6 or 8 birds perched within a foot or so of the ground. I

. once saw a bird swoop down to the water surface, either for food or

drink, return to its perch and shake the water off its feathers. In

- another area I once saw simultaneously one bird attacking a Pariah

Kite, and another one a Pied Kingfisher.

Nesting.—Not observed in the area, but fledglings seen on 21

June 1936 and a young bird on 9 September 1933.

Status.—Very common in every month

254 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST... SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Dicrur leucophaeus. The Pale Ashy Drongo.

Status.—On 1 October 1935 I watched a bird hawking insects

from tamarind trees in my compound at Minbu. I only saw the bird

in October, November, and February, and it was usually in indaing

jungle. In November 1934 I found numbers of them at the Man canal

head, but usually it was very uncommon.

Chibia hottentotta. The Hair-crested Drongo.

Status.—Only seen once in the area, on 27 October 1935, when

a single bird was in a tamarind tree in my compound at Minbu. The

turned-up ends of the tail were unmistakable, and a greenish gloss

on the plumage was also noticed. It several times uttered a loud

melodious whistle.

Dissemurus paradiseus. The Large Racquet-tailed Drongo.

Status.—Seen three times. On 17 February 1935 a bird was twice

seen calling in indaing jungle near the Man canal head. On 29 April

1936 a bird was nest-building in a horizontal fork at the end of a

letpanbin branch overhanging the Man canal near its head. The nest

was 30 feet up and made of roots and wool. On 15 December 1936

a bird was seen in the I.B. compound at Salin.

? Acrocephalus stentoreus (and/or arundinaceus). The Great Reed-

Warbler.

Status.—Three observations only. On 18 November 1935 a single

bird (from absence of streaks below, probably brunnescens) was

feeding in rushes on the Dalauk In. On 26 January 1936 a single

bird was seen feeding in a small swamp near the Mon canals head.

On 19 April 1936 a number of birds were seen uttering a harsh croak

in bushes on Paunglin lake. They were not shy, and faint black

streaks were observed on throat and breast.

Acrocephalus bistrigiceps. Schrenck’s Reed-Warbler.

Status.—Identified once only, on 19 January 1936, when a number

were seen among bushes and long grass at the edge of the Paunglin

lake. The dark line above the white supercilium was clearly seen,

distinguishing it from the Dusky Willow Warbler.

? Acrocephalus concinens (or agricola). The Paddyfield-Warbler.

Status.—Only one doubtful observation, on 5 November 1936 at

Palandaw, when three small warblers, similar in size and shape to the

Tenasserim Wren Warbler, were seen on top of a tall bush. This

fact, combined with the brown upper plumage, pale streaks on wings,

fulvous lower plumage, and faint supercilium indicate this species,

although the pale streaks on the wings were more conspicuous than

the F.B.I.’s ‘obsolete pale edges’ suggests.

Orthotomus sutorius, The Tailor-bird.

Voice.—On 28 April 1936 I saw a bird calling loudly for many

minutes without a pause.

BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA. OF MINBU. DISTRICT 256:

Habits.—Found in compounds, ya land, scrub and indaing. On

8 July 1936 I saw a party of at least 4 birds, none of them obviously

young ones.

Nesting.—No nest found in the area, but on 11 August 1935 an

agitated pair, with food in their bills,. were seen in a bush in indaing

jungle, evidently with young close by.

Status.—Common from June to September, uncommon from

‘October to May.

Cisticola juncidis. The Streaked Fantail Warbler.

Voice.—I found the bird usually silent in the cold weather, but

occasionally it called while in flight.

Habits.—Found mostly in lakes, paddy fields and kaing, but

‘sometimes also on ya land. One fledgling was seen in a sessamum

crop in August. I have seen numbers of birds soaring high and

calling over the river bed at Minbu as early as the 1 March.

Nesting.—Nests were found on canal banks, in kaing cultivation,

and in the sandy bed of the Irrawaddy. Once I saw material being taken

‘to a patch of reeds. On 5 June 1936 a nest with eggs in the bed of

the Irrawaddy had been submerged by the river, and another one was

only just clear of the water. All nests I saw were of the long deep

purse type. Sometimes the blades of the grass clump were tied to-

-gether with cobwebs, and one at least with loose pieces of grass. The

lining was always of very soft vegetable down, identified once or twice

‘as silk-cotton. On 1 March 1936, in the bed of the Irrawaddy, I put

up a fledgling, which one parent had just left, from Rkaing cultivation.

It was just able to fly, and there was no doubt whatever of the species.

‘The latest date on which I saw nests being built was 16 September.

The markings on eggs were always thicker at the blunt end and

usually in a ring, but one egg found on 20 August 1936, in a nest with

‘two young birds and one normal egg, was practically unmarked.

Status.—Common, or very common, from March to November, un-

‘common in December and January, not seen in February.

Franklinia gracilis. Franklin’s Wren-Warbler.

Identification.—In summer, I always found the throat conspicu-

‘ously white, by contrast with the grey pectoral band, and in winter

the greater length of the tail was noticeable. The change of plumage

takes place, however, very irregularly. On 12 January 1936 I saw a

number of birds feeding in a bamboo clump near Minbu, some of

‘which still had the breast band conspicuous and the crown greyer than

the upper plumage. Even on 2 February 1936 one bird among several

‘In a tree was still in that plumage, while most of the others, though

they had lost the pectoral band, still showed greyer on the crown. A

‘bird seen on 19 April 1936 had grey crown, brown upper plumage, and

faint grey breast band, and was presumably in process of acquiring

summer plumage. On the other hand, one bird at least among a

number seen on 29 August 1935 was already acquiring its long winter

tail, and another was losing its pectoral band.

Voice.—On 12 January 1936 I watched a number of birds feeding,

and pausing periodically to utter a fairly loud cheerful little chatter-

256 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

ing song. On 10 March 1935 a bird was perching on bushes and

singing hard, mostly a succession of two notes ending in a trill.

Habits.—Found mostly in scrub, also in compounds, ya land, and

indaing. Usually in trees, but sometimes in bushes or bamboo.

clumps, and once I saw a single bird on a phone wire: (In the Shwebo

district they were much less common and usually seen in paddyfields.

or swamps.) In the hot weather and rains they were usually seen

singly, but in the cold weather in parties. I once saw a bird hanging

upside down to feed.

Nesting.—No nests found, but a bird seen on 24 July 1935,

perched in a hedge, was chattering very excitedly, as if with young.

Status.—Coinmon in January and February, fairly so in March

and April, commoner again from May to September, but uncommon

October to December.

Franklinia rufescens. Beavan’s Wren-Warbler.

Status. —On 16 August 1936 I saw numerous birds in small parties.

near Mezali headworks, which I took at the time for Franklin’s.

Wren-Warblers in winter plumage. In view, however, of the time

of year, they were probably this species.

Megalurus palustris. The Striated Marsh Warbler.

Identification.—Perches much more erectly than the Striated

Babbler, from which it took me some practice to distinguish it.

Voice.—A young bird seen with its parents on 7 May 1936 was.

calling with a loud harsh ‘chat’. An adult seen on 19 January 1936

was uttering a loud whistling call, and another on 1 March 1936 was

whistling ‘6h, where are you going’, with variations. I also saw

one singing hard on the 19 June. All these were singing from con-

spicuous perches.

Habits.—Seen only on ins or kaing land. Usually solitary, but

one November I saw a party of at least 5. A pair seen with a young

one on 7 May 1936 were very bold and noisy.

Nesting.—No nests found, but birds appeared, from their be-

haviour, to be nesting on 7 May 1936 in thick kaing stubble in the

river bed at Minbu, and on 1 March 1936 in island crops near by.

Status.—Only seen 7 times, none of them in the period July to

September, but locally common.

Phragmaticola aédon. The Thick-billed Warbler.

Status.—Only one doubtful observation, on 19 January 1936, when

a bird was seen feeding on insects in bushes and long grass at the

Paunglin lake. The stout bill, dark eye, and apparent absence of

supercilium indicated this species, but the voice (a harsh frog-like

croak and a rattle) and the white edge to the tail tallied better with

the Great Reed-Warbler.

? Phylloscopus schwarzi. Radde’s Willow Warbler.

Status.—I saw a solitary bird on 1 May 1935 in the compound of

Kyitkaing inspection bungalow, at the edge of jungle, which was

apparently this species. It was hopping about the ground feeding.

BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF MINBU DISTRICT 207

The length was about 5", the tail being shorter than the wing and

square. Upper plumage and tail were ail oltve-brown, with darker

streaks in the wing. Supercilium and lower plumage fulvous. No

other species appears to answer this description.

Phylloscopus affinis. Tickell’s Willow Warbler.

Identification._-_Upper plumage always appeared to me brown,

not green.

Status.—Three observations only, all between 16 December and 2

February. On ithe first occasion a single bird was flitting among a

bean crop near the Salin canal head, hawking insects. The white

supercilium was conspicuous. On the second occasion a solitary bird

was feeding actively in a bush alongside a stream in scrub jungle near

Minbu. The long white, or pale yellow, supercilium and all-yellow

lower plumage were noted. 'A few weeks later two birds were seen

hopping actively about bamboos in the same place, flirting their tails

constantly. A very detailed description was recorded, which leaves

me in no doubt of the species.

Phylloscopus fuscatus. The Dusky Willow Warbler.

Voice.—One bird I saw was calling softly, like a chat.

Habits.—Seen once near a stream in scrub jungle, but usually at

lakes. Once seen on the ground, and once in a tree, otherwise always

in bushes or rushes. It catches flies very actively and flirts its tail.

Status.—Except for one doubtful observation on 19 April 1936,

the bird was only seen in November and December.

Prinia flaviventris. The Yellow-bellied Wren-Warbler.

Status.—Seen twice only, on 14 February 1935 among bushes

near the Man river at Aingma, and on 15 March 1936 in kaing grass

at an in near the tail of the N. Mon canal. One bird had conspicuous

white supercilia, the other had not.

Prinia inornata, The Tenasserim Wren-Warbler.

Habits.—Found mainly in paddyfields and at lakes, but also in

kaing and ya cultivation. I have seen a bird in June singing loudly

and shivering its wings in the presence of another presumably

courting’.

Nesting.—On 4 March 1936, in the bed of the Irrawaddy at

Minbu, birds were evidently breeding in kaing cultivation. Judging

from their agitation, they apparently already had young. On 20

June 1935, at Pwinbyu, birds were very numerous in small swamps,

but, though courting was observed, there was no sign of nesting—

possibly owing to the very late arrival of the rains that year, paddy-

fields being still dry. On ro June 1936, at the Wethigan lake, Salin,

I found a nest in a clump of floating grass 100 feet from the shore,

eontaining 4 young just hatched.

Siatus.—Common or very common from June to September and

fairly so in October, but uncommon in other months.

208 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL< HIST] SOCGIELY, WV ole 229

Oriolus chinensis. The Black-naped Oriole.

Voice.—Once in August I saw a female, which was with a young

bird in a tree, calling raucously the Morse letter BEG 2)

Habits. —Seen in compounds, indaing and scrub, and at lakes.

Status.—Observed in all months, but never common. Less un-

common from January to May than during the rest of the year.

Oriolus xanthornus. The Black-headed Oriole.

Status.—Only seen twice in the area. On 2 November 1935 a

female or young bird (probably the latter) was seen in a tree in scrub

jungle near Minbu, in company with a male Koel. On the 15th of

the same month I saw an adult male calling in a kokkobin in the

inspection bungalow compound at Shauktaw. |

Strnuia malabarica, The White-winged Mynah. |

Habits.—Seen in indaing, ya land, bungalow compounds, and on

canal banks. Usually in trees, but twice seen feeding on the ground,

and once perched on a telephone wire. Usually in flocks, but singly

or in pairs in the breeding season. Seen feeding on flowers of cotton-

tree and thimbaw kokkobin, the former attracting a large flock.

Nesting.—Only nest seen was in a hole 15 feet up in a rotten

branch of a thimbaw kokkobin in the compound of Kyitkaing I.B.,

S. Mon canal. On 17 May 1935 it contained two young birds.

Status.—Uncommon. Only 6 observations in the area, 5 of which

were between 26 November and 17 May. The remaining one was

on 19 August.

Gracupica nigricollis. The Black-necked Mynah.

Status.—Only seen once in the area, on a lake in February.

Gracupica burmanica. Jerdon’s Mynah.

Habits.—Seen mostly in scrub jungle and ya land, but also in

indaing kaing cultivation and on lakes. On 6 April 1936 I saw a

fiock of several hundreds, with a smaller number of Jungle Mynahs,

a few Pied Mynahs and some Weaver-birds in bushes in the river

bed at Minbu. The chatter was quite deafening. On another occasion,

in February, I saw a flock of 100 or more roosting in a tree.

Nesting.—Not observed, but a pair were feeding fledglings on

16 June 1936.

Status.—Very common all the year.

Acridotheres tristis, The Common Mynah.

Habits.—Seen mostly in towns and villages, also in bungalow

compounds, ya land, river beds and at lakes.

Nesting.—On 17 May 1935, a pair were making a nest of sticks

inside a hole 15 feet up in a tamarind, which had recently contained

young Spotted Owlets. The Mynahs, however, did not lay. On

8 July 1935 a pair were feeding young in a hole in another tamarind,

and on 13 May 1936 young were being fed in a hole 25 feet up in

another tree. The last-named date appears to be early for breeding.

All the above were in or just outside my compound at Minbu.

Status.—Very common all the year.

BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF MINBU DISTRICT 259

Akthiopsar fuscus (and ? A. cristatellus), The Jungle Mynah.

Identification.—Birds of two very distinct types occur in this area,

as in Shwebo. The one with browner upper plumage, paler bill and

legs, and smaller curl of feathers above the nostril, which I had

always taken for the Indian race, is much the commoner of the two

in Minbu, whereas in Shwebo the darker colouration and more pro-

nounced curl, which I always regarded as the Siamese Mynah, was

the commoner. Moreover, at the foot of Mt. Victoria in December

1935 I found all birds to be of the darker type, contrasting strikingly

with Minbu. These facts and those recorded in my Shwebo notes

(Vol. 48, p. 522) make me wonder whether the difference is not, in

fact, one of race, not of age. If so, the Siamese race is the commoner

of the two in the Shwebo area. 7

Habits.—Found in villages, ya land, scrub jungle, river beds and

at lakes. A very large mixed flock of this species and Jerdon’s

Mynahs were roosting in bushes in the Mon river bed at Mezali in

October 1935.

Status.—The paler form (? Indian race) was common from January

to May, and very common in all other months. The darker form

(? Siamese race) was only seen in February.

Sturnopastor contra, The Pied Mynah.

Habits.—Most often seen round lakes, but also in compounds, ya

land, scrub jungle, canal and river beds. On 4 August 1935, at the

Paunglin lake, birds were very numerous, both in pairs and flocks.

On 6 April 1936, several pairs were with a very big flock of Jerdon’s

and Jungle Mynahs in the river bed at Minbu.

Nesting.—No nest seen in the area, but on 13 May 1936 a bird

was seen in flight with either food or nesting material.

Status.—Common, or fairly so, throughout the year; much com-

moner than in Shwebo.

Ploceus passerinus. The Eastern Baya.

Habits.—Found in villages, ya land, river beds and at lakes. On

19 April 1935 innumerable flocks were flying eastwards down the

Sabwet chaung, near Minbu, all stopping to rest on the same tree.

Nesting.—Nests were constructed annually hanging from the

eaves of the Irrigation S.D.O.’s quarters at Shauktaw. In July 1935

I counted 32 either under construction or recently finished. In

November they were all removed, but by 5 July 1936 a number were

again under construction. These included one nest of three tiers,

proving that these multiple nests are not always the result of hanging

new nests below old ones. The two upper ‘stories’ were, however,

badly shaped, without proper egg chambers. As usual there was no

opening from the bottom storey to the one above it.

In August 1935, in indaing jungle, I saw a solitary cock nest

suspended 30 feet up over a tank. Other nests, of both kinds, had

fallen to the ground, and, as usual, the finished ones contained no

mud.

In November 1935 I saw 3 nests suspended from a ’phone wire

—an unusual position.

260 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

On 3 May 1936, birds had begun to build among bushes on dry

land near Minbu—another unusual position.’ In fact, although the

birds were undoubtedly this species, they were starting to build nests

which were not hanging, but more like those of the Striated species.

In August 1936 I saw a solitary ‘hen’ nest, containing 3 eggs,

which did contain mud on the inside (on one side only). In my ex-

perience this is very unusual. The cock was still adding material

to it.

On 11 June i935, in a bush-covered swamp near Minbu, I saw

work proceeding on a half-finished nest of the previous year, with

a new nest being started aiongside it.

Out of a colony of 8 nests seen on 24 June 1936 on the bank of

a chaung, one was a finished ‘hen’ nest, with the female sitting, one

was a finished ‘cock’ nest, and the other 6 were half finished. Each

of the latter had a separate male at work on it, and there was no

sign of any more females’. They all had mud on the inside, so were

probably all destined to be cock nests. One of them was suspended

from two points, instead of from the usual single point.

Status.—Very common June to September, uncommon in other

months.

Ploceus manyar. The Striated Weaver-bird.

Habits. —Found only on lakes. Very large numbers bred on the

Wethigan lake, Salin. I have seen males displaying by hopping

ahout the rushes and flapping their wings. Females sit tight, and

sometimes do not leave the nest until it is touched.

Nesting.—Nests only found in rushes. In August 1935, on the

Paunglin lake, I found a nest, with eggs, surrounded by old cock

nests, without a single other new nest in sight.

The material was sometimes stolen from other nests, but usually

stripped off the rushes. All cock nests seen had mud or dung

plastered on the inside of the back rim, but the only ‘hen’ nest I

ever saw with mud adhering had some plastered at the bottom on the

outside. 3

As with the Bayas, I found that the males did all, or nearly all,

the work of building, while the females sat and watched, occasionally

visiting the nest to inspect progress.

The earliest [ saw young birds was 25 June. Many nests were

still under construction on 24 August 1936.

Status.—Very common from June to September. Not observed

in other months.

Ploceella chrysaea. The Golden Weaver-bird.

Status. —Never seen in this area.

Munia atricapilla, The Chestnut-bellied Munia.

Habits.—Seen mainly in lakes and paddyfields, but also in river

beds. On g June 1936 enormous numbers were feeding in the ripen-

ing mayin paddy round the Paunglin lake.

* For an explanation of the so-called ‘Cock nests’ and the absence of females

in the early stages of nest building see SAlim Ali—The Nesting Habits of the Baya,

Jour. B.N.H.S., 34: 947-964 (1931)—Eps.

BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF MINBU DISTRICT 261

Nesting.—On 13 October 1935 I saw two nests in rushes at the

Paunglin lake. One was two feet above the water, made of feathery

grass, with the rushes bent all round it. It contained only two eggs.

The other was made of straw, and little use was made of the growing

rushes. This one only contained three eggs. On the following day

I saw a bird fly off from another nest in the rushes which had just

been begun.

Status.—Common from June to November, uncommon during the

rest of the year, when I only saw it in February and April.

Uroloncha striata. Hodgson’s Munia.

Status.—Never seen in this area.

Uroloncha punctulata. The Spotted Munia.

Identification.— Young birds take many months to acquire adult

plumage. Out of a party of 6 or more young seen on 25 March 1935,

only one had any trace of spots on the lower plumage or of the

dark throat.?

Habits.—Seen mostly in paddyfields and ya land, but also in

river beds, scrub jungle, lakes and kaing cultivation. On g June

1936, there were enormous numbers in the ripening mayin paddy

round the Paunglin lake. On 28 August 1936, I saw a flock of more

than 15, in an area where there were many nesting birds.

Nesting.—The earliest date I found eggs was 18 August, and the

latest I saw nestlings 25 October. All nests seen were in bushes or

thorn trees, usually in scrub, jungle, and upto 6 feet from the ground.

Some were made mainly of strips of bamboo leaves or similar

material, with grass bents on the outside. One was made of straw,

and in another case two nests had been made of twigs and straw

in a single lump of rubbish. A soft grass lining was usually, but

not always, present.

One bird sat so tight that it did not move even when I shook the

bush and poked the nest, but only when I started to insert my hand.

The largest clutch seen was 6 eggs. One clutch was in process of

hatching on 7 October 1935, and the nestlings were about ready

to fly on 25 October, giving a fledging period of 18 days. On the

latter date I handled one of the nestlings, and on 2 November found

a nestling’s skeleton in the otherwise empty nest. Possibly as a

result of my handling the parents had refused to feed it. (? !—Eps.) I

twice found nests with two bad eggs among their contents; they seem

to be common.

On one occasion I accidentally broke one of 5 eggs inside a nest,

but the mess did not deter the bird from returning to sit on the

others.

Status.—Common, or fairly so, in all months.

Amandava amandava. The Red Munia.

_ Identification.—On 27 January 1935 I saw a male with under

tail-coverts red, not black as described in F.B.I. I had noticed the

* The non-breeding adult plumage of this munia is plain brown as in the

juvenile, with unspotted underparts.—Eps.

262 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

same fact previously in Shwebo in September. One bird in a flock

seen on 23 February 1936 had acquired the pink breast of breeding

plumage. The remainder showed no red, even on the rump, and were

presumably young birds of the previous year. Again, of a party of

5 birds seen on 15 March 1936, only one showed any red. On the

other hand, ten birds seen on 27 April 1936 all showed red on rump

and upper tail coverts, bill and legs, and nowhere else.

Habits.—Found on lakes and rivers, in kaing cultivation and

paddyfields, and in the tazé area (dry except in high Irrawaddy

floods). Usually clinging to tall grass or rushes, but sometimes

feeding on the ground. I saw them in flocks as late as 20 June, and

once saw a pair by themselves on 27 January. ,

Status.—Noted as especially common in June, and especially un-

common in November and December.

Passer domesticus. The House Sparrow.

Habits.—Seen mostly in villages, also in river beds and at lake

sides. More than once, I have seen it among paddyfields, a mile or

so from any building. It consorts and nests with Tree Sparrows.

Nesting.—In January 1936 I found birds nesting in holes, pro-

bably old Sand Martins, in the vertical bank of the Mon river.

Status.—Common to very common all the year, but not so plenti-

ful as the Tree Sparrow.

Passer montanus, The Tree Sparrow. |

Nesting.—I once saw a pair building inside the bamboo mast of

a country boat, which was temporarily moored. On another occasion,

in August, many birds were flying in and out of Sand Martins’ holes

in the bank of the Irrawaddy, the latter species also being present.

Status.—Very common all the year. Far more common about

buildings than it was in Shwebo.

Passer flaveolus, The Pegu House Sparrow. ;

Habits.—Seen mostly in scrub jungle, also in indaing, ya land

and villages.

Status.—Very common in March and April, common from May

to August, fairly common or uncommon from September to February.

Emberiza aureola. The Yellow-breasted Bunting.

Habits.—They sometimes feed in company with House Sparrows.

Status.—Only seen 4 times in this area, twice in April and twice

in November. Possibly, therefore, they only pass through it on

passage. |

Riparia riparia. The Eastern Sand Martin.

Status.—On 7 May 1936 a flock of some hundreds was flying

about over the Irrawaddy bed at Minbu, drinking on the wing from

the pools. A number of birds were seen there again a week later,

flying north. No other observations.

BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF MINBU DISTRICT 263

‘ Riparia paludicola, The Indian Sand Martin. |

Habits.—Found mostly in river beds, also in ya land and paddy-

elds.

‘ Nesting.—All young had flown from a nesting colony at ‘Minbu

by 18 March 1935. On 31 March 1935 nestlings were still being

fed. in a colony on the R. Man, while on 24 March 1936 some eggs in

another colony were still unhatched.

I have seen nesting holes dug dead straight for at least 2’ 6",

even in a bank of heavy shingle and boulders.

Status.—Common, or fairly so, from April to September, very

common from October to March.

Hirundo rustica [gutturalis Scop.] The Eastern Swallow.

Habits.—An uncommon habit is to hover low above water, catch-

ing insects. I have seen both individual birds and flocks doing this.

Status.—I found it common in the area in July. Oni July 1935

several flocks were seen on ’phone wires, and 11 days later a large

flock was flying in leisurely and straggling fashion down the

Irrawaddy at Minbu. In the following year, too, birds were recorded

as very numerous on 8 July and for several days previously. On 23

April 1936 enormous numbers were hawking along a canal bank,

under mango and other trees, no doubt preparatory to departure;

but they were still common in May, and occasionally seen in June.

Hirundo rustica tytleri Jerdon. Tytler’s Swallow.

Identification.—-The amount and depth of chestnut on the lower

plumage varies considerably in different individuals. Some seen on 6

March 1936 among a large flock of Eastern Swallows had the lower

plumage entirely chestnut, others only partly so, and the depth of

colour varied. Another seen on 24 April 1936, also among Eastern

Swallows, had the lower plumage below the collar white except for

a small chestnut patch. Two seen on 19 December 1936 had only

a chestnut tinge.

Status.—Seen in every month from November to April, but

uncommon. | 7

Hirundo smithii. The Wire-tailed Swallow.

Status.—Only seen along canals. Fairly common February to

April, never seen May to July, uncommon August to January.

Earliest date August Io.

Hirundo daurica, The Striated Swallow.

Identification.—Apart from the distinctive features given in B. of

B., it appeared to me larger than the Eastern Swallow, when they

were seen together.

Habits.—Remarkably tame. A large flock resting on a sand-bank

once allowed me to approach within ten yards in full view. I saw

them in ya land, iydaing and scrub jungle as often as over river beds

and lakes. |

Status.—Winter visitor, probably all Hodgson's race (japonica).

Latest date 5 April 1936.

264 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Motacilla alba [ocularis Swinhoe.] The Streak-eyed Wagtail.

Status.—Only seen once, a solitary bird in the river bed at Minbu

on 15 January 1937. Identified by black eye-stripe.

Motacilla alboides. Hodgson’s Pied Wagtail.

Status.—Three observations in the area, at Konzaung on 26

January 1935, at Shauktaw on 12 October 1936, and at Mon canals

head on 8 November 1936. All were solitary birds. Identified by

black ear-coverts and sides of neck.

Motacilla leucopsis. The White-faced Wagtail.

Identification.—Several times I saw young birds with very con-

Spicuous white patches on the wings.

Status.—Earliest date September 14. Becomes common by the

end of September, very common October to February, still common

in March, uncommon in April. Latest date April 25.

Motacilla cinerea. The Eastern Grey Wagtail.

Status.—Uncommon in this area, only observed in January and

February.

Moatcilla flava. The Grey-headed Wagtail.

Habits.—Seen mostly at lakes and in river beds, but also in

compounds along canals and in kaing cultivation. In the last-named

habitat, I once saw a flock of 20 perched on pyaung plants. In early

April, I saw them in large flocks, no doubt preparing for migration.

Status.—Earliest date September 13. Very common September to

April. Latest date April 28.

Motacilla citreola [citreola Pallas.} The Yellow-headed Wagtail.

Identification.—On 15 November 1936 I saw a bird at Paunglin

lake with the whole head, except the crown, still in the bright yellow

of breeding plumage. —

Habits.—Never seen away from river beds and lakes.

Status.—Earliest date October 21, uncommon until January, fairly

common in that month, common February to April. Latest date

April 25:

Motacilla citreola [calcarata Hodgs.] Hodgson’s Yellow-headed

Wagtail.

Status.—An adult male in full breeding plumage was seen in a

mayin field at Paunglin lake on 19 April 1936. Identified by the

black back.

Anthus hodgsoni. The Indian Tree Pipit.

Habits.—Seen mostly in compounds and on ya land, also in -

villages. ‘ :

Status.—Earliest date November 5. Fairly common to very

common from November to February, uncommon in March and April.

Latest date April 23.

BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF MINBU DISTRICT 265

Anthus similis. The Brown Rock Pipit.

Habits.—Only seen in open scrub jungle.

Status.—Uncommon. Seen in January, August, September and

October.

Anthus richardi. Richard’s (? or Blyth’s) Pipit.

Status.—Only two good identifications, one on 27 January 1935,

the other on 2 February 1936.

Anthus rufulus. The Indian Pipit.

Identification.—A bird I saw on 2 October 1935 in thin scrub

jungle showed bright orange legs.

Habits.—Seen mostly on ya land, also in villages, river-beds,

kaing cultivation and scrub jungle. On 24 June.1935, I saw an

apparently adult bird being fed with a large caterpillar by another

one.

Status.—Fairly common in June, common,to very common in

other months.

Anthus cervinus. The Red-throated Pipit.

Status.—Very uncommon. Only two good observations, both in

the river-bed at Minbu, in March 1935 and January 1936. In each

case two birds were seen among low cover, the reddish or pink

tinge on the lower plumage, and in one case on the side of the head

also, being evident. From the location, probably this species, not

Hodgson’s

Alauda gulgula. The Small Skylark.

Identification. —I found the crest, often very distinct, the clearest

feature by which to distinguish it fom the Bush Lark.

Habits.—Seen mostly on kaing land and in the tazé area; also on

ya land. When soaring high, the song is in my opinion almost

equal to that of the British Skylark.

Status.—Commeon in December and January.

‘Calandrella brachydactyla. The Rufous Short-toed. Lark.

Status. —On 5 June 1936, I saw 8 to 1o birds running about an

island in the river-bed at Minbu, probing the sand. They were the

size and shape of Ganges Sand Larks, and were behaving in just the

same way. . The upper plumage, however, was browner, and the

outer tail feathers white at the base. Lower plumage was whitish

and some had dark grey patches on the breast. The bill was yellow-

brown and the legs yellow-brown or reddish-brown. Judging from

the plumage, probably this species.

Calandrella raytal. The Ganges Sand Lark.

Identification.—They sometimes show a distinct crest, even out

of the breeding season.

Voice.—I have heard it, in October, uttering a plaintive two-

syllable call, and in March singing better than a Bush Lark.

266. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Habits —When courting, the male erects his crest, bows, and

flaps his wings.

Nesting.—I found a nest in the river-bed at Minbu on 17 May

1935. It contained one nestling and one egg. It was a hole 2”

deep under a thistle, lined with straw.

Status.—Uncommon July to September, owing no doubt to the:

rivers being high, but common to very common the rest of the year.

Mirafra assamica, The Bush Lark.

Habits.—Seen mostly in scrub and ya land, but also in indaing

and river-beds. I once saw a male displaying to the female, who

was working on the nest, by the usual song flight, and then, on

alighting, by walking slowly sideways, shivering his wings. I have

seen it perch as high as about 25 feet, on top of a tree. Occasionally

they lie very low in cover and, when put up, come down again within

a few yards, like a: quail.

Status.—Common from December to May and very common from:

June to November. Many nests found.

Cinnyris asiatica. The Purple Sunbird.

Habits.—Seen mostly in indaing jungle, but also in scrub and |

occasionally in bungalow compounds. Never common in this area,

but least uncommon between February and May.

Dicaeum cruentatum. The Scarlet-backed Flowerpecker.

Voice.—The call while flying is much like that of the Streaked

Fantail Warbler.

Habits.—I have seen it hawking flying insects from a perch in

a tree, and then, for Io minutes or more, remaining absolutely

motionless under a leaf.

Status.—Only seen twice in the area, in both cases solitary males.

One was in thin jungle and dry cultivation on 22 November, and

the other in indaing jungle on 11 August. On the latter occasion it

was being chivvied by breeding Tailor Birds.

Picus viridanus. The Scaly-bellied Woodpecker.

Nesting.—The only nest which I saw in the area was lined with

grass, straw and feathers. It was on a ledge inside a rotten branch,

with the entrance hole some way below it.

Status.—Only seen three times, in August, November and:

December.

Picus canus. The Black-naped Green Woodpecker.

Status. —Only seen once, in indaing jungle near the Mon canals

head.

Dryobates analis. The Pied Woodpecker.

Identification.—T he pink under tail coverts were sometimes so

pale as to be unnoticeable in the field.

Habits.—Seen in indaing jungle, along canal sank and in bunga-

low compéunds: |

BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF MiNBU DISTRICT 267

‘Status.—Uncommon. Only seen 5 times in the area, in February,

March, April and August.

Dryobates mahrattensis.. The Yellow-fronted Pied Woodpecker.

Status.—Only seen once in this area, on 23 February 1936 at

Paunglin, when a male was drumming on a dead branch of a cactus

tree in scrub jungle. It remained on exactly the same spot for at

least 10 minutes.

Micropternus brachyurus. The Rufous Woodpecker.

Status.—Only one observation in the area, on 6 April 1935 on

the Kalahaung distributary canal.

Iynx torquilla, The Wryneck.

Habits.—Seen in river-beds, paddyfields, ya land and scrub jungle.

Status.—Uncommon.. Earliest date October 13.

Megalaima haemacephala, The Coppersmith.

Voice.—When calling, the bird jerks his whole body, especially

the tail, at each ‘tonk’.

Habits.—Seen along canals, on ya land and in villages.

Status.—Common in January, but less so, or even uncommon, in

other months. ;

Cuculus canorus. The Khasia Hills Cuckoo.

Status.—Only seen once in this area, on 13 October 1935, when

a single bird was perched on a small bush on the shore of the Dalauk

In, Paunglin. It descended to the ground, then tried to perch in

a tree, but was mobbed by drongos. Evidently a young bird, as

the whole upper plumage was finely barred.

? Cuculus poliocephalus, The Small Cuckoo.

_ Status.—A cuckoo seen near Minbu on 3 May 1936 was about

the size of the Plaintive Cuckoo, with plumage similar to that of

the Khasia Hills species. (‘A close view showed a red eye, with a

yellow ring round it. It settled in a small tree, then descended to

the ground. Apparently this species.

RaRe Sse i ies

Cacomantis merulinus, The Plaintive Cuckoo.

Voice.—On 23 August I saw one, which was perched on a bush,

utter once only a loud clear 3-syllable call.

Habits.—Found in scrub, ya land, paddyfields and at lake-sides,

where I have seen it clinging to rushes and making sallies to catch

butterflies. |

Status.—Not seen between 18 April and 14 August. Uncommon

during the rest of the year.

Clamator jacobinus. The Pied Crested Cuckoo.

Voice.—One of its calls, heard in July from a perch on a bush,

was rather metallic and monosyllabic.

268 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vols 49

Habits.—Seen mostly on ya land, aiso in paddyfields and com-

pounds.

Status.—Uncommon from May to September, not seen) im jormer

months. Earliest date 29 May. ;,

Clamator coromandus, The Red-winged Crested Cuckoo.

Status.—Only seen five times, four of them between 17 July and

13 August, andthe fifth on 26 January... Younes bind jseen,.onjm

August. j

Eudynamis scolopaceus. The Koel.

Voice.—The bird calls occasionally in the rains, especially when

the sun is shining, and in the cold weather, especially at dawn and

dusk.» I heard it in this area in every month except. November,

Once in July I saw a female uttering a whining cry, not unlike ai

Brahminy Kite’s, and frequently repeated. In January I once heard.

the usual shrieking call being uttered very softly and quite melodi-

ously.

Habits.—Seen mostly in villages, also in ya land.

Status.—Fairly common in January, very common February to

June, uncommon July to October, and very uncommon in November

and December.

Rhopodytes tristis. The Large Green-billed Malkoha.

Status.—Uncommon. Only six observations in the area, five of

which were of solitary birds. Seen in April, May, August, September

and November.

Centropus sinensis. The Crow-Pheasant.

Habits.—Seen mostly in scrub, also in river-beds and at lake-

sides. Once seen in a bush growing in the Paunglin lake. On

1 June 1936 I saw a pair’mating high up in a mango tree. The

male swore hard at the female before pursuing her and copulating.

Nesting.—Close to the above pair, 20 feet up at the end of a

branch, was a big mass of leaves etc., which was probably the nest,

though I was not able to investigate.

Status.—Common from March to September, and fairly so from

October to February.

Psittacula eupatria. The Large Parrakeet. |

Status.—Very uncommon inthe area. Only, seen,(once,,.on 15

April 1935, in a tree near the Salin canal head. Another bird was,

however, seen a few miles outside the irrigated area, in indaing

jungle between Aingma and Shwezettaw, on 16 February 1935.

Psittacula krameri. The Rose-ringed Parrakeet.

Habits.—Seen mostly along canals, also in paddyfields, villages,

ya land and indaing.

Nesting.—On 24 January 1935 I watched several pairs examining

holes in cotton trees standing in paddyfieids. Each pair kept to

itself, the female entering the hole while the male looked on.

BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF MINBU DISTRICT 269!

Status.—Comimon, or fairly so, in all months except June and

July, when it was uncommon.

Psittacula cyanocephala. The Blossom-headed Parrakeet.

Identification.—A young bird handled on 14 May 1935 still had

the tail much shorter than the wing, but the plumage was colourful.

Judging from the conspicuous maroon wing-spot, it was probably a

male, but resembled a female in its bluish-grey head and absence of

black or verdigris green. The lower mandible had turned black,,

but the upper one was stili yellow, not orange, and the legs and feet

were more grey than green.

Voice.—The call heard in flight sounded to me much the same

as that of the rose-ringed species.

Habits.—Only seen, in, or close to, indaing jungle.

Status.—Only 3 observations in the area, on 11 August 1935,

26 November 1935, and 25 January 1936. On the last-named date,,

flocks were numerous.

Psittacula himalayana, The Slaty-headed Parrakeet.

Status.—Only seen once, on 26 January 1936, when numerous

flocks were observed in indaing jungle near the Mon canals head.

Psittacula alexandri. The Red-breasted Parrakeet.

Status. —Never seen in the area—rather surprisingly, as I found

them extremely common further up the R. Mon. They seem to

avoid the plains more strictly than other parrakeets.

Coracias benghalensis. The Roller.

Habits.—Seen in scrub, ya land, compounds and at lake-sides.

Status.—Common, or fairly so, in all months except May, when

I seldom saw it.

Merops orientalis. The Green Bee-eater.

Habiis.—Seen in every type of terrain. Flocks roost in trees,

groups of upto about 5 birds huddling close together on the perch

like Ashy Swallow-Shrikes.

Status.—Very common ail the year. Young birds seen at the

end of May, but no nests recorded in the -area.

Merops superciliaris. The Blue-tailed Bee-eater.

Habits.—Seen mostly at lakes, also in river-beds (both wet and

dry), ya land and scrub. I once saw several birds, perched on a

phone wire during a thundersterm, which were spreading their wings

and tails and leaning right forward, apparently to Jet the rain get

under their feathers.

Nesting.—On 27 April 1936 a flock was starting to excavate

nesting holes in the R. Mon bank at Pwinbyu. One bird was cling-

ing to the vertical sand face; using its spread-out tail as a support,

like a Woodpecker, while it worked.

270 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL (HISTO SOCIETY, Vols 49

Status —Common Aprii to September, uncommon in October,

- never seen November to March. FEarliest date 18 April, latest 8

October.

Merops leschenaulti. The Chestnut-headed Bee-eater.

Status.—Only seen once in the area, on 18 October 1935, when

several birds were hawking from trees on the Mon canal bank near

its head. They were a most beautiful sight.in the sun.

Ceryle rudis. The Pied Kingfisher.

Habits.—Frequents canals, rivers and lakes. I once saw a party

of 13 birds perched on kazins at the shallow edge of Paunglin lake.

Nesting.—Nesting hoie in Mon river bank seen in use on 12

October.

Status.—Fairly common to very common in all months except

September, when [ found it uncommon.

Alcedo atthis. The Common Kingfisher.

Habits.—Seen most often along canals and at lakes, but also

along rivers.

Nesting.—Not observed.

Status.—It disappeared in April (latest 19 April), and did not re-

appear until August (earliest 4 August). It remained uncommon -

until October, when it became common or very common until the

following ‘April.

Ramphalcyon capensis. The Stork-billed Kingfisher.

Habits.—Found along canals and rivers, and at lakes. I once

saw it perched on a phone wire along a main road—an unusually

public position.

Status.—Very uncommon May to September, becoming a little

commoner October to February, but never seen in March or April.

Halcyon smyrnensis. The White-breasted Kingfisher.

Voice.—On 22 March 1936 a bird settled high in a tree and uttered

a shrill cackling whistle for a considerable time. Although the bird

was very common, | think this was the only occasion on which I heard

it utter a sound.

Habits.—Mostly along canals and at lakes, but also in river-beds

and on ya land.

Status.—Very common October to February, not so common

March to May, and even less so June to September.

Upupa epops. The Hoopoe.

Voice.—On 17 June 1936, in indaing jungle, I saw a party of.

four on a cart track, two of which were uttering a raucous call.

Though full grown, I suspect that they were young ones calling for

food. -

Habits. —Seen mostly in scrub, also on ya land and in compounds.

Status.—Uncommon in May, fairly common June to September,

common October to February, uncommon again in March, and never

BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF MINBU_ DISTRICT 271

observed in April. Earliest date of return 19 May, which was 12

‘days before the rains broxe that year (1935).

Apus pacificus. The White-rumped Swift. .

Status.—Only seen twice within the limits of the area, on 6

September and 21 September 1935—single birds on both occasions.

On 23 May. 1936, however, I saw four birds at Nyaunghla, on the

opposite bank of the Irrawaddy, and on 1 August 1936 four birds at

Yenangyaung, close by.

Cypsiurus parvus. The Palm Swift.

Habits.—Seen in villages, ya land, river-beds and at lakes,

sometimes out of sight of any palms.

Status.—Fairly common to common from February to April,

‘seldom seen in May, common again June to November, but never

‘seen in December or January. |

Chaetura gigantea. The Brown-throated Spinetail.

Habits and Status.—Seen four times, in February and March,

on 17 May and on 6 September. In March a single bird was hawking

flies in company with Palm Swifts. The observation on 17 May

was of a single bird over the river bed at Minbu, and that of. 6

‘September of several birds in flight at Paunglin.

‘Hemiprocne coronata, The Indian Crested Swift.

Habits.—Seen over rivers, canals, lakes and indaing. On one

occasion a flock was hawking insects low down in company with

Sand Martins.

Status.—Observed in every month except January and October,

and sometimes fairly common.

Caprimulgus macrourus. The Long-tailed Nightjar.

Status.—Only seen once, on 12 January 1936, when a bird was

put up several times along a stream in scrub jungle near Minbu.

‘Caprimulgus asiaticus, The Common Indiana Nightjar.

Voice.—In this area, birds called quite often during the rains, as

well as im the dry weather. I heard them in ‘August, September

and October. One heard on 6 October gave a performance quite

equal to dry weather standard. On the other hand they were

‘comparatively silent from November to January.

Habits.—Found mostly near villages and in scrub, also in indaing

jungle.

Status.—Common from January to June, less so in July, common

or very common again from August to November, but never seen

or heard in December in this area, though I did find it in that

month up: the valley of the Mon.

Lyncornis macrotis cerviniceps, The Burmese Great-eared Nightjar.

Status.—Only seen once, on 5 February 1935, when a bird entered

my house at Minbu and was caught. ‘A very strong west wind had

272 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

been blowing the previous evening, which may have been responsible:

for the bird’s presence so far from the jungle.

Tyto alba. The Barn Owl.

Voice.—On 29 June 1935, more than one bird in a banyan tree

alongside Paunglin inspection bungalow was screeching loudly at

dusk—probably young birds.

Habits.—Seen mostly in compounds, also in paddyfields.

Nesting.—A pair nested in the roof of the D.C.’s quarters at.

Minbu. Eggs were laid on a pile of disgorged pellets, etc. On 16

January 1935, the nest contained only two young and no eggs. One

of the young Jeft the nest on the 13 February, the other on the

following day, giving a fledging period of at least 29 days. On 21

March 1935, two birds flew out of a hole in a cliff face on a chaung

near Minbu. On 22 August 1936, a hole in the banyan tree at

Paunglin (see above, under Voice) was occupied by 3 birds. It

contained no eggs.

Status.—Fairly common in August and September, uncommon in:

other months, and never seen in May or July.

Athene brama, The Spotted Owlet.

Habits.—Seen in compounds and ya land.

Nesting.—The only nest seen was in a hole 15 feet up in a branch

of a tamarind in my compound in Minbu. It was quite unlined.

It contained two eggs on 16 March 1935 and three on the 28th. By

1§ April two had hatched, the third having disappeared. The young

birds, still in pure white plumage, fell out of the nest several times

(from agitation at being discovered?) and I replaced them each time.

By 17 May they had left the nest, which was being used by Common

Mynahs.

Status.—Fairly common Aprib and May, more common June to

November, never seen in December, and uncommon January to March.

Pandion haliaetus. The Osprey.

Status.—Seen three times, on 25 November, 14 December, and

@ March. One bird was fishing in the Irrawaddy, and another in

Paunglin lake.

Torgos calvus. The Black Vulture.

Habits.—Found mostly in villages, also in scrub and river-beds.

Status.—Fairly common January to March, less so in other™

months.

Gyps indicus. The Long-billed Vulture.

Habits.—Found in villages, ya land and river-beds.

Status.—Fairly common throughout the year.

seudogyps bengalensis. The Indian White-backed Vulture.

Nesting.—Solitary nest seen on 17 February, in fork of cottom

tree at the head of the Man canal, with one of the pair sitting.

Habits.—Mostly in villages, also in river-beds.

Status.->Fairly common all the year.

BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF MINBU .. DISTRICT 2

Falco peregrinus, The [astern Peregrine Falcon.

Status.—Only seen once, on 3 January 1937 at Mon canals head,

when a bird got up from the water's edge and settled in a tree. The-

white lower plumage, barred black, identified it as this race, not the:

Shahin.

Falco jugger. The Laggar Falcon.

Identification.—-The black and white stripes on the head are a

Conspicuous feature in the field.

Status.—Four observations, in April, July, November and.

December. One was of a pair, the others of solitary birds. Two.

were perched on tree-tops, one flew up from the roadside into a tree,

while the fourth was soaring over scrub jungle and sometimes.

hovering against the wind almost like a kestrel.

Falco tinnunculus. The Kestrel.

Habits.—Seen in scrub, ya land, kaing, and over lakes and

canals. I once saw two birds on the wing catching flying ants with

their claws and transferring each one as caught to their bills.

Status.—Uncommon. Seen in every month from November to:

March, but never in other months.

Aquila clanga. The Greater Spotted Eagle.

Status.—Only one good identification, on 8 December 1935, when:

a bird was seen circling over kaing cultivation near the Paunglin lake.

? Hieraétus fasciatus. Bonelli’s Eagle.

Status.—A bird seen ‘circling over the R. Mon on 27 January

1936, and another seen to settle in paddy in the S. Mon canal area

on 6 November 1936 were most probably this species.

? Spizaetus limnactus. The Changeable Hawk-Eagle.

Status.—In January 1936 birds were seen several times near

water which were probably the melanistic form of this species.

Butastur teesa. The White-eyed Buzzard Eagle.

Habits.—Found mainiy in scrub, but also in ya land, paddyfields,

and at lakes.

Status.—Common, or fairly so, from August to November, un-

common from December to July, but observed in all months except

May.

>? Butastur liventer. The Rufous-winged Buzzard-Eagle.

Status.—One doubtful observation, on 14 February 1935, when

a bird was seen in a tree close to the R. Mon.

? Ichthyophaga sp. The Grey-headed Fishing-Eagle.

Status.—On 13 January 1935, a bird was seen flying over the:

Irrawaddy bank near Minbu, which was probably this species.

274 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Haliastur indus, The Common Brahminy Kite. ‘

Habits.—Found only in river-beds and at lakes. It seemed to

avoid the canals.

Nesting.—The only nest seen was on 23 February 1935, high up

in a cotton tree standing in paddyfields, with one of the pair sitting.

Status.—Common, or fairly so, throughout the year.

Milvus migrans [govinda], The Common Pariah Kite.

Nesting.—Observed in January and February, twice in a cotton

tree, once in a Burmese kokkobin.

Habits.—Seen mostly in villages, also in ya land, river-beds, and

at lakes.

Status.—Earliest date September 22. Very common October to

February, common March to May, uncommon in June. Latest date

24 June (1935), when a single bird was seen in flight at the Wethigan

lake, Salin. 7

Elanus caeruleus, The Black-winged Kite.

Habits.—Seen in paddyfields, ya land, scrub, indaing, and at

river and lake sides. I have seen it hovering for several seconds,

without moving its wings, like a kestrel.

Status.—Not uncommon in August (earliest 4 August), September

and October, for which months I have a record of 9 observations, but

only seen once outside those months, viz: on 1 February 1935.

Circus macrourus, The Pallid Harrier.

Status.—Three observations, on 18 November 1935, 24 January

and 5 February 1936. All were adult males, and the pale grey upper

plumage with black wing tips was distinctive. One bird was in flight

over the Dalauk Jn, another was feeding on a small bird in the dry

bed of the Salin canal, while the third was quartering over the Minbu

golf-course.

Circus melanoleucus, The Pied Harrier.

Habits.—Mostly on ya land, also in kaing cultivation, paddyfelde

river-beds and at lakes.

Status.—Earliest 9 October. Common October to March, and

fairly so in April. Never seen in May, but I did see a bird once on

the 20 June. Birds still in juvenile plumage were seen as late as

the 15 March.

Circus aeruginosus, The Marsh Harrier.

Habits.—Seen only at lakes, usually hunting over the marshy land

or mayin paddy at their edges.

Status.—Observed from October (earliest 14 October) on to “April,

but never common. Latest date 19 April, when an adult male was

seen hunting over mayin paddy at Paunglin lake.

Astur badius. The Shikra.

Identification.—The white bases of feathers showing through

on the nape of the young bird aes a conspicuous white patch, similar

to a White-eyed Buzzard’s.

BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF MINBU DISTRICT 275

Voice.—Once, in June, I saw two birds calling with a whining

note, not unlike a Brahminy Kite’s.

Status.—Uncommon. Only five certain observations, all between

74 June and 5 November.

Accipiter nisus, The Sparrow-Hawk.

Status.—Only seen once, on 16 December 1934, when a bird was

in flight at the head of the Salin canal.

Crocopus phoenicopterus, The Green Pigeon.

Habits.—Seen in paddyfields, ya land, scrub and indaing. Once

in November, I saw a flock drinking at the water’s edge of a canal,

and picking food off the surface of an adjoining in. Otherwise I

only saw them in flight or in trees.

Status.—Never seen from March to August. KMarliest 20 September:

In the cold weather it was very variable in its occurrence, being com-

mon at times and uncommon at others.

Streptopelia chinensis, The Spotted Dove.

Habits.—It mostly favoured ya land and lake sides, but was found

also in paddyfields, river-beds, scrub and indaing. On 4 August 1935

there were swarms of birds among the mayin paddy stubble round the

Paunglin Lake, and on 12 October 1935 the bushes growing in the

lake were full of them.

When making love, the male bows and coos, and the two rub bills.

Nesting.—Nests found in January, February, April, July, November,

and December, generally 4 to 5 feet up in a hedge, once only 18 inches

up, and once on the ground under an overhanging rock. These low

nests contained more material than the others. Always two eggs.

Status.—Very common throughout the year.

Streptopelia decaocto, The Ring Dove.

Habits.—Found mostly in ya land, also in scrub, indaing and river-

beds, and along canals.

Status: Common from December to March, uncommon in other

months. On 14 December 1934 ripening paddy near Mon canals

head was swarming with birds.

CEnopopelia tranquebarica, The Red Turtle Dove.

Habits.—Mainly in ya land, also in scrub, indaing, and river-beds,

and along canals.

Status.—Common, or fairly so, from January to June, less so dur-

ing the rest of the year. Not seen in July or December.

Gallus gallus, The Junglefowl.

Habits.—Seen mostly in indaing jungle, sometimes in scrub.

Status.—Common, or fairly so, from December to April, very seldom

seen during the rest of the year.

Coturnix coromandelica. The Black-breasted Quail.

Habits.—Found in ya, scrub and kaing land. On 3 May 1936

there were large numbers of birds in the thin. scrub and-ya crops

6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

round the edge of the Minbu golf-course. They were mostly in parties

of 3 or 4. One party of 3, well seen, comprised two birds with a black

breast, and one without it—perhaps a young bird of the previous year.

Nesting.—On 9 June 1936 a bird was put off a nest in scrub jungle

at Paunglin. The nest was an unlined scrape under a small plant and.

contained 4 eggs. They had a stone-coloured background and dark

brown blotches at the large end. The date appears unusually early.

Status.—Very common from July to February, rather less so from.

March to June {but see observation of 3 May, described above).

Francolinus pintadeanus [phayrei], Phayre’s Burmese Francolin.

Habits.—Found mostly in scrub, also in ya land and indaing jungle.

Status.—Common from April to June, seldom seen in July, then:

fairly common from August to March. Female with two young seen

on 28 August.

? Rallus aquaticus, The Indian Water Rail.

Status.—A rail was seen at the Paunglin lake on 19 January 1936.

It swam into the rushes and sat very close. In size it was about

the same as a Moorhen, perhaps a little smaller, and the plumage

appeared all dark brown. Apparently this species, not striata.

Porzana pusilla [pusilla]. The Eastern Baillon’s Crake.

Status.—Only seen once, on 22 February 1935, when a live bird,

which had beén netted on Wethigan lake, Salin, was brought to me.

It had acquired adult plumage, but still had the red-brown eye of

a young bird. It was said to be common in the ins near Salin.

Amaurornis phoenicurus. The White-breasted Waterhen.

Habits.—Seen mostly along canals, also in stream beds, paddy-

fields and scrub.

Status.—Common from March to May, seldom seen the rest of

the year.

Gallinula chloropus. The Indian Moorhen.

Habits.—Only seen on lakes. Once in November, I saw two birds.

on an open in, with no cover round it, and once saw a young bird

walking about on lily leaves like a Jacana.

Status.—Very uncommon in the area, and never seen from May to:

October. On 13 April 1935 I saw a number of birds on a small in

alongside the Salin canal—an unusual sight in this area.

Gallicrex cinerea. The Watercock.

Identification.—During the rains, when the male had a pink or

red horn, his bill was usually yellow, not red.

Habits.—Seen in paddyfields and lakes. One June I saw a male

perched nearly at the top of mayin paddy stalks—an unusual position.

Status.—Fairly common from June to September, very uncommon

in October and November, not seen December to February, uncommon

from March to May.

“J

BIRDS, OF (RHE ‘TRRIGATED AREA OF) MINBU DISTRICT 2

Porphyrio poliocephalus. The Indian Purple Moorhen.

Habits and Status.—Only seen on the Wethigan and Paunglin lakes

—both large sheets of water. From January to April a flock of up to 60

or more was always to be seen at a particular spot at the edge of

Wethigan lake, close to Salin town and alongside a busy road. They

used to feed among water hyacinth, and I was informed that their food

consisted of insects. They were seen in smaller numbers at the edge

of the Paunglin lake in June, November and December. Never seen

from July to October.

Fulica atra, The Coot.

Status.—Never seen in this area.

Metopidius indicus. The Bronze-winged Jacana.

Habits.—Confined to lakes. It usually kept apart from the

Pheasant-tailed species, but I once saw a single bird among about

BO ol the latver:

Status.—Common, or fairly so, from April to August, less common

September to March.

Hydrophasianus chirurgus. The Pheasant-tailed Jacana.

Habits.—Confined to lakes.

Status.—Unlike the Bronze-winged, it was more common in the

dry weather than during the rains.

Burhinus oedicnemus. The [Indian Stone-Plover.

Status.—Only one good observation, on 22 April 1935, when a

single bird was seen on the bank of the S. Mon canal. On g June

1936, in scrub jungle near Paunglin lake, six birds, which were almost

certainly this species, got up with a loud alarm whistle.

Esacus recurvirostris. The Great Stone Plover.

Status.—Only seen on 6 March 1936, when two birds were seen,

a mile apart, on mud and sand banks in the bed of the Irrawaddy.

One of them was behaving as if breeding.

Glareola maldivarum, The Large Indian Pratincole.

Status.—Only seen on the 29 and 30 June 1935, at Paunglin lake.

Three solitary birds were seen, in flight and on mud at the edge of

the lake, and also a flock of 30 to 4o standing head to wind in a wet

field. At least half the flock were young birds, with mottled upper

plumage and no cheek-stripes.

‘Glareola lactea. The Small Indian Pratincole.

Habits.—Seen mostly in river-beds, but also hawking flying insects

over lakes, paddyfields, and even va land.

Status.—Never common, least so from July to December.

Larus brunnicephalus. The Brown-headed Gull.

Status.—Only seen twice, on 21 October 1935 and 15 November

1936. On the first date three birds were flying down the R. Mon at

‘dusk; on the second occasion a single bird was fishing in the Paunglin

278 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

lake, and standing at the water’s edge near Paunglin village. It

was very tame.

Chlidonias hybrida. The Whiskered Tern. "@a

Identification.—As in Shwebo district, the bill sometimes appeared

black, not red. Possibly these birds were White-winged Black Terns,

whose bill, according to F.B.I., is darker in winter.

Habits.—Found on lakes and rivers. One day on the Wethigan

lake I saw a flock settle several times on water-lily leaves.

Status.—Rather uncommon November to April, never seen May to

October.

Sterna aurantia. The Indian River Term.

Habits.—Seen only on rivers and lakes. On the Paunglin lake I

once saw three birds flying about in a deluge of rain with their bills

pointing upwards, as if catching the rain. On another occasion a bird

dropped a fish which it was carrying five or six times and caught it

again in the air, possibly to get it into a good position for swallowing.

Status.—Commion or very common November to July, but very

seldom seen in August, September, or October.

Sterna melanogaster. The Black-bellied Tern.

Identification. —I saw birds in non-breeding plumage as early as

15 March. A bird with white belly, probably a young one, was seen

as late as 7 December.

Habits.—Seen on lakes as well as rivers.

Status.—Common from November to June, never seen between

24 June and 17 October.

? Sterna hirundo [tibetana]. The Tibetan Tern.

Status.—On 21 February 1936 I had a good view of a solitary

bird standing in the river bed at Minbu. It was the shape of the

Black-bellied species, with long forked tail, and appeared much the

same size. The crown was black, the upper plumage pale grey, the

lower plumage white, and the bill conspicuously bright red. I con-

clude that it can only have been this species.

Sterna albifrons. The Ternlet.

Habits and Status.—Only seen four times, always on the Irrawaddy.

One observation on 6 March and two in May were of single birds.

‘Another, on 26 May, was of a flock. One of the single birds was

hovering over the water just like a Pied Kingfisher.

Rhynchops albicollis. The Indian Skimmer.

Habits and Status.—Only seen on 6 June 1936, on the Woes

Two birds were seen flying downstream along the water’s edge, against

the breeze, fishing. They flew back at a height of 20 feet or so, turn-

ed and went downstream fishing again. This performance was repeated

several times. Later in the day four birds were seen flying about

over the river. | ;

BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF MINBU DISTRICT 279

Leucopolius alexandrinus. The Kentish Plover.

Status.—Only one good observation, at the Dalauk In on 23

February 1936, when a flock of 30 were seen on the shore. The

black legs were clearly, visible. (They were feeding by scratching’ the

mud with their feet and listening.

Charadrius dubius. The Little Ringed Plover.

Identification.—Young birds are liable to be mistaken for Kentish

Plover as the brown collar is sometimes not complete, even as late

as the middle of January. The yellow legs, if seen, are distinctive.

On the other hand I have seen a fledgling, not yet able to fly, with

the brown collar already complete.

Habits.—Seen at river and lake sides. When still very small, the

young birds run about nearly as fast as the parents. A peculiar

method of feeding was noticed on one occasion. Birds were running

about on the scum at the edge of a jheel, stopping frequently to

scratch’ it with one foot, and sometimes following this with a peci:

at a spot an inch or two ahead. Adults and young birds tend to

congregate separately. On 14 October 1935 I saw numbers of young

birds (no black on head and with the collar brown) at the Paunglin

lake, but no adults, whereas three days later I saw numbers of adults

in the Mon river-bed with no young birds.

Nesting.—One nest found was a scrape at the foot of a thistle,

and contained a few dead leaves as well as two eggs. A week later

there were still only two eggs, with the bird sitting.

Charadrius dominicus. The Golden Plover.

Status.—Only seen three times in the area, at the edge of the

Paunglin lake in October and November, and on kaing land in January.

On 12 October at least one bird of a flock was still in partial breed-

ing plumage, with the white lines down the side of the neck.

Hoplopterus duvaucelli. The Spur-winged Plover.

Habits.—Found mostly in river-beds, also at lake-sides.

Nesting.—A pair seen on 27 February 1937 in the bed of the

Irrawaddy were evidently breeding. One bird was on guard, calling,

while the other was seen close by, creeping silently away. Newly

hatched young were seen on 26 March and 8 April, while a pair seen

on-5 June 1935 in the bed of the Irrawaddy evidently, from their

behaviour, still had fledglings. The protective colouring of young

birds was wonderfully effective on sand-banks.

Status.—Common, or fairly so, throughout the year.

Lobivanellus indicus. The Red-wattled Lapwing.

Habits.—Found mostly at lakes, but also along canals, in paddy-

fields, Raing, scrub and indaing.

Nesting.—Young bird seen on 30 June 1935, with parents still in

attendance. |

Status.—Common from September to April, and fairly so from

| ‘May to August.

1 Stamping ?—Ebs.

280 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Microsarcops cinereus. The Grey-headed Lapwing.

fabits.—Found ‘only at lake-sides.

Status.—Earliest date 12 October. Seen occasionally upto

February, but never iater.

Himantopus himantopus. The Black-winged Stilt.

Habits.—Seen mostly in lakes, also in paddyfields.

Status.—Observed in all months except May and July, and some-

times fairly common, but their numbers were very variable from

month to month—apparently they wander locally.

Tringa ochropus, The Green Sandpiper.

Identification.—The fact that the bill and tarsus are about the

same length was a good field distinction from the Wood Sandpiper.

Habits.—Seen mostly in river-beds, but also in canals and paddy-

fields, and at pools in indaing jungle. Not infrequently in: company

with Common Sandpipers, when the larger size was noticeable. It

sometimes puts its head right under water when feeding, which I

never saw the Common Sandpiper do.

Status.—Never common in the area, and, except for one observ-

ation on 19g July 1935, not seen from May to August.

Tringa stagnatilis. The Marsh Sandpiper.

Habits and Status.—Only seen twice, on 14 October 1935 at the

Paunglin in, and on 23 February 1936 at the Dalauk In. On the

first occasion several birds were joined by’ a Greenshank, and the

similarity was very striking, the Sandpipers appearing exact miniatures

of the larger bird. The two birds seen on 23 February were putting

their heads under water to feed. They were quicker in their move-

ments than a Wood Sandpiper.

Actitis hypoleucos. The Common Sandpiper.

Habits.—Seen at lakes, river-sides, along canals, and once in a

paddy field.

Status.—Fairly common August and September, common October

to April. Earliest date August 5, latest May 9.

Tringa glareola. The Wood Sandpiper.

Habits.—Seen usually on shores of lakes and rivers, but also in

young paddy. In the latter, I have seen flocks of many hundreds

in August, with the birds very wild.

Status.—Common to very common from August to April. Earliest

14 August, latest 19 April.

Tringa totanus. The Redshank. .

Status.—Very uncommon. Only one good observation, on 22 August

1936, when a solitary bird was seen at the water’s edge of the Dalauk

In.

Tringa erythropus. -The Dusky Redshank.

Status.—Flocks of Redshanks with no white in the wing, but with

‘conspicuous short white supercilium, were seen on 14 April 1935, 23

BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF MINBU DISTRICT 281

¥ebruary and 20 March 1936, which were presumably this species.

On 14 April 1935 about roo birds were feeding in a pond alongside

the Salin canal, with Little Egrets and Stilts. Some were standing

in water up to their thighs, others swimming about in parties, with

their heads under the surface most of the time. Their legs were a

very’ dull red. On 23 February 1936 a large flock was seen at the

Dalauk In, again wading in water up to their breasts, and putting

their heads right under. The flock seen on 20 March 1936 was feed-

ing in the same way in a small in near the head of the Salin canal,

‘which was crowded with waders. On 15 November 1936 a single

-bird was seen at Paunglin, again with-no white visible on either the

closed or open wing.

‘Tringa nebularia. The Greenshank.

Habits.—Seen at river and lake sides and in canals. Once in

February I saw a flock of 12 in the Irrawaddy bed.

Status.—Earliest September 4, latest April 22. Never common,

-but seen in every month between those dates.

? Tringa guttifer. Armstrong’s Sandpiper.

Status.—A solitary Sandpiper seen feeding in mud at the Paunglin

lake on 19 January 1936 may have been this species. It was about

the size of a Redshank, the bill was no longer than the tarsus, the

upper plumage appeared pale brown, mottled white, the tail white with

-dark markings, lower plumage white. The bill and eye were dark,

_and the legs yellow. It uttered a chirping whistle.

-? Philomachus pugnax. The Ruff and Reeve.

Status.—A solitary bird seen at the Paunglin lake on 17 November

1935 was apparently a Reeve. It was feeding in mud with a party

of Wood Sandpipers among a number of stationary Golden Plovers.

It was the shape of the former, but the size of the latter. The bill

was straight and not longer than the tarsus. Upper plumage plain

lightish brown, lower plumage pale, bill black, legs orange-yellow.

-? Calidris minuta or C. ruficollis, The Little Stint or The Eastern

Little Stint.

Identification.—Distinguished from Long-toed Stint by white on

tail, and from Temminck’s Stint in non-breeding plumage by conspicu-

ous speckled appearance of upper plumage.

Status.—Only seen on 23 February 1936, when large numbers were

feeding with Wood Sandpipers at the Dalauk In, Paunglin. It was

presumably too early for Temminck’s Stint to be in breeding plumage.

‘Calidris temminckii. Temminck’s Stint.

Identification.—Most birds of a flock seen on 20 March 1936

-already had the mottled upper plumage of the breeding season. Distin-

guished from Little Stint by the all-white outer tail feathers.

Habits.—Seen mostly at river-sides, also at lakes. Sometimes

with Little Ringed Plovers.

Status.—Seen in all months from October to April, and sometimes

‘common. Earliest date 14 October, latest 14 April.

282 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Calidris testacea. The Curlew-Stint.

Status.—On 14 October 1935 a flock was seen at the Paunglin lake.

The slight curvature of the bill was observed, and the pale streaks.

on the side of the neck, distinguishing them from Wood Sandpipers. -

Capella gallinago. The Fantail Snipe and/or Capella stenura. The

Pintail Snipe.

Status.—One or both of these were uncommon in August or

September, common or very common October to February, fairly

common in March, and uncommon in April. The earliest date,

presumably a Pintail, was 15 August.

Pelecanus philippensis. The Spotted-billed Pelican.

Habits.—Three adults, seen with one young bird on the Wethigan

lake in August, flew up and settled on top of a tall tree, leaving

the young bird on the water. No party larger than this one was seen.

in the area.

Status.—Seen only on the Paunglin and Wethigan lakes. Except

for one observation on 19 January 1936, all were between 24 June

and 12 October. it was said to visit the Wethigan lake only when

at its lowest, say May to August.

Phalacrocorax niger. The Little Cormorant.

Habits.—Seen on iakes and canals. On Paunglin lake I once saw

a flock of about 80 fishing in a closely-packed bunch.

Status.—Usually common or very common, but between April and

September it sometimes became uncommon.

Anhinga melanogaster. The Indian Darter.

Habits.—Seen mostly on lakes, but also on rivers.

Status.—Not seen from July to September. Seen in all other

months, but never common.

Platalea leucorodia. The Indian Spoonbill.

Status.—A single bird was seen on 14 April 1935, feeding with a

White Ibis among Lesser Egrets in a pool alongside the Salin canal

near its head. The ‘scything’ action was most distinctive, as was

the extraordinary ‘spoon’.

Threskiornis melanocephalus, The White Ibis.

Habits.—Seen only on pools and lakes. In one case a single bird

was feeding with a Spoonbill, swinging its bill in much the same way,

though not with such a regular motion. Once in December a singie

bird was seen among a large flock of Openbills, and the following day

8 to 10 birds with a flock of about 100 Grey Herons and a large number

of Openbills.

Status.—Not seen May to September. Earliest date of return 14

October, from when until April it was seen in every month except

March, but never more than fairly common.

BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF MINBU DISTRICT 283

? Plegadis falcinellus. The Glossy Ibis.

Status.—Only one doubtful observation, on 29 January 1936, when

a solitary bird was seen in a flooded borrow-pit along the S. Mon

canal. It may possibly have been Davison’s Black Ibis.

? Ciconia ciconia!, The White Stork.

Status.—On 22 June 1936, in a field near the R. Mon, I saw a

stork which, it seems fairly certain, was a young bird of this species.

In shape, it was similar to an Adjutant, but the bill was smailer and

less massive. The head and neck were brown, the back and rump

white, lesser and greater coverts pale grey, median coverts brown,

flight feathers black. The bill and legs were flesh colour.

Ciconia nigra. The Black Stork.

Status.—Seen three times; on 7 February 1935 a young bird was in

a pool in the river-bed at Minbu, on 8 December 1935 an adult was

at the Paunglin lake, and on 18 January 1936 a solitary young bird

was feeding with 30 adult White-necked Storks in a soft paddyfield

alongside the N. Mon canal. The last-named bird .was clearly dis-

tinguished from the White-necks by its dark brown neck, and white

lower plumage.

Dissoura episcopa, The White-necked Stork.

Habits.—Seen in lakes, canals, and paddyfields, in flocks of up to 30.

Status.—Never seen between 24 April and 14 June, and uncommon

during the rest of the year.

Xenorhynchus asiaticus. The Black-necked Stork.

Habits.—Seen mostly in lakes, also in river-beds and canals. In

January, at the Paunglin lake, I once saw a party of 8 adults.

Status.—Always uncommon, especially in the rains, but seen in

every month from December to April.

Leptoptilos dubius. The Adjutant.

Habits.—Usually seen in paddyfields, but sometimes in villages.

On 24 April 1936, I saw a party of at least 9 in a swampy field with

6 or more White-necked Storks and a number of Pariah Kites.

Status.—Uncommon from December to May, but common or very

common from June to November, except in October when it was

never seen.

Ibis leucocephalus. The Painted Stork.

-Habits.—Seen mostly in lakes, also in paddyfields and wet borrow-

pits.

Status.—Seen occasionally in all months from June to November,

but never in other months. It was said to frequent the Paunglin lake

only in July and August.

Anastomus oscitans, The Openbill.

Habits.—Seen mainly in lakes, also in paddyfields.

* Or Anastomus oscitans. The Open-billed Stork? —Eps.

284 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Status.—Very variable, but commonest in the cold weather and

sometimes very common. Observed in all months except May, July

and September. F

Ardea purpurea, The Purple Heron.

Status. —Only seen four times, all between 7 Deccember and 8 April.

In January I found them fairly common in the rushes of Paunglin

lake. On 17 December 1936 a bird got up from a patch of floating

water-hyacinth in the Wethigan lake, and on 8 April 1935 one got

up from the bed of the N. Mon canal.

Ardea cinerea. The Grey Heron.

Habits.—Seen mostly in lakes, also in river-beds and paddyfields.

Status.—Common or very common in every month, except in May

when I never saw it.

? Ardea sumatrana or Ardea imperialis. The Dusky Grey Heron or

The Great White-bellied Heron.

Status. —On 16 June 1936, and again on the following day, I saw

a solitary Heron at Mezali weir (Mon canals head) which was clearly

one of these species. It was the shape of the Eastern Grey Heron,

but considerably bigger. The crown was dark, there was some pale

grey on the upper plumage, and the flight feathers, under wing-

coverts, and most of the wings were black or very dark. On 16

June, at dusk, I saw it flying down river, and 24 hours later I saw

it settle in the shallow water above the weir. .

Egretta alba. The Large Egret.

Habits.—Only seen in lakes.

Status.—Its numbers varied irregularly through the year, but it was

seen in all months except May and December and was sometimes very

common.

Egretta intermedia. The Indian Smaller Egret. .

Habits.—Usually seen in lakes and pools, but also in river-beds

and, when nesting, in compounds.

Identification.—In the breeding season, distinguished from Large

Egret by breast plumes; in non-breeding season, by comparison of

size with Littl Egrets and Cattle Egrets, with which it was fre-

quently seen, and which it often exceeded only slightly in size. Breast

plumes were seen fully developed on 20 March, and back plumes on

14 April. On 12 August 1935 several birds in a nesting colony had

quite lost their black bills, but still had well-developed back and breast

plumes.

Nesting.—On 12 August 1935 Burmese kokkobins in the compound of

Kalaba I.B. contained a large nesting colony of this species, Large

Egrets, and Little Egrets, with the last-named predominating greatly.

On 26 June 1936 birds were on nests, with one or two Cattle Egrets,

in a tree in the Civil Lines at Minbu. On 4 July 1936 I saw them

on eggs, with Little Egrets, in the compound of Shauktaw I.B., and

another colony, still occupied, was seén in a kokkobin near Konzaung

BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF MINBU DISTRICT 285

on 19 August 1936. The eggs seen on 4 July were .a paler green than

those of the Little Egret.

Status.—Common or very common every month, except September,

when it was not seen.

Egretta garzetta, The Little Egret.

Identification.—I saw crest plumes as early as 21 February and

breast plumes on 14 April. One bird seen on 5 June had crest and

back plumes, but no breast plumes.

Habits.—Seen mostly in lakes, pools, and river-beds, but also in

villages and, when nesting, in compounds. I once saw a bird in the

bed of the Irrawaddy which was apparently feeling for food in the

mud with its foot. On another occasion I saw a single bird in flight in

close company with a single Large or Smaller Egret.

Nesting.—See under Smaller Egret.

Status.—Common or very common in every month.

Bubuicus ibis. The Cattle Egret.

Habits.—Seen mostly at lakes and in river-beds, but also in canal-

beds and villages.

Status.—Common or very common in every month.

Ardeola grayii. The Indian Pond Heron.

Habits.—Found at lakes, in canal and river-beds, and in paddy-

fields.

Status.—Common from February to September, except in May when

it was seldom seen. Very common October to January.

Butorides striatus. The Indian Little Green Heron.

Identification.—The bill appeared to me greenish-black in the field,

as stated in F.B.I., not orange as in B. of B. The legs appeared to

me green, and I never noticed the orange feet.

Status.—Only seen twice in this area, on 18 December 1934 when

a bird was feeding along the water’s edge of the Salin canal near its

head, and on 25 January 1936 when a bird was fishing at the edge of

the R. Mon at Mezali.

Nycticorax nycticorax. the Night Heron.

Habits.—Found in villages and at lakes.

Status.—Uncommon from October to April, not seen from May to

September, except in June when it was fairly common.

Ixobrychus sinensis, The Yellow Bittern.

Identification.—I found the yellow legs a conspicuous feature, and

in the field it appeared smaller than the Chestnut Bittern.

Status.—Seen only three times in the area, at the Paunglin and

Wethigan lakes. One bird seen at the latter was perched on reeds.

Ixobrychus cinnamomeus, The Chestnut Bittern.

Habits.—On lakes only.

_ Status.—Only observed in June, when it was common, and in

August when it was occasionally seen.

286 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Dupetor lavicollis. ‘The Black Bittern.

Habits.—On Jakes only.

Status.—Common from June to September, not observed from

October to May.

Sarkidiornis melanotos. The Comb Duck.

Identification.—Two birds seen on 12 October 1935 had greyish-

white necks and small combs, presumably young males. A flock of

tr seen on 18 November 1935 were all without combs.

Habits.—Seen on lakes and rivers.

Status.—Never seen from May to September, and uncommon during

the rest of the year.

Nettapus coromandelianus. Tie Cotton Teal.

Habits.—Seen mostly on lakes, also on rivers and occasionally on

canals.

Status.—Uncommon, especially between February and September.

Amser anser, The Grey Lag Goose.

Status.—Never seen even on the Paunglin iake.

Anser indicus. The Bar-headed Goose.

Status.—Seen once, on 6 March 1936 when a flock of 11 was observed

in the bed of the Irrawaddy near Semon. Some were standing or

swimming in the water, others standing or sitting on shore.

Dendrocygna javanica. Lesser Whistling Teal.

Dendrocygna fulva. Large Whistling Teal.

Status.—Neither species ever seen in the area.

Casarca ferruginea, The Brahminy Duck.

Habits.—Seen mostly on the Paunglin lake, but also on the

Irrawaddy. I have seen them in the Paunglin lake in December and

January, not only on passage. I saw them still in a flock of about to

birds as late as 29 November, and in one of 5 birds on 7 February.

Status.—Seen in every month from November to March, but never

common. Earliest 15 November, latest 6 March.

Anas poecilorhyncha [haringtoni]. The Burmese Grey Duck.

Habits.—Found on lakes and in paddyfields and river-beds.

Status.—Uncommon in this area, and a seen in April, June,

and October to December.

Anas crecca. The Common Teal.

Habits.—Seen only on lakes.

Status.—Fairly common to common from November to Februarv.

Earliest date 13 October. Not observed after February.

Anas acuta. The Pintail.

Local Names. As in Shwebo, it was known in this area simply

aS: Vibe

BIRDS OF THE IRRIGATED AREA OF MINBU DISTRICT 287

Habits.—Seen mainly on lakes, but once in January I saw a

‘pair feeding in the Salin canal, and in the same month saw a single

adult male on the Wethigan lake with a flock of Pochards.

Status.—Fairly common November to January; not seen in other

‘months.

Anas querquedula, The Garganey Teal.

Habits.—Seen mostly on lakes, but also on small ponds. On

20 March 1936 I saw about 100 on a small in near the head of the

‘Salin canal, some miles from any other water. Some of them were

-walking about on the shore.

Status.—Fairly common November to April, not seen in other

«months.

Aythya nyroca, The White-eyed Pochard.

Status.—Only seen three times. On 17 March 1935 a solitary female

‘was shot by my companion on a small pool near the head of the

Salin canal, and on 8 December 1935 two females were shot on the

Paunglin lake. The latter had some black on the head and neck, and

‘were presumably the Eastern race. On 21 January 1936 I saw a flock

on the open water of the Wethigan lake, with a number of Common

Teal. The white under the tail was conspicuous.

Aythya fuligula. The Tufted Duck.

Status.—Only seen once, on 18 November 1935, when a flock

‘of ro to 12, all females or young males, were observed on the

‘Dalauk In.

‘Podiceps ruficollis. The Little Grebe.

Identification.—A bird seen on 21 January 1936 still had the chest-

nut head and neck of breeding plumage.

Habits.—Seen mostly on lakes, but also in paddyfields, and

occasionally in borrow-pits and river pools.

Status.—Fairly common, but very local.

CERTAIN OBSERVATIONS ON BROUSSONETIA

PAPYRIFERA VENT. AND BOSWELLIA SERRATA

ROXB. IN RELATION TO TRAUMATISM.

Miss R. SH4uH, B. Ag. (Bom.), M.S. (Mich.)

(Horticultural Research Institute, Nag pur-Ajni, C.P.)

(With a plate)

The paper industry is becoming increasingly important in India.

especially in the Central Provinces and Berar, where through the active:

support and co-operation of the local government, enterprise has been

launched to manufacture newsprint paper from salaz (Boswellia serrata

Roxb.) mixed in certain proportions with a chemical pulp of bamboo.

As paper-mulberry (Bvoussonetia papyritera Vent.) is a much quicker

growing species and at the same time yields a much better quality of.

newsprint paper! than sa/az, it has been opined by paper experts

that salaz as a raw product shall, in the long run, have to be replaced.

by paper-mulberry.

A survey has, therefore, been started to study the ecological adap-

tations of paper-mulberry with a view to introduce and to help establishing

it as an important dominant or sub-dominant constituent in the facies.

of our forest vegetation. a

It is generally accepted? that the two most potent ecological

factors determining and ensuring a successful cultivation of paper-

mulberry are sufficiency of soil-moisture and a tolerably good fertile

soil. No data, however, seem to be available in regard to the cultivation.

of paper-mulberrg in relation to drought.

It has been chiefly to investigate the possibilities of introduction of

paper-mulberry in the light of the aforesaid edaphic factors that the

survey of the C. P. forests has been undertaken and the life-history

of paper-mulberry is being accordingly studied critically.

After a wide rapid survey of the ecological conditions of the:

existing forests and in view of the well established adaptations of

paper-mulberry, 1 have reached the conclusion that its plantation could.

be concentrated safely in areas situated in close proximity of perennial.

rivers and nallas. Such sites will farvz passu prove suitable from the:

view point of ensuring optimal facilities for irrigation during emergent.

and unfavourable periods of drought from December to May.

1 Bhargava, M. P. and Kartar Singh (1945) : Manufacture of newsprint,

cheap papers and boards. Judian Forest Bulletin No. 108.

2 Troup, R. S. (1921): The Silvicuiture of Indian Trees, Vol. III, Pp..

/ 891-892. (Clarendon Press, Oxford).

Gamble, J. S. (1922): A Manual of Indian Timbers, p. 683. (Sampson.

Low, Marston & Co. Ltd., London),

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

1. A four-month old sapling of Broussonetia papyrifera Vent., five

of the eight lateral roots of which had been detached from the soil and

damaged on 29-12-1947 during the course of root-exposure. ‘This

photograph was taken on the 2nd January 1948, 96 hours after the said

operation. Note the un-wilted and the turgid condition of the leaves.

2. Another ‘four-month old’ sapling of Broussonetia papyrifera

Vent. of which all the roots including the tap-root were damaged and

detached from the soil, during the course of the root-exposure on

29-12-1947. This photograph was taken within 2 hours of the opera-

tions on the same day. Note the wilted and almost dry condition of all

the leaves.

ae wg te Sarg As

Petes othe

= ese ee

ree

’

pitt ren pee eee

w hue < 7

“

aly,

OBSERVATIONS ON BROUSSONETIA PAPYRIFERA VEN. 289

A close study of the roots of paper-mulberry and salaz saplings (about

four months old) was made zw sééu in the nursery to gain an insight

into the comparative gearing capacity of their respective root-sy stems

to a particular condition of soil under which the population of saplings

had been raised. The observations have brought to light certain

interesting ecological adaptations of their roots, which appear to be

sharply contrasted from each other.

In Broussonetia papyritera Vent., the tap-root although fairly strong,

has not been found to penetrate deep into the murum layers of the soil ;

the lateral roots, however, formed in abundance are very strongly deve:

loped within a few inches of the ground-level and travel superficially

all round in a radius of 5-8 feet (Photo No. 1).

In Boswellia serrata Roxb., the lateral roots in divergent contrast

to that of the paper-mulberry, are very few and weak whereas the tap-

root is strongly developed penetrating deeper, even into the murum

zones of the sub-soil.

A feature of remarkable ecological importance, however, observed

in Broussonetia papyritera Vent. during the course of its root exposure:

in situ calls for some description and critical remarks.

The root-system of the plant under reference and study, was exposed’

on the 29th December 1947 at about mid-day when it was both sunny

and fairly windy and the atmosphere was therefore dry. Inspite of the

fact that five lateral roots out of a total of eight had got damaged and

hence got detached from the soil during the course of root exposure

and that, therefore, as a result it was obviously expected that the

transpiration /absorption balance would be most adversely affected

causing general wilting of the leaves; yet contrary to expectation it

was found to my great amazement that even till 5.30 p.m. in the even-

ing of the same day not a single leaf had drooped and at the same time

they were all turgid as if nothing had happened to the plant (Photo

No. 1). Whereas in another paper-mulberry plant of the same age

(Photo No. 2) where all the lateral roots excluding the tap-root

had been damaged and detached from the soil during the course of

root exposure, a general wilting of leaves was observable within hardly

one hour of the operation. And after an expiry of three hours the

leaves in general were rendered so dry and crisp that they could be

crushed to powder by rubbing them between the thumb and _ fore-

fingers.

The phenomenon observed appeared to be exciting and therefore,

the exposed roots together with the plant was left in the very same

position and condition till the 2nd January 1948, during which time

observations were continued daily. It is remarkable that even after an

expiry of well over 96 hours, there was absolutely no observable

wilting in any of the leaves of the experimental plant even of an

incipient order.

For the sake of comparison saplings of Boswellia serrata Roxb. '

were similarly treated, and it was found that inspite of their leathery

xerophytic leaf even a slight damage to their lateral roots was, curi-

ously enough, sufficient to bring about wilting of their leaves within

less than three hours.

The result has been confirmed by repeated observations. It indi-

cates that= paper-mulberry possesses enormous potential power to

290 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

withstand traumatic shocks and of exercising water economy similar

to Jambheri (Citrus sp.) studied by me?.

SUMMARY

1. In view of the well established ecological adaptations of paper-

mulberry, it is recommended that the plantation of this species may

safely be concentrated in forest areas in close proximity of perennial

rivers and nallas,

2. Saplings (about four months old) of paper-mulberry havea

rather shallow tap-root but the laterals are many, widely creeping and

strongly developed; whereas these of salaz (about four months old)

have deep seated tap-roots witha very few weak lateral roots.

3. A very remarkable feature of ecological import of paper-

mulberry roots is to withstand traumatic shocks and to maintain

the optimal transpiration/absorption balance without any wilting of

the leaves whatsoever, even when about 60% of its roots are damaged

and detached from the soil,

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Iam grateful to Mr. P. N. Nair, Managing Director, National

Newsprint and Paper Mill, Ltd., Bombay for offering me facilities

during the course of this investigation and to Dr. T.C. N. Singh, p.sc.,

for the photographs and for his kindly reading through the MS

critically.

1 Shah, R. (1948) : Comparative studies in traumatism of roots in various

species of Citvus. (Unpublished work).

OBITUARY

W. P. F. WICKHAM

Percy Wickham, who died at his home near Chagford in Devon, in

September 1949 was one of the Wickhams of Winchester. He was

educated at Winchester and Cooper’s Hil] after which he joined the

Public Works Department in Burma where he spent all his service, with

the exception of 2 years in the Andaman Islands.

He was devoted to the study of birds and was a first class observer.

His knowledge of the birds of Burma and of the Andaman Islands was

exceeded by few. Hewas also very keen on small game shooting,

especially over a dog and was a good shot. He was good natured,

humorous and amusing and [ don’t believe he had any enemies—I met

‘Beetle’ Wickham first in the Andaman Isles in 1906 and we spent

many happy days together exploring the North Andamans, North Reef

Island, Rutland, the Little Andaman, and South Sentinel as well as

many other good bird localities. Subsequently we spent a year together

in Maymyo where we had many exciting experiences with rare birds.

At the request of the Burma Government Wickham wrote the article

on the Birds of Burma for the Government Gazetteer.

He also contributed a most excellent article on the Birds of the

Upper Burma Hills illustrated by photographs which was published in

three parts in the Jourzal of the Bombay Natural History Society in

I5 October 1929, 1 March 193U and 15 July 1930.

On retirement he settled in a village close to Dartmoor in a com-

fortable cottage, ‘Little Mead’, in delightful surroundings and with a

lovely garden. He will be missed by all who knew him. He leaves

a wife to whom we offer our sympathies.

BB: 0:

REVIEWS

1. A NATURALIST IN SARAWAK. By E. Banks. Pp. 125.

Kuching, The Kuching Press. (1949).

Mr. Banks was for 20 years the Curator of the Sarawak Museum

which in his introduction he alls ‘one of the best jobs in the Far East’.

This area is well known to all biologists, and to ornithologists in

particular, because Wallace has made it famous in history. The nature

of the jungle is such that no man in a few years can carry out an-

exhaustive survey of all its varied fauna, and a lot of work still remains

to be done.

There is no doubt that Mr. Banks has seen much, but it is unfortunate

that he should have brought it forward.in this semi-popular manner.

The first chapter deals with several species of edible-nest swifts and

contains interesting information about them but as no scientific names

are used one is always left guessing which bird is being referred to as.

Robinson’s and which as the brown-rumped, grey-rumped or white-bellied

swift. Throughout the book the reader comes across the same

difficulty. Large numbers of species are referred to by their popular

names only and whole paragraphs consist of running lists of the

popular names of birds. It is the same with mammals, and it is

unfortunate that this crude method of listing should be used when

species from different islands in the Indo-Malayan region could have

been listed in tabular form and the text rendered much more intelli-

gible. There is an interesting chapter on the life of turtles, and

others containing comparative lists referring to sub-specific difference

in the many species which frequent the different areas; But as:

indicated before, all this is rendered somewhat abstruse and loses

value because of the manner of presentation.

There are many interesting field notes, e.g., a record of the

mass movements of wild pigs from one fruiting ground to another which

assume migratory proportions and which he has witnessed twice in

20 years—‘ I have seen them travelling purposively through the jungle

in convoys up to thirty and forty at a time, silent unswerving, intent on

something ; they took little notice of us, and every day for as long asa

month party after party would swim the rivers, until at last even the

native wearied of pork ’.

An interesting zoo-geographic area in Borneo, Java, Sumatra and

Malaya is demarcated by what he terms ‘ Whitehead’s’ line drawn in a

horizontal plane at analtitude of 3000 feet above sea level. This elevated

area holds its own fauna, often with Indian affinities but which is found

only on mountain tops 3000 feet or higher. The evident explanation

that the present dry land was ficoded to a depth of 3000 feet does not

conform with the geological data and this is discussed at some length.

Attention is drawn to the ‘ drowned ’ river-beds of the South China

Sea, which explain the distribution of many fresh-water fish. On the

Sumatran rivers 80% of the fish are similar to those in western rivers in

Borneo while the similarity between the species in the rivers in east and

west Borneo is only 28%.

In spite of the unfortunate manner of its presentation the book

contains much interesting information.

H.A.

REVIEWS 293

2. A BIRD PHOTOGRAPHER IN INDIA. By E. H. N. Low-

ther. Pp. xii+146, plates 78. London, Oxford University Press.

(1949). Price Rs. 14.

; The names of Bates and Lowther are as well-known to Indian

ornithologists as Hosking and Newberry to their counterparts in Bri-

tain. In this book, written by the second member of this famous

Indian pair, there has been set down the experiences and photographic

achievements of a man who has spent forty years in the pursuit of his

hobby.

Mr. Lowther was persuaded by Richard Kearton to give up egg-

collecting for bird-photography in 1906. The heat of forty Indian

summers and the perils of sitting on upturned tables sixty feet up on a

tree have done nothing to dim that first enthusiasm lit so many years

ago. The author has many wise things to say about the practice of

bird photography in India and beginners. and advanced workers alike

will find much to interest them.

‘A Bird Photographer in India’ is essentially an autobiography

of a bird photographer so that the reader who looks for a _ discus-

sion of the technical aspects of photography in India will not find it

in this book. The serious bird photographer will find this omission

a matter for regret because the two British authorities to whom

Mr. Lowther refers for information on the techniques of bird photo-

graphy, despite their fame in Britain, have no experience of the pecu-

liar problems which beset photographers in the tropics and therefore

do not discuss them.

Reproduced in this book are some of Mr. Lowther’s most famous

bird pictures. The picture of the Black-necked Stork alighting on its

nest has earned fame by being hung at the International Exhibition

of Bird Photography in London in 1935. It has also been reproduced

in a number of photographic and other publications. The frontispiece

consists of an attractive portrait of a Tree Swift sitting proudly on its

single egg.

Anyone who has tried to photograph the birds of marshland and

reed-bed will fully appreciate what endurance and persistence have

been required to secure some of the pictures of marsh birds which

decorate this book, nor need it be pointed out that skill and great

courage have gone to the making of the pictures of the birds of prey.

Among this wealth of excellent illustrations there have been includ-

ed some photographs which this reviewer feels might well have been

left out and he would suggest that in any subsequent editions the

pictures of the Green Bee-eater, the Spur Fowl and the Mahratta

Spotted Woodpecker could with advantage be excluded.

Wo:

3. OXFORD JUNIOR ENCYCLOPAIDIA. Volume lI, (Natural

fHfistory). Pp. 486. 8 coloured plates, numerous photographic plates

and sketches. London, Oxford University Press. (1949). Price

30 sh. net.

The Delegates of the Oxford University Press must be congratulated

for bringing into fruition their scheme of a Junior Encyclopaedia. The

full encyclopaedia is to consist of twelve volumes, each volume dealing

294 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

with a particular branch of knowledge. The second volume deals with —

natural history. The editor of the volume is Dr. M. Burton, Deputy

Keeper of the British Museum (Natural History). Several people very

eminent in their particular sphere, have contributed to this volume: but

their approach is not a specialist approach. They have tackled their

subject ina manner that is likely to capture the interest of lay people,

‘unfamiliar with the subject.

The main purpose of the Encyclopaedia, is, we are told, to provide

a basic book of reference for school libraries, but at no time does. —

an adult reader feel that the book has been ‘written down to child-

ren’. Ina clear, facile manner various topics of natural history

are introduced and explained. Heavy, scientific terminology is either

avoided or sparingly used. Though the topics are alphabetically

arranged very free use 1s made of the system of cross-indexing which

is very useful to those in search of more comprehensive information.

Another attractive feature of the book is the large number of illus-

trations and coloured plates. There are pictures on practically every

page of the book—a feature which is bound to draw readers both

young and old to the book.

The range of the Encyclopaedia is fairly comprehensive. I found

a great deal of interesting and useful information on practically every

topic I looked up, from exotic fish to exotic orchids, from caterpillars

to boa constrictors.

The book is priced at 30s, but it will prove a very worthwhile

investment for the family, for if children grow up with a book like

this constantly at hand, they will learn a great deal about the mys-

tery of life, and will learn to love and respect plant and animal life

wherever they find it. I might add that it will not be the children alone

that will constantly use this book; it is likely to become a treasured

family possession. :

Rs REC

4. FLOWERING TREES AND SHRUBS IN INDIA. By

D. V. Cowen. Pp. xvi+ 137. 59 coloured plates and 39 black and

white sketches. Bombay, Thacker & Co. Ltd. (1950). Price Rs. 22-8.

In the hot weather when most of the flowering trees put on a

profusion of blossoms, and the tired and dusty cities suddenly look

flamboyantly colourful because of the masses of gold and red and purple

flowers on the trees, many enthusiasts renew their annual efforts to

identify the beautiful flowering trees and shrubs of India. Usually

these attempts had to be given up in despair because one’s friends

never made any suggestions worth recording, when one enthused,

‘What a beautiful tree! I wonder what it is... Books on the subject

were about as helpful to the average layman, They were either too

slight and scrappy or else were musty ponderous tomes that presented

such a moth-eaten appearance that one’s enthusiasm abated at the very

sight of them. If, however, one’s amateur enthusiasm were made of

sterner stuff, and if one persisted in wading through the tomes, the

struggle with jaw-breaking botanical terminology usually left one none

the wiser. |

People who belong to the category just described, that is, not

professional botanists but ordinary lay folk who would like to know

REVIEWS 295

the names and something else besides of the beautiful trees that they

see around them, will welcome Mrs. Cowen’s book as the parched

earth welcomes the first showers of rain. Here at last is a book which

makes no pretence at being a high-brow botanical study. It is written

by a person who says that she sees trees ‘ with the eyes of a layman’.

~The book is packed with just the sort of information that the lay-

man wants to obtain. Mrs. Cowen tells us that a certain tree is dedi-

cated to the God Krishna, or that another is sacred to Shiva. She has

tried to give us bits from the rich and fanciful web of folk-lore and

tradition that generations have woven around Indian trees. Wherever

possible, we are given the uses, medicinal and otherwise, to which the

tree is put.

But the feature that makes this book of special value to the layman is

the number of beautiful coloured illustrations it contains. Mrs. Cowen’s

consummate skill as an artist is too well known to comment on. Her

skill with paints has captured for readers of this book the wealth of

colour that adorns the trees of India. The pencil sketches are also very

effectively done to give a clear idea of the lines and form and growth

or the tree.

The book is also provided with a rough and ready colour key, by

means ot which trees can be identified with very little trouble.

The section on the flowering shrubs will be of particular interest to

gardeners who will rapidly learn to identify all the common garden

shrubs that had so far defied identification.

The book is so attractively got up, that in spite of its price of

Rs. 22-8, I have still to meet somebody who has been able to resist

buying it for himself after having seen it.

RM:

The following books have beoh added to the pect, s Library since

_ April 1950:—

1, FLOWERING TREES & SHRUBS IN INDIA. By D. V.

Cowen (Thacker & Co. Ltd., 1950) (A review copy).

2. RACE REALITIES IN CULTURAL GUJARAT. By

D. N. Majumdar (Gujarat Research Society, 1950).

: 3. A CATALOGUE OF THE AESPERIIDAE FROM

EUROPE, ASIA AND AUSTRALIA IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM

(NATURAL HISTORY). By Brig. W. H. Evans [The British

Museum (Natural History), 1949].

4. A NATURALIST IN SARAWAK. By E. Banks (The

Kuching Press, 1949) (A review copy).

5. INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLLECTORS No. 4 A—INSECTS.

By John Smart [The British Museum (Natural History), 1949].

6. OXFORD JUNIOR ENCYCLOP/4DIA, Volume II—Natural

History. General Editors—Laura E. Salt & Geoffrey Boumphrey

(Oxford University Press, 1949) (A review copy).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. WILD ELEPHANTS DYING IN ASSAM

Further to my letter of 7th December 1949 on the above subject,

more information has now keen received. An investigation tour was

undertaken by the D.F.O. of the district, accompanied by:an Hon.

Forest Officer. I give herewith the substance of the latter’s report.

During a twelve-day tour a great many wild elephant skeletons

were found, and taking these into account as well as the number of

tusks and tushes actually produced, it now appears that the number

of proved deaths is 74. Taking into consideration the area searched,

and the areas left unsearched, as well as the numbers of skeletons found

in the different localities, it would seem safe to infer that a similar num-

‘ber of deaths has gone undetected. ‘Therefore the total number of wild

elephants which died may be in the neighbourhood of 150.

In addition, the skeletons of 3 bison were found, and it was re-

ported by the Beat Officer that 3 bears (species not mentioned) had

also died at the same time. ‘There were reports from villagers, too,

that some bison, bear and also sambar had died.

There were reports from villagers in three cases that they actually

saw elephants dying, lying prostrate with profuse purging and unable to

move. One took a week to die, another less. Flatulence is mentioned,

and dung mixed with blood.

I have discussed the foregoing report of the tour of investigation

with an experienced veterinary officer, and his opinion is that the disease

was probably the intestinal ferm of anthrax. He was not able to inform

me definitely whether elephants are susceptible to rinderpest or not, but

from the foregoing symptoms it appears to te anthrax. As far asI

know, no examination of the remains of the dead animals has been

done by any veterinary officer. ,

The Conservator of Forests has informed me that catching operations

have been stopped in this area, and that steps are being taken to try

and prevent further occurrences.

DoyvancGc T.E.,

OATING P.O., ASSAM, E. P. GEE

16th April, 1950

2. ABNORMAL CLAVICLE BONES IN TIGER

(With a photo)

I enclose a photograph of a gold-mounted brooch showing the very

extraordinary freak of a normal clavicle bone from one shoulder and a

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 297

truly diminutive bone from the other shoulder of the same tiger. The

large bone measures 44 in. and the smaller bone 12 in. The animal

was shot by me in Northern Bengal on the 28th December 1928 and

weighed 520 Ibs.

- BANGALORE, W. H. GIBBS

21st February, 1950.

3. ON THE YOUNG OF THE CEYLON RUSTY-SPOTTED

CAT (PRIONAILURUS RUBIGINOSUS PHILLIPSI POCOCK)

On the morning of the 18th February this year, two small kittens of

the Ceylon Rusty-spotted Cat were brought to me. ‘They had been

found that morning in a small shallow cave or deep alcove beneath a

small rock amongst tea bushes, in a field of tea growing close below a

rocky patch of virgin jungle, hanging to a steep hill-side (altitude about

3,000 ft.) near Goussa Village in the Badulla District of the Uva Hills.

There were only two young, both p'o' and still with their eyes

closed ; they were probably about a week old when found. The mother

is stated to have fled and abandoned them, at the time they were

discovered.

As the young of this cat does not appear to have been described

hitherto, I give below a short description of these two , kittens;

they are so alike that it is difficult to differentiate between them.

Measurements (taken in the flesh) : No. 1 No. 2

Head and body ee 138 mm. 138 mm.

Tail aS O5t G; 62°.« 3

Hind foot wee Paes Boe 55

Ear aes 2.4%, jy ae

Colour. General colour above, dark earthy brown with a slight

rufescent tinge paling to greyish brown on the sides, the whole

298 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Spotted with dusky black spots arranged more or less in longitudinal

lines. Four interrupted blackish stripes run from the forehead back

over the shoulders, two on each side of the central line of the back.

Tail dusky brown with very indistinct markings, scarcely amounting to

incipient rings; limbs and feet dusky brown, the forearms barred with

black; underparts greyish white, with large dusky tlack spots, arranged

in interrupted transverse lines; neck whitish, crossed by two heavy

transverse black bars. Head chocolate fawn, rather lighter and more

rufescent than the body ; nose dusky brown with a narrow white stripe

on each side, leading back between two black stripes; a narrow fainter

white stripe above each eye and a small, pure white patch beneath each

eye; sides of the head light fawn; cheeks white with two narrow dusky

stripes; lips white ; chin and throat pure white; inner aspect of the

ears white, outer black; muzzle brick red.

It is interésting to note that there is no sign, on either of them, of

any rusty spotting.

In spite of the greatest care and attention both died after a few days.

GALAPITAKANDE ESTATE,

NAMUNUKULA, CEYLON, W. W. A. PHILLIPS

22nd February, 1950.

4. THE FISHING CAT (PRIONAILURUS VIVERRINUS

BENNETT)

I see in ‘ The Book of Indian Animals’ by Prater, that little is

known of the breeding habits of this fine cat.

Yesterday while finishing off the harvesting of a thirty acre plot of

sugarcane near my bungalow, I was attracted by the barking of my two

Labradors, and on investigation found they had brought to bay on a

small tree a fine male specimen, which I shot.

The weight and size were considerably more than those given by

Prater, of 25 pounds and 24 feet. My specimen weighed 32 pounds,

and measured between pegs, 3 feet 3 inches, of which the tail was 11

inches.

Later the dogs hunted out a female which escaped, and a kitten of

about two months which they killed.

I record the incident because the Fishing Cat is not common in

these parts, and to date the birth of this kitten as January or early

February.

KOOREA,

BETTIAH P.O.,,

CHAMPARAN, A. ST. J. MACDONALD

1s# April, 1950.

5. FERAL ALBINO AND PIEBALD RATS

In a recent number of the Journal [48(3): 579, 1949] the Rodent

Controi Officer for Hongkong describes a picbald specimen of Rattus

norvegicus Berkenhout, taken under feral conditions in a tenement in

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 299

the Colony of Hongkong. The author says that this is the first one that

he had seen out of many thousands of rats that had passed through his

hands. It would seem to be of some interest to know if anyone can

give any indication of the frequency of occurrence of albinos and piebald

Specimens among the commensal rats in southern Asia.

The albino and pied rats at present kept in captivity are in all cases

domesticated strains of the Norway Rat, and the two forms interbreed

freely. It is not known whether the albino variety had a single or

multiple origin, but it may safely be assumed that it is derived from

one or more feral albino mutants which were captured and kept as pets.

At the present time no feral colony of albinos is known. The present

domestic stock of albinos is not strictly homozygous, but the character

is certainly recessive in crosses between the albino and wild grey forms.

The albino reappears in the proportion of one in four in the F, genera-

tion, and in this and later generations piebald animals may occur. Since

the Hongkong specimen seems to have been unique, it is more likely to

have been due to a mutation than to the partial emergence of a reces-

sive strain.

References to albino rats in western Europe before the time when

‘ the Norway Rat is known to have reached that area show that albino

mutants must aiso have occurred there in Aattus rattus; but according

to Donaldson (Memoirs Wistar Inst. Anat. Biol., 6: 6, 1924), a careful

search by several investigators in the ten years prior to the appearance

of his work failed to reveal a living albino specimen. Nor seemingly

are there any examples in the leading American museums. On the

other hand, Dr. Hossack (emotrs Ind. Mus.,1: 17-18, 1907) refers to

several semi-albino specimens of Rattus rattus collected in Calcutta

while he was working in the Plague Department of the city-

Rats trapped by the municipal authorities in Singapore are not

normally sent to the Raffles museum, and specimens only reach us

casually. Nevertheless I have been shown one full albino of Rattus norve-

gicus inthe last two years. In addition the Museum reterence collection

contains a skin, without precise data, in which the pelage is appreciably

paler than Ridgway’s light buff (17’f), and a second, taken by a

municipal collector on 24th October 1930, which is a uniform light

ochraceous buff (Ridgway, 15’d). ‘There seems to be no reason to

doubt that the first and third of these examples, and probably the second

also, were feral, though I do not see that one can ever be sure that one

is not dealing with an escaped specimen in the slums of a large city.

In 1941 I was surveying the fauna of the Cocos-Keeling Islands, in

the eastern Indian Ocean. There are about 25 islands round the atoll,

the majority of which contain feral forms of Rattus rattus, originating

presumably from specimens that came ashore from various visiting or

wrecked ships in the last century. About 200 examples were taken, of

which 65 were sent to Dr. G. H. H. Tate of the American Museum of

Natural History, New York, who has teported on them (Bull. Raft.

Mus., 22,1950). The rats on one of the islands are markedly different

from the remainder and seem to constitute a hitherto unrecorded race of

Rattus vattus. The others apparently represent a mixture of the white-

bellied /rugzvorous Rafinesque and the dark-bellied alexandrinus G. St.

Hilaire. One of the 180 examples taken of this latter complex, a small

male, was a full albino, with pink eyes. It was caught on an uninhabit-

300 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

ed island, Pulo Panjang, which apart from it seemed to possess only

dark-bellied forms. There can be no question of this specimen having

come from a tame or captive stock. Darwin, who visited the atoll in

1836, does not report the presence of rats on this island, which is nearly

5 miles long, but the animals may be descended from the ship rats of

the London brig Szv Francis Nicholas Burton which was wrecked there

ten years earlier. Popularly the rats on this part of the atoll are thought

to have come from the American vessel Robert Portner which went

ashore on one of the other islets in 1878.

RAFFLES MUSEUM,

SINGAPORE, C. A. GIBSON-HILL

20th February, 1950.

6. THE BURMESE WILD DOG

At page 651 of Vol. 48, No. 4, in his interesting ‘ Jungle Memories ’,

Lt.-Col. Phythian-Adams asks, ‘Is there a separate grey species of wild

dog in Burma ?’ and mentions my statement in the article ‘ The Indian

Wild Dog’ (Vol. 41, p. 695) that ‘no material is as yet available to

establish the identity of the wild dogs of Burma.’ That remark as to

identity was in connexion with the scientific classification by Pocock of

the several races of wild dog throughout India and Burma.

In the Fauna of British India—Mammalia, Vol. II, published on

15th September 1941 (after my article was written and published)

Pocock, having seen some new material from Burma, gave the name

Cuon alpinus adustus, subsp. nov., to the wild dog of Upper Burma,

and the name Cuon alpinus infuscus Pocock to the race found in Ten-

naserim and Malaya. It would seem that yet more material is required

from the whole of Burma and south to Malaya. The wild dog of Penin-

sular India is now named Cuon alpinus dukhunensis Sykes.

In ‘A Game Book for Burma and Adjoining Territories’ (1933)

E. H. Peacock has a chapter on the Wild Dog (Cuoz sp.) and says,

‘There are said to be two species of wild dog in Burma: C. dukhu-

nensts (the Indian wild dog) and C. rvutzlans (the Malay wild dog). I

have never seen the former in Burma, but have seen and shot the latter

ona number of occasions. The Malay wild dog resembles a large

jackal more nearly than it does either dog or wolf. The general

coloration is bright red with a black or dark brown tail and smoky-brown

or black muzzle. It is smaller and more lightly built than the Indian

wild dog and ofa brighter red coloration. He makes no mention of a

grey dog, and remarks as to the jackal in Burma ‘ the colour of the coat

varies from yellow or reddish-yellow to blue-grey.’

BANGALORE, R. W. BURTON,

21st February, 1950. Lieut-Col, 1.A. (Retd.)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 301

7. THE BURMESE WILD DOG AND OTHER MATTERS

CANINE

In the Journal of December 1949, under Col. Phythian-Adams’s

‘Jungle Memories’ and his interesting accounts of wild dogs, etc., he

has left open a query as to the existence of a grey wild dog in Burma.

I spent 10 years in that country previous to the Jap invasion in

1942 and never heard of a grey species of wild dog there (the Burmese

name ‘tawkhway’ merely alluding to wild dogs generally). But, in

June 1936, while after bison and saing in the Lower Chindwin District,

I saw an animal which, I can only suggest, could have been none

other than a grey wild dog.

I was moving camp at the time and, as it was raining—also to

protect it from the joltings of the cart—had, unfortunately, rolled up my

rifle in my valise and was myself sitting at the back of the cart

because of the deep mire on the track. The light was dull and visibility

was further obscured by the swirling drizzle.

What I saw on this occasion I, at first, idly regarded as the charred

stump of a tree, having a curious resemblance to a large dark-grey dog

sitting erect on its haunches and facing the direction from which we

had come. At the moment I noticed it, it was about 10 yards away on

an open bit of ground beside the track, but must have been half that

distance off when the cart came abreast of it. A few moments later, a

slight twitch of the head and of a laid-back ear towards the cart

moving out of its field of vision revealed it clearly as an animal with

a black muzzle and half-shut eyes, having a dark-grey coat—the hair

plastered streakily and blackly wet down its flank. Neither of the

Burmese in the cart had noticed it, and the wind must have been

‘right’ for it with respect to the bullocks.

Larger than a jackal (excepting an oversized rabid one I had killed

in Mespot) and larger than the average village pariah of Burma, I

mentally exclaimed ‘ Wolf !’—immediately realizing the inaccessibleness

of my rifle; while my revolver, in a haversack, was just beyond easy reach

and I feared that any movement to get at it would alarm the animal,

whatever it was—and I[ was convinced that it was a wolf. So when,

about 30 yards further cn, the cart rounded a bend, I secured the revol-

ver and carefully began to stalk back. Unfortunately, however, my

Burmese servant elected to get down too and, in spite of my urgent

gestures, the driver stopped his bullocks; so that when I[ came into

view of the spot the animal was not there. Recollecting then that I had

seen a few thamin deer not far from the track and about 100 yards

further along, and supposing that, perhaps, this ‘ wolf’ had been aware

of them and was operating with a mate to stalk them, I proceeded in

that direction, but the thamin too had disappeared. I should add that

there was nota village within miles and, I am sure, no domestic dog

would have found reason to be there in that weather and to maintain

such immobility during the passing of the cart. On returning from

that trip I looked up all available literature but found no reference to

the wolf in Burma. Nor, in his‘ A Game-Book for Burma’ had E. H.

Peacock (former Game Warden) mentioned it—both the Indian and.

Malayan wild dog were stated to exist in Burma, but he admitted that

he had never seen the former (a larger and heavier animal than the

302 JOURNAL, BOMBAY, NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Wolaeao

latter). I eventually came to the conclusion that the ‘wolf’ I had

seen must have been an uncommon species of wild dog peculiar to

Burma; as far as I could gather, the Burmese have no name for

wolf.

The writer of ‘ Jungle Memories’ concludes his discussion of wild

dogs by cautiously citing an instance of ‘a variety of wild dog in the

Karen Hills , .. black and white, as hairy as a Skye terrier and as large

as a medium spaniel’; and, though he seems to invite corroboration, if

not zoological discussion of the existence of such a species in the wild

state (and, impliedly, restricted to Karenni—the western border of

which runs with a part of Burma proper and the northern bulges into

the Southern Shan States), or at least leaves the question open,

it is with much diffidence that I approach it to say that I have seen a

pack of, what I mentally noted at the time as ‘ piebald’ wild dogs.

Wild they certainly were, in the sense of feral; but, whether anatomi-

cally identifiable with Cuon, I haven’t the slightest knowledge where-

with to suggest. But, many years ago, I was once invited to a shoot in

the Lakhimpur-Kheri District, along both banks of the Sarda River,

with two elephants and usually a large gang of beaters—beating

through dense and extremely high ‘narkal’ grass for swamp deer,

while hoping to put up tiger or panther. One morning, as my elephant

was approaching a large clear space in the grass, pig began to break

back—one boar carrying away a Strip of cloth off a beater alongside—

making my mount nervous and fidgety. So then, seeing another large

boar crossing my front towards beaters on the left, I was trying to get

a bead on him when I heard my host call out ‘ Don’t shoot—only wild

dogs!’ and, the next moment, my mahout pointed and said ‘ Kutha’.

Then, on the far side of the clearing, to the left and just outside

the shadow of the grass beyond, I saw about a dozen piebald (‘ black ’

and ‘white’—some with more ‘ white’ than ‘ black’) dogs leisurely

getting up and retiring into the grass. Before my elephant reached the

open ground, not many strides ahead, the pack had disappeared. But

in that brief period I must have noted nearly every one of them—at a

distance of under 100 yards—and, though the morning sun was some-

what in my eyes, the whole pack was in bright sunlight to one side

when sighted (obviously basking—a cold January morning) and,

excepting the indeterminable colour of their dark markings, the dogs

were clearly seen; and I retain an impression of a certain similarity in

the build of all, probably due to inbreeding—which must, naturally,

result in such uniformity, as well as in established habits and thus

creating, what may be itermed, a ‘variety’ of the species. A few,

smaller than the rest, probably were young dogs. I hesitate to venture

a more detailed description, but I seem to remember noting that the

last few dogs to disappear bore a general chow-like appearance,

or similar to the ‘ bhootia’ dog of the Himalayas (—the Nepal hills lay

visible to the north—) and I think these carried bushy tails, high and

curled up.

During the noon halt, my host seemed disinclined to discuss these

dogs or to explain why he had told me not to shoot at them, merely re-

marking that they were well known in that neighbourhood—as also

were some ‘wild cattle ’—and that he had seen them on some previous

ecasions but that, personally, he ‘had no time for them’. Conscious

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 303

of being only a guest and rather out of my element in that terrain and

in that method of hunting, I did not pursue the topic further. It would

have been sufficiently interesting to have been able to discover whether

these were merely domestic dogs ‘ gone wild ’—or descendants of such

—for I have never heard of that occurring in India; and it may be

noted that the pigs sHelreie must have been basking too, in the same:

open patch!

As to whether jackals sometimes mate with domestic dogs, I once

shot a jackal while in the act. It happened in S. W. Kurdistan and the

bitch slowly came about half a mile from the camp to meet the jack

which, till then, had been skulking amongst some bushes. I| was carry-

ing a °303 Service rifle and had been waiting for the jackal to show

himself, so immediately took the opportunity when he emerged to meet

the dog. The incident was preceded by the usual courtship behaviour

of dogs. Incidentally,-once near the Tigris I was fortunate to be able

to shoot a jackal while actually uttering the ‘pheal’ cry. He was

sitting erect at the time ina patch of scrub and did not seem to have

noticed my approach on my pony, though the rest of the pack had and

was beginning to move away. Though it was dusk the range was only

about 30 yards and I was able to shoot him without dismounting. I

think that was the only time I ever heard the ‘ pheal’ cry out there;

and the cause of it seems obscure, for mounted men—especially Arabs

—must have been a common sight to those jackals.

‘WALMER ’,

LOVEDALE, K. BOSWELL,

(NILGrRIS), Capt., 1.A.M.C. (Retd.)

Sth March, 1950.

8. OCCURRENCE OF THE CHESTNUT-BELLIED NUTHATCH

(SITTA CASTANEIVENTRIS CASTANEIVENTRTS)

IN SIND—A CORRECTION

Among papers in the Society’s office we found a folder containing

131 typewritten sheets of bird notes which can be traced to the late

Mr. T. R. Bell as they are in a peculiar type and correspond with notes

on interleaved pages in books bought from Mr. Bells’ library. The

text also supports this in many ways.

In one part he refers to Sz¢ta castaneiventris—the Chestnut-bellied

Nuthatch as under :—

‘I saw a single specimen of this little nuthatch in a babul-grove

in Raoti forest in Upper Sind on the 24th of January 1905. [

have never seen many of them anywhere in the Presidency

even. This one was alone and feeding and was very shy,

dodging behind the trunk and branches. But Iam sure it was

this very species.’

In another place he says:

‘it might have been Sztta tehbhronota which is said to be common

in Baluchistan.’

304 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Dr. C. B. Ticehurst in ‘The Birds of Sind’, Jéés 1922, p. 546,

says:

‘Mr. AAR. Bell records that on 24th January 1905 he obtained a

single specimen of Sztta castaneiventris castanetventris in a

babul-grove in the Raoti forest in Upper Sind.’

It is apparent that Ticehurst’s record refers to the above notes

and that no specimen was obtained. The record of Sitta castaneiven-

tris castanetventris from Sind should therefore be deleted or treated as

doubtful until further evidence is forthcoming.

c/o Faiz & Co.,

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET,

BomBay 3, HUMAYUN ABDULALI

15th May, 1950.

9. BLACK DRONGOS FOSTERING A KOEL

It may be of interest to record the case of a parasitic cuckoo — Koel

(Eudynamis scolopaceus)—having as foster parents a pair of Black

Drongos or King Crows (Dicrurus macrocercus).

When first noticed, the young bird was fairly well grown and able

to fly, larger in fact than the foster parents. It was frequently

observed perched on a tree branch in the bungalow compound, or on

shade trees in the nearby tea. In this position it would sit and complain

rather querulously whilst the two drongos chased around frantically to

find food. This food, when it did arrive, was not in the least gratefully

received, but, after it had been consumed, the young cuckoo would

peck and scold at its foster parents sitting alongside until the poor

drongos had to fly off again in the apparently never ending quest to

satisfy the cuckoo child’s voracious appetite.

The trio were observed near the bungalow for about 4 week early in

August, and then disappeared not to be seen again.

What struck me as curious and possibly unusual, was firstly, the

choice of foster parents by the hen Koel; secondly that the hen Koel

had ever been allowed to approach the nest of the usually brave and

pugnacious Black Drongos, who were quite capable of ‘ seeing off the

premises’ any Koel; and thirdly, when the young bird had hatched out

and had grown actually larger than themselves, the drongos did not

recognize it as an alien, but developed into a pair of sorely tried and

hard-working slaves.

Perhaps in the end they did recognize an enemy and either killed

it off or drove it away.

TEOK TEA ESTATE,

TEOK P.O., T. E. H. SMITH

ASSAM,

5th March, 1950.

[In India the Koel gives highest priority as its fosterers to the

House and Jungle Crows. Stuart Baker (Cuckoo Problems, p. 197)

records eggs from the nest of the Common Myna (Acridotheres tristzs).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 305

Eggs of the Burmese race of the Koel have been taken from nests of

the Chinese Magpie (Pica p. sericea) and the Red-billed Blue Magpie

(Crocissa ¢. magnirosiris) and those of the Chinese race from the nest

of the Black-necked Myna (Gracupica nigricollis). Both the Black and

Ashy Drongos have been recorded as occasional hosts of the Indian

Cuckoo (C. micropterus), the latter together with the Bronzed Drongo

(Chaptia aenea) also of the Khasia Hills Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus bakert).

—Ebs.]

10. ON THE STATUS OF ZURYSTOMUS ORIENTALIS

LAETIOR SHARPE

Widely isolated from the main group of the Broad-billed Roller,

Eurystomus orientalis (ranging from the lower parts of the Himalaya

as far as Korea, the Solomon Islands and the Kimberley District of

north-western Australia) there exists in the forests of South India and

Ceylon a small population which has been named Lurystomus laetior

by Sharpe, in 1890 (Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p 551, 1890; terra typica:

forests of Malabar, Nilgiris, and Ceyion, type from Eridage, Travancore,

in the British Museum, see Whistler and Ali, Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist,

Soc. 39, p. 14, 1936). Its distribution suggests it to be a relic of

considerable age, and the characters given by Sharpé for this race seem

to confirm this view. The colouring of the head is very black, and

that of the lower parts intensely blue. Besides two specimens from

Ceylon, Sharpe saw one Broad-billed Roller from Eridge (Travancore)

and another from the Asamboo (Ashambu) Hills (Travancore), see

Catalogue Birds British Museum, Vol. 17, p. 36, 1892).

' However, Sharpe’s name has been sunk into the synonymy of

_ ELurystomus o. orientalis (described from Java) by all later authors:

Stresemann (Vov. Zool. 20, p. 299, 1913); Ripley (Proc. Biol. Soc.

Washington 55, p. 169-179, 1942), Whistler (Spoliz Zeylanica 23, Nos. 3

and 4, p. 223, 1944), and Peters (Check-List >of the Birds of the World,

Vol. 5, p. 246, 1945) for the apparent reason, that none of them had an

opportunity for comparing a series from Ceylon or Travancore, where

Eurystomus orientalis is a decidedly rare bird. ‘This is especially true

for Ceylon; only a very few (9) specimens having been collected on

that island, the last one in 1894. It is as if the bird has to be ranked

among the extinct birds of Ceylon.

My attention was drawn to this isolated population by a Ceylonese

specimen kept in the Zoological Museum, Berlin, since 1853. It had

been collected during the voyage of Prince Waldemar of Prussia (1817-

1849) between 13th November and 17th December 1844, together

with 15 other species of Ceylonese birds and I was at once struck by

the very dark, blackish colour of the cheeks, completely agreeing with

Sharpe’s diagnostic description. At my request Professor Stresemann,

during a stay in London in October 1949, kindly studied the British

Museum material. It consists of 5 specimens (including the type), two

of them from Travancore (see above) collected 2lst December 1871

and 16th August 1877 and three from Ceylon—the two specimens

already seen by Sharpe (registered 1853 and 1888 respectively) and

one from Maha Oya, E. Greig, December 1894, registered in the British

306 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Museum in 1926. This record remained hidden even to Whistler,

Owing to war circumstances, but he mentions (1944, 1].c.) under No. 3

Legge’s sight record of a specimen at Maha Oya, Professor Stresemann

stated that the crown and the face of all these birds (except one from

Ceylon) are much blacker than in birds from Java and the Philippines.

Our single Berlin specimen may at once be distinguished from &. o. ort-

entalis by its blackish blue instead ot pure blue ear coverts. This

corresponds to the usual intensification of pigments in South India and

Ceylonese forest bird sub-species and species.

The Berlin bird from Ceylon measures :— Wing 178 mm., tail 88 mm.

wing to tail index 49, ie., tail measures 49% of wing. In &. 0. orien-

talis, Ripley (1.c.) found this index 50-56. The 4 birds of Travancore

measured by Whistler (see Ali, l.c.) seem to show nearly the same

index. However, if further measurements prove the wing-length of

Travancore Rollers to be longer—wings of 4 males 195:5-198 mm., the

birds from Ceylon would require a separate, i.e. new name.

For the time being I propose to unite both populations to one

sub-species, 4. 0. daetior. This bird is restricted to the evergreen

forest biotopes of Travancore and Cochin (see Ali, l.c.). No exact

locality or life zone can be given for the specimen of the Berlin

Museum. Prince Waldemar travelled from Galle via Colombo, Kandy,

Badulla, Rathnapura, Adams Peak to Colombo. A week was spent in

the north-east of Badulla (near Galbocka) in hunting elephants. (Die

Reise... des Prinzen Waldemar von Preussen nach Indien. . , 1844—

1846, Auszug von I. A. Kutzner, Berlin 1857, pp. 32-115), The other

birds collected live in the Lower Dry and/or the Lower Wet and/or

Hill Zone. Atall events, the new record of the rare bird comes from the

southern half of the island—as all records with a definite locality.

To sum up, &. orzentalis laetior Sharpe (Travancore) is a well

defined sub-species, restricted like a number of other birds to south-

west India and Ceylon, and separated from the main area of the species

by.a wide gap. The last record from Ceylon, where it is now possibly

extinct, is in 1894, The records ofa specimen collected by W. Hoff-

meister the naturalist to Prince Waldemar’s travels, in the southern

half of Ceylon between 13th November and 17th December 1844, and

now in Berlin Museum, and another obtained by Greig ‘lat Maha

Oya, Ceylon, in 1894 are published for the first time. r

ZOOLOGISCHES MUSEUM,

BERLIN, W. MEISE

29th March, 1950.

[In the Loris tor January 1950, p. 141, it is recorded that a pair was

found breeding at Maha Oya in February 1950. ‘They were subse-

quently shot by the taxidermist of the National Museum, Colombo.

Mr. Salim Ali who has receatly examined the British Museum

material measures the wings of 3 unsexed examples from Ceylon as 184-

188 mm., whereas a male trom Travancore in the same collection has a

wing of 200 mm. Two males collected by him in Travancore since the

publication of his Travancore Survey Report measured (fresh) Wing 203,

207 ; Tail 99, 106 mm.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 307

Unfortunately the available material does not permit a sex-for-sex

comparison between the populations of Ceylon and Travancore, though

on the face of it Ceylon birds would appear to be somewhat smaller

winged. However, the two populations are quite indistinguishable

in colour, and in this regard agree with the type of /aetior.— Eps. }

11. ON THE BLUE-TAILED BEE-EATER (VEROPS

SUPERCILIOSUS JAVANICUS HORSF.) IN BOMBAY

In our paper on the ‘Birds of Bombay and Salsette’, AB.N.A.S.

40, page 169, we recorded this species as a passage migrant around

Bombay, but a Subsequent re-examination of the two specimens

collected in our area disclosed that both of them were in fact immature

Blue-cheeked Bee-eaters (J/. s. Bersicus). ‘The record was accordingly

corrected in the Jouvnal—Vol. 45, page 237.

In August 1949 Shamoon Abdulali obtained a male and female at

Godhbunder, Salsette Island, which are undoubtedly javanicus having

blue tails and wings of 128 mm. Subsequent to this I shot another in

Thana creek on 9th October 1949 which also had a 128 mm. wing and

agreed with them. It appears, therefore, that both forms occur here

on passage.

It will be recalled that Littledale obtained javanicus nesting along

the Mahi River in Gujarat (.8.N.H.S. Vol. 1, page 30).

c/o Faiz & Co.,

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, HUMAYUN ABDULALI

BOMBAY,

15¢h February, 1950.

12. OCCURRENCE OF THE CINEREOUS VULTURE

(AEGYPIUS MONACHUS LINNAEUS) AT AHMEDABAD,

NORTH GUJARAT

On Sunday, 25th December 1949, I and Syt. R. G. Kharadi, Hon.

Secretary of the Gujarat Natural History Society went on a long outing

for bird observation, Near Narol village, 5 miles from Ahmedabad

(Milestone: 392 miles 5 furlongs) my attention was attracted by a huge

black bird apparently resting at the foot of a cactus hedge in a road.

side ditch. We immediately got off our bicycles and cautiously

approached the bird. As it did not appear to be disturbed by our

presence, we got closer, and to our dis1ppointment found that it was

already dead. We examined it closely for blood or injury, but found

none. ‘The carcass had not stiffened and there was no stench, showing

that the bird was not long dead. From its position at the foot of the

hedge, which was on a bank at least 4 feet high, it appeared as though

the bird in attempting to pass through a gap in the hedge after scram-

bling up the sloping bank had collapsed through exhaustion. We

examined the carcass perfunctorily and concluded that it was a vul-

ture of some sort. As we were in a hurry, however, we did not

collect the bird but left it lying where it was. That very night I

308 JOURNAL, BOMBAY | NADURAL (HIST. VSOCIETV,” Volo

had to leave for Bombay and hence there was no time to look up refer-

ences for proper identification. In Bombay, next day, I visited the

museum to see if I could get a clue toits identity from amongst the

fine reference collection of birds belonging to the Bombay Natural

History Society, but was disappointed to find their skins of large birds

stored away in boxes and not accessible within the short time at my

disposal. I, however, could not get the bird out of my mind and

after my return to Ahmedabad, took the earliest opportunity (2nd

January 1950) to visit the place again in company with Syt. Kharadi.

To our surprise and satisfaction we found the bird still there, though

now in a piecemeal condition. We collected the wings and legs which

were in perfect condition; also the tail detached from the body minus

one feather (which was retrieved on a later visit), The breast bone,

though picked clean of all flesh, was still intact and we collected that

too. The head and neck were found lying at a distance of about 10

yards in a field on the other side of the hedge, still articulated and in

perfect condition except for the eyes. The huge expanse of the wings,

the round nostrils, extremely wide gape and tail of 12 feathers

left no doubt that the bird was a Cinereous Vulture. The grooved

underside of the talons was also noted. Though not given'in the Fauna

or by Donald (/.B.N.H.S., XXV, XXVI), this character is specifically

mentioned by Swann in his excellent ‘Monograph of the Birds of

Prey. Our identification was further confirmed by the peculiar head,

which was not naked or covered with down as in other vultures but had

dense black fur-like feathers on top and around the neck which even

at a short distance gave the appearance of a feathered head. The

remains were taken to Bombay where my identification of the bird

as a Cinereous Vulture was ccrrokorated by the Society.

The Ahmedabad bird measured (in mm.) as follows : Wing 770; tail

(of 12 feathers) 390 ; culmen 94; middle toe without claw 116; middle

toe with claw 125; hind toe without claw 37 ; hind toe with claw 74.

As regards its distribution, the Fauna (2nd Edition) says that ‘it

occurs in winter in the Punjab, Sind, N.W. Province, United Province

and as far south as Ahmedabad, Mhow and Saugar.’ Ahmedabad is

doubtless mentioned on the strength of the single specimen observed

by Capt. A. E. Butler in the winter of 1870. (Stray Feathers, IIL: 441).

This was the only authentic record of its previous occurrence in Gujarat,

Kathiawar or Kutch. Barnes had never met with the bird in any part of

North Gujarat. Littledale does not appear to have seen it in South

Gujarat. Neither have Palin, Lester or Salim Ali recorded it from

Kutch. Salim Ali did not come across the bird in his Gujarat surveys.

It thus appears that degypius monachus has only been recorded twice

from North Gujarat where it is no doubt a very rare straggler.

There is one point in connection with this specimen which I

would like to mention. When we first examined the bird, we did

not find any sign of external injury on its body. Whatever the

cause of its death, it was apparently not any physical disability.

When we saw it the following week, the chest and back bones had

been picked clean of flesh. As all the bones were intact and the ribs

still attached to the sternum and vertebra, it may be presumed that

the cleaning was done by insects and not by village dogs. The head

and neck, of course, were removed to a distance by village dogs but they

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 309

were not at all mutilated. Is it a fact, as generally believed, that

a vulture is not considered fit for consumption by carnivores—even

by its own kind which normally stop at nothing?

GUJARAT NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY, HARI NARAYAN G. ACHARYA

AHMEDABAD,

16th April, 1950.

13. A BRIEF SUMMARY ON THE CHUKAR PARTRIDGE

IN NEVADA, U. S. AMERICA.

The earliest known introduction of the Chukar Partridge (Alectoris

gracca sp.) into the United States was in 1893 from Karachi, India ;

however, it was approximately 1935 before the bird was introduced

into Nevada, in hopes that it could establish itself as a favourable

upland game species.

From the period of 1935 through 1941 the Nevada State Fish and

- Game Commission had purchased and distributed approximately 775

chukars throughout the State. These plantings have been supplement-

ed to an unknown extent through releases made by private individuals,

and by County Sportsmen projects. Unfortunately, no reliable data

concerning these latter releases can be obtained. According to the

State Fish and Game the number of failures from the initial introduc-

ticns appeared to be greater than those which resuited in established

populations. By 1947, however, the remaining birds from the initial

plant had increased in population sufficiently to warrant a short hunting

season, and the resistance of the chukar to hunting pressure has enabled

us to have seasons in 1948 and 1949 also.

The state of Nevada contains a preponderance of semi-arid land,

broken up by innumerable brush-covered mountains, which seem to

offer an excellent environment for the chukar. The part of the state in

which the species seems to thrive best is at the higher elevations, where

the valley floor is usually above 4,000 feet, and the chukar is especially

adaptable to rough, mountainous areas where there are rocky hillsides,

or steep tallus slopes, in combination with an available water supply.

In addition the chukar seems to thrive well on a diet of our native

vegetation, and is doing well in a variety of vegetational types.

Since 1947, the State has purchased an additional 100 birds for

distribution, and has also been transplanting wild trapped birds to new

areas. In addition, the State also purchased 70 pairs of chukar brood

stock in February 1950, in an effort to raise birds which may be planted

in areas where there has been no establishment. The pen-reared birds are

to be released with wild-trapped birds in hopes that this method will

reduce mortality, and provide for a higher rate of establishment.

The chukar is fast becoming one of the sportsmen’s favourite game

birds in Nevada. It is considerably smaller than our native Sage

Grouse (Centrocircus urophasianus) however, due to the elusive and

wary characteristics of the chukar when subject to hunting pressure,

and to its excellent table qualities, it is providing the hunter with a

great deal of sport.

310 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

In conclusion, it can be said that the chukar is now well established,

and extending its range in Nevada, and that due to its excellent

qualities as a game bird extensive efforts are being made to increase its

population.

UNIVERSITY STATION,

RENO, NEVADA, GLEN C. CHRISTENSEN

27th March, 1950.

[In reply to our enquiry Mr. Christensen writes that there is no

available data as to the number of Chukar which have been shot.

According to his latest estimate he says that less than 3,000 birds have

been introduced into the States but since the time of the first introduc-

tion around 1935 there has been a considerable increase in the popula-

tion and a great increase in its range. No census has been taken of the

Chukar population but field observations show that they are definitely

breeding in the wild.

The Awk for July 1950 contains a Report of the American Ornitho-

logists’ Union Committee on Bird Protection for 1949 which reads

in part—

‘The drastic widespread decline in pheasant populations, plus

success of the Chukar Partridge, Alectoris, in establishing itself

in Neveda and other western states, has stimulated interest in

the introduction of additional exotic game birds. Most biolo-

gists, aware of the often disastrous results of successful efforts,

question such activities. Efforts are being made to channel

all introductions through the Fish and Wildlife Service and

secure careful advance information before attempts are made.’

—Eps.]

14. OCCURRENCE OF THE WHITE-WINGED BLACK

TERN [CHLIDONIAS LEUCOPTERUS (TEMM.)]

IN BOMBAY

On 26th March 1950, I was on the Mahim Causeway, Bombay City, with

Horace Alexander and Salim Ali, watching a lot of Little Cormorants,

Black- and Brown-headed Gulls, and Gull-billed Terns busily feeding on

the edge of the mangrove swamp, with the tide flowing in. Among them

we noticed a single Lesser Crested Tern (7. benghalensts), and another

yet smaller tern, with sharp contrasts of dark and white in its plumage.

Though at some distance from us, our binoculars clearly showed the

pure white tail (almost square and typical of a marsh tern), sooty-grey

upper parts, and black or blackish under-wing coverts. Thus the bird

could not have been anything but the White-winged Black Tern (Ch/z-

donias leucopterus) which, in spite of the statement in the Fauna, has

not been recorded before from anywhere in peninsular India. The only

records between the Persian Gulf and Tipperah (Bengal) are from

Ceylon, where it is considered a winter visitor (Whistler, Avifauna of

Ceylon, p. 268). The Handbook of British Birds says that it winters in

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Sit

Africa (occasionally south to the Cape), Madagascar, Southern Asia

and Malay region, Australia (occasionally in large numbers) and New

Zealand (where it is said to have nested).

c/o Faiz & Co.,

75 ABDUL REHMAN STREET, HUMAYUN ABDULALI

BoMBAY,

28th March 1950.

15. KENTISH PLOVERS [LEUCOPOLIUS ALEXANDRINUS

(LINN.)] AT BOMBAY

On 25th February 1949, I spent an hour watching the wading birds

that were spread out over the almost dried-up patch of mud between

Colaba and the sea. The great majority of these birds, some hundreds

altogether, were Lesser Sand Plovers (Charadrius mongolus). With

them were birds of several other species, such as Little Ringed Plover

(C. dubtus) and Turnstone (Avenaria interpres). I soon noticed some

Kentish Plovers (Leucopolius alexandrinus), and altogether I am

satisfied that there were a score or more of this species scattered about

over the ground, mostly keeping rather separate from the sand plovers,

which were mainly in one large pack.

At this time of year, most of the Kentish Plovers were in full spring

plumage, showing bright fulvous caps and a distinct black patch on the

side of the neck. In ‘off’ plumage, it is not at all easy to distinguish

from the sand plover, but itis at all times a rather rounder looking

bird, the plumage is paler brown, and thelegs are black. Nearly always,

too, there is some black on the lores, and the neck patch is larger and

darker than in C. mongolus. These points, however, can hardly be

appreciated except when the two species arein company and can be

watched at close range.

Apparently the Kentish Plover has not been recorded in Bombay

previously.

24, RAJPUR ROAD,

DELHI, H. G. ALEXANDER

lst May, 1950.

16. THE SNOW GOOSE (ANSER HYPERBOREUS PALLAS)

IN KASHMIR—AN ADDITION TO THE AVIFAUNA

OF INDIA

Mr. F. C. D. Ogden has sent us the skin of a goose shot by Mr.

George Nedou at Haigham Jheel at Srinagar on 26th February 1950.

Mr. Nedou saw this goose flying with nine Grey Lag geese and theie

were other parties of Grey Lag in the vicinity. The bird is the Snow

Goose—Anser hyperboreus \probably hyperboreus and a male)—a species

which has not been recorded before in India. The colour of the

eyes was noted as black.

312 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

The range of this species according to the Handbook of British

Birds is ‘N. E. Palaearctic and N. Nearctic regions. Breeds in arctic

E. Siberia (Wrangel Islands and Tchutchki peninsula) and in arctic

N. America from Pt. Barrow, Alaska to Southampton Is., Baffin Land

and islands northward. Replaced by larger race atlanticus apparently

in N.E. of N. America. Winters in western states of U.S.A., especially

California; casual in £&, Canada and U.S.A.; also south to Japan on E.

coast of Asia; accidental in W. Indies. In Europe reported from

Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Germany, ? Holland, France, Greece, ? etc., but

probably in many cases merely albinos.’

Mr. George Nedou has very kindly presented this skin to the

Society.

114, APOLLO STRERT, Fort,

BoMBAY, EDITORS.

10th May 1950.

17.—GEESE AND DUCK ON THE CHILKA LAKE, ORISSA

Further to correspondence on the above subject published in your

issue of April 1949, we have compared notes and think the following

brief summary may be of interest to some of your readers.

Geese

When E.C.B. visited the lake at Christmas 1949, the geese in the

Nalban area appeared to consist of approximately 2 /3rd Grey Lag and

1 /3rd Bar-head, but at Satpara where he estimated the number of Bar-

head to be about 1,500, he was unable to detect one single Grey Lag

among them after a most careful scrutiny on the ground when

they were very tame or in the air when they were decidedly the

reverse.

From observations made by L.A.C. over the past three years he

finds that the Bar-heads are not to be found on Nalban till the middle

of December, but by the middle of January are as numerous as the

Grey Lag. When he visited the lake on the 10th December 1949 there

was nota single Bar-head seen but a week later they were there in

small numbers and out of a total of 30 geese bagged, 6 were Bar-head

and the remainder Grey Lag. The following bags of geese made in

the Nalban area may be of interest.

L.A:C. E.C.B.

White | Grey Bar- hs | Grey Bar-

ey Front Lag head | Lag head

31- 1-45 ae ae a cee 31-1-45 he 3 1

3- 1-46 eatlina ase 5 3 31-1-46 oe 10 7

Q2102A7 14 ec 31-1-47 4 3

12-12-48 1 23 uh Goce mal Ne

ne ae Ce) 10 15 | X’mas 49 ee 4 6

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 313

The immediate conclusion is that the Grey Lag arrive first, the

Bar-head come in just before mid-December and by the end of the year

numbers tend to even up with a preponderance of Bar-head in January.

It would be interesting if other readers confirm this.

Duck

As regards the various species of duck, E.C.B. has not noticed any

particular variation in numbers of Pintail. With this L.A.C. does not

entirely agree. This season many more Pintail were seen than during

the previous two seasons.

The Gadwall is the commonest species and because of their

unwary behaviour when on a line of flight, form a high percentage of

the bag.

Shovellers are, of course, ubiquitous and Wigeon very numerous,

though more wary than the Gadwall.

Common Teal have always been scarce but Garganey are always

numerous.

A few Spotbill and Red-crested, Tufted and Common Pochard in

varying numbers are usually found. During his two visits to Nalban in

December 1949, L.A.C. observed large numbers of Tufted Pochard

leaving the island at the first signs of dawn. Unlike the other duck,

which were content to remain on the pools on the island if undisturbed,

the Tufted Pochard had all left by sunrise.

Lesser Whistling Teal occur but not in the large numbers subsisting

in most Orissa jhils such as Balagai near Puri. The Large Whistling

Teal which occurs with the Lesser in such places has not been seen by

E.C.B. or L.A.C. at Chilka,

E.C.B. has no record of Nukta, Cotton Teal or Mallard on the

Chilka Lake, though the two former are very common some 20 miles

away at the Balagaijhil, where Tufted Duck (Pochard) and White-eyed

Pochard occur in varying numbers during different years. L.A.C.

records having shot 3 Cotton Teal on Nalban island on 19-2-27 but does

not remember having seen any in recent years.

Brahminy duck are numerous. L.A.C. saw what he estimated at not

less than 15,000 in the Naupara area during December 1948. In 1946

E.C.B. saw several small parties of Sheldrake of which one was shot.

He has not noticed them in any other year. In January 1948 a party

known to L.A.C. shot six and record having seen at least 200. Two

were bagged out of a flight of 25-30 birds. In December 1949 L.A.C.,

saw a flock of 4 Sheldrake and a solitary bird amongst five or six

Brahminy.

The earliest L.A.C. records having seen migratory duck on the

Chilka is the 19th September 1929 when he bagged 12 Pintail and

10 Garganey during the evening flight on the mainland near Balugaon.

The birds were shot as they came into the ripening paddy from

the lake. 3

CHARTERED BANK BUILDINGS,

CALCUTTA-1, . E. C. BENTHALL

Ist February , 1950. , L. A. CRAVEN

314 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

18.—GLEANINGS

Mobbing of Crows

There has recently been some correSpondence in ‘ Country Life’

regarding the mobbing of individual rooks by other members

of the same species. The Handbook of British Birds

mentions this habit and refers to G. K. Yeates’s ‘The Life of

the Rook’ in which he expresses the opinion that only mating

birds are mobbed. He further comments that this mobbing

takes place only when the mating is promiscuous and does not

extend to legitimate pairing. The data on which he makes

these remarks is very limited but as some kind of mobbing

certainly takes place among the crows in India, it would be

interesting to observe this more closely and try and account for

it here. A somewhat similar process of ‘ trial by council ’ and

‘ mobbing’ has been noticed among the mynahs also.

Catching Goshawks

‘Kil’ in ‘Flushing Chukor’ (Onlooker, January 1950) records

keeping awake all night, a goshawk roosting in a tree, by torch

and fire, and then catching it by hand the following morning,

weary with sleep!

The mating of Partridges

H. B. C. Pollard in ‘British and American Gamebirds’ (Eyre and

Spottiswode, 1945) writes on page 11—‘ The sexual union of

any species of partridge is not generally seen. Itis done inthe

air and is over ina flash. Itis a very good test of the credi-

bility or otherwise of anyone who chatters about birds to draw

him out gently about this sexual act of partridges. If he says

he has seen a cock treading a hen you can write him off as an

unreliable witness!’

Stalking the Spanish lbex

G. Kenneth Whitehead in Country Life of 25th February

1949 writes that in 1905 the number of Ibex at Gredos was

thought to be 2 males and 5 females. Twelve years after

Gredos had been turned into a Royal Reserve the numbers had

risen to about 400 and today there are probably about 2000.

The Ibex reserve, marked out by 94 posts covers approxi-

mately 400 square miles and is supervised by a staff of 16, con-

sisting of a technical inspector who is an expert hunter.

19.—REPLACEMENT OF FANGS IN SNAKES

Might it be possible to arrange for some scientific workers to mark

the functional fang of Indian snakes whilst collecting their venom and

keep them alive long enough to show whether the ancylosed fang

ig ever replaced by those found loose in the vagina dentis?

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 315

It is said that, whilst extracting venom from South African snakes,

a fang is sometimes wrenched out of its socket but this must sure be

the semi-ancylosed twin fang which not uncommonly occurs alongside

the ancylosed fang and is presumed to replace it.

The existence of extra fangs in serial development remains a mys-

tery and the likelihood of any of them revolving to replace the ancylos-

ed fang so as to serve to emit poison through the one and only duct

leading to the poison gland lacks experimental proof.

My own experience supports the claim that one can judge of the

length of a snake and even help to determine the identity of a species

by multiplying the length of one of its teeth. This would be most

improbable if it were true that the teeth were constantly shed and

replaced.

BRITANNIA BUILDINGS, F. GORDON CAWSTON

WEST STREET, MzD., F.Z.S.

DURBAN, SOUTH AFRICA,

(25th February, 1950.

20.—A BIOMETRICAL STUDY OF AILSA /LISHA (HAM.)

IN THE GODAVARI RIVER*

During this spawning migration the fish abstains from feeding °

1696 and 1943 specimens of male and female A/z/sa collected from the

river below the irrigation anicuts during the spawning season (July to

October) of 1947 and 1948 were examined for total length, height

and weight of body and for the number of rings found on scales

of the pectoral region. ‘The results are presented in tables I and II.

TABLE I .

Showing relation between length, height, wetght and number of

rings of 1696 male Hilsa

etme pe ace Wi ae wt Nowe ee. |, coouemmes

| fied:

11-1—12:0 4 14 10

12°1—130 4 16 ae 10

13°1—14:0 — ~ -—

14°:1—15-0 4 24 rp ray) 107

15-1—16-0 4°5 30 Bay 2,4&6 978

16°1—17-0° 4:8 39 , 12,384 512

17-1—18-0 | 5 _ 45 6&7 | 79

-* Communicated with the kind permission of the Director of Fisheries,

Madras. |

316 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

TABLE II

Showing relation between length, height, weight and number of

rings of 1943 female Hilsa

a SSP ES

Length in | Height in Weight in No. of rings No. of fish

inches | iuches Oz. examined

ADs |

15°1— 16:0 BPS) | 32 2 32

16*1—17°0 §9 46 2 214

17‘1—18:0 6:0 58 2,3&4 1114

18°1--19°0 Gul 68 4&8 489

19:1—20°0 6°6 78 2,4&8 86

20°1— 21:0 — — — —

21:1—22°0 7°0 88 6 | 8

It will be seen trom the tables that the majority of breeders fall

under the 15-16 and 17-18 inches length groups. There is a uniform

increase in the height and weight of the body, but there is no cor-

responding increase in the number of rings in the scales. The reason

for the latter is briefly discussed below.

It is the contention of various workers on fish scale that for some

species growth does not proceed uniformly, but that because of lack

of food or because of injuries or other causes, growth takes place more

slowly in winter than in summer 2, *, Whenever there is less or no

feeding, there is arrest in the growth of the fish, and this growth-check

is left on the scale in the form of a circular band called‘ ring’. Inthe

anadromous /filsa, this period of starvation coincides with the spawn-

ing act. During this period there is a general absorption of all the

tissues of the body, the scale also being affected by the formation of a

ring. A ring on the scale thus denotes a period of spawning; and

from the number of rings present on a scale the number of times the

fish had spawned may be determined. The youngest male of 11 inches

length had one ring in its scales. This fish should have already spawn-

ed once, and had now entered the river for the second time. Similarly,

the young female of 15 inches, having two rings on its scale, should

have spawned twice and had come into the river for the third time. The

maximum number of rings that is found is seven in male and eight in

female ; and it can be inferred that Hz/sa spawns for the maximum of

about eight times during its life. The age of the fish cannot however

be definitely stated by a study of the rings unless it is ascertained by

future investigations that a mature A/z/sa breeds every year until its

death.

FRESHWATER BIOLOGICAL STATION,

KILPAUK, MADRAS, 4 ! P. I. CHACKO

January, 1950. | B. KRISHNAMURTHY

REFERENCES

1. Chacko, P.I. and Ganapati, S. V. (1949) : J. Madras Univ., 18 : 16-22.

2. Devanesan, D. W. (1943): Madras Fish. Bull., 28: 1-38.

3. Parrott, A. W. (1934): New Zealand J. Sci. & Tech., 16: 136-144.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 317

2 1.—BREEDING HABITS OF 7HA/S BUFO (LAMARCK)

(With two text figures)

On the 20th February 1950, at low tide, while collecting marine

invertebrate fauna in the Gulf of Manaar off Mandapam Camp (South

India) I came across an unusual assemblage of about 300 of the Gast-

ropod mollusc Zhazs bufo (Lamarck). The animals were close pressed

against one another at odd angles, together with large patches of yellow-

ish stalked structures—apparently their eggs—lining the inner surface

of a hollow rock originally submerged at high tide. The tide was flow-

ing into the hollow, sometimes with rude force, sending the eggs into

oscillations. The eggs, however, resisted the tide and remained

unaffected.

a w Bikey

—S

pest tO § SST eves to ————

Hf SNO ESE

}

Assemblage of Zhais dufo (Lamarck) with its egg-mass, in the hollow of the

rock. .

I collected a few specimens of the Gastropod and also some egg-

clusters. Considerable force had to be used for dislodging the latter.

On 3rd March, I revisited the spot at 11 a.m. with a view to making

further observations. There was now not a single Gastropod in the

hollow, but the entire inner surface of the rock was lined with eggs of

an admixture of yellow and violet tints.

At my request Mr. K. Virabhadra Rao, Research Officer (Mollusca),

Central Marine Fisheries Research Station, paid a visit to the spot at

~ about 3 p.m., and collected a few of the eggs—both yellow and violet—

for examination. At 9 p.m. the same day (3-3-’50) Mr. Rao and I

found the tube containing the specimens teemiiig with microscopic

free moving veliger larvze which were obviously from the violet eggs

since these looked a little shrunken while the yellow ones retained their

former turgidity.

318 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Important inferences from the above observations may be summar-

ized as follows :—

1. ZLhazs bufo (Lamarck) in the breeding season, is found in

large pure assemblages. 338

2. Eggs—each measuring ca. 9 mm.x 2 mm. and with a stalk

6 mm. in length—are laid in large numbers. and are attached by their

stalks to rocks between tide marks in well protected spots. The eggs,

when laid, are yellow but turn violet before hatching.

3. It takes 10 to 11 days for the egg to hatch.

Thats bufo (Lamarck) one of the Purpuridae (commonly called the

Purples) belonging to the sub-class Streptoneura, inhabits the rocks —

between the tide marks. It is a carnivorous species feeding upon other

molluscs, boring though their shells for soft ‘ meat’.

1. A single specimen. (natural size)

2. The specimen showing the orifice closed by the dark-coloured operculum.

3. Acluster of eggs:~-- }

4. Asingle egg. (natural size)

The sexes in this species are separate—dioecious. Though sexual

dimorphism is not well pronounced the female is slightly bigger than

the male,

In Ramnad and Tinnevelly Districts of South India, this species

is sometimes eaten by the shore people who call it ‘ Parattai’. The

dull crimson fluid secreted by this form is said to have been used as a

dye in olden days.

BoMBAY NATURAL History SOCIETY;

114 APOLLO STREET, FORT, : V. K. CHARI,

10th April, 1950. . Asst. Curator.

22.—-OCCURRENCE OF THE FRESH WATER MEDUSA

(LIMNOCNIDA INDICA) IN SOUTH-WEST INDIA

The finding of the fresh water medusa, Limnocnida indica

-Annandale, in the pool at the bottom of the Jog falls on the western

slope of the Western Ghats appears to be of considerable significance

in view of its unusual situation. There are several records 3,2, 3, 4, 5, 6,

of the occurrence of this form in the Krishna drainage on the eastern

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 319

slope. The Sharavathi river, unlike the others taking their origin

from the Western Ghats, empties itself into the Arabian Sea and at

Jog there is a sheer drop of about 930 feet. During a holiday

at Jog in May 1947, we collected a large number of the medusae of all

sizes from the pool at the bottom of the falls on two successive days.

For the hydro-electric project the river has been dammed at Hire-

bhasker, thirteen miles above the falls. It being mid-summer at the

time we visited, there was no fall of water. ‘The pool at the bottom is

said to be about 175 feet deep and it appeared to be fed by an under-

ground spring. There was a continuous flow and swarms of the

medusae were seen floating down. Our collections were all made from

water flowing between the huge boulders. Tbe occurrence of tiny

ones in large numbers suggested the probability that Lzmnocnida

indica should be breeding in the pool.

A search was made for the medusae in the scattered pools at the

top of the falls and near the locks about two miles above. Not a single

specimen was observed. A search in the reservoir near the Hire-

bhaskar dam was equally disappointing. The occurrence of Limnocnida

only in the pool at the bottom of the falls which was rather puzzling at

the time of our discovery seems to be a characteristic feature of the dis-

tribution of fresh water medusae °, ”. In fact, they have been known to

disappear completely from their usteal habitats during some months of

the year®, 7,°.?.

The Indian fresh water medusa shows no asexual reproduction

or a fixed hydroid stage and it has been surmised that it should

have aresting stage.* Rao* observed that the eggs get anchored

to the substratum by means of minute sticky threads. During the rainy

season, when the huge volume of water coming down the falls would

make the bottom pool a churning mass, the medusae would be washed

away unless they have a resting stage with well developed anchoring

devices. Whether they occur in the pool year after year is well worth

investigation in view of the interesting speculations *, ® regarding the

origin, distribution and mode of reproduction of Limnocnida indicae

GOVERNMENT COLLEGE, TUMKDR, P. A. RAMAKRISHNA

CENTRAL FISHERIES RESEARCH B. S. BHIMACHAR

LABORATORIES, WEST HILL,

CALICUT.

CyYTOGENETICS LABORATORY, M. K. SUBRAMANIAM

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE,

BANGALORE—3.

20th April, 1950.

REFERENCES

1. Annandale, N. (1911) : ... Nature, 87: 144.

2. Graveley, F. H., and Aghar-

kar, S. P. (1912); a0 Rec. Ind. Mus. 7: 399.

3. Agharkar, S. P. (1913):... Rec. Ind. Mus.9 : 247.

4, Annandale, N. (1919): ... Rec. Ind. Mus. 16: 109.

5. Hora, S. L. (1926) : - J. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. 31: 449

L 60 Rao, Hsu (1932): soe, L0td. 30:= 210).

7. Moore, J. E.S. (1897): ... Mature, 56 : 198.

8. Payne, F. (1926) : .. Biol. Bull,, 50: 439.

White, W. E. (1930) : we = Lbtd. SD: 222.

320 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

23.—THE FLOWERING OF STROBSILANTHES

In a previous note in this Journal (44: 605, 1944) I reported a

general flowering of Strobilanthes callosus Nees that had taken place

in Khandala during the summer months of 1943. At present I can add

some more details that may be of interest to the members of our

Society.

When such a general flowering was seen for the first time, I

did not note the exact spots where it had taken place. The following

summer there was another more or less general flowering in those

parts which had not come into flower the previous year. One thing

was noticed at the time, and this was that flowering did not seem

to depend on altitude, or exposed situation of the place, or even size or

age of the plants. The whole phenomenon may be summarized in the

following points: 1. In 1942 a few ‘precursors’ or ‘forerunners’

came into flower in various parts of Khandala, a few plants at a time,

as Mr. C. McCann told me at the time, ‘ announcing a general flowering

in the near future.’ 2. A general flowering took place in most parts

of the district in 1943. 3. An almost equal general flowering again

took place the following year, 1944, in places where plants had not

flowered the previous year. 4. The flowering cycle seemed to close

with a few stragglers that bloomed in 1945, a few plants at a time,

scattered throughout the district.

To my great surprise and pleasure, in summer 1949 I found in

Khandala two clumps in flower, the first below Elphinstone Point, and

consisting of only 40—50 plants ; the second was on top of Bhoma Hill.

Recently I examined the second clump, consisting of many thousands

of plants, and found them in fruit.

The top of Bhoma Hill is roughly a triangle with fairly broad or

obtuse corners; the edges and slopes of this triangle are covered with

almost pure stands of Sz. callosus Nees (Carvia callosa Bremek.), the

centre of the hill-top is but a grassy plateau. One side of the tri-

angle goes almost perfectly E—W, the second side W to SE, the

third side E to SW. Approach to the top of the hill is by a path that

passes through Forbay and the ‘ Saddle’ and enters the plateau by the

western obtuse corner ; the path then continues W to E parallel to the

north side of the triangle and descends by the eastern corner, Baro-

meter Hill.

In last year’s flowering it was noticed that only the plants in

the shaded portion of the diagram had flowered; the dividing lines

going W—E and N—S are imaginary, nevertheless they are both

astonishingly clear: all the plants west of the NS and south of the WE

lines showed masses of fruits, whilst all the neighbouring plants E

or N of the line were bare of fruits and had obviously not flowered

last season; this is remarkable because even when plants were

touching each other across the imaginary line they showed such an

independent behaviour. Climatic or edaphic conditions seem to be

exactly alike on both sides of the line, yet the clearly different be-

haviour of plants demands an explanation, which for the present I am

unable to give.

Another point of interest is the length of the period intervening

between two flowering seasons. The plants that had bloomed in

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 321

1949 were certainly in flower in 1943 or 1944; this reduces the

flowering period to six or seven years. This coming summer and

the following I shall try and keep careful watch for the possible

general flowering and the exact spots where it may take place.

Diagram showing the shape of the top of Bhoma Hill, Khandala.

In 1943 and 1944 I received reliabie reports or personally noticed

signs of a general flowering at Mt. Abu, Purandhar, Khandala,

Matheran, Kanheri Caves, Castle Rock, and as far south as the Nil-

giris. May I request readers in various parts of India, where this

species is common, to keep a watch over these plants and report any

general flowering ? It is only through such concerted action that this

intriguing problem may finally be solved.

St. XAVIER’S COLLEGE,

Fort, BomBaAy, H. SANTAPAU

31st March, 1950. S.J.

24. STROBILANTHES CALLOSUS (NEES) AT

JUNAGADH IN SAURASHTRA

Generally Strobzlanthes species grows in localities having high alti.

tudes. In Saurashtra there are several hills of volcanic origin of trap

rock formation, but of all these hills, Stvobzlanthes callosus Nees grows

exclusively on the slopes of the valley formed by the sacred hills of

the Girnar and Datar ranges. This plant is not seen growing on the

top of these hills. ‘This interesting economic plant which occurs at

Junagadh is not recorded by Cooke, 1905, but Thakar, 1926, has made

‘a passing remark about it. According to Sutaria, 1949, and Vaidh,

1945, it occurs in Gujarat,

322 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Locally the plant is known as Pandadi. As it occurs on Girnar hill

ranges it is cited as Girnari Pandadi by Vaidh, 1945, and Kirtikar e¢ al,

1933 and as Junagadhi Pandadi by Thakar, 1926. So its Gujrati name

is ‘ Pandadi’ and not ‘ Karvi’ as cited by Sutaria, 1949.

Once upon a time Junagadh was famous for its Pandadi oil and

it had attracted experts from Kanoj, who used to come here every

year for some time for the extraction of Pandadi oil. This plant

has got medicinal value also. Local vaids do not make use of the

plant but hakims use it as one of the ingredients in the preparation of

an ointment for boils. It is used by the general public for its

aromatic and insecticidal properties. Butno mention is made about

this plant by Chopra ef ai, 1941. It is used to protect woollen fabrics

from insects. It may be an insect-repellent rather than an insect-

destroyer.

For noting the flowering cycle, a shrub of Sétvobilanthes callosus

Nees was brought from the hills and planted in the College garden in

the monsoon of the year 1943. This plant flowered for the first time

in the month of August, 1949, i.e. after six years. The flowering season

lasted upto the month of November. Then the plant entered into

fruiting stage and by the end of February 1950 all the leaves dis-

appeared leaving only dried fruits in the axil of the persistent bracts.

When young these bracts were green and glabrous; but when they

grew old they became brown and were seen densely covered with

glandular hairs. Tips of these hairs, were seen bedecked with trans-

parent globules of a viscous substance which sent out strong smell of

balsamic nature. Local belief here is that only those bracts which come

in contact with dew, produce an odour.

BAHAUDDIN COLLEGE, JUNAGADH G. A. KAPADIA

20th March, 1950.

95,-MECARDONIA DIANTHERA (SW.) PENNELL

To the records of this American plant from Surguja State, Benares

and Dehra Dun mentioned in Mr. Raizada’s article entitled ‘Some

Interesting Plants from Orissa’ in your December 1949 journal, I can

add a record from Bihar, having found the plant at Gua in Singhbhum

District in February 1950. Sir David Prain in his ‘ Bengal Plants’

published in 1903 records the plant as recently introduced, and in his

‘The Vegetation of the districts of Hughli-Howrah and the 24-Pergun-

nahs ’, published in 1905, he records it as fairly common ahout Calcutta.

In the Calcutta area I have only found it in a few places near Alipore

and there it is much scarcer than it was 10 yearsago, Presumably it

entered India through the port of Calcutta, but while spreading widely

throughout India it now seems to be decreasing in the place where it

obtained its first foothold.

19/B, RAJA SANTOSH RoaD, |

CALCUTTA, 27, A. P. BENTHALL

28th February, 1950.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 323

26—A NOTE ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE ALGA

| DRAPARNALDIOPSIS NEAR KAKINADA, -

MADRAS PRESIDENCY

Draparnaldiopsis indica Bharadwaja* was discovered at Banaras in

August, 1931, and since then it has been collected from almost all parts

of India. It has also been reported from America and China. There

does not, however, seem to be any previous record of its occurrence in

the Madras Presidency. The writer collected this interesting alga from

a fresh water tank situated opposite to a temple in Sarpavaram, about

three miles away from Kakinada, in the month of October, 1948. It

was found growing epiphytically on AHydrilla along with Chaetophora,

another member of the Chaetophorales.

The author expresses his sincere thanks to Dr. Y. Bharadwaja,

Principal and Professor of Botany, Jaswant College, Jodhpur, for his

. kind help in connection with this note.

BIoLoGy DEPARTMENT,

M. R. COLLEGE, B.S. M. DUTT

VIZIANAGARAM,

lst April, 1950.

‘* Bharadwaja, Y.. (1933 ): New Phytologist, Cambridge, XXXII, 3,

—

CATALOGUE OF BOOKS IN THE BOMBAY NATURAL

HISTORY SOCIETY’S LIBRARY

Part IV—ENTOMOLOGY

Ent—Entomology.

Ent R—Entomology—Reference volume, not lent out.

Ent F R—The Fauna

Serial No.

oat

Q-II

of British India Series (Entomology), Reference

volumes, not lent out.

Classification

Accession No.

Shelf

Author

Ent FR

Ent

Ent FR

Ent

“SI

1o%)

274

275-

276

192

251

252

253

254-

256

269

270

173

Cabinet

Mus

Andrewes, H. E.

do.

Ansorge, E. C.

Antram, Chas. B.

Arrow, G;..J.

do.

Aubertin, Daphne

Austen, E. E.

Austen, Maj. E. E.

& Huges, A. W.

McKenny

Title of Book

———

THE Fauna OF BRITISH INDIA

INCLUDING CEYLON AND

Burma. Coleoptera, Cara-

bidae—Carabinae, Vol. I,

1929.

Vol. ~ II,

do. Harpalinae,

TOG 5 sag

do. (a duplicate set).

(See Lefroy, H. Maxwell &

Ansorge, E. C.)

BUTTERFLIES OF INDIA, with

illustrations of practically

every species for easy

identification, 1924.

THE FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA

INCLUDING CEYLON AND

BurMa. Coleoptera Lamelli-

cornia, (Cetoniinae & Dynas-

tinae), 1910.

do. (Rutelinae, Desmonycinae

& Euchirinae), Part II, 1917.

do. (Coprinae) Part III, 1931.

do. (a duplicate set).

THE FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA

INCLUDING CEYLON & BURMA.

Coleoptera—Clavicornia—

Erotylidae—Languriidae and

Endomychide, 1925.

oO.

(See White, R. Senior, Aubertin,

Daphne & Smart, John.)

BOMBYLIIDAE OF PALESTINE—

British Museum (Natural

History), 1937.

CLoTHES Motus AND HOUSE

Motus—their life history,

habits and control—British

Museum (Natural History)

Economic Series, No. 14,

4th Edition, 1948.

BOOKS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HiSTORY SOCIETY’S LIBRARY 325

Serial No.

Classification

Accession No.

Cabinet

Shelf

Author

Title of Book

Lan)

22 |

26-27

Ent

Ent FR

Ent

Ent FR

Ent

fe)

147

200

198

236

236A

115

125

277

Ke)

Mus

Austen, Maj. E. E.

Avebury, The Rt.

Hon. Lord

Beeson, C. F. C.

Bell, T. R.

Bell, T. R&D. &

Scott, Lt.-Col. F. B.

do.

Betten, Cornelius &

Mosley, Martin E.

Bezzi, Mario

Bingham, Lt.-Col.

C, Te

do.

Bolton, Herbert

THE Houssr-FLy—Its life his-

tory and Practical measures

for its suppression—British

Museum (Natural History)

Economic Series, No. 1 A,

1920.

ANTS, BEES AND Wasps—A

Record of observations on

the habits of the sccial

Hymenoptera, 16th Edition,

Revised, 1902.

Forest INsects, the Ecology &

Control of the Forest Insects

of India and the neighbour-

ing countries, 1941.

THE COMMON BUTTERFLIES OF

THE PLAINS OF INDIA (in-

cluding those met with in

Hill stations of the Bombay

Presidency)—A paper pub-

lished in the Journal Bom-

bay Natural History Society

—a bound serial, 1909-1913.

THE FauNA OF BRITISH INDIA

INCLUDING CEYLON & BURMA

—Moths, Family Sphing-

idae, Vol. V, 1937, (For the

first four volumes of this

series see Hampson, G. F.)

do.

THE FRANCIS WALKER TYPES

OF ‘TRICHOPTERA in the

British Museum redescribed

and figured, 1940.

THE BOMBYLIIDAE of the Ethi-

opian Region based on the

material in the _ British

Museum (Natural History),

1924.

THe Fauna oF BritisH INDIA

INCLUDING CEYLON AND

B u RM A.—Hymenoptera—

Wasps and Bees, Vol. I, 1897.

do. Ants and Cuckoowasps—

Vol. II, 1903.

do. (a duplicate set).

THe Fauna or British INDIA

INCLUDING CEYLON AND

BurMA. Butterflies, Vol. I,

1905.

do.-Vol..1ly 1907;

INSECTS FROM COAL MEASURES

OF COMMENTRY, Fossil In-

sects, No. 2 British Museum

(Natural History), 1925.

326 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

8 |

g.| 4

6 = ¢

4 SZ Z| 8 Author Title of Book

el Os B=] Ge

& 3 ¢@ | U| &

31 | Ent 182 9. D Boyce, Sir Robert Mosquito oR Man? The con-

W. quest of the tropical world,

1909.

32. |. Pent 179 9 D Boyd, Mark M. AN INTRODUCTION TO MAta-

RIOLOGY, 1930.

33 | Ent 145 9| D Bruce, Charles T. Insects & HUMAN WELFARE—

An account of the more im-

portant relations of insects

to the health of man, to

Agriculture and _ Forestry,

Revised Edition, 1947. —

34 | Ent F R| 280 8 | B Brunetti, E. THE Fauna oF Britis INDIA

INCLUDING CEYLON AND

Burma. Diptera, Brachycera,

Vol. I, 1920.

35 | Ent FR} 281 8 | B do. do. Diptera—Pipunculidae,

Syrphidae, Conopidae, Oes-

tridae, Vol. III, 1923.

36 | Ent F R| 302 Mus do. THE Fauna oF BRiTIsH INDIA

INCLUDING CEYLON AND

Burma. Diptera, Brachycera,

Vol. I, 1920.

37 | Ent F R| 303 Mus do. do. Diptera—Pipunculidae,

Syrphidae, Conopidae, Oes-

tridae, Vol. III, 1923.

38 |.Ent F R| 282 8 B do. THE FauNA OF BRITISH INDIA

INCLUDING CEYLON AND

Burma. Diptera, -Nemato-

cera (excluding Chirono-

midae and Culicidae), 1912.

39 | Ent F Rj 317 Mus do. do.

40 | Ent F R| 297 Mus do. do.

41 | Ent F R| 300 8| A Burr, Malcolm THE FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA

INCLUDING CEYLON AND

BurMA. Dermaptera (Ear-

wigs), 1910.

42 | Ent F R) 301 Mus do. do.

43 | Ent F R| 320 8 | B do. f do. ;

44 | Ent E7k 9| D Butler, Arthur MonocraPH of Genus Calli-

Gardiner dry as (from Lepidoptera

Exotica, Parts III-XVIII,

1870-1873), 1873.

ILLUSTRATIONS OF ‘TYPICAL

SPECIMENS OF LEPIDOPTERA

HETEROCERA in the collec=

tion of the British Museum,

Part 15¢1877-

do. Part II, 1878.

do. Part III, 1879.

do. Part V, 1881.

(For Part IV, see Walsingham,

Lord) ee

do. Part VI, 1886.

do. Part VII, 1889.

45 | Ent 209 | 25, E . do.

46 | Ent 210 25

47 | Ent 211 25

48 | Ent 213 25

i i

Qu.

49 \Ent 214 25 do.

BOOKS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY’S LIBRARY 327

}

ms. | 2

eo) = ¢

nN oO <<) 0

51 |Ent III

52 | Ent FR 241 | 8

53 | EntF R) 242 | 8

BA | Ent FR) 243) 8

55 | Ent FR) 244 | 8

56 | Ent FR) 245 | 8

57-61 | Ent FR) 246-

250

62 | Ent 103 | 9

63 | Ent 104 | 9

64 | Ent Fare9

65 | Ent 152 | 9

66 | Ent 85 | 9

67 | EntF R| 283 | 8

68 | EntFR) 283a

69 | Ent 122 | 9

70 | Ent 90 | 9

Shelf

Mus

Author

Butler, Edward A.

Cameron, Malcolm

Cameron, P.

do.

Carpenter, George H.

Carpenter, G. D. H.

& Ford, R. B.

Chalam, B. S.

Chenu, Dr. Par Le

& Lucas, M. H.

Choudhury, K. L.

Christophers,

Col. Sir S. R.

do.

Christy, Cuthbert

Cockerell, T. D. A.

Title of Book

A BIOLOGY OF THE BRITISH

HEMIPTERA-HETEROPTERA,

1923.

THE FAUNA OF BritisH INDIA

INCLUDING CEYLON AND

BurRMA. Coleoptera—Staphy-

linidae, Vol. I, 1930.

do. Vol. II, 1931.

do. Vol. III, 1932.

do. Vol. IV, Part I, 1939.

do...5 ‘do. Part Il," 1930:

do. (a duplicate set).

HYMENOPTERA ORIENTALIS or

contribution to the know-

ledge of the Hymenoptera

of the Oriental Zoological

Region—Papers published

in Manchester Memoirs &

Journal, Bombay Natural

History Society, a bound

serial, 1899-1903.

do. Papers published in Man-

chester Memoirs & the

Annals and Magazine of

Natural History, a bound

serial, 1899-1903.

A BIoLocy oF INsEcTs, 1928.

Mimicry, Methuen’s Mono-

graphs on Biological sub-

jects, 1933.

(See ae J.A. & Chalam,

B. S.)

PAPILLONS —Encyclopedic,

D’Histoire Naturelle ou

Traite complet de _ cette

Science.

(See Strickland, C., Choudhury,

K. L. Ross, Sir Ronald.)

THE Fauna oF BritisH INDIA

INCLUDING CEYLON AND

Burma. Diptera—Fam. Culi-

cidae, Vol. IV, 1933. (For

Vols. I & III see Brunetti, E.)

do.

MosQuITOES AND MarLaria—

A study of our knowledge

on the subject at the begin-

ning of the year 1900, with

an account of the Natural

History of some Mosquitoes,

1900,

AFRICAN BEES OF THE GENERA

CERATINA, HALICTUS AND

MEGACHILE. British Museum

(Natural History), 1937.

LS ST SE SE DAG TSP ESS SETS EE

328

JOURNAL,

BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

fo)

eae

fo} 3 Cielee

a eS D ch hsbeda Author Title of Book

iG; 2 8 1B) ‘3

a a Q

el One cle

71 | Ent 96 1597/2 Co Cotesu se (Guus A CatTaLocuE oF Morus oF:

Swinhoe, Col. C. INDIA—Sphinges, Pt. I, 1887. |

72 | Ent 1237 [40 Cotes, E. SILK—HAND-BOOK OF COM-!

MERCIAL PRODUCTS, Indian’

Section, No. 23, "Imperial.

Institute Series, 1893. |

73 SE nt 2027)|"ON | EB Crawford, J. A. & MosQuiTO-REDUCTION and |

Chalam, B. S. Malarial Prevention—A |

precis, 1927. |

74.4) Font ptsfoveik Coyote aD) D’Abreu, E. A. THE BEETLES OF THE HIMA-

LAYas & how to collect, pre-/

serve and study them, 1915.

75 | Ent TO7)| Ou |aeD. Distant, W. L. A MOoNoGRAPH OF ORIENTAE)

CICADIDAE, 1889-1892.

76 | Ent SPAN 2 S| ats do. RHOPALOCERA MALAYANA: a)

description of the Butterflies |

of the Malay Peninsula, |

. 1882-1886. |

aa Nornt OR) 9285 818 B do. Tue Fauna oF BritisH INDIA)

INCLUDING CEYLON AND!

Burma. Rhynchota (Heter-|

optera), Vol. I, 1902. |

“8 | Ent FR) 286 | 8 B do. do. Vol. II, 1904. |

“9 | Ent FR) 287 |8)] B do. do. (eter: proee ieee prea

Vol. III, 1906.

80 | Ent FR 288 | 8 B do. do. (Homoptera and Appens-|

dix Pt.), Vol. IV, 1908. ¥]

81 | EntF R) 289); 8]. B do. do. Heteroptera : Appendix, |

Vol eye anaro: |

82 | Ent FR) 290) 8 | B do. do. Homoptera: Appendix, |

Vol. VI, 1916. |

83 | Ent F.R| -291 | 8 |’ B do. do. Homoptera: Appendix, |

Heteroptera : Addenda |

i Vol. VII, 1918.

84-88 | Ent FR} 292> Mus do. do. (a duplicate set with the|

296 exception of Vols. III &VII.),

89 | Ent TDO NG) 1G. Donovan, E. AN EPITOME OF THE NATURAL

HISTORY OF THE INSECTS OF}

INDIA & THE ISLANDS IN THE

INDIAN SEAS, 1800. |

go | Ent 120 19.) -(C do. ‘do. !

gt | Ent 150197) | D Duncan, James & BEETLES, BritTisH & FOREIGN,

Jardine, Sir containing full description of !

William the more important varieties.

92 | Ent P5579 by Duncan, James BEETLES—Entomology—T h e|

Naturalist’s Library, Vol. II,|

1835. |

93 | Ent 86}9/ C Edwards, F. W., | BritisH BLooD-sUCKING FLins, |

Oldroyd, H. & 1939.

Smart, J. |

94 | Ent 82 1 9 C Edwards, F. W. MosQuiTOES OF THE ETHIOPIAN |

REGION—Culicine adults &|

Pupae, Part III, 1941. (See)

Hopkins, G. H. E. for Part}

I, 1936 and Evan’, Alwen|

M. for Part II, 1938.)

ETE ET LE TE I IE SIS I IL IIE IEE IEP EF I FD II A NE ESE REE RI REED }

Serial No.

BOOKS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY’S LIBRARY 329

fay)

iS)

i?)

ise}

—_—

Accession No.

Cabinet

Shelf

Author

Title of Book.

100

IOI

102

103

104

105

106

107

108

109

Ilo

Iit

Be.

| Ent

Ent

208

196

181

472A

190

140

‘Oo ©

“wooo

eles

Wame

wc!

Eltringham, H. |

Evans, Alwen M.

Evans, Brig. W. H.

Evans, Col. W. H.

do.

Fieder, Karl

Fletcher,

brigge

ow Bain=

do.

~Flammarion, Ernest |

RordMi. B:

Forel, A. & Gran-

didier, Alfred

BUTTERFLY LORE, 1923.

MOSQUITOES OF THE ETHIOPIAN

REGION, Anopheline—adults

and early stages, Part II,

1938. (See Hopkins, G. H. E.

for Part I, 1936)

A CATALOGUE OF AFRICAN

HESPERIIDAE indicating the

Classification & Nomencla-

ture adopted in the British

Museum, 1937.

THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN

BUTTERFLIES, First Edition

1027.

do. and Edition, Revised, 1932:

MONOGRAPH OF THE SOUTH

AMERICAN WEEVILS OF THE

GENUS CONOTRACHELUS,

1940.

REPORT OF THE PROCEEDINGS

of the second Entomological

Meeting held at Pusa on the

5th to 12th February, 1917,

IQI7.

REPORT OF THE PROCEEDINGS

of the third Entomological

meeting held at Pusa on the

3rd to 15th February, 1919,

Vol. ¥, 1920;

do. Vol. II, 1920.

do. Vol. III, 1920.

REPORT OF THE PROCEEDINGS

of the fourth Entomological

meeting held at Pusa on the

7thto 12th \February, 1921,

1921.

do. fifth Entomological meet-

ing held at Pusa on the 5th

to t1oth February, 1923,

1924.

do.

SOME SoutTH INDIAN INSECTS

AND OTHER ANIMALS OF IM-

PORTANCE considered _ es-

pecially from an economic

point of view, 1914.

do.

JEAN ROSTAND INSECTES (1936).

(See Carpenter, G. D. H. &

Ford, E. B.)

Lrs FORMICIDES,

Naturelle des Hymenop-

teres—Histoire, Physique,

Naturelle et Politique de

Histoire

Madagascar, Vol. XX, 1891.

330

Serial No.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Classification

Accession No.

Cabinet

Shelf

Author

113

114

124

125

126

127

128

Ent

Ent FR

Ent

Ent FR

Ent

137

271

272

397

308

309

310-

312

321

174

Noy

vos

Forel, Atiguste

do.

Fowler, W. W.

do.

Fraser, Lt.-Col.,

F.C:

Fraser, Lt.-Col.

Ec.

Gahan, Charles J. &

Laing, Frederick

Gahan, C. J.

do.

Ghosh, C. C.

Giglioli, George

Giles, Lt.-Col.

Geog. M.

Title of Book.

Les ForRMICIDES, DES INDES

ET DE CEYLON——A paper

published in J. B. N. H.S.,

a bound serial Parts I—V,

1892-1895.

FORMICIDEN, aus dem Natur-

historischen Museum in

Hamburg—various reprints

of papers on Formicidae

bound together, 1900-1910.

THE Fauna OF BRITISH INDIA

INCLUDING CEYLON AND

BurMa. Coleoptera—-General

Introduction and Cicinde-

lidae & Paussidae, 1912.

THE Fauna oF BritTIsH INDIA

INCLUDING CEYLON AND

BurMa. Odonata, Vol. I,

1933.

do. Vol. II, 1934.

do. Vol. III, 1936.

do. (a duplicate set.)

THE FAuNA OF BRITISH INDIA

INCLUDING CEYLON AND

BurMA. Odonata, Vol. I, 1933.

FURNITURE BEETLES, their life

history and how to check or

prevent the damage caused

by the worms—British

Museum (Natural History),

Economic series No. II, 4th

Edition, 1946.

THE FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA

INCLUDING CEYLON AND

BurMa. Coleoptera, (Ceram-

bycidae), Vol. I, 1906.

INSECT PESTS OF BURMA, 1940.

MALaRIAL NEPHRITIS, Epide-

miological & Clinical notes

on Malaria, Blackwater

fever, Albuminuria and

Nephritis in the interior of

British Guiana based on

seven years continual obser-

vation, 1930.

A Hanp-Book OF GNATS OR

MosQuITOEs giving the ana-

tomy and life-history of the

Culicidae together with des-

criptions of all species notic-

ed up to the present date.

Second Edition, rewritten

and enlarged, 1902.

Serial No.

BOOKS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY’S LIBRARY 331

Classification

Accession No

Shelf

Author

Title of Book

129

130

= 131

132

133

134

135

136 | EntFR

137 | EntFR

Ent

Ent FR

223

84.

216

217

232

233

Government of India

do.

Grandidier, Alfred

Green, E. Ernest

do.

Grote, Arthur

Hampson, George

Francis

do.

A COLLECTION OF PAPERS ON

BEE-KEEPING in India, 1883.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE IMPERIAL

MALARIAL CONFERENCE held

at Simla in October 1909,

1910.

(See Forel, A & Grandidier,

Alfred.)

THE COCCIDAE OF CEYLON.

Parts I-III, 1922.

O. do.

Parts IV-V, 1922.

(See Hewitson, William C.,

Moore, Frederic & Grote,

Arthur.)

ILLUSTRATIONS OF ‘T'YPICAL

SPECIMENS OF LEPIDOPTERA

HETEROCERA in the collection

of the British Museum—

The Lepidoptera Heterocera

of the Nilgiri District—

Part VIII, 1891. (For Parts

I-III & V-VII see Butler,

Arthur Gardiner; for Part

IV, see Walsingham, Lord).

do. The Macrolepidoptera

Heterocera of Ceylon. Part

IX, 1893.

THE Fauna OF BRITISH INDIA

INCLUDING CEYLON AND

BurMa—Moths—

FAMILIES: (1) Saturniidae,

(2) Brahmaeidae, (3) Bom-

bycidae, (4) Eupterotidae

(5) Sphingidae (6) Noto-

dontidae (7) Cymatophridae

(8) Sesiidae (9) Tinaege-

riidae (10) Syntomidae

(11) Zygaenidae (12) Psy-

chidae (13) Cossidae (14)

Arbelidae (15) Hevialidae

(16) Callidalidae (17) Dre-

panulidae (18) Thyrididae

(19) Limacodidae (20) Lasio-

campidae (21) Pterothy-

sanidae (22) Lymantriidae

(23) Hypsidae, Vol. I,

1892.

do. Families—(24) Arctiidae

(25) Agaristidae (26) Noc-

tuidae, Vol. II, 1894.

do. Families—(26) Noctuidae

(Contd.) (27) Epicopidae,

(28) Uraniidae (29) Epip-

lemidae (30) Geometridae,

Vol. III, 1895.

BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

339 9 WiOURN AL

| eae

fe) = d

ol) fear wise s

s "D 2 A= =

o 4 es} ua)

A 3 2 |d| &

138 | Ent FR) 235 | 8 A

139-| Ent FR) 237- Mus

142 240

143 | Ent FR} 316 Mus

144 | Ent 48 | 9 B

145 | Ent 49 | 9 B

146 |. Ent 50) |: 9

147 | Ent 519

148 | Ent 5219 B

149 | Ent sg4in9. 0B

150 | Ent 54 | 9 B

151 | Ent 55 | 9 B

152 | Ent 56 | 9 B

153 | Ent 57|9 | B

154 | Ent 58 | 9 B

155 | Ent 59 | 9 B

156 | Ent 60 | 9 B

157_| Ent 61 | 9 B

158 | Ent 6211) 9 B

159 | Ent. 63 | 9 B

160 | Ent 64 | 9 B

161 | Ent 65 | 9

162 | Ent 66 | 9

163 | Ent L539 D

Author

Title of Book.

Hampson, Sir

George F.

do.

Hammond, A. R.

Henry, G. M. R.

Hewitt, C. G.

THE Fauna oF BriTISsH INDIA >

INCLUDING CEYLON AND |

Burma. Moths—Families— |

(31) Pyralidae, Vol. IV, |

1896. |

do. (a duplicate set)

do. Volk I, 1892: |

CATALOGUE of the Lepidop- |

tera, Phalaenae—Synto-—

midae—in the collection of |

the British Museum, Vol. I,

1898. :

do. Amatidae and Arctiadae |

(Nolinae & Lithosianae) ©

Supplement to Vol. I,

1914.

do. Arctiadae (Nolinae &

Lithosianae), Vol. II, 1900. |

do. Lithosiadae (Arctianae) &

Phalaenoididae, supplement —

to Vol. II, 1920.

do. Arctiadae (Arctianae) &

Agaristidae, Vol. III,

1901.

do. Noctuidae, Vol. IV, 1903.

do. do. Vol. V, 1906.

do. do. Vol. VI, 1906.

do. do. Vol. VII, 1908.

do. do. Vol. VIII, 1909.

do. do. Vol. EX. tor10:

do. do. Vol. X. rg10.

do do.-7Vol. iro:

do do. Vol. XII, 1913.

do do. Vol. XIII, 1914.

do. Plates Vols. I-III

& Supplements Vols. I &

II, 1898-1901.

do. Plates—Vols. IV-X, 1903-

IQII.

do. Plates—Vols.

1912.

DESCRIPTION OF NEW GENERA

& SPECIES OF LEPIDOPTERA

PHALAENAE of the Sub-

family Noctuinae (Noctui-

dae) in the British Museum

(Natural History), 1926.

(See Miall, L. C. & Hammond,

A. R.)

(See Woodhouse, L. G. O. &

Henry, G. M. R.)

HovusE-FLIES and How they

XI-XITI,

spread Disease—The Cams

bridge Manuals of Science

and Literature, 1912.

| Serial No.

BOOKS IN BOMBAY. NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY’S LIBRARY 333

Classification

Accession No.

Shelf

Author

Title of Book

165

166

167

168

169

170

171

172

173

Ent

Ent FR

0°

Ke)

184

187

322

131

130

Ke)

oO 0

xe)

Keke)

oe)

eas,

whee

whic]

Hewitson, William

C., Moore, Fred-

eric & Grote,

Arthur

Hehir, Maj.-Gen.

Sir Patrick

Hemming, Francis

Hinton, Hi: E:

Hoffmann, Dr. E. &

Kirby, W. Egmont

Hope, Rev. F. W.

Hopkins, G. H. E.

Howlett, F. M.

Horsfield, Thomas

& Moore, Fred-

eric

Hughes, A. W.

McKenny

Huxley, Julian

Imms, A. D.

do.

Jacoby, Martin

DESCRIPTION OF NEW INDIAN

LEPIDOPTEROUS INSEcTs from

the collection of the late Mr.

W. S. Atkinson, M. A., F.

L.S., Rhopalocera & Hete-

rocera (Sphingidae-Hepia-

lidae), 1879.

MALARIA IN INDIA—Oxford

Medical Publications, 1927.

THE GENERIC NAMES OF THE

HOo.LarRcTIc BUTTERFLIES, Vol.

I, 1758-1863, 1934.

A MONOGRAPH OF THE BEETLES

associated with stored pro-

ducts, British Museum (Na-

tural History), Vol. I,

1945.

THE YouNG BEETLE-COLLEC-

TOR’S HANDBOOK. 1902.

do.

THE COLEOPTERIST’S MANUAL

containing the Lamellicorn

Insects of Linnaeus & Fab-

ricius, 183'7.

MosaQuiToEs of the Ethicpian

Region. Larval Bionemics of

mosquitoes & Taxonomy of

Culicine larvae, Part I,

1936.

(See Lefroy, H. Maxwell &

Howlett, F. M.)

A CATALOGUE af the Lepidop-

terous Insects in the Museum

of the Hon. Ezst-India Com-

pany—Papiliones, Sphinges

& Bombyces, Vol. I & II,

1857-1859.

(See Austen, Maj. E. E. &

Hughes, A W. McKenny.)

(See Portmann, Prof. Adolf &

Huxley, Julian)

A GENERAL 'TEXT-BOOK OF

ENTOMOLOGY including the -

Anatomy, Physiology, Deve-

lopment & Classification of

Insects, 2nd Edition, 1930.

do. 5th Edition, 1942.

INsECT NaTURAL HIsTory-

The New Naturalist—A

survey of British Natural

History, 1947.

THE FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA

INCLUDING CEYLON AND

Burma. Coleoptera, Chryso-

melidae, Vol. I, 1908.

do.

aes

334 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST... SOCIETY, Vol. 49

ee le

6 = ¢

Zz, 5 ° » :

a= DB © Author Title of Book

= "D ae oe

Sie | 8 eae

N oO <q Ss) nN

178 | Ent 139 |9} D Jameson, A. REPORT on the Diseases of

Pringle Silkworms in India, 1922.

Jardine, Sir William | (See Duncan, James & Jardine,

Sir William)

Johannsen, Oskar, A. | (See Riley, William, A &

Johannsen, Oskar A.)

Johnson, C. G. (See McKenny—Huges, A. W.

& Johnson, C. G.)

Jordan, Dr. Karl (See Smart, John, Jordan, Dr.

Karl & Whittick, R. J.)

Jordan, Dr. K. (See Rothschild, The Hon.

Walter & Jordan, Dr. K.)

Kirby, W. Egmont (See Hoffman, Dr. E. & Kirby,

W. Egmont)

179 | Ent 26.1119 B Kirby, W. F. A SYNONYMIC CATALOGUE of

Orthoptera. Orthoptera

Euplexoptera, Cursoria et

Gressoria — _ (Forficulidae,

Hemimeridae, Blattidae,

Mantidae, Phasmidae), Vol.

I, 1904.

180 | Ent 37.30%) 35 do. do. Orthoptera, Saltatoria,

Part I (Achetidae et Phas-

gonuridae), Vol. II, 1906.

181 | Ent 3819-1) OB do. do.. Orthoptera, Saltatoria, —

Part II (Locustidae vel

Acridiidae), Vol. III,

1910.

182 | Ent 100:|20 8 do. A SYNONYMIC CATALOGUE of |

Diurnal Lepidoptera, 1871,

183 | Ent TOO: ||}<O7) 1 do. ELEMENTARY ‘TEXT-BOOK OF

ENTOMOLOGY, 1885.

184 | EntFR}| 298 | 8] A do. THE FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA

INCLUDING CEYLON AND >

Burma. Orthoptera (Acri-

diidae), 1914.

185 | Ent FR] 299 Mus do. do.

186 | Ent FR] 318 | 8 B do. do.

187 | Ent FR} 319 | 8 B do. do.

188 Ent 183 9 D Knowles, Maj. MaAtarIiA, its investigation and

Roberts & Senior- control with special reference

White, Ronald to Indian conditions, 1927.

189 | Ent 207 | 9 E do. Oo. |

Laing, Frederick (See Gahan, Charles J. &

| Laing, Frederic) |

190 | Ent 1 7Ou1nO | yD) do. THE COCKROACH, its life his- |

tory and how to deal with it, |

British Museum (Natural |

History) Economic Series,

No. 12, 4th Edition, 1948.

191 | Ent 250 | 25) 9 5 Lefroy, H. Maxwell REPORT on an Inquiry into |

& Ansorge, E. C.

Silk Industry of India,

Lefroy—the silk industry— |

Vol. I, 1907.

BOOKS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY’S LIBRARY 335

me | 2

Bee he |g

el o Gales

es ic 3 |e

<p) Oo xq |

192 | Ent 219 |25

193 | Ent 220 |25

194 | Ent 194 | 9

195 | Ent 197 | 9

196 | Ent 199 | 9

197| Ent 112] 9

198 | Ent 102 | 9

199 | Ent I4I | 9

200 | Ent 222 [25

201 | Ent 142 | 9

202 | Ent FR) 257 | 8

203 || Pnt ER] 258

204 | Ent 45 | 9

205 | Ent 46 | 9

206 | Ent 47 |9

207 | Ent FR} 259 | 8

Shelf

Mus

Author

Lefroy, H. Maxell &

Ansorge, E. C.

Lefroy, H. Maxwell

do.

Lefroy, H. Maxwell

& Howlett, F. M.

Lefroy, H. Maxwell

Le Prince, Joseph A,

& Orenstein,’ A.]J.,

Lubbock, Sir John

(Lord Avebury),

Myers, J. G.

Lucas, M. H.

Mani, S.

Marjoribanks, Major

Fa:

Marshall, J. F.

Marshall, Guy A. K.

do.

Marshall, Major

G.F.L. & Nice-

ville, Lionel de

do.

Maulik, S.

Title of Book

REPORT on an Inquiry into

Silk Industry of India,

Ansorge, Present condi-

tion of the silk trade of

India, Vol. II, 1917.

do. Lefroy, Appendices to

Vol. I, Vol. III, 1917.

INDIAN INSECT PESTS, 1906.

INDIAN INSECT LirE. A

Manual of the Insects of the

plains (Tropical India),

1909.

MANUAL OF ENTOMOLOGY with

special reference to Econo-

mic Entomology, 1923.

MosqQulITO CONTROL IN PANAMA,

The Eradication of Mala-

ria and Yellow fever in

Cuba and Panama, 1916.

ANTS, BEES AND Wasps. A

Record of observations on

the habits of the — social

Hymenoptera, 1929.

(See Chenu, Dr. Le & Lucas,

M. H.)

SERPHOIDEA, Catalogue of

Indian Insects, Part 26,

1941.

REPORT on certain features of

Malaria in the island of

Salsette, 1913.

THE British Mosquitos,

1938.

THE FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA

INCLUDING CEYLON AND

BuRMA. Coleoptera, Rhyn-

chophora: — Curculionidae,

1916.

do.

THE BUTTERFLIES OF INDIA,

BurMa & CEYLON—A descrip-

tive handbook of all the known

species of rhopalocerous

Lepidoptera inhabiting that

region, with notices of allied

species occurring in the neigh-

bouring countries along the

border with numerous _illu-

strations, Vol. I, 1882.

do. Vil. II, 1886.

do. Vol. III, 1890.

THE FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA

INCLUDING CEYLON AND

BurMA. Coleoptera, Chry-

somelidae (Hispinae & Cas-

sidinae), 1919.

336 JOURNAL, ._ BOMBAY NATURAL. AHIST., SOGIETY, yVol- 449

fe)

eee rz

fo} 2 re

A & 2 18 Author Title of Book

oe ‘D ee GS} ow

5 & SB ce tee

wn oO < Oe

(ame =a

208 | Ent FR] 260}8) A Maulik, S. THe FauNa OF BRITISH INDIA,

— INCLUDING CEYLON AND

BuRMAH. Chrysomelinae and

Halticinae), 1926.

200;| Ent F/R) 7262, | 8 A do. do. (Galerucinae), 1936.

210- | Ent FR| 262- : Mus do. do. (a duplicate set). ~

212 264

213 | Ent 144 | 9 1B) McKenny Huges, ‘THE BED-BUG, its habits and

A. W. & Johnson,| life history and how to

C.G: deal with it, British Mus-

eum (Natural History) Eco-

nomic Series, No. 5, 1942.

2140 | int 132)5(610 D Meyrick, Edward Exotic. MICROLEPIDOPTERA.

Vols Tiron:

215 | Ent 133 | 9 D do. do. Vol. II, 1916.

216 |, Ent 134 | 9 D do. do. Vol; Til, 1923.

21'7)\¢ Ent 135 | 9 D Oo. do. Vol. IV, 1930.

218 | Ent 154 | 9 1B) Miall, Prof. L.. C. THE NaTuRAL HISTORY OF

AQUATIC INSECTS. Short

nature-studies, 1903.

219 | Ent 186 | 9 D Miall, L. C. & Ham- | THE Structure. & LIFE-HIS-

mond, A. R. TORY OF THE HARLEQUIN FLY

(Chironomus), 1900.

Mirza, Dr. M. B. (See Quadri, M.A. & Mirza,

Dr. M. B.)

220 | Ent Tao D Moore, F. LEPIDOPTERA INDICA: RHO-

PALOCERA, Fam. Nymphalidae

Subfam. Euploeinae & Sat-

yrinae, Vol. I, 1890-1892.

221 | Ent 158 | 9 D do. do. Subfam. Satyrinae

(contd.) Elymniinae, Ama-

thusiinae, Nymphalinae

u (Group Charaxina), Vol. II,

1893-1896.

222 | Ent 150 4}+9 D do. do. Subfam. Nym-

phaline (contd.) | Groups

Potamina, |Euthaliina, Li-

mentina, Vol. III, 1896-1899.

223 |, nt 160 | 9 D do. do. Subfam. Nym-

phalinae (contd.) Groups

Limenitina, Nymphalina and

Argynnia, Vol. IV, 1899-1900.

224 | Ent TOn-| 9 D do. do. Subfam. Nym-

phalme (contd.) Groups,

Melitaeina and _ Eurytelina,

Subfam. Acraeinae, Pseu-

dergolinae, Calinginae &

Libytheinae, Fam. Rio-

dinidae, Subfam. Nemeo-

biinae, Fam. Papilionidae,

Subfam. Nemeobiinae, Thai-

dinae, Leptocircinae &

Papilioninae, Vol. V, r1901-

1903.

BOOKS IN BOMBAY NATURAL: HISTORY SOCIETY’S LIBRARY 337

Serial No.

(mn

226

230

231

232

233

234

Classification

Ent

Ent FR

Ent

Accession No

279

306

143

124

204.

188

172

105

Cabinet

Ke)

Oo Oo

Ke)

Author

Shelf

Moore, F.

Moore, Frederic

B Morley, Claude

Mus do.

D Mosely, Martin

do.

Myers, J. G.

do.

es)

D Needham, James G.

Frost, Stuart W.

“Tothill, Beatrice H.

Niceville, Lionel de

Oldroyd, H.

D Ordnance Labora-

tories, Cawnpore.

Orenstein, A. J.

Title of Book

LEPIDOPTERA INDICA: RHO-

PALOCERA, Fam. Papilionidae

Subfam. Papilioninae (contd.)

Fam. _ Pieridae, Subfam.

Pierinae, Vol. VI, 1903-1905.

(See Horsfield, Thomas &

Moore, Frederic).

(See Hewitson, William C.

Moore, Frederic & Grote,

Arthur)

THE FauNA OF BRITISH INDIA,

INCLUDING CEYLON AND

Burma. Hymenoptera, Ichneu-

monidae—Ichneumones deltoi-

dei—Vol. Ill, Pare. ay

1913.

do. (For the first two volumes

see Bingham, Lt.-Col. C. T.)

A REVISION OF THE GENUS, Lep-

tonema (‘Trichoptera), British

Museum (Natural History),

1933.

(See Betten, Cornelius & Mosely

Martin E.)

INseEcT SINGERS, A Natural

History of the Cicadas,

Oo.

(See Lubbock, Sir John and

Myers, J. G.)

LEAF—MINING INSEcTs, 1928.

(See Marshall Maj. G. F. L.

Niceville, Lionel de)

(See Edwards, F. W., Oldroyd,

H. & Smart, J.)

THE BATTLE OF THE Bucs,

Some notes for Military units

in India on the prevention

of the damage to equipment

by insects and other animals—

Pest control pamphlet No. 4,

1945-0

(See Le Prince, Joseph A. &

Orenstein, A. J.).

C Packard, Alpheus S.| A TExT-BooK oF ENTOMOLOGY

including Anatomy, Physio-

logy, Embryology & Meta-

morphoses of Insects for use

in Agricultural & ‘Technical

Schools & Colleges as well as

by working Entomologists,

1898.

D | Portmann, Prof. Adolf] THE BEAUTY OF BUTTERFLIES— -

& Huxley, Julian

12 colour plates from nature,

Iris Book, 1945.

338

JOURNAL, BOMBAY- NATURAL. HIST.-SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Serial No.

236

237

238

239

240

241

242

243

Classification

Ent

Accession No

177 | 9

(O79

749

205 9

324-9

33°) 9

169 | 9

Shelf

Author Title of Book

———

D | Quadri, M. A. H. &] ExTernaL & INTERNAL ANA-

- Senior-White,

Mirza, Dr. M. B. TOMY OF THE BUFFALO-LOUSE

—Haematopinus tuberculatus

Burmeister—ON INDIAN IN-

SECT TYPES, Aligarh Mus-

lim University Publications *

(Zoological Series) i

1948.

Ramakrishna Iyyer, | HANDBOOK OF ECONOMIC

T.V: ENTOMOLOGY FOR SOUTH

INDIA, 1940.

Riley, William A. &| MEpIcAL ENTOMOLOGY—A

Johannsen, Oskar A.| Survey of insects and allfed

forms which affects the health

of man and animals, and

Edition, 1938.

Ross, H. H. How TO COLLECT & PRESERVE

Insects, Illinois State Natural

History Survey, circular 39

(Third printing with ad-

ditions), 1949.

Rothschild, The Hon.| A REVISION OF THE PAPILIOS

Walter OF THE EASTERN HEMISPHERE,

exclusive of Africa from

Novitates Zoologicae Vol. II,

August, 1895.

Rothschild, The Hon.| A MONOGRAPH OF CHARAXES

Walter & Jordan, & THE ALLIED PRINOPTEROUS

Dr. K. GENERA from Novitates

Zoologicae Vol. V, Dec.

1898.

Saussure, M. Henri de] MELANGES ORTHOPTEROLOGI-

| QuES—Mémoires de la

Société de Physique et -~

D’Histoire Naturelle, de

Genevé, Tome, XXV—Secon-

de Partie, Fascicule, VI,

1877-1878.

do. MantTipEs—MeElanges Or-

thoptérologiques — Bulletin

de la Société Suisse D’En-

tomologie, Tome ITI,

1869.

do. PRODROME DES OEDIPODIENS

INSECTS DE L’ORDRE DES

ORTHOPTERES, Memoires de

la Société de Physique et

D’Histoire Naturelle de

Genéva, Tome, XXX, No.1,

1888.

Scott, Lt.-Col. (See Bell, T. R. D. & Scott,

F. B. Lt.-Col. F. B.)

(See Knowles, Maj. Robert &

Ronald: Senior-White, Ronald.)

BOOKS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY’S LIBRARY 339

Serial No.

Classification

Accession No

Shelf

Author

Title of Book

244

245

2.46

247

2.48

249

250

251

252

253

254.

255

Ent

225

226

227

228

229

230

231

201

175

126

oo 0

eae! calles)

eofes

Seitz, Dr. Adalbert

do.

Shipley, A. E.

Smart, John, Jordan,

Dr. Karl & Whit-

ticks= Re J:

Smart, John

do.

Snyder, Thomas

Elliott.

Stebbing, E. P.

do.

THE MACROLEPIDOPTERA OF

THE WORLD. A_ systematic

description of the known

Macrolepidoptera of the

Palearctic Region: The Pale-

arctic Butterflies—Diurnals,

Text, Secn. I, Vol. I, Tome,

I, 1909.

do. Plates.

do. The Palearctic Bombyces

and Sphinges, Text, Division

Lavolk ii, 1973.

do., Plates.

THE RHOPALOCERA OF THE

INDO-AUSTRALIAN FAUNAL

REGION, Vol. IX, 1908.

do. Plates.

do. Bombyces & Sphinges of

the Indo-Australian Region,

Phalaenae or Moths, (Tran-

slated into English by

Prout, L. B.) Text & plates,

Section II, Vol. X, 1908.

THE Minor Horrors oF War,

IQI5.

A HANDBOOK FOR THE IDEN-

TIFICATION OF INSECTS OF

MEDICAL IMPORTANCE, 1943.

Lice, British Museum (Natu-

ral = History) Economic

Series, No. 2A, 2nd. Edition,

1948.

(See White, R. Senior, Auber-

tin, Daphne & Smart,

)

(See Edwards, F.W., Oldroyd,

EH & Smart, J.)

OurR ENEMY THE ‘TERMITE

1935.

DEPARTMENTAL NOTES ON

INSECTS THAT AFFECT ForRES-

TRY, 1902.

INDIAN FOREST INSECTS OF

Economic importance—Cole-

optera, 1914.

INSECTS INTRUDERS IN INDIAN

HOoMEs.

do.

INDIAN Forest INSECTS of

Economic Importance.

Coleoptera, 1914.

A ManuaL OF ELEMENTARY

ForREST ZOOLOGY FoR INDIA,

1908.

340 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

| Sema ez

S 5 enle ae :

as D a Author Title{of Book !

a 2 O [ea 2 |

te a Se lc Hl es

Oo —

0) ) <x |O A) |

261 | Ent 179 (590 Strickland, C. & AN ILLUSTRATED KEY TO THE

Choudhury, K. L. IDENTIFICATION OF THE ANO- |

PHELINE LARVA OF INDIA, |

CEYLON & Mataya WEST

OF WALLACE’S LINE with

practical notes on their col-

lection, (with supplement

1931), 1927.

Swinhoe, Col. C. (See Cotes, E. C. & Swinhoe,

Col. ©).

262 | Ent 98 | 9 C do. CATALOGUE of Eastern & Aus-

tralian Lepidoptera Hete-

rocera in the collection of

the Oxford University

Museum—Sphinges &

Bombyces, Part, I, 1892.

263 | Ent 99 | 9 Q Swinhoe, Col. C, | do., Noctuina, Geometrina &

Walsingham, Rt. Pyralidina, Pterophoridae &

Hon. Lord & Dur- Teneina, Pt. II, 1900.

rant, John Hartley

264 | Ent 163 | 9 D Swinhoe, Col. C. LEPIDOPTERA INDICA: RHOo-

PALOCERA—F am. Papilio-

nidae, Subfam. Pierinae

(contd.), Fam. Lycaenidae,

Subfam. Gerydinae, Lycae-

nopsinae & Everinae, Vol.

VII, 1905-1910. (For vols.

I-VI see Moore, F.).

265 | Ent NOAR ao ALD do. do., Fam. Lycaenidae, Subfam.

Lycaeninae, Plebeinae, Lam-

pidinae, Chrysophaninae,

Poritiinae, Amblypodiinae,

Curetinae, Liphyrinae, Rura-

linae, Vol. VIII, 1910-1911.

266 | Ent 7165 |-on do. do., Fam. Lycaenidae (contd.)

Subfam. Horaginae, Deudo-

rixinae, Hypolycaeninae,

Zesiusinae, Asphnaeinae,

Biduandinae, Cheritrinae,

Loxurinae, Fam. Hesperii-

dae, Subfam. Ismeneinae,

Achalarinae, Vol. IX, 1911-

1912.

267 | Ent 166 | 9 D do. do., Fam. Hesperiidae, (contd.)

Subfam. Celaenorrhinae,

Hesperiinae, Pamphilinae,

Astictopterinae, Suastinae,

Erionotinae, Matapinae,

Notocryptinae, Plastingiinae,

Erynninae, followed by an

addenda of new Genera

& Species, a synopsis of

families and subfamilies and

an index of Genera & Species

for the complete work, Vol.

X, 1912-1913.

BOOKS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY’S LIBRARY 341

Author Title of Book

Cabinet

Accession No}

fe)

Oo nl

IE)

1S)

ori

“”

os)

©)

Serial No.

Shelf

268 | Ent F R| 315 Mus | Talbot, G. Tue Fauna oF BritisH INpra

INCLUDING CEYLON AND

Burma. Butterflies, Vol. I,

1 1939.

269 | Ent 39-| 9 B Theobald, Fred. V. | A MonocGrapH OF THE CULI-

CIDAE OR MOSQUITOES—

Mainly compiled from the

collection received at the

British Museum from

various parts of the world

in connection with the in-

vestigation into the cause of

Malaria conducted by the

colonial office and the Royal

; Society, Vol. I, 1gor.

do. dot Vok “Al; 700%

do. do. Vol. III, 1903.

do. do. Vol. IV, 1907.

do. Vol. V, 1910.

do. do. Plates, 1901.

Tillyard, R. J. THE Brotocy oF DRAGON-

FLIES (Odonata or Para-

neuroptera) Cambridge

ia Zoological Series, 1930.

- 276 | Ent Oy | Es Snes Uvarov, B. P Locusts AND GRASS HOPPERS—

; A handbook for their study

and control, 1928.

Walsingham, Lord | ILLustRaTIONS oF TYPICAL

SPECIMENS OF LEPIDOPTERA

HETEROCERA in the collec-

tion of the British Museum,

North-American Tortricidae,

Part, IV, 1879, (For parts

I-III & V-VII see Butler,

oe a Arthur Gardiner).

278-+-Ene - |. 127 |-9- D Wardle, Thomas INDIAN SILK CULTURE, being a

ae paper on the silks in the

Indian Silk Culture Court

at the Colonial and Indian

Exhibition, read in the con-

ference room on the 24th

June, 1886 & Descriptive

catalogue. Royal Com-

mission & Government of

India Silk Culture Court,

ed 1886.

279 | Ent 185 | 9} D do. HANDBOOK OF THE COLLEC-

, TION ILLUSTRATIVE OF WILD

SILKS OF INDIA, in the Indian

section of the South Ken-

sington Museum, with a cata-

logue of the collection and

numerous illustrations, 1881.

_ 280 | Ent 1ri8'| -o.+ C Warren, B. C. S. MonocraPH OF Genus Erebia.

British Museum (Natural

History), 1936.

SE SE EMS

270 | Ent 39

271 42E nt 40

2272 | Ent AI

273 | Ent 42

274 | Ent 43

275 | Ent 110

ououownonwowo

@lerkehe-he- es

io)

es)

°-297 |. Ent: 212 |25°-

342

Serial No.

282

283

284

285

286

287

- 288

289

290

291

2.92

293

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Classification

Ent

Ent FR

Accession No.

203

I2I

128

107

108

129

IOI

284.

Ent F R| 284A

Ent F R| 284B

Ent

109

Cabinet

Author

Shelf

C Waterhouse, G. A.

E Waterstone, James

C Watson, E. Y.

D Weed, Clarence M.

C Westwood, J. O.

do.

GaQ

@ Wheeler, William

Morton

B White, R. Senior—,

Aubertin, 'Daphne

& Smart, John

Mus do.

B do.

Whittick, R. J.

C Williams, C. B.

Wood, Rev. J. G.

Title of Book

WHat BUTTERFLY IS THAT?

A Guide to the Butterflies

of Australia, 1932.

FLEAS AS A MENACE TO MAN

AND DOMESTIC ANIMALS,

their life-history, habits and

control. British Museum

(Natura! History) Economic

Series No. 13, 1916.

HESPERIIDAE INDICAE, being a

reprint of Descriptions of

the Hesperiidae of India,

Burma and Ceylon, 1891.

BUTTERFLIES, The Nature Lib-

rary, 1926.

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE

MODERN CLASSIFICATION OF

Insects founded on natural

habits & corresponding

organization of the different

families, Vol. I, 1839.

do. Vol. II, 1840.

THE BUTTERFLIES OF GREAT

BRITAIN with their trans-

formation delineated & des-

cribed,\1855.

THE SOCIAL INSECTS :

Their Origin & Evolution,

1928.

THE FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA

INCLUDING THE REMAINDER OF

THE ORIENTAL REGION. Dip-

tera—Fam. Calliphoridae

Vol. VI, 1940.

(For Vols. I & III _ see

Brunetti, E. & for Vol. V

see Christopher, Lt.-Col.,

Sir S. R.)

do.

(See Smart, John, Jordan, Dr.

Karl & Whittick, R. J.)

THE MIGRATION OF BUTTER-

FLIES. Biological Mono-

graphs & Manuals, No. IX,

1930. :

INSECTS ABROAD, being a

popular account of foreign

insects, their structure,

habits and transformations,

1877.

D Woodhouse, L. G. O.| THE BUTTERFLY FAUNA OF

& Henry, G. M.R.

CEYLON. Ceylon fFournal of

Science, 1942.

deere eer reece rr er

BOOKS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY’S LIBRARY 343

: so

[e) bard

3 g

a &

a S)

295 | Ent

296 | Ent R

297 | EntR

298 | EntR

! ]

aS) »

pe a

1) fan}

< ©

116 | 9

11} 9

219

3 9

Shelf

©)

Author

Wroughton, Robert

Charles

Wytsman, P.

(General Editor)

do.

Title of Book

Our Ants. A Paper _ read

before the Bombay Natural

History Society, Parts I & II,

1891 & 1892.

GENERA INSECTORUM, FAasci-

cuLes [-XI:—

1. Fam. Gyrinidae (Coleop-

tera), Regimbart,

2. ,, Evaniidae (Hymeno-

ptera), Kieffer, J.J.

3. ,, Lathridiidae (Cole-

optera), Belon, Le

Re PB:

4. ,, Leptocircinae Le-

pidoptera), Wyts-

man, bat

5- 5, Libytheidae (Lepi-

doptera), Pagens-

techer, A.

6. ,, Ornithopteridae (Le

pidoptera, Rippon,

7. 4, Geotrupidae (Cole-

optera), | Bouco-

mont, A.

8. ,, Hylophylidae (Cole-

optera), Pic, M.

9. ,, Cynipidae i (Hy-

menoptera), ‘Tor-

re, W. Dalla &

Kieffer, J. J.

10. ,, Cynipidae ii (Hy-

menoptera), Tor-

re, W. Dalla &

Kieffer, J. J.

tr. ,, Mutillidae (Hyme-

noptera), Andre, E.

Volume I, 1902-

1903.

do, FascicuLes XII-XIV.

12. Coleoptera, Fam. Bu-

prestidae, Kerremans,Ch.

13. Coleoptera, Fam. Bur-

dae, Schenkling, S..

14. Coleoptera, Fam. Sagri-

dae, Jacoby, M. Volume

Il 1903.

do. FascIcuLes, XV-XIX.

15. Orthoptera Fam. Eumas-

tacidae, Burr, M.

16. Lepidoptera Fam. Edi-

copiidae, Janet, A. &

Wytsman, p.

17. Lepidoptera Fam. Hes-

peridae, Mabille, P.

344 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

fa)

i/p)

os)

—

Serial No.

299 | Ent R

zo1 | EntR

Accession No.

Cabinet

Shelf

j pidae, Torre, K. W. von

Dalla, Volume, III, 1904.

Wytsman, P. do. FAscICULES XX-XXIV.

Author Title of Book

18. Hymenoptera Fam. Ich-

neumonidae, Subfam.

Ichneumoniae, Berthou-

mieu, V.

19. Hymenoptera, Fam. Ves-

20. Lepidoptera. Fam. Nym-=—

phalidae, Subfam. Bras-

solinae, Stichel, H.

21. Coleoptera, Fam. Dona-

cidae, Jacoby, M. &

Clavareau, H.

22. Hymenoptera, Fam. Bra-

conidae, Szepligeti, Gy.

23. Coleoptera, Fam. Crio-

ceridae, Jacoby, M. &

Clavareau, H.

24. Heteroptera, Fam. Penta-

tomidae, Subfam. Scu-

tellerinae, Schouteden, H.

Volume IV, 1904.

FascICULES XXV-XXXI.

25. Isoptera Fam. Termiti-

dae, Desneux, J.

26. Diptera Fam. Culicidae,

Theobald, F. V.

27. Hymenoptera, Fam. Ly-

didae, Konow, F. W.

28. Hymenoptera, Fam. Siri-

cidae, Konow, F. W.

29. Hymenoptera, Fam. Ten-

parece: Konow, F.

do.

30. Heteroptera, Fam. Penta-

tomidae, Subfam. Grap-

hosomatinae, Schoute-

den, H.

31. Lepidoptera, Fam. Nym-

phalidae, Subfam. Dis-

cophorinae, Stichel, H.

Volume, V. 1904-1905.

do. FascicuLes XXXII-

XXXIX.

32. Coleoptera, Fam. Megas-

celidae, Jacoby, M. &

Clavareau, H.

33. Coleoptera, Fam. Megalo-

pidae, Jacoby, M. &

Clavareau, H.

34. Hymenoptera, Fam. Ich-

neumonidae, Subfam.

Pharsaliinae, Porizonti-

nae, Szepligeti, G. V.

do.

Serial No..

302

303

BOOKS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY’S LIBRARY 345

Classification

Ent R

”

i??)

13)

1o)

Cabinet

Shelf

Author

Wytsman, P.

do.

Title of Book

————

35. Coleoptera, Fam. Paussi-

dae, Desneux, J.

36. Lepidoptera, Fam. Nym-

phalidae, Subfam. Ama-

thusiinae, Stichel, H.

37. Lepidoptera, Fam. Nym-

phalidae, Subfam. Heli-

coniinae, Stichel, H.

38. Coleoptera, Fam. Cara-

bidae, Subfam. Anthii-

nae, Rousseau, E.

39. Lepidoptera, Fam. Nym-

phalidae, Subfam. Hyan-

thinae, Stichel, H.

Volume VI, 1905-1906.

do. FascicuLes XL-XLVII.

40. Coleoptera, Fam. Cara-

bidae, Subfam. Mor-

molycinae, Rousseau, E.

41. Coleoptera, Fam. Platyp-

sillidae, Desneux, J.

42. Diptera, Fam. Chirono-

midae, Kieffer, J. J.

43. Diptera, Fam. Muscari-

dae, Subfam. Oestrinae,

Bau, A.

44. Diptera, Fam. Phoridae,

Brues, Ch. T.

45. Collembola, Fam. Neeli-

dae, Borner, C.

46. Coleoptera, Fam. Elateri-

dae, Schwarz, O.

Volume VII, 1906.

do. FASCICULES, XLVII-

TEL.

47. Heteroptera, Fam. Penta-

tomidae, Subfam. Aphy-

linae, Schouteden,

48. Orthoptera, Fam. Acri-

diidae, Subfam. ‘Tetri-

ginae, Hancock, J. L.

49. Coleoptera, Fam. Chry-

somelidae, Subfam. Cly-

trinae, Jacoby, M. &

Clavareau, H.

50. Coleoptera, Fam. Plasto-

ceridae, Schwarz, O.

51. Coleoptera, Fam. Dicro-

nychidae, Schwarz, O.

52. Heteroptera, Fam. Penta-

tomidae, Subfam. Aso«

pinae (Amyoteinae),

Schouteden, H.

53. Coleoptera, Fam. lLam-

pyridae, Oliver, E.

346 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Author Title of Book

Serial No

Classificatio

Accession No

Shelf. —

54. Hymenoptera, Fam. Dry-

inidae, Kieffer, J. J.

Volume VIII, 1906-1907.

do. FascicuLses, LV-LX.

55. Orthoptera, Fam. Blatti-

dae, Subfam. _ Ecto-

binae, Shelford, R.

56. Diptera, Fam. Blepharo-

ceridae, Kellogg, V.

57. Lepidoptera, Fam. Sphin-—

gidae, Rothschild, W.

de. & Jordan, K.:

58. Lepidoptera, Fam. Papili-

onidae, Subfam. Par-

nassiinae, Stichel, H.

59. Lepidoptera, Fam. Papi-

lionidae, Subfam. Zeryn-

thiinae, Stichel, H.

60. Trichoptera, Ulmer, G.

Volume IX, 1907.

do. Fascicutes, LXI-LXIV.

61. Hymenoptera, Fam. ‘Tri-

gonalidae, Schulz, W. A.

62. Hymenoptera, Fam. Ich-

neumonidae Subfam.

Pimplinae, Schmiedek-

necht, O.

63. Lepidoptera, Fam. Nym-

phalidae, Subfam. Dio-

ninae, Stichel, H.

64. Coleoptera, Fam. | Psela-

phidae, Raffray, A.

Volume X, 1908.

do. FascicuLes, LXV-LXXV.

65. Coleoptera, Fam. Bren-

thidae, Sch6nfeldt, H.

304 | EntR 9 |9o| A Wytsman, P.

305 | EntR 10 9 A do.

306 | EntR Ir | 9 A do.

von

66. Mallophaga, Kellogg, V. L.

67. Neuroptera, Fam. Coni-

opterygidae, Enderlein,

68. Diptera, Fam. Muscari-

dae, Subfam, Lauxani-

nae, Hendel, F.

69. Coleoptera, Fam. Curcu-

lionidae, Subfam. Enti-

minae, Bovie, A.

' 70. Coleoptera, Fam. Curcu-

lionidae, Subfam. Crypto-

derminae, Bovie, A.

71. Coleoptera, Fam. Curcu-

lionidae, Subfam. Alci-

dinae, Bovie, A.

72. Orthoptera, Bovie, Locus-

tidae, Subfam. Decti-

cinae, Caudell, A. N.

BOOKS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY’S LIBRARY 347

P|)

"2 7)

op 3

n se)

=207-| Ent R

308 | Ent R

~ 309 | Ent R

Accession No

& =

a) o

5] a

9 A

Author

Wytsman, P.

do.

Title of Book

73. Orthoptera, Bovie, Blat-

tidae, Subfam. Phyllo-

dromiinae, Shelford, R.

74. Orthoptera, Bovie, Nycti-

borinae, Shelford, R.

75. Hymenoptera, Fam. Ich-

neumonidae, Subfam.

Cryptinae, Schmiedek-

necht, O.

Volume XI, 1908.

do., _Fascicutes, LXXVI-

LXXXI.

76. Hymenoptera, Fam. Bethy-

lidae, Kieffer, J.J:

a, Hymenoptera, Fam.

Stephanidae, Kieffer, J.J.

78. Coleoptera, Fam. Eroty-

lidae, Subfam. Langu-

riidae, Fowler, W. W.

79. Diptera, Fam. Muscari-

dae, Subfam. Pyrgo-

tinae, Hendel, F.

80. Hymenoptera, Fam. Sceli-

onidae, Brues, C. T.

81. Anoplura, Torre, K.W. von,

Dalla Volume XXII,

1908.

do. FascicuLtes, UXXXII-

“LXXXV VI.

82. Coleoptera, Fam. Cara-

bidae, Subfam. Cicin-

delinae, Horn, W.

83. Coleoptera, Fam. Cara-

bidae, Subfam. Omo-

. _phroninae, Rousseau, E.

84. Coleoptera, Fam. Cara-

bidae, Subfam. Prome-

cognathinae, Rousseau, E.

85. Coleoptera, Fam. Cara-

bidae, Subfam. Pambori-

nae, Rousseau, E.

86. Coleoptera, Fam. Cara-

bidae, Subfam. Loroceri-

nae, Rousseau, E.

Volume XIII, 1908- -IQIO.

do. FASCICULES, SOOKE

XCIII

87. Hance Fam. Aley-

rodidae, Quaintance,

okt

*88, Coleoptera, Fam. Eroty-

lidae, Subfam. Eroty-

linae, Kuhnt, P.

89. Coleoptera, Fam. Curcu-

lionidae, Subfam. Lae-

mosaccinae, Bovie, A.

348 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL UIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Serial No.

Classification

310 | EntR

Accession No.

| Cabinet

Shelf

FSi OM, A

Author

Wytsman, P.

Title of Book

go. Orthoptera, Fam. Acri-

diidae, Subfam. Pyrgo-

morphinae, Bolivar, I.

91. Coleoptera, Fam. Curcu-

lionidae, Subfam. Beli-

nae, Lea, A. M. &

Bovie, A.

92. Coleoptera, Fam. Curcu-

lionidae, Subfam. Gym-

netrinae, Bovie, A.

93. Diptera, Fam. Myceto-

philidae, Johannsen,

O. A

Volume XIV, 1909.

do. FASCICULES, XCIV-

_XCVII.

94. Hymenoptera, Fam. Cera-

phronidae, Kieffer, J. J.

95. Hymenoptera, Fam. Ser-

phidae, Kieffer, J. J.

96. Diptera, Fam. Muscari-

dae, Subfam. Pterocal-

linae, Hendel, F.

97. Hymenoptera, Fam. Chal-

eae: Schmiedeknecht,

Volume XV, 1909.

do. Fascicutes, XCVIII-

CVII.

98. Coleoptera, Fam. Curcu-

lionidae, Subfam. Nano-

phyinae, Bovie, A.

99. Coleoptera, Fam. Curculio-

niadae Subfam. Brachy-

cerinae, Bovie, A.

100. Lepidoptera Heterocera,

Fam. Pterophoridae,

Meyrick, E.

101. Orthoptera, Fam. Blat-

tidae, Subfam. Epilam-

prinae, Shelford, R.

102. Hymenoptera, Fam. For-

micidae, Subfam. Dory-

linae, Emery, C.

103. Lepidoptera Heterocera,

Fam. Geometridae, In-

troduction et Subfam.

Brephinae, Prout,. L.

104. Lepidoptera Heterocera,

Fam. Geometridae, Sub-=

fam. | Oenochrominae,

Prout, L. B.

105. Hymenoptera, Fam.

Thynnidae, Turner, R.

BOOKS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY’S LIBRARY 349

Author Title of Book.

Serial No.

Classification

Accession No.

Cabinet

Shelf

106. Diptera, Fam. Muscari-

dae, Subfam. Ulidii-

nae, Hendel, F.

107. Hymenoptera, Fam. Bely-

tidae, Kieffer, J. J.

Volume XVI, _ 1910.

are) dnt R Ln) 9 A Wytsman, P. do. Fascicuutes, CVIII-CXI.

108. Lepidoptera MHeterocera,

Fam. Orneodidae, Mey-

rick, E.

109. Orthoptera, Fam. Blat-

tidae, Subfam. Blai-

tinae, Shelford, R.

110. Coleoptera, Fam. Apho-

diidae, Schmidt, A.

111. Coleoptera, Fam. Ipidae,

Hagedorn, M.

Volume XVII, 1910.

313 | EntR 18. | 9). A do. do. Fascicu.es, CXII.

112. Lepidoptera Rhopalo-

cera, Fam. Riodinidae.

Introduction et Subfam.

Riodininae, Stichel, H.

Volume XVIII, rorr.

314 | EntR 19,| 9: A do. do. _FascIcutes, CXITI-

CXXI.

113. Diptera, Fam. Muscari-

dae, Subfam. Richard-

iinae, Hendel, F.

114. Hymenoptera, Fam. Ich-

neumonidae, Gruppe

Mesochoroidae, SZep-

ligeti, G. V.

115. Odonata, Fam. Aesch-

nidae, Subfam. Aesch-

ninae, Martin, R.

116. Coleoptera, Fam. Cara-

bidae, Subfam. Met-

riinae et Mystropo-

minae, Dupuis, P.

117. Coleoptera, Fam. Cara-

bidae, Subfam. Apoto-

minae, Dupuis, P.

118. Hymenoptera, Fam. For-

micidae, Subfam. Poneri-

nae, Emery, C.

119. Orthoptera, Fam. Man-

tidae, Subfam. Vatinae,

Rehn, J. A. G.

120. Orthoptera, Fam. Locus-

tidae, Subfam. Propha-

eon sinae, Caudell, A.

121. Strepsiptera, Pierce, W.

Dwight Volume XIX,

1913.

350 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Author Title of Book

Serial No.

Classification

Necession No.

Cabinet

Shelf

Wytsman, P. do. FAscIcuLes, CXXII-

CXXVIITI.

122. Dermaptera, Burr, M.

123. Coleoptera, Fam. Carabi-

dae, Subfam. Psydrinae,

Dupuis, P.

124. Hymenoptera, Fam. Dia-

priidae, Kieffer, J. J.

125. Coleoptera, Fam. Chry-

somelidae, Subfam. His-

pinae, Weise, J.

126 Coleoptera, Fam. Cara-

bidae, Subfam. Opis-

thiinae, Dupuis, P.

127. Coleoptera, Fam. Ceb-

rionidae, Torre, K. W.

von. Dalla

128.. Lepidoptera Heterocera,

Fam. ~% Gracilariadae

Meyrick, E. Volume

XX, 1913. Wa

316 | EntR 204-9 “A do. do. FASCICULES,* CXXIX¢

CXXXIV.

-129. Lepidoptera MHeterocera,

Fam. Geometridae,

Subfam. Hemitheinae,

Prout, L. B.

130. Coleoptera, Fam. Cur-

culionidae, Subfam. —

Apioninae, Wagner, H. |

131. Orthoptera, Fam. Locus-

tidae, Subfam. Listros-

celinae, Karny, H.

132. Lepidoptera MHeterocera,

Fam. Micropterygidae,

Meyrick, E.

133. Lepidoptera Heterocera,

Fam. Adelidae, Mey-

rick, E.

134. Coleoptera, Fam. Cara-

bidae, Subfam. Notio-

philinae, Dupuis,

Volume XXI, 1913.

317 | EntR 22 AO al aes do. do. FascicuLes, CXXXV-

CXLIITI.

135. Orthoptera, Fam. Locus-

tidae, Subfam. Cono-

cephalinae, Karny, H.

136. Neuroptera, Fam. Ne-

mopteridae, Navas,

iL; F

315 | EntR 20 | 9

137. Hymenoptera, Fam. For-

micidae, Subfam. Doli-

choderinae, Emery, C.

BOOKS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY’S LIBRARY 351

Serial No.

Author Title of Book

. Classification

Accession No.

Cabinet

Shelf

138. Orthoptera, Fam. Locus-

tidae, Subfam. Meco-

neminae, Phyllopho-

rinae, ‘Tympanopho-

rinae, | Phasconurinae,

Phasmedinae, __ Brady-

porinae, Caudell, A. N.

139. Orthoptera, Fam. Locus-

tidae, Subfam. Copi-

phorinae, Karny, H.

140. Orthoptera, Fam. Locus-

tidae, Subfam. Ephip-

pigerinae, Caudell,

H. N

141. Orthoptera, Fam. Locus- -

tidae, Subfam. Agrae-

ciinae, Karny, H.

142. Homoptera, Fam. Cica-

didae, Subfam. Cica-

dinae, Distant, W. L.

143. Homoptera, Fam. Cer-

copidae, Lallemand, V.

Volume XXII, 1913.

Ent R 23/9] A Wytsman, P. do. ag errs CXLIV-

144. Orthoptera, Fam. Man-

tidae, Perlamantinae,

Giglio-Tos, E.

145. Coleoptera, Fam. Cara-

bidae, Subfam. Penta-

gonicinae, Dupuis, P.

146. Coleoptera, Fam. Cara-

bidae, Subfam. Pele-

ciinae, Dupuis. P.

147. Coleoptera, Fam. Cara-

bidae, Subfam. Hexa-

goniinae, Dupuis, P.

148. Diptera, Fam. Therevi-

dae, Kréber, O.

. Lepidoptera Heterocera,

Fam. Tortricidae, Mey-

rick, E.

. Goleoptera, Fam. Scara-

baeidae, Subfam. Aegia-

liinae, Chironinae, Dyn-

amopinae, Hybosori-

nae, Idiostominae,

Ochodaeinae, Orphni-

nae, Schmidt, A.

151. Hymenoptera, Fam.

Chrysididae, Bischoff,

H. Volume XXIII,

1913.

do. Fascicutses, CLII-CLVI.

152. Diptera, Fam. Cecido-

myidae, Kieffer, J. J.

I 4

on -

fe) Ke)

Eni R 249 | A do.

352

Serial No.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Classification

Accession No.

320

321

Ent FR

Ent R

Author

Cabinet

Shelf

Wytsman, P.

9| A do.

H5ae

154.

155.

156.

do.

15 Je

158.

159.

160.

161.

162.

163.

do.

164.

165.

166.

167.

168.

Title of Book

Heteroptera, Fam. Pen-

tatomidae, Subfam.

Dinidorinae, Schoute-

den, H.

Megaloptera, Fam.

Raphididae, Petersen, E.

Odonata, Fam. Libellu-

lidae, Subfam. Cor-

dulinae, Martin, R.

Neuroptera, Fam. Dila- _

ridae, Navas, iG;

Volume XXIV, 1913-

1914.

FASCICULES, CLVII-

CLXIII.

Diptera, Fam. Muscari-

dae, Subfam. Platy-

stominae, Hendel, F.

Homoptera, Fam. Cica-

didae, Subfam. Gaea-

ninae, Distant, W. L.

Coleoptera, Fam. Chrys-

omelidae, Subfam.

Lamprosominae, Ach-

ard, J.

Coleoptera, Fam. Chrys-

omelidae, Subfam.

Chlamydae & Sphaero-

charinae, Achard, J.

Diptera, Fam. Omphra-

lidae, Kroéber, O

Coleoptera, Fam. Chapui-

slidae, Strohmeyer,

Coleoptera Fam. Platy-

podidae, Strohmeyer,

Volume XXV,

1914.

FAScICULES, CLXIV-

CLXIX.

Lepidoptera Heterocera

Fam. Glyphipterygi-

dae, Meyrick, E

Lepidoptera

Fam. Heliodinidae,

Meyrick, E.

Coleoptera, Fam. His-

teridae, Bickhardt, H.

Orthoptera, Fam. Locus-

tidae, Subfam. Saginae,

Caudell, A. N.

Orthoptera, Fam. Locus-

tidae, Subfam. Hetro-

dinae, Caudell, A. N.

Heterocera

BOOKS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY’S LIBRARY 353

Reece A

fe) = qd

Z & ‘3 o Author

a D 2 & =

5 & Shira Vom

<9) So) < |0 n ; z

322 | EntR Zant woul y A Wytsman, P.

B23 | Ent R 20m |e | A do.

324 | Ent R Zu Ou aes do.

Ent R 30.9 A -do.

525 ||

Title of Book

169. Lepidoptera Rhopalo-

cera, Fam. Nymphali-

dae, Subfam. Acraeinae,

Jordan, K. & Eltring-

ham, H.

Volume XXVI, 1914-

1916.

do. FASCICULES, CLXX-

CLXXIII.

170. Oxihoptera, Fam. Acri-

diidae, Subfam. Pam-

phaginae, Bolivar, I.

171. Orthoptera, Fam. Locus-

tidae, Subfam. Meco-

podinae, Caudell, A. N.

172. Coleoptera, Fam. Cer-

ambycidae, Subfam.

Prioninae, Lameere, A.

173. Coleoptera, Fam. Sta-

phylinidae, Subfam.

Aleocharinae, Fenyes, A.

Volume XXVII, r1919-

1921.

do. FascicuLes, CLXXIV-

CLXXV.

174. Hymenoptera, Fam. For-

| micidae, Subfam. Myr-

| micinae, Emery, C.

w75. Diptera, Fam. 'Tabani-

dae, Surcouf, J.

Volume XXVIII, 1921-

1922.

do. FascicuLes, CLXXVI-

| CLXXX.

176. Coleoptera, Fam. T'ene-

brionidae, Subfam. Zo-

| phosinae, Chatanay, J.

177. Orthoptera, Fam. Man-

| tidae, Subfam. Eremia-

| philinae, Giglio-Tos, E. .

178. Coleoptera, Fam. Cer-

ambycidae, Subfam.

Disteniine, Lepturinae,

Boppe, P.

179. Lepidoptera Heterocera,

Fam. Carposinidae,

Meyrick, E.

180. Lepidoptera Heterocera,

| Fam. Oecophoridae,

Meyrick, E.

Volume XXIX, 1921-

1922.

do. FascicuLes, CLXXXI-

| CLXXXIV.

Serial No.

Classification |

Author

' Accession No.i

Cabinet

Shelf

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49°

Title of Book

326

327

_ Ent

76 | 9 | C Zeuner, Frederick

| Eberhard

Wal 9 | C | do.

= oe el

181. Hymenoptera, Fam. Api-

Geoffrey.

182. Homoptera, Acanalonii- —

dae, Flatidae & Rica-

niidae, Melichar, L. ‘

183. Hymenoptera, Fam. For- |

micidae, Subfam. For-

micinae, Emery, C.

184. Lepidoptera Heterocera,

Fam. Gelechiadae, —

Meyrick, E. Volume ©

XXX, 1923-1925.

ENSIFERA, Text, British

Museum (Natural His-

tory), 1939.

do. Plates, 1939.

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS,

18 CHURCH ROAD, VEPERY, MADRAS,—1950. C1581

EDITORS: SALIM ALI, S. B. SETNA AND H. SANTAPAU

114 APOLLO STREET, FORT, BOMBAY

dae, Subfam. Proso- 7

| pidinae, Meade-Waldo, 4

~Fossit ORTHOPTERA _

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

: Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the

4q editors by observing the following instructions :

q 1, Papers which have at the same time been offered for publica-

tion to other journals or periodicals, or have already been published

_ elsewhere, should not be submitted.

2. The MS should preferably be typed (double spacing) on

- one side of a sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered.

4 All scientific names, to be printed in italics, should be under-

- lined. Both in zoological and in botanical references only the initial

letter of the genus is capitalized. The specific and sub-specific names

_ always begin with a small letter even if they refer to a person or a

_ place, e.g. Anthus hodgson hodgson or Streptopelia chinensis suratensis

or Dimeria blatteri.

q 4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where

_ identification has been authentically established by comparison of

_ specimens actually collected. In all other cases, or where identification

is based merely on sight, binomials should be used.

. 5. Photographs for reproduction must be clear and show good

contrast. Prints must be of a size not smaller than 34 x 24 inches

_ (No. 2 Brownie) and on glossy glazed paper.

a 6. Text figures, line drawings and maps should be in Indian ink,

_ preferably on Bristol board.

_ 7. References to literature should be pitted at the end of the

paper, alphabetically arranged under author’s name with the abridged

if titles of journals or periodicals underlined (italics), and Boe of books

a not underlined (roman type), thus ;

____ Roepke, W. (1949); The Genus Nyctemera Hubner. Trans. ent.

Soc. Lond., 100 (2): 47-70.

7 Prater, S. H. (1948); The Book of Indian Animals, Bombay.

Titles of papers should not be underlined.

a 8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting

_ the author’s name and year of publication, thus: (Roepke, 1949).

a g- Synopsis: As recommended by the Royal Society Scientific In-

_ formation Conference (July 1948), the editors consider it desirable that

each scientific paper be accompanied by a synopsis appearing at the

_ beginning, immediately after the title. The synopsis should be factual.

_ It should convey briefly the content of the paper; draw attention to

all new information and to the author’s main conclusions. It should

also indicate newly observed facts, the method and conclusions of an

experiment, and if possible the essential points of any new finding,

_ theory or technique. It should be concise and normally not exceed

_ 200 words. )

When the synopsis is complete it should be carefully revised by

_ the author to clarify obscurities, and further compressed wherever

_ possible without detracting from its usefulness.

114 Apollo Street, Fort, EDITORS,

Bombay 1. 3 Journal of the Bombay Natural

History Society.

THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS.

Mammals.

Book of Indian Animals, by S. H. Prater, with many coloured and black antl ae

white plates. : Rs. 16.

; . (Price to Members Rs. 13). .

Birds. : .

Game Birds of India, Vol. III. Pheasants, 1st’Edition. Rs. 32.

(Price to Members Rs. 24)

Book of Indian Birds, by SAlim Ali, with many colour and black and white

plates, 4th edition, ‘revised and enlarged. Rs. 16.

(Price to Members Rs. 12-8).

Set of 12 Coloured Picture Postcards of Common Indian Birds. Rs. 2-4 net. H

Fish. j

Circumventing the Mahseer and Other Sporting Fish in India and _

Burma. : Rs. 15. i

(Price to Members Rs. 12). .

Snakes. | Z

Identification of Poisonous Snakes— * . ,

Folding Chart. : Rs, 2-8.

Miscellaneous.

Wall Chart to distinguish a Wild Dog from a Domestic Dog or Jackal,

etc. Rs, 2-8.

Back Numbers of the Journal. ties ‘

Back numbers of the Society’s Journal. Rates on application.

‘ &

Obtainable from: | ;

The Honorary Secretary, ‘4

Bombay Natural History Society 3

114 Apollo Street, Bombay I. %,

London Agents: é

David Nutt (A. G. Berry) §

212 Shaftesbury Avenue &

London, W.C.2.

TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP.

Life Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 25 and a Life Membership fee of

Rs. 500.

Ordinary Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 25 and an annual subscrip- _

tion of Rs. 30.

The subscription of members elected in October, November and December

covers the period from the date of their election up till the end of the tole

year.

MEMBERS RESIDING OUTSIDE INDIA.

The terms are the same for members living outside India. Such members

should pay their subscriptions by means of orders on their Bankers to pay the ©

amount of the subscription, plus postage—in all Rs. 31-12-0 to the Society in

Bombay on the 1st January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum

of £2-8-o should be paid’ annually to the Society’s London Bankers—The

National Bank of India, Bishopsgate Street, London, E.C.

THE (rosie)

: yi 3 )

JOURNAL ee

LIBRARY

OF THE

ip.

OMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

INDEX AND TITLE PAGE

VOL. 49

NOS. 3 & 4

Price Rs. 3-0-0

MADRAS

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS

1952

INSTRUCTIONS TO BINDER

The contents of these two parts should be arranged in the

following order when they are being bound :—

Title page

eee eo> eve \

Contents of Nos. 3 & 4 of Vol. 49... |

List of contributors a .. ) lo follow frontis-

piece in this order.

List of plates

Index to illustrations

To go at the end of

Index to species : ces ae

the two numbers.

THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

EDITED BY

SALIM ALI, S. B. SETNA, ph.p., and H. SANTAPAU, sy,

VOL. 49

Nos. 3 & 4

Containing 1 coloured plate, 25 black and white plates,

5 photographs, 12 maps, 18 text figures and 1 graph

Dates of Publication

Part 3. (Pages 355 to 596) ... December, 1950

sf (5, «©5897 to 832) ... April, 1951

‘LONDON AGENTS

MESSRS. WHELDON & WESLEY LTD.,

_83/84 Berwick Street,

LONDON, W. 1.

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS

1952

AUG 6

30MBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

1955

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 49

No. 3

BIRDS FROM NEPAL, 1947-1949. By S. Dillon Ripley. (Wzth

a map, 1 coloured and 2 black and white plates)..........0... 399

Y JUNGLE Memorigs. Part VII—WILpD GoaTs AND SHEEP.

By Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian-Adams, 0.B.B., F.Z.S., I.A.

PAGR

GNCtG a (Vt 1 a PIALES en iasede carl csjes usec dia sssiccdeee yansee 4 LO

A PLRA FOR THE PRESERVATION OF WILD PLANTS. By H.

AMA AUG SI.) (120 @ PIQLE )ancceaieedwsigesiaice-tegaeeOewensmes, , GOL

A PRELIMINARY SURVEY OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE MAL-

LOPHAGA (‘FEATHER LICE’) ON THE CLass AVES

(BirDs). By Theresa ma (With 2 plates and 3 text

, - figures)... Bie eiete seta cet vu's sulskawene eens feeiees Pearce

ON THE cae Lanius pe (uieots), WITH RE-

MARKS ON THE erythronotus AND tricolor GROUPS OF

Lanius schach LINNE, AND THEIR Hysrips. By Biswa-

moyaBiswase: .CW/tlh @. MAP)... .pensestosiswes vosdess sgcewesenss 444

THE GIR ForREST AND ITs Lions. PART II. By M.A.

Wynter-Blyth, m.a. (Cantab.), F.R.E.S., and Kumar Shree

Dharmakumarsinhji. (With a Plate).ccccccocccccscconsescereee 456

NOTES ON SOME ASIATIC STURNIDAE (BIRDS). By Daniel

Manion. tuCH2E7. BLERL IAD)... ean ected a eseceavewcrsanverces 47 1

On A COLLECTION. OF BUTTERFLIES FROM THE BALIPARA

FRONTIER TRACT AND THE SUBANSIRI AREA (NORTHERN

Assam. By F.N. Betts. (With a sketch map)............ 488

WILSON’S STORM-PETRELS, SHEARWATERS AND OTHER SEA-

BIRDS IN THE GULF OF ADEN AND INDIAN OCEAN. By

VEO Ace TID Se aetonseercaieds ce caetrdor icsccsseereeesieeets cnend 003

TURTLE FISHING IN THE SEA AROUND KRUSADAI Tous By

G. K. Kuriyan. (With a text figure)ieccccccccccsonsescsssorees 509

MORE NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE NEPAL VALLEY. By

tebe OM VLIICSs oh ccs cas we ech ceutie nal (Oneeu tic. s essed sesetucd ee 2 513

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BIONOMICS AND FISHERY OF THE

BRowN Mussgt (Mytilus sp.) OF THE CAPE REGION OF

PENINSULAR INDIA, ByS. Jones. (Witha text map and

UOOUDIALES meme atijasasteneclscccesscntes jest ss. cu)-cnecuees 519

EDIBLE CHELONIANS AND THEIR PRODUCTS. By M. N.

NCHA MiSCiven sen tain iieies cre sdetiaenteeMicciisciectaesssactatas 529

430

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 49

Elephant Bill. By Lt.-Col. J. H. Williams,

O.B.E., with a foreword by Field-Marshal Sir William

Slim,‘G-B.£., ‘K.C5B.;,D.S1O@.;, M-C..qE.E:G:) =n eee

A short guide tothe Natural History Section

in the Provincial Museum, Lucknow. By M. M.

Nagar, M.A., U.P.E.S. (S.A.)...

REVIEWS :—

V/ db

Birds of Ceylon I. By W. W. A. ‘Phillips, F.L.S.,

M.B.0.U.; °F.Z.S.(S.A.)..:

eee fence

Additions to the. anne Natural Histote

Society’s Library since July, 1950......... 0.0.00 00

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

A Tiger Fight. By Lt.-Col. W. D. Ritchie, 1.m.s.

(Retd.)...

Death cry of leer “By Lt.-Col. R. Me Burton, -

ee 5388

TA. CR Ctds re. Ab ore

Rabies in Tiers Sea duties! ge Lt.-

Col. R. W. Burton, 1.4. (Retd.)... a

The ‘ Dew-claws’ of the muta Leooara’ or

~Cheetah [Acinonyx -jubatus Gaereee By

Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, 1.4. (Retd.)... BA

Notes on the Clouded Leopard [Neotelis Mebane

(Griffith)]|. By C. A. Gibson-Hill. (Wzth a

Plate yer. : A Sep wilaeraner ieee ean

The eetee death are a icone: “By i. Rynjahoee

A doe Cheetal with horns. By Chandra Chur.....

The occurrence of albino and melanic rats. By

J. lL. Harrison, M.SCies ee

. *Soori Phanda’. By B. E. Simpihicn

Large Grey Babbler attacking metal Ries ‘of

wheel.of car. “By H.G. Alexanderen=..5csee ,

Common Mynah (4eridotheres tristis) nesting in

- the nest of Pied Mynah (Sturnopastor contra. ) By

Ke... Rirkpatrick 5 ee eee

Peculiar roosting site of the House Swift (J/icro-

pus affinis). By Kenneth M. Kirkpatrick.........

Tameness of Wild Grey Lag Geese taken as

adults. « By JamalvA rateses 2s eee eee

Stray bird notes from Malabar. By K. K. Neela-

kantan, B.A. (Hons.)... aS!

Stray bird notes from Tibet. (Be Bae

Scent of Game-birds. By A. St. J. Mecdoratae

PAGE

538

541

543.

546

547

548

549

550

551

552

553

72993

336

a1.

(leag

2G:

24.

29%

20,

Bite

ZO;

30.

31,

32.

33,

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 49

Field identification of birds: Notes on the Hood-

wink (Disstmulatrix ole By M. F. A.

Meiklejohn... nee Aer onhee wtidooaee ves

The record FRRREGIATE s Vipers fiz ipera russellt

(Shaw)]. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, 1.4. (Retd.)

. A Dhaman or Rat-Snake [Ptyas mucosus (Linn.)]

AULIOINGS | POV IN. pO HALL. .: Seweclstsecis eeederso tes

The record Hamadryad or King Cobra [aja

hannah (Cantoer)] and lengths and weights of

large specimens. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, 1.4.

(Retd. i: ouaiiis

Breeding oe the Conran NGiiTonen a goramy

(Lacepede)] in Indian rivers. By P. I. Chacko

and A. R. K. Zobairi.. Meciors caacematcen ee

Fish and barometric pressure. ah Humayun

Abdulali.. :

Note on an ae specimen ent the. Niceren

Ophicephalus striatus Bloch. By K. H. Alikunhi.

(With a text figure)... : ; Set wicise

Occurrence of the fish “Danio yore

- (McClelland) in Nela Bilam—an underground

cavern in Kurnool District, South India. By

We Ke Charts. hex

Where do Bultcees o go? rs = ., a tae On roe

The early stages of Lycaenopsis huegelit. By T.

Norman... ae aires

Brownish- sallow fotins of Papilio ieioleus ies ct

D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S.. as

Seasonal forms of Cafopsilia spp. {opy D. G Gauae

tOPUIO; PURVES sco, facies Lado smeens BG saeco eee

Food-plant of Delias eucharés ahs ope DPG

Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S...

Occurrence of the Fairy ies ye ina Stowe

tank: in Tirunelveli District, Madras. By P.I. -

Chacko... thie caneetecs

A four- eee eiiara in fe ‘eter ie ile

lelea integrifolia Planch. By S. N. Chandra-

sekharan and J. Sakharam Rao. (With a photo).

Two interesting abnormalities in the Common

Indian Corn, Zea mays Linn. By S. A. Paran-

dekar, m.sc. (With three text figures)...

Some phenological notes on Dzllenia indica Linn.

By K, Subramanyam... Meals ui receel (eed casyeas neck

560

561

564

565

566

569

570

fil

vi CONTENTS OF VOLUME 49

PAGE

34. Further remarks on the flowering of Stvobzlanthes.

By H. Santapau, s.J.. oe 575

35. The flowering of Sib otelandeeh Mey (Miss) Even

Bowden... ee decane ee 576

36. :A note on the Pe echore iafptesecnecd in co |

pogon monostachyos K. Schum. By SN. . |

Chandrasekharan and J. Sakharam Rao. (With |

a text ee Sly (Sede a Fe atte dll. CEL ee ete ean mmemOOT/ ET

3. GleaningSrc.cc eee sale eaetae f OS

Annual Report of ms ee ec) nee Seep

for the year ending 31st December, 1949.................. 581

ANNOUNCEMENTS. en fe ee ee ee eee oS

No. 4

} JuncLE Memortgcs, Part VIII—SomeE more Ticers. By

Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian-Adams, 0.8.8., F.z.S., 1.4. (Retd.) 597

SomE Norges oN Birps IN LAuwuL. By H.G. Alexander.

(With @ sketch ma py. ciseiiiivenesevsendedtes tee steaes tel oeees ee OOS

HILsA FISHERIES IN THE NARBADA RIVER. By C. V. Kul-

katani, M:sc., Php. “(Wa74£h three text frgtves\iescd:. ess) OL

THE GENus Dioscorea IN BOMBAY STATE. By H. Santapau,

s.J. (With three plates)... Soins «screen 624

A YEAR ON A TIGRIS ISLAND. “By Dig less Wiltshire, F.R.E.S.

(With a map, 3 plates, one text figure anda graph).......... 637

A New RACE OF THE GROUND-THRUSH Zurdus cilrinus

(Aves: TuRDIDAE). By Biswamoy Biswas...........000... 66]

Cowrigs (MOLLUSCA, GASTROPODA: FAMILY CYPRAEIDAE).

By. H. C. Ray, M.Sc., D. PHIL. (With two plates)............ 663

On A COLLECTION OF FISH FROM THE ANAMALAI AND

NELLIAMPATHI HILL RANGES (WESTERN GHATS) WITH

NOTES ON ITS ZOOGEOGRAPHICAL SIGNIFICANCES. By

E. G. Silas, B.Sc. oe es a plate and two text

MOPS \nurvaswedrserevieed ivniud acarrebhant ies taesioas mab aetar yews t een mLOTO

pM A NEW GENUS OF GRAMINEAE (Onassis). By

M. B. Raizada and S. K. Jain. (With one plate)... eoebe OSS

THE GIR Forrst anp Ts Lions. Part ITI, By. K. S.

Dharmakumarsinhiji and M. A. ih hears Pe M.A.

(Cantab.), F.R.E.S.. shi Seeecivc cathene, tee tok 685

SoME BrrD ASSOCIATIONS OF Bone ‘By M. i ee

(With a 'skeicle Map) 0 see esvegn rey nattee ysis ana eset

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 49

GAME SANCTUARIES IN BurMA (Pre-1942) wITH PRESENT

STATUS OF RHINOCEROS AND THAMIN. By Lt.-Col.

R. W. Burton, 1.A. (Retd.). (With two plates)..............

ON THE HyDRO-BIOLOGICAL DATA COLLECTED ON THE

WADGE BANK EARLY IN 1949. By K. Chidambaram and

A. D. Isaac Rajendran... oe Cie Moco er aN US omer Scheme

WILD LIFE RESERVES IN ne ne eee By Lt.-

Cola Wea Bintons TAs aN CLs)..0. asceerccs Gee oo slnct «ce sce)eas

OBSERVATIONS ON THE EGG-CASES OF SOME OVO-VIVIPAROUS

AND VIVIPAROUS ELASMOBRANCHS, WITH A NOTE ON THE

FORMATION OF THE ELASMOBRANCH EGG-CASE. By R.

Raghu Prasad. (With a plate).........+

OBITUARY :—

Brigadier-General Reginald George Burton. (R.W.B.)

REVIEWS :—

1. Birds Wild and Free. By A. W. P. Robertson.

2. Island of Skomer. Edited by John Buxton and

Re Mie ockley..>. (ElnG, A.)... as

3. Supplement to the Botany of live fee ‘Once:

By Herbert Mooney. (H. Santapau, S.J.)......00

4. The Flamingos of the Camargue. By Etienne

Gallet. (S: A.)... ee ul

5. Flamingo City. By G. K. Wedtee: F.R.P.S. (8. AD

6, Trapping Methods for Bird Ringers: By P.A.D.

Hollom=s 2 (S.A. )..<

Additions to the eee Notaral ore Beier

Eibrary simcedanuary 1052. ss .casc..c- ss vec. s cos oes vee

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

/ 1. Rabies in the Panther; two proved instances.

By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, 1.4. (Retd.)...

J 2. An extraordinary find in a Panther’s atoitctt

By A. Tulloch. (With a text. figure)... ......000

3. On the ‘Thorn’ or ‘Claw’ in Panthers’ Tails.

By K. Boswell. (With 3 X’ray photos)...... +00...

4. An abnormal specimen of Mus platythrix grahami

Ryley (Rodentia: Muridae) from Khandala,

Bombay Province. By H. Khajuria. (With a

LCN UU SLIME a neeeice ives; ueqeieise | ariwoase «Oe lnestesecnese.

vii

PAGE

129

738

749

735

763

779

viii

13.

14.

ikey

ez:

18.

19.

20.

eae,

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 49

Albinism in Rattus cremoriventey (Miller). By

J. L. Harrison and Lim Boo-Liat. (With 4 text

LiQUTES OUD Ay TGP). en yee ee cr

Protecting Food Crops yee Wila ees =

Rio Gs MOrrises: «ones ce eee ee eee

Jeep versus Elephant. By RC. Mortis. .5,

The use of patent bullets in shot guns. By Lt.-

Col-Ry W. Burton, tA. )Getd ye. --cesenase eee

More Bird notes from Nepal Valley. By oe)

Desiree Proud.. cee

Extension of range et te Whitebellied as Fly-

catcher ea des pallipes pallipes as

By Salim Ali.. ;

W hitebellied Sete scatchioeee a bird. ao Sélim.

The MHeartspotted Wood pecker—AHemicircus

canente.- By SalumUAli.. 21. ee

Discovery of the so-named ‘Malabar’ Black

Woodpecker [Dryocopus javensis hodgsoni (Jer-

don)] in Bastar (East Madhya peace By

Salim ) Alias poses! Lect

An Albino Snipe. Be HL M. Nolen Beet a egos

Extension of breeding range of the Stilt.

(Himantopus h. himantopus,) and some notes ‘on

its habits and plumages. By Humayun Abdulali

Mass movement of Pelican. By D. Neog............

A Sunderban Heronry. By Satya Churn Law, m.A.,

PHD, oHNeles TE aa ee Seas. Ace

Effect a the sneer pressure on Fish. ey

F. R. Goldschmidt, D.sc..

Effect of atmospheric pressure site achite:

By E. P. Gee..

Stings by the Goer Siaace Hoe Veen

orientalis and Vespa cincta. Severe effects. By

Lt.-Col.-R. W.-Burton, 1.4. (Retd)).2..-32. Bache

A Butterfly (Catopsilia crocale) with a defect in

right hind wing. By Capt. A. G. L. Fraser,

EMD; (Retd.) = 2

On the occurrence ony ny Breshater eae

Limnocnida indica Annandale, in the western

drainage of the Sahyadris. By S. Jones. (With

GB LCL MAP) ss. ten semreae tas cans esa eee bere eee eres

PAGE

796

797

799

23.

24.

(as

26.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 49

New record for Frevea indica Dalz. in Bombay

Provinces. Byeel. Santapau, -SiJeccoccaces cows seesen

A note on the occurrence of Turions in Aydrzlla

verticillata Pres]. By C. Lakshmanan, B.Sc. es

a plate)... won Re

Tene ne Tian a arouey resist

exotic plant. By L. ae ee M.SC., B.SC.

(Ag.). (With a photo)...

Gleanings ..0r-- Be aenicen aeons Meeivtes 6%

‘The International Union for ie pisiection of Nene

By Lt.-Col.“R. W, Burton, I-A. (Retd.).......0.002.35

Bombay Wild Animals and Wild Birds Protection Act

1951. By the Editors...

809

815

"ALPHABETICAL: LIST®OF, CONTRIBUDORS

VOLUME 49

Nos. 3 and 4

PAGE

ABDULALI, HumaAvun, Fishand Biswas, BiswamMoy, On_ the

barometric pressure 5. =° 003 ‘Shrike Lanius tephronotus

—-, Exten- (Vigors) with remarks on the

sion of breeding range of the erythronotus and _ tricolor

Stilt (Aimantopus h, himanto- Groups of Lanzus schach Linn.

pus) and some notes on its and their Hybrids (With a

habits and plumages .. of Thee) map) ink ae eae

AcHARJI, M. N., M.Sc. Edible —_—-— , Anew race

Chelonians aan their Products 529 | of the Ground-Thrush Zurdus

ALEXANDER, H.G., Large Grey citrinus (Aves: Turdidae) ...

Babbler attacking metal hub- Boo-LiaT, Lim, see HARRISON,

cap of wheel of car 550 a ae

- , some notes BOSWELL, K., On the ‘ Thorn’

on Birds in Tawa (With a or ‘ Claw’ in Panthers’ Tails

sketch map) «- 608 (With 3 xray photos)

ALI, SALIM, Extension of range BOWDEN, (Miss) EvELYN, The

of the Whitebellied Blue flowering of Strobilanthes

Flycatcher (Muscicapula pal- BURTON, Lt.-Col. R. W., 1.4.

lipes pallipes Jerdon)... 785 (Retd.), Death cry of Tiger...

-——, Whitebellied Dron- —___——_-—__-- —__,, Rabies

io) ancnine bird 786 in Tiger—two proved inst-

ai =, Lhe Hesctepaten ances So ses ove

Woodpecker- Hemicircus can- ——_——_———-—-, The

ente a Se ape. fsa) ‘ Dew-claws’ of the Hunting

a --, Discovery of the Leopard or Cheetah [Acinonyx

so-named ‘Malabar’ Black 7ubatus (Schreber) J ane

Woodpecker [Dryocopus jave- ihe

nsis hodgsont (Jerdon)] in record Russell’s Viper

Bastar (East Madhya [(Vipera russelli Shaw) ]

Pradesh) = 787 = ——, The

ALIKUNHI, K. H., Noe on an record Hamadryad or King

abnormal specimen of the Cobra[Naja hannah (Cantor) ]

Murrel, Ophicephalus striatus and lengths and weights of

Bloch. (With a text figure) 564 large specimens eae on

ARA, JAMAL, Tameness of Wild —————— , Game

Grey Lag Geese taken as Sanctuaries in Burma

adults 552 (Pre-1942) with present status

Betts, F. N., On a reollection of of Rhinoceros and Thamin.

Butterflies from the Balipara (With two plates) Bie

Frontier tract and the Sub- _——— ——, Wild

ansiri area( Northern Assam). Life Reserves in India: Uttar

(With a sketch map) «.. we 488 Pradesh ... ee we oc:

PAGE

444

661

538

541

560

561

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Burton, Lt.-Col. R. W.,I.A.,

(Retd.) Rabies in the Panther ;

two proved instances aes

—_——_—_—__—_—_———,_ The

use of patent bullets in shot

guns ae “Se ae

—-— --——-, Stings

by the Common Indian Hornets

Vespa orientalis and Vespa

cincta. Severe effects ... —

Cuacko, P. I., and ZOBAIRI,

A. R. K., Breeding of the Gour-

ami [Osphronemus goramy

(Lacepede)] in Indian rivers

Occurrence of

the Fairy Shrimp pus in a

temple tank in ‘Tirunelveli

District, Madras

CHANDRASEKHARAN S, N., nad

Rao J. SAKHARAM, A four-

winged Samara in the Indian

Elm AHoloptelea integrifolia

a Se a tT

Planch. (With a photo)

note on the polystachous

inflorescence in Huteropogon

monostachyos K.Schum. ( With

a text figure) .. a

Cuarr, V. K., A Haman or

Rat-Snake [ Ptyas MUCOSUS

(iinn.)}

————_—_——— ———?

Oceurrence of ae

fish Danio aeguipinnatur

(McClelland) in Nela Bilam—

an underground cavern in Kur-

nool District South India

CHIDAMBARAM, K, and RAJEND-

RAN, A. D. Isaac, On the

Hydro-biological data collect-

ed on the Wadge Bank early in

1949 bs

CuHuUR, CHANDRA, doe ehectal

-with horns nee ab

Cray, THERESA, A Syeatratie

ary survey of the Distribution

of the Mallophaga (‘ Feather

Lice’) on the Class Aves

(Birds). (With 2 plates and 3

text figures) e

DHARMAKUMARSINHJI, onan

SHREE, see WYNTER-BLYTH,

-M.A., M.A. (Cantab.), F.R.E.S.

PAGE

775

796

562

571

972

577

561

565

738

547

430

DHARMAKUMARSINHJI, K. S.,

and WvyNnTER-BLvytTH, M.A.,

M.A. (Cantab.), F.R.E.S., The

Gir Froest and its Lions Port ITI

EDITORS, Stray bird notes from

Tibet Be

FRASER, Capt. A. Ge I.M.D.

(Retd.) A Butterfly (Catodsilia

crocale) with a defect in right

hind wing

GEE, E. P., Effect of thon

pheric pressure while fishing

GIBSON-HILL, C. A., Notes on

the Clouded Leopard [/Veofelis

nebulosa (Griffith).] (Witha

plate) “2 ee ‘es

GOLDSCHMIDT. F. R., D.Sc.,

Effect of the atmospheric

pressure on Fish

HARRISON, J. L., M.Sc., The

occurrence of albino and

melanic Rats ...

Liat, Lim, Albinism in Rattus

cvemoriventer (Miller). (With

4 text figures and a map)

Jain, S. K., see Raizapa, M.B.

Jonzs, S., Observations on the

Bionomics and Fishery of the

Brown Mussel (J/yztilus sp.)

of the Cape Region of Penin-

sular India. (With a map

and two plates)

, On the occurrence of

the Freshwater Medusa, Lis-

nocnida indica Annandale, in

the western drainage of the

Sahyadris. (Wztha teat map)

KHAJURIA, H., An abnormal

specimen of Mus platythrix

ae ee ee

grahami Ryley (Rodentia:

Murzidae) from Khandala,

Bombay Province. (With @

text figure)

KIRKPATRICK, K. M., Goamon

Mynah Cranes: tristts)

nesting in the nest of Pied

Mynah (Sturnopastor contra)

—-— , Peculiar

roosting site of the House

Swift (Wicropus affinis) ...

PAGE

685

955

543

793

548

780

519

799

550

591

xii LIST OF. CONTRIBUTORS

KULKARNI, ‘C..V..,. M:Sc., Ph.D),

Hilsa Fisheriesin the Narbada

River (With three text figures)

KURIYAN, G. K., Turtle fishing

in the sea around Krusadai

Island. (With a text figure)...

LAKSHMANAN, C., B.Sc., A note

on the occurrence of ‘Turions

in FZydrilla verticillata Pres.

(With a plate) ... z

LAw,SATYACHURN,M.A.,PH.D.,

F.N.I, A Sunderban Heronry

ListER, M. D., Some Bird asso-

ciations of Bengal. (With a

sketch map) ie

MACDONALD, A. ST. J., Spent

of Game-birds ... ome

MARIEN, DANIEL, Notes on

some Asiatic Sturnidae (Birds)

(With a text map)

MEIKLEJOHN, M. F. A,, Field

Identification of birds: Notes

on the Hoodwink (Dissiimula-

trix Spuria)

MOLEsSworTH, H.

Albino Snipe

MorRRIS, R.C. proteeane Raed

Crops from Wild Animals ..

,» Jeep versus

M., An

——

Elephant a: a

NEELAKANTAN, K. K.,_ B.A.

_ (Hons. ) Stray bird notes from

_Malabar..

NEoG, D., Mass OMe ment of

Pelican

NorMaAN, T., Winere Ae) Butiok:

flies ga? aie ee Se

, The early stages

of Lycaenopsis huegeliz

PARANDEKAR, S. A., M.SC.,

‘Two interesting abnormalities

in the Common Jndian Corn,

Zea mays Linn. (With three

text figures)

PHILLIPS, W. W.A., Wilson’s Ss

Storm-Petrels, Shearman.

and other Seabirds in the Gulf

of Aden and Indian Ocean ...

PHYTHIAN-ADAMS, Lt.-Col. E,

G., O.B.E., F.Z:S., 1.4. (Retd.),

_. Jungle Memories. _ Part . VII

—

PAGE

614

802

792

695

556

471

791

566

569

573

503 |

TUAOF Sari:

- Wild Goats and Sheep. ( W7th

two plates) 5c

PHYTHIAN-ADAMS, Lt. Col. E.

G., 0.B.E., F.Z.S.,1.A. (Retd.),

Jungle Memories Part VIII—

Some amore: Licers 2.0) ee

PRASAD, R. RAGHU, Observa-

tions on the egg-cases of some

Ovo-viviparous and Viviparous

Elasmobranchs, with a note

on the formation of the Elas-

mobranch egg-case. (Witha

plate) ath

PROuD, (Mrs.) Desnee More

Bird notes from Nepal Valley

Raizapa, M. B. and Jatn, S. K.

Filifedium, a new genus of

Gramineae (Grasses). Si:

one plate)

RAJENDRAN, A. D. ae see

CHIDAMBARAM, K.

SAKHARAM, _ see

CHANDRASEKHARAN, S. N.

Ray, HH. °C.) mesc., “p-ehils,

Cowries (Mollusca, Gastra-

poda: Family Cypraeidae).

(With two plates)

Rrpiey, S. Ditton, Birds foe

Nepal, 1947-1949. (With a

PAGE —

418

997

755

784

682

663

map, 1 coloured and 2 black & |

white plates) ... Ss

RITCHIE, Lt.-Col. W. D..

(Retd.), A Tiger Recee

RvynJaH, L., The strange death

of a Bison

SANTAPAU, H., S.J., A eal for

the Preservation of Wild

Plants. (Wautha plate)

———_——————, Further.

remarks on the flowering of

Strobilanthes ...

———., The pore

Dioscorea in Bombay State,

(With three plates)

—, New re-

cord for Frerea indica Dalz.

in Bombay Province ... 5

SEVASTOPULO, D. G., F.R.E.S.,

Brownish-yellow - forms of

Papilio demoleus. L.

- 801

-569

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

SEVASTOPULO, D.G.,F.R.E.S. Sea-

sonal forms of Catopsilia spp.

——_——_—_——_—_—--, Food-

plant of Delias eucharis Drury

Sinas, E. G., B.Sc. (Hon.), On

acollection of Fish from the

Anamalai and Nelliampathi

Hill Ranges (Western Ghats)

with notes on its zoogeogra-

phical significances. (With

a plate andtwo text maps) ...

SMYTHIES, B. E., More notes

on the Birds of the Nepal

Valley a =;

Phanda’ wis ee

SUBRAMANYAN, K,, Some pheno-

logical notes on Dillenia ind-

aca Linn.

PAGE

570

670

o1S

549

574

TULLOCH, A., an extraordinary

find in a Panther’s stomach.

(With a text figure)

VENKATARATNAM, L., M.Sc.,

B.SC, “(Ag.). Muntingia

calaburva Linn. a drought re-

sistant exotic plant. (Witha

photo) ... ED oe

WILTSHIRE, E. P., F.R.E.S., A

year on a Tigris Island. (With

a map, 3 plates, one text

figure and a grath)

. WYNTER-BLYTH, M. A,, M.A.

(Cantab.), F.R.E.S.,and DHAR:

MAKUMARSINHSI, KUMAR

SHREE, The Gir Forest and its

Lions. Part IL (With a plate)

ZOBAIRI, A. R. K., see CHAckKo,

Pol:

804

637

456

LIST OF PLATES

VOLUME 49

Nos. 3 and 4

Birds from Nepal, 1947-1949.

Plate I. View of Mt. Kanchenjunga from the southwest. Typical

forest remnants and scrub vegetation at Rekcha

(5,000’) in western Nepal

Plate II. Crossing the Bheri River in west Nepal at iat Ghat.

Near Chisapani in the west Nepal Terai wae

Coloured Plate: Yellow-billed Blue Magpies ; Spiny Babbler ; Gros-

venor’s Laughing-thrush ; Nepal Rosefinch

Jungle Memories.

Plate I. Typical gudd or oorial country

Camp in gudd country 505

Plate II. Nilgiri Tahr in typical terrain

A Plea for the Preservation of Wild Plants.

Plate: Crinum latifolium Linn. & Platanthera susannae Lindl.

A Preliminary Survey of the Distribution of the Mallophaga (‘ Feather

Lice ’) on the Class Aves (Birds).

Plate: Habitat forms of Mallophaga

Plate II. Pelecaniformes and Cree edritonme: Diseabation

The Gir Forest and its Lions.

Plate: Young Gir lions on buffalo 500 506

Observations on the Bionomics and Fishery of the Brown reget (Mytilus

sp.) of the Cape Region of Peninsular India.

PAGE

| 358

mt 359

394

, \ 420

424

428

429

434

466

Plate I. 1. Boiled Brown Mussel with one valve removed showing |

the flesh inside.

2. Inner and outer views of a shell series collected at the

beginning of the brown mussel season during last |

week August, 1946.

3. A diver swimming off the rocks for mussel collection.

4. Mussel diver clambering up the slippery rocks sup-

porting a ‘maal’ of mussel ... ee

Plate II, 1. A pulaya mussel-diver ready to enter sea,

2. With his attention on any sudden wave which would

dash him against the rocks, the mussel collector is

seen dislodging mussel from a rock pool.

3. Mussel collection near a catamaran which serves asa

base of operation.

4, Atypical family group sorting out the mussel after

fishing is over.

Notes on the Clouded Leopard [Neofelis nebulosa (Griffith) ].

Plate: Skin of a female Clouded Leopard, Neofelis nebulosa diarai

(G. Cuvier), shot in a coastal swamp area near Sandakan,

North Borneo, on J9 March, 1950.

+ 522

}

;

L523

| si

LIST OL PEATES XV

PAGE

The Genus Dioscorea in Bombay State.

Plate I: 1. Diétoscorea oppositifolia Linn.

2. Dioscorea wallichit Hook. f. \ 632

Plate II: 1. WDvzoscorea belophylla Voigt. \ 633

2. Dioscorea hispida Dennst.

Plate IIL: 1. Dvzoscorea alata Linn.

2. Duoscorea pentaphylla Linn. \ ou

A Year on a Tigris Island.

Plate I. Comparative views of Karradah Island to illustrate floods, 640

Plate II. do. 641

Plate III. do. 644

Cowries (Mollusca, Gastropoda : Family Cypraeidae),

Plate I. Transformation of shell in A/auritia mauritiana Ce 666

Plate II. 667

On a collection of fish from ihe REESE and Nelliampathi Hill Ranve:

(Western Ghats) with notes on its zoogeographical significances.

Plate: Glyptothorax prox. madraspatanus (Day) 676

Filipedium, a new Genus of Gramineae (Grasses). .

Plate: Filipedium planipedicellatum (Bor) Raizada and Jain wit 682

Game Sanctuaries in Burma (Pre-1942). ee

Plate I, Bull Tsaing or Banteng (Bibos banteng) . =i

A herd of Gaur (Bibos gaurus). ie ie

Plate II. Brow-antlered Deer or Thamin (Panolia eldt) si - 735

Observations on the egg-cases of some ovo-viviparous and viviparous

Elasmobranchs with a note on the formation of the Elasmobranch

egg-case. :

Plate; Fig. 1. Section of wall of the egg-case of Lehinobatus )

granulatus. |

Photol. Egg-case of . granulatus (in uterus) opened to! _

show the eggs. iS

Photo 2. Egg-case of Scoliodon palasorrah. |

Photo 3. Egg-case of S. sorrakowah. J

A note on the occurrence of Turions in Hydvrilla verticiilata Presl.

802

Plate: Figs. 1-14. Mydrilla verticillata Pres).

TO ILLUSTRATIONS

VOLUME 49

Nos. 3 & 4

PAGE

INDEX

Acanthoptila nipalensis

Coloured plate 394 Nelliampathi Hill Ranges

Bibos banteng (Western Ghats).

Plate I. 734 Map Me aa

——- gaurus ;

ay ne 734 eee migration

Bird Associations of Bengal :

Map : Location of ey ol ERECT

area 696 Plate “Or

Birds from Nepal, 1947-1949 Garrulax r. grosvenori

Map of Nepal 595 Coloured plate

Plate I. 358 | Gir Forest and its Lions.

Plate II. — 359 Plate Week sal

Birds in Lahul. Glyptothorax prox. meager’:

Map 607 patanus

Butterflies from ne palpate Plate Figs. 1, 2 and 3

Frontier Tract and Suban- Gracula religiosa

siri area (Northern Assam). Map: Showing distri-

Map a 488 bution ;

Carpodacus n. Pn eises Hilsa

Coloured plate aot Text fig. 2. Part of net.

Celama centonalts Text fig. 3. ‘Jamda’ net

Text fig. poe in operation

=e eae Hilsa ilisha

Text fig. “as eheme ESE Text fig. No. 1(a)

Crinum latifolium toli

; De ao Text fig. 1(6)

DiOssored OA Holoptelea integritolia

Plate III. Fig. 1 634 hoe eee

———— belophylla ae Bis wio eS

Chass Be an ; oe Hydritla verticillata

Plate II. Fig. 2 633 EE

———— opposititolia Jungle Memories.

Plate 1, Fig. 1 632 Plate

————. pentaphylla Plate oo

Plate III. Fig. 2 634 | Acita f. flavirostris

————- wallichit Coloured plate

Piate I. Fig. 2 632 Lanius tephronotus & Lanius

Enteropogon monostachyos schach in India.

Text fig. eee O77 Map 2

filipedium plimipencelatoes | Limnocnida indica

Plate ae 682 Map ie of

_ Fish from the Anamalai and

PAGE

~ 676

485

619

620

615

972

802

420

424

394

450

800

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

Mallophaga (‘Feather Lice ’)

on class Aves (Birds).

Plate II. Fig.1

Text fig. 2 aed

9? 9) 3 ceo eee

9) se) 4

Mauritia mauritiana

Plate 1. Figs. 1-10 dis

Monetaria moneta

Plate II. Figs. 1-2

Muntingia calabura

Photo ae

Mus platythrix grahami

Text fig.

Mytilus sp.

Map.

Plate I.

Plate II. ;

Neotelis nebulosa diardi

Plate oes

Ophicephalus striatus

Text fig.

Ornamentaria annulus

Plate II. Figs, 3-4

Panolia eldi

Plate II Pas

Panther, An _ extraordinary

find in stomach of

Text fig. bes aoe

Philopterus sp.

Plate ae

Platanthera Susannae

Plate elas ore

PAGE

434

435

438

436

666

667

430

428

fattus cremoriventer

Text figs. A, B, Cand D

showing albinism cee

Map vies aie

Rhinobatus granulatus

Plate: Fig. 1. Section of

wall of egg-case tae

Plate : Photo 1. Egg-

case (in uterus) opened

to show eggs

Scoliodon palasorrah

lates: | Phoror 2.

ease as

———— sorrakowah

Plate : Photo 3.

case

Tigris Island.

Map

Gtaphs

Plate I. a

Egeg-

Eggs

Plate II. Figs. 1, 3,4 & 5.

Plate IIL. Figs. 6 & 7

‘Thorn’ or ‘Ciaw’ in Pan-

thers’ Tails

3 X-ray photos

Trivia (Trivirostra) oryza

Plate Il. Figs. 5, 6, 7

Turtle Fishing in the sea

around Krusadai Island.

Text fig. se ry

Zea mays ;

Text figs. 1,2 and 3. i.

XVli

PAGE

781

782

510

RES

f 7 ve!

H i a -

1 i

7 ‘

. r

~ -

, .

‘

| =

* 7

oF hy

. '

iio

ras

’

‘ ‘ 5 4

’

° 4

. 5

co)

1 ¥

‘

;

}

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE |

Abies Ba a 359, 393 | Aemona amathusa

poise fylla ask. 0 7 502 Aerides crispum

—-- neophron neophron 502 | - maculostim

Abroscopus schisticeps 516 Aeschremon disparalis ...

= -— —— schisticeps 400 = Aethiopsar

Acacia catechu

357, 377, 753

Aithiopsar fuscus

- planifrons ie » oe 909° ANthopyga ignicauda ee

Acanthias .. 755° .———-——- nipalensis

BE enthoptila , SOS Gee ee eel

Acanthoptila mipaieneic) 361, 393, 514 | ———. -—__—-—-— nipalensis

Accentor strophiatus ... wae eo. 611) ———-—— saturata saturata

Accipiter badius dussuimieri 365 | —— siparaja seheriae

——-— nisus ... ne »» 999 Agdistis bagdadiensis

-_——- meledoschistcs 365 + Agrotis lasserrei

———-— trivirgatus 417 | ~ spinifera

at ——indicus... .. 365 | - ypsilon

Acinonyx jubatus sed 541, 832 | Alauda gulgula

Acridotheres “ 471, 483 | -- =- guttata

Acridotheres ginginianus 709 | Albizzia lebbek

grandis fuscus 413 | Alcedo atthis see ate

= _______ tristis 550, 552, 702; 705 | =—--- —_ — bengalensis

— tristis 413,450 , Alc Os castaneiceps -

Acrocephalus dumetorum 404, 709 | - —_————- -— castaneiceps

Acronycta 650 | Alcippe exul

Acronycta aceris

“onaane 645, 646, 649, 655

642 - nipalensis aaiee f

-— - vinipectus .

Actinodura nipalensis 514 | —- —-- —— epainietens

——- -— nipalensis 396 = —-—— vinipectus

; -_—— ——-— vinctura 396 | Alcurus striatus striatus

_ Actitis hypoleucos 368 | Alectoris graeca

_ Actornithophilus 438 | Alhagi a 3

_ Adelura coeruleocephala 610, 785 | Amaurornis rtirenes ves

Adhatoda vasica 753 | Amblypodia camdeo

Adina cordifolia 753 -—— centaurus ...

_ Adolias cyanipardus 49) | Ammannia

| — khasiana 499 | Ammannia tenuis

/Bgiceras majus ns 792 | Anadebis himachala

| Aigithaliscus concinnus Rapaesonles 407 | Anagallis pumila

————— ioschistos 408 | Anas acuta

_ Aigithina tiphia de 705 | ——- crecca aed

---— tiphia ... 383 | ———- penelope

Aegle marmelos see 753 | ——- poecilorhyncha ...

figypius monachus —... as - 612 | ——- querquedula

PAGE

496

427

659

483

702, 709

see

410

516

410

659

612

380

753

555, 706

374

397

398

395

398

385

613

638

713

568

798

769

495

768

364

830

_ 364

Anastomus oscitans

Anaticola

Anatoecus ~ ee

Anhinga melanogaster

—— —— rufa

Anodendron nam

Anodendron manubriatum

paniculatum

Anogeissus latifolia

Anser anser

——- indicus

Anthreptes singalensi§$ assamensis

Anthrophilopsis baphialis

Anthus hodgsoni

-—--——- ——_--——- hodgsoni

——— - ———_——. yinnanensis

——- richarqi rufulus

- roseatus

———.- rufuius

Antilope cervicapra

Apatura ; se

Apatura ambica amie

——-—— chevana

p. parisatis

Aphis

Aplochilus hearers

Apodiphus amygdali

Appias indra indra.

- lalage lalage

- lyneida hippoides

- nero

- typus

ntercola

Apus ie

Apus affinis nipalensis

——-- sudanicus

Aquila chrysaetos

Aramus

Aramus peciooarene

Arborophila rufogularis ‘foreland We

~—— torqueola ...

Ardea cinerea

Ardea purpurea ,..

Ardeola grayii

Areca catechu

Argya caudata

malcolmi ...

Argynnis c. childreni...

———---— h. hyperbius ...

———-—— hyperbius

Aprion (pacuco mole tvote

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

364, 725, 792

436

728, 792

363

769

753

552

264

410

659

718

381 |

Dol |

612

710 |

831

497

567

677

647

Gio;

641,

492 ©

492

568

SansTaal

742, 747

432

571

373

571 |

517

435

435 |

366 |

e518

363,

725

518 |

3, 707 |

698 |

708

550

501

601 |

PaGé

Armandia 1, lidderdalei 49]

Aspergilus sp. 799

Astur badius 707

gentilis 555

Atella phalanta 501

Athene brama 707

indica 373

Atramus fuscus ... 383, 705

Aulocera brahminus : 495

—_—— ——-—--—. dohwana 495

——--—-- padma loha ove OS

-—— swaha swaha... 495

Austromenopon ... 435

Austrophilopterus 441

Avicennia officinalis 792

Axis axis 832

Aythya ferina 364

- fuligula 364

Bactra lanceolana wae 659

——— venosana 659

Balitora 679

Balitora brucei te 680

——-- ——— barmanions 680

——--— —-—— mysorensis 680

——-— melansoma 680

Balitoropsis an, 680

Bandicota bengalensis ... 548

Barbus (Puntius) amphibius ... 674, 677

——— (—-—-—-. ) carmuca 674, 678

——— (—-—--—) carnaticus 673, 674, 675

——-— (—-—-—) denisonii 678

———- (—-—--—) dobsoni 674

——— (——-~—) dorsalis 674, 677

——— (—-—_—) filamentosus . 675, 677

——— (—-——) meianampyx 673, 674, 677

——-— (——-—) ticto AO 674, 677

——— (Tor) khudree malabaricus 673, 674,

675, 678

Barilius pakeri 675, 678

-- barana 674, 677

-- bola 418

-- gatensis ... 673, 678

Barleria gibsoni 770 |

— montana 779

-~ prattensis a 770

Bastio travancoria ... 674, 675, 678

Batagur baska o.oo

Bauhinia malabarica woe. ee

purpurea 753

Berberis 609

Bhavania

680 |

Bhringa remifer ...

Bibos gaurus

Biders ;

Bidens biternata ...

pilosa

Bizarrifrous

Blythipicus Byerhots

Blythipicus pyrthotis ace

Bombax

Bombax eiaparicum

Borassus flabelliformis ...

Boselaphus tragocamelus

Bosephalus

Bostra marginalis

Boswellia serrata 4

Brachypternus benghalensis

Breynia

Breynia patens

Bruelia ... ane

Bruguiera SC norhiva ae

Bubo zeylonensis leschenault ...

Bubulcus ibis .

— == SGEsmandne

Buchanania latifolia

Bucia athertoni

Burhinus oedicnemus

eee INdicus ...

Burmannia coelestis

-—— pusilla

Butastur teesa

Buteo hemilasius

Butorides striatus

Cacomantis merulinus ...

Calinaga buddha buddha

Campanulotes sue

Campephilus

Canis aureus

—- lupus

Capella gallinago

— gallinago

— nemoricola

- stenura se

Capillipedium ... vee

"538,

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

701,

Solr

793,

363,

556,

365,

516,

700,

368,

682,

Capillipedium pieerrediceltataen

Capparis ...

Capraiella

Caprimulgus indicus ee

—-— ——~-— hazarae

— — macrourus

Carcharinus dussumieri

517,

— albonotus

Ol 10%

785

832

769

769 |

769

, 442

516

380

358

793

698

688

831

659

754

706

769

44]

792

372

707

792

753

785

713

369

770

glee

365

363

fal

498

437

378

829

831

713

368

123

683

§59

441

517

373

706

373

761

XXi

PAGE

Carduelis caniceps ine 611

—— Spinoides spinoides ... 411

Caretta caretta gigas vos, BUD

~ olivacea 509

Carissa carandas 692

~ opaca fish

Carpodacus erythrinus : 611

—_—— oo erythrinus 412

—_—_—_-—- —— —— kpbanensis 412

a ee —— roseatus 411, 412

~——— —-~——— intensicolor 412

——_—-—— kangrae ... awe 412

——-—----—— nipalensis nipalensis 412

——-—--—— rhodochlamys 611

——-—— thura thura 412

Cascaria tomentosa 493

Cassia fistula 753

Catocala deducta ee 050

Catocala elocata ... 642, 655

———--—— lesbia 642, 655

———— locata ... 655

—_—-— optima 645, 655

—— ———. pulerpera 642, 655

Catopsilia crocale "492, 570, 797

—_-——--- florella 570

——-—-- pomona 570

—_——- —-- pyranthe 570

—-- sp. 570

Cedrela toona 753

Celama ee 644

Celama centonalis .. 653, 654, 660

~ harouni .. 637, 658, 660

- henrioti 654

- parvula 654

~ squalida . 654

——- turanica ne 653, 654

Celerio lineata jivornica 658

Centropus sinensis 706

Centunculus pentandrus 769

Cepora nadina nadina 492

————- nerissa 492

Certhia discolor 515

———-- —-—-—-- discolor 409

— - familiaris 609

——— mandelli 360, 409

——-—-h, himalayana 408

——--——- himalayana fs 609

————- infima ...361, 362, 408

——-~—- nipalensis 360, 409

pe 515

——-— > Sstoliczkae 409

Xxli

PAGE !

Ceruria turbida clarior ..644, 645, 647 |

Ceryle lugubris apa 374

-——— rudis tae nee 374, 706 |

Cethosia biblis ticamena A OE

—- cyane 501

Cetorhinus ef oo

Cetorhinus maximus 755, 762

Cettia brunneifrons ae 400

——- brunneifrons 404 —

——- pallidipes pallidipes 404 —

Chaetura caudata Be S17

Chaimarrhornis leucocephala. 555, 610

Chalecphaps indica indica 370

Charaxes ; 497, 568

Charaxes marmax 497

polyxena hierax 497

— —- ——~—-— psaphon ... 497

Chela argentea : 674, 678 |

——- clupeoides vas 674, 678

Chelidorhynx hypoxanthum een)

Chelonia mydas oe 509, 530

Chelonobia testudinaria ot}

Chersonesia risa age -- 500

Chilasa agestor 490

ona clytea 440

-————-- epycides epneides 490

Chilocorus bipustulatus 646

Chiloscyllium griseum . 750% 797; 7095

761, 762

————— I indicum 756

Chlamydoselachus 762

Chlidonias hybrida Te)

Chloris , oe 577

Chloropsis aurifrons matrons 384

—- hardwickii hardwickii 384

Chloropsis jerdoni 715

Choriotis nigriceps Ase 830

Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus 706

—lucidus eguttacristatus. 28)

— -sultaneus ... 380

Chrysomma Sinense sinense ... 393

Chrysopogon montanus smu Zoo

Cicadatra glycrrhizae 611, 647

Ciconiphilus 434, 435

Cinclus cinclus 61t

———- pallasii ... ase se 611

-— tenuirostris 385

Cinconia episcopus ie oa eee 304

Cinnyris asiatica 706, 710

— zeylonica 706, 710

Circus aeruginosus 725

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Circus macrurus 366, 712

melanoleucus 725

Cirrochroa a. aoris 501

—-—-——- tyche mytila 501

Citrus 567

Citrus grandis : oo | OVE

Clamator jacobinus ... aoe see > AOR

Clethrionomys skomerensis 767

Clupea toli (=H. toli) 500 ---, 7) OG

Clytie 646, 647, 650, 656, 659

Clytie distincta 656

——- iranica 656

——— sancta 650

——- sublunaris 656

——- syriaca 656

——- terrulenta ee 656

Cochoa purpurea e 386, 515

Cocos nucifera ... tae we, 6GH

Colaptes Aes a. Oa

Colias electo field an ey, 492

Collurio erythronotus ... .. 444, 445, 447

——-—- nigriceps e eae 444, 455

———- tephronotus ... . 444, 445, 446

—-——- tricolor 444, 451

Colocerus ; oo. . 43%

Colpocephalum 431, 434, 440, 442

Columba hodgsonii 369

—-——- leuconota ‘; 613

———-- livia .. 613, 517, 707

—— ——- —— intermedia 369

————-- pulchricollis 369

- rupestris se ae «. 61aF

Colymbiformes 433 |

Copia verborum -Ssgp|

Copsychus malabaricus indicus vo «= Se

= ——-malabaricus... 388

— saularis 702, 705 |

—= -- saularis 388

Coracias benghalensis 706

——— affinis ... 374

— benghalensis ... 374.

Coracina fimbriata melaschista 382 |

———— novaehollandiae nipalensis... 383

Cordia dichotoma > 7G8)|

myxa eee |

Corvus corax (tibetanas) 608

- corrix capellanus 644, 651

- macrorhynchos 608, 705 |

—-- — intermedius... 414.

———- splendens de ry 705 |

ee ee splendens ae age

Als)

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Coturnix Sue 831

Crinum asiaticum 427

- latifolium 427

Crocopus phoenicopterus 721

Crozophora verbascifolia 659

oe formosae himalayensis ae

—~ pallida 415

— vagabunda Pacapande 415

Cryptoplectron 831

Cuclotogaster me ies a 440

Cuculicola ww 440

Cuculiphilus 436, 440

Cuculus micropterus Aa 706

— - ————— micropterus 37]

———- poliocephalus ser AL

ee ee poliocephalus. 371

———- varius crs

Culicicapa ceylonensis 416, 5:5

— ——— Siddiitysén . 406

Cuon dukhunensis 829

Cygnus ae 435

Cyllogenes suradeva 496

Cymodocea oes 511

Cynodon Ae ee O77

Cynodon dactylon 753

Cynthia e. erota Pe Sian cor OO

Cypraea : ee < oe OOS

Cypraea annulus 665

—aurantium ... eee oe «©. Gd

— guttata ae ase fer 058

———— tigris 668

—— — umbilicata 668

Cyprinus nukta 681

Cypsiurus batassiensis Ey SUS

—- parvus gee a5 591,552

Cyrestis thyodamas thyodamas 590

Dahlemhornia 432

Dalbergia 538

Dalbergia sissoo fos}

Danais aglea ecianoides ee a4

- chrysippus sae 643, 659

——- melaneus plateniston ... Pat ee

- melissa septentrionis ... 493

-———- plexippus 493

- tytia tytia 493

Dania aequipinnatus 565, “566, 673, 674,

679, 677

Delias aglaia 491

——— belladonna 491

—— eucraris oes 971

Dendrocitta vagabunda ey ws = 705

XXlil

PAGE

Dendrocopes auriceps ar OLY,

————-—— _ canicapillus mitcnell an Oto

——-——-——- cathparius cathparius... 378

————-——- darjellensis darjellensis. 378

—— ———— hyperythrushyperythrus. 379

ee macei macei ... see toe

—---— mahrattensis aurocri-

status 379

—— oo = ~mahrat-

tensis a 379

_——— oldccentis manus 379

Dendrocygna fulva 830

—— javanica ... 364, 830

Dermochelys coriacea ... 929

Dia gora persimilis zella eg excels

Dicaeum agile 719

— —- agile 410

— concolor olivaceum ... 403

——— erythrorhynchos 706

— erythrorhynchum erythror-

hynchus oat 409

— ignipectus ener 409

Dicerorhinus sumatrensis owe 729, 730,

731, 737

Dichorrhagia nesimachus 498

Dicranura intermedia 644, 645,

646, 652

—-—-—-— vinula 652

Dicrurus aeneus aeneus 414

—- caerulescens 709

—_———— ——-—-——— caerulescens... 414

———— hottentotus chrishna 414

—— leucophaeus beavani 414

——-—— macrocercus 705

———— —————- albirictus 413

————- paradiseus grandis 414

———— —-——— -- rangoonensis 414

Dillenia aes 574

Dillenia indica... Ss ie eS

Dinopium benghalense benghalense... 378

Dioscorea 624, 625

Dioscorea aculeata 380275 O5,,054

———-- alata 624, 625, 626, 627,

634, 636

——-—~-—-- amoena 629

————-- anthropohagorum ... : 629

——— —-belophylla ... 625, 627, 634, 636

- bulbifera .- 626, 627, 628

——-——- christiei 634

————- cliffortiana 627

———-—_ communis 632

xxlv

PAGE

Dioscorea daemona hee aa Eee O29 |

——-—-—- esculenta ae 626, 627

—--——-——.- fasciculata 627

————-- glabra Bin ae 634 |

—-—-—-—- hispida 626, 627, 629, 636

————-- jacquemontii 631, 632

————- linnaei aaa 631 |

———---—-- oppositifolia yar. dukhu- |

nensis i dea 625, 627

—-—-—--—-- pentaphylla ... .. 626, 627, 630

—— > var, com- |

munis oa vot 636 |

ee Precde: 632

on sativa 628

—_—_——_—- spinosa ne : Bee LmOAT,

———-——- tomentosa 626, 627, 630, 632 |

————- triphylla 629, 631

— - vera 634 |

———-—- wallichii

Diospyros tomentosa ... 793

Discophora c. continentalis 497

ss = bullia Zale "se ese 497 |

Dissimulatrix spuria 209/; 096, 000

——-—-———— ——-—. annielaurieae Doe

—-—-— gretae-garbo 560

Dissimulatrix Spuria mrs-jonesae 560

-_ spurissima 560

~ sarah-janae 560 |

Dissoura episcopa 714 |

Dodona egeon 502 |

~ ouida ouida 502 |

Doleschallia bisaltide indica ... 500

Dryobates macei 711 |

—-—-——_ mahrattensis 706 |

Dryocopus javensis hodgsoni ... 787

Dumetia hyperythra hyperythra 392

Earias insulana : §59

intermedia : <u) 2690

irakana... 645, 647, 655

vernalis 655

Echites manuoriata 769

paniculata te ory. 769

Egretta alba 363, 728

~ garzetta ... 714, 792

——- ——--— garzetta ise «| BOS

— intermedia 363, 792

Ehretia laevis _... ees 753

Elanoides forficatus yetapa 579

Elanus coeruleus 725

- caeruleus vociferus ... 364

Elephas maximus 832

625, 627, 633, 636 |

INDEX OF SPECIES

Elodea aes aA

canadensis

Elymnias patna patna ...

Emberiza cia def Ros

Emblica officinalis

Enicurus immaculatus ...

Enispe euthyminus

Enteropogon -

ae moticoides

| -——-------—_- _ MOVOstichyes

_ Epinephelus bleekeri ...

-———-- miniatus .

to EBs

———- -- tauvina

——_————- undulosus

Erebia annada orixa ...

Eretmochelys of

————_-——--- imbricata

Eriboea “oe

a. athamas

—-———-- delphis ? ane

———--dolon ... nets ae

Erithacus brunnea

calliope calliope

cyanurus pallidiora...

—_———- ——-— rufilatus ..._

| ——-—— indicus indicus see

Eromene islamella

Erythrina indica

Eublemma parva

Euchloe belemia

Eudynamis scolopaceus oe

scolopacea scolopacea

Eugenia

| Eugenia faqbolena

Eumyias thalassina

Euphorbia

——-——-- neriifolia

Eupithecia ultimaria

Euploea diocletiana diocletiana

———~m. mulciber

Euripus halitherses ...

Eusphecia pimpalaeformis

Euthalia duda

Euthalia f, franciae

———- jahnu jahnu

———- juliiappiades ...

———- lubentina indica

——-~— phemius

—-——- sahadeva

——— eo —— Sahadeva

PAGE

892

802, 803

496

612

a Aas

386

497

577

741, 747

w- Z41, 742, 743

. 741, 742, 747

741, 747

495

woe O00

509, 530

497, 568

Keine 7:

Creeley)

497

386

oo we SOG

646, 659

522, 523

ec OSo

To, BES)

706

372

358

753

716

Lehsua

801

657

493

> (498

645, 654

498, 499

499

498

499

- 499

a 498

INDEX OF SPECIES

{

}

4 PAGE

. Euthalia telchinia 498

Excalfactoria 831

Falco cherrug «. te. i559 |

— —- jugger 555, 724 |

555 |

——--~ peregrinus ..

——-subbuteo ... 555 |

——- tinnunculus a8 724

——_- ———----—-—- interstinctus 366

Faunis eumeus i 496

a —-_— assaina ... 496 |

Felis bengalensis ae 045

—— diardi 543, 545

—— macrocelis... 545

———— pardus 701

—-— viverrina 701

Ficus ise 692

—-—.- bengalensis 783

—-— glomerata... ies 753

—-— religiosa 753

Filipedium Ae ie i able

Francolinus francolinus seo 300, 518, 789

—-—— pictus oe OO

ee pondicerianus lo, OSL

——-—--—-—- -—_——-——-- jnterpositus 366

Frerea nes on “! 802

- indica 801

Fringillauda brandti 612

—_—_—_—_——— nemoricola 612

Fulica atra G27

Fulvetta vinipecta 514

Galeocerdo tigrinis 757, 758, 760, 761, 762

Gallicolumba beccarii 473

stairi 473

Gallinula chloropus 127

Galloperdix spadicea 831

Gallus gallus... lg

- mur¢hi 387

——__—-- sonneratii 831

Gangara thyrsis ane nee ee 04,

Garra mullya... see 070, 074, 675, 677

Garrulax ..361, 393, 394

Garrulax affinis affinis 395

———— albogularis ieee 394

———— caerulatus caerulatus ee oS

—-—-—-— erythrocephalum erythroce-

phalum on ou

———— hardwickii ae Oa

=~ leucolophus ... see 913, 784

—— leucolophus 394

as lineatus te aos 393

————- lineatus lineatus 395

XXV

PAGE

Garrulax nigrimentum ... sa ee havo

—-—-——- occidentalis : Hey) 390

—-—-—-—— rufogularis grosvenori 361, 395

———— ——-- rufogularis 395

Garrulax striatus sikkimensis ... 394

———-- —-—-—-- striatus a. «=. O94

—————— —--—- vibex 361, 394

Garrulus glandarius bispecularis 416

—-—- lanceolatus 416

Garuga pinnata 153

Gazella bennetti re 831

Gelechia plutelliformis ... 660

Gelochelidon nilotica 127,

Gennaeus leucomelanus 517

Geoemyda trijuga 531

———--—-—-- —-—~— theralis §31

————-— ——— thermalis Son

Geokichla citrina ipl)

———-——-—- lactea 369

Glaucidium brodiei 517

——-—--——-— —-—— brodiei 372

a cuculoides .. “417, 517

ee ee eee OCU OUCES 3/2, 373

—_———— radiatum : 707

—— hadintucn 372, 3/3

Glinus . 647, 650, 652, 658

lotoides ...638, 648, 650, 658, 660, 769

Glycestha aurota (=mesentina) 659

Glyptothorax 7 676

—__ —__ ——_-- pecandale: fe OG

—-————-- conirostre poonaensis... 679

——-—— --—. housei 670, 678, 679, 680

——-——-—— madraspatanus 674, 676, 678,

679, 681

trewasae 679

Goniocotes 437

Goniodes ... sak tes ier 437

Gracillaria S11

Gracula ptilogenys 485, 486

———-— - religiosa 485

——-—. —-—— - indica 486

————— intermedia 413, 486

——-— ———-= peninsularis ., 486

—_—— ~- ——-—- religiosa . 486

Grammodes rogenhoferi 646, 649, 656, 659

Graphium a. agamemnon 49}

poe agetes ‘ 490

aa bathycles chiron ... 49]

———--— antiphates pompilius 491

—-—-——- cloanthus... van ws 49]

——-— — - doson axion . nee aoe 49}

xxVi INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE | PAGE

Graphium sarpedon 491 | Holoptelea integrifolia .. 572, 753

Grewia elastica i 753 | Homaloptera ae -P 679, 680

Grus antigone .. 68 | Homaloptera montana ... .. 670, 678, 679

—— grus Ayr ee eas 368, 646 | Hopkisiella . 441

Gy paétus barbatus 366, 612 | Houttuygnia ereicennel 432

Gyps himalayensis AA 612 | Hoya pendula 7€9

—-—— indicus : .. 366, 517, 707 | Hyaena hyaena ... Ses oo OOM

Halcyon smyrnesis fusca . 374 - striata 708

Haliaétus leucoryphus 365, 721 | Hydrilla ... ane 802, £03

Haliastur indus 707 | Hydrilla verticillata 802, 804

Halorhila S11 | Hydrolagus volliei 462

Hardellathurgi 531 | Hydrophasianus chirurgus 713

Hebomoia glaucippe .«. 492 | Hymenia fascialis ( -=recurvalis) 659

Helianthus annuus 573 | —-—— — fascialis-recurvalis ... 640

Helicteres isora os 753 | Hypacanthis spinoides 611

Hemicircus c. canente ... 786 | Hypopicus hyperythus ae 785

——-—— — cordatus 786, 787 | Hypoglaucitis benenotata 656

——- canente 786, 788 | Hypothymis azurea 708

Hemigaleus balfouri 758, 761 | Ibidoecus 435

Hemipus picatus 516 | Ibidorhyncha ; 613

_— = capitalis ae 382 | Ibidorhyncha struthersii oe star» «OOS

Herona marathus marathus ... 498 | Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus certs ase

Herpestes mungo pallidus 700 | Ictinaetus malayensis wwe 863

- Spp. 829 | Insania amabilis ... set One

Hestina nama . 498 | Ipomoea hederacea ... +s. 770

Heterodontus japonicus 762 | jIsoetes coromandelina 428

Heterographis concavella 659 | Issoria s. sinha 501

Heterophasia baileyi aes 399 | Ixias pyrene latifasciatus 492

capistrata capistrata 399 | ——- ——-— pirenassa .. 492

clei so —nigriceps 361,399 | Ixulus flavicollis ... 514

ee nigriceps 399 | lynx torquiila ae 719

pallida 399 | Jamides alecto 567

Heteropogon contortus ... 753 bochus 567

Hieraaetus pennatus 365 ~ kankena ... 567

Hierococcyx fugax 516 | Kachuga ea 531

z —— spar veroides 516 | Kachuga anencoks 529, 531

——_———— varius 706 | ———— smithi as 5318

Hilsa ilisha 615, 6! 6,622/623 || === scyihctensis a <a aces 531m

———= Oia .e ole, OL0;1022. |. =" tectum: tee §31 |

Himantopus ceyionensi 790,791 | ——--——trivittata 5318)

aS h. himantopus 789 | Kallima alompra s 500

———_-——. himantopus 555 | -----— inachus inachus 500

Hippolais caligata 7!17 | Ketupa zeylonensis -. §6=- 7 20

Hirundo-apus caudacutus 374 | Kitta chinensis chinensis 415 |

Hirundo daurica daurica 380 | ——- flavirostris flavirostris 415

ea - nipalensis .. $980] Kurodia see on 436

———— fluvicola 710 | Kydia calycina ... ee 793

—— ——- rupestris 380 | Labeo rohita see.) DOG

--—-——— rustica rustica 380 | Laemobothrion ... an on 435, 436 |

Holarrhena antidysentrica 753 | Lagerstroemia parviflora... ., O¢

Holomenopon... ry 436 | Lampides baeticus .. 643, 652, 657

}

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Lampides boeticus 567

Lamproptera c, curius ... aoe 491

Lanius affinis 449

— —caniceps ... 449

collurio .. 534

— cristatus ... : 708

——= — cristatus ae 3°35

erythronotus 449, 450, 452, 453,

455, 7068

_—_- -—— — jaxartensis soe, 449

jounotus = sai 445

lama a oes 446

nasutus “ 708

_ ~ nigriceps 444

—_— - schomburgki ... 450

———— - tricolor 444

nigriceps “452, 455

— —- — longicaudatus. 450, 451

~ nipalensis 445, 446

schach 444, 445, 447, 450

—— — — caniceps 449

————- ——— erythronotus ...444, 445, 446,

449, 452, 460

—— ——-— jaxartensis 449

—— —-— kathiawarensis 449

—— —-— longicaudatus 450

— — ——-— tephronotus . 445, 447, 610

—-— —— tricolor ... 383, 444, 450,

451, 452

—— —— —— xerythronotus... 383

—— superciliosis ses re coe 447

———- tephronotus .. 444, 445, 448

—_—— ———-- lahulensis... 445, 447

— — —- tephronotus 383, 446

——— tricolor »» 452, 453, 455

——— validirostris 445

——— vittatus 708

Lantana aculeata 770, 797

——-—-—— camara esa oF 770

——_—— —-—_—-- var. aculeata 770

Laphygma exigua 640, 650, 652, 658

Larus argentatus ae 506, 767

——- fuscus is 505

——- ——-—- graellsii ... 0... 767

——- hemprichi 595, 506

——- ridibundus 506, 703

Larvivora brunnea eae Me sacnteOLS

Leioptila capistrata 399

Leiothris argentauris argentauris ega

_ — lutea ace 514

———— ——- callipyga 396

xxvii

PAGE

Lepidocephalus thermalis ». 673, 674, 677

Lepidogma wiltshirei ae 649, 659

Leptocephalus 666

Leptoptilos dubius 364

Lepus spp. 829, 831

Lerwa lerwa 613

Lethe bhadra 493

— bhairava ww. 494

——- c, confusa we 4953

——- chandica flamona 494

—-—-~ distans é. 494

——- goalpara Soalpate ee 495

——- kansa we 494

——- latiaris ww» 494

——- rohria 494

——- satyavati 568

——- scanda 494

—-—- serbonis serbonis 494

——- sidonis vaivarta we 494

——- sura 494, 495

——- verina sintica 494

——-vindhya ... oats 494

——-visrava ... o- ve «= 494

——-- yama ve one ied S93

——-~ —— yama 493

Lethrinus spp. 743

Leucania loreyi ne i) 00g

Leucosticte nemoricola Gosarcolet: o 411

Libythea myrrha sanguinalis 502

Limenitis : 368

Limenitis a. austenia 499

ae daraxa 499

———— p.procris... as . = 499

———— zayla aes0 99S

Limnocnida 799, 801

Limnocnida indica 799, 800

Limonia acidissima 753

Limosa limosa ... aa 555

Lippia nodiflora ... 770

Lissemys a 532

Lissemys punctata Praneca 532

—- = scutata 532

Litsaea polyantha 753

Lobivanellus indicus... 52 ine) aes

indicus 368

Lorchura punctulata lineoventer 413

———-—-- Striata acuticauda ... se LS

Lophophanes melanophus 609

—— rufonuchalis « 608

Lophura leucomelana leucomelana ... 367

Loranthus spp, Me bea seem toe e

XXVIii

PAGE

Loxia aes 611

Loxostege nudalis 640, 659

Lutjanus malabaricus ... 741, 742, 747

Lutjanus spp. 741, 743

Lycaena phloeas .. 647, 648, 657

Lycaenid 569

Lycaenopsis 566, 567 |

Lycaenopsis argiolus 569 |

ae cardia 567

—-—---—-—— huegelii 569

Lycaenopsis huegelii huegelii 569 |

~-—--—-—- ladonides gigas .. 569 |

—_——_—-—.- lavendularis 567 |

a puspa 567 |

——-——--—-- transpecta... 967 |

Lycium 638 |

Lymnocryptes minima 368 |

Macaca irus 545 —

———-—- nemestrina -e oe) aD

Macaria aestimaria ...642, 650, 657 |

Machilus gamblei 753

Macronus gularis rubricapilla .. 360, 392

Macropygia unchall tusalia 370

Malacocincla sepiara F oe e100

—--——-—— —--— abbotti ... 360, 390

Mallotus philippensis 153

Manihot utilissima 520

Martula nepalensis 516

Mastacembelus armatus 674, 677 |

Mauritia mauritiana 666, 669

Megalaima asiatica 706

aa ne asiatica 376

—-_-——— haemacephala 706

———— ————-—-—- indica 376 |

—-~——-——--—-— lineatus... 719 |

————----—-— _ virens magnifica 375

eo -- marshallorum 375 |

wee zeylanicus eee 702, 706 ©

————--—-— zeylanica caniceps 362, 375, |

376 |

—_—— hodgsoni,.. 362,376

ee kanerae S7or4

—_——_-—— —-—-—_— lineata 376 |

tana Hie. Sol coe 76

Melapitis bela : 496

——-—-— ledaismene ... nee 495 —

——-——— phedima 496 |

——-—— 7, zitenius A sis 496 |

Melanochlora sultanea sultanea 408

Melanthesa ey) 769 ©

Melophus lathami

412 |

INDEX OF SPECIES

Melopsittacus undulatus

Melursus ursinus

Menacanthus

Mergus merganser

Meromenopon

Merops leschenaulti

Carentan orientalis

— ——— + ——-——— orientalis

———- superciliosus

Metaponia pusilla

Metopidius indicus

Microhierax caerulescens caerulescens

Micropus affinis

Microscelis flavala flavala

——-—-——-~ madagascariensis psaroides

——-——~ mcclellandi mcclellandi

——--———- nigrescens nigrescens

———-—- psaroides psaroides

Milvus migrans :

— lineatus

— migrans

Mirafra assamica ane

Mitragyna parvifolia

Modiola tulipha

Mollugo hirta “a

———-- ——- var. lotoides

Mollugo lotoides eae

Monetaria moneta sis ae

Monticola cinclorhyncha

——-—-—- rufiventris

————- solitaria

—_———- solitarius pandoo

Motacilla alboides

~————-— cinerea

————-— ——-—- caspica

———— citreola re nae

——-—-— flava beema

————--—- ——-- thunbergi

——--——-— leucopsis

——-—-— maderaspatensis

Mulleripicus pulverulentus mohun ...

Monia atricapilla

Muntiacus muntjac

Muntingia calabura

Mus fernendoni

—— phillipsi fern aont

—— platythrix 5

—~ grahami

Muscadivora aenea

Muscicapa hodgsoni «.

———-—- hyperythra RE ies,

.--660, 768, 769

PAGE

558

832

44]

364

441

374, 517

706

374

611

713

366

Dol 02

385

643, 707

364, 612 -

612

710

753

527

660, 769

769

667, 669

389

388

611

389

611

612

381

612, 710

718

710

381

378

723

831

801, 805

780-

780

mE 780

Be 77S

272k

ve 405:

405

INDEX OF SPECIES

Neofelis nebulosa 543, 545, 546

PAGE

’ Muscicapa latirostris latirostris 404

——~—-—- levcomelanura leucome-

lanura eee e400

—_————- olivaceus poliogeys 360, 406

a parva 705

—_———-- albicilla 405

——-—— ~ rubeculoides rubeculoides 405

a sapphira 360, 405

————— sibirica cacabata 404

—_——-—-- strophiata strophiata 404

—_—-—-—- superciliaris astigma 405

+.» thalassina thalassina 405

Muscicapula pallipes pallipes... 785

Mustelus laevis 758

Mycalesis maisara 493

a - visala visala ... 493

Mycerobas carneipes 611

Myiophoneus caeruleus Pe minck: So) ROU

Myliobatus 7595, 762

Myophonus 611

Myrsidea 441

Mytilus 52? $23, 524, 525 |

——-—- smaragdinus 52]

— - viridis 521

Myzornis pyrrhoura 396 |

Nacaduba dubiosa 567 |

= __ —_ nora a OH: 567 |

Nadiasa siva 643, 645

—(=T RECN Siva ... 654

Naja hannah 561

Nasalis larvatus ... 7 ees 544

Nectarinia asiatica asiatica 410 |

Neolalage banksiana 473

_ Neomenopon A ee MOOT)

Neophron peeronrer is 917, 712 |

Neorina hilda . 496 |

Neptis columella ophiana 499 ©

r. radha 500 |

sankara quilta 499

‘Netta rufina 364

Nettapus Ssromangelianes 714, 830

Neurosigma d. doubledayi 499

Niltava grandis ... 915

—_—- - grandis 406

——-— macgrigoriae 406

——~-— sundara : 515

— ——-— sundara 406

- Ninox scutulata lueubris 378

Nipa frutescens 544

Noctiluca 522

Kxix

PAGE

Nomophila noctuella 640, 646, 652, 659

Nucifraga caryocatactes hemispila ... 416

Nycticorax nycticorax oat 792

Nyctiornis athertoni athertoni 374

Nymphula affinialis 646, 659

Oceanites oceanicus 503, 508

Ochlandra sp. set 576

Ocneria signatoria poenitens ... 654

Odina wodier 735

Odoriphila 44]

(Enanthe pleschanka Gleucomern) 610

Oenopopelia tranquebarica 707

Ophiusa albivitta coe ORLY)

—— algira 649, 659

Ophrysia Tee cle)

Opisthocomus se 435, 436

Ophicephalus gachua 674, 675, 677

—-——-——— punctatus 565

————_- striatus 564

Oreocincla dauma 789

SSE — (or molli asia) 515

Orinoma damaris 495

Oriolus o. kundoo 705

——-— trailli eee bas os ow. 4)14

——— xanthornus a8 705

—— ——-—— xanthornus 414

Ornamentaria is _ cece HOOT,

Ornamentaria annulus ... 667, 668, 669

Ornithobius rt 436

Ornithoscopa petionven 560

Orsotrioena m. medus 495

Orthotomus sutorius és 705

—_— oe — «cuzurata 402

——~-—— -_—_--— luteus 402

—— ———-— patia 402

Osphronemus goramy 562

Osteochilus 676

Osteochilus (Osteochilichthys) ERORace! 674

Ostrea cucullata 526

Otidoecus é 440

Otocorys alpestris 612

Otus asio (bakkamoena) ror LIS

——- bakkamoena 517, 706

Ougenia dalbergioides .., 190

Paguma spp. ; 829

Palaeodissimulatrix 960

Panaxia dominula 970

642, 643, 644, 645,

646, 647, 656

726

366

Pandesma anysa

Pandion haliaetus

a EGS eee

XXX

PAGE

Panilurus sp. 524

Panolia eldi eldi ... 736

~—- platyceros ... 735

- —~ thamin 736

Panthera leo persica eo Gog

——--—— pardus 544, 832

— —— tigris 852

Pantoporia a. astra 499

—— perius 499

—— r. ranga Ae. les ss0.' GA99

Papilio castor 490

-chaon ... ae 490

~- demodocus RF 570

- demoleus 490, 569, 570

-helenus ... wes 490)

—--——- machaon centralis 659

--——— - paris £7 490

~ polycter ganesa 490

- polytes romulus 490

—- protenor 490

— rhetenor : 490

Paralges pachycnemis .. 431

Paradoxornis poliotis humei 360, 393

—— ———— unicolor unicolor © 93

Paradoxurus spp. 829

Pareronia avatar avatar 492

Parus major ©... tr 705

——= -nipalensis ... 407

——- modestus modestus 407

——- monticolus 407

——- rubidiventris beavani 360, 407

——- santhogenys xanthogenys 407

Passer domesticus 612, 705, 710

—— parkini 413

montanus malaccensis 413

Pastor ee = oes ae 471

Pastor roseus 487, 555

Pellornetim ruficeps 514

—_—#——--—— mandellii... a, 390

Penenirmus 440

Perdicula es ote 831

Pericrocotus brevirostris 417

——_-——_-——. ethologus favillaceus 382

———_— ————— ——-—— laetus 381

flammeus ... 416

—— ee —- —— speciosus 381

— peregrinus Se ‘ 709

ee ——— peregrinus ... 382

———$——— — — — ~=——peregrinus

wt AS

me vividus 382

a rm rr rr

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Pericrocotus peregrinus vividus 382

Pericyma albidentaria 659

Petaurista spp. soo, Doreiees

Phaethon aethereus 505

———-— lepturus . 207

Phalacrocorax carbo 363, 727

—_—_—_-—-—-— niger 714, 792

Philopterus 44]

Phoebe lanceolata 753

Phoenix’ <.. A st ae 638

——~— sylvestris ae ae 698

Phoenicurus frontalis

386, 555, 610.

Phoenicurus fuliginosus fuliginosus ... 387

-—— grandis 610

——-—— leucocephalus ... eo

——-—— ochruros ... soa 610

-—— schisticeps .. 386

Phragmaticola aedon 404

Phragmites ase oe fe .638

Phycita diaphana : 659

Phyla nodiflora ee ee oot n/m

Phyllanthus distichus 769

Phylloscopus =... seb is 417

Phylloscopus affinis 400, 609

collybita ... 609 |

—_—_—— ——-—— sindianus 609

— -——— ——_——tristis 609

—— —-—-——- griseolus 609 —

———-——. inornatus 717

——__ —_—. —-—_ hu mei 401 |

—— —— —— maculirennis centralis 361, 401 |

maculipennis 401 |

ee magnirostris 610 |

Shee newtoni 410 |

od nitidus 402 |

—_——- occipitalis 609 |

—— proregulus 785 |

——— -———_ —-———— chloronotus... 401 |

——__—__——- ----— — Simlaensis ... 401

—_——~ pulcher... eae 785

-_——$—— —— _——- erochrca 361, 401 |

Seana ~ erochroa

e kangrae 401

——— ———_——_ —-——- pulcher 400 |

——-——— reguloides reguloides 402 |

or subaffiinis arcanus 400

—— trochiloides trochiloides 402.

—_————— viridanus 402

—-————- virens 402

Phytometra chalcites 658 |

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

- Phytometra eriosoma 658

ficicola... aoe ae 44)

Picumnus innominatus innominatus 376

Picus canus a (AB!

—-- gyldenstolpei SW

——- ——- sanguiniceps 377

ee ee e 5

a gyldenstolpei 377

——- chlorclophus se = 516

So —— chlorolophus 378

— - simlae 378

'——-flavinucha favinucha .. .. 377

—-- xanthopygaeus 377, 706

_ Pinnotheres sp. 526

Pinus excelsa 489

357, 374, 382, 752

491, 566, 5€7

_—- longifolia ...

Pieris brassicae ...

canidia 49], 567

/——- napi cee rr at <4 906

-——- rapae 644, 647, 648, 657

Pitta brachyura ; 719

Platanthera susannae ... 428

Platyrhinoides triseriatus | 762

Ploceus philippinus 591, 552, 709

-Plutella maculipennis 644, 660

-Pnoepyga albiventer pallidor 391

— —-—— albiventer 392

Podiceps ruficollis i 363, 714

' Podicipidiformes 433

Pollidinium angustifolium 753

-Polycarpaea corymbosa 768

'Polydorus aidoneus 489

—-— 1. latreillei ay ww. 489

_——-— philoxenus 489

_—— -— varuna ; one woe 409

‘Polygonum 638, 645, 646, 647,

: 652, 656

-Pomatorhinus erythrogenys erythro-

_ genys See Ant oat one (39)

_- —— ——— ferrugila-

tus ae . 361, 491

_---— —_—- haringtoni 391

——- montanus 391

_- CC eheaiaathas 390

——- ——_— —__-__- salimalii 390

—_—_-——— —-—— schisticeps 390

——- tuficollis godwini 391

—_—-—_—- ———— ruficollis 390)

———--—- sChisticeps 514

Populus a a "652, 653, 654,

655, 660

> £4

PAGE

642, 646, 650, 653,

654, 655, 656

Populus euphratica

Porphyrio poliocephalus 727

Precis almana almana 500

atlites 500

- hierta hierta 500

—— iphita 500

———_— ——-- iphita 500

orithya ocyale < 500

Presbytes (Semnopithecus) entellus.... 701

Prinia hodgsonii rufula... 402

inornata terricolor 403

polychroa crinigera 403

-———~ socialis 717

— - inglisi 403

——_— stewarti 403

sylvatica gangetica 403

Prinsepia utilis 569

Prioneris thestylis oe sae? 4.492

Pristis cuspidatus 796, 757, 760, 761, 762

Procellariphaga 433

Prodenia litura ee re 659

Propyrrhula subhimachala subhima-

chala 412

Prosopis | 654

Prosopis Eepnaninne 638

Prunella immaculata 387

strophiata strophiata 387

Pseudergolis wedah 500

Pseudibis papillosa 364

Pseudogyps africanus 435

—- - bengalensis 365, 707

Pseudomenopon 439

Pseudominla castaneiceps see $14

Psittacula cyanocephala 720

— ——- cyanocephala 371

—- — eupatria ea aa: sent? 22/06

—-— ~~ nipalensis ... wee OE

——-—— himalayana himalayana 37/1

—— - krameri borealis 37}

Pterolichus bicaudatus ... 432

Pteropus edwardsii medius 701

Pteruthius erythropterus 5907514

Ptyas mucosus 561

Puffinus assimilis . 904

——-— carneipes 503, 505

——— pacificus 503, 507

Purpura et ; suey GOc4

Pycnonotus cafer.. ANG! 702, 705

-_— —- See it 384

a primrose 384

XERil

PAGE

Pyenonotus cafer pygaeus 384 |

-——: = flaviventris flaviventris ... 384

—_ -——_ -—— dispar 384

———_—-——_ --—— — gularis 384 —

—— —— = - melanicterus 384 |

—__—-——_ jocosus 702, 7035 |

—__--—-—. leucogenys leucogenys 384 |

Pygaera pigra ferruginea 553) |

Pyrrhocorax graculus .:. 608

———-——— pyrrhocorax 608

Pyrrhula erythrocephala 412

—- hipalensis 516, 785 |

Quadraceps ... 434, 438, 483

Quercus semicarpifolia ? as eco

Ragadia crisilda crito aes ie aoo

Raja batis 759

——- rhina ais ar ai 762 |

Rallicola ... eae 432 |

Ramphalcyon capensis... ae 706 |

Rasbora daniconius 073,074, G47 |

Rattus exulans concolor 548 |

(Maxomys) cremoriventer 781

———— mulleri 549 ©

norvegicus 548 |

———-— rajah 549

——-—- rattus diardi 548 -

——— —-— jalorensis . 548 |

——-— (Rattus) norvegicus 781

——-—— sabanus 949

Ratufa spp. a a 829 |

Recurvirostra avocetta ... 555. |

Rhinobatus granulatus ... 100) 2008704

Rhinoceros sondaictis ...

—— sumatrensis... 737

—— unicornis 1305-737.)

Rhinopalpa polynice burmana . 000

Rhipidura albicollis 515, 610

> albicollis ... 407 |

soe atireola RD 705

-——_-—____- —--——- aureola 406 —

——-—-— hypoxantha see w. «=. 4068 |

Rhodometra sacraria 570, 640, 646, 647, 649,

652526573)

Rhodonessa caryophyllacea 830 |

Rhodophila ferrea a 515 |

Rhynchobatus djiddensis 756, 757, 760, 701,

762

Rhynchodontodes revolutalis 659 |

Rhopodytes tristis saliens 372 |

——-—-———. —. —- tristis

Rhynonirmus

7297308737

372 |

440 |

INDEX OF SPECIES

Pace

Ricinus rf 441, 659

Riparia concolor... 516

——-— paludicola brevicaudata 381

Rivula seicealis ... . 640, 646, 656

Rosa ae 609

Rostratula bengale E0SiS .c- 713

Rotala tenuis 769

Rubus ‘ 659

Ruellia sp. wet ie Bhi Sees =A

——-— tuberosa ... ste cab ees Sere

Rusa unicolor 832

Saccharum munja vse, Oe

Saemutidssonia ; 431, 433, 434, 438

Salebria dionysa ... 659

Scaphiodon oa ae So a , 68K

Sciurus palmarum = @0i

Scoliodon palasorrah 758, 761

———-—- sorrakowah ... 758, 761 |

Scolopax rusticola rusticola ... 368)

Seyllium ‘ 756 |

Scyllium canicula ». 158s 759, /62a

——-—- catulus 762 |

Seicercus burkii ... a S16 |

———— —-—- burkii ... 399 |

——-——— castaniceps 516 |

——— — castaniceps 400

————— whistleri 399

———-—-—. xanthoschistos zanthos- |

chistoss ——s. sce . doay

Semasia bagdadiana 660

——-— euphraticana 660 |

Sephisa chandra 498

Shorea 358 |

Shorea robusta 550, 753 |

Siphia strophiata Sie

652, 653, 654, 655

> Salix o

Salix tetrasperma 770

Sargassum : 511

Sarkidiornis melanctos ... she xs OS

Saroglossa ine aes aoe «el « ACB

Saroglossa spiloptera ... .. 471, 472, 473.

—_: ‘+ —-——--—. assainensis 472 ©

Saturnia pyti 642 |

Saxicola caprata ols |

———- caprata bicolor 387

——-~—~ ferrea ferrea 387

——-—-— torquata 723

—-—-—. ———-—— indica 387

——---— —-——-— przewalskii... 387

Saxicoloides fulicata cambaiensis 387

—————- ——-— stuart-bakeri 387

Sitta castanea castanea ...

_—— — cinnamoventris ...

frontalis Se

—— —-—-— coralina...

himalayensis

Siva cyanouroptera ve

== —— .— cyanouroptera

strigula strigula

Sonneratia apetala

Spalgis epius... ... ace

Sphenurus sphenurus sphenurus

Spilornis cheela

—

cheela ...

Stachyridopsis ruficeps...

Stachyris nigriceps :

— nigriceps ...

——-—— pyrrhops

Stegostoma

Stegostoma tigrinum

Stenochlaeima palustris

‘Stenosiphonium parviflorum ...

russelianum ,..,

Stercorarius pomarinus

Sterculia

Sterculia acuminata

— villosa

Sterna albifrons

anaetheta

aurantia ..

bengalensis

bergii velox

fuscata

melanogaster

Sterrha ochrole ucaria ...

Stibochiana n. nicea :

Sticophthalma camadeva oe

sparta tytleri

Stomopneustes sp.

Streptopelia chinensis .., ui

suratensis

—_———- decaocto ...

——_—_ ——— —— —- decaocto

——_——-——- orientalis

——_——_. ———— agricola

—_——- ~-— ———-— meena...

- Strigiphilus

Strix aluco

— ocellata ale

Strobilanthes

Strobilanthes eucees

—-nourmahal nurinissa ...

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE|

408

363, 408

513, 484

ets

408

514

396

792

567

369

707

3°6

514

392

392 |

796

762

044

576

507

457

667

753

369

505

722

506

503

505

727

659

498

495 |

496

613, 707

730

713

370

707

370

440

Ee Ae.

373, 720

403,575

576

613,

524 |

xxxili

PAGE

Strobilanthes anceps var. microsta-

chyus 576

——_——-—— consanguineus- 576

— helicoides 576

—————— luridus 576

—— — neilghertensis 576

——-—-—_— tristis 576

Struthiolipeurus 431, 432

Sturnia om 471

Sturnia malabarica 705

Sturvidoecus 442

Sturnopastor “e 471

Sturnopastor contra 11000, 702, 705

Sturnornis a a AT

Sturnus sas ve vee 471

Sturnus contra contra ... ... 413, 480, 481

——-- — dehrae ... 420

——-— ——— sordidus 481

—-—— ——— superciliaris ... .. 480

——-— cristatellus 482, 483

ee ete brevipennis 482, 483

ee cristatellus 482

ee formosanus 482

—-—— fuscus as 482

——-— ——— fumidus 4&4

———-- ——-— fuscus ... : 484

wee — mahrattensis ... 484

——-— ginginianus 482

—-—— griseus 482

noe ye fuscus 482. 483

—_—_—- ——— grandis... 482, 483

-——— malabaricus 473, 474, 475, 476, 477

pee -———— blythii ~... 474, 475, 477

———- ——-—-—— malabaricus 413, 474,

| 475

a ——-— nemoricola 475, 477

—-—— pagodarum .., 0) « 477

ee pagodarum 478

—-— afghanorum 478, 479

es —— sylvestris 478

——-— roseus 479

—e sinex 474

——-— subroseus 478

———-- tristis melanosternus ... 481

———-- ——- tristis 481

———- vulgaris 703

Sula dactylatra 505

—— leucogastra ... 506, 507

Surniculus lugubris : 517

——_—-— — dicruroides = yial

Sus barbatus 945

Xxxiv

Sus cristatus

Suthora nipalensis

Suya criniger

Symbrenthia hippoclus ehasiana

-— hypselis

—_——---—-— ——-— cotanda ...

—_—-—--—— nyphanda nyphanda

Syrrhaptoecus

Taccocua leschenaulti ie reeate

... 654, 659, 660

‘Tamarix

Tamarix arcuica

Tarsiger chrysaeus

Tarucus theophrastus ...

Tchitrea paradisi

Temenuchus

Tephris stenopterella

Tephrodornis gujaris pelvica ...

——— pondiceriana

‘

oo,

Terminalia belerica

tomentosa ...

Terpsiphone paradisea leucogaster

Tesia

Tesia castaneo-coronata

—-— cyaniventer

—-— olivea

Testudo emys

_ platynota

Tetraceros quadricornis

Thalassia . ae eee

Thadmantis diores

Thereta alecto cretica ...

Tichodroma muraria

Timalia pileata :

bengalensis

eer

Tinamotaeccla

Tockus birostris...

Torgos calvus

Tragopan satyra

Trapa bispinosa ...

Travancoria

Travancoria jonesi

Treron curvirostra ao0

——-— phoenicoptera

phoenicoptera

Tringa erythropus

- glareola

- nebularia

———-- ochrophus see

Trinoton <t:

PAGE

829

513

516

501

S01.

457

S72

656

515

659

716

471

659

382

709

—-— pondice-

nriana.. 2 wo

400, 715

670, 678

a 722

368, 727

368, 713

wen) 296

INDEX OF°*SPECIES

Trionyx ,

-- gangeticus

-- hurum

Trissonca oblitella

Trivia (Trivirostra) oryza

Trochalopteron erythrocephalum

-— lineatum

Trochalopterum lJineatum

-———-——- variegatum .

Trochilaecetes

Troglodytes

Troglodytes crotionttes pipalenee

Troides a. aeacus as :

Turdoides oe “ph 361

Turdoides earlii

—— --—— somervillei

—— terricolor

——-_ ex --—___-—

Turdus amadoni

- boulboul

- citrinus aa

—_- —-—— amadoni

- cyanotus

- (Geokichla) citrinus

———- lividus

———- pagodarum

- rubrocanus rubrocanus

- ruficollis

Turnicola tee

Turnix maculatus eae

suscitator

—- plumbipes

unicolor

Upupa epops aoa

- ——- ceylonensis

———- ——-~ epops

- ——- orientalis

Upupicola

Urocissa flavirostris

Uroloncha malabarica

-—- punctulata

Utetheisa pulchella

Vanellus vanellus

Vanessa canace

— cardui a

— indica aabieetn

— kashmirensis aesis ...

Varanus salvator ,

Vespa cincta

——-- orientalis ...

Vipera russelli

Viverra spp 03 “

eee

UA Id

661, 662

501, 567

PAGE

532

659

669

514

609

441

609

385

489

, 393, 394

393

702, 705

393

661, 662

389

661

631

478

389

440

713

368

330

712

375m

375

441

513

709

710

648, 658

703

500, 501

501

701

726

796

560

829

Vulpes bengalensis

Wend¢landia tinctoria

Wrightia tomentosa

Xancus pyrum ya

Xanthium strumarium

Xanthum ; doe

Xenorhynchus asiaticus

Yphthima narada newara

—- sakra austeni

Yuhina flavicollis albicollis

—-— —--— flavicollis

——-— gularis

-——- gularis

——-— occipitalis occipitalis

— -— zantholeuca zantholeuca

Zea mays De

Zemeros flegyas indicus

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS,

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

700

735

753

668

638, 649

658, 659

361

495

396

397

573

502

Zipoetis scylax

Zizeeria karsandra

Zizyphus...

Zizyphus jujuba

—-— — nummulata

— spina-christi ae

~—-——— xylopyra

Zoothera citrina citrina

— dauma dauma

— — dixoni

Zostera eb

Zosterops palpebrosa

—- ———_ —_-- elwesi

—_ ——- —_—_-— occidentalis

——-—— — ——-—— palpebrosa

——-—-— siamensis

MADRAS—30-12-1952. C7284

392, 400, 638, 654

KYXV

PAGE

495

648

753

456

638

753

389

51]

417, 718

41]

411

417

— Ss ae

% =

0 Nan

ae:

5 a 1

4 :

ery oy

ie 4

2 -

JOURNAL OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Vol. 49, No. *3

Editors

SALIM ALI, S. B. SETNA, H. SANTAPAU

DECEMBER 1950

Rs. 15

WATCH-WORDS FOR

sold in India for over three.

quarters of a century, and

during the whole of that time

we have insisted on a high

‘Se eae \ancrecmme. - degree of craftsmanship in

a: _ eee; «Our products.

Bay s a oe on Reliability and handsome

2g iV \ i fee: appearance have always

been combined, and no

matter the price you pay

for your West End Watch,

you can be assured of top

value-for-money.

Catalogue FREE on request.

| WEST END

Ik » WATCH Co.

NEW CALIBRE CURVED B O M B AY

Sch olld Gold Re. 240 » 18-ct- Soild Geld naaso CALCUTTA

og ae

. 5

Sy 2.88 ee os

ax)

Se en

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 49, No. 3

PAGE

BIRDS FROM N#pAL 1947-1949. By S. Dillon extge re a map, 1

coloured and 2 black & white plates) . Ny $03) POSS

JUNGLE MEmoRIES. Part VII. By Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian-Adams,

O.B.E., F.Z.S., 1.4. (Retd.). (With 2 plates) ae Pea ove, \ 418

A PLEA FOR THE PRESERVATION OF WILD PLANTS. By H. Santapau,

S.J. (With a plate) ee cee ane ms neem. Ath

A PRELIMINARY SURVEY OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE MALLOPHAGA

(‘FEATHER LICE’) ON THE CLASS AVES (BIRDS), By Theresa Clay.

(With 2 plates and 3 text figures) oe cet a2 ate 430

ON THE SHRIKE Lanius tephronotus (VIGORS), WITH REMARKS ON THE

erylhronotus AND tricolor GROUPS OF Lantus schach LINNE, AND

THEIR HYBRIDS. By Biswamoy Biswas. (With a map) ... . 444

THE GIR FOREST AND ITS Lions. Part II. By M.A. Wynter-Blyth,

M.A, (Cantab.), F.R.E.S., and Kumar Shree Dharmakumarsinhji. ( With

a plate) ae pa oie see LE bea a

NOTES ON SOME ASIATIC STURNID# (BiRDS). By Daniel Marien. (With

a text map) ae sale seis oye shy sssrip (ed

ON a COLLECTION OF BUTTERFLIES FROM THE BALIPARA FRONTIER

TRACT AND THE SUBANSIRI ARKA (NORTHERN ASSAM). By F.N.

Betts. (With a sketch map) Beak cee as Sean Joe

WILSON’S STORM-PETRELS, SHEARWATERS AND OTHER SEABIRDS IN THE

GULF OF ADEN ANDINDIAN OCEAN. By W. W. A. Phillips so $83

TURTLE FISHING IN THE SEA AROUND KRUSADAI ISLAND, By G. K.

Kuriyan. (Witha text figure) ie a ar ir 509

MorE NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE NEPAL VALLEY. By B. E. Smythies. 513

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BIONOMICS AND FISHERY OF THE BROWN MoSSEL

(Mytilus sp.) OF THE CAPE REGION OF PENINSULAR INDIA, By

S. Jones. (With a text map and two plates) os ssf we », §19

EDIBLE CHELONIANS AND THEIR PrRopucts. By M.N. Acharji, msc. ... 529

REVIEWS :—

1. Elephant Bill. (E.P.G.) 533

2. A Short Guide to the Natural History Séction in the. ‘Provincial

Museum, Lucknow (S.A.) ts dex beset [oao

3. Birdsof Ceylon]. (S.A.) = ves ee ses /, 534

Additions to the Society’s Library se a Sa. 535

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES:

; 1. A Tiger fight. By Lt.-Col. W. D. Ritchie. (p. 537). 2. Death cry of Tiger.

By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton. (p. 538). 3. Rabies in Tiger—Two proved instances.

By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton. (p. 538). 4. The ‘Dew-claws’ of the Hunting Leo-

pard or Cheetah [Acinonyx jubatus (Schreber)]. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton,

i CONTENTS OF VOLUME 49, No. 3

(p. 541). 5. Notes on the Clouded Leopard [Neofelis nebulosa (Griffith)]. (With

a plate). By C. A. Gibson-Hill. (p. 543). 6. The strange death of a Bison. By

L. Rynjah. (p.546). 7. A doe Cheetal with horns. By Chandra Chur. (p. 547)

8. The occurrence of albino and melanic Rats. By J. L. Harrison. (p.548).. 9

‘Soori Phanda’. By B. E. Smythies, (p. 549). 10. Large Grey Babbler attack-

ing metal hub-cap of wheel of car. By H. G. Alexander. (p.550). 11. Com-

mon Mynah (Acridotheres tristis) nesting in the nest of Pied Mynah (Sturnopastor

contra). By K.M. Kirkpatrick. (p. 550). 12. Peculiar roosting site of the House

Swift (Wicropus affinis). By Kenneth M. Kirkpatrick. (p. 551). 13. Tameness

of wild Grey Lag Geese taken as adults. By Jamal Ara. (p. 552). 14. Stray

bird notes from Malabar. By K. K. Neelakantan. (p. 553). 15. Stray bird

notes from Tibet. By Editors. (p.555). 16. Scent of game-birds. By A. St. J.

Macdonald. (p. 556). 17. Field identification of birds: Notes on the Hoodwink

(Dissimulatrix spuria). By M. F. A. Meiklejohn. (p. 557). 18. The record

Russell’s Viper [Vipera russelli (Shaw)]. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton. (p. 560).

19. A Dhaman or Rat-Snake [Ptyas mucosus (Linn.)] jumping. By V. K. Chari.

(p. 561). 20. The record Hamadryad or King Cobra [Naja hannah (Cantor)],

and lengths and weights of large specimens. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton. (p. 561)

21. Breeding of the Gourami [Osphronemus goramy (Lacepede)] in Indian rivers.

By P. ]. Chacko and A.R.K. Zobairi. (p. 562). 22. Fish and barometric press-

sure. By Humayun Abdulali. (p. 563). 23. Note on an abnormal specimen of

the Murrel, Ophicephalus striatus Bloch. (With a text figure). By K. H. Alikunhi.

(p. 564).. 24. Occurrence of the fish Danio aequipinnatus (McClelland) in Nela

Bilam—an undergrcund cavern in Kurnool District, South India. By V. K. Chari.

(p. 565).25. Where do butterflies go ? By T. Norman. (p. 566). 26. The early stages

of Lycaenopsis huegelit. By T. Norman (p. 569). 27. Brownish-yellow forms of

Papilio demoleus L. By D. G. Sevastopulo. (p. 569). 28. Seasonal forms of

Catopsilia spp. By D.G, Sevastopulo. (p. 570). 29. Food-plant of Delias

eucharis Drury. By D.G.Sevastopulo. (p. 571). 30. Occurrence of the Fairy

Shrimp, Apus, in a temple tank in Tirunelveli District, Madras. By P. I. Chacko.

(p. 571). 31. A four-winged samara in the Indian Elm Aoloptelea integrifolia

Planch. (With a photo). By S. N.Chandrasekharan and J. Sakharam Rao.

(p. 572). 32. Two interesting abnormalities in the common Indian Corn, Zea

mays Linn. (With three text-figures). By S.A. Parandekar. (p. 573). 33. Some

phenological notes on Dillenia indica Linn., By K. Subramanyam. (p. 574).

Further remarks on the flowering of Strobilanthes. By H. Santapau. (p. 575).

35. The flowering of Strobilanthes. By Miss Evelyn Bowden. (p. 576). 36. A

note on the polystachous inflorescence in EHuteropogon monostachyos K. Schun:.

(With a text figure), By S.N. Chandrasekharan and J. Sakharam Rao.

(p. 577). 37. Gleanings (p. 578).

-- PAGE

Annual Report of the Bombay Natural History Society for the year

ending 3lst December 1949 ve ty 2, an 580

The Honorary Secretaries ’ Report for the year 1949 son | 581

Appendix to the Honorary Secretaries’ Report covering the period

January to October 1950. see aor i ee su) O80

Statement of Accounts of the Bombay Natural er Satie o» 989

Minutes of the Annual General Meeting ya lon: UES O4"

Announcements a ie, i te s26 5 Q5

Ni er

. peed \

s060u10719 # .

y ~~ MOUNHING

044;0u49 ; 4

OyNyUDYUG ‘A 1noxrOy

{So

Resin buE a”)

_ Roe ae)

NpudOwyoyH —

Nai 1448 Oupvoyyd

of youg/Zo;oOrmNnoy

sndo ‘

ss ' dos a g

1uod 'yO~,F7 oyoyoya

Se wasiy auny

eee {i035 Ag

————==__ poos Ag

mess p00 104 Ag

aenoy s,s0Y4INY

SOW BINGOUS

( es ———— es a ee ee]

001 OS ce]

aeons a oe I RE ERTS,

00G ‘ISIN ‘JUN Aequiog “‘uinor

_ JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

1950 Vox. 49 No. 3

BIRDS FROM NEPAL, 1947-1949

S. DILLon RIPLEY

(With a map, 1 coisured and 2 black & white plates)

Since the days of Brian Hodgson, that indefatigable worker on

so many facets of natural history in the Himalayas, Nepal has been

a sort of ‘terra incognita’. The Central Valley containing the capital,

Katmandu, and the routes leading up to it from the Indian plains, have

been the only areas visited by naturalists, as they have been the only

areas visited by foreigners, outside of the occasional invited big game

shoots arranged by the Nepal rulers in the lowlands of the Terai.

Aside from Sir Joseph Hooker’s brief botanical explorations along the

Tamur River in 1848, and one or two recent geological treks in eastern

Nepal, no zoologists have been allowed to travel or study in Nepal,

except in the Valley area, within a radius of fifteen miles of the capital,

and the trail up. Until recently the best paper on the Valley was that

of Surgeon J. Scully who was in attendance at the British Residency

for two vears and published a list of 300 species of birds from Nepal

in Stray Feathers in 1879. Herbert Stevens visited the Sikkim

Himalayas in 1911, ’12 and ’14, and crossed over into eastern Nepal

for a short distance. His extensive collections were written up and

published in the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society in 1923-

24. In 1920 and 1921 a small collection of birds was secured at the

same time as the collection of mammals for the Mammal Survey of

India was made by the Bombay Natural History Society’s collector,

Mr. N. A. Baptista, under the supervision of Colonel R. L. Kennion

who was then British Resident. A comprehensive if conjectural list

of the birds of Nepal was prepared by S. H. Prater for inclusion in

Volume I of the book, ‘Nepal’ by Percival Landon, published by

Constable and Co., London, 1928. Colonel F. M. Bailey, who was

Minister in Nepal in the early nineteen-twenties, made a collection of

birds which is at present being studied by Mr. N. B. Kinnear at the

British Museum. More recently (in 1947) two collections have been

made about the Valley and the trail leading to it by Dr. Walter Koelz,

whose specimens are on deposit in New York and currently being

studied by a number of students, and Mr. B-, Biswas of the Indian

MAR 3 0 1951

356 JOURNAL, BOMBA y NATURAL HIST. “SOCIETY Vola9

Museum. In the summer of rog4g Mr. R. L. Fleming of Mussoorie

collected some 600 specimens in the western Nepal districts of Palpa,

and No. 4 West on the upper Pokhara-Mustang trail, and a party of

British mountaineers, using one of our collectors, took a few specimens

tor the British Museum on the trail up to Gosainthan.

There are two valuable recent papers in the Bombay Natural

History Society’s journal of sight observations of Nepal birds, the

first by B. E. Smythies, son of the well-known forest official of Nepal,

and co-author of ‘Birds of Burma’, of birds observed during a walk

along the pilgrim trail to Gosainkund (1948). The second is by Mrs.

Proud, wife of the First Secretary of the British Embassy at Katmandu,

on birds observed in the Valley (1949).

The collection reported on herewith is believed to be the most

comprehensive made since Hodgson’s time. The specimens coilected

number close to sixteen hundred, representing three hundred and

thirty-one species and subspecies taken, with an additional fifty forms

positively observed, making a total of three hundred and eighty-one.

Of these, ten species and subspecies have not previously been recorded

from Nepal. In addition eight subspecies have been previously des-

cribed as new (1950).

COLLECTING LOCALITIES AND. DATES

For convenience’s sake I will divide the collecting localities into

three groups: Central, West and East. The winter dates from

November to February are in 1948-49, the April-May dates in 1947.

(A) Localities in the Central area.

Raxaul-Birganj. The border area of Nepal is totally indistinguish-

able in its general conditions from neighboring areas of Bihar. Open

cultivation devoid of trees except for occasional mangos and groves

of bamboo. Altitude 350 ft. above sea level. November 17-20.

Simra. <A village about fifteen miles farther north-north-east in the

Terai on the edge of the evergreen forest belt. Altitude 450 ft.

November 18.

Sisagarhi. The height above Bhimpedi, sometimes called

Chisapani Garhi where the first Rest House of the foot trail is located.

On the southern slopes of the first Pass of the Mahabharat Range in

light scrub, mixed with grass and pines. Altitude 5,o00 ft. December

May 3.

Bhimpedi. A village at the head of the motor road and below the

first pass on the Katmandu trail. Some evergreen tucked away in

small ravines. The open areas are either cultivation, however, or

mixed light scrub, grass and pine. Altitude 4,o00 ft. May 3-5.

—

d sy

Kulikhani. A village in the Markhu Valley enroute to Katmandu.

Open cutivation along an upper branch of the Bagmati River. Altitude

4,750 ft. November 22, December 6.

Chandragiri Pass. The last Pass before descending into the

Central Valley of Nepal, the Valley of the capital, Katmandu, here-

after called the Valley. This Pass is well-clothed with evergreen,

BIRDS. FROM NEPAL, 1947-1949 x Tay

mixed oaks and rhododendrons and is one of the remaining forested

areas within reach of Katmandu itself. Altitude 7,500 ft. November

22, December 6, April 17, May 3.

Naggerjung Hill. A hill about two miles northwest of Katmandu,

called variously Nagarjong, Nagerjun, etc. The upper slopes are

well forested, as the area is a Preserve, but constant cutting neverthe-

less still goes on. The biotope is mixed deciduous-evergreen, with

pines {P. longifolia) on the S.E. slope. Altitude about 6,000 ft.

November 25, April 12-20.

Godaveri. <A spring about ten miles southeast of Katmandu where

the ruling family have maintained another Preserve. The village lies

in the shadow of Phulchok, one of the highest surrounding hills of

the Valley, well clothed in evergreen forest. Our collecting was done

from 5,500-6,500 ft. Spelt variously Godavari, Godavery, etc.

November 26-28, April 25-209. :

Pharping. An open cultivated area in the Valley about seven miles.

south of the capital at a point where the Bagmati River emerges

through the surrounding hills. Altitude 4,200 ft. December 1-4.

Thimi. <A village of pottery makers surrounded by open cultivation

and small ponds and swamps five miles east of Katmandu. Altitude

4,500) ft., ,\December 4.

Gokarna. A Preserve of the Rana family situated in the Valley

about four miles to the east of Katmandu. Thick mixed deciduous.

and evergreen forest in a patch of about fifty acres surrounded by a

wall. Altitude 4,700 ft. April 22-24.

Chitlang and Chisapani are two villages on the south side of

Chandragiri Pass. The localities have mixed evergreen forest stretch-

ing up the hill-side, interspersed with patches of grazed-over scrub.

Altitude 6,000-6,500 ft. April 17-May 1.

(B) Localities in western Nepal.

Kauriala Ghat is the railhead for the Oudh Tirhut Railway in

Kheri District, U.P., fronting on the Nepal border at the Kauriala

River bank, a tributary of the Karnali. The area is grazing land with

patches of heavy second growth deciduous scrub. Altitude 4oo ft.

December 10, IT.

Tikapur, twelve miles north along the bank of the Kauriala River

is a hamlet of the Tharu people on the edge of the Terai belt of

deciduous forest. In addition to the heavy deciduous forest biotope,

there was a light scrub forest consisting of Acacia catechu, and

numerous bushes, characteristically Zizyphus, and tall grasses. This

scrub occurred on the banks of the rivers and on small islands in the

bed of the stream. It proved to be a favoured habitat of a number of

warblers and babblers, and a few miles north, of the Scaly-bellied Wood-

pecker. Altitude 500 ft. December 12, January 5-10.

Belchola, a camping place on the bank of the Kauriala about six

miles north of Tikapur, deep in the forest which by now had assumed

a number of evergreen components. Altitude 600 ft. December 14,

January 4.

358 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURALGHIST:: SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Chisapani. A small group of huts at the gorge where the Karnali

River emerges from the Siwaliks. Heavy forest, mixed evergreen and

deciduous, with a fringe of the light acacia and thorny scrub growth

along the river banks. Altitude 900 ft. The southern limit of many

wintering montane birds. December 16-22, January 4.

Kune Ghat, Jammu Ghat, Guttu, Solta, Kachail were all hamlets

in the ‘duns’ the flat, interior valley behind the Siwalik ridge and south

of the Mahabharat hills. The area was relatively untouched, although

lumbering operations have begun under lease to an Indian firm. Here

were giant primeval stands of the largest forest trees, Shorea, Dalbergia,

Eugenia, Bombax, etc. The Karnali receives its principal tributary

the .Bheri River’ here. Altitude 1,000-2,000 ft. December 22-24,

January 2-4.

Rekcha. <A village where our party camped for nearly ten days.

It is on the ridge of the Malka Danda, the first range to the north of

the ‘duns’. Cultivation was very heavy along these ridges and also

to the north so that we camped here and made the best of what we

could find in the way of the sparse evergreen forest patches available,

mostly oaks and rhododendrons. The scrub and grassland remnants

with open pine stands were combed for Ophrysia, but without success.

Altitude 5,000 {t. December 25-January 2.

Biratnagar. The Nepal industrial town a mile north of Jogbani,

the Oudh Tirhut Railway terminal facing the Nepal border in Bihar.

The surrounding countryside is entirely under cultivation except for

a few acres of woodland two miles northwest of the town. This stand

is being cut daily. Altitude 250 ft. January 17-19.

Dharan Bazaar, the winter camp of the Governor of Dhankuta

District is at the foot of the first range of the Mahabharat Lekh, just

north of the six-mile wide band of Terai forest remaining in east Nepal.

‘Conditions for hunting here range from open grazed land and scrub,

to fairly heavy evergreen and deciduous forest south of the town.

Altitude 1,000 ft. January 21-23, February 15-17.

Muhlghat, a village on the Tamur River, one of the seven Kost

feeders, in the ‘duns’. Open scrub. Altitude 1,000 ft. January 24,

February 14.

Dhankuta. The Provincial capital is surrounded by open cultivation

and very little forest except a patch of pines north of the town. Al-

titude 4,000 ft. January 25.

Sindua, Chitré and Dur are hamlets along the main ridge, some-

times called the Patek Danda running northeast-southwest north of

Dhankuta. Forest is not reached until an altitude of about 7,000 ft.

when it begins sparsely, mostly the relics of old rhododendron groves, .

which gradually become thicker and more solid. Altitude 6,500-8, 500 ft.

January 26-29.

Tinjuré, Mangalbaré and Umling were place names only, lacking

inhabitants, on the further northeastward extension of the main ridge

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. PEATE L,

View of Mt. Kanchenjunga from the Southwest, taken from the ridge of the

Tinjure Danda at Mangalbare showing the slopes of the hills covered with

rhododendron forest. The lower slopes at about 7,500 ft. are the upper

limit of cultivation, traces of which may just be made out in the clearings

below the trees. Phalut appears at the extreme right of the picture.

Courtesy National Geographic Magazine

Typical forest remnants and scrub vegetation at Rekcha (5,000 ft.) in

western Nepal. The trees are mostly oaks. The outer ridge in the

background is the Siwalik Range, which here reaches a height of 5,500 ft.

-saaTqqeq. pu SHOT. “BUMAUIM Sno.o quney oy. “sydezz yuney, eB “aya visieq7rq “‘pasoys ‘Saad goquiyy yusorpuseU — .

pue poppy YM PoetgAo0o Ayyensn pueyst Apures B jo SUIUULB IQ jO peystsuoo pue peyonoyun sem A9ATI OY} SSOLDB YSO10 F

oy ‘punoasoso J oy. Up TROT, jeden wom oy] Ul lURdesilyy to oyy, ‘weyYt) ntuef 7 pedopy yseM UL FOAL Moye, oy SUISSO.AT)

ksa34n07y

aulzeBey Iiydesboac) /2Ud!ze hy

TI] 3LV1d "DOS ‘'LSIH “LYN AVEWog ‘Nanor

BIRDS FROM NEPAL, 1947-1949 359

north and east. of Dhankuta, called the Tinjuré) Danda.. Thick

rhododendron forest was interspersed with open patches of Alpine-

type meadow iand. On the tops of the ridge were the beginnings ot

silver fir (Abies) and yew, and groves of slim montane bamboo species.

Altitude 8,100-9,400 ft. January 29-February 7. .

Muhlkarkar, Mahdi, Birta and Chainpur were hamlets along the

trail to the northeast down to the Arun Kosi River. Open cultivation

with occasional patches of scrub and pines. No forest. Altitude

3,500-6,000 ft. February 8-10.

Along the valley of the Arun Kosi in the ‘duns’, a few birds were

collected at localities known as Richavas and Mangma. Open culti-

vation with occasional patches of bushes. Altitude 1,150-2,500 ft.

February 11-12. 7

Chatra, a village on the east side of the gap where the main Kosi

River emerges from the hills into the Terai. An excellent collecting

locality, for the Terai forest is here very thick and relatively un-

disturbed. Primary mixed evergreen and deciduous forest. Altitude

500 ft. February 17-21.

SPECIATION ALONG THE HIMALAYAN AXIS IN NEPAL

One of the problems which we set out to attempt to elucidate in

this collection was the determination of the relationships of the fauna

with the principal breaks in the east-west mountain axis. It is interest-

ing to tabulate some of the data which we obtained. Listing the

species which are residents along the south face of the Himalayan chain,

1 find that we have collected specimens of 143 such resident typically

Himalayan species (I exclude from this grouping forms found all over

the Indian plains and into the Peninsula, and Palaearctic forms).

Himalayan axis species collected ... : 143

Of the above, most contained one subspecies throughout

Nepal So ppp.

Species with two subspecies in Nepal, 2) western and an

eastern subspecies a fag

(a) Species i in which the western’ subspecies occurs

in Valley aa 14

(0) Species in which the eastern subspecies occurs

in Valley nee 4

clinal or intermediate form in the western

part of the country 1

(d) Species with two subspecies in Nepal. and a

clinal or intermediate form in the western

part of the country : 1

(e€) Species with two subspecies and a clinal’ or

intermediate form in the eastern part of the

country am a ac 1

ree

* The additional 11 forms not included here are local endemisms or those-

with continuous clines which do not break irto subspecies,

360 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SO€IETY, Vol. 49

From the above it becomes apparent that a clear two thirds or 67%

of the endemic Himalayan axis forms collected in which two subspecies

occur in the country, have a division between the forms in the eastern

half of Nepal. This is certainly a significant amount beyond any doubt.

Correlated with the above is the fact that the following. species

taken by us are presumably found only in extreme eastern Nepal:

Malacocincla sepiavia abbotti

Macronus gularis rubricapilla

Paradoxornis poliotis humei

Muscicapa sapphira

Muscicapa (olivaceus) poliogenys

Parus rubidiventris beavani

Certhia familiaris mandelli? (see text)

Certhia nipalensis ?

Anthreples singalensis assamensis

The above forms have been collected only east of the Arun Kosi River.

So have all the eastern subspecies of Himalayan species taken by us

in Nepal. What has served then as an extrinsic barrier to promote

speciation east and west of this zone? Geographically the area is a

continuous sweep of hills, wooded to the same extent. Studying the

recent geology of the Himalayas is no great help. The rivers in

themselves are apparently rather recent and so not barriers as they

may be in other parts of the world. In a recent study of speciation in

the Mishmi Hills of eastern Assam with Salim Ali (1948), we came to the

conclusion that the Brahmaputra River is not a great barrier, being

too. recent a feature, presumably, in contrast to its non-Himalayan

feeder the Lohit. What other barriers then exist, if not geographical

ones, in the neighborhood of the Ikosi River valley, the apparent locus

of the division between eastern and western Himalayan bird subspectes ?

In the whole sweep of the Himalayan range through Nepal there

is only one easily perceptibie and presumably significant climatological

change and that is the isohyet which passes through the 87th parallel.

East of 87° E. long. the annual rainfall is about 75 inches per year.

West of this isohyet the annual rainfall is reduced to 50 inches per year.

I should say, therefore, that from the above evidence, the most dis-

tinctive ‘break’ in the distribution of the avifauna from east to west

in Nepal occurs in the valley of the Arun Kosi River which runs nearly

north and south very slightly to the east of the 87th parallel.

A second interesting correlation climatically with speciation in the

Nepal area is the fact that at the 80th parallel or slightly to the west

of it, there is a decided change in the annual temperature range, al-

though the annual rainfall of 50 inches per year remains the same.

The Himalayan zone to the east of 80° E. as far as 87° E. receives

the major portion of the annual rainfall in the Monsoon but an

effective amount also. falls from December to May. Winter in the low-

lands and foothills is cold {60-70° F.). The daily range of temperature

is large except during the Monsoon (more than 25° F.). Relative

humidity is: high during Monsoon and winter (more than 65%), but

less in other periods.

West of 80° E. (that is to say, west of the Nepal-Kumaon border),

the annual rainfall occurs almost wholly in the : Monsoon season. It

BIRDS FROM NEPAL, 1947-1949 361

is very cold in winter (less than 60° F.). The daily range of temperat-

ure is moderately large (20-25° F.). Relative humidity is high only

during the Monsoon. The plains do not become hot quite as early.

It is perhaps significant that a number of forms seem to be confined.

to this area from 80°-87° as follows:

Megalaima zeylanica rana (western Nepal only)

Pomatorhinus erythrogenys ferrwgilatus (central and west Nepal)

—Acanthoptila nipalensis (west Nepal)

Garrulax striatus vibex (central and west Nepal)

Garrulax rufogularis grosvenori (west Nepal)

Heterophasia capistrata nigriceps {central and west Nepal as far

as /.umaon)

Phylloscopus pulcher erochroa (central Nepal)

Phyllocopus maculipennis centralis (central Nepal)

Certhia himalaya infima (west Nepal)

Of the above eight subspecies, five differ from their nearest relatives

by color alone, being in every case paler than more eastern populations,

and if relatives exist to the west darker than these western forms. In

the same way, those three races that differ in size, are larger than the

populations to the east, and smaller than those to the west. Acanthoptila,

the Spiny Babbler, alone has no close re'atives, being apparently a

relict form intermediate between the genera T rloies and Garrulax.

In addition to these populations to which names may be ascribed

on the basis of color or size differences, there are five species in which

intermediates occur between two recognised sub-species in western

Nepal, three species in which intermediate populations occur between

recognised sub-species in eastern Nepal, and one intermediate popu-

lation in central Nepal between two recognised sub-species found on

either side. Thus there are a total of nine populations in which a

continuous cline of color or size prevents the clear demarcation of the

population into sub-species. All vary as above, being darker or smaller

or both as specimens are examined farther to the east at any point

inthe cline.

Thus the external evidences of speciation examined all follow

‘Gloger’s rule, indicating an adaptive significance in the possession of

darker color in more humid areas. In this connection it is worth

pointing out another rule that seems to apply in Continental areas, if

not on islands: that is that birds from more humid areas tend to be

smaller than birds from drier areas.

From the above evidence [ would hazard the opinion that the

climatic influences in the Nepal area of the Himalayas have been more

effective in promoting speciation than have any specific geographical

or other extrinsic barriers. Of course the very fact that the zone in

which these forms live is a narrow one, a long rectangular strip along

‘the south face of the Himalayas, is in itself a sort of barrier, tending

to reduce gene flow. But given this continuous strip, it w Gud appear

that the avian populations have developed a certain definite tolerance for

conditions as found within these climatic micro-zones.

‘In this connection it. is worth noting that the climatic changes

mentioned above do not occur in a straight north-south line, all. areas

to the east of such a line having climate a, all areas to the west.

362 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

climate b. Any line demarcating climatic change along the Himalayas,

just as any isohyet, bends, so that it runs roughly in a northwest-

southeast direction. In our collecting in western Nepal we were able

to observe that the distribution of subspecies follows this general pattern

in an accurate way. Thus Megalaima zeylanica caniceps, M. 2. rana,

and M. s. hodgsoni, apparently replace each other diagonally follow-

ing such a northwest-southeast line. The race caniceps, found in the

mountains in the west in the colder area, appears only in the west

Nepal Terai, while rana replaces it in the west Nepal hills. Then by

the time one reaches central Nepal, hodgsoni is the race of the hills,

but, moving farther east again to east Nepal, hodgsoni has disappeared

from the hills and is found only in the Terai, and has become a lowland

bird. In somewhat the same way Certhia himalayana infima and

Sitta castanea cinnamoventris are able to winter in the forest belt of

the Terai in western Nepal, whereas apparently farther to the west they

must winter much higher in the foothills.

Aside from the natural climatic conditions, it will be most interest-

ing to observe in future what effect the tremendous progressive de-

forestation will have on the avifauna and the mammalian fauna of

Nepal. The jowland forest in the Terai is now reduced to a continuous’

belt ranging from six to ten miles wide along the northern limit of

the Terai. This area will probably be somewhat preserved in future

although much of the primary tree growth has already been lumbered.

It is the main big game hunting ground of the ruling family. Farther

north in the ‘duns’, the interior valleys, lumbering is proceeding at

a rapid rate, and only along the Karnali did we find any virgin timber.

left. From 1,000-ft.; up to over 7,000 ft. throughout the country.

intensive agriculture of a shifting nature is practised. The slopes are

normally so steep that in many places only one or two crops can be.

secured from the newly cleared land before the monsoon run-off has.

carried away the topsoil. Thus vast areas become merely barren slopes

of rock shale and gravel and avalanches are common. We found as

a result that in many places mid-montane zone birds either did not

exist, or could occasionally be glimpsed scurrying from bush to bush

as if their lives depended on it, which possibly they did. It seems in-

evitable that jungle-haunting birds at this elevation will eventually

become extinct over large areas. It will be interesting to note this

progress, as it may well represent the creation of new artificial geo-

graphical barriers with long range climatic and speciation effects.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I must express my deep gratitude to the authorities of the National

Geographic Society who have allowed me to use photographic and_

other material for this paper, and who, along with the Smithsonian.

Institution and Yale University, supported our second longer trip to

Nepal. The help rendered by these three Societies made our Ex-

pedition possible. To the Bombay Natural History Society my thanks

are owed for many favors, not least of which was the recruiting for

us of two skinners, Tony Mattos and John D’Souza. Finally my

especial thanks are due to the two rulers of Nepal during my. visits,

Their Highnesses Maharajah Padma. -Shamsher. J. B. Rana, and .

BIRDS FROM NEPAL, 1947-1949 563.

Maharajah and Supreme Commander-in-Chief Mohun = Shamsher

J. B. Rana, for the many kindnesses they extended to our party, and

for their willingness to allow us to explore parts of their country. To.

them and to the many officials who served them and assisted us on

numerous occasions I am most grateful, and I hope that this paper

will be a small tribute to their sponsorship of zoological research.

LISP) OF THE -BIrR'DS

COLYM BI-D:A Ex;

Podiceps ruficollis: Little Grebe.

The Little Grebe was seen occasionally on some of the small ponds

in the lower Terai near the Indian border.

PHA L AVERPOICO RACIDAE

Phalacrocorax carbo: Large Cormorant.

Adults and immature birds were seen flying up the Karnali River

in the ‘duns’ the inner valleys, in early January.

ANHYN'GIDAE

Anhinga rufa: Indian Darter.

Common in small ponds in the Terat.

ATR'D ED AE

The Gray Heron (Ardea cinerea) and the Purple Heron (drdea

purpurea) were seen along the rivers in the Terai. The little Green

Heron (Butorides striatus) was seen but not collected on the Kosi River:

i” the “duns. .

Ardeola grayii (Sykes): Indian Pond Heron.

A single male in sub-adult plumage, but entering breeding

condition was collected April 19 at Gokarna. Soft parts: iris yellow ;.

ocular skin yellowish-green ; bill, upper mandible black, Jower greenish-

yellow ; legs greenish-vellow. The species was common at all altitudes

up to 5,000 feet.

Egretta garzetta garzetta (Linnacus): Little Egret.

A female in breeding condition was taken at Thankote in April.

Soft parts: iris gray with veins of purple; ocular skin bluish-purple ;.

bill black, base of upper mandible bluish-purple, lower mandible with

a small basal area of bluish-purple; legs black, feet orange-yellow.

The Large Egret (Egretta alba) and the Intermediate Egret

(Egretta intermedia) were both seen in the Terai, but not higher.

Bubulcus ibis coromandus (Boddaert): Cattle Egret.

The commonest egret in Nepal, this species was seen from the:

Terai up to 5,000 ft., particularly.m the Central Valley.

364 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOUIETY, Vol. 49

CnC ONE TD ae

The Open-bill (Anastomus oscitans), the White-necked Stork

(Ciconia episcopus), the Black-necked Stork (Yenorhynchus asiaticus)

and the Adjutant (Leptoptilos dubius) were all seen in the Terai in all

areas where bodies of water occurred in open country, but none of the

species were common or plenttful.

“) FORTE Sak i, OgR Noel Dasa

Pseudibis papillosa (Temminck) : Black Ibis.

A male was shot out of a wheeling flock at Tikapur, the only time

the species was seen. Wing, 380 mm. Soft parts: iris brownish-

yellow; crown and nape wattles coral red; face. black; bill pale

grayish-brown; legs pinkish-coral.

NNW ATUL D*A E

The Bar-headed Goose (.lnser indicus} was seen on the Karnali

River near the Indian border in mid-December. The Whistling Teal,

presumably the Lesser (Dendrocygna javanica), was common locally

at Chatra on the Kosi River in February.

Tadorna ferruginea ; Ruddy Sheldrake.

The Brahminy Duck was seen in considerable flocks on the Karnali

in the Terai during December and January, and on the streams of

the Central Valley as late as April.

Migratory river duck of several species were seen in the Central

Valley from November to April and locally on the big rivers in east

and west Nepal. These consisted of the Pintail (Anas acuta), in the

‘Central Valley only, Green-wing Teal (4nas crecca), Gadwalt (A

strepera) both in the Central Valley and on the Kosi River, and

Widgeon (A. penelope) and Gargany (4. querquedula) on Command-

ing General Kaiser Shamsher J. B. Rana’s pond at Katmandu.

Of the pochards, the Red-crested Pochard {Netta rufina), the

‘Common Pochard (Aythya_ ferina) and the Tufted Duck (Aythya

fuligula) were all seen around the Central Valley in ponds and on

the. rivers.

Mergus merganser : Goosander.

Common along the Karnali at Chisapani and in the ‘duns’. The

females had arrived in December. Adult males were not seen until

January 6th.

ASC:CLPILTRIEDAE

Elanus caeruleus vociferus (Latham): Black-winged Kite.

This pretty and ubiquitous species was common in the Terai along

the forest edges. \ male from Tikapur was coming into breeding

condition in January.

Milvus migrans lineatus (J. E. Gray): Black-eared Kite.

A breeding and a non-breeding male were collected at Tharikote

and Naggerjung in April, and a non-breeding bird at Rekcha. They

measure: wing ¢ ¢o 464, 472, 478 mm.

BIRDS FROM NEPAL, 1947-1949 365

Accipiter nisus melanoschistus Hume : Indian Sparrow Hawk.

A female with a wing measurement of 254 was shot at Tinjure

February 4th. The bird was attacking a large hill barbet when secured.

Soft parts; iris orange-yellow; bill black, cere greenish-yellow ; legs

veHow. | |

Accipiter badius dussumieri (Temminck): Indian Shikra.

Most hawks of the Accipiter group seemed rare in Nepal. A male

Shikra was taken in a clump of trees near Biratnagar, the last clump

in the vicinity of that rapidly expanding town. Soft parts: iris red;

eyelid and cere vellow; bill black, basally gray ; legs dull orange-yellow.

Wing 186.5.

Accipiter trivirgatus indicus (Hodgson): Northern Indian Goshawk.

An adult female taken by us at Chatra February 17th, appears to

be the first specimen of this Goshawk collected since the typical series

by Hodgson’s collectors. Measurements: wing 260; tail 203; tail index

(length of tail in percent of wing length) 78; wing tip index 23.8. In

size this specunen compares well with the measurements given by Mayr

(1949), for the race. Soft parts: iris orange-yellow ; bill black, cere

vellow; legs yellow. The specimen was taken in thick forest.

Buteo hemilasius Temminck & Schlegel : Upland Buzzard.

While out shooting Rock Pigeons near Thimi in the Central Valley

in December, a female Buzzard landed on a pile of pigeon feathers just

after I had picked up the dead bird in an open field. Apparently the

bird saw the pigeon fall to the ground and missed seeing me pick it

up. In its actions and looks the Buzzard resembled a young, un-

educated eagle.

Butastur teesa (Franklin) ; White-eyed Buzzard-eagle.

A single male was taken near Dhankuta at 4,000 ft. in open country.

Wing 283.

Hieraaétus pennatus (Gmelin): Booted Eagle.

A female with a wing measurement of 397 was shot out of a large

tree at Tikapur.

ictinaetus malayensis: Black Eagle.

The Black Eagle was seen at 5,000 ft. in west Nepal, one of a

number of the larger birds of prey that were seen but flew out of

reach of the collectors.

Haliaeetus Ieucoryphus (Pallas): Pallas’s Fishing Eagle.

A female, one of a pair of these rather common and unsuspicious

birds was taken at Tikapur in December. These birds are prominent

because of their presence atop some giant silk-cotton tree and their

harsh grating monotonous call. Wing 612, tail 300, tarsus roq, culmen

(from cere) 51. Soft parts: iris dirty yellow, mottled with brown.

Pseudogyps bengalensis (Gmelin): White-backed Vulture. |

This species was common in the Valley, especially near the rivers.

Av non-breeding young male was taken at Gokarna in April. Wing

366 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL, HIST.; SOCIETY, Vol. 49

590. The other species seen in the.;Valley was the Long-billed Vulture

(Gyps indicus) but no specimens were secured. The Bearded Vulture

(Gypaétus barbatus) was seen on the ridge above Dhankuta at 6,500 ft.

in early February, but our attempts to collect these birds resulted in

a rattling noise as our shot-gun pellets struck their wing quills. There

was no sign of the shots taking effect on the soaring birds.

Circus macrurus (S. G. Gmelin): Pale Harrier.

A, male was collected at Dharan Bazaar. The Pied Harrier

(melunoleucus) was seen in the central Nepal Terai in November.

Spilornis cheela cheela (Latham); Crested Serpent-eagle.

A male was taken on Naggerjung in April. Wing 495. Soft parts:

iris yellow with brown mottling; bill basally gray, distally black, cere

vellow ; ocular skin whitish-yellow; legs light yellow.

PAA ND TON TD ACE

Pandion haliaétus haliaetus (Linnaeus): Osprey.

A single female was seen and secured at Tikapur. Ospreys were

also seen on the Kosi at Chatra.

FALCONIDAE

Microhierax caerulescens caerulescens (Linnaeus): Himalayan

Red-legged Falconet.

The Falconet is a jungle bird, found by us near Dharan Bazaar

and at Chatra. One bird was sitting near a hole in a twenty-foot

dead tree, possibly,a nesting, Site!; Wing i, 101,\0::(='9)1 11m:

Soft parts: iris brown; bill basally yellowish-green, distally black ;

legs blackish-slate. 7

Falco tinnunculus interstinctus McClelland : Himalayan Kestrel.

The commonest hawk in Nepal, seen from the Terai up to 5,500 ft.,

i Open country. Soft parts: iris brown; cere and ocular area yellow;

bill yellowish-slaty, black tip; legs orange-yellow. Wing ¢ ° 236-

264; Q 243-255.

PHASIANIDAE

Francolinus francolinus : Black Partridge.

Common in the Terai and up through open areas in the ‘duns’,

the Black Partridge has even invaded the Central Valley, probably

recently since the great increase in cultivation. Not collected by us,

but its characteristic svncopated whistle heard principally in the western

and central Terai.

Francolinus pondicerianus interpositus Hartert: Northern Gray

Partridge.

A female was taken at Kauriala Ghat, December Tok,

Arborophila rufogularis rufogularis Leh Rufous- ea lus

Partridge.

This was the only pomcicee secured at eae a “anh where we

hoped in vain to find the Mountain Quail (Ophrysia), the ‘sano kalo

BIRDS FROM NEPAL, 1947-1949 267

titra’ of the Nepalese. Trappers went out locally in Dailekh District

for us, looking for the latter species to report later that they could

only secure his common Hill Partridge.

‘The Hill Partridge is deceptive to the naked eye. In the open

it looks big when it flies, almost as big as a hen kaleej, but in thickets

it appears as smali as a quail. These birds were mostly secured in

thick secondary scrub composed of Strobilanthes, Quercus seedlings,

Randia and other thorny plants. Their calls were heard at Godaveri

in April but none were secured. The birds were not calling at Rekcha

in December. Wing ¢ 141; 9 126, 137. Soft parts: iris brown ;

ocular skin pinkish red; bill dark brown; legs dull coral red.

Tragopan satyra: Satyr Tragopan.

Near Mangalbaré we found a small heap of feathers belonging to

a cock bird of this species, evidently killed by a fox or carnivore.

These birds have been so much shot and trapped by the local people

that they have now retreated above 10,000 ft. in east Nepal. The

Impeyan Pheasant (Lophophorus) was not met with by us although

it was supposed to occur near Mangalbaré. Birds’ are sometimes

brought down from above Katmandu by trappers. Above Rekcha we

were told that the Cheer Pheasant (Catreus) occurs although we did

not get up high enough to enter its range.

Lophura leucomelana leucomelana (Latham): Nepal Kaleej.

Several kalee} were taken in the Central Va'ley, and the species

was seen briefly in both eastern and western Nepal, although not

collected. Wing < 226, 236; Q@ 198-210. There is considerable

variation in the color of the females although the pale edgings to

the feathers are constant. Birds were breeding in April. In the Central

Valley the kaleej is found in all the wooded preserves, particularly

round Godaveri. Their alarm calls are often heard there in the thick

scrub and they come out to feed in early morning on the trails. [

saw two cock kaleej fighting at Chisapani in mid-December, but was

unable to secure one. Jn western and eastern Nepal the species seemed

uncommon.

Gallus gallus murghi Robinson & Kloss: Red Junglefowl.

The junglefowl was very common in the Terai where it seemed

partial to the scrub at the forest edges, particularly the prickly

‘jhaveri’ or ‘jherberi’ (Zizyphus) bushes with their haw-like fruits.

From west to east there is a cline in coloration of the neck hackles

of the males collected by us, those from east Nepal being more orangey

at the tip, more like spadiceus, with a reduced wattle also. This

cline evidently culminates in northeastern Assam where Salim Ali

and I collected the Burmese race, spadiceus {1948). The same holds

true for the females which become considerably darker in tone of

general coloration from west to east, particularly in Assam. oe

parts: iris’ pale brown; wattles (¢) pink, pale whitish spot on ear,

bill dark brown; legs blackish-brown.

368 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

TURNICIDAE

Turnix suscitator plumbipes (Hodgson): Himalayan Bustard-Quail..

The Bustard-Quail was found by us only at Dharan Bazaar. A

pair (the female had not quite attained the adult black throat),

measure: wing ¢ 87, Q 92.5, and agree in color with Assam birds.

GRUIDAE

Grus grus: Common Crane.

The Common Crane was seen at Kauriala Ghat on the river, where

it flew up and down in a morning and evening flight. The Sarus

Crane (G. antigone) also occurred in the vicinity. The Demoiselle Grane

(Anthropoides) is found regularly as a migrant in the Central Valley

in mid winter and again in early spring.

CHAR AD RT DAE

Lobivanellus indicus indicus (Boddaert): Red-wattled Lapwing.

Common along streams in open cultivated areas in the Terai.

Wing) od '277,-231.5-3)-Q 215-22. |

SCOLOPACIDAE

Tringa erythropus, T. nebularia, T. ochrophus, and Actitis hypoieucos

were all common on the flats along the Karnali and Kosi Rivers from.

December through February.

Capella gallinago gallinago (Linnaeus): Fantail Snipe.

This species, along with the Pintail (C. stenura) and the Jack

Snipe (Lymnocryptes minima) is found in the Central Valley in winter.

Mr. Roy Wilbourne of Katmandu reported the Fantail to be the

commonest of the three, but the numbers of all are severely reduced,

according to Mr. Kilbourne’s records of twenty years ago. The Wood

Snipe (C. nemoricola) is found singly in the wooded swamps around

the edges of the Valley, and Mr. Kilbourne has shot one or two each

year.

Scolopax rusticola rusticola Linnaeus : Woodcock.

The Woodcock is not now very common in the wooded foothills

about the Central Valley where it was common not long ago, accord--

ing to Mr. Kilbourne. <A pair were observed by us in a small swampy

depression at Mangalbaré in January, and the male was caught later

in one of my bird nets.

RECUR VIROSTRIDAE

Ibidorhyncha struthersii: Ibis-bill.

A flock occupied the shallows near the rapids of the Kosi at Chatra

while we camped there in February,

BIRDS FROM NEPAL, 1947-1949 369.

BYP RHINILDAE

Burhinus oedicnemus indicus (Salvadori): Indian Stone-Plover.

Stone-Plover were in pairs running about on the sandy banks of

the Karnali and its tributary the Kauriala River in the lower Terai..

Soft parts: iris yellow; eyelid and base of bill yellow; remainder of.

bill black; legs greenish-yellow.

GLAREOLIDAE

Glareola lactea: Small Indian Pratincole.

Seen but not collected on the Kosi River near Chatra in February..

LARIDAE

Sterna aurantia Gray: Indian River Tern.

The River Tern was common on the big rivers in the Terai. Soft

parts: iris brown; bill rich orange-yellow ; legs light coral red. This,

the Black-bellied (melanogaster), and the ‘little Ternlet (albifrons) were:

ali seen on the Karnali and the Kosi.

COLUMBIDAE

Sphenurus sphenurus sphenurus (Vigors): Wedge-tailed Green Pigeon..

Seen at fairly high altitudes in central and eastern Nepal.

Collected on the Chandragiri Pass and at Mangalbareé in rhododendron:

forest. Soft parts: iris orange; bill greenish-blue; legs cherry red.

Treron phoenicoptera phoenicoptera Latham: Bengal Green Pigeon.

A pair were taken at Tikapur where this species was fairly common

in the trees which were covered with a heavy growth of vines, apparent-

ly fruiting. Wing ¢ 190, 9 183. Soft parts: iris orange-red,

inner blue ring; bill greenish-gray ; legs yellow.

Columba livia intermedia Strickiand : Indian Blue Rock Pigeon.

Common in the Central Valley around paddyfields. Birds were

breeding in April. Many lve half wild about the houses of the smaller

towns like Thimi and Thankote. Soft parts: iris reddish-yellow ;

ocular skin light gray; bill and cere grayish-black, posterior half of

cere dirty white; legs dark red.

Columba hodgsonii Vigors : Speckled Wood-pigeon.

Two females were taken out of a small flock at Godaveri, April’

25, 1947. ‘This species was seen also at the Chandragiri Pass in May,

but not met with elsewhere in Nepal at other seasons. Like so many

pigeons, it is apparently a great wanderer, and may occur at any

altitude above 5,o00 ft. at any time. Soft parts: iris grayish-white ;

ocular skin gray; bill, basally purple, distally black; legs brownish-

yellow, nails yellow. Wing (worn) 236, 237.

Columba pulchricollis Hodgson: Ashy Wood-pigeon.

This beautiful pigeon was not uncommon in the Valley at Gokarna

and other heavily wooded preserves; but was difficult to observe as

it sits very inconspicuously indeed in the high trees. A breeding male

-370 JOURNAL, |: BOMBAY“ NATURAL SHTST. SOCIETY, Val. . 49

was taken at Gokarna in April. At Mangalbaré the species was

common, and a subadult female was collected February 3rd. This

bird is dark gray above, paler on the head, with blackish tail, with

pale ecru-drab on the throat and pale cinnamon on the belly and under

tail coverts. The breast is gray with a small amount of iridescence,

and the abdomen gray with cinnamon tips to the feathers. Wing o

211.5, 216, Q 215, (subad.) 183. Soft parts: iris white, grayish-

white, whitish; ocular skin gray; bill (breeding ¢) basally grayish-

purple, distally grayish-green, (non-breeding ¢ and @) cherry-red,

greenish tip, (subadult) bluish-white; legs (breeding <¢) fleshy purple.

(non-breeding ¢ and Q) pinkish red, (subadult) pale pink.

Macropygia unchall tusalia (Hodgson): Bar-tailed Cuckoo-dove.

The big Himalayan Cuckoo-dove is a rather difficult bird to collect

and doubly difficult to skin due to its habit of losing a good part of

its skin and feathers on its way down from a tall tree. We found it

only near Mangalbaré from 8,500 ft. up, although I saw it flying

near the Chandragiri Pass. Soft parts: iris pink (once brown); bill

black; legs dull cherry-red. Wing ¢ 3 196-209.

Streptopelia orientalis meena (Sykes): Rufous Turtle-dove.

Breeding mates were collected about the Central Valley in forested

areas in April. Their unusual, rather growling calls were heard in

‘ight secondary scrub, and cut-over forest. These specimens belong

to the western form. Soft parts: iris orange, ocular skin reddish-

purple; bill horn, cere grayish-purple; legs reddish-purple. Wing

3 3d 189-192.

Streptopelia orientalis agricola (Tickell): Eastern Rufous Turtle-dove.

Breeding birds and young of this race were taken at all altitudes

in eastern Nepal from 1,000 to 8,500 ft. in January and February.

Wing ¢ 181-189, Q 179-181. Soft parts: iris orange; bill basally

purplish, distally horn; legs dull purplish-red. Immature birds were

as follows: iris orange, eyelids purple; bill brownish-black, (older)

purplish-gray; legs grayish-purple, (older) purple.

Streptopelia decaocto decaocto (Frivalszky): Ring Dove.

Common in the Terai in cultivated areas. A male taken at

Birganj in November was in breeding condition.

Streptopelia chinensis suratensis (Gmelin): Indian Spotted Dove.

Common from the Terai up to the Central Valley. Breeding birds

were shot in January, March, April and December. Soft parts: iris

pinkish-red, eyelids pinkish; bill black; legs dull cherry. Wing ¢

137-144, Q 140, 143.

Chalcophaps indica indica (Linnaeus): Emerald Dove.

This little familiar ground dove was common in the Terai and the

forests of the ‘duns’. A subadult female was taken in January, a

female coming into breeding condition in February. Soft parts: iris

brown; bill (3) coral red, (Q) basally purple, distally pink, (im. @)

purplish-brown; legs (¢) purplish-red, (92) purple, (im. ,Q) grayish-

purple; nails brown.

BIRDS FROM NEPAL, 1947-1949 371

PSITTACLIDAE

Psittacula eupatria nipalensis (Hodgson): Large Indian Parakeet.

Two females were taken in the west Nepal Terai have wing measure-

ments of 203, 212. Soft parts: iris yellowish-white; bill red; legs

gray. This species seems to be local, confined to fairly heavy forest,

or in proximity to heavy forest, and a wanderer in search of suitable

fruiting trees. |

Psittacula krameri borealis Neumann: Eastern Rose-ringed Parakeet.

All the specimens of this parakeet collected in the Nepal Terai

have the lower mandible red, brownish-red, purplish, or, in one case

a female taken at Birganj, brownish-b!ack. On this evidence the birds

would seem to be borealis. In any case they are all large, wing ¢

170-177. Birds were breeding in January and February in east Nepal.

We found it common in the Terai in light forest.

Psittacula cyanocephala cyanocephala (Linnaeus): Blossom-headed

Parakeet.

A male was taken in the Terai at Dharan Bazaar. Wing 143.

Seen up to 6,000 ft.

Psittacula himalayana himalayana (Lesson): Slaty-headed

Parakeet.

Peters (1937) points out that himalayana (Lesson) replaces schisticeps

Hodgson.

Two specimens were shot out of a single flock seen at Rekcha

December 27. The species was not otherwise observed. Soft parts:

iris white; bill, upper mandible basally cherry, tip creamy yeliow, lower

mandible yellow; legs light greenish-gray.

CU CU. LT D AVE

Cuculus varius Vahl: Common Hawk-cuckoo.

An immature male was taken at Birganj in Novembex.

Cuculus micropterus micropterus Gould: Indian Cuckoo.

Indian Cuckoos were calling in the trees in wooded area in the

Central Valley in late April, but the two males collected by us were

not in breeding condition. Wing 190, 191. Soft parts: iris light

brown, eyelids yellow; bill, upper mandible black, lower basally yellow,

distally gray; legs yellow.

Cuculus poliocephalus poliocephalus Latham: Small Cuckoo.

I shot a single female in a gorge on Naggerjung in mid-April.

The rectrices were in moult. Wing 171. Soft parts: iris white with

a brown ring; bill, upper mandible black, lower greenish-gray; legs

yellow.

Surniculus lugubris dicruroides (Hodgson): Indian Drongo-cuckoo.

Common in wooded places in the Central Valley. A breeding male,

hawking for insects like the Ashy or Bronzed Drongo, was taken. on

the trail above Bhimpedi on May 3. Wing ¢ 140.5-147.5:

372 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HaiST?r ‘SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Eudynamis scolopacea scolopacea (Linnaeus): Koel.

A breeding male was collected April 12 at. Naggerjung, and a

heavily moulting male at Gokarna in late April. Wing 6 iS9

(worn), 202.

Rhopodytes tristis tristis (Lesson): Himalayan Green-hilled Malkoha.

Seen at Bhimpedi, and coilected at Chatra and up the Kosi and

Tamur Rivers. Wing <¢ 169-176; tail co -371 “(Moult),” 450, 6353.5-

white on second outermost rectrix 18-22. These measurements are

shghtly different from those given by Mayr (1938), notably in the

shorter tail. These specimens and a few newly-collected birds from the

Khasia Hills (wing 164-170) incline me to feel that saliens as a sub-

species must depend on a smaller wing measurement alone as I can

see no constant color differences. Mayr (l.c.p. 306) gives wing

measurements for his saliens of 152-163.

Soft parts: iris dark brown; eyelid dark red; bill chartreuse green,

legs dark greenish slate.

Taccocua leschenaulti infuscata Blyth: Hill Sirkeer Cuckoo.

Common in the western Terai in open country, often seen creeping

along in overgrown fields or flying across a short stretch of open

paddy. One bird scared one of our elephants by bursting out of. the

grass almost at its feet in the manner of a pheasant. Wing ¢ 164,

9 160. Soft parts: iris brown; bill cherry-red, tip yellow; legs gray-

ish-blue.

S Te aC baALke

Otus asio (bakkamoena auct.) : Collared Scops Owl.

Heard but not collected near Chatra in February.

Bubo zeylonensis leschenault (Temminck): Bengal Fishing Owl.

A rather diurnal species found by us in the Central Valley at

Gokarna and in the western Terai. A male and female measure; wing

3 405, 2 389. Soft parts: iris dark yellow; bill greenish-gray,

cere horn; legs hight greenish-yellow, gray,

Glaucidum brodiei brodiei (Burton) : Collared Pigmy Owlet.

Taken near Chandragiri Pass in March.

Glaucidium radiatum radiatum (Tickell) : Jungle Owlet.

Found in the Terai right up to the foothills. Birds were coming

into breeding condition as early as January 8, and were in full breeding

condition in February. The species has a characteristic call, closely

related to that of the Barred Owlet. Soft parts: iris yellow, eyelid

greenish-yellow; bill greenish-yellow; legs vellowish-white, greenish-

yellow. Wing. 124-1209.

Glaucidium cuculoides cuculoides (Vigors): Western Barred Owlet.

The Barred Owlet is possibly somewhat migratory in an altitudinal

sense. We found it from the foothill edge of the Terai (January), up

to 9,000 ft. The species seems to breed later than radiatum, and

BIRDS FROM NEPAL, 1947-1949 373.

thus may occur on the edges of the latter’s territory at times. But at

these times cuculoides itself is apparently not in breeding condition,

and moves into the hills when it is coming into its breeding cycle in

March and April, thus removing itself as a marginal ecological com-

petitor with radiatum.

A bird from Birta in east Nepal is approaching -rufescens (Ripley.

1948 c) in size and color, but still lies within the range of cuculoides.

Soft parts: iris yellow; bill greenish-yellow, greenish; legs yellowish

green, greenish-yellow. Wing; 5 od and @.Q9 142-156 (ave. 150.8).

Nepal name, ‘latakoserat’.

Ninox scutulata lugubris (Tickell) : Indian Brown Hawk-owl.

A male taken at Tikapur measures; wing 217, tail 133, culmen

(from, cere), 12., ,90Lt, parts; iris yellow ; cere green, bill white; legs

yellow. The bird was hawking after insects at dusk along the. river

bank.

Athene brama indica (Franklin); Northern Spotted Owlet.

The agitated screaming of these owlets was our first avian welcome

in Nepal. They inhabit crevices in the Nepal Guest Houses at Raxau!

and at Katmandu. A series from both places measure; wing ¢ o

and 9 Q 152-166. Soft parts: iris yellow; bill vellowish-green, cere

brownish-green ; feet light brownish-green.

Strix ocellata, the Mottled Wood Owl was probably heard in sit

west Nepal Terai and in the foothills in eastern Nepal if my inter-

pretation of its call is correct, a single note rather like that of the

Spotted Deer or Chital. Strix aluco, the Himalayan Wood Owl

was heard at Mangalbaré, a pleasant two-syllable note, ‘who-whooo’,

but our efforts to locate it at night were unsuccessful.

CLP RIMUL GID A E

Caprimulgus indicus hazarae Whistler and Kinnear: Himalayan

Jungle Nightjar.

A single specimen of this nightjar was collected at Chatra on an

open road near the river in February. The ‘chuck-er chuck-er’ cail

was heard both there and at Belchola in the western Tarai. Soft

parts: iris reddish-brown; bill blackish-horn; legs brown.

Caprimulgus macrurus albonotatus Tickell : Horsfield’s Nightjar.

Collected at Chatra where they sat commonly on the road at night-

fall. These specimens belong to the dark, blackish phase and are

males in breeding condition, on February 21. Wing: 207, 216. Soft

parts: iris and feet brown; bill brown, tip black. At night the iris

and of this species shines pinkish-red, whereas in our experience the

eyes of the preceding form, indicus, reflect whitish in the light of a

flashlight.

MICROPODIDAE

Apus affinis nipalensis (Hodgson): Nepal House Swift.

Common round houses ‘from the Terai up to the Central Valley.

Breeding birds were collected in April and May. A nestling almost

374 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ‘HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

ready to fly was taken out of one of the nests suspended below the

eaves of the Government Rest House at Bhimpedi Mav 35th.

Hirund-apus caudacutus: White-throated Spinetail.

A flock of these large impressive swifts flew over our camp in the

early morning on a ridge above Dhankuta at 6,o00 ft. The species

was not seen within collecting range again, thus proving that a bird

collector must needs shave with shotgun in hand.

AivCE DIN DD AE

Ceryle lugubris, the Himalayan Pied Kingfisher, was seen in the

west Nepal Terai along the feeder streams of the Karnali, and Ceryle

rudis the Indian Pied Kingfisher also was seen into the ‘duns’ along the

big rivers in the west and east.

Alcedo atthis bengalensis Gmelin : Common Indian Kingfisher.

Found along the principal rivers at all seasons, the Common Indian

Kingfisher was none too easy to collect as it normally frequented the

open watercourses and perched well out in the centre of the streams on

boulders.

Halcyon smyrnensis fusca Boddaert ; White-breasted Kingfisher.

We found the White-breasted Kingfisher all the way from the Terai

to the Valley where a male in breeding condition was collected on

Naggerjung at 6,o0o ft. in April. The behavior of this bird and its

presumed mate, made me suspect that the pair was breeding high up

on Naggerjung in a patch of sandy soi! covered with Pinus longifolia,

far from water, but I was unable to locate a nest in the various sandy

banks.

MEROPIDAE

Merops orientalis orientalis Latham : Common Indian Bee-eater.

Specimens were collected at all seasons in the open-country Terai

near the Indian border. Merops leschenaulti was also seen.

Nyctiornis athertoni athertoni (Jardine & Selby): Blue-bearded

Bee-eater.

A male from Chatra records our only encounter with the species.

Wing 137. Soft parts: iris yellowish-green ; bill basally gray, distal'y

black ; legs greenish-yellow.

C.0-RA.C VID AE

Coracias benghalensis benghalensis Linnaeus : Indian Roller.

Common from one end of the Terai to the other in open areas.

Breeding specimens were taken in January and March. Western birds

in our series are certainly paler in a continuous cline than topotypes

from Benga!. In a zone to the east of Nepal, from Darjeeling south

to the Calcutta area, hybrids between this race and affinis may be

taken. I have seen such hybrids from the Sikkim Duars, Dacca and

BIRDS FROM NEPAL, 1947-1949 . OT

Chandpara, a few miles east of Calcutta. In cclor these birds favor

benghalensis, but are darker, lacking the chestnut nape ring, and on

the back resembling affinis.

UPu PIDAE

Upupa epops epops Linnaeus: Hoopoe.

I prefer to use the typical name for the migrants which we found

in the Terai in December and January. The species was rather

common on open paddy and grazing land.

Upupa epops orientalis Baker ; Northern Indian Hoopoe.

The resident Hoopoe in Nepal appears to be this race. I cannot

agree with Whistler and Kinnear (1935 p. 28) that orientalis is not

worthy of recognition. These birds are paler than Mysore specimens.

of ceylonensis although the measurements are about the same, wing

up to 145, but darker and smaller than the typical race.

BAvGh ROT 1p Ack

Tockus birostris;: Gray Hornbill.

Common in the Terai and ‘duns’ in large trees, often near villages

and cultivation. A female was taken at Kauriala Ghat. None of the

large hornbills were seen in Nepal much to our disappointment.

CAPLTONIDAE

Megalaima virens marshailorum (Swinhoe): Great Himalayan

Barbet. | |

Unfortunately no specimens of this Barbet were taken in western.

Nepal, although it was heard calling numerous times above Rekcha.

Birds from the Central Valley belong to this race but are somewhat

intermediate between it and the following subspecies both in color

and size. Particularly is this so with one male which is smaller and

brighter than the others in the series. Three males and two females

were secured on Naggerjung. They measure: wing ¢ 141.5-148,

Q 145, 146. In April these birds were coming into breeding condition.

Megalaima virens magnifica Baker: Assam Great Barbet.

Two males were collected at Tinjuré, which definitely belong to

this eastern subspecies. They were shy, and the species was not easy

to approach. One bird was being molested by an Indian Sparrow

Hawk when secured. © Wing: ‘145, 146°:

Megalaima zeylanica caniceps (Franklin): Northern Green Barbet.

A female coming into breeding condition was taken at Tikapur on

January 8. This bird is indistinguishable in size from South Indian

examples, so that it seems unwise to recognise kangrae (Whistler and

Kinnear). In their original description (l.c. 1934, p. 516), the authors

give a convincing series of measurements indicating that kangrae is

a well-marked size race, (wing 121.5-129.5 as against 112-117.5 for

376 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ‘HIST; SOCIETY, Vol. 49

S. Indian birds), but in the Hyderabad Survey (1934, p. 126) Whistler

notes that intermediates from Hyderabad in his collection: measure

121.5-125.5. A pair in my collection from Mysore measure: ¢. 121,

Q 120. All these measurements indicate too much overlap to make the

race tenable. This Nepal female has a wing measurement of 125.

There is no plumage ditference

Megalaima zeylanica rana Ripley : Western Lineated Barbet.

As I have pointed out in the original description (1950), this

Barbet is a member of the lineata subgroup within the species seylanica,

the subgroup characterized by having the space between the eye and

the bill feathered. I collected this fore which is larger and darker

than hodgsoni, in the ‘duns’ near Baca in western Neo where it

had previously been unknown, while twenty miles to the south in the

derai_ proper, we found caniceps, one of the naked-cheeked forms.

Thus, rana, is a foothill bird which replaces caniceps.

Megalaima zeylanica hodgsoni Bonaparte : astern Lineated Barbet.

in my description, of rana {l.c., 1950, pi 101) 1 restmetedmnher type

locality of hodgsom to Simra in the central Nepal Terai. In central

Nepal this subspecies occurs as high as the Valley, but is more

commonly a Terai bird, while it seems. to be almost entirely a Terai

species in eastern Nepal where it replaces caniceps, the Terai and

lowland species of the western part of the country. Farther east again

it is primarily a lowland bird in Sikkim and Assam.

Megalaima asiatica asiatica (Latham) : Blue-throated Barbet.

Birds were taken throughout Nepal from g50-6,o00 [t. Breeding

specimens were collected in March and April. Birds from the western

part of the range seem to be very slightly larger in size, but are other-

wise indistinguishable.

Megalaima haemacephala indica (Latham): Crimson-breasted Barbet.

The little Coppersmith was taken at Katmandu and in eastern

Nepal from the Terai up to almost 4,400 ft. Birds were breeding in

March and April. This species was only seen in large fig and banyan

trees near cultivation or settlement.

LN DA C.A:T.O.RI DAE

The open rock faces on the ridges above Dhankuta leading to-

wards Mangaibaré were covered with the marks of old hives of wild

bees, but no active hives were observed at the time we were in the

area. Undoubtediy, however, it is a suitable place for the Honey

Guide to occur, and Jocal peop'e spoke of such a bird being in the

area during the monsoon season.

PLC LDA E

‘Picumnus innominatus innominatus Burton: Eastern Himalayan

Speckled Piculet. !

The Piculet was found by us only in the Central Valley and at

Bhimpedi, although I saw a single bird at Chisapani. However, fail-

BIRDS FROM NEPAL, 1947-1949 377

ing to collect any I have been unable to determine the race of western

Nepal. Birds were breeding in April-May. Wing 3. 57, 2 59.

Picus xanthopygaeus (Gray and Gray): Scaly-bellied Woodpecker.

A female of this species with a wing of 134.5 was taken at

Chisapani in low scrub (Acacia catechu) on a sandy island below the

gorge where the Karnali River emerges from the foothills. The bird

was calling, a loud complaining single-syllable note.

Picus canus sanguiniceps Baker : Black-naped Woodpecker.

Four males and two females from western Nepal belong to this

western form. The birds measure; wing ¢ 152-156, Q@ 153, 157.

Soft parts: iris reddish-brown, red; bill blackish-gray, base of lower

mandible gray; legs bluish-gray. These birds were taken from 950-

2.000 ft., in the ‘duns’ primarily, in rather thick secondary forest,

or in clearings in primary forest, where considerab'e tangles of sub-

stage growth and low trees and vines had resulted from the opening

in the higher trees.

Picus canus sanguiniceps — gyldenstolpei

In the Central Valley we found the Black-naped Woodpecker

common in the forested areas at Godaveri, Naggerjung and Gokarna

where its loud tapping and soft calls, at times not unlike the American

Flicker (Colaptes) are very noticeable. These specimens have a

tendency to the yellowish-golden wash which characterizes the eastern

race and seem exactly intermediate. Wing ¢ 146-150, 9 150.. One

specimen, taken in April, is extremely worn with most of the greenish

wash off the lower plumage, and the red crest very pale. Breeding

males were taken in April also.

Picus canus gyldenstolpei Baker: Assam Black-naped Woodpecker.

Specimens of this eastern subspecies were secured on the Kosi

drainage system from 500-3,500 ft. A pair measure: wing ¢ 144,

® 148.5. These birds are definitely smaller than sanguiniceps, in

addition to being more yellowish-golden in color.

Picus flavinucha flavinucha Gould: Eastern Himalayan Greater

Yellow-naped Woodpecker.

The Greater Yellow-naped Woodpecker was a conspicucus part of

the scene in wooded areas in the Central Valley, particularly on

Nagegerjung where breeding birds were collected in April. The species

was common also in the forest around Chatra and up into the ‘duns’

wherever there were any remnants of deciduous or evergreen woods

left. Their squeaking calls were a feature of the foothill forest above

Chatra, although the birds; were not yet in breeding condition in

February. Unfortunately these Yellow-naped Woodpeckers were seen in

western Nepal in the area at the foot of the hills near Chisapani, but

not collected.

378 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Picus chlorolophus simlae Meinertzhagen: Western Himalayan

Smaller Yellow-naped Woodpecker.

This is a poorly characterized race indeed. The difference in the

color of the nuchal crest follows a continuous cline, and is almost

indistinguishable at best. There is a size difference, and it might be

as well to characterize this race by saying that specimens of it have

a wing measurement of 140 and over. Within this race I would include

birds from central Nepal, where we took specimens at Godavari and

Gokarna. A male coming into breeding condition was collected April 22.

Picus chlorolophus chlorolophus Vieillot: Eastern Himalayan

Smaller Yellow-naped Woodpecker.

Specimens of the eastern race were collected at Chatra. They

measure; Wing 132-133.5.

Dinopium benghalense benghalense (Linnaeus): Golden-backed

Woodpecker.

Common in wooded parts of the Terai.

Dinopium shorii shorii (Vigors) : Golden-backed Three- toed Wood-

pecker.

A bird of the large Terai forest. Found in the same localities as

the Golden-backed, but it shows less tolerance for changing conditions,

and seems to be more specifically adapted to’ primary forest, both

deciduous and evergreen.

Mulleripicus pulverulentus mohun Ripley: Indian Great Slaty

Woodpecker.

The Great Slaty Woodpecker seems to be a bird of ‘sal’ and ever-

green forest in its primary condition. I have only found it in un-

disturbed areas which may account for its rarity. Like the Ivory-bill

(Campephilus) in the New World, it may be a species whose existence

is contingent on large stands of original forest, although from Baker’s

account (1927, p. 87), it sounds more tolerant of a variety of conditions.

Soft parts: iris brown; bill, upper mandible dark horn, lower light

horn, tip black. The forehead of our one specimen was glued with

trée “sap.

Dendrocopos darjellensis darjellensis (Blyth): Darjeeling Pied.

Woodpecker. |

A series was taken ‘at Mangalbaré in tree-rhododendrons. The

birds made a great variety of taps and occasional squeaking, wood-

pecker calls. Soft parts: iris reddish-brown; bill, upper mandible

grayish-black, lower pearl-gray; legs dark ereenish-gray. Wing J

129-131, .Q 124-132. This was the only woodpecker of the higher

altitudes in east Nepal.

Dendrocopos cathparius cathparius (Blyth): Himalayan Lesser Pied

Woodpecker.

A single male taken at Chitlang in Apel is our only record for

this species. Wing 105.5, tail 63, culmen 18.5.

BIRDS -FROM NEPAL, 1947-1949 373°

Dendrocopos hyperythrus -hyperythrus (Vigors): Rufous-bellied’

Woodpecker. |

Rufous-bellied Woodpeckers were collected on the Chandragiri Pass

and at Mangalbaré. Soft parts: iris reddish-brown; bill, upper

mandible black, lower greenish-yellow ; legs blackish-gray.

Dendrocopos auriceps (Vigors): Brown-fronted Pied Woodpecker.

Found in a characteristic biotope, open scrub oaks cut over, and

mixed with low secondary growth. This is a fearless bird, observed

nesting in a dead stub 20 ft. high on the main Katmandu trail beyond

Sisagarhi in early May. Other. specimens in breeding condition were

collected in April. One male has a stained breast, the color blackish

as if with fruit juice. Soft parts: iris brown; bill slaty-gray ; legs

greenish-gray. Taken from 5-6000 ft. Wing od 114, 116-5, xe

105-109.

Dendrocopos macei macei Vieillot): Fulvous-breasted Pied

Woodpecker.

Birds were taken at all altitudes from the Terai to 5,300 ft. A

male from Godaveri is coming into breeding condition in April. Soft

parts: iris brown; bill, upper mandible black, lower gray; legs green--

ish-black. :

Dendrocopos mahrattensis mahrattensis (Latham): Yellow-fronted

Pied Woodpecker.

This lowland woodpecker was Rolecned in the Terai in ‘aight forest.

Soft parts: iris ¢ red, brown, 2 brown; bill black-gray, black along

the culmen; legs grayish-brown.

I have never felt that the race aurocristatus was worth separating,.

having examined a considerable series from all over India.

Dendrocopos canicapillus mitchellii (Malherbe): Nepal Pigmy

Woodpecker.

The pigmy woodpecker was found from the Terai nearly to 5,000 ft.

Males and females were in breeding condition at Chatra in late

February, while a female taken at 4,700 ft. in April showed no sign

of breeding. Baker (1934, p..295) notes that April and May seem

to be the breeding season in Kumaon. Soft parts: iris brown,

whitish-brown ; bill blackish, base of lower mandible gray ; 'egs blackish-

brown.

A series from Nepal measure: wing ¢. 83.5-86 (Kosi R.), 90, 91

(W. Nepal), @ 85-89. There seems to be a slight tendency to larger

size in W. Nepal birds, as well as this western population having

wider bands on the back, showing more white.

Dendrocopos moluccensis nanus (Vigor): Northern Indian Pigmy

Woodpecker.

Three females of this tiny species were taken near Chisapani and

Tikapur in the open acacia scrub near the rivers. They measure:

wing 74.5-79. Soft parts: iris yellow, ocular area light purplish-

red; bill blackish-gray ; legs grayish-black.

380 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL, HIST. SOGIETY, Vol. 49

Blythipicus pyrrhotis pyrrhotis (Hodgson): Red-eared Bay

Woodpecker.

A single female making a peculiar loud yarrup was collected on

a stump in thick second-growth at Godaveri. Soft parts: iris reddish-

brown; bill greenish-yellow; legs black.

Chrysocolaptes lucidus sultaneus (Hodgson): Hodgson’s Golden-

backed Woodpecker.

The Golden-backed Woodpecker was met with in the original forest

areas of the upper Terai and ‘duns’. Hodgson (1837) originally

described this fine woodpecker from Nepal. I hereby restrict the type

locality to Simra, central Nepal, as the form of central and western

Nepal is larger than that found in the east. A mate and female from

Chisapani and Solta measure: wing ¢ 181, '9 182.5, culmen ¢ 52.5,

Q 50. These birds had a distinct high single note reminiscent of the

American Pileated Woodpecker.

Chrysocolaptes lucidus guttacristatus (Tickell): Eastern Golden-

backed Woodpecker.

The Golden-backed Woodpecker had begun to breed at Chatra in

February. A male and female measure: wing ¢ 171, .9 171; culmen

3$ 49 Q 48. These birds agree in size with those from Bengal and

Assam. :

AST AUD TD AE

Alauda gulgula guttata Brooks: Kashmir Skylark.

This Skylark, which has previously been recorded from Nepal bv

Scully (op. cit. p. 367) with a question mark from Nawakot was

found by us at Pharping in the Central Valley and at Rekcha in

December. The birds were in small flocks in open paddy fields, and

would fly up together, straight up to a certain height and then hurl

all at once off horizontally in one direction, like a dust devil flung

into the air and then picked up by the breeze. These were winter

migrants. Wing do 105, 106.

HIRUNDINIDAE

Hirundo rustica rustica Linnaeus: Common Swallow.

The Common Swallow was found in the Central Valley, flying about

in areas of trees. A male in breeding condition. was taken | at

Vhankote in April.

Hirundo daurica daurica Linnaeus: Northern Striated Swallow.

A temale of this darker migrant subspecies was collected December

“th on the Sisagarhi Trail at 5,000 ft. Wing rro.

‘Hirundo daurica nipalensis Hodgson: Nepal Striated Swallow.

The Striated Swallow was found breeding in April and May from

Bhimpedi up throughout the Valley. A series measure; wing d /112-

EEO Con plub lis

‘Hirundo rupestris Scopoli: Crag Martin.

A single female Crag Martin was shot over Chainpur in February.

BIRDS FROM NEPAL, 1947-1949 381

Riparia paludicola brevicaudata (Horsfield): Indian Sand Martin.

Breeding males were collected at Tikapur in January. The species

was also collected at Pharping in the Valley near the Power Station

where it apparently breeds in holes in the cliffs of the Bagmati River.

All the specimens collected were males. Wing 93-98.

VE Ors COMILaT DAE

Motacilla maderaspatensis Gmelin: Large Pied Wagtail.

- Found by us at Pharping in December.

Motacilla cinerea caspica (Gmelin:) Eastern Gray Wagtail.

Common all over the Central Valley, and found also in open areas

in the Terai in winter up to Aprtkat least.

Anthus hodgsoni yunnanensis Uchida & Kuroda: Northern

Tree-pipit.

The northernmost breeding form of the three subspecies of the Tree-

pipit is a very common migrant through Nepal. We collected them

in trees and scrub at Godav ens Thankote and Nagegerjung in April

and November, at Rekcha in December and in east Nepal from 4,000

to 8,ooo ft. in January and February. These pipits travel in smal

flocks, walking over the leaves on the ground with soft rustling noises,

and when flushed, flying up to a tree branch with a characteristic

dseep, to perch with bobbing tail. (For measurements and key, see

Ripley 1948b). 7 | |

Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni Richmond: Hodgson’s Tree pipit.

This more boldly streaked bird was found by us at Mangalbare

and Chitré in January and February, perching often on the tops of

tall exposed trees. The birds were rather shy. Wing ¢ ¢ and 9 9

81-85.

-Anthus richardi rufulus Vieillot: Indian Pipit.

A breeding species in the Valley in April. Found wintering in the

Terai at Birganj in November.’- Wing ¢ o- and 9 Q 76-82.

CAMPEPHAGIDAE

Pericrecotus flammeus speciosus (Latham): Himalayan Scarlet

Minivet.

The large Scarlet Minivet was common in the Valley in April where

it was a breeding species on Naggerjung. One of the breeding males

is in first vear plumage, similar to the female but more tinted with

orange. We also found the minivet breeding in east Nepal at C hainpur

February roth. Wing 6 101.5-107, ;Q IOI-103.5. The specimens

have the characters assigned to the race by Deignan, !1946).

Pericrocotus ethologus Iaetus Mayr: Sikkim Long-tailed Minivet.

This species, formerly confused with the Short-billed Minivet (Mayr,

~ig4o), was the only one of the two encountered by us in Nepal. I

collected two females of this race climbing the hill to Chainpur at

382 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

4,200 ft. in February. A small flock was flying back and forth in a

clump of Pinus longifolia. No males were secured. The females

showed no gonadal development although ehasing Was going on:

Wing: 89, 90; tail 104, 105.

Pericrocotus ethologus favillaceus Bangs & Phillips: Western

Himalayan Long-tailed Minivet.

Common on Naggerjung and at Gokarna where we found this

minivet breeding in April, and apparently resident in November. We

also collected it in the west Nepal Terai. Two males in first year

plumage were taken in breeding condition in April.

Pericrocotus peregrinus peregrinus oe

vividus : Small Minivet.

The Small Minivet was found only in the Terai, and not too

commonly. Birds from west Nepal seem to be intermediate between

peregrinus and vividus. Both eae and females are brighter, more

vellowish on the abdomen than typical peregrinus, but Baler, more

pure gray on the upperparts and slightly less bright yellow on the

underparts than vividus.

Pericrocotus peregrinus vividus Baker: Burmese Small Minivet.

\ single female taken at Biratnagar belongs to this eastern race.

Hemipus picatus capitalis (McClelland): Brown-backed Pied Shrike.

The little Pied Shrike was collected in the Terai and up to 5,000 ft.

in west and central Nepal. Breeding birds were found in February

and , April in the Terai. A male from Rekcha has the brown

back feathers mixed with black.

Tephrodornis pondiceriana pondiceriana (Gmelin): Common Wood-

shrike.

This small Wood-shrike was common in the Terai. in west and

central Nepal in open secondary growth and light forest where as

usual it was seen in small flocks and family parties. Wing ¢d 90-91.5

‘9 83-87.5. Females were collected far more commonly than males.

Tephrodornis gularis pelvica (Hodgson): Nepal Wood-shrike.

The larger of these two curiously similar species was taken through-

out the Terai and up to Bhimpedi. Birds were in breeding condition

in February, an earlier date than usually noted for this Wood-shrike.

Wines a17-123" FO 7715, wo:

Coracina fimbriata melaschista (Hodgson): Dark Gray Cuckoo-

shrike. |

A common breeding species in woods in the Valley. Apparently

wintering birds were also found in the east Nepal Terai. This Cuckoo-

shrike seems to breed in April in Nepal, from the evidence of our

specimens, while a male from the Khasia Hills taken in mid-March was

in breeding condition. Does the Species breed earlier in the east >

Wing d 120-127.

BIRDS. FROM NEPAL, 1947-1949 333

Coracina novaehollandiae nipalensis (Hodgson) Large Himalayan

Cuckoo-shrike.

The large Himalayan Cuckoo-shrike was a familiar feature of the

Terai forests and on in open country up to 6,000 ft. where it was

breeding on Naggerjung in April. A female with large oviduct eggs

was taken April 20. The loud broken tremolo whistle of this bird

was often heard in the foothills from east to west. The species will

apparently adapt itself to the devastated conditions of the 2-5,000 ft.

level in certain areas where the soil has been destroyed and only poor

scrub can exist. Wing ¢ 177.5-187.5, 9 177.5, 182. The breeding

female is in very worn plumage but shows no sign of moult.

LANIIDAE

Lanius schach tricolor (Hodgson): Himalayan Black-headed Shrike.

The Black-headed shrike was the common breeding: shrike of the

Valley where we found birds with enlarged gonads at Naggerjung and

Gokarna in April. The species frequented light scrubby woods in

contrast to the more open country habits of its migrant neighbour

from Tibet and the higher hills.

Lanius schach tricolor xerythronotus

A male and a female taken at Tikapur and Rekcha furnish the

first records from west Nepal of this hybrid population found farther

west in the Himalayan foothills of Kumaon and Garwhal. Both birds

have irregular areas of grayish on the crown and irregular gray

shading on the shoulders and nape. This ‘hybrid swarm’ apparently

does not get as far east as central Nepal.

Lanius tephronotus tephronotus (Vigo:s) : Gray-backed Shrike.

Collected in open scrub at Gokarna in April and at Chatra in

February.

Lanius cristatus cristatus Linnaeus: Brown Shrike.

A common winter visitor to the Terai where it was taken by us in

open areas, especially on telephone wires in November, January,

February and March.

ARTAMIDAE

Artamus fuscus, the Ashy Swallow-shrike, was seen commonly in

the Terai in open areas, and up to Bhimpedi, but no specimens were

collected.

eo t Hi N TD AVE

Aegithina tiphia tiphia (Linnaeus) : lora.

The Iora was common in the Terai, almost aiways in bushes near

streams. There is a typical facies near the banks of the big streams

where flooding has created a zone of scrub which grows over the

gravel and rocks washed down each season. Here we found the

birds during the winter months, not singing. Nepal birds seem

slightly paler above and below than topotypes from Bengal in fresh

384 JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL -HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

plumage. No specimens were in breeding condition, although Bengal

birds with enlarged gonads were taken in January, and Assam. speci-

mens in March.

Chloropsis hardwickii hardwickii Jardine & Selby : Orange-bellied

Chloropsis.

Common in second growth in the Central Valley from 5-6, ooo ft. A

bird also of the ridges in the light forest that now remains. A male

coming into brecding condition was taken in April. Breeding birds

in Assam were taken in mid-March, a month earlier. A Nepal series

measure: wing ¢ 93-95. This mid-montane zone species was not seen

in-east Nepal.

Chloropsis aurifrons aurifrons Temminck : -Gold-fronted Chloropsis. |

The Gold-fronted Chloropsis was found by us in the upper Terai

forest adjacent to the foothills and into the ‘duns’. The species was

found in thick forest. only, invariably near flowering trees. Birds.

were in breeding condition at Chatra in late February.

PY GN’ O N Off DASE

Pycnonotus flaviventris flaviventris (Tickell) :- Black-crested Yellow

Bulbul.

In my paper on Ceylon birds (1946) I have already stated my reluct-

ance to place the distinctive S. Indian and Ceylon bulbuls, gularis and

melanicterus in with dispar and flaviventris contra Delacour (1943). 1

feel that the crested black-throated bird of the sub-Himalayas can well

stand alone, separate from the crestless ruby-throated species from

which it is widely separated geographically as well.

These crested bulbuls were found by us in the wooded parts of the

Terai close to the foothills. A breeding male was taken at Chatra

February 18. A single male from the Khasia Hills seems more bronzy-

olive and darker on the breast than Nepal males.

Pycnonotus leucogenys leucogenys (Gray): White-cheeked Bulbul.

A common species from the Terai to 6,000 ft., feeding in the open

scrub on berries and seeds and hunting in large flocks in the winter

season. Breeding birds were taken in April and May in the Valley

and down to Bhimpedi. ‘These spring birds were in very worn plumage

but the moult had not yet commenced.

Pycnonotus cafer pygaeus (Hodgson): Eastern Indian Red-vented

3ulbul.

There is a slight cline in color in this species from west to east

in Nepal, western birds approaching intermedius in color. However,

they do not agree with that form in size. A series measure: wing

3 3 .96-106, culmen 17-19.5. A specimen was breeding April 8 at

Thankote. Another male from this village had a single white feather

in the crown.

It is worth noting that, following Deignan’s recent revision of this

species (1949), ees from ‘the Mishmi Hills agree with primrose: rather

than pygaeus in the color of the ear coverts.

BIRDS FROM NEPAL, 1947-1949 385:

Alcurus striatus striatus (Blyth): Striated Green Bulbul.

Uncommon in Nepal. Collected only round Chandragiri Pass and

at Chitré in the zone of oaks and rhododendrons at 7,500 ft.

Microscelis mcclellandi mcclellandi (Horsfield): Rufous-bellied Bulbul.

A rather shy bulbul, not easy to approach either in scrub or in

tall trees, both of which it seems to favour at different seasons. Breed-.

ing males were taken in thick secondary. scrub in mid-April at

Thankote and Naggerjung. <A single male from Rekcha, one of the

cnly two birds of this species seen there, has a slightly suffused, less

well-defined white throat patch, streaked with fuscous.

Microscelis flavala flavala (Hodgson) : Himalayan Brown-eared

Bulbul.

A pair of this pretty bulbul were taken at Bhimpedi in May. The

birds were breeding. . They measure; wing do .100, ,9 .97;- tail ¢

Ge, AGo7; Culmen, 19 (both). Assam and Burma specimens tend to

be somewhat darker, especially on the lower surface.

Microscelis madagascariensis psaroides (Vigors): Black Bulbul.

The Himalayan Black Bulbul was common in central and eastern

Nepal but was not seen in the western part. Birds were breeding

in April and May. In the Mangalbaré area the species seemed scarce

and was definitely shy. These birds measure wing 120-29, 9

tid-123.5% tail ¢ 102-114, .2 93-107; culmen ¢@ 25-27, 23.5-26.

If Mishmi Hills birds are compared with fresh fall and winter-

plumaged psaroides, it may be observed that they are intermediate

between psaroides and nigrescens, darker than the former, but lighter

than the latter. They also tend to be larger than typical psaroides..

CIN CLI D‘A'E

Cinclus pallasii tenuirostris Bonaparte: Brown Dipper.

The only specimens of the Brown Dipper collected were taken at

Kulikhani at 4,750 ft. in the Markhu Vatley on the trail into Katmandu.

The species was also seen at similar elevations in eastern Nepal on

small feeders of the Kosi River system. A male with slightly enlarged

gonads was taken in November. The wing of this specimen

measures 98.

T ROGHO DY RIDAE

Troglodytes troglodytes nipalensis Blyth : Nepal Wren.

A good series of the little wren were taken from Dur on up to

Mangalbaré at altitudes ranging from 8,500-10,000 ft. The species

was not otherwise seen. Smythies (l.c.p. 441) reports these wrens

from the Gandak-Kosi watershed north of the Valley. The birds were

seen only on the bare grassy Alpine meadows and not in the forest.

Their little tzit, tzzit call was often heard, but the birds were seldom

seen, as they crept about in the grass and low plants close to the

ground. These birds come within the measurements given by

Kinnear (1944).

386 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST+i:SOGIETY, Vol. 49

M.U S-C4 GIA PID &e

Subfamily TURDINAE

‘Cochoa purpurea: Purple Thrush.

A bird, presumably of this species was flushed out of a damp

thicket at Bhimpedi in May.

Enicurus immaculatus Hodgson : B'ack-backed Forktail.

This species is found in the foothills from one to four thousand

‘feet. Forktails were observed on or near small streams within the

Siwalik range, and along the ‘duns’, frequenting overgrown thickets

and masses of bracken or other fern. A male taken near Kune Ghat

‘on the Karnali has a wing measurement of 93.5.

Erithacus cyanurus pallidiora (Baker): Kashmir Bush Robin’.

A single female taken at Rekcha December 29 is pale and seems

to belong to this race. If so, it is a first record for Nepal. Wing 76.

‘Erithacus cyanurus rufilatus (Hodgson): Red-flanked Bush Robin.

A male and female of this darker race were collected at Mangalbaré

in February and measure; wing ¢ 87, 9 82.

Erithacus indicus indicus (Vieillot) : White-browed Bush Robin.

A pair were taken at Mangalbaré in February.

Er ithacus calliope calliope (Pallas): Ruby-throat.

Found in February in east Nepal at 1,200 {t. along the Arun Kosi.

Erithacus brunnea (Hodgson): Indian Blue Chat.

The Blue Chat was common at Gokarna and Chandragiri in March

and April. A male, April 2, was in breeding condition and singing

lustily in a dense thicket near the main trail into the Valley. Soft

parts: iris dark brown; bil! black; legs brownish-flesh, or, grayish-

flesh.

Erithacus leucura (Hodgson): White-tailed Bush Robin.

A male was taken at Chitlang in forest at 6,500 ft. in April.

Phoenicurus frontalis (Vigors) : Blue-fronted Redstart.

Non-breeding birds were very common around Mangalbaré above

8,o00 ft., and in the Valley above 6,o00 ft. in November. Where

present the species was ubiquitous in clearings, scrub pasture, or open

areas near small streams. Its single note, a sort of tik or click

was often the only sound in these quiet Alpine meadows.

Phoenicurus schisticeps (Gray) : White-throated Redstart.

A single female was collected out of a flock wandering over open

meadows and light scrub at Mangalbar¢, February 1. Wing 81.5.

* For notes on the genera of the Thrushes see Ripley. (Mss)

BIRDS FROM NEPAL, 1947-1949 387

Phoenicurus fuliginosus fuliginosus (Vigors) : Plumbeous Redstart.

Common along the upper Bagmati and other streams in the Central

Valley where rapids and boulders occur. Found also along the Kosi

in similar situations from 1,000-5,o00 ft. Immature birds were

collected at Sundarijal in May.

Phoenicurus leucecephalus (Vigors); White-capped Redstart.

Seen and collected along all the big rivers between 1,000-4,500 ft.

As in the case of the Plumbeous Redstart, this species prefers falling

water and rapids.

Saxicola caprata bicolor Sykes : Northern Indian Stone-chat.

The Indian Stone-chat occurs in the Terai areas immediately adjacent

to the Indian border. Specimens were taken at Kauriala Ghat.

Saxicola torquata indica Blyth ; Indian Bush-chat.

Breeding Bush-chats were collected at Gokarna in April, the earliest

date being the 19th. An exceptional male, taken February 8 in east

Nepal is recorded as in breeding condition. A juvenal bird was taken

in April in Gokarna, so that it may be that these birds begin breed-

ing as early as February. |

These were active chats, in light scrub and weeds at the edges of

meadows and pasture land. They perch characteristically on a bush

in the centre of a grassy clear space, and fly out to hawk after insects,

returning to the same perch.

Saxicola torquata przewalskii (Pleske) : Turkestan Bush-chat.

A pair were collected at Pharping in December on open dry paddy

land. The back of the female is enough paler than that of the Indian

race to serve as a field character.

Saxicola ferrea|errea G, R. Gray : Dark Gray Bush-chat.

A male was taken at Chisapani April 30. Wing 68.

Saxicoloides fulicata cambaiensis (Latham) Black-backed Indian

Robin-chat.

Common in the Terai in similar situations to those in India proper.

Eastern Nepal specimens, which were not examined, may belong to

stuart-bakeri.

Prunella immaculata (Hodgson): Maroon-backed Accentor.

Small flocks of these birds were common at Mangalbaré in low

rhododendrons, on the edges of clearings or on the ground in the open.

The birds were shy and difficult to approach. Three females measure;

wing 78-81; tail 49.5-57; culmen 12.5-13. Soft parts: iris orange

with white inner ring; bill black legs pale brownish-flesh.

Prunella strophiata strophiata (Blyth) : Rufous-breasted Accentor.

A male and female were taken at 4,300 and 8,750 ft. in east Nepal.

They measure: wing co 71, @ 66. Soft parts: iris brown; bill

brownish-black ; legs brownish-flesh. This Accentor was found in the

open on scrubby meadow land.

388 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Copsychus saularis saularis (Linnaeus): Magpie-robin.

Found from the lowlands up to the Katmandu Valley annatlves

cultivation and pee occurred. Breeding specimens were taken

nA pril:

Copsychus malabaricus indicus Baker: Eastern Shama.

The Shama was common in the Terai forest in central and eastern

Nepal and was not found in the west. These birds are basically

intermediate between indicus and malabaricus, although closer to the

former with which subspecies I have included them. In color males.

are slightly paler, females definitely paler on the lower surface than

malabaricus, and females are slightly lighter in color on the upper

surface also. Males from Nepal, Sikkim and the U.P. are slightly

darker on the lower surface than Assam birds, but the population is

an intermediate one, implying a continuous cline in this character.

The measurements of a number of specimens follows:

Wing Tail Culmen

S. and Western 10¢¢94-99 (96:2) 27 160-207 (180:9) 8 165-18

India w. 42987-90 (883) 9 113-136°5 (125:1) 3 16°5-17

E, Ghats, M.P.,

Nepal, U.P., 4¢91-98°5 (94°83) 11 133-159 (147°'1) 4 17-18

Sikkim ww 42°84-90- (87°77) 5S 110-126 (118°4) 3 17-(3)

Bhutan Duars, 691-96 (94) 17 112-148 (135°6) 6 16-19

Assam, Burma. 3922 90-91 6 102-124 (111°5) 3 17-18

The above measurements indicate again a cline in size, but the

differences are not great enough to make it necessary to designate

an intermediate population. The suggestion has been made that the

short-tailed eastern birds were all collected in winter, making the tail

length a seasonal character, but enough specimens have been taken at

other seasons to disprove this assumption. Presumably the short-

tailed examples are young or moulting birds. From the above

evidence I would list the ranges of the two races as follows:

(a) Copsychus malabaricus malabaricus

Western Ghats south through Mysore, Malabar and Travancore in

evergreen and moist deciduous biotope.

(b) Copsychus malabaricus indicus.

From the Bhutan Duars, Assam and western Burma west along the

foothills to central Nepal, south through the U.P. and Bihar to the

eastern Madhya Pradesh (= Central Provinces), and in Orissa to

northern Madras in the Eastern Ghats wherever suitable evergreen

and moist deciduous forest exists.

Monticola rufiventris & Selby): Chestnut-bellied Rock

thrush.

A male was collected at Chisapani ye 27, “on the trail to the

Central Valley.

(Jardine

BIRDS FROM NEPAL, 1947-1949 389

Monticola cinclorhyncha (Vigors): Blue-headed Rock-thrush.

Breeding specimens were taken at Bhimpedi and Naggerjung in

April and May. Soft parts: iris brown; bill black ; legs grayish-brown.

Monticola solitarius pandoo (Sykes) : Indian Blue Rock-thrush.

A single immature male was taken in the Terai in February. It

is not uncommon in open areas during the winter.

Zoothera dauma dauma (Latham): Small-billed Mountain Thrush.

A juvenal male was collected on Naggerjung in late November,

and a male coming into breeding condition was taken at Godaveri

in late April. This species was found between the Terai at the base

of the hills, and 6,oo0 ft. in the winter, and above 4,500 ft. in April

and May. It is a quiet bird of the heavy forest or on forest edges

in well-grown bushy cow pastures near streams. There is consider-

able individual variation, some specimens being more heavily banded

with black than others, particularly on the head.

Zoothera dixoni (Seebohm): Long-tailed Plain-backed Mountain

Thrush.

A single male of this obscure species was taken at Mangalbaré in

deep jungle in February. Soft parts: iris brown; bill dark brown,

base of lower mandible pale; legs flesh.

Zoothera citrina citrina (Latham): Orange-headed Ground Thrush.

The Orange-headed Ground Thrush was found breeding at Gokarna

in May. I found a nest with the bird sitting in the first week of May.

The nest was placed about eight feet up in the crotch of a sapling

growing in a gully in thick woods. The situation allowed one to look

in easily from the bank. The bird was very shy, and flushed when

I was still some distance away. The species was not observed during

the winter in the Terai. This is certainly one of the commonest of the

thrushes in the Valley, and with the Gray-winged Blackbird, is

commonly kept as a pet by the Newars.

Turdus rubrocanus rubrocanus Gray: Gray-headed Thrush.

One flock was seen at Mangalbaré, but unfortunately no specimens

were taken.

Turdus boulboul (Latham): Gray-winged Blackbird.

Found in the Terai on the edge of the hills in February, and on

up to 6,000 ft. in April and May. Breeding males were collected on

Chandragiri Pass and at Gokarna.

furdus ruficollis Pallas: Red-throated Thrush.

Specimens were taken on Naggerjung in April. They were silent

and shy, sitting quietly in low fruiting bushes. Soft parts: iris dark

brown; bill, upper mandible black, lower basally dark yellow, distally

black; jegs brownish-yel'low (3), grayish-brown (9).

390 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Turdus unicolor Tickell: Tickell’s Thrush.

Found in the winter in the Terai and up to 4,700 ft. in April in

central Nepal.

Myiophoneus caeruleus temmincki Vigors: Himalayan Whistling-

thrush.

Whistling-thrushes were collected in winter from goo ft. up, and

breeding males were found in the Valley in April and May. A male

had the bill and feet covered with cow dung, evidently in quest of

larvae. There seems to be a cline in size in the Nepal populations,

birds from the west averaging larger. One male from Rekcha has a

wing of 192, much larger than any measurement given by Delacour

for the race (1942).

Subfamily ‘TIMALIINAE

Pellorneum ruficeps mandellii Blanford: Nepal Spotted Babbler.

All specimens taken in west, central and eastern Nepal prove to

belong to this race. The Spotted Babbler was found in the ‘duns’

in winter and in the Terai foothills at 1,000-2,000 ft., while in Apri!

it was found higher, well into the hills to 4,500 ft. However, in the

Valley it seems to be a year round resident in such places as Nagger-

jung. Breeding birds were taken in March and mid-April.

Malacocincla sepiaria abbotti Blyth: Abbot’s Babbler.

This distinctive babbler was found only in the Terai at Chatra

where it occurred in dense scrub patches in original forest. It was

quiet and fairly shy. Soft parts: iris reddish-brown, light reddish-

brown; bill upper mandible black, lower gray; legs brownish flesh.

Wine 191.77). 80g lita 47-55 (5131 culmen,;20, f2n5.-

Pomatorhinus montanus schisticeps Hodgson: Slaty-headed Scimitar

Babbler.

A pair taken at Rekcha measure: wing ¢ 106, 9 97.5. Soft parts:

iris yellow; bill yellow, base of maxilla black; legs ¢ grayish-brown,

taken at Nongpoh, Khasia Hills, Assam, in March 1949, the iris is

given as orange-yellow and the legs dark slate, and in two males of

salimali the iris is pale red and the legs brown, and feet gray.

Apparently the color of the soft parts have racial value, and males

also tend to have rather more brownish legs than females, as the above

color notes were all made by Migdalski and myself.

Pomatorhinus ruficollis ruficollis Hodgson: Rufous-necked Scimitar

Babbler.

This shy little Scimitar Babbler was collected both in western and

central Nepal. We found it from 5,000-9,000 ft. Birds were in breed-

ing condition in mid-April. Soft parts: iris ¢ red, Q reddish-brown,

pale brown; bill, upper mandible black, distal end of tomium light

horn to yellow, lower mandible yellowish-white, yellow; legs brown,

feet slate, pads dull yellow. Wing ¢ 82.5 (2), 9 75-78.5. I cannot

BIRDS FROM NEPAL, 1947-1949 391

include this species in montanus as Delacour does (1947), when both

breed throughout the same area.

Pomatorhinus ruficollis godwini Kinnear : Godwin’s Rufous-necked

Scimitar Babbler.

At Mangalbaré we secured a single female in dense rhododendron

thickets at nearly 9,000 ft. Soft parts: iris reddish-brown ; bill yellow,

2/3 of the culmen and base of the maxilla black ; legs brown, feet slate.

Kinnear (1944) named this race from Bhutan. The Mangalbaré

specimen is in fresh plumage as are my central and west Nepal birds,

and is so much darker, more olive below, and darker, more chestnut

above, that it stands out at once. Presumably fresh Sikkim skins

would also agree with this specimen and those from Bhutan and S.E.

Tibet, rather than Nepal birds as Kinnear states (I.c. p. 79). In this

I believe that he has made a mistake, as he quotes Godwin-Austen as

saying that Dafla birds are similar to those of Darjeeling rather than

Nepal. The range of godwini should thus be; Eastern Nepal, east of

the Arun Kosi River, Sikkim, Bhutan, S.E. Tibet and Dafla Hills.

This specimen measures: wing 80.5, tail 84, culmen 23, hind

claw 13.

Pomatorhinus erythrogenys ferrugilatus Hodgson; Hodgson’s Rusty-

cheeked Scimitar Babbler.

A large series of the Rusty-cheeked Scimitar Babbler from western

and central Nepal serves to show that the bird figured by Gould (1832),

represents in fact the west Himalayan population with a clear white

throat. Therefore, it is better in this case to follow Ticehurst and

Whistler (1924) in rerestricting the type locality for typical erythrogenys

to the Simla-Almora area.

Compared to Sikkim and Darjeeling birds, haringtoni Baker, the

Nepal population is much paler, less saturated on the throat. Sikkim

birds are very dark gray on the throat without the distinctive dark

spots on the breast. They are also darker above and on the flanks.

Compared with Kulu birds, those from Nepal are darker above and

somewhat grayish on the throat, and the spots on the breast are

darker. West Nepal specimens are slightly intermediate, but are dark

enough on the throat to be included with the central Nepal population.

Thirteen males measure: wing 95-100.5 (97.8); tail 96-108 (101.5) ;

culmen 32.5-36 (35-7).

Birds in very worn plumage were taken in early May. Breeding

males and females were collected in mid-April. May birds were not

in breeding condition. This scimitar babbler is a rather bold bird,

the most noticeable babbler in Nepa!, really, with a great variety of

harsh loud calls. We found it from 3,800-6,000 ft. in secondary scrub:

often on the edge of cultivation.

Pnoepyga albiventer pallidior Kinnear: Western Scaly-breasted Wren-

Babbler. |

A single male of the Scaly-breasted Wren-Babbler was shot at

Chisapani in western Nepal. It came out from some loose rocks under

my feet as I stood in light mixed evergreen and deciduous forest not

far from the Karnali River bank. Soft parts: bill blackish-brown, base

392 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

of lower mandible whitish; legs pale brown. Wing 60, tail 14. This

specimen belongs to the paler western race, while central Nepal

birds are albiventer. The bird lacks the fulvous subterminal spots on

the upper surface.

Stachyris pyrrhops Blyth : Red-billed Babbler

This is the most uniquitous babbler in the Valley. Birds were

taken at all seasons from the edge of the Terai up to 6,o00 ft. Breed-

ing specimens were taken from 3,800 ft. up in April and May. In the

spring the flocks seem reduced, but small parties still hunt together.

A series from central Nepal measure: wing 3 53-56 (54.4), Q 50.5-

82.5 (51.5); tail ¢ 50-52.5. (57-5),.9 45-51-85 (48:5); culmen ¢ 19-15

(14.1), :@ 13-14 (13-4). Thus there is dimorphism in size if. not in

color in this species.

Birds from western Nepal and the western Himalayas seem

slightly smaller, wing ¢ dg and QQ 49.5-53 (51.9), aS against 50.5-

56 (53-3), but there is too much overlap to make the difference significant.

This is interesting, however, as a reversal of the usual size .cline.

Stachyris nigriceps nigriceps Hodgson: Black-throated Babbler.

A mid-montane zone babbler found from 3,800-6,000 ft. in the

central area from Bhimpedi up to Godaveri. It calls with a rather

pretty though mournfu! descending trill. Soft parts: iris dull brownish-

white, dull whitish yellow (May); yellow (November); bill, upper

mandible dark brown, black, lower whitish, fleshy-white; legs dull

yellow, dull greenish-yellow. Wing <¢ 55-58. Males and females

were in breeding condition at Bhimpedi in May.

Dumetia hyperythra hyperythra (Franklin): Rufous-bellied Babbler.

A common species in the western Terai at Tikapur and Chisapani,

frequenting bushes and grassy scrub on the edge of jungle. This

species in its behavior, habits and appearance seems very close indeed

to. Stachyris. A series of both Sexes “measure: ‘wing 53.5-58;

tail 57-62.

Macronus gularis rubricapilia (Tickell): Yellow-breasted Babbler.

The Yellow-breasted Babbler proved to be the commonest babbler

of the eastern Terai and ‘duns’. We found it in thick scrub and light

second growth evergreen forest at Chatra and Muhlghat. Birds were

coming into breeding condition in late February. This babbler has not

previously been recorded from Nepal.

Wing, males and females, 52-59. Soft parts: iris whitish, yellow ;

bill slate; legs pale brown.

Timalia pileata bengalensis Godwin-Austen: Bengal Red-capped

Babbler.

We found the Red-capped Babbler only at Tikapur in the thick

acacia and ‘jhaveri’ (Zizyphus) scrub on small islands in the dry river

beds. The birds were restless and shy, giving themselves away only

by their bright sharp calls. All specimens collected were females.

Wing 56-60.5; culmen 15-17.

BIRDS. FROM NEPAL, 1947-1949 , 393

Chrysomma Sinense sinense (Gmelin): Yellow-eyed Babbler.

A male and two females from Tikapur measure: wing <¢ 68,

eG2, 6275; tail’ 6” 935>-9' 855: 94.5); culment “oi .12.5,; (9: a2i(2).. Soft

parts: iris yellowish, ocular skin yellow; bill black; legs yellow. The

Yellow-eyed Babbler was not as common as the Red-capped and other

lowland babbler species of the western Terai.

Paradoxornis unicolor unicolor (Hodgson): Plain-colored Parrotbill.

A single male was secured out of a small flock in mixed bamboos

and firs (Abies) at 9,400 ft. on Tinjuré ridge February 1. This species

has not been recorded from Nepal since Hodgson’s time. Wing g2,

tail (worn) 99, culmen 15.

Paradoxornis poliotis humei (Sharpe) : Black-fronted Suthora.

A single female was taken from a flock streaming through a group

of thin long bamboos and rhododendrons at Mangalbaré. It agrees

perfectly with Sikkim examples. Wing 46, tail 51, culmen 7. The

species has not previously been recorded from as far west as this

locality in Nepal.

Turdoides earlii (Blyth) : Striated Babbler.

Found in high grass and thick acacia scrub in the western Terai

at Tikapur. Soft parts: iris yellow; bill brownish-horn; legs pale

grayish-brown.

Turdoides somervillei terricolor (Blyth): Seven Sisters or Jungle

Babbler.

Specimens were taken in open cultivated country in the Terai in

the western and central areas. A November male is noted as in breed-

ing condition. Birds in very worn plumage were taken in late May.

Acanthoptila nipalensis (Hodgson): Spiny Babbler.

The rediscovery of this species was one of the most interesting

results of the Expedition. I collected a single male out of a small

flock of seven or eight birds at Rekcha on Christmas Day. The birds

were in an open field which was spotted with low patches of shrubbery,

and were hunting, partly on the ground, partly in the lower branches.

They were calling in a series of short-syllabled churrs, rather deep

and musical, more like laughing thrushes than the typical ‘Seven Sisters’,

and I thought at the time and afterwards when I had first examined the

bird, that I had something close to Garrulax lineatus. The bill of the

Spiny Babbler is particularly reminiscent of Garrulax in addition to

what I heard of its voice. The feathers of head and mantle, throat

and upper breast of course have strong spinous shafts. Contra

Delacour (1947, p. 20) who says merely that the genus Acanthoptila

‘cannot be maintained’, I feel that it serves as a valid link between

Lurdoides and Garrulax. Its generic characters may be listed as the

distinctive spiny shafts above alluded to, and reduced rictal bristles,

more prominent, however, than in Turdoides. In bill shape, nostrils,

under-wing coverts and legs it is like a typical Garrulax. In plumage

pattern, tail and wing shape and size it is like Turdoides. Its voice

394 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

seems to be more like Garrulax than Turdoides, its habits similar to

species of both.

Soft parts: iris white; bill, upper mandible brownish-black, lower

light gray on the basal half, distally black; legs light brownish-gray.

Wing 84, tail 104, bill (from skull) 24.5, tarsus 30.5. This specimen

is a fully adult male and is normally colored with a white superciliary,

ear coverts, throat and upper breast. I believe the occasional variable

amount of white referred to by Baker (1924, p. 203) is an individual

variation.

Of the seven specimens listed by Sharpe (1883, p. 380), the Bird

Room staff at the British Museum could find only three in April 1949.

In addition there is one skin in New York received in exchange,

making a total of four. This new skin is the first collected since

IHiodgson’s or Pinwill’s time and represents the first seen alive by an

ornithologist. It is illustrated on the accompanying plate reproduced

by courtesy of the National Geographic Magazine. Evidently this is a

hill species of the 5,000 ft. zone in open scrub or secondary growth in

west Nepal. Its habitat preference should allow it to survive and

tolerate to a considerable extent the rapid deforestation which is occur-

ring at that level.

Garrulax albogularis albogularis (Gould): White-throated Laughing-

thrush.

The commonest of the laughing-thrushes encountered by us in

western and central Nepal from 4,000-6,o00 ft. It was a bird of the

scrub and light thick jungle. At Rekcha large winter flocks of this

species were often out on the open paddyfields in the early morning

apparently feeding on insects, doing a considerable amount of scratch-

ing and digging with their powerful feet about the young shoots of

rice and barley. Breeding specimens were taken in March and April

round Godaveri and Naggerjung. Soft parts: iris white; legs bluish

or whitish-gray.

Garrulax striatus vibex Ripley: Nepal Striated Laughing-thrush.

This species appeared common at Godaveri in thick second growth.

Birds were breeding in late April and were separated at that time from the

hunting flocks of other laughing-thrushes, being only with their own

kind. A young bird in adult plumage with pointed tail feathers was

collected there in late November. This is an intermediate population,

darker than striatus, and noticeably paler than stkkimensis. Birds from

western Nepal also belong to this race.

Garrulax striatus sikkimensis (Ticehurst): Sikkim Striated Laughing-

thrush.

This darker race was found at Mangalbaré in thick forest just below

9,000 ft. in February, a higher range than is ordinarily attributed to

this species, but one perhaps made necessary by the absence of any

evergreen forest in this area at lower altitudes.

Garrulax leucolophus leucolophus (Hardwicke): White-crested

Laughing-thrush.

The White-crested Laughing-thrush was local and only collected |

-by us at the following localities: the Valley, December and April;

National Geographic Society

Yellow-billed Blue Magpies ( Kitta f- flavirostris )

Spiny Babbler ( Acanthoptila nipalensis )

osefinch ( Carpodacus n. nipalensis)

Grosvenor’s Laughing-thrush ( Garrulax r. grosvenort )

BIRDS FROM NEPAL, 1947-1949 395

Bhimpedi May; west Nepal at Chisapani, 1,000 ft. and Rekcha,

5,000 ft. (uncommon there) in December ; east Nepal, Muhlghat, January

and February. At Chisapani we collected only males; in the Valley

in April we collected only females.

In series the wing of these males and females ranges from 130-140.

Birds from east Nepal are slightly darker above and below than

birds from the rest of the country and range in measurements from

130-135, this cline in color and partial cline in size leading towards

hardwickii Ticehurst of Assam, as pointed out by that author (1926).

Garrulax rufogularis grosvenori Ripley : Grosvenor’s Rufous-

-chinned Laughing-thrush.

This laughing-thrush was a common species at Rekcha, but was

decidedly inconspicuous and a great skuliker. The birds had a series of

aiarm notes, rather harsh and loud, but when at ease calling to each

other, a delightful range of chuckles and low conversational notes. A

series measure: wing ¢ 87-94, 84-91. Soft parts: iris brown; Dill,

upper mandible brownish-horn, lower grayish-brown; legs grayish-

brown. This population differs from typical rufogularis of central

Nepal and Sikkim by being much paler and less heavily barred

on the upper surface, and from occidentalis of the western Himalayas by

being more olivaceous with larger terminal spots above and below. It

is also illustrated in the coloured plate herewith.

Garrulax caerulatus caerulatus (Hodgson): Gray-sided Laughing-

thrush.

A party of these birds was found at Godaveri one day in November

hunting with other laughing-thrushes in heavy mixed scrub. They

had not been encountered in the spring and must have been wintering

birds. They had rather loud musical calls of four notes, a_ sort

of chuckling series, not really whistled. Wing ¢ 107, 111.5, Q 106.

Garrulax lineatus lineatus (Vigors): Streaked Laughing-thrush.

A single male presented by Dr. Walter Koelz and taken oa

Chandragiri Pass where I observed a small flock creeping rodent-like

over the humus and ground cover, is my only record of this species.

Garrulax affinis affinis Hodgson: Black-faced Laughing-thrush.

This was the commonest Laughing-thrush at Mangalbaré where it

frequented heavy thickets in the rhododendrons, often hunting in parties

with Alcippe vinipectus. A series measure: wing ¢ 108-111, Q 102-

107. Soft parts: iris brown; bill black; legs pinkish-brown.

Garrulax erythrocephaium erythrocephalum (Vigors) Red-headed

Laughing-thrush.

A species noted only in the vicinity of Chandragiri Pass in April.

These birds are red-headed, and as Nepal is given as the type locality

of Oates’s nigrimentum, it would be better perhaps to restrict the type

locality of that form to Ilam district, eastern Nepal.

Leiothrix argentauris argentauris (Hodgson): Silver-eared Mesia.

Seen at Bhimpedi, and at Chisapani in west Nepal. A breeding

male was shot on May 3 at the former place. Wing 77.

396 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Leiothrix lutea callipyga (Hodgson): Indian Red-billed Leiothrix.

A bird of heavy scrub and forest remnants, found at Godaveri

and Chandragiri Pass. Soft parts: iris brown; bill red, black at base;

legs pale brown.

Myzornis pyrrhoura Hodgson: Fire-tailed Myzornis.

A single female was collected on a high tree in original forest at

Mangalbaré from a flock of mixed species. Soft parts: iris dark

brown; bill black; legs yellowish-brown. Not recorded from Nepal

since Hodgson’s time, although Stevens (1923) secured a series on the

Singile La Ridge on the Nepal-Sikkim frontier at 10,160 ft. in March.

Pteruthius erythropterus (Vigors): Red-winged Shrike-babbler.

Met with only at Chandragiri Pass. Wing ¢ 82, 9 83.

Actinodura nipalensis nipalensis (Hodgson): Hoary Bar-wing.

The Hoary Bar-wing was taken at Chandragiri Pass in late April.

Soft parts: iris brown; bill black; legs light grayish-brown. Birds

in worn plumage were collected in May. A pair measure: wing

3 93, Q 88.

In Hodgson’s time (1836) this Bar-wing could apparently be found

in the garden of the British Residency in Katmandu, a far cry from

conditions as they exist today. Bearing that in mind, however, I

have restricted the type locality of nipalensis (l.c., 1950) to the slopes

of the Katmandu Valley.

Actinodura nipalensis vinctura Ripley: Eastern Hoary Bar-wing.

The Bar-wings found at Mangalbaré agree with Sikkim and Bhutan

specimens in having a much wider black terminal bar on the upper

surface of the tail than in the nominate form, and also having heavier

black barring on the wings and tail.

We found these birds in dense thickets on the edge of evergreen

jungle. They were shy and skulking and raced through the thick

growth from branch to branch with the ease of a squirrel.

Siva strigula strigula Hodgson: Stripe-throated Siva.

In contrast to Scully’s observation (1879), we did not find the

Stripe-throated Siva common around the Nepal Valley, although birds

were seen above Godaveri in late November. In east Nepal the species

was very common above Chitré and at Mangalbaré. <A series measure:

wing ¢ 68-73, Q 64-68. Soft parts: iris brown; bill, upper mandible

grayish-brown, lower grayish-white; legs gray, or brownish-gray.

Siva cyanuroptera cyanuroptera Hodgson: Blue-winged Siva.

A pair were taken in thick scrub at Godavari in November. Wing

3 65, Q 63.

Yuhina filavicollis albicollis (Ticehurst & Whistler): Western

Yellow-headed Ixulus.

This Ixulus occurred at Rekcha. A single female has a wing of

65.5. Soft parts: iris brown; bill, upper mandible blackish-brown,

lower light brown; legs dull yellow. This specimen compares per-

fectly with birds from farther west along the Himalayas.

BIRDS FROM NEPAL, 1947-1949 397

Yuhina flavicollis flavicollis Hodgson: Yellow-headed Ixulus.

A busy active little bird, working in flocks through the scrubby

bushes (mostly Randia and alders, at Godaveri. Found also at Chitré

associated with Y. gularis.

Yuhina gularis gularis Hodgson: Stripe-throated Yuhina.

The Stripe-throated Yuhina was met with on Chandragiri Pass and

at Chitré and Mangalbare, usually well up in trees, where it was very

active in small flocks of its own kind, or on occasion with Y. flavicollis.

They have a characteristic series of twitters with sharp alarm cheeps.

Birds in worn plumage were taken in late April. Fresh-plumaged east

Nepal birds seem richer, more olive-tinted than birds from the Valley,

but I lack specimens in truly comparable plumage. Soft parts :iris

brown; bill blackish-brown; legs yellow.

Yuhina occipitalis occipitalis (Biytn): Chestnut-headed Ixulus.

Large flocks were in the tops of berry-bearing trees at Chitre in

late January. Where the species occurs it seems to be very numerous.

Soft parts:iris brown; bill brown; legs orange-brown.

Yuhina zantholeuca zantholeuca (Hodgson) : White-bellied Erpornis.

Our experience in meeting this bird at 6,o00 ft. in spring and iate

autumn in the Valley agrees with that of Stanford in Burma (1941),

and is in contrast to the ‘ Fauna’ (1924) where the range of the

Erponis is given as the plains up to 3,000 ft. I note that Mrs. Proud

(1949) also found these birds on Naggerjung. Our specimens from

the Valley were in breeding condition in mid-April. We found the

species occurring singly or in pairs in the low shrubbery on Naggerjung,

not associated with other species either in the spring or autumn.

Alcippe castaneiceps castaneiceps (Hodgson): Chestnut-headed

Babbler.

The little Chestnut-headed Babbler 1s a rather shy bird, haunting

the heavy undergrowth on the edges of clearings in evergreen jungle.

We found these birds in small active flocks at the Chandragiri Pass

in central Nepal and at Tinjuré in east Nepal. I doubt if this species

winters below 3,o00 ft. in Nepal, whereas Stevens (l.c.) reports it

occurring down to 2,400 in Sikkim, and in Assam it descends to just

below 1,000, another example of birds from the eastern part of the

Himatayas descending lower down the slopes of the hills than their

relatives in the western part of the range.

Males and females measure: wing 57-59, tail 41-44.5. I hereby

restrict the type locality of this subspecies to the Chandragiri Pass,

central Nepal, a locality where Hodgson’s collectors probably found

it. Mr. H. G. Deignan has been kind enough to assist me in looking

over specimens from Siam of this species, which is particularly subject

to post-mortem change. Comparison of considerable series from Nepal,

398 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Sikkim, N. Burma, Tenasserim, Yunnan, Siam and Tonkin both of

fresh and old skins shows the following differences:

In fresh skins;

Central Nepal.—paler, particularly on the crown and lighter on the

crown and flanks. No size difference.

Eastern Nepal and Sikkim.—darker on the crown, and darker, more

olive on the back and flanks.

In old skins (10 or more years old);

India, Sikkim, Burma, Yunnan.—lighter on the crown, more olive

on the back.

Siam.—intermediate, some lighter, some darker on the crown,

some grayish-olivaceous on the back, some more rufescent.

Tonkin.—darker, more blackish-rufescent on the crown, more

rufescent on the back.

From the above it would seem as if there were a continuous cline

of color differences, but a comparison of equally foxed or equally fresh

skins from the whole range would be necessary to determine the exact

shade of differences. From the speciation point of view there are pro-

bably several different populations, but I hesitate to recognise them.

From the point of view of convenience in arranging these specimen in

drawers in a museum (a necessary if arbitrary process) I would be in-

clined to recognize castaneiceps as the race of Nepal, Sikkim, Assam,

Burma, Yunnan and Siam, and exul Delacour as the race of Laos and

Tonkin.

Alcippe vinipectus vinipectus (Hodgson): Hodgson’s Fulvetta.

An uncommon species in the Valley, seen only at Chandragiri in

April.

Alcippe vinipectus chumbiensis (Kinnear): Eastern Fulvetta.

The Eastern Fulvetta is a much darker form than Hodgson’s

Fulvetta with streaking on the throat which is absent in most specimens

of the nominate race. This little Fulvetta was one of the commonest

wintering birds at Mangalbaré in February. The birds moved through

both substage and upper layers of the forest. It was in mixed flocks

with other species and again in uniform flocks. An interesting feature

of our series was that out of fifteen specimens taken, only two were

males. Possibly the sexes tend to segregate out at different altitudes

in winter.

Alcippe nipalensis nipalensis (Hodgson): Nepal Quaker Babbler.

This little quaker babbler proved to be very common in the Valley

in second growth or the remnants of evergreen forest as at Godaveri.

We found the species breeding in late April. Worn-plumaged

specimens were taken in late April, and freshly moulted birds in late

November. A series of both sexes measure: wing 58-62, tail 57.5-66.

This babbler was not found in either western or eastern Nepal, in

the latter area probably missed due to the difficulties of hunting in so

denuded an area.

BIRDS FROM NEPAL, 1947-1949 399

Heterophasia capistrata nigriceps (Hodgson): Nepal Black-headed

Sibia.

The Black-headed Sibia is one of the commoner birds in the forests

at 5,000 ft. and above. Its melodic whistling call rings across the

hills about the Chandragiri Pass where we heard it both in autumn

and spring.

The name of this form is in some doubt. Ticehurst and Whistler

in their paper restricting Vigors’s types to one blanket area in the

western Himalayas, stated categorically (l.c. p. 473) that ‘Lezoptila’

capistrata did not have a fixed type locality. Unfortunately they over-

looked Baker who in the ‘Fauna’ (l.c. p. 296) had listed the type

locality as Darjeeling. This seems firm enough. In addition Hartert

(1891) in his original description of pallida, had referred to specimens

discussed by Sharpe. (l.c. p. 404) from Butan and Nepal, and had said

that Sikkim birds showed the characters of typical capistrata. There

seems no sensible reason then to attempt to change the restricted

type locality for capistrata from Darjeeling, as Vigors’s original collec-

tion was a composite one.

I can distinguish three populations based primarily on color, but

also on size. In the west Hartert’s pallida extends from Hazara to

Garwhal. This is the palest, least olive-tinted race and is slightly

larger, wing 95-107. In Kumaon and western and central Nepal there

is a darker, more cinnamon-colored form with a suffusion of olive in

the brownish back feathers. This is Hodgson’s nigriceps (hereby

restricted to central Nepal, with wing measurements of 88-

98. In eastern Nepal, presumably east of the Arun Kosi River,

Sikkim and east to the Dafia Hills there is a still darker bird, the back

tinged with ‘clove brown’. This is capistrata, of which baileyi Kinnear

(1939) 1S a Synonym.

Heterophasia capistrata capistrata (Vigors) : Black-capped Sibia.

A common bird from about 7,000 ft. up in eastern Nepal wherever

there were any remnants of forest. Call and habits exactly the same

as in nigriceps. A series measure: wing 87.5-98, one 100.

Subfamily SyLVIINAE

Seicercus burkii burkii (Burton) : Black-browed Flycatcher-warbler.

Common from the Terai up to 6,000 ft. in all parts of Nepal.

Western birds are slightly paler, less olive-tinted on the upper parts,

thus showing the beginning of a cline towards whistleri of the western

Himalayas. This series measures: wing ¢ 55-61, 53-56.

Seicercus xanthoschistos xanthoschistos (Gray): Gray-headed

Flycatcher-warbler.

This little warbler seemed to be the most common resident species

in the Valley. Males were in breeding condition in April. Wintering

birds in west Nepal were taken as low as 950 ft. These specimens

measure: wing ¢ 51.5-58, Q 48.5-53-5.

400 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Ree castaniceps castaniceps (Blyth) : Chestnut-headed Flycatcher-

Warbler.

This species seemed uncommon. Only two fernales were secured

at the Chandragiri Pass in April and in the eastern Terai in February.

The April bird is nioulting. The other specimen has a wing measure-

ment of 53. A species of thick forest, usually fairly high up in the

substage or canopy.

Abroscopus schisticeps schisticeps (Hodgson) : Black-faced Flycatcher-

warbler.

A forest species met with only at Chandragiri Pass in May.

Phylloscepus affinis (Tickell) : Tickell’s Willow-warbler.

Collected in the Valley in scrub jungle at Thankote, Gokarna and

Naggerjung in April, in the eastern Nepa' Terai at Dharan Bazaar in

january, and in the west at Rekcha in December. <A male in breeding

condition was taken in early April. Males measure: wing 59,60,

females 55-58. The size, the color of the lower mandible and the greenish

yellow underparts are diagnostic for this species.

Phylloscopus subaffinis arcanus Ripley: Western Buff-bellied-

W illow-warbler.

The discovery of this new subspecies of the Buff-bellied Willow-

warbler has been one of the most interesting features of the Nepal

Expedition. It extends the wintering range of the species west for

seven hundred and fifty miles. This race is characterized by being paler,

less saturated with olive-brown or fulvous. In addition the tail is

longer, absolutely and in proportion, and the bill is longer. Three

females taken at Tikapur and on Naggerjung measure: wing: 51-55,

tail 51.5-54, tail-wing index 93-103%, bill (from skul!) 12-13.

The birds taken at Tikapur were in low scrubby bushes (Zizyphus)

on sandy is'ands in the Karnali River. They were secretive and shy

making only a single wren-like ‘tick’ call. Here they were associated

with Cettia brunneifrons and Timalia pileata in a situation close to

the ground which seemed to me very unphylloscopine. Soft parts:

iris brown; bill brownish-horn, base of lower mandible flesh-colored ;

legs pale brown.

This species is similar to Tickell’s Willow-warbler, but somewhat

smaller, more buffy-yellow below and with a short second primary

and darker lower surface of the bill.

Phylloscopus fuscatus fuscatus (Blyth): Siberian Dusky Willow-

warbler.

A single female was taken in January at Biratnagar in a small

patch of trees a mile or two from the town. Wing 57.5.

Phylloscopus pulcher pulcher Blyth: Nepal Orange-barred Willow-

warbler.

This subspecies was found by us in east Nepal. As Blyth’s name,

pulcher, was given in 1845, to a Hodgson skin; and as-many of

Hodgson’s specimens of this period came from east Nepal or Sikkim,

I should like to restrict the type locality of this, the nominate race of

the species to Ilam district, east Nepal. 3

BIRDS FROM NEPAL, 1947-1949 401

Birds from Sikkim, Assam, N. Burma and the Chin Hills all agree

with my east Nepal specimens in being dark on the upper surface.

The subspecies probably extends as far west as the Arun Kosi River.

These birds were taken at Mangalbaré in rhododendrons and conifers

down to 8,ooo ft. in February. Wing ¢ 60-61.5, 9 59-63.5.

Phylloscopus pulcher erochroa (Gray): Katmandu Orange-barred

Wil'ow-warbler.

Gray’s name (1846) may be revived for this form, and I hereby

restrict the type locality to Chandragiri Pass, central Nepal Valley.

This is a paler and possibly a slightly smaller bird than true pulcher.

A pair in fresh winter plumage from Godaveri and the Chandragiri

Pass measure: wing ¢ 55, @ 54.

Phyliloscopus pulcher erochroa = kangrae

Birds from west Nepal, taken at Rekcha in thick evergreen forest

are intermediate between erochroa and the more western kangrae. In

color these birds closely approach the latter but are somewhat more

olive, less brownish-olive on the back, and a trace darker on the head.

Phylloscopus inornatus humei (Brooks): Green Wil'ow-warbler.

Found on passage from the edge of the Terai up to the Valley in

central Nepal in late April, and again in mid-November.

Phylloscopus proregulus chloronotus (Gray): Himalayan Willow-

warbler.

The type locality of this form is Nepal, and as two populations

occur within the Kingdom, I hereby restrict the type locality of this

subspecies to the Centra! Valley of Katmandu. Specimens were

collected at Naggerjung and Godaveri in November in scrub and light

forest. We also found chloronotus at Chainpur in east Nepal. Call,

a soft sip, sip.

The name newton: Gaétke (Darjeeling), is available for the darker

eastern form of Sikkim and Assam.

Phylloscopus proregulus simlaensis Ticehurst : Western Himalayan

Willow-warbler.

We collected this paler, brighter subspecies at Chisapani and

Rekcha in west Nepal in light forest in December.

Phylloscopus maculipennis maculipennis Blyth : Gray-faced Willow-

warbler.

Birds from east Nepal agree with birds from Sikkim and the Assam

Hills. Therefore in my description of the following form (1950) I

fixed the type locality of this nominate subspecies as [lam district,

east Nepal. Specimens were taken at Mangalbaré in February in

thick forest.

Phylloscopus maculipennis centralis Ripley : Nepal Gray-faced

Willow-warbler.

Central. and western Nepal Gray-faced Willow-warblers are

distinctly intermediate between the dark maculipennis and Ticehurst’s

402 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

virens of the Punjab Himalayas, which is a much paler bird. Found

in secondary scrub-forest from 5-6,000 ft. in November and December.

Phylloscopus trochiloides trochiloides (Sundevall): Blyth’s Crowned

Willow-warbler.

This species was not found by us in breeding condition in Nepal.

A wintering female was taken at Chatra; wing 60; third primary

just shorter than fourth and fifth, but longer than sixth (Ticehurst’s

Key, *1938).

Phylloscopus trochiloides viridanus Blyth : Western Crowned Willow-

warbler.

This species as a wintering resident, seemed to be one of the

commonest Willow-warblers in Nepal in the Central area from the

Terai up to 6,000 ft. It was also secured at Chatra in February. In

the field and in its calls and behavior it seems indistinguishable from

the Green Willow-warbler. In numbers both species seem to be

equally numerous judged from the specimens collected by us.

Phylloscopus nitidus Blyth: Green Willow-warbler.

A pair of non-breeding birds were taken at ‘Thankote in mid-April

in light scrub on the hill-side near the ropeway.

Phylloscopus reguloides reguloides (Blyth): Crowned Willow-warbler.

This species was found in the western Terai in December and on

Chandragiri Pass in December and April. In the eastern Terai we

collected it in January. It is a species of fairly thick forest. A Chatra

female has a wing measurement of 57.5. No birds collected by us

showed a tendency towards enlarged gonads.

Orthotomus sutorius patia Hodgson: Nepal Tailor-bird.

Specimens of the Tailor-bird were collected at all seasons from the

Terai to 6,000 ft. Males coming into breeding condition were taken

in late February in east Nepal, and in April in the Central Valley.

Birds from east Nepal in fresh plumage seem slightly more richly

colored on the head and lower parts than do those from farther west,

indicating a cline in color towards luteus from extreme northeastern

Assam. This difference is slight, but it would seem wise to restrict

the type locality of patia to Katmandu.

Soft parts: iris brown, light brown, lght orange-brown; bill,

upper mandible b'tack, lower flesh, light horn, (once whitish-purple !) ;

iegs brownish-flesh. In the race guzurata from S. India, soft parts

are given by us as: iris yellow-ochre; bill, upper mandible brown,

lower dark flesh; legs dark flesh; indicating differences in the colors

of the soft parts between the races.

Prinia hodgsonii rufula Godwin-Austen: Himalayan Gray-breasted

Wren-warbler.

This was the commonest warbler in west Nepal from the Terai

up to 5,000 ft. In central and eastern Nepal it seemed "ess common,

although it was found in the Valley, and in the east, from the Terai

BIRDS FROM NEPAL, '}1947-1949 403

.up to 1,200 ft. Moulting birds were collected in March and _ breed-

ing males in summer plumage were secured at Bhimpedi and Sisagarhi

an May. Soft parts: iris reddish-brown, brownish-yellow; eyelid

pinkish-yellow, dull yellow, bill black; legs brownish-flesh.

In west Nepal, we came across large wintering flocks numbering

scores of individuals, working through tall weeds and grass on the

forest edges or in clearings, constantly chittering and calling to each

other. Only rarely did they leave the substage and ascend into the

lower second-storey of the trees in the light under canopy of the forest.

Prinia inornata terricolor (Hume): Northern Indian Wren-warbler.

The only specimen of the Indian Wren-warbler taken by us was

at Kauriala Ghat on the U,P.—Nepal border in west Nepal. It appears

to belong to the race terricolor which may thus be presumed to enter

western Nepal, see Whistler and Kinnear (op. cit., 1933, p. 577).

Prinia sylvatica gangetica (Blyth): Jungle Wren-warbler.

Found only in the west Nepal Terai in tall grass near the river

banks. A shy skulking species. Soft parts: iris light brown; bill,

upper mandible black, lower flesh, yellowish ; legs brownish-flesh, flesh.

A topotype of the nominate race from Segur Ghat in the Nilgiris has

the lower mandible gray basally, and black distally, a possible racial

difference.

Prinia socialis inglisi Whistler & Kinnear: Inglis’s Wren-warbler.

A single specimen of this saturated form was found in extreme

west Nepal at Tikapur, where slewarti might more likely be expected

to occur. This extends the range of this race five hundred miles to

the west, presumably throughout the Nepal lowlands. Soft parts:

iris pale brown; bill black; legs pinkish flesh. Wing 48.

Prinia polychroa crinigera (Hodgson): Nepalese Hill-warbler.

Found on scrub-grown hillsides from above the Terai at just over

1,000 to 5,000 ft. A breeding male in summer plumage was obtained

at Bhimpedi in Many. Soft parts: iris pale brown; bill, upper mandi-

b'e black, lower light horn; legs brownish-flesh; nails black.

Wing ¢ 51-54 (winter), 61.5 (summer); tail S 106-114 (winter),

114 (summer).

Tesia cyaniventer Hodgson: Siaty-bellied Wren

Tesia olivea was not collected by us in Nepal. All specimens of

Wren-warbler taken by us from 500-6,000 ft. in the three areas visited

have the crown concolorous with the back, the lower mandible varying

from yellow to dull orange, and the light gray underparts identifying

them as cyaniventer. The alarm call of this species is a sharp char-

acteristic tchirik identical with that of olivea. We found the bird

on or near the ground in clumps of fallen brush in evergreen jungle

from the Terai up to Chandragiri Pass.

Tesia castaneo-coronata (Burton): Chestnut-headed Wren.

Seen only at Chandragiri Pass and on Naggerjung. I found these

birds in scrub bushes (mostly Strobilanthes) on overgrown hiil-sides.

404 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

The alarm note was a single distinctive wee repeated at intervals of

several seconds. Soft parts: iris brown; bill, upper mandible black,

lower orange at base, black tip; legs olive-brown. Wing <¢ 48.5-50,.

2 46.5.

Cettia pallidipes pallidipes (Blanford); Blanford’s Bush-warbler:.

A single female taken in thick brush at Chisapani, western Nepal,

on December 18 is a considerable westward extension of this species.

It is presumably the first record west of Sikkim. I found the bird

very difficult to see in dense grass and bushes in a scrub area away

from the typical evergreen Terai jungle.’ Wing’ 57.5 |

Cettia brunneifrons brunneifrons (Hodgson): Rufous-capped Bush

warbler.

Two specimens of this skulking Bush-warbler were taken; in

the Valley in April at. 6,500 ft. and.in the Terai .at Tjkapur_.in

January. The second specimen, collected by Mr. Migdalski was.

without a tail, and for a time I was very perplexed to identify it, as

it seemed to be an unknown brown-headed Tesia! Found in very

thick :-Shrubbery inthe open. "Wings" ta) Olea

Acrocephalhus dumetorum Blyth: Blyth’s Reed-warbler.

Found at Bhimpedi and Godaveri in April and May. The skulking

habits of this bird tempt the collector invariably. Each time it turns

out to be the same migrant species again, rather than some hoped-

for rarity.

Phragmaticola aédon (Pallas): Thick-billed Warbler.

I collected a single bird in light bushes on the edge of tall grass

at Chatra while following up a tiger track. It was quite silent, un-

suspicious and allowed a close approach. Wing ¢ 79.5.

Subfamily MUSCICAPINAE

Muscicapa latirostris latirostris Raffles: Continental Gray-breasted

Flycatcher.

Two males and a female were taken at Katmandu in April. One

male had slightly enlarged gonads.

Muscicapa sibirica cacabata Penard: Nepal Sooty Flycatcher.

This species appeared in the Valley at the end of April, and was

collected there on the forest edge at Gokarna and Godaver1, It sits

silently on the top of tall trees in the open, occasionally hawking after

‘insects.

‘Muscicapa_ strophiata strophiata. (Hodgson): Orange-gorgetted

I*lycatcher.

A bird of passage not found in the Valley except in winter in late

November. We collected it also in east and west Nepal from the Terai

to 5,000 ft. from December through February.

Shik

BIRDS FROM NEPAL, 1947-1949 405

Muscicapa parva albicilla Pallas: Eastern Red-breasted Flycatcher.

I am inclined to include all the Red-breasted Flycatchers collected

by us in Nepal in this race. Specimens were taken in the Terai from

November to February, and in the Valley in April. The commonest

wintering flycatcher, found on the edges of towns and in cultivated

areas.

Muscicapa leucomelanura leucomelanura (Hodgson): Slaty-blue

Flycatcher.

Collected by us only in west Nepal and at Naggerjung. In the

west we found it both in the Terai, and on up to 5,000 ft. in December

and January, and at Naggerjung in April. No breeding specimens were

taken. :

Muscicapa superciliaris astizma Hodgson: Little Blue and White

Flycatcher.

A pair were taken at Chandragiri Pass in late April. Wing 6

64, 9 60. The male has a trace of a white supercilium.

Muscicapa hyperythra hyperythra Blyth: Rufous-breasted Blue

Flycatcher.

The Rufous-breasted Biue Flycatcher is a rather shy species, found

usually as a single bird in a dense thicket in primary forest. I have

never heard them utter a syllable. I have not found them high up,

nor were any of our specimens in breeding condition. We collected

these flycatchers in the Terai in December and February, and in the

Valley in April at 6,225 ft. A male from west Nepal in fresh plumage

is paler on the breast and larger (wing 63), than a small series from

central and eastern Nepal and Assam (wing 57.5-61.5).

Muscicapa thalassina thalassina Swainson: Verditer Flycatcher.

This delicately colored flycatcher was the commonest breeding bird

at Gokarna and Naggerjung in April. They keep much to light forest,

and present-day conditions at the Preserves seem to suit them very well.

Males and females in breeding condition were taken all through the

month.

Muscicapa hodgsoni (Moore): Pigmy Blue Flycatcher.

A single male was shot at Godaveri-on November 27. The bird

was in a dense thicket in secondary scrub in similar facies to that

selected by M. hyperythra. Wing 51. Soft parts: iris brown; bill

brown; legs bluish-gray.

Muscicapa sapphira (Tickell) : Sapphire-headed Flycatcher.

A female, rather badly mutilated, is our only record of this species,

and the second record for eastern Nepal. It was collected at Chatra in

late February in a thicket in forest. Wing 57.

Muscicapa rubeculoides rubeculoides (Vigors): Blue-throated

Flycatcher.

The Blue-throated Flycatcher was breeding in the Valley along

with the Verditer in late April in the same localities, Gokarna and

ANG JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HEIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Naggerjung. It was also collected at Bhimpedi in May. Both species

seem to enjoy the same habitat. A series measure: wing ¢ 71.5-76,

hott sepa 8:

Muscicapa olivaceus poliogenys (Brooks): Brooks’s Flycatcher.

Brooks’s Flycatcher was found at Chatra in February, a westward

extension of range into Nepal, from which it had not been previously

recorded. The series measures: wing ¢ 73,:°9 71-72.5. These birds

seem slightly paler on the throat than birds in similar plumage. from

the Khasia Hills. One female recorded as having slightly enlarged

ovaries on February 10.

Niltava grandis grandis (Blyth): Large Niltava.

Uncommon. Found only on Chandragiri Pass in May. A male

measures: wing 110.

Niltava sundara sundara Hodgson: Rufous-bellied Niltava.

Found at Rekcha and on Chandragiri in December and April. Un-

common and resident.

Niltava macgrigoriae (Burton): Small Niltava.

The Small Nitlava occurred at Godaveri where males were in breed-

ing condition the end of April. A wintering bird was taken at

Tikapur in January.

Culicicapa ceylonensis calochrysea Oberholser: Himalayan Gray-

headed Flycatcher.

The common Gray-headed Flycatcher was breeding in the Valley

in April at Gokarna and in patches of trees in the outskirts of Katmandu.

In winter we found it in the western and eastern Terai in evergreen

forest. For nomenclature of this species see Deignan (1947).

Terpsiphone paradisea leucogaster (Swainson): Himalayan Paradise

Flycatcher.

A breeding species in Katmandu, the Paradise Flycatcher arrives

usually in late March or early April. It nests commonly in bushes in

some of the larger gardens around the city. Proud (op. cit. p. 705.)

has a comprehensive description of nests observed by her.

Rhipidura hypoxantha Blyth: Yellow-bellied Fantail Flycatcher.

The little Yellow Fantail is found in the Valley in winter on

Naggerjung, and right down to the forests of the Terai in the west.

We did not collect it in the Valley in April, so that presumably it

leaves earlier. Wing ¢ 56-58, 9 54-57. Found in tall trees, in the

sub-canopy of the forest, in parkland or open woods.

Rhipidura aureola aureola Lesson: White-browed Fantail Flycatcher.

We found the White-browed Fantail only in the Terai evergreen

forests in the west, where it was associated with albicollis. Its song

is distinctive and melodic, but too short. It should go on and on but

never does.

BIRDS FROM NEPAL, 1947-1949 | 407 ~

Rhipidura albicollis albicollis (Vieillot).: White-throated Fantail

Flycatcher. Mi

Common in the western nee but now rare in, the. Valley, .,U his,

is a forest species and we did not find it except near Bhimpedi here

a young bird was collected in the first week of May. A breeding male

was taken in February at Muhlghat on the Tamur River.

PAR ED A E

Parus major nipalensis Hodgson: Nepal Gray Tit.

A common species in the Terai from west to east, and up into the

‘duns’ and lower valleys. This cheery little bird is always very notice-

able wherever it occurs, usually in light forest. Fourteen specimens

have wing measurements of 59.5-70, and the area of white on the

penultimate tail feather ranges from 22-40 mm. (aver. 31.8).

Parus monticolus Vigors: Green-backed Tit.

This hill species was seen from about 4,500 ft. along the Markhu

Valley up to 9,ooo ft. March specimens, which are in rather worn,

dull plumage, were in breeding condition. I have seen this bird in a’

variety of localities-from open scrub to fairly heavy evergreen jungle.

Males and females measure: wing 65.5-69.5.

Parus rubidiventris beavani (Blyth): Sikkim Black Tit.

A single male was taken at Mangalbaré perched in the open on’

top of a low tree, calling loudly in typical tit language. In size and

color this specimen matches topotypes from Sikkim exactly. Wing

69, tail 45, bill, from skull 12.5. Stevens (op. cit. p. 725.) had

previously recorded this Black Tit from the Nepal-Sikkim frontier.

Parus modestus modestus (Burton): Yellow-browed Tit.

The Yellow-browed Tit was found from 6,200 ft. in the Valley to.

nearly 9,o00 ft. in the Mangalbaré area. We found them in large

mixed flocks with the small Red-headed or Rufous-fronted Tits in heavy

rhododendron or evergreen jungle. The birds moved rapidly and

busily, hard as always to observe for any period of time. The yellow

eyebrow becomes much paler in worn plumage. Wing ¢ 58.5-62,

2 54-60.

Parus xanthogenys xanthogenys Vigors: Northern Yellow-cheeked

Tit.

Found throughout Nepal from west to east, from under 1,000 to

over 6,000 ft. Fhe commonest tit: of the Valley. we found these birds

breeding in February, March and April. Specimens measure: wing

6d and QQ 64-72.5.

AEgithaliscus concinnus rubricapillus Ticehurst: Sikkim Red-headed

Tit.

All Nepal birds seem to be'ong to this race. Although common

enough in the hill round the Katmandu Valley from 5-6,000 ft., it

was only once seen and collected at Rekcha, and not found -by us in

eastern Nepal, possibly because conditions at that altitude are now

AGS JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

so poor for birds due to deforestation and erosion. Soft parts: iris

yellowish-white, legs dull orange-brown, tan. Wing; 3 50-53, Q 48-51.

AEgithaliscus ioschistos (Hodgson): Rufous-fronted Tit.

; A single male was shot out of a flock in dense evergreen cover at

Mangalbaré. Soft parts: iris yellow; legs orange-brown. wing 56..

I am inclined to think that this is an eastern species which will probably

only be found east of the Arun Kosi River.

Melanochlora sultanea sultanea (Hodgson): Sultan Tit.

Observed by us only once in Nepa! at Chatra in light forest along

the river bank. A male has a wing measurement of 114.

Sact T-D.axE

Sitta himalayensis Jardine & Selby : White-tailed Nuthatch.

A single female taken at Chitré in evergreen forest has a wing

measurement of 74.

Sitta castanea cinnamoventris Blyth: Cinnamon-bellied Nuthatch.

The commonest nuthatch of the jungle-covered Terai during

winter, and at all seasons up to 6,000 ft. Males in breeding condition

were taken in April in wooded areas in the Valley. A series measure:

wing 3d and QQ 79.5-84. Soft parts: iris brown, bill black, base

of lower mandible bluish-gray, whitish-gray ; legs brown.

Sitta castanea castanea Lesson: Chestnut-bellied Nuthatch.

It was a surprise to find the plains form of castanea in the Terai

jungle within four miles of where we took the preceding race. How-

ever, cinnamoventiris is only a winter migrant into the area. Two

males from Belchola and Birganj] measure: wing 72, 73. Soft parts:

iris brown, dark brown; bill, upper mandible black, lower gray at

base; legs dark brown, dark slaty-brown.

Sitta frontalis coralina Hodgson: Velvet-fronted Nuthatch.

Common in the Nepal Valiev around Katmandu and into the hills

to 6,000 ft. Elsewhere we found it only in the wooded parts of the

Terai. The majority of birds collected were females, only four out of

thirteen specimens being males. Males and females were in breed-

ing condition in April.

CER Hale Ave

Certhia himalayana infima Ripley : Dark Himalayan Tree-creeper..

Kinnear (1937) states that the ‘Fauna’ (1922) is mistaken in assign-

ing the range Nepal to this bird. Actually it is of course a western

Himalayan species and we found it only at Tikapur and Chisapani in

the western Terai where wintering birds were collected in December

and January in forest. This is then the first valid record of the species

from Nepal, and the specimens taken proved to belong to an un-

described dark subspecies noticeably darker, more blackish. above than

h. himalayana from Simla and southern. Kashmir. These birds are

marked on the head, nape and upper back with sharply defined narrow

BIRDS FROM. NEPAL, 1947-1949 £09

streaks of buffy white, in far sharper contrast than the typical form

because of the basal color of the feathers. In addition the barring on

the tail is darker, more distinct and more blackish.

A male and two females have wing measurements of ¢ 64, Q 67,68.

Certhia familiaris mandelli Brooks : Nepal Tree-creeper.

This species was found at Mangalbaré in rhododendron forest.

Three females measure: wing 63-65. For the name see Kinnear (1935).

Soft parts: iris brown; bill, upper mandible black, lower pinkish-white ;

legs brown. I am inclined to think this is an eastern form, found in

Nepa! only as far west as the Arun Kosi.

Certhia discolor discolor Blyth: Sikkim Tree-creeper.

Three females were collected at Godaveri in open forest where it

apparently winters, as it had not been found there in spring. This

is probably the species seen by Proud (op. cit. P. zor.) on Sheopuri

and Phulchok. These birds measure: wing 66-68, culmen 15-16.

Certhia nipalensis Blyth: Blyth’s Tree-creeper.

A single female of this species (formerly called stoliczkae), was taken

at Mangalbaré in dense rhododendron forest. Wang 69.5, tail 71.5,

culmen 12.4. Soft parts: iris brown; bill,, upper mandible black,

lower pinkish-white: legs brown. The species has not been recorded

from Nepal except for a single Hodgson specimen cited by Kinnear

(op. cit. 1937). I imagine it is an eastern bird found only ag far

west as the Arun Kosi.

Tichodroma muraria (Linnaeus): Wall-creeper.

A single bird was observed on an open rock cliff at 6,500 ft. in

east Nepal in February.

DircaELDAE

Dicaeum ignipectus ignipectus Blyth: Fire-breasted Flowerpecker.

This flowerpecker was found from 6-9,o00 ft. Males in breeding -

condition were collected in February and April. One male was caught

in a bird net in a clearing in cut-over scrub. Soft parts: iris brown;

bill black, base of lower mandible whitish (3), orange-flesh (Q); legs

dark brown, black.

Dicaeum concolor olivaceum Walden: Plain-colored Flowerpecker.

Found in the Valley, breeding in mid-April on Naggerjung. These

birds measure: wing ¢ 45.5-48.5, .9 45. Perhaps the reason for

our collecting only one female is the chance that they call less frequently..

Dicaeum erythrorhynchum erythrorhynchum (Latham): Tickell’s

Flowerpecker. 3

A flowerpecker of the Terai found in west and central Nepal,

mostly in open scrub, often near cultivation. A breeding male was

collected in January at Tikapur. Bo

410: JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Dicaeum agile agile Tickell: Thick-billed Flowerpecker.

A bird of. the Terai and ‘duns’, found commonly in east Nepal sap:

to 2,500 ft. in flowering bushes in open scrub. Wing ¢ 64, 9 58-60.)

NRTA RILIN@H DIATE

Anthreptes singalensis assamensis Kloss: Indian Ruby-cheek. _

A single male Ruby-cheek taken at Chatra is a westward extension.

into Nepal for this species. _Wing 55.5, culmen 14. Soft parts: iris:

red; legs greenish-gray.

Nectarinia asiatica asiatica (Latham): Indian Purple Sunbird.

Birds of this species were taken in the ‘duns’ at Bhimpedi and on

the Tamur River at from 1,200-4,500 ft. Breeding’ males were collect-

ed in February and May.

AEthopyga nipalensis nipalensis (Hodgson): Nepal Yellow-backed —

Sunbird.

Yeliow-backed Sunbirds were shot at Rekcha and near Chandra-

girt Pass. These specimens measure: wing 6, 53 (2), 54,°Q. 49°51 3°

culmen ¢ 18-20, Q 17-18. These birds are found in thick bushes on

ihe forest..edge.

AEthopyga nipalensis koelzi Ripiey : Koelz’s Yellow-backed Sunbird. -

Birds from Mangalbaré are larger, wing ¢ 54-55.5. culmen ¢ 20>.

21.5, than spcimens from farther west. As I remarked in my descrip-,

tion of this race (1948a) in the case of Sikkim birds, they are somewhat

intermediate in size, but should be put in with Assam specimens. In_

addition, these Manga'baré males are richly streaked with scarlet on

the breast, a condition which my Mishmi birds showed, but which I

hesitated to use as a character for the subspecies. In series however,

this character shows up well, serving to distinguish east Nepal birds —

at a glance from those from central and western Nepal.

AEthopyga saturata saturata (Hodgson): Black-breasted Sunbird.

A single female was collected at Gokarna. It measures: wing 49,

culmen 19.

AEthopyga siparaja seheriae ‘(Tickel]): = Indian Scarlet-backed °

Sunbird.

The Scarlet-backed Sunbird was collected in western and central ’

Nepal from the Terai up to 6,o00 ft. on Naggerjung. Birds were °

evidently breeding in March and April and specimens with head moult,

were taken in April. A series have measurements as follows: wing’

3*°56-58, "9 50:5, 5355 ‘culmen '19.5-20.5, 9 18 (2):

AEthopyga ignicauda ignicauda (Hodgson): Fire-tailed Yellow-backeds

Sunbird.

The Fire-tatled Sunbird was collected on a ridge at Powah: above’

Dhankuta at 5,000 ft., at Chitré and on Chandragiri Pass. All of the

males ‘are in. eclipse. p'tumage, and all’ are in various stages of moult

in January and February. Males measure: wing 57-58, ‘2. 53-54:

culmen ¢ ¢ and 99 18-19.

* BIRDS FROM (NEPAL, 71942-89493 SCAR GOS AT be.

£30 Sy. EXRUGWP! 1 Dik E

Zosterops palpebrosa palpebrosa (Temminck) : Indian White-eye.

Syn: Zosterops palpebrosa occidentalis TVicehurst

Zosterops palpebrosa elwesi Baker |

A large series of males and females from Nepal have wing measure-

ments of 51-56. Ticehurst (1927) redescribed the northern Indian

\White-eye in an extraordinarily offhand way. Earlier Baker (1922)

had revised some of the Oriental Zosteropidae, restricting the type

locality of Zosterops palpebrosa palpebrosa to Orissa. He then sepa-

rated the northern and western Indian population as elwesi on the basis

of brighter yellower upper parts, paler- under parts, and smaller size.

His type locality was given as Sikkim. Ticehurst (op. cit.) revised

this range to exclude Sikkim, and renamed the population, noting that

it is larger not smaller than typical palpebrosa, but otherwise is paler

and more yellow as Baker had pointed out.

Fortunately all these birds appear similar above and below, there

being a certain amount of individual variation in the shade of greenish-

yellow or yellowish-green, particularly on the upper parts. I would,

therefore, include them all with palpebrosa, thus agreeing with

Stresemann (1939). It is perhaps inappropriate to comment on the

above nomenclatorial whirligig, but I can hardly refrain from dubbing

Ticehurst’s act irresponsible. It is quite clear from Baker’s paper

what he was trying to get at, and it is also fairly apparent from the

material when Nepal specimens are included, as they should have been

by Ticehurst, that Sikkim birds fit in with those from farther west.

As for measurements, they show little difference between the two-

populations. For p. palpebrosa we have: wing ¢ d and 9,9 49-57

mm. (Baker’s, Ticehurst’s and mine), and for ‘elwesi’ (including

‘occidentalis’) g 3d and @:9 49-59 mm. (Baker’s, Ticehurst’s | and.’

mine).

ERNE LL Lb DeA-E

Carduelis spinoides spinoides Vigors : Himalayan Greenftinch.

Two females of the Greenfinch were shot in the Valley in April and

May..-They measure: wing 77, 78, and are in rather worn plumage,

although the May bird is half moulted.

Leucosticte nemoricola nemoricola (Hodgson): Hodgson’s Mountain

Finch.

Two males collected at Tinjuré and Mangalbaré measure: wing

101.5, 103.5. Two. females have wing measurements of 94 and gg.

Soft parts: iris light brown; bill brown, brownish-yellow at. base ;

legs brown.

Carpodacus erythrinus roseatus (Hodgson) : Common Indian

Rose-= .

finch.

A male collected at Rekcha January 1 has been identified for me:

by Dr, Vaurie as belonging to this race. For comments on_ this

species, see Vaurie (194g). In Rekcha, females were present in large

flocks on our arrival in December. They were most'y feeding on weed

Ad2. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 49

‘seeds on open scrub hillsides. Males did not appear until January 1

when I shot two birds out of a small group of males in one tree. One

of these birds was the specimen mentioned above. Wing 86.5.

‘Carpodacus erythrinus Kubanensis Laubmann : Caucasian Rose-

finch.

The other male shot out of the same tree at Rekcha as the preced-

ing subspecies has been tentatively identified as belonging to this race

by Vaurie. |

‘Carpodacus erythrinus erythrinus (Pallas): Russian Rosefinch.

The females taken by me at Rekcha and in the Valley have been

identified by Vaurie as being of the erythrinus type, and certainly not

voseatus. The above birds actually lie somewhere near those described

in his paper (op. cit., p. 44) as ‘erythrinus subspecies’. The

occurrence of these three forms all together and even arriving together

and perching in the same tree, highlights the complex situation with

these Rosefinches, and the depth of our ignorance about the question

of the actual breeding populations of the higher central Himalayas.

‘Carpodacus nipalensis nipalensis (Hodgson): Nepal Dark Rosefinch.

Dr. Vaurie has kindly examined my specimens of this species and

finds that a male from Godaveri taken in December seems to be true

nipalensis, whereas a pair of birds taken at Mangalbaré in January are

intermediate between kangrae and intensicolor, as indeed they .should

be if all three races are to be recognized.

Carpodacus thura thura Bonvalot & Schlegel: Nepal White-browed

Rosefinch.

A pair from Tinjuré measure: wing 85 (2). Soft parts: iris brown ;

bill blackish-horn; legs brown.

Pyrrhula erythrocephala Vigors : Red-headed Builfinch.

-. One or two family groups of this Bullfinch were seen at Mangalbaré

in clearings in primary rhododendron forest. They were shy, flying

up into the trees with a flash of the white rump and a few subdued

tinkling calls, usually well out of gunshot. Two males measure: wing

79, 81.5; tail 64, 64.5. Soft parts: iris dark brown; legs brown.

Propyrrhula subhimachala subhimachala (Hodgson): Red-headed

Rosefinch.

A female was taken at g,ooo ft. at Tinjuré in pine forest (Abies).

Wing 97.5, tail 75, ‘culmen 14..° These ‘finches were all “exceedingly:

shy and elusive.

Melophus lathami (Gray): Crested Bunting.

_ Specimens were collected from 3,800-5,000 ft. throughout Nepal.

The species appeared to be breeding at Bhimpedi in May.

BIRDS FROM NEPAL, 1947-1949 413

PLOCEIDAE

Passer domesticus parkini Whistler : House Sparrow.

Common in the Valley. Breeding in April.

Passer montanus malaccensis Dubois : Tree-sparrow.

Common at Thankote and Gokarna.

Lonchura striata acuticauda (Hodgson) : Hodgson’s Munia.

A single male coming into breeding condition was collected at

Naggerjung. Soft parts: iris reddish-brown; bill upper mandible

black, lower bluish-gray; legs dark gray. Wing 54.

Lonchura punctulata lineoventer (Hodgson) : Spotted Munia.

A male was moulting April 30. A fairly common species in the

Terai and the Valley about grain fields.

Sor UR NIDAE

Gracula religiosa intermedia Hay: Indian Hill Myna.

Taken by us only in the original Terai forest and foothills near

Chatra. Birds were coming into breeding condition in late February

and March, and the very large flocks which were characteristic of

winter, were beginning to break up.

Sturnus malabaricus malabaricus (Gmelin) ; Gray-headed Myna.

A breeding bird of the Valley, where we collected specimens with

enlarged gonads at Gokarna in late April. Soft parts: iris white;

bill greenish-yellow, base bluish-gray ; legs dull fleshy-brown.

Sturnus contra contra Linnaeus: Indian Pied Myna.

Common throughout the Terai in gardens and near cultivation.

Acridotheres tristis tristis Liniaeus : Common Myna.

Collected in the Valley and at Rekcha. Seen also throughout Nepal

up to 6,ooo ft. near cultivation. Soft parts: iris light brown or gray,

spotted with white; bill vellow, skin of cheeks orange yellow; legs

yellow. A male was assuming breeding condition in mid-April.

Acridotheres grandis fuscus (Wagler) : Northern Jungle Myna.

Associated with the Common Myna in the Valley. Soft parts:

iris yellow; bill, upper mandible yellowish-orange, lower yellowish-

orange distally, black basally; legs yellow-ochre.

DIcRURIDWNE

Dicrurus macrocercus albirictus (Hodgson) : King Crow.

‘The King Crow was the common drongo of the open Terai near

cultivation, and in the Valley in the open fields. An immature specimen

was taken at 4,000 ft. on the edge of a paddyfield February 9 in

east Nepal. Wing ad. ¢ 154, Q@ 145-148.5. These measurements

414 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

are slightly smaller than those given in Dr. Vaurie’s comprehensive

work on this family (1949).

Dicrurus leucophaeus beavani Vaurie : Himalayan Ashy Drongo.

The second most common drongo of the Valley, found in the light.

pine woods and scrub at Naggerjung, Thankote, Gokarna and around:

Katmandu. Males in breeding condition were taken in April.

Wing ¢ 139-140, Q 130-140.5 (one_ 150).

Dicrurus caerulescens caerulescens (Linnaeus): White-beltied Drongo.

This species was faken only in Terai forest at Tikapur and Chisapani. |

It seems to be uncommon, perhaps because of the disappearance of

the forests. ,-Measurements: wing ¢ ,126:5, 0) (= 93) 2):

Dicrurus aeneus aeneus Vieillot : Bronze Drongo.

Another forest drongo found in the Terai and up to 4,000 ft., but:

rather uncommon. <A female from Chisapani has a wing measurement of

128. Iris reddish-brown.

Dicrurus hottentotus chrishna (Gould): Himalayan Spangled Drongo. ©

A forest-haunting species found in the Terai near the edge of the

foothills. It will undoubtedly suffer from the restriction of range as |

the forest continues to disappear.

Dicrurus paradiseus grandis (Gould) : Greater Racket-tailed Drongo.

The Greater Racket-tailed Drongo occurred throughout the Tera:

in the remaining belt of forest. Its habitat is similar to the preced-

ing species. Measurements: wing ¢ 164.5, 168.5, 9 159; bill length °

(from anterior end of nostril) ¢ 24, 25, Q 23. These measurements —

are smaller than those given for grandis by Vaurie (op. cit. p. 329),

but must presumably be included in that form. The separation of the

races grandis and rangoonensis while unsatisfactory from a systematic

point of view, affords a fine example of a continuous cline.

Oriolus xanthornus xanthornus (Linnaeus) : Black-headed Oriole.

Common in the Nepal Terai in areas of mixed open scrub ana

cultivation. These birds were breeding in March.

Oriolus trailli (Vigors): Maroon Oriole.

‘Seen in the ‘duns’ and the foothills in west and east Nepal ~ but

not collected. ;

‘GORWVT DAE

Corvus macrorhynchos intermedius Adams: Himalayan Jungle Crow. |

Jungle Crows were seen in the Terai commonly after reaching the

forest belt, and from there were locally common on up to the highest .

elevations. They were active scavengers in the neighborhood of camps.

in the forest, performing in this respect a useful function.

BIRDS FROM NEPAL, 1947-1949 _ \ | 415

. Specimens taken measure: wing. 3 314, 350, Q 299; taild Igo,

-228, 9 181; culmen ¢ 62, 58 (bird with wing of 350). 9 55.

Corvus splendens splendens Vieillot : Indian House Crow:

A female was shot at Thankote. This species is now very common

throughout the open areas of the Valley at least to 5,000 {t. With

the decline of the forests it will presumably work higher. Otherwise,

the House Crow was found only in cultivated parts of the Terai and

-rarely up into the ‘duns’.

Kitta erythrorhyncha occipitalis (Blyth): Red-billed B'ue Magpie.

Common in woodland in the Valley above 5,000. ft. and seen also

commonly at Rekcha, this species was missed by us in east Nepal,

possibly due to the lack of suitable habitat. This magpie has. several

distinctive calls, and of course is very noticeable in flight as it un-

dulates slowly from one hill-side to another. Wing <¢ 193.5-197.5.

Males were collected with enlarged gonads at Naggerjung in mid-

April.

Kitta flavirostris flavirostris (Blyth): Yellow-billed Blue Magpie.

This higher altitude species was common about 8,ooo ft. and up

in eastern Nepal. Although fugitive, the colors show that this is

typical flavirostris, whose presence is thus confirmed east of the Arun

Kosi River.

This magpie makes a variety of calls consisting of whistles, one

rather muted double-syllable note being characteristic and reminiscent

of the Crested Serpent Eagle. In contrast to Stevens (op. cit. p. 514)

we did not find these birds tame, quite the contrary. They were usually

decidedly wary and secretive, keeping a tree between themselves and

the intruder. Wing ¢ 185-190, 9 178.

Kitta chinensis chinensis (Boddaert): Green Magpie.

The Green Magpie was found in west Nepal be'ow 1,000 ft. along

the Karnali River in evergreen forest. No signs of breeding were

observed in December.

Crypsirina vagabunda vagabunda (Latham): Bengal Tree-pie.

Nepal birds seem intermediate compared to topotypical vagabunda

and pallida. They are close to vagabunda in colour but large. <A pair

measure: wing 6 162, 9 154. Soft parts: iris (¢) dull reddish-

brown, (2) brown; bill black, base of lower mandible slaty-gray ;

legs (3) grayish-black, (Q) brown.

A rather shy retiring species of open areas, found south of the

forest in the Terai.

Crypsirina formosae himalayensis (Blyth) : Himalayan Tree-pie,

Birds from the Katmandu Valley measure: wing ¢ 143.5, 144,

@ 139, 141, thereby fitting in to himalayensis vide Ticehurst (1925).

They also agree with fresh material from the Khasia Hills. Birds

were coming into breeding condition in March, and had fully develop-

ed gonads in April.

416 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

I watched a party of a dozen tree-pies courting at Naggerjung,.

tiying from one tree to another, choosing large thick trees isolated from

neighboring ones. They called incessantly, a series of raucous notes.

Garrulus lanceolatus Vigors: Black-throated Jay.

These jays were found from 5-6,o00 ft. in deciduous scrub at

Rekcha and on Naggerjung. At the former place the birds had con-

siderable dried reddish mud on their feet, probably from scratching at

the single available water supply, a small muddy pool. A male

collected on Naggerjung in late April was coming into breeding con-

dition and has an usually large wing measurement of 163 mm. The

tail measure 160, the culmen 24.

Garrulus glandarius bispecularis Vigors : Himalayan Jay.

A single male of this wide-spread jay was taken on Naggerjung

in April. It has a wing measurement of 161. In color it would

appear to fit best into the western race.

Nucifraga caryocatactes hemispila Vigors: Himalayan Nutcracker.

The harsh kraa of the nutcracker was a familiar sound at

Mangalbaré from 8,500 ft. up. It seemed to prefer to sit on the tip

cei a tall rhododendron or Silver-fir, sometimes flicking its tail to show

the white rectrices. Two males were in breeding condition in

February. Wing: o 218, 222, 9 20725:

LITERATURE CITED

Ali, Salim (1933-34): The Hyderabad State Ornithological Survey. With

Notes by Hugh Whistler. Jour. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. 36-37, in parts.

ane: and Ripley, S. Dillon (1948) : The Birds of the Mishmi Hills. Ibid.,

ol Gh eae a

Baker, E. C. Stuart (1922): A Note on some Oriental Zosteropidae, and des-

criptions of new Subspecies. /6zs: 142-147.

————— (1922-1930): The Fauna of British India, Birds (2nd Ed.).

--—-—-— (1922-1935): The Nidification of Birds of the Indian Empire.

Deignan, H. G. (1946): The Races of the Scarlet Minivet [Pericrocotus flam—

meus (Forster)}. Auk, 63: 511.

(1947): The Races of the Gray-headed Flycatcher (Culicicipa ceylo-

mensis Swainson). Auk, 64: 581,

———-— (1949): Races of Pycnonofus cafer (Linnaeus) and P. aurigaster

{Vieillot) in the Indo-Chinese Subregion. Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci. 39,

(8): 273-4.

Delacour: (1942): The Whistling Thrushes (Genus Wyiophoneus). Auk,

59: 256.

— ——— (1943): A Revisicr. of the Genera and Species of the Family Pycnono-

tidae (Bulbuls). Zoologica, 28, (4): 21.

(=== (1947) : Les Timaliines. ZL’ Ozseau et la Revue Francaise d’Ornitho-

logie XVI: 23.

Gould, J. (1832): A Century of Birds from the Himalayan Mountains. Pl. 55.

Gray, J. E. (1846): Catalogue of Mammals and Birds of Nepal. Pp. 66, 15?,

Hartert, E. (1891): Kat. Voégel Senckenb. Mus. p. 21.

Hodgson, BH. (1836): Eight new species of Cinclosoma. Asiatic Researches,

19; 145

———— (1837): Jour. As. Soc. Bengal 6 : 105.

Kinnear, N. B (1935): Correct names for the Indian Tree-Creepers. Jdzs:

664.

——-—— (1939): On three new Races of Himalayan and Tibetan Birds. /dzs :.

7o1,

BIRDS FROM NEPAL, 1947-1949 417°

Ludlow, F., and Kinnear, N. B. (1937): The Birds cf Bhutan and adjacent

‘Territories of Sikkim and Tibet. /6is : 251.

——-—-— (1944): The Birds of South-eastern Tibet. /6zs: 178. With notes.

by N. B. Kinnear.

Mayr, E. (1938): The Birds of the Vernay-Hopwood Chindwin Expedition.

Lois: 305-308.

———— (1940): FPericrocotus brevirostris and its Double. J/é7s: 712.

-———-— 1949, Geographical Variation in Accipiter trivirgatus. Am. Mus.

Novitates, No. 1415, April 12, p. 9.

Peters, J, L. (1937): Check-list of Birds of the World III, p. 246.

Proud, Mrs. D. (1949): Some Notes on the Birds of the Nepal Valley. Jour.

Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. 48 (4) 700.

Ripley, S. Dillon (1945) : Comments on Ceylon Birds. Solita Zeylanica 24;

————-, (1948 a) New Birds from the Mishmi Hills. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washing-

ton, 61 (June 16): 106.

————,, (1948b): Notes on Indian Birds I. The races of Anthus hodgsont.

Jour. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. 47 (4) 622-626.

————,, (1948 c): Notes on Indian Birds II. The Species Glaucidiusm

cuculotdes. Zoclogica 33: 4 (December 31) 199-202. .

—— ——, (1950) : New Birds from Nepai and the Indian Region. Proc. Btol..

Soe. Wash. 63: 101-108.

Scully, J. (1879): A contribution to the Ornithology of Nepal. Stray Feathers.

VIII: 319.

Sharpe, R. B. (1883): Catalogue of the Birds in the British Museum VII.

Smythies, B. E. (1948) : Some Birds of the Gandak-Kosi Watershed including

the Pilgrim Trail to the Sacred Lake of Gosainkund. Jour. Bomb. Nit,

Hist. Soc. 47: (3) 432-443.

Stanford, J. K. (1941): The Vernay-Cutting Expedition to Northern Burma.

Lois: 92.

Stevens, Herbert (1923) : Notes on the Birds of the Sikkim Himalayas. Jour.

Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc, 29 (2) 503-518; (3): 723-740.

Stresemann, E. (1939): Zosterops siamensis Blyth—eine gelbbaduchige Rasse

von Zosterops palpebrosa. Jour. fiir Orn. 87 (1) : 156-164.

Ticehurst. C. B. (1925): Descriptionof Himalayan Birds. Aull. Brit. Orn.

Club. 46: 22.

/————., (1926): Ibid., 46:113.

———--, (1927) : ‘The Races of the Indian White-eye (Zosterops palpebrosa

palpebrosa). IAbid., 47: 88.

———-, (193s) A systematic Review of the Genus Phylloscopus, London, Brit. |

Mus. (Nat. Hist.).

————.,, and Whistler, (1924): On the Type-locality of Certain Birds des-

cribed by Vigors. 62s: 472.

Vaurie, C. L. (1949 a): A Revision of the bird family Dicruridae. Bull, Am.

Mus. Nat. Hist. 93 (4) : 237.

——., (1949 b): Notes on some Asiatic Finches. Am. Mus. Novtt.,

No. 1424, July 31.

JUNGLE MEMORIES

s BY

Lr.-CoL. E. G,..PHYTHIAN-ADAMS, O.B.E., F.Z.S., I.A. (Retd.)

Part VII—WILp Goats AND SHEEP |

(With two plates)

(Continued from p. 150 of this volume)

SE R.0.W.AND; GO RAL

The serow is one of the rarest of India’s game animals, and yet,

with beginner’s luck, a serow was the first big. game which I en-

countered, That was in 1904, not long after I had joined the South

Wales Borderers, then stationed at the pleasant hill-station of Dalhousie.

There were so many of us subalterns that one’s tour of duty for church

parade did not often recur, so whenever possible I used to slip away

on Saturday afternoon, and spend Sunday looking for black bear and

goral. A favourite spot of mine was Kajiar, some 8 miles or so

from Dalhousie, where there was a dak bungalow picturesquely situated

in a cup of the hills alongside a small lake. On one of my first visits we

were wandering quietly through the jungle, when the shikari suddenly

thrust the rifle into my hands, and trembling with excitement, stammered

‘Serow’, with the usual injunction to maro. A coarse looking blackish

animal about the size of a donkey was staring at us within easy range,

but what it was I had not the vaguest idea. I could see that it had

short horns, but did not recognise it as a game animal, so hesitated

to fire, and the serow gave a whistling snort and bolted. Bitter were

the reproaches of my shikari, and equally bitter were my regrets when

I related the affair to a brother officer and learnt what a prize I had lost.

My next experience with these animals was not till 16 years later,

when I was stationed at Meiktila in Burma, and often used to run up

the Kalaw ghat for a Sunday shoot. Pyinyaung, some 30 miles out

was a favourite locality. The dak bungalow was sited high above

the river, so was cool even in the hottest weather, and there was a

glorious view extending over many miles of forest. The river afforded

excellent sport with Barilius bola (Indian trout), a fish as good to

eat as he is to catch—I see from my diary that one morning I took

42 on the fly—and it was a good centre for small game. Close at hand

were numerous junglefowl as well as peafowl and a few silver pheasants,

which gave us quite good bags once I had discovered how best to

put the birds over the guns. Luckily I could speak Burmese pretty

well so soon got on friendly terms with the thugyee (headman) of the

neighbouring village of Nampandet, who used to provide the beaters,

and with them always came his son, a nice youngster of about 15

and a keen sportsman. Not long before this lad had found a panther

killing one of his father’s cows and had wounded it with his old muzzle-

loader. The animal charged and got him down, but he finished ‘it off

with his knife, being rather badly clawed in the process; he gave me

JUNGLE MEMORIES 419

the knife which I still have, and accepted a cigarette lighter in return.

He also showed me the skull of a serow which he had shot, and informed

me that they were to be found in the hills close by. I was pleasantly

surprised as I had no idea that there were any in that area, and took

the earliest opportunity to try for them. It proved rough going along

the precipitous hill-sides, and the serow were far too wideawake to

offer the chance of a fair shot. I did see two, but they were out of

sight before I could raise my rifle. I talked matters over with the

ihugyee and arranged that since still-hunting had failed, we would

try our luck with a beat the following week-end. [Fortunately no un-

toward incident occurred in the P.O.W. camp where at the time [|

had custody of 5,000 Turks, and on the appointed date I arrived at

the rendezvous to find the beaters ready. By previous arrangement a

number of them had brought their old muzzle-loading guns, since we

were pretty sure to put up other game in addition to the hoped for

serow, and two guns could not possibly cover all the ground. Most

of the weapons were museum pieces and were of course already loaded,

with a piece of cotton waste between hammer and cap to lessen the

risk of accidental discharge. They were carried pointing in all

directions, and I remember how amused the thugyee’s son was at the

way I dodged them! I must confess that I was considerably relieved

when at last we moved off to our respective posts.

In due. course the beat started, and not long after I heard the

most extraordinary noise from a ridge on my right front; rather like

a creaking bray, but with a metallic sound. I looked through my

glasses and saw a serow indulging in his unique alarm call. He was

some 400 yards away, and so of course far out of shot, and anyhow,

I hoped that he would break down-hill, as these animals generally

do, and pass close to where I was stationed. But our luck was out,

as none of us saw anything more of the animal, and to cut a long

story short, that was the last serow I have seen or am likely to see

now. And so my memories of this uncouth but interesting animal

are confined to those I have seen, and not to those I have shot. But

I can look back on my lack of success without regret, remembering

the happy days I spent in those jungles and the good friends I made.

Of oral also. have, little:to, record: except, that, one ,fell.. frst

victim to my rifle. That was beyond Kayjiar, not far from where I

met my first serow. We were going along the bridle path early

one morning, when my shikari pointed out a herd on the grassy hill-

side not far above us. I was making no mistake this time, so fired

quickly at the largest, and a lucky bullet through the neck brought

the buck rolling down almost to our feet. It was not a good head,

but I treasure it as my first big game trophy, and have it still, or

what remains of it after so many years, for the points are broken

off and it has sutfered from beetles also.

I went out from Dalhousie on a number of occasions afterwards,

but never got another chance. Either a puff of wind gave us away,

or, as more often happened, the clouds came down and obscured our

view during the final stages of the stalk. Nor did I have any better

luck with the Burmese goral which I tried for more than once on

the Sinlum Kaba hills above Bhamo years afterwards. From their

tracks and droppings they seemed few in number, and I do not re-

420. JOURNAL, BOMBAY -_NATURAL.HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

member even seeing one. I should have liked a specimen, if only

for. comparison with the Himalayan variety. we :

[0'O BLA AND=S ION QB EX

While stationed at KKarachi in’ 1905, I heard that oorial (localiy

known as gudd), were to be found in the hills across the Sind border,

in what was then unadministered Baluchistan, Fortunately my C.O.

was all in favour of his officers going out shooting. He considered,

quite rightly, that shikar taught selt-reliance and an eye for country,

so I had no difficulty in getting 10 days leave. For some months I

had employed a shikari with his riding camel for small game shooting,

and to him I left all arrangements regarding route and destination.

I was very young and inexperienced but tremendously keen, and it

was with feelings of the keenest anticipation that I prepared for this,

my first shikar trip.

It was May and about the hottest time of the year, so it was decided

that as much as possible of our first long march should be done during

the hours of darkness, to avoid the heat of the day. Accordingly we

left cantonments with our four camels at 2.30 p-m. and, with short

halts, trekked all through the night, arriving at the site of our first

camp- at 6.30 a.m. next morning. In all-we had covered about 60

miles, and the going was quite good till we reached the hills.

Occasionally my mount would stumble, and to this day I remember

the shikari’s muttered objurgation ‘Be-iman’ (faithless one) and the

thwack of his cane against its neck. Only at one place did we en-

counter much difficutly, and that was in negotiating a passage between

towering walls ot rock, stark in the moonlight and so narrow that

there was scarcely room for a single animal to pass. Here we had

to dismount and coax the protesting camels one by one over the

boulders which formed the path. It was a long trek and at times

[I found it hard to keep from falling asleep in the swaying saddlie.

We were all glad to reach our camping ground, and while the local

trackers were being summoned by smoke signals, I had time to look

about me. To the east was the precipitous range through which we

had passed overnight while around was an extraordinary jumbled

mass of ridges, ravines and sandhills, bare except for some scattered

thorn and cactus bushes. A more inhospitable country-side it would

be hard to imagine. It was through this desert that Alexander the

Great led his army on his withdrawal from India in 325 B.C, I

could appreciate the difficulties which his troops encountered.

Students of history will remember Arrian’s description of that march:

how the blazing heat and scarcity of water destroyed thousands, and

how the soldiers were obliged to burn or discard the greater portion

of the rich spoils they had collected in India. The scarcity of water

affected us also throughout the trip. My diary records that the water-

hole at our first camp was only a foot square and three feet deep.

It filled very slowly and even after filtering and boiling the water

had a foul taste. It was in fact with difficulty that we obtained

sufficient at any camp to drink, and of course baths were out of the

question.

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc.

Photos Author

Camp in gudd country

JUNGLE MEMORIES : . 427

Meanwhile the local trackers had arrived—as was the custom we

had brought food and tobacco for them during their stay in camp—-

and over a smoke we discussed prospects of sport. I found that the

usual procedure was to send out men in pairs in different directions

at dawn, while I was to proceed to a centrally situated and pre-

arranged spot and there await reports. In such a huge area of broken

country and with limited time at one’s disposal, this is the only method

likely to produce results, but when information takes long to come

in, the tedium of waiting becomes very trying, situated as one almost

invariably is on a bare rocky hill-side in the blazing sun without

shade of any description. However on this trip gudd were numerous,

though I found them extraordinarily difficult to pick up against the

drab-coloured background. Shifting currents of wind and wideawake

ewes also spoilt more than one stalk, and even when I did manage

to get within shot it proved far from easy to pick out the largest head.

Owing to the intense heat, my rifle was shooting high, and I missed

several chances before I discovered the cause; but I did succeed :n

bagging two rams with sizable horns, though the heads were not

destined to remain long in my possession, being lost during my transter

to the Indian Army soon after. However, poor as the actual results

were, this initiation in shikar taught me a lot, not only as regards the

pursuit of game, but all that is comprised in that admirable word

bandobust, without which no trip can be a success. Looking back now,

I am surprised that I made so few mistakes, but in those days.

youngsters were taught to be enterprising, and to find out things for

themselves. In spite of the appalling heat and the difficulty about

water, I have very pleasant memories of that trip, and no regrets.

Service in other parts of India, Burma and Mesopotamia then in-

tervened, and my next visit to Karachi was not till 1918, -when I

arrived in command of an Indian battalion just formed at Basra.

It was one of the 150’s whose cryptic numbering kept the Turkish

Intelligence guessing for some time as to how a complete new Division

had materialised overnight apparently out of the blue; but that is

another story. Our stay in India was intended to be short but the

Armistice intervened, and having had little respite during the war, I

had no difficulty in obtaining 10 days leave. I was warned that gudd

had been shot out in the area which I had visited 13 years before,

but hoped that by going further afield I should be able to find some

sizable heads, and with luck might get a Sind ibex also. My old

shikari, Pinnaya, had rejoined me, and to him I left all arrangements

for transport. This time we had 10 camels, as one of. my officers

accompanied me, and according to custom we took with us a good

supply of food and tobacco for the local trackers. Car to Maggar

Pir and thence by camel brought us to the rest house near the bank

of the -Habb river where we stayed the first night. It was here that

an amusing incident had occurred. not long before. A couple of

officers had been fishing in the river close by, and returning laie,

had left one of the dead baits still mounted with the rod standing

in a corner of the room. During the night a wild cat entered and

took the bait. It was well and truly hooked, and bolted out into the

compound running out most of the line before it broke free. The

screech of the reel and the cat rushing madly round the room in pitch

422 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

darkness caused no little ‘alarm and despondency’ until the real cause

was ascertained. However our night was undisturbed, and a long

trek next day brought us to our first camp which was situated consider-

ably north of the ground which I had worked before. The terrain

also was different. Here there were no dunes of shifting sand, and

the hills were much higher, rising in preceipitous cliffs of some 2,000 ft.

The plain around was covered with thorny bushes and grass, afford-

ing cover to hares, partridges, and sandgrouse, with an occasional

Houbara bustard. These gave good sport on off-days, and a near-

by jheel (there was no shortage of water at that season—winter)

provided some excellent duck shooting. The local trackers had never

before seen birds shot on the wing, and were immensely struck with

the idea; every bird shot was immediately hallaled even though it was

stone dead! Shikar comes naturally to these men who are a very

stout-hearted lot. Not long before our arrival a panther had been

causing considerable damage to their flocks. Six of the men tracked

the beast to its lair, and having no firearms, literally hurled themselves

upon it, holding it down till it was stabbed to death. That was the

story they told and I saw no reason to doubt it. Several of the men

had been badly clawed, as the scars showed, and the panther’s skin

was badly damaged by sword cuts and knife holes; the wonder was

that no one was fatally injured.

Owing to the great extent of ground to be covered, we found it

necessary to adopt the usual procedure of sending men out in advance

in different directions. Compared with my previous trip, gudd were

few and far between, and as often as not, no shootable rams were

sighted. One day’s sport only need be recorded which was not only

the best, but also typical of this form of shikar. On that particular

day I went out alone, as my companion was confined to camp with a

badly blistered heel, Starting at dawn I rode along the base of the

hills for about 4 miles; then, after sending the camels back, climbed

some 1,500 ft. to the top of the cliffs, and took up my position at a

pre-arranged spot. I had not long to wait before a message arrived,

and an hour later joined the tracker who had remained on watch.

Through my glasses I could see the gudd at the head of a small

valley about 1,200 yards away, and since they were all rams, it was

pretty certain that there would be at least one good head. The

difficulty was to get within range. In front and to the right the

ground sloped gently down in full view of the herd, and the only

possible line of approach was along and just below the crest of the

cliff on our left. Seldom have I had to work over worse ground;

the rock was of friable limestone, and the narrow ledges along which

we had to pass more often than not sloped outwards, with a sheer drop

to the plains far below. It was anything but pleasant, but at last

I reached a point 100 yards from the gudd and slightly above them.

They had become suspicious and uneasy, so I had to take quick action.

There was not much to choose between the heads, but the horns of

one curved round in complete circles till they touched the neck on

either side below the ears. I fired and knocked him over, and then

as they bolted, killed the next best, whose horns were of the open

type. Though not so large as the oorial of the Salt Range and the

Himalayas, and lacking the white ruff, both were good heads for that

JUNGLE MEMORIES 425

locality ; in fact I saw none better during my shoot, and was well

enough contented with those I had bagged.

Hearing that Sind ibex were to be found some way further north,

next day we moved camp, and that same afternoon I had my first

view of these grand wild goats. A herd of about 20 had been feed-

ing on the steep slope at the foot of the cliffs, and something had.

alarmed them. It was an amazing sight to see them go up and across.

that towering precipice of bare rock which seemed to offer no foot-

hold at all. We were some 600 yards away, and through my glasses.

I had a fine view as they went diagonally up and up without the leas*

hesitation, only occasionally pausing to balance on some small knob.

of rock; it was to me an eye-opener. The leader of the herd was

snow-white, and I made up my mind to bag him and no other. Three

days were spent in fruitless pursuit, for try as I might, I could not

get within shot of him. At last, as my leave was drawing to a close,

I was forced to resort to desperate tactics. Arrangements were made

to drive the herd in my direction by men rolling stones down from

above the cliff, while I crouched behind a rock at the top of the escarp-

ment below. ‘The plan worked. Several does and kids passed almost

within touching distance, coming steadily on until they got our wind

when of course they bolted. Fortunately the old buck was not un-

duly alarmed. Though obviously uneasy, he came along preceded

by two smaller brown bucks, and stood just long enough to give me

an easy shot. I should have killed him on the spot, but somehow

failed to do so. He fell, recovered, and then in some miraculous

way went straight up the sheer face of the cliff, disappearing into a

cave before I could fire again. I was bitterly disappointed. The place

seemed quite inaccessible, and as my leave was up, I had to leave it

and return to Karachi. But Pinnaya went out again with ropes, and

with their help a stout hearted man somehow managed to ,reach the

cave and recovered the head. The mask was of course ruined, but

enough remained to satisfy me as to its identity. That skull with its

sweeping scimitar horns, and the two mounted gudd heads, look down

on me as I write, and serve to recall the happy days I spent so long

ago in that land of sun-baked rocks and scorching heat.

NaGE: GayRat, [Bie x

He should of course be called the ‘Nilgiri Wild Goat’, but he has.

been given the name of ibex by custom and usage, and to that I

shall adhere. To call him a Jahr after his Himalayan cousin seems.

anomalous, when one considers the age of the Nilgiris, geologically

speaking, in comparison with the more recent Himalayas. However,

name him as you like, he is a fine sporting animal, and not too

difficult to bring to bag.

Time was when ibex in the Nilgiris were fast approaching extinction

owing to the indiscriminate shooting of both sexes ; for sporting ethics

of those days were of a very low standard indeed. But fortunately the

Nilgiri Game Association was formed, in 1879, and thanks to the control

which it exercised, ibex were saved from the fate which was rapidly

overtaking them. The last census which I took before the recent war

showed that they then numbered, at a very conservative estimate, not

less than 450, and their numbers should have increased since then.

A24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY -NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

How -they.will fare in the future with poaching uncontrolled and the

present day lack of respect for law and order is another matter, but

the reader will doubtless prefer facts to fancy, so let us omit the latter.

The shooting rules of the Nilgiris permit the licence holder to shoot

only one ibex annually and that must be a saddle-back, so called

from the patch of light coloured hair in the middle of the back, which

varies to some extent with the season. In very old bucks this saddle

1s pure white and contrasts markedly with the almost jet black of the

remainder of the pelt, but such are few and far between. In the past

26 years I have in fact seen one only at which I got no chance. Ibex

are found in the Kundah area from Nilgiri Peak, past Mukerti to

Sispara and beyond, along that grand range of cliffs which fall pre-

cipitously many thousand feet into the plains of Kerala. They spend

the nights on the actual cliffs and also retire there when alarmed,

but during the daytime will generally be found grazing at the top on

the short grass of the open rolling downs. Much has_ been

written of the difficulty and danger attending the pursuit of these

wild goats, owing the appalling nature of the ground. In my ex-

perience this has been very greatly exaggerated. No one in their senses

would fire down at an ibex on the cliffs, for if hit, the animal is bound

to be lost, since in most places they are quite unscaleable. But if the

sportsman will exercise patience and wait for his shot until he can

take it in the open on the grassy slopes above the cliffs, he need ex-

perience nothing more than some rather strenuous walking and a

certain amount of easy climbing. There is no comparison at all with

the very difficult and at times dangerous crag work which the pursuit

of the Himalayan tahr entails, and having experienced the latter on

more than one fruitless occasion, it was with some relief that I found

how easy it is to bag a Nilgiri ibex.

Of the seven saddle-backs which I have shot, it will be sufficient

to give accounts of two only. My first was in March 1923 while I

was in camp at Bettmund, a famous place for ibex, some miles from

Hodgson’s Hut on the Krurmund river, where we had spent the

previous night. We left camp at 4 p.m, and not long after, I spotted

a saddleback where we had seen two females in the morning. The

approach took about 20 minutes, and when we neared the spot, two

ibex dashed off down the cliff. They were obviously females, so we

advanced slowly, when suddenly I saw the back of an ibex in a fold

of the ground not 25. yards off. He was feeding on the young green

grass which had sprouted in a burnt area, and this attraction no doubt

kept him from following the females. His saddle was clear, but his

head was down, and I did not like to fire without seeing the horns,

really quite an unnecessary precaution. I moved cautiously forward

with rifle at the ready, hoping that he would stand for a’second or two

when he looked up. But we were too close, and when he did see us

he turned and went full split down the hollow towards the cliffs. He

paid no attention to my first shot, but the second brought him down

head over heels, and he rolled till he caught in a bush a few yards

from the cliff edge. As we ran up he revived, but my shikari seized

‘him “by a hind leg, ‘and a bullet through the heart finished him. A

fine old buck with some of the best horns I have got. My second

bullet had caught him in the back above the shoulder, but as some-

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc.

Photos P. 7. French

Nilgiri Tahr in typical terrain.

(Note the °Saddlebacks’)

JUNGLE MEMORIES ~— - a 40%

times happens, had apparently burst there without penetrating. I

was lucky to have got him, as a few yards further would have taken

him over the cliff, and he would have been lost. Judging by other

experiences this was fairly typical of Nilgiri ibex shikar—too easy !

And without the help of my diary I certainly should not have been

able to give much detail, for until I re-read it, my sole recollection

of the affair was of my shikari hanging on to the hind leg of the

struggling animal until I could fire the finishing shot. I remember,

however, stalking another ibex so close that when he lifted his head,

with staring yellow eyes, only a bush separated us. He was a saddle-

back but his horns were nothing out of the way, so I let him go;

it must have given him a nasty shock to see me so close! But my

best memory of all is of the last ibex I shot in Nov. 1935 for the

British Museum (South Kensington). I can look back on that day

with some satisfaction, because, except for a gunbearer who did not

know the ground, I was single handed, and had to carry the whole

business through on my own.

Behind Bangi Tappal, where I was camping at the time, rises a

considerable hill beyond which is a deep valley, one side well wooded,

but the other with precipitous bare grassy slopes much favoured by

ibex. The head of the valley is within 20 minutes walk of the

bungalow, and easily accessible by a convenient col over the ridge

which runs for many miles parallel to the bridle path. On the first

afternoon after settling into camp, I went there to spy, not only for

ibex on the open slopes, but also for a famous old sambar stag,

estimated to carry a head of over 4o inches, which I had seen several

times in previous years but never within range. His favourite feed-

ing ground was the grassy ridge above the wooded, side of the valley,

where stood a line of prehistoric monoliths known as the ‘Ghost

Stones’. There were no signs of the stag, but I spotted a herd of

ibex with a good saddleback on the opposite slope. They were how-

ever so far off and in such an unapproachable spot that I decided to

leave them for the time being. Dawn next morning found me en-

sconced behind one of the monoliths, but the opposite hill-side was

bare throughout its entire length of some two miles. However, being

well acquainted with the ground, I guessed that the ibex had moved

round the far end of the ridge into a smaller valley beyond, so decided

to work in that direction. After descending some 500 feet over rather

rough ground, we crossed the heavily wooded stream at the bottom,

and finally after an hour’s hard going reached the summit of the

opposite hill. I looked over and found that I had judged correctly,

for there in a hollow not 500 yards away were the ibex. The herd

which I had seen the previous evening had been joined by others and

now numbered about 50 including no less than three saddlebacks.

A few were feeding desultorily, but most of them were lying down.

Suddenly some sprang to their feet, and after staring in my direction,

started to move slowly off followed by the rest. What alarmed them

I cannot say; we were well hidden and the wind was in our favour;

it was just one of those contretemps which are liable to happen in hill

shooting. However they were uneasy rather than alarmed, so were

not likely to go far before settling down again. Under cover of the

ridge I moved to the left, and when I reached the end found that the

426 JOURNAL, BOMBAY (NATURALIST. SOCIETY, Vol.

ibex had split into two groups. One lot of about 30 with two saddle-

backs was going to the left over rather open ground, while the re-

mainder inclined to the right and started to feed over a low ridge which

almost blocked the entrance to a side valley. As the latter included

a good saddleback, I decided to go for him and to ignore the other party.

There was no line of approach to the ibex in their present position on

the bare slope, so I could do nothing but watch until they fed out of

sight over the crest. Making sure that the last female did not return

for a final glance to the rear, as is so often the habit of wild sheep

and goats, I ran down to the bottom of the slope and up the other

side. When I peeped over the top by the side of a convenient rock,

I saw the ibex just below me and about 60 yards away. I watched

them for a few minutes while I recovered my breath, and then got

into a comfortable firing position, but could not get a clear view of

the buck, Suddenly a watchful female spotted me and ran uphill

followed by the rest, but a whistle pulled them up, and I got a nice

broadside shot at about go yards. All bolted, but after going a short

distance the saddleback staggered and fell; the little split bullet from

my .318 had hit him through the heart. After taking photos and the

various measurements required by the Museum, we had a well earned

rest and some chocolate, and then heavily laden with the skin, head,

rifle etc. took the direct line to the Sispara bridle path. Camp was

reached at 3 p.m. and a pony was despatched to bring in the leg

bones and such meat as was required. Meanwhile I got busy clean-

ing and salting the skin and head, which was scarcely finished by

dusk. It was a hard day but a very satisfactory one, and it remains

iny best memory of the Nilgiri ibex.

(To be continued)

Pee CA ROR THE PRESERVATION OB. WILD PLANTS

H .. SANTAPAU, “S.y.

(With a_ plate)

In recent numbers of this journal there have appeared several

notes asking for strong measures to be taken for the preservation of

animals in general and of birds in particular. With all such pleas I

sincerely and heartily agree. It is time, however, for a similar plea

to be raised in favour of our rarer and more showy plants; unless

strong measures are taken for the preservation of such plants, we

may in a short while lose some of the finest wild plants of these parts

of India.

Recently during a visit to the National Park at Borivli I was

shocked to the core in face of one of those unfortunately common

acts of sheer vandalism that call for the loudest protest. At the

beginning of the monsoon the meadows on either side of the river

from the National Park Hotel to the very foot of the Caves become

covered with several species of Crinum (C. latifolium, C. asiaticum,

etc.); these plants are perhaps better known to the average reader

as ‘white lilies’. On the occasion of my visit I examined these plants ;

the country-side ought to have been a paradise with literally thousands

of beautiful white or pinkish flowers; as a matter of fact, not more

than about a dozen plants had their flowers on, the rest showing but

the remains of the stalks or scapes from which thoughtless visitors

had removed the flowers.

A few days after my visit to the National Park I took some of

my students to Khandala, where in an almost inaccessible part of the

jungle we admired very large patches of the same lilies in all their

glory (See plate). The beauty of such a spot is almost unbe-

lievable, and the exclamations of pleasure and surprise on the part of

the visitors were most delightful. Such will also be the beauty of

our National Park when visitors will have learnt to respect the wild

flowers of the meadows.

A few years ago coming from Poona our train stopped at Neral

station; among the passengers from Matheran waiting for our train

there was one with a large basket of the same lilies (Crinum

latifolium); the ground at Neral station was strewn with decayed

flowers, which obviously had been discarded by the so-called plant-

lover from Matheran. Such wholesale methods of collection clearly

threaten the very existence of the plant on the slopes of Matheran.

During the month of May of this year (1950) I explored the district

about Khandala and made particular search for several of the com-

moner wild orchids Aerides crispum and A. maculosum. On one of

the plateaus of difficult access from Khandala practically every tree

supports over 20 beautiful orchids, which in May were in full bloom;

nearer to Khandala the only plants seen were a few growing on a

428 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

long branch of a fig tree in the middle of the village; the branch

overlooked the village talao and collecting plants from such a difficult

spot was not easy. For the rest the whole district is practically bare

of those orchids, which a few years ago could be seen almost on

every tree in Khandala.

My plea for care in the collection of plants applies particularly to

professors and schoolmasters and their students. Some years ago I

heard from Mr. C. McCann, formerly the Joint Curator of our Society,

of a case very much to the point. At a spot not far from Khandala

McCann showed me a place where an otherwise rare plant, Isoetes

coromandelina, had been growing in profusion. At the urgent re-

quest of a professor of our university McCann showed the spot to

some students; shortly afterwards it was found that the whole piace

had been literally swept clean of any specimens of Isoetes, and from

that time the plant has not reappeared again on the spot. This

brings to my memory an experience I had whilst I was a student in

the Imperial College of Science in London. In that college it was

the custom for the professors to take the students out into the field

for a lengthy period during the summer months. On one occasion

we were shown a pond in which Isoetes was growing abundantly, so

abundantly in fact that the whole bottom of the pond was practically

covered by the plant. The professor in charge of the party instructed

us that only one plant should be collected by each student. When

some of my companions remonstrated against such apparent niggardly

treatment in face of the abundance of the plant, the professor answered

that it was his duty to see that future generations of students could

have the same opportunity as we were having of examining such a

rare plant in its native haunts.

Speaking again of Khandala, a place I have come to know very

well after ten years of study and exploration, one of the finest plants

both from the point of view of form and of scent is undoubtedly

Platanthera susannae, Susan’s Orchid. The accompanying photograph

(plate) will give an idea of the beauty of the flower. Some years

ago, according to Mr. McCann, who had been observing such plants

in Khandala for over a quarter of a century, Platanthera was a com-

mon orchid on the slopes of Bhoma Hill and Echo Point. The beauty

of the plant has been the cause of its practically total disappearance

from the district. About four years ago on one occasion I noted

six specimens that were just on the point of flowering; a few days

later I went to see the same specimens hoping to obtain some good

photographs of the open flowers; to my disappointment I found

nothing but a hole in the ground from which the plants had been

uprooted and taken away. Last year I did not see a single specimen

in Khandala of the once common orchid Platanthera.

Such conduct, to say the least, is very selfish. You may find a

beautiful plant in the wild state, and forgetting that other people may

also enjoy seeing it, you proceed at once to remove it, perhaps soon

to discard it, and thus little by little you heip the country to lose

some of the more beautiful and interesting wild plants.

In places such as Mahableshwar I understand that a local re-

gulation forbids the removal of the more showy plants such as

H. Santapau, S. J.

Photos

Platanthera Susannae Lindl.

Linn.

lium

lat

Crinum

A PLEA FOR THE PRESERVATION OF WILD PLANTS 429

orchids and the like; this is a sensible law, but unless there is a body

of public opinion behind it, the law will not prevent the disappearance

of such plants. It is only by educating the future citizen of this

country from the earliest years at school that positive results may in

time be obtained. Love of nature in all its aspects, care for the

preservation of birds, animals and plants, is a holy tradition in India;

for the sake of the future of the country let us not only hand over

to our descendants the natural beauties of the fields, but also try

and enhance them and thereby merit the gratitude of future genera-

tions. |

A PRELIMINARY SURVEY OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE

MALLOPHAGA (‘FEATHER LICE’) ON THE CLASS AVES

(BIRDS).

THERESA CLAy

British Museum (Natural History)

(With 2 plates and 3 text figures)

INT R OD UC P11 ON

The object of this survey is to summarise the present knowledge

of the distribution of the Mallophaga on the class Aves, and to show

where this distribution may throw light on the phylogenetic relation-

ships of certain bird groups.

The Mallophaga are ectoparasitic insects living on birds and

mammals. These parasites pass their complete life-history. from egg

to adult on one host, and in the majority of cases, each species of

Mallophaga is restricted to one host species or a group of closely

related host species. Their present distribution suggests that thev

became parasitic on birds at an early stage in the evolution of this

latter class, and that they evolved with their hosts, but at a somewhat

slower rate. This has resulted in the Mallophaga parasitizing related

hosts being themselves related, and thus, in the majority of cases, it

is possible by examining a specimen of Mallophaga to say from which

order of birds it was taken. Any host species may be parasitized by

species of one to twelve or rarely more genera, some of which are

restricted to definite ecological niches on the body of the bird where

their general body form seems to be adaptive to the feathers of that

niche. Two of the most striking examples (Pl. 1, figs. 1-2) are the

short round species found on the head and neck; and the elongate,

more flattened species on the wings and back. ‘As the Mallophaga

of any One ecological niche, have evolved in a more constant environ-

ment than have the birds, they have diverged from each other less.

Thus, it is usual to find a genus of Maliophaga distributed throughout

an order of birds. In the case of the Charadriiformes, for instance, the

species found on the head of a gull (suborder Lari) and on that of a

redshank (suborder Charadrii) both belong to the same genus

(Saemundssonia).

This general principle that the Mallophaga of related hosts are

themselves related suggests that the distribution of these parasites

should be valuable evidence on the phylogeny of their hosts. However

there have been many factors operating during the evolution of the

Mallophaga which may have obscured this initial relationship between

host and parasite. These factors have been fully discussed elsewhere

(Hopkins, 1942 and 1949; Clay, 1949 and in press), but may be sum-

marised here once again:

Discontinuous Distribution. A genus of Mallophaga formerly

widely distributed throughout the Aves may have become extinct on

certain bird groups; its presence would not, therefore, denote relation-

JOURN. BOMBAY WAT. Hist, Soc.

2. Occupant of wing niche

(Fulicoffula sp. )

Habitat forms of Mallophaga

1. Occupant of head niche

( Philopterus sp.)

SURVEY OF THE DISTRIBUTION. OF THE MALLOPHAGA 431

ship between the host groups on which it is now found. The genus

Colpocephalum seems to be an example of such a genus; it has not

been included in the mallophagan faunas shown in the distribution

charts, as its presence or absence seems to be of little significance.

Secondary Infestations. ‘Although it is probably rare for the lice

of one host order to be able to establish themselves on the host of

another order, there is little doubt that such secondary infestation is

the explanation of some of the cases of anomalous distributions of

of genera. The occurrence of the same genus (Saemundssonia) on

the Charadriiformes (waders, gulls and auks), Procellariiformes

(petrels) and the Gruidae (cranes) is probably an example. Among

the factors limiting the establishment of a louse on a new host are

the difficulties of transference and the strange environment for a

species which is strongly host specific. Elsewhere (Clay, in press)

the question of feather structure in relation to distribution of the

Mallophaga has been discussed. Reference was made to a paper by

A, C. Chandler (1916) in which this author puts forward a classification

of the birds based on the minute structure of their feathers; and 't

was shown that the distribution of the Mallophaga in some cases

supported Chandler’s emendations to the usually accepted avian classi-

fication. It was suggested that this might either be a confirmation

of the relationship between these groups, or that host groups with a

similar feather structure might be parasitized by related Mallophaga

because secondary infestation had been made possible by the simi-

larity of feather structure—this character of the environment probably

being one of the factors limiting the establishment of a bost specific

species on a new host.

Parallel Evolution. It is possible that parallel evolution may

explain some of the cases of anomalous distribution found in the

Mallophaga, although insufficient is known about the morphology and

development for any certainty in these cases.

In spite of the limiting factors briefly summarised above there

is no doubt that the distribution of the Mallophaga is a source of

evidence which, with careful evaluation, should be utilised by the

ornithologist in considering the position of birds of doubtful affinities.

It is important to note, as will be made clear below, that in those

cases where a bird has an anomalous mallophagan fauna there is

usually a difference of opinion over its correct systematic position,

and that the evidence from the Mailophaga usually supports the

opinion of one school of ornithologists.

Tur DISTRIBUTION OF THE MALLOPHAGA ON THE AVES

Struthioniformes (Ostriches) and MRbheiformes (Rheas). The

distribution of the Mallophaga supports Chandler’s conclusions from

the feather structure and Lowe’s (1928, 1935, 1942) from other ana-

tomical features that these two orders are related and not the relics

of independent unrelated stocks as is often stated. The ostriches and

rheas are parasitized by closely related species of a specialized genus

(Struthiolipeurus) of Mallophaga found on no other order of birds,

and also by the same two species of mites (Paralges pachycnemis

432 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

and Pterolichus bicaudatus) and subspecies of the same _ cestode

(Houttuygnia struthiocameli). (Eichler, 1948). Lowe (1928, 1935,

1942) from studies not only of the structure of the feathers, but of

many other anatomical features concluded that the Struthiones

(=Struthioniformes, Rheiformes, Casuariiformes and Apterygiformes)

‘represent a perfectly natural group descended from some common

ancestor’ (1928:244). The relationship. between the Struthioniformes

and Rheiformes is amply confirmed by their parasitic fauna—a fauna

difficult to explain except by postulating such a relationship.

Casuariformes (Cassowaries, Emus). Chandler and Lowe (1928)

believed that this order was related to the two already mentioned.

The evidence from the Mallophaga is neutral: only one genus’

(Dahlemhornia) is known, which has no obvious relationship to any

other. The fact that both this genus and that from the Struthioni-

formes and Rheiformes show asymmetry of the head has encouraged

some authors to deduce a relationship between the three host orders,

but Dahlemhornia, as shown by its general morphology, is not closely

related to Struthiolipeurus, and asymmetry of the head is found in

another unrelated genus (Bizarrifrons) parasitic on the Icteridae

(Passeres). The presence of asymmetry of the head of the species

found on the Struthioniformes and Casuariiformes may be a case of

convergence in response to some common feature in the structure of

the feathers.

Apterygiformes (isiwis). Chandler on account of the feather

structure and Lowe on other anatomical features placed this order near

the three orders already discussed. ‘Although only one genus Rallicola

(Aptericola) 1s known from this order and little, therefore, can be

deduced from its presence, it is of some interest that Rallicola is

found also on the Rallidae. This distribution supports the belief of

Fiirbringer (1888) that there is a relationship between apteryx and

the rails. However, this mallophagan genus is also found on some

of the Passeriformes, although there is evidence that there it may

be due to secondary infestation. This is an example of the possibility

of error in using the distribution of the Mallophaga as evidence of

relationships between the hosts.

Tinamiformes (Tinamous). Chandler states (:347): ‘the structure

of the down alone is sufficient proof that the tinamous are unquestion-

ably far more closely allied to the Galli than to any other birds.’

Fiirbringer (1888), Beddard (1898), and others have drawn attention

to the apparent gallinaceous affinities of the tinamous. Lowe (1942:

17) and most modern classifications place them in a different super-

order, the Palaeognathae, together with the four orders already

considered. Evidence from the Mallophaga is here of little assi-

——— See Oe

1 The evidence of relationship provided by one genus of Mallophaga is obviously

less convincing than if more genera are involved, and in most cases should probably

not be taken into account at all. Comparisons have _ therefore. been made

between the mallophagan faunas of host groups, that is the genera of Mallophaga

normally found throughout the host groups in question.

ss ~ ei

Rebus

SURVEY OF THE DISTRIBUTION | OF |THE MALLOPHAGA 433

stance: the Tinamiformes are chiefly parasitized by the species of

one family (Heptapsogastridae) found on no other orders of. birds’

and which are presumably the descendants of a common ancestor

parasitic on an ancestral tinamou. The species have filled the different

ecological niches on the body of the bird and taken on a superficial

resemblance to the unrelated occupants of similar niches on other

orders. Some genera of this family have retained the primitive type

of head found also in the species parasitic on the Sphenisciformes,

Galli, and Columbae; and also bear a superficial resemblance to these

species in some other characters. The species on the Galli and

Columbae by the characters of their external and internal morphology

seem to be truly related; those on the Tinamiformes and Sphenisci-

formes differ from the former and from each other in some characters

of their internal and external morphology. Hence, it is not possible

to say on the available evidence whether the Mallophaga parasitic

on the Sphenisciformes, Galli, Columbae, and Tinamiformes are relics

of not closely related stocks—those on the last three groups appearing

similar owing to the retention of. certain generalized — primitive

characters due to the similarity of the feather structure—or whether

they are the only descendents left of some common stock which once

had a wider distribution. This might or might not denote relation-

ship between the Galli and the Tinamiformes. The other genera found

on the Tinamiformes show no relationship to any found on the Galli,

with the exception of one (Tinamotaecola) which belongs to a sub-

family (Degeeriellinae) found not only on the Galli but on many other

orders.

Sphenisciformes (Penguins). The penguins are parasitized by

two genera of Mallophaga which have the primitive type of head, but

provide no evidence on the. relationships of the hosts.

Gaviiformes (Divers) [Colymbiformes of European authors| and

Colymbiformes (Grebes) [Podictpidiformes of European authors|

The Mallophaga of these two orders throw no light on the relation-

ship of their hosts.

Procellariiformes (Petrels). This order is parasitized by a large

number (15) of genera, the majority of which are peculiar to the order,

and probably developed from a common ancestor on the order. One

genus (Saemundssonia) is also found on the Charadriiformes, and a

second genus (Procellariphaga) either superficially resembles or is

related to one (Austromenopon) also found on the Charadriiformes.

The occurrence of these two genera may be due to secondary infesta-

tion (see Clay, 1949 :292).

Pelecaniformes. This order is usually divided into three suborders:

the. Phaéthontes (Tropic-birds), the Pelecani (Pelicans, Gannets,

Cormorants) and the Fregatae (Frigate-birds). Figure 1 shows that

a a

1 The occurrence of one species of this family on the Cariamidae is probably

due to secondary infestation.

434 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL” HIST) “SOCIETY,: Vot.\ 29

the Phaethontes do not have the mallophagan fauna characteristic of

the Pelecaniformes, but have two genera of the fauna characteristic

of the Charadrittormes. Chandler (1916:316) states. ‘The third

group, Phaéthontidae, is so strikingly like the Laridae [i.e. in feather

structure] that their afhliation with the steganopodes [| =pelecani-

formes| seems very doubtful, and if feather morphology is considered,

they should be looked upon rather as aberrant larid forms’. Mathews

and Iredale (1921) basing their conclusions on the anatomy of the

Phaéthontes placed them as a family of the Lari. Lowe (1926) on a

consideration of the form of the quadrate and its tympanic relations

believed that the associations of this family lay with the rest of the

Pelecaniformes. Murphy (1936:796) although stating that: ‘there is no

doubt about the place of the tropic-birds in the order Pelecaniformes’

goes on to say that: ‘they differ much in habitus from all their

existing relatives, and share many superficial characters. with the

terns. These include form and size, the shape of the beak, the silky

sheen of the plumage, the voice and the aerial grace. Furthermore

tropic-birds hatch from the egg covered with down, instead of being

naked like young boobies, cormorants, and pelicans.’

The mallophagan fauna supports the view of a_ relationship

between the Phaéthontes and the Charadriiformes. Alternatively, it

can be argued that as members of these two groups live in the same

habitat, transference of Mallophaga could have taken place and the

similarity of the structure of the feathers (if this does not denote

relationship) might have enabled the immigrant louse to establish

itself on the new host. The fact that one of the lice in question

(Saemundssonia) is a louse of the head, a form otherwise absent on the

Pelecaniformes, would mean that the immigrant louse would have

found an empty ecological niche to occupy. It must also be noted

that the genus Saemundssonia, which probably originated on the

Charadriiformes, is found not only on Phaéthontes, but also on the

Procellariiformes and the Gruidae. Its occurrence on these latter

host groups may be due to secondary infestations. Here, therefore,

we have a case in which there is considerable doubt concerning the

relationships of a group of birds. The evidence from the Mallophaga,

as the evidence from any other single source, is not conclusive, but

supports the views held by some ornithologists and should be taken

into account in evaluating the total evidence.

Ciconiiformes (Herons, Storks, Ibises and allies). This order

is usually divided into four suborders: the Ardeae, Balaenicipites,

Ciconiae and Phoenicopteri. Of the eight genera of Mallophaga

(omitting Colpocephalum) found on the Ciconiiformes only two (Ciconi-

philus and Ardeicola) are common to the Ardeae (Herons, Bitterns)

and Ciconiae (Storks, Ibises, Spoonbills); only one of these

(Ciconiphilus) is known from the Balaenicipites (Whale-headed Stork),

but little collecting has been done from this last suborder; the

Phoenicopteri (Flamingoes) have none of the genera found on the

rest of the Ciconiiformes. The Scopoidea (Hammerhead), usually

regarded as a superfamily of the Ciconiae has (apart from a somewhat

aberrant species of Colopocephalum) two genera (Quadraceps and

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Puate II

x Cm _ Np ee

Pelecanoidea

—

Siloidea ae

% PELECANI [ PHAETHONTES

FREGATAE

PELECANIFORMES ¢

Charadrioidea

Chionoidea

Be Burhinoidea

Va,

Fhinoceroidea

Dromadoidea

Glareoloidea

Jacanoidea

CHARADRIIL ;

Scales 1 soecies 5 CHARADRIIFORMES

Fig. 1. Pelecaniformes and Charadriiformes (Mallophagan fauna: 4,

black).

(See footnote on p. 4388).

(for explanation of chart see p. 442).

SURVEY OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE MALLOPHAGA 435

Austromenopon) found elsewhere throughout the Charadriiformes, a

distribution which may or may not be of significance (see Hopkins,

1942:103). One genus (Ciconiphilus) found on the Ciconiiformes is

also found on Cygnus (Swans: Anseriformes) and another ([bidoecus)

characteristic of the Threskiornithoidea (Ibises) is also found on

Avamus scolopaceus (Limpkin: Gruiformes); a third genus (Laemobo-

thrion) found on some of the Threskiornithoidea is again found on

Aramus, but thts genus has a wide distribution with species on the

Rallidae (Rails), Psophiidae (Trumpeters), Ofpfisthocomus (Hoatzin)

and less closely related species on the Falconiformes (Birds of Prey).

The distribution of these genera suggests that Ciconiphilus may be

a straggler on the swans from the Ciconiiformes, Ibidoecus a straggler

on Aramus from the Threskiornithoidea and Laemobothrion a

straggler on this latter superfamily from the Rallidae. Although

Eichler (1949) suggests that the mallophagan fauna of Aramus (fig. 1)

may indicate a position for this family between the Rallidae and

Threskiornithidae.

The Phoenicopteri (fig. 2) are parasitized by three genera found

elsewhere only on the Anseres (Ducks, Geese, Swans). Chandler

(1916: 320) states: ‘that in the details of the minute structure of the

feathers the Phoenicopteri agree with the Anseres more closely than

AKDEAE

PHOENICOPTERI s

ANSERES

3/6

BALAENICIPITES

%, _ Threskiornithoidea

ofs

Ciconioidea

Scopordea

ANHIMAE

A CICONIAB

ANSERIFORMES.

CICONIFORMES

Scale: 1 species cS

Tig. 2. Anseriformes (Mallophagan fauna: 5, black. Genera of Acidoproctidae

counted as one) and Ciconiiformes.

with the Ciconiae’. Opinions on the systematic position of the

flamingoes based on the internal anatomy are divided. The general

436 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIEDY, (Vol. 49

characters of the bill and feet of the flamingoes, their habit of nesting

on the ground and their call are all more duck-like than stork-like.

Fossil flamingoes apparently show less elongation of the legs and have

a straighter bill (Howard, 1950). On the other hand, the similarity of

feather structure (if this does not denote relationship) might have

allowed immigrant lice from one of the Anseres to establish themselves

on the flamingoes; the common habitat in which the birds live would

have made the initial transfer possible. But there are three

mallophagan genera involved all suggesting anserine affinities for

the flamingoes, a relationship supported by some of the evidence from

ornithological sources.

Anseriformes, This order is usually divided into two suborders:

the Anseres (Ducks, Geese, Swans) and the Anhimae (Screamers).

The former have five genera of Mallophaga, two of which

(Holomenopon and Ornithobius and its closely related genera or sub-

genera) are found only on the Anseres and three others (Anaticola,

Anatoecus and Trinoton) found elsewhere only on the Phoenicopteri.

The Mallophaga of the Anhimae throw no light on the affinities of

that suborder.

Falconiformes (The Birds of Prey). The main point of interest

provided by the mallophaga parasitizing this order is that a species

of a genus found elsewhere in the Falconiformes only on the Cathartae

(New World vultures) has been taken from Pseudogyps africanus’,

an Old World vulture. This suggests that the division into ‘Old

World’ and ‘New World’ vultures is not so marked as indicated by

the usually adopted classification, a presumption supported by ihe

fossil record (Howard, 1950). The Falconiformes have other genera

which show a somewhat inexplicable distribution and which are

mentioned here without further comment. One genus (Kurodia) is

also found elsewhere only on the owls (Strigiformes) and another

(Cuculiphilus) is found elsewhere only on the cuckoos (Cuculi).

Galliformes (Game Birds and MHoatzins) and Columbiformes

(Sandgrouse, Pigeons, Doves). The possible relationship of these

orders to the Tinamiformes has already been discussed. The distribu-

tion of genera (or closely related genera) comprising the mallophagan

fauna of the Galli (Game Birds) suggests affinities between the Galli

and the Columbae (Pigeons, Doves) and the Galli and the Musophagi

(Plantain-eaters). The Opisthocomi (Hoatzin) usually considered as

a suborder of the Galliformes, has five genera none of which is

related to those found on the Galli: no information about the feather

structure of Opisthocomus has been found. ‘The presence of these

five genera distinct from those on any other order (except in the case

of one, Laemobothrion, which has a wide distribution) suggests an

isolated position for Opisthocomus within the Aves.

The Pterocletes have two genera from which no deductions of

affinities can be made: one (Neomenopon) has no close affinities, the

1 Also from Gyps fulvus, see Eichler, 1944. Dtsch. ent. Z., 1943 :57.

SURVENM OF, THE -DISTRIBUTION. OF |THE’ MALLOPHAGA 437

other (Syrrhaptoecus) belongs to the widespread Degeeriellinae. The

Columbae have a number of genera a group of which (Coloceras,

Campanulotes and related genera) have obvious affinities with two

(Goniodes and Goniocotes) found on the Galli. Chandler states that

in feather structure the Columbiformes ‘show more similarities to the

gallinaceous birds than to any other group’, and as the mallophagan

genera involved have the primitive ‘type of head the explanation

discussed under the Tinamiformes might also be applicable in this

case. However, the characters (both of the external and internal

morphology) common to these genera are such that it must be

assumed that all the genera are related. Hence, if this does not

denote relationship of the hosts, the presence of these genera must

be due to secondary infestation, made possible perhaps by the

similarity of feather structure.

The Musophagi, with four out of five mallophagan genera either

the same or closely related to those found on the Galli, seem to show

a definite relationship to the Galli and none to the Cuculi. This

relationship has been discussed elsewhere (Clay, 1947), but at that

time the paper by Lowe (1943) had not been seen. In this paper

Dr. Lowe, basing his remarks on a study of pterylography, osteology

and myology, comes to the conclusion that the Cuculi and Musophagi

cannot be placed in the same order. Chandler states that: ‘the

Musophagidae do not differ in any important ways from the Cuculidae

in the structure of their feathers’, but he continues ‘the Cuculli

(=Cuculiformes) especially the Musophagidae come nearer the galli-

naceous and columbid birds.’

Gruiformes (Cranes, Rails and allies) and Charadriiformes

(Waders, Gulls and Auks). These two orders are taken together as

both the anatomical evidence (Lowe, 1931:531, Chandler:353) and

the fossil record (Howard, 1950) suggest that they have arisen from

a common stock, probably in the Eocene; further, certain families

of birds are placed in the Gruiformes by some ornithologists and in

the Charadriiformes by others.

The Gruiformes comprises an heterogeneous assemblage of sub-

orders, the affinities of some still being a matter for discussion.

Figure 3 represents the Gruiformes as arranged by Wetmore, 1940,

and figure 4 shows a re-arrangement based on the mallophagan

faunas of the suborders.

The suborder Grues is usually divided into two superfamilies: the

Ralloidea (Rails) and Gruoidea. The former has a mallophagan

fauna comprising five genera; two of these genera are found also on

the Psophiidae (Trumpeters) and three of them on the Aramidae

(Limpkins), both these families usually being included in the second

superfamily, the Gruoidea. The Gruidae (Cranes), the third family

of the Gruoidea, has a mallophagan fauna of four genera, none of

which is found on the other families of the suborder Grues, nor the

Ralloidea. From the Heliornithes (Sun-grebes) and the Rhynocheti

(Kagus)—two other suborders of the Gruiformes—genera of the ralline

mallophagan fauna have been recorded. The Jacanoidea (Jacanas),.

a group of birds with an obscure systematic position but usually

placed with the Charadriiformes, have two genera belonging to the

438 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL UIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

ralline fauna’. These facts suggest that the Ralloidea, Aramidae

Psophiidae, Heliornithes, Rhynocheti and Jacanoidea are more nearly

related to each other than to the Gruidae. Evidence on the relation-

ships between these groups from ornithological sources is conflicting.

Chandler (:354) deduces from the feather structure a_ relationship

HELIORNITHES

TURNICES

OTIDES RHYNOCHETL

MY {i

Gsuidae

MST MB IT Orin los %

Psophiidae :

EURYPYG AE 35 2 ae : A ramidae

Me Ralloidea

CARIAMAE

op S/s

Scales 1 species | GRUES

Fig. 3. Gruiformes arranged according to Wetmore, 1940 (Mallophagan fauna

of Ralloidea: 5, black).

between the Gruidae, Aramidae and Rallidae and considers them off-

shoots from a primitive stem leading to the Charadriiformes; whiie

the Otididae, Psophiidae (and possibly the Aramidae) he considers are

more closely related to each other and may be early offshoots from

the stem leading to the Columbae and Galli. This, as shown above,

is in conflict with the evidence from the mallophagan faunas. Lowe

(1931:496), however, considers that the Rallidae and the Heliorni-

thidae are an isolated group and should be removed from the

Gruiformes to form a separate order, the Ralliformes. This view is

partly supported by the distribution of the Mallophaga, but the Ralli-

formes would have to include some of the families which were retained

in the Gruiformes by Lowe. This latter author (1925) considers that

* Evidence has recently become available (Timmermann, in press and Tandan,

in press) that the Jacanoidea also have three genera (Quadraceps, Saemundssonia

and Actornithophilus) characteristic of the Charadriiformes.

SURVEY OF SHE DISTRIBUTION OF ' THE MALLOPHAGA 439

the affinities of the Jacanoidea are not with the Charadriiformes,

but with the Gruiformes; later (1931) he places them with the Gruidae

not with the Rallidae in his new order the Ralliformes. Evidence

from the Mallophaga of the Jacanidae, however, suggests ralline not

gruimorphine affinities. Lowe (1931) considers that the Burhinidae

(Stone-curlews)—placed by Wetmore, 1940 as a superfamily of the

Charadrii, fig. 1—should also be placed near the Gruidae in the suborder

Gruae of his order Telmatomorphae (which also includes the Charadrii-

formes). The Burhinidae have two genera characteristic of the

mallophagan fauna of the Charadriiformes, thus confirming Wetmore’s

classification. Another family which has been bandied about between

ES Sen pti eae

TURNICES Gruidae

Y %

OTIDES

HELIORNITHES

MESOENATIDES - Jacanoidea

%, Peophitdas % RH YNOCHETL

% =

pee = Aramidae

EURYPYGAE

fe)

Ralloidea

CARIAMAE

Fig. 4. Gruiformes re-arranged according to the Mallophagan fauna. Scale

as in fig. 3.

the Gruiformes and the Charadriiformes is the Restratulidae (Painted

Snipe). This family has an interesting mallophagan fauna: two

genera, one (Quadraceps) of which belongs to the mallophagan fauna

typical of the Charadriiformes (fig. 1) and the other (Pseudomenopon)

to that of the Rallidae. Little can be deduced from this distribution,

the presence of one or other of the genera may be due to secondary

infestation. Pseudomenopon, it should be noted, is also found on the

Gaviiformes and the Colymbiformes.

The Mallophaga of the other five suborders of the Gruiformes are

of little assistance in deducing relationships. The Otides (Bustards)

440 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST SOCIETY; Vol. 149

have one genus (Otidoecus), the nearest relatives of which are found

on the Galli (Cuclotogaster) and on the Scolopacidae—the snipe and

woodcock—(Rhynonirmus). These genera are perhaps relics of a pre-

viously more widely distributed group of genera. The Mesoenatides

(Monias) and the Turnices (Bustard-quails, Hemipodes) are each

parasitized by one genus of Mallophaga; these genera are related and

probably derived from an ancestral stock widely distributed through-

out the ‘Aves, their present day representatives forming the Degeeriel-

linae found on many unrelated host orders. Aithough such genera

throw little light on the relationships of their hosts it may be

mentioned that the genus (Turnicola) on the Turnices seems to show

affinities to one (Penenirmus) on the Passeriformes, the latter also

most probably being derived from a Degeeriella-like ancestor. This re-

semblance may be due to parallel evolution or relationship between

the hosts, a point of interest as the Turnices show some passerine

characters (Lowe, 1923:277). Only one genus (of doubtful affinities)

has been seen from the Eurypygae (Sun-bitterns). The Cariamae

(Cariamas) are parasitized by two genera (apart from Colpocephalum)

found elsewhere only on the Tinamiformes, a distribution probably

explained by secondary infestation on the Cariamae. As_ the

Mallophaga of these five suborders are such that no certain deductions

can be made as to the relationships of their hosts, there is no object

in discussing the ornithological evidence bearing on the affinities

of the host groups.

Psittaciformes (Parrots). his order is parasitized by a number

of mallophagan genera which throw no light on the relationships of

the parrots within the class Aves. The parrots are probably an

example of an order on which the Ischnoceran mallophagan fauna is

derived from a primitive ancestral stock of a type found throughout

the Aves, and which has evolved on the order itself into the different

genera now found; these genera will, therefore, be more closely

related to each other than to those on any other order.

Cuculiformes One suborder, the Musophagi (Plantain-eaters),

has already been discussed under the Galliformes. The other, the

Cuculi (Cuckoos) has a quite different mallophagan fauna comprising

four genera, one (Cuculicola) belonging to the widespread

Degeeriellinae, two of which the affinities are obscure, and one other

(Cuculiphilus), the affinities of which seem to lie with one found on

the Falconiformes (see above). The significance of this distribution

cannot at the present time be assessed.

Strigiformes (Owls). The owls are parasitized by two genera; the

affinities of one (Strigiphilus) are unknown, the other (Kurodia) is

found elsewhere only on the Falconiformes.

Caprimulgiformes (Nightjars) and Coliiformes (Colies) are

each parasitized by distinctive genera which throw no light on the

relationships of the hosts.

Apodiformes, Trogoniformes, Coraciiformes, Piciformes and

Passeriformes. These orders can be considered together as some

SURVEY. OF “THE: DISTRIBUTION Ol--*THE- MALEOPHAGA 441

members of all the orders are parasitized by elements of the passerine

fauna. The order Apodiformes contains two suborders: the Apodi

(Swifts), the Mallophaga of which give no evidence as to relationship,

and the Trochili (Humming-birds). The latter suborder is parasitized

by one genus (or two closely related genera, Ricinus and

Trochiloecetes) found also on the Passeriformes (Perching Birds).

Chandler (:379) states that the structure of the feathers shows a

striking likeness to those of the latter order. Lowe (1939) basing his

conclusions on a study of other anatomical features considered that

the humming-birds should be placed as a suborder of the Passeriformes.

The Trogoniformes (Trogons) are parasitized by two genera

(Myrsidea and Brtielia) characteristic of the Passeriformes. Again,

Chandler (:378) on the basis of feather structure considered these

two orders to be related.

The Coraciiformes (as arranged by Wetmore, rog40) do not have

a uniform mallophagan fauna. In the suborder Alcedines the super-

family Alcedinoides (Kingfishers) is parasitized by two genera which

throw no light on the affinities of their hosts. No Mallophaga have

been seen from the Todoidea (Todies); two genera (Briielia and

Philopterus) have been taken from the Momotoidea (Motmots) both

of which belong to the passerine fauna. In the suborder Meropes

(Bee-eaters) one (Briielia) of the three mallophagan genera belongs

to the passerine fauna. In the suborder Coracii, the family Coraciidae

(Rollers) is parasitized by two genera, one (Meromenopon) which is

found elsewhere only on the Meropidae, and the other (Capraiella) is

closely related to one on the Passeriformes (Picicola), but is of a

generalized type (the Degeeriellinae) found elsewhere in the class

'\Nves. No Mallophaga have been seen from the Leptosomatidae

(Cuckoo-rollers). The Upupidae (Hoopoes) have two genera (Upupi-

cola and Menacanthus) belonging to the passerine fauna, but both

belong to groups of genera found elsewhere. The Phoeniculidae

(Wood-hoopoes) have two genera, one (Hopkinsiella) probably re-

lated to Upupicola on the Upupidae and the other (Odoriphila) the

affinities of which are not known. The Bucerotidae (Hornbills) have

six genera, none of which belong to the passerine fauna, but the

Ischnoceran genera are all probably derived from a single ancestral

stock which belonged to the Degeeriellinae, a genus of which is

found on the Passeriformes. Chandler shows that in feather structure

the Alcedinoidea and the Bucerotes are somewhat different from the

rest of the order, a fact supported by the mallophagan faunas which

may have evolved in a rather specialized way.

The Piciformes (Jacamars, Barbets, Toucans, Woodpeckers)

(with the exception of the Galbuloidea from which nothing has been

seen) have an entirely passerine mallophagan fauna’ which supports

the evidence put forward by Chandler and Lowe (1946) based on the

morphology of feathers, skeleton and muscles.

The distribution of the Mallophaga on these orders suggests,

therefore, a close passerine relationship for the Pici, Trogoniformes

Seen ee eee ee ee ee SSS nese eeeeoeeeee eee esse eee FeSO

1 Austrophilopterus from the toucans is not found on the Passeriformes, but

like Picicola of the latter order is probably derived from a Degeerielline ancestor.

442 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST... SOCIETY, Vol. 49

and Momotidae, and a less close passerine connection for the Trochili,

Meropidae and Rhamphastidae. The Mallophaga of the rest of the

groups although not conclusive, do not preclude a passerine relation-

ship, except perhaps in the case of the Alcedinoidea where the

Mallophaga show no passerine affinities.

EXPLANATION OF THE DISTRIBUTION CHARTS

As the mallophaga have a host-wise not a geographical distri-

bution the parasitologist has no method of demonstrating distribution

graphically. These charts are an attempt to do so. They are based

on Wetmore’s classification of birds (1940) and the suborders are

drawn as entire areas clustered together to form the order; the super-

families,’ into which a suborder is divided are shown as contiguous

areas. The size of each area is proportional to the number of species

(as given by Mayr, 1946) in the division represented. Thus, the size

of any area shows the number of species over which a parasite genus

is distributed; and the number of distinct areas in an order and the

irregularity of outline of an area representing a suborder gives some

indication of the diversity of host species parasitized. Both these

representations can only be approximate for owing to the difficulties

of bird phylogney the relation of the ‘territories’ to each other is often

doubtful; and the size of the ‘territories’ shown will need adjustment

as new species are discovered and as birds now considered as species

are relegated to subspecific rank. The names of orders are given in

large capitals underlined, suborders in smaller capitals, superfamilies

in large lower case letters and families in small lower case letters.

Where two numbers are given with a name, the lower ts the total

number of genera recorded from the host group and the upper is the

number of genera belonging to the mallophagan fauna (shown in

black) of the order illustrated. The mallophagan fauna is the number

of genera characteristic of the host group in question. A genus found

on only one small section of the group is not included in the faunai

number, but is included in the lower number. Colpocephalum, for

the reasons given above, is omitted from all the faunal numbers and

from both upper and lower numbers. Two genera on one _ host

order which are allopatric replacements of each other are counted

as one genus: Bizarrifrons and Sturnidoecus, for instance, are counted

as one genus in compiling the mallophagan fauna of the Passeri-

formes, as the former genus appears to be the allopatric replacement

of Sturnidoecus on the Icteridae (Troupials).

REFERENCES

Beddard, F. E. ((1898): The structure and classification of birds. London.

Chandler, A. C. (1916): A study of the structure of feathers, with reference

to their taxonomic significance. Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool. 18 :243-446,

Clay, T. (1947): The systematic position of the Musophagi as indicated by

their mallophagan parasites. Ibis, 89 :654-5.

— — — (1949): Some problems in the evolution of a group of ectoparasites.

Evolution, 3 :279-299.

1 No attempt has been made to show the relationship between superfamilies

within a suborder.

SURVEY OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE MALLOPHAGA 443

Eichler, W. (1948): Some rules in ectoparasitism. dan. Mag. nat. Hist.

(12) 4 :588-596.

— — — (1949): Mallophagen von Aramus scolopaceus. Ornithologie als

biologische Wissenschaft :249-252,

Firbringer, M. (1888): Untersuchungen zur Morphologie und Systematik der

Vogel. Amsterdam.

Hopkins, G.H.E. (1942): The Mallophaga as an aid to the classification of

birds. Ibis :94-106.

— — — (1949): The host-associations of the lice of mammals. Proc. zool.

Soc. Lond. 119 :387-604.

Howard, H. (1950): Fossil evidence of avian evolution. Ibis, 92 :1-21.

Lowe, P. R. (1923): Notes on the systematic position of Ortyxelus, together

with some remarks on the position of the Turnicomorphs. Ibis :276-299.

— — — (1925): On the systematic position of the Jacanidae. Ibis :182-147.

— — — (1926): More notes on the quadrate as a factor in avian classifica-

tion. Ibis :1&2-188.

— — — (1928): Studies and observations bearing on the phylogeny of the

ostrich and its allies. Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. 1 :185-247,

— — — (1931): On the relations of the Gruimorphae to the Charadrii-

morphae and Rallimorplhtae. Ibis :491-534.

— — (1935): On the relationship of the Struthiones to the dinosaurs and

to the rest of the avian class. Ibis :398-432.

— — — (1939): On the systematic position of swifts and humming-birds,

with special reference to the order Passeriformes. Trans. zool. Soc. Lond.

24 :307-339.

— — — (1942): Some additional anatomical factors bearing on the phylogeny

of the Struthiones. Proc. zool. Soc. 112 :1-20.

— — — (1943): Some notes on the anatomical differences obtaining between

the Cuculidae and the Musophagidae. Ibis :490-515.

— — — (1946): On the systematic position of the Pici, Indicators, Hoopoes

and others. Ibis :103-127.

Mathews, G. M. and Iredale, T. (1921): A manual of the birds of Australia.

T. London.

Mayr, E. (1946): The number of species of birds. Auk, 65 :64-69.

Murphy, R. C. (1936): Oceanic birds of S. America. II. New York.

Wetmore, A. (1940): A systematic classification for the birds of the world.

Smith. Misc. Coli. 99 :1-11.

ON THE SHRIKE LANIUS TEPHRONOTUS (VIGORS), WITH

REMARKS ON THE ERYTHRONOTUS AND TRICOLOR

GROUPS OF LANTUS SCHACH LINNE, AND THEIR HY BRIDS:

BIswaMoy BISwas!

if Fee 7

(With a map)

SOY GNEO[PeSeres

An attempt is made to analyse and correlate the informations that

iad been recorded and that is under investigation by the writer,

regarding Lanius tephronotus, with a view to determining its systematic

status. Evidence is given of the fact that both L. tephronotus and

i. schach breed in Kumaon and Garhwal, and that they do not inter-

grade. The question of type-locality of L. tephronotus is also dis-

cussed. It is shown that L. tephronotus should be considered

specifically distinct from L. schach. An account of each subspecies

of L. tephronotus and of the erythronotus and the tricolor groups of

L. schach is given mainly in relation to distinctive characters, measure-

ments, material examined, moult, breeding and range. It is shown

with the help of a comprehensive hybrid index that L. schach ery-

thronotus and L. s. tricolor hybridize in a vast area that includes

Uttar Pradesh (the United Provinces), Bihar, Madhya Pradesh

(Central Provinces) etc., and that Collurio nigriceps Franklin is no-

thing but one such intermediate bird. :

[N PR OD UCTLON

Since the publication of Stuart Baker’s Fauna of British India—

Birds, Vol. 2 in 1924, there has been some controversy among ornitho-

logists regarding the systematic status of Collurio tephronotus Vigors,

C, erythronetus Vigors and C. tricolor Hodgson. Baker (op. cit., pp.

292-298) treated them: as three distinct species. He used nigriceps

Franklin for’ tricolor, and placed erythronotus as a race of Lanius

schach. Whistler and Kinnear 1933: pp. 334-337, put them in two

different species—tricolor and nigriceps as races of Lanius nastus

Scopoli, and the other two as races of L. schach. This arrangement

was subsequently followed by the British Museum workers, as well

as by Oliveer (1944). Dunajewski (1939) in a critical review, treated

tephronotus as a distinct species, and tricolor and erythronotus as

races of L. schach. The last action was, however, hinted at by

Meinertzhagen (1927).

Recently I had the opportunity to examine the excellent collection

of birds from India made by Dr. Walter Koelz, deposited in the

American Museum of Natural History. I examined the question of

tephronotus-erythronotus-tricolor afresh with the help of the Koelz

material supplemented by the materials of the American Museum of

Natural History, Museurn of Zoology of the University of Michigan,

British Museum (Natural History), and the Zoological Survey of India.

In all I examined 375 specimens.

2 Now in the Zoological Survey of India, Indian Museum, Calcutta.

ON LANIUS TEPHRONOTUS (VIGORS) ETC. 445

I am indebted to the authorities of these institutions for their kind

cooperation, and to Dr. Koelz for permitting me to study his collection.

I am deeply grateful to Dr. Ernst Mayr for much help and _ his

continued interest in this work.

Measurements :—Only the measurements of birds in fresh or slightly

worn plumage are given in this paper.

The bill is measured from the skull.

Lanius tephronotus (Vigors)

Lanius tephronotus must be regarded as a distinct species from

-L. schach (containing eryihronotus). They both have been found breed-

ing in the same or adjacent places in Kumaon (specimens in Kolez

collection !), and net one specimen in the fine series show any sign of

intergradation between them, although Ticehurst (1926a) said that he

had seen all gradations between them in the western Himalayas.

The main differences between tephronotus and erythronotus are the

tone of gray, the extent of rufous on the back, and size. The

extent of rufous on the back is somewhat variable in erythronotus, so

that specimens of erythronotus in very fresh plumage.and with lesser

amount of rufous may be mistaken for the extreme examples of the

Lahul population of tephronotus. I could not find a single ‘inter-

mediate’ example among the vast material of the British Museum

(including Ticehurst’s own collection).

In the Himalayas two races of L. tephronotus can be recognized:

(A): Darts slate-gray, with rufous confined on the upperside to the

rump and the upper tail coverts, and with the wing speculum usually

absent, or when present very small. It breeds in Garhwal, Kumaon,

Tibet eastward to Yunnan.

(B): Comparatively lighter gray than (A) with rufous extending

beyond the rump to the hindmost scapulars; wing speculum almost

always present. Breeds in Lahul, Spiti, Ladakh and Suru Valley.

It had been customary to treat (A) and (B) together as L. tephro-

notus or ‘L. schach tephronotus, until Whistler and Kinnear (op. cit.,

Pp. 336-337) recognized (B) as a subspecies distinct from {A). They

applied tephronotus to (B) and revived Hodgson’s nipalensis for (A).

This transfer of names however, is unjustified as Mayr (1947) shows.

A careful study of Vigors’s description shows that in describing Collurio

erylhronotus immediately preceding C. tephronotus, he clearly mentioned

the presence of a wing speculum, but did not mention anything about it

in connection with tephronotus. His tephronotus, therefore, can be

logically interpreted as a bird without the wing speculum. Accord-

ingly I retransfer tephronotus to (A). For (B) we have L. tephronotus

lahulensis Koelz; Hodgson’s jounotus, as suggested by Dunajewski

‘op. cit., p. 38), cannot be applied, since it is a nomen nudum.

Lanius validirostris Ogilive-Grant from Luzon, Phillippines, should,

I believe, be best treated as a race of L. tephronotus. It differs from

the Indian races in its smaller size and in having practically no rufous

on the upperside’.

* Ripley (1949) commenting on this paper while still in the MS stage, considers

these two forms to be specifically distinct. However, his arguments do not

appear to me to be convincing,

446 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL) HIST. SOCIETY,UVol. 49

The Indian subspecies of Lanius tephronotus therefore stand as

follows:

Lanius tephronotus tebhronotus (Vigors)

1831. Collurio tephronotus Vigors, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 43—Hima-

layas, restricted to Gyantse, Tibet by Baker (Faun. Brit. India,

Birds, 2: 297, 1924) corrected as ‘ Foothills of the Himalayas near

Darjeeling, where breeding birds of the Gyantse district may be

expected to winter’ by Mayr (./. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., 47 : 126,

1947).

1837. Lanius nipalensis Hodgson, Imdia Rev., 1 : 445—Nepal.

1905. Lanius lama Dresser, Proc. Zool. Soc., London, p. 55, pl. 5, fig. 1—

Jsangpo Tal, Tibet.

Measurements :

Wing. Tail. Bill. Wiag-Tail Wing- Bill

Index. Index.

253¢ : 98-106 110-123 21-23 111-121 20°1-23°5

L00°7 1T5:5 22, 114°3 BI:9

WI 97-105 109-116 21-24 110-115 20°3-24

99:7. 1148 Zou Ll2*4 Be,

3 unsexed : 103-104.5 121 21-22 116 20°4-21

Material examined :—

Tibet: 3 unsexed: Gyantse; Tsangpo Valley (June, Sept.). United Pro-

vinces :7 ¢¢, 3 22, 1 unsexed : Kumaon: Shankola, Urting, Gunji, Rahlam,

Badang, Nagling, Samandiu; Gorakhpur dist.: Nichlaul (Feb., June, July).

Nepal: 2¢¢,1 9, lunsexed (1 4, 1 unsexed juv.): Nepal Valley : Thankot,

Kathmandu, no locality (Mar., April, no date). Sikkim: 5 ¢, 6 unsexed (1 ¢,

5 unsexed juv.) : Pembringo Pass, 14,400 ft.; Guatong, 12,800 ft.; Keadom,

7000 ft. ; no locality (May, June, July, no date). Bengal: 1 ¢, 4 99, 2 unsexed

(2 unsexed juv.: 29292 subad.) : Darjeeling dist: Kalimpong; Jalpaiguri dist. :

Domohni ; 24-Parganas: Bandipur; Calcutta ; Dacca dist. : Dacca (Jan., Apr., no

date). Assam:7 ¢¢, 3 29, 1 unsexed (3 ¢¢ juv.) : Lakhimpur dist. : Dibrugarh,

Margherita ; Cachar dist. : Gunjong; Khasia Hills: Nongpoh (Jan., Mar., Apr.,

Sept., Oct., Dec.). Burma ; 2 ¢¢, 292 (1 @ juv.) : Chindwin dist. : Tago Hko ;

Myitkyina dist. : Siniku-Shingaw Road, 700 ft., Gangfang, 5500 ft. (Feb., Dec.).

Yunnan: 9 gg, 422 (1 ¢& subad.) : Tengyueh, 5000-6000 ft.; Yung Chang Fu,

5500 ft. ; Mengtsz ; Shweli Valley, €000-8000 ft. ; Lichiang Range, 8500-10,000 ft.

(Jan., Mar., Apr., May, June, Aug., Sept., Oct., Dec.). Szechwan : 2 33 (1 ¢ juv.):

Tsao Po (15 miles west of Wenchwon) ; Lung-un (Apr., Oct.). Kokoaur; 1 un-

sexed juv. : no locality (no date). ‘ West China’: 1 9: no date.

Neo l ts

There does not seem to be any prenuptial moult in this form. The

complete postnuptial moult generally starts in September and may be

prolonged up to the end of December. Postjuvenal moult takes place

in April.

Bale Cpl tela.

Specimens with definite breeding data were collected in June and

July in Kumaon. In Tibet it breeds between mid-May and July (Baker,

1933: Pp- 269-270).

Range:

Garhwal, Kumaon, Tibet eastward to Yunnan and northward to

Szechwan and Kokonur. In winter some may come down to the

plains of Uttar Pradesh (United Provinces), Bengal, Assam, Burma

and Indo-China.

ON LANIUS TEPHRONOTUS (VIGORS) ETC. 447

Lanius tephronotus lahulensis Koelz

1933. Lanius schach tephronotus (Vig.) Whistler and Kinnear, J. Bom.

Nat. Hist. Soc., 36 : 336—Simla-Almora.

1950, Lanius tephronotus lahulensis Koelz, Amer. Mus. Nov., no. 1452, p. 7

—Kolung, Lahul, Punjab.

(Type in the American Museum of Natural History).

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill Wiveg-Tail Index Wing-Bill Index

W od: 92-102°5 109-120 19.5-23: Ve] 15-122°5, 427-5 20°8-23°5

96°9 LTGS rea 119°5 22

6 29: 93-96 105-111 21-23 113-117 21°9-24°7

94°9 L08°8 22, Vas 23522

Material examined :

Kashmir: 2 ¢f: Northern Kashmir: Suru Valley (Sunku, 9600 ft.) ; Ladakh :

Kargil (Paskyum, 9000 ft.) (June, July). Punjab: 17 ¢¢, 8 29, (2 92 juv.1¢

subad.): Lahul: Kolung, Sisoo (10,0C0-10,500 ft.), Kyelang, Gundla (10,000 ft.),

Daskar (10,500 f.), ‘andi; Spiti; Shichiling; Kulu Valley: Kulu (May, June,

July, Aug., Sept., Dec.).

Moult:

No moulting specimen examined. One worn adult male collected

on September 2 shows no sign of moulting.

breeding:

Breeding specimens were all collected between May 29 and July 26.

One female collected on July 6 was incubating, another female collected

by the late Hugh Whistler has the following data on the label: ‘Breed-

ing over. No eggs in ovary. Incubation patches.’

Ra, oe.

Kargil and Suru Valley in Kashmir, Lahul and Spiti in the Punjab,

and possibly also Rupshu and adjacent areas in Ladakh and Tibet.

In winter comes down to lower altitudes, such as Kulu.

Lanius schach Linné

The rufous-backed and the black-headed shrikes of southeastern

Asia should, as Dunjewski (op. cit., pp. 31-32) has already shown,

be regarded as members of the same species, since there is complete

intergradation between the adjacent forms on the mainland.

The ‘rufous’-backed shrikes of India are included in the erythro-

notus-group, and the black-headed shrikes of India, Burma, western

China and Siam form the iricolor-group.

ERYTHRONOTUS-group

The shrikes of this group have a gray back with variable amount

of rufous. Four races are recognized in this group.

Lantus schach erythronotus (Vigors)

1831. Collurio erythronotus Vigors, Proc, Zool. Soe. London, p. 42—Himala-

yas, Simla-Almora.

1837. Lanius superciliosus Swainson, Classif. Birds, 2: 219, nec Lanius

superciliosus Latham, 1801.

448 JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. “SOCIETY, Vol. 49

This race is characterized by its gray head and upper back, gradually

changing to rufous on the lower back, rump and upper tail coverts,

and usually with a large wing speculum. Fully adult females show

a faint tinge of rufous even on: the upper back.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bil] Wing-Tail Index Wing-Bill Inex

Afghanistan :

IS: 93-99 116-124 20-22°5 119°5 123 20°6-23:2

96°1 119°2 20°9 1241 215

Tee 92-95 113-116 20-21°5 121°5-124 21°3-23°4

93°4 L14°7 20°6 WA GAM

Northwestern India :

23: a: 88-97 107-125 19°5-22°5 117-129 21° 3-23.°7,

92°3 Lge] 20°7 ae) 22:4

16329: 87-95 107-118 19°5-23 119-124 21°7-25 6

(5 specimens) (5 specimens)

899 LIL7 20°7 L275 jaye |

Southern Bombay :

Sos: 94-98 113-127 19: 21:5 118-130 19°6-22°4

959 L16°7 20°7 L22'3 21°F

oo: 88°5-95 108-118'5 2 117-126 20°2-23°4

(6 specimens) (6 specimens)

915 110°9 20 LZ] 22

Material examined:

Afghanistan: 20 ff, 5 29, 1 unsexed (3 J, 1 unsexed juv.): Paghman,

Gulbahar, Kabul, Gumandru, Tagau, Ishpi, Khanabad, ‘Tolikhan, Gumbaz,

Takia, Puli Komri, Jalalabad (May, June, July, Nov., Dec.). North-West

Frontier Province: 1 ¢, 19: Kurram dist.: Parachinar (May). Kashmir: 2 ¢23,

7 22 (1¢, 3 9F juv., 1 2 subad.): Gilgit : Gilgit ; Baltistan ; Shigar; Ladakh: Shyok

Valley, Kampuk ; West Kashmir: Bandipura (Apr., June, July, Aug., Sept.).

Punjab : 21 ¢¢,16 99, (1Q subad.) : Kulu Valley: Kakinal, Seobagh Nulla,

Naggar ; Kangra Valley : Kotla, Bhadwar ; Patiala: Patiala; Gurudaspur dist. :

Pathankot (Jan., Mar., Apr., June, Nov., Dec.). United Provinces: 2 99:

Lucknow (Dec.). Bombay: 7 gd, 10 92: Surat dist.: Surat: Belgaum dist.:

Londa ; Dhawar dist : Hubli (Jan., Feb., Mar.).

NEO eet:

There is a complete postnuptial moult which may start as early as

August 19 (1 9, Baltistan). Almost all specimens taken in December,

January and February are in very fresh plumage; of March and April

birds a few are worn.

Bayes ign e :

Generally it breeds in May-June. All the fledglings I have seen were

collected between mid-July and September.

Ria-te 6:

Afghanistan, North-West Frontier Province, Kashmir and the

Punjab Hills. In winter to the plains of India as far south as southern

Bombay and Hyderabad. Ticehurst (1926) and Baker (1933: p. 265)

doubted Osmaston’s (1925, 1927) breeding record of this race in Kargil

(Ladakh). However, I examined a subadult female from Shyok Valley,

Ladakh, collected by W. Koelz on September 8, and it seems possible

that! it- breeds there:

ON’ LANIUS ‘TEPHRONOTUS (VIGORS) ETC. 44

Lantus schach jaxartensiy Buturlin

1911. Lanius erythronotus jaxartensis Buturlin. AZess. Orn., 2:144 -Syr-

Daria, ‘Transcaspia.

This Transcaspian race is said to differ from L. s. erythronotus in

being larger: wing, 93-110; tail, 110-122. Many ornithologists do

mot mecognize this Face.

I have not seen any example of this form.

Lanius schach kathitawarensis Koelz

1950. Lanius schach kathiawarensis Koelz, Amer. Mus. Nov,, No. 1452,

p. 7—Jamwala, Junagarh, Kathiawar.

(Type in the American Museum of Natural History)

This race differs from other races of the erythronotus-group in having

the gray on the upperside palest, and the rufous less in extent than in

erythronotus but more than in caniceps.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill Wing-Tail Index Wing-Bill Index

8 od: 88-92 110-120 20-21 12255-1335 21°&-23.4

90°6 LURES. 20°4 L843. 25

See: 88-90 108-113 20-21 122°5-127 22°7-23' 4

&9 PTE GOS 1249 (eid |

Another female is very large, it measures :

94 126 205 134 21S:

Material examined :

Sind: 14, 2 22 (1 g subad.): Khinjar Lake (Jan., Feb.). Rajputana : 74,

409 (1 g juv.): Mewar: Udaipur, Barapal; Sirohi: Oria, Sirohi (Jan., Apr.,

Oct., Dec.). Kathiawar: 3 3, 3 92 (1 @ juv.): Sihor; Junagarh: Jamwala

(Jan., Feb.).

Miro a] t%:

No moulting specimen examined.

Breeding:

No breeding specimen examined. In Sind, Ticehurst (1922) said

that they breed between March and June, and that at least three broods

are reared in the season.

ma oe;

Sind, Rajputana (possibly also Kutch) and Kathiawar.

Lanius schach caniceps Blyth

(Type in the Zoological Survey of India)

1846. Lantus caniceps Blyth, J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 15: 502—j = Madras area,

according to Kinnear and Whistler, /. Bombay. Nat. Hist. Soc., 34: 396, 1930].

1878. Lanius affinis Legge, Str. Feath., 4:243—Ceylon.

Among the races of the erythronotus-group, caniceps has the least

amount of rufous on the back; it is generally restricted to the rump

450 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST... SOCIETY, Vol. 49

and the upper tail coverts, sometimes extending a little anteriorly to

about the hindmost scapulars. The tone of gray on the back is more or

less similar to that of erythronotus.

Measurements :-

Wing Tail Bill Wing-Tail Index Wing-Bill Index

10 gd: 88-93 109-125 20-22 124-132 22°2-25

90°9 VOWED eiey 128°5 23:3

622: 86-93 110-119 20-22 122°5-134 21°5-25°1

8&9'°8 115 20°9 129°8 ose

Material examined: :

Madras: 10 ¢¢,5 29, 1lunsexed: Bellary district: Hospet ; Cuddapah dist..

Sidhout, Kodur; South Arcot dist.: Cuddalore; Malabar dist.: Nilambur ;

Nilgiris : Ootacamund; Madura dist.: Palni Hills (Kodaikanal) (Feb., Mar., Oct.,);

Mysore: 1 4,1 unsexed: Mysore dist.; Bangalore dist.: Satnur (Nov., Dec.).

Ceylon: 234, 12: Aripo (Feb.,.Mar., Nov.)

Mio w | t?

One specimen collected in Mysore district on November 20 has the

body mouit almost finished; wings and tail still in moult.

Bre edi ns:

The only specimens with definite breeding data I examined are

from the Nilgiris, February 16, 17, Nilambur (Malabar), March 3,

and Kodaikanal (Palni Hills), March 10. Baker (1924: p. 297) gives

February and March as the breeding season in Travancore, and May

to July in ‘Deccan.’ In Ceylon, according to Whistler (1944), it breeds

between February and June.

Real nieve:

Northwestern Ceylon, southern India as far north as Bellary in

the centre and Cuddapah on the east, and on the west side north-

ward to Malabar.

TRICOLOR-group

The shrikes of this group are characterized by a black head, chest-

nut back, and long tail.

Two subspecies are recognized in this group:

Lanius schach longicaudatus Ogilvie-Grant

1902. Lanius nigriceps subsp. longicaudatus Ogilve-Grant, Mov. Zool., 9

480—Siam, Bangkok.

1940. Lanius nasutus schomburgki Kinnear, /bis, (14) 4: 728-729. New

name for Lanius nigriceps longicaudains Ogilvie-Grant—not admissi-

ble for Gadow’s (Cat. Birds Brit, Mus.,13: 262) citation of longi-

caudatus as a synonym of Lanius schach being due to misidentifica-

tion, does not invalidate the further use of longicaudatus Ogilvie-

Grant...

This race differs from the allied tricolor by its very long tail: 130-

155, against 115-135.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

DISTRIBUTION OF LAM/US TEPHRONOTUS |

AND LAN/US SCHACH IN INDIA

T, Lanius tephronotus tephronotus K, Lantus schach kathiawarensts

t, ‘Ss rie - (winter) FC, om »» eaniceps

ie) «s a lahulensis errs, , tricolor

l, i - a (winter) | tr, ; 33 = (winter)

E, »» Ssehach erythronotus Zone of hybridization between JL. 5S.

erythronotus and L. Ss. tricolor is

e, 5 es me (winter) shaded.

ON LANIUS TEPHRONOTUS. (VIGORS) ETC. 45

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill Wing-Tail W ing-Bill

Index Index

236: 96-98 145-156 22-23 151-159 22'9-23°5

OS 96-99 22° 5-23 ——— 23°3-23°4

Material examined :

Siam: 2 %$,2 22: Bangkok, Rat Buri (Jan., Apr., June)

hea 1 & e%

From Amherst in Tenasserim (Burma) southward to southwest and

peninsular Siam. ;

Lanius scthach tricolor (Hodgson)

1837. Collurio tricolor Hodgson, /udia Rev., 1:446-—Nepal, hereby restricted

to Kathmandu, Nepal Valley.

This is the shorter-tailed black-headed shrike. The chestnut on

the back is generally deeper and the wing speculum smaller than in longi-

caudatus.

Measurements:

Uttar Pradesh and Nepal:

Wing Tail Bill Wing-Tail Index Wing-Bill Index

OSS: 93-98 115-127 20°5-23 120°5-131 21°8-23°7

95°S 120°7 2177 L273 22°8

ae 93-96 112-123 20-22 117-131 21°5-22°9

94:2 119 21d 126'3 22°4

1 unsexed : 96 —_—— 22°5 ada Ret So 2304

Sikkim, Bengal, east to Yunnan:

6 od: 94-101 124-135 21-22°5 126-135 21'5-23°2

97 4 129 21.8 LZL OL e253

69°: 93° 5-96 119-126 20-23 125-132 22°9-24°7

94°9 22 218 L29'3 23°7

3 unsexed: 93-97 120-127 22-23°5 126-132 22°7-24°5

Material examined:

United Provinces: 2 ¢¢: Gorakhpur dist.: Nichlaul (Feb.). Nepal: 8 $2,

7 92, 1 unsexed: Nepal Valley: Thankot (nr. Kathmandu); Lower Hills:

Bhimphedi (Mar., Apr.). Sikkim: 2 unsexed : Teesta Valley, 4500-5000 ft. (Dec.).

Bengal: 2 29, 1 unsexed: Darjeeling dist.: Darjeeling; Dacca dist.: Dacca (Jan.

nodate). Assam: 6 ¢g, 4 dd, 1 unsexed (2 fd, 2 QQ juv.): Lakhimpur dist.,

Dibrugarh, Margherita; Khasia Hills: Barapani (May, June, July, Aug., no date).

Wito 1 :

Several specimens in various stages of postnuptial moult, which is

complete, have been examined, the earliest taken on July 26 at

Dibrugarh (Assam), and the latest on December 24 at Shweli Valley

(Yunnan). The. Dibrugarh bird has its body moult finished but the wing

and the tail are still old and worn. The November and December

specimens have their body and wing moult finished but the tail is still

in moult. All birds taken in February, March and April are in very

fresh plumage. Whether they have any spring’ moult is uncertain,

as I have not seen any specimen actually moulting.

452 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL) HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49:

Breed ne:

It generally breeds in April-May, but I saw it breeding in Nepal

Valley as early as March 24, and Scully (1879) took eggs on June 14.

Ramee:

Mountains of Nepal eastward through northern Burma to Yunnan.

In winter some birds come down to the plains of the Uttar Pradesh,

Nepal, Bihar, Bengal, Burma, Siam and Indo-China.

HYBRIDIZATION BETWEEN Lanius schach tricolor

AND Lanius schach erythronotus

As early as 1846, Blyth (J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 15: 303) mentioned

a specimen of shrike collected at Benares by Lord Hay as having ‘the

cap mingled fuscous and ashy, and the forehead above deep black. ‘

‘He considered it to be a hybrid between erythronotus and _ tricolor

(olim nigriceps). Then again, Ogilvie-Grant (Nov. Zool., 9: 470,

1902) said:

‘The amount of grey on .he back[of ¢vzcolor] appears to be due to locality ; for

we find all the fully adult birds from Raipur, in the Central Provinces, and from

Mirzapur, in the North-Western Provinces, with the grey on the upper back much

developed and of a pale colour, indicating, in our opinion, an approach towards

L. ervythronotus, From North-Western India we have also a number of birds.

which are obviously intermediate between Z. mnigriceps [=present tricolor] and

L. erythronotus, and may be considered by some as hybrids,’

Dunajewski (op.cit., pp. 41-42) discussed this hybridization between

erythronotus and tricolor, giving examples of the same material as.

Ogilve-Grant’s. In the meantime, Whistler and Kinnear (1933:

P- 335), finding, some breeding specimens with black head and gray

back from the northern part of the Eastern Ghats, restricted Franklin’s

nigviceps for the birds of the central part of the Indian peninsula,

reviving Hodgson’s tricolor for the birds of the northern breeding

range.

The large material, I have been able to examine, from Garhwal,

Kumaon, plains of Uttar Pradesh (the United Provinces), Bihar and

Madhya Pradesh (Central Provinces), clearly shows that there is a

complete intergradation between tricolor and erythronotus in this vast

area. Intergradation practically starts at Nepal Valley. I examined

16 specimens from the Nepal Valley and the lower hills due south

of the Valley; only one of them has a gray head with a small amount

of black, and the other birds are all fully blackheaded, but in size

these birds are slightly smaller than more eastern birds. Unfortunately,

the type locality of tricolor is Nepal. In this hybridizing zone (see

map) the breeding birds show all shades from gray to black on the

head, from pale rufous to chestnut on the back, and have short to

long tail. A perusal of the following Hybrid Index, made only from

examples collected in the breeding season, will make the issue quite clear.

ON “EANTUS TEPHRONGTUS (VIGORS) ETC, 453

) HYBRID INDEX

A, colour of the head: black as in /vicolor=40; gray as in erythronotus =0

B, gray on back : inconspicuous band as in ¢vzcolor=20; extensive as in

erythronotus =0.

C, red on back: chestnut as in ¢vicolor=10 ; rufous as in erythronotus =0.

D, length of tail: 133-135mm.=10 ; below 106 mm.=0.

E, wing-tail index: 135=10; below 117=0.

F. distance between the tips of the outermost and the innermost rectrices :

49-50mm.=10; below 31mm. =0.

For several specimens the value of certain characters could not be

ascertained owing to specimens being in imperfect condition. For them

the totals are, however, brought upto roo, and are placed in parentheses.

Ne EE TT NE A LE LALO, EI

LOCALITY A|B | ¢€ | D>) E | F | Toran

| |

a oe ae | |

Males: | |

Afghanistan, Paghman oi OF OFF OP ay § 1 5 14

Paghman Oi OO) Oa Gy Sh Z| 18

Gulbahar O; O} Ul, ey 2, 5! ital

Kabul OO OF Raza 5) 6) 18

Gumandru 0.) OF O4b255 5 | -5:; 15

on O71 O} Oreos 6) S| 17

" | oof OF OF MOM IB. 4. | — (10)

Tagau tee] - OL eV AO cies Mi Su hag ig

” sexi Or) Oot ON S37) A 12

Ishpi OO | OF S|) 5) 4) i4

Kashmir, Gilgit Oo Ow Arh co} 1 Oe 7

North-West Frontier Prov., Parachinar ee (1)

Punjab, Kulu, Kulu 0; 0; 2;—|—/|— (3)

Kangra, Bhadwar OPPO Oli 53.) 2 1 4 9

» PO. ne 0 ae ee 6

” OF 407) 0 21 Sa 3 10

” O} Oss S12 |

39 | O 0 0 | 2 2 3 7

Uttar Pradesh— | |

(United Provinces) Garhwal, Deopal 0; O; 3; 3) 4) 6, 16

Kumaon, Bhim Tal 0 Of; 4)— —}]—! (6).

Someshwar cel - 2) O} OF} Simsianny 16.

. Sl OF 3b Ge) Fy 7 3S

Bageshwar se Oe OF 7. Gi 8 16 | af

Patori »|16} 0) S|—{—|{— — (30)

is se BS 4 20") S7l- SP Gi) 5 (69)

Bui ee PLGaly Obe2 Woh seca aay

Bona i 32/10}10) 6| 7|— (72)

Budi Or fe 6 MA ER ira a (27)

Sirka ee eee LO.) ous <) = (60)

Bihar, Palamau, Mahammadganj «| 40/12) 8) — = (86)

| 36 0 i1)— rat (53)

r» AGE Oley) 9) pol (BG)

1 NOs ONE Nedlgae & SV (70)

Madhya Pradesh— EoD |

(Central Provinces) Mandla, Bichhia «40/10; 2|/—]—|—} (74)

ny eb 17 Ol] 4) — | — | (44)

” tl CAO eo Oilyodd! 33, 6, — (63)

” oe | AO edO nh TG 47 | 4 | 74

»> ; ba 40 5 5 ner ant, a (71)

BelweniKisli. |sals 9 (0: —1-—~= | — | —! (1)

» eel 5) 5| 6/—|[—]— (23)

454 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, .Vol. 49

| fe ee |

LOCALITY AN i | C | De) | Doran

of Fame ep 3 ge il sl sar gael |

Nepal Valley, Thankot £0 |. 38.) 10) SG Sy 9 88

Yunnan, Tengyueh 40) 20°) 10") (- 898C7mG Jar 99

Lichiang Range | 40: j080 +O |: [Za] Sr] po Goh 72

| |

Females: | | | |

Afghanistan, Ishpi i Os eOn 20 ia: agi ig 16

Paghman Qo OH, tOn 4 3s 12

Khanabad HO pO, |G! ul sails 14

Kashmir, Bandipura 0; 0; 2'—;—]— (3)

North-West Frontier Prov. Parachinar PF ao Q C2 | —|— (3)

Punjab, Kulu, Kulu WY PON Oe Ganges — (0)

” Oe) sed sie ule ea ()

Nagegar 1 AO sl OS — (0)

Kakinal | 0} 0) yOeyesa) = 1) (0)

Kangra, Bhadwar are 4) 0; O| | See Glee (0)

Uttar Pradesh— | | | |

{United Provinces) Kumaon, Kapkot HG io oO seta: | tales ig he (16)

Naini Tal Pipe 3a oe 2a er a ee 29

5 be 2 Oe Bl 2 ecg eal 19

Bui G3) (0 4 S| eee | |

Bona | 2; 0} 4;—|—i—|] @&

Shankola 28 | 16 oy Bt eho es (57)

Balukot 20| 3} 2;';—|]—|—]| ~~ (86)

Samandiu A ee) ag Sal ae)

Bihar, Palamau, Mahammadganj AO a naa OS a gh a cee (69)

" sg OPM) SOS RRAD) Ses treme (66)

i (18/16) 3)/—'—j|]— (53)

hs wes (02 12002) NO, | ieee I Vale (46)

Madhya Pradesh-- | | |

(Central Provinces) Jubbulpore, Bheraghat...; 4,;15, 4) 1, 5-| 3 22

Mandla, Bichhia ..{ 12 | 14.) 104 — | — = (51)

- eee OO | 12) Onl eson ima 72

ss =i 4leG0r| day SS ee 5) — | (76)

£ . |40); 18) 2,—:1—l1—] (86)

Kanha (80 | 0) 2 eS eas a6)

Nepal Valley, Thankot ven | AON DON SRS a alas rd | 69

Ae 20.1 AO IST! teSanesGry 6 | 6 79

Assam, Lakimpur, Margherita a) Op ieee : 5. |g HECHT Bocgo)

Yunnan, Tengyueh ne 40 1S Ieee == ae)

| |

j |

Summary:

| |

j )

| A | Big.) QalaEr bl TOTAL

L. s. evythronotus ; Afghanistan—| ¢¢: 0 O-2 |0-4 | 1-7) 1-6} 1-7) (1)-18

Punjab. 22: ) O} O41 10-2 | 3-4) 3-4) 5-8] (0)-16

| | |

Intermediate populations: Uttar} g¢: 0-40) 0-12)0-10, 1-6, 2-8] 3-7| (2)-(86)

Pradesh (United Provinces)| 22: 2-40) 0Q-20/2-10, 1-3) 2-5) 3-6} (9)-(86

Bihar and Madhya Pradesh | | |

(Central Provinces.) | | |

L. s tricolor: Nepal—Yunnan. | ¢¢: | 40 | 10-204-10) 6-8} 5-7| 6-9} 72-92 |

| QQ: | 40 | 18-19/3-10 3-6] 1-6 3-6] 69-(91) |

ON LANLUS TEPHRONOT US (IGORS) ETC. 455

These intermediate birds generally breed between May and July.

All the fledgings were collected between June 26 and September 4.

Young birds collected later are somewhat advanced. The coloration

of the young birds and some data on their labels give additional evidence

of hybridization between erythronotus and tricolor. Thus, some of

’ the fledglings match well with those of erythronotus, some with those

of tricolor, and some show mixed characters such as, no black on the

head but deep rusty back, or the head mixed black and gray, but light

rufous lower back. One fledgling (Bona, Kumaon, ¢, June 30) has

on its label: ‘Accompanied by adult L. nigriceps.’ Another such bird

(Bichhia, Central Provinces, ¢, July 16) has: ‘Being fed by black-

headed _ bird.’

It would appear that Franklin’s Collurio nigriceps was described

from example(s) of such hybrid populations having black head and

gray back. :

REFERENCES

Baker, E. C. S. (1924):- Fauna of British India, Birds, 2, London.

— — — (1933): Nidification of birds of the Indian Empire, 2, London.

Blyth, E. (1846): Notices and descriptions of various new or little known

species of birds. J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 15: 303.

Dunajewski, A. (1939): Gliederung und Verbreitung des Formenkreises Lanius

schach L. J. Orn., 87: 30-41.

Mayr, E. (1947): On the correct name of the Tibetan shrilke usually called

Lanius tephronotus. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 4%: 125-126.

Meinertzhagen, R. (1927): Systematic results of birds collected at ‘high alti-

tudes in Ladakh and Sikkim. Ibis, (12) 3: 413.

Ogilvie-Grant, W. R. (1902): A review of the species of shrikes of the genus

Lanius. Nov. Zool., 9: 479.

Olivier, G. (1944): Monographie des Pies-Grieches du genre Lanius. Rouen.

Osmaston, B. B. (1925): The birds of Ladakh. Ibis, (12) 1: 680.

— — — (1927): Notes on the birds of Kashmir. /j. Bombay Nat. Hist.

Soc., 1: 988.

Ripley, S. Dillon (1949): A new race of shrike from the Philippines. Bull.

British Orn. Club, 69: 121-122.

Scully, J. (1879): A contribution to the ornithology of Nepal. Str. Feath.,

: 265.

Ticehurst, C. B. (1922): The birds of Sind, part 2. Ibis, (11) 4: 607-608.

— — — (1926): The birds of Ladakh. This, (12) 2: 282.

— — — (1926): Some ncies on the second edition of the Fauna of British

India—Birds, Vols. I and IT. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 31: 495.

Whistler, H. (1944): The avifaunal survey of Ceylon conducted jointly by the

British and Colombo museums. Sool. Zeylanica, 23: 158.

and Kinnear, N. B. (1933): The Vernay Scientific Survey of the

Eastern Ghats (Ornithological Section), part 4. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 36:

334-337,

THE, jGIR «FOREST, ANDES. LIONS

M. A. WynTER-BLyTH, M.A. (Cantab.), F.R.E.S.

IKUMAR SHREE DHARMAKUMARSINH]JI

Part hl

(With a plate)

(Continued from page 514 of Volume 48)

I. Tone Ee sr Co WNP (Awe)

Although delays and difficulties made it impossible to hold the

census in April 1949 as I had hoped, sanction (and finance) was

finally accorded in December, mainly through the efforts of the

Revenue Minister, Mr. Samaldas Gandhi. The future working of

the scheme was further simplified by the appointment of my friend,

and member of ~ the Society,.K., 5. ,Banesinhyi, as Collection “oi

Junagadh.

Consequently December 26th saw us once again driving from

Junagadh to Jamwala in the same old Ford V8. Our journey pro-

ceeded smoothly (in a strictly metaphorical sense) until we attempted

to cross the Singavada at Budheshwar temple close to Jamwala.

Here the river was deeper than we foresaw and we found ourselves

stranded in mid-stream with water flooding over the floor. An

amphibious operation rescued Prudence (our smail daughter whom we

were introducing to the Gir Forest) and we settled down to await the

arrival of the salvage party. This came within the hour, 15 strong

and with two bullocks and hauling tackle. The car was heaved

through the river and we reached Jamwala without further incident

in time for a late tea.

That there were considerably more lions around Jamwala than

there had been the previous year soon became obvious. As the year

had been one of good rains there were many less cattle in the forest,

with the natural result that lions were hanging around the border

villages seeking what they might devour. In addition, a large

number of the forest nesses had been closed on suspicion of har-

bouring and helping dacoits.

As early as the evening of the first day after our arrival a pair

of lions obligingly killed a large buffalo only five hundred yards away

from the rest house. When we went along to have a look at them

al 10.00 p.m., our party, perhaps fifteen strong, had no difficulty in

driving them off their kill. We then settled ourselves behind a

scrubby growth of Zizyphus nummulata, that particularly thorny

species of bor, exactly eight yards from the kill, and waited for

something to happen. Within three minutes we heard a soft but

heavy pad . . pad . . pad, followed by the sound of gnawing, just

the sound of a large dog gnawing a bone. Having allowed this to

continue for a minute or two, we sprang up and flashed our torches

on the scene. The disturbed lioness (for it was only she) gave us a

brief glance of annoyance before making off to join her mate forty

yards away among the trees. And there they remained until we left

half an hour later.

THES GIR ;ROREST \AND FS LIONS 457

The following day a beat was arranged for the purpose of taking

a photograph, but once again this was not a success, for, although

on this occasion we were ensconced in the safety of a Sterculia tree

with a fine view all around, the moment the lon appeared, Mr.

Bhatt, the A.F.O., who did not seem to have the simple trust in lions

which everyone else displayed, called out quite loudly and clearly

“Halt’. The lion obeyed like a guardsman, immediately spotted Mr.

Bhatt, and, the dislike apparently being mutual, broke to the left at

top speed through the line of beaters, and neither he nor his mate

were seen any more.

Nor was this the end of our excitements, for having had a close

view of two lionesses the next day, in the early hours of the following

morning a pair of lions raided the village, bursting into a flimsy hut

right at its centre that contained two cows and three calves. Roused

by the commotion the villagers drove the lions from the hut, but not

before a calf had been killed and a cow mauled. One lion broke

out on the opposite side from which he had entered, bounded over

a seven foot wall and made for the river: from the other side burst

the wounded cow which rushed down the village street closely followed

by the second lion, pursued in his turn by the enraged villagers.

The cow finally charged and broke a stout wooden door in an attempt

to gain the sanctuary of a safe courtyard in which she ordinarily

lived: the lon continued down the road in the direction of the railway

station.

When we examined the cow in the light of day, although she was

looking very sorry for herself, the damage suffered was mainly to

her nervous system, for she had escaped lightly with one or two

gashes on both sides of her neck, injuries very similar to those I

had seen on the neck of a mauled cow in the near-by village of

Kansaria. The latter had been saved by a herd of buffaloes stand-

ing close by, which had charged the lion and driven him away.

The main object of this visit to the Gir was to hold a test count

of lions over some small area to give us very necessary experience

before planning and working the April census. The area chosen was

the southern 2/3 of the Jamwala Division, a tract of about 110 sq.

miles. As the methods, with a few modifications, were much the

same as those employed in the census held four months later, it is

unnecessary to go into the details of its working at this point.

This test count turned out to be an extremely satisfactory opera-

tion. As it was held over a relatively small area we were able to

supervise it very thoroughly, and the encouraging and important

facts to emerge were the reliability of the supervisors and enumera-

tors, and the whole-hearted interest and co-operation of everyone con-

cerned. Had I not been convinced of the former it would, of course,

have been futile to attempt to hold the census.

We had early evidence that the total tally would be greater than

I had expected, for on our tour of inspection on December 31st, the

day previous to the count (a day devoted to cancelling out old pug-

marks), between us we discovered eight different sets of fresh pug-

amarks without going very far from headquarters.

I was therefore not surprised when the final total worked out at 42.

458 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

The day of the count ended in personal disaster, for having toured

through Bhaka and Thordi checking up pug-marks and finding every-

thing in order, we continued over a road of the most appalling

description to Banej Nes and thence in the direction of Chhodawadi,

until a pothole proved the final undoing of Junagadh State Car 37.

There was a sharp report and the fore portion of the old warrior

settled ominously onto her front wheels. After inspection our driver

announced with great satisfaction, for he was a confirmed pessimist,

that both centre bolts, front and back, were smashed. We staggered

on as far as Chhodawadi where he set about the task of making

temporary repairs. These he told us, with almost fiendish glee (he had

always been prophesying that some such disaster was inevitable on the

roads over which we had been travelling), would take three hours.

Not wishing to be benighted in the jungle I decided to walk back

to Jamwala, feeling quite sure I should cover the 11 miles before the

arrival of those I was leaving behind — — they viewed the prospect

of walking with more than disfavour. I should also be able to send

out a rescue party and allay alarm in those who had been left at

home.

The car, after all, was ready in two hours, but finally broke down

at Dhabala, and its occupants then had to walk whether they liked

it.Or ynot.

I arrived just after dark after a pleasant stroll in the cool of the

evening. Conscience had compelled Nur Mahommed to accompany

me and between us we had found the pug-marks of no less than six

different panthers, an interesting sidelight on the abundance of this

animal in the Jamwala forests.

Results of the Test Count held in the southern 2/3 of the Jamwala

Division on January ist 1950

ee]

ITT TE PPE IS

Centre | Lions _ Lionesses | Young Total

| | |

Janwadla Ae ee) 5 | 3 0 g

Jamwala A, bie tI | 5 1 17

-Thordi sis 4a 3 | 3 3 g

Jhankia a? oe 4 2 | 2 8

Totals 4s 23 13 | 6 42

, % % ¥%

LS)

THE CENSUS (M.A. W-B. & K.S.D.)

a. Methods.

It should not be thought that this lion census was undertaken

lightly, for it was the culmination of eight weeks’ field work and

twenty months’ intermittent research.

The census was based on three factors: that lions must drink at

least once in the twenty-four hours; that they travel for preference

along roads and paths; and that the pug measurements of two lions

are seldom identical.

If the drinking places were limited in number, and the ground

THE GIR“ POREST- AND ITS *LIONS 459°

at them always suitable for the reception of pug-marks, there would

be no need to search further afield. But this is far from the case as

there is much water in the forest, and its edges are often rocky,

grass-covered or of coarse shingle. The roads and paths, are, on

the contrary, at the season chosen for the census (end of ‘April),

covered with a fine dust, a perfect medium for recording pug-marks.

Therefore if a search is made wherever there is water, and over a

judicious selection of roads and paths (more concentrated attention

being paid to areas most favoured by lions), with absolutely exact

enumeration the pug-marks of practically every lion should be found.

Even if lions do not travel along paths or roads they are reasonably

certain to cross them and will so enter into the count.

However, as perfection can hardly be expected, the count was held

on two consecutive days, the second day being relied upon to produce

the majority of lions which had escaped enumeration on the first day.

In the Baroda territory enumeration also took place on the third

day, with satisfactory results, as this is an area relatively sparsely

inhabited by lions. In areas thickly populated with the animals a

third count would probably defeat its own ends owing to the difficulty

of sorting out the large mass of information so collected.

The success of the census naturally depended on the accurate

measurement of the pug-marks, and more attention was paid to im-

pressing on supervisors and enumerators the method of measurement

and need for accuracy in it, both by aid of diagrams and by examples

in the field, than to anything else in the census.

The measurements taken were the length and breadth of the pug-

mark of the forefoot — — that is the length and breadth of a rectangle

exactly fitting its outermost extremes.

Careful examination of large numbers of pug-marks had shown

me that the figures so produced, whilst constant in individual lions

(provided the measurements were not taken on an unsuitable surface),

were remarkably variable between different lions.

The measurements were taken with specially prepared sticks, red

for the first day, blue for the second (red, blue and white in Baroda),

broken to the correct measurement.

The census covered an area of between 7oo and 800 square miles,

including the whole of the Gir Forest and the revenue areas at

its edges where lions might be expected to roam. It was probably

the biggest operation of its kind ever undertaken.

The whole tract was divided into 5 divisions:—Jamwala, Jasadhar,

Visavadar, Baroda and Sasan. Sasan, being of unwieldy size was

subdivided into three circles: Alawani, Sasan and Andhania-Talala-

Devalia. The Assistant Forest Officers of the divisions (the Sub-

Divisional Forest Officer in Baroda) were responsible for dividing

their divisions into smaller units, or centres, and in co-operation with

the supervisor of each centre for appo'nting enumerators and allotting

to them their beats.

The small forest area of Mytiala, beyond the eastern limits of the

Gir, was left to the care of the Grass Officer, Gohelwad. The

overall organisation was M. A. Wynter-Blyth’s.

The management of the Sasan-Visavadar sector was in the hands

of K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji of Bhavnagar and Yuvraj Shree

-460 JOURNAL,;) BOMBAY NATURAG BIST. .SOGIETY, Vol.. 49

Pratapsinhji of Wankaner (both members of the B.N.H.S.): Baroda

in the hands of Mr. Shah, sub-D.F.O., Amreli: Jamwala-Jasadhar

in the hands of Major Dubois and myself.

Our duties were to see that the scheme was carried out according

to plan, to visit all the centres, to check as much work as possible

in the field—in short, to appear as often as possible in as many

places as possible.

The following instructions were issued in writing to all super-

visors, together with a diagram showing the method of measuring

pug-marks:

I. Supervisors must see that enumerators know the _ beats

allotted to them and that they understand exactly the method of

measurement of pug-marks. They must explain the latter to every

enumerator personally both by aid of the attached diagram and by

practical demonstration. They must impress on enumerators the need

jor accuracy in making these measurements.

2. Red sticks will be used for the first day; blue sticks for the

second. The pug-mark of the forefoot will be measured.

3. I:numerators must remember the exact locality in which they

found pug-marks, whether lions were moving singly, in pairs and so

on. They must also collect lion khabar from maldharis and. others.

4. Unless unavoidable, pug-marks must not be measured in

coarse sand or shingle. If they are measured in such surfaces the

fact must be reported to the supervisor.

5. Enumerators must report at their centres at daybreak on

April 27th, and devote the morning of that day until noon to searching

for and cancelling out old pug-marks. Counting will take place

from dawn until noon on both the 28th and 29th. On the 28th pug-

marks must again be cancelled out to eliminate any risk of their being

counted a second time on the 2gth.

6. Enumerators should work in pairs. Men on daily wages

(unless known to be very experienced in the jungle) should, wherever

practicable, be paired with a beat guard.

7. Measurement sticks are to be brought to the centres as soon

as possible after noon on each day of the census and handed to the

supervisor who will label each pair of sticks with the information

required under heads 3 and 4.

8. Bundles of sticks will either be collected at the centres or

brought to the divisional headquarters by the supervisors, whichever

is considered advisable.

g. Jasadhar and Baroda Divisions only. Enumerators are, in

addition, to estimate the sex of the lions whose pug-marks they find.

After the sticks had been collected I measured them and entered

the figures and all relevant information on two series of maps, one

for each day. From the data so produced I eliminated every second,

third or more enumeration of the same lon on the one day, at the

same time including in the final total all lions that had appeared on

only one of the two days. The final total, therefore, was made up of

lions that had appeared on both days and hons that had been counted

only once.

For example: Let it be supposed that division X, after the preliin-

inary processes of elimination had been completed, had produced 25

PMO GIR | FOREST AND) [TS :\ LIONS 461

lions on the first day and 28 lions on the second. Of these, 20 lions

were found to be common to both days, 8 new lions had appeared

on the second day but on that day 5 lions that had been enumerated,

on the first day were not found. ‘Total count: 33 (subject to a cross-

check with adjacent divisions).

A lion might have been counted twice by one enumerator, or ia

more than one beat, centre or even division. Any pug-marks with

similar measurements found within a radius of at least five or six

miles were suspect, and, unless I had grounds for allaying these sus-

picions, only one of them was counted, but, naturally enough, a

certain latitude in measurement had to be allowed.

In many instances other data assisted in the decision. For

instance, whether lions were travelling singly, in pairs or in larger

groups, whether the pug-marks were those of a lioness with cubs, and

(Jasadhar and Baroda only) the sex of the animals, though, as will

be seen later, estimation of sex by pug-marks 1s subject to error.

Any ‘cubs’ found unaccompanied by grown lions were eliminated

(unless the pug-marks had been seen by ourselves) on suspicion of

being panthers.

In the second day’s count the majority of lions that had appeared

on the first day could be identified without much difficulty, generally

near where they had been found the day before, seldom more than

four or five miles away.

An interesting point is that had I divided the gross total of sticks

as they were handed in to me by two, the result would have been

precisely one less than my fina! total after the arduous and complicated

process of elimination and inclusion !

b.., Results.

Lion Census held on April 28th and 29th, 1950

Division _ Grown Lions Young Lions — Totals

Jamwala? me 39 6 45

Visavadar ts 19 5 24

Sasan ane:

(Alawani Circle... 12 4 16

Sasan Circle sis 14 4 18

A.T.D, Circle Fe 24 10 34)

Totals for Sasan _... Sviv« 18 68

Males Females

Baroda 19 5 ) 27

Jasadhar 23 14 8 45

Mytiala E aye nil. ]

Totals counted re 170 grown lions 40 young lions, 210

Girnar Ee 3 lions | 2

Hill of Sana 6 to 14 lions | 6tol4

Final total 219 to 227 lions.

‘ In proportion these’ figures are considerably smaller than those recorded in

the Test Count. This is due to a large forest fire that occurred just before the

census, driving much of the game out of the division.

462 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL GISTMISOGIMTY, Vol. 49

Notes on the above table

(a) Girnar lions.

These lions were not counted and the figures are based on reports,

but there is litthe doubt that three lions were resident in the Girnar

at the time of the census. It is likely that lions would permanently

repopulate these jungles if allowed to do so.

(b) Hill of Sana lions’.

On arrival at Sasan we were assailed by rumours of large numbers

of lions wandering about in the revenue areas, often some distance

from the forest. However, in point of fact the census recorded

very few lions indeed from such areas (except from Talala Mahal

where, as it is semi-forest, they are resident) and, with one exception,

none at all far away from the forest boundaries.

The truth of the matter is, I fancy, that lions have recently been

making occasional sorties at night some distance into the revenue

lands, returning to the forest early the next morning. As such lions

appear in places where they are not normally seen at this season,

considerable fuss is made about them and the reports are exaggerated.

The exception to the above was the pride of lions resident (at

least temporarily) at the Hill of Sana, an area not included in the

census as it had been considered too far from the forest to contain

any lions.

Whilst at Jasadhar on the 26th we heard rumours of a pride of

Ir to 13 lions ‘somewhere in Barbariawad’. Later a report came

from the Grass Officer, Gohelwad, of a pride of 7 to 9 lions in Dedan,

and finally I received a letter from the Collector, Junagadh, in

which he told me that when he visited the Hill of Sana on the 20th

the villagers reported that a pride of 14 lions, including lionesses and

cubs, had been about the previous night, and that 6 grown lions had

been seen that same morning.

The figures in the above table should be regarded as minimum

figures. I am certain there are not less lions than they indicate.

On the other hand, as it was found that 12% of new lions (i.e. 20

in all) appeared on the second day of the census in the Saurashtra

flivisions, it seems reasonable to suppose that there may be up another

12% still uncounted.

In Baroda 8 new lions appeared on the second day and 4 on the

third. Another 4 may not have been counted?

The Mytiala figure may be taken as exact, whilst those for the

Girnar and Hill of Sana lions allow of sufficient latitude for them to

remain unaltered.

On the basis of these calculations the maximum lion population will

be between 243 and 251.

———

* Since the date of the census 8 lions in all, probably belonging to this pride,

have been shot at Mytiala. One of them was a man-killer. (Footnote daied

1-12-1950).

PHE GIR. ‘FOREST: AN DV.TES. CIONS 463

The exact number of lions is, after all, of purely academic interest.

What is required are figures by which the future condition of the lions

may be gauged. These the census has provided.

(d) Distribution.

The distribution of lions in the forest is regulated by the joint

factors of the presence of water and their main supply of food

that is, domestic stock. This year the distribution was unusual owing

to the closure of many of the forest nesses, very few lions being found

in the central forest area. The majority was recorded near the forest

edges and further into the Gir along certain watercourses where nesses

are still occupied.

The closure of the forest nesses is probably responsible for the

occasional sorties the lions have been making well into the revenue

areas, for these are unusual at this time of the year.

Lions were most abundant in and around the Devalia Preserve

and near Jasadhar village.

Two 8 to 1o day old cubs were found in the Mandwi centre of

the Jasadhar Division.

Lions found in the Sasan Division were of small average size :

those in the Jasadhar Division were large.

In all, 6 very large lions were recorded (animals with pug-marks

of over 7 inches in length), 4 in the Jasadhar Division and one each

in Jamwala and Baroda.

(e) Proportion of males to females.

Except in the Baroda and Jasadhar Divis:ons enumerators were

not instructed to give the sex of lions whose pug-marks they found,

because, in my experience, the results of such estimates are often

incorrect. Nevertheless, in the light of such evidence as there is

(the table given in Vol. 48 No. 3 of lions shot and found dead being

the most important), and as long as there is a lack of any to the

contrary, it must be assumed there is a preponderance of males. It

should be noted, however, that both Dharmakumarsinhji and many

experienced pagis hold the opposite view.

* * * *

3. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

I am not prepared to hazard an opinion as to whether there are

more lions now than there were in 1936, the year of the previous

census. Nevertheless, that their numbers decreased between 1936

and 1947 seems more than probable. Nor can this be considered

surprising when one sees the host of trophies, shot in the States

where the lions were unprotected, that adorn so many of the princely

homes of Kathiawar. ‘Although lions were carefully preserved in

Junagadh State (where about three were shot each year), some were

also shot in the Jetpur and Baroda Gir, at Mytiala. As mentioned

before, it is no exaggeration to say that as soon as any lion wandered

out of the forest into the territories of the adjoining small States

someone was after its skin. It was not unknown for such States

464. JOURNAL, *BOMBAY. \NATURAL\ AUST. ASOCIBRY, Vol. 49

to have permanent arrangements in force to account for any lion that

crossed their borders, with young buffaloes tied up nightly in suitable

places, permanently erected machans and machinery for the prompt

reporting of a kill.

These small States accounted for perhaps 10 to 12 lions yearly,

and they have been killed as far away from the Gir as in the ‘cactus’

jungles at Mangrol.

Now, however, both as a result of the impressions received during

my two most recent visits to the Gir, and the high proportion of

young lions recorded in the census, I am convinced that they are

once again on the increase.

This is only to be expected if the rigid restrictions on the shooting

of lions and their potentialities of rapid increase’, are borne in mind,

for between November 1947 and March of this year no permits to

shoot them were granted and only a negligible number was poached.

In March the situation was considered sufficiently satisfactory io.

allow the shooting of four male lions per year. This, it should be

remarked, is the only measure for their control and protection that

is strictly enforced at the » moment.

The census figure of 4o young lions was based on pug measure-

ments taken at the Junagadh Zoo. Those whose fore pug measure-

ments were less than 4” in length were considered to be cubs of under

6 months, and those with pug-marks of under 44” to be certainly

no older than 18 months.

Out of these 40, 21 belonged to the first category and 19 to the

second, so that, in all probability, approximately 30 of them were

born within the last 12 months*®. Unless it is assumed that the

average life span of a Gir lion is a mere seven years (an assumption

for which there are no grounds whatever’) a simple arithmetical sum

will indicate that an increase in their numbers must be taking place.

This is all to the good as it shows that the general condition of

the lions is healthy and that they are in no immediate danger of

extinction.

However, there is as yet no room for complacency. Because they

are now on the increase, there is no reason to be sure that the

increase will continue. Though it is in all probability due to the rigid

restrictions of the past 30 months, we cannot be certain of this. As

is well known cycles of increase and decrease (phenomena whose

causes are little understood) are common in nature.

As the Gir Forest is the last home of the Asiatic Lion, if only

for reasons of pride in this fact, it is to be assumed that Saurashtra

A Gir lioness in -the Junagadh Zoo produced a litter of three cubs in August

1949 and another of five six months later. I imagine, unless the entire first

litter fails to survive, two litters within the year are extremely unlikely in the

wild state. Information about this would be most vaiuable.

? But refer to footnote on p. 7.

°* Bear in mind that the death of very young cubs will not enter into these

calculations, as such cubs will not normally enter into the census.

* According to Major S. S. Flower (P.Z.S., 1931: 162) an African wild lion is

in his prime of life when 5 to G6 years old. The chances of his remaining alive

after 10 years depend on his individual cleverness and the absence of competitors

for food.—Eps.

THES GIR PORESTOANDV ITS LIONS 465

will do her utmost to see to the proper preservation of these animals,

even, if necessary, at cons'derable cost to Government, and will ensure

that they never again run any risk of extinction.

Any relaxation of control will undoubtedly lead to their rapid

disappearance — — there is no chance now in these days of jeeps,

and wholesale destruction of game, of lions lingering on in smali

numbers as they did during the early days of this century.

For the efficient working of any scheme of protection it seems

rational to urge that the entire Gir Forest be turned into a properly

constituted Lion Preserve with a responsible Warden and an adequate

staff. This need not interfere with the legitimate claims of forestry

because efficient management of the forest, especially afforestation and

the prevention of jungle fires (the scourge of the Gir) will be of the-

greatest assistance in protecting the lions.

In the light of the census figures I can see no reason to suggest

any modification in the quota of permits to shoot lions that are being

granted at the moment. It its important, however, that another

census should be held at the end of two years (and thereafter at

regular two yearly intervals) and that any necessary modifications in.

the numbers shot be made in accordance with its results.

The shooting of specified numbers of lions can control any in-

crease in their numbers and forestall the dangers of over-population,

which may of itself bring about a reduction in numbers together

with a general weakening of the stock, or cause the lions to become

a menace to the countryside outside the Gir. The reopening of the:

closed forest nesses as soon as circumstances permit will be a pre-

caution against the latter.

At the same time attempts should be made to reduce the losses of

domestic stock within the forest’. It must, however, be stressed

strongly that the very large majority of such losses is due to the

carelessness of the maldharis themselves in bringing home their herds

after dark, letting animals stray and failing to secure them properly

at night. Furthermore, they are fatalistic about them, taking them:

very much as a matter of course. Perhaps they may be regarded

as the bill Saurashtra has to meet for the privilege of providing a

home for the lions, and as a kind of fee the maldhari has to pay for

the admirable grazing grounds he is allowed to use at a purely

nominal rent. Nevertheless, maldharis should be urged or compelled:

to pay more attention to the safety of their animals. Propaganda,

can do much and has performed more difficult tasks than this.

It is most important that arrangements should be made for the

registering of such losses.

If the lions are to be broken from their predilection for domestic

stock there must be enough wild game in the forest to supply their

needs. At the moment the forest holds a fair quantity of game,

though how this compares with years gone by I am not in a position

1 cf. Table of Losses of Cattle and Buffaloes in Vol. 48 No. 3. During my

visit to Jamwala in Dec. 1949 I adopted the expedient of collecting information

on losses of individual maldharis instead of whole villages and nesses as_ being «

mere likely to be accurate. The results were about 40% less than those given:

in the table.

4066 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

to state, but if there is enough for the needs of, say, 250 lions is

more than doubtful. Therefore it is reasonable to suggest that the

shooting of forest game should be completely banned. An exception

may be made of panthers (which are very abundant) as they draw

largely upon the same supplies of food as the lions. Unfortunately,

as the instinct to poach is so deep rooted in many otherwise respectable

persons, this may defeat its own ends, as holders of permits may

be found to wreak havoc among other kinds of game.

Whatever authority is in direct charge of the preservation of lions

should keep careful records of those that are shot, with their measure-

ments and other relevant details, and of lions found dead, with their

sex, probable age and, whenever possible, cause of death.

The work of the census was full of incident and has left us with

a host of memories.

For myself perhaps the main recollection is of the unbelievable

discomfort and dust of travelling the appalling forest tracks in an

open jeep under the hot weather sun. For Dubois the most exciting

moment must have been on the night of his arrival when he awoke

from his sleep on Jamwala railway platform to find a panther at his

side, eyeing him, so he says, with a lean and hungry look. For the

Yuvraj of. Wankaner, at the other, end of the Gir: ia.the .Devaha

Preserve, a remarkable experience was to watch a lioness pass between

the tree holding his machan and the ladder leading up to it. It

was, he tells me, a very low machan.

Once again I have recollections of Jasadhar, that most remote of

places with its strangely attractive African landscape of acacia jungle

and grass-covered hills. Strangely attractive, too, are the sonorous

names of its habitations . . . Wankajambu, Tulsishyam, Vejalkotha,

Chikalkuba, Nandivelo, Timberwa. It was at Jasadhar that we were

compensated for the fruitless evenings we had spent waiting for

panther at Christmas, when one found sleeping close to the Rawal

river came out within three minutes to the bleating of a goat to be

shot in the glaring light of mid-day. Nor shall we forget the dumb

patience with which a bull, terribly mutilated by lions, awaited his

end in the village. It was here too that the hospitable Mr. Sheikh

entertained us to yet another Lucullan lunch.

The final act of the census was a visit to the Junagadh Zoo to

check up on the pug measurements of young lions and cubs.

On arrival I was startled to find an infuriated young lion penned

up for me in a small transportable cage fitted with a sliding partition

so that its unfortunate occupant could be flattened helpless against

its bars. Keepers stood by with brush, bottle of ink and several large

sheets of white paper! Interesting though this experiment would

have proved I felt compelled to call a halt to it and explain that it

was pug-marks on the ground that I wished to measure. ‘This, they

said, was easy and led me forthwith into the cage of a lioness, where

I had no difficulty in getting the data I required. Fortunately it

was easy to keep her to the far side of the enclosure, but I did

regard it as unnecessary for the door to be bolted after we had

entered. The younger cubs presented no difficulty.

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc.

Bhatt Art Studio, Junagadh

Young Gir lions on buffalo

—/

)

: ’

prc

—-

THE GIR FOREST VAND TTS LIONS 467

Had we held the census three days earlier our preliminary con-

ference at Sasan would have left us with an even more exciting

memory, for the notorious dacoit Visamanjaria and three of his con-

federates were ambuscaded and shot dead in one of the rooms of the

rest house.

Tue History OF THE Lion IN JUNAGADH STATE 1880 TO 1936

AS DERIVED FROM JUNAGADH STATE RECORDS

(M.A W-B.}

As early as 1880 Colonel Watson considered that there were not

more than a dozen lions in the Gir Forest, though there were almost

certainly more than this, as the official estimate of 1893 gave a total

of 31. However, that the lions were in real danger of extinction

by the end of the century was indicated by another official estimate

made in rgoo, in which ihe total had dropped to 1g, inclusive of 8

cubs, though, as these figures were largely based on guesswork, too

much reliance should not be placed on them. There was plenty of

indirect evidence that there were more lions than these figures indi-

eated . . . especially the amount of damage done by them, and the

numbers that were regularly shot outside Junagadh territory.

1899-1900 were the years of the Great Kathiawar Famine when

almost all the game in the Gir Forest died from lack of water, and —

this had undoubtedly seriously affected the already dwindling stock

of lions. Lord Curzon, who had at that time been invited to Junagadh

to shoot a lion, on being informed of the situation (he was told that

only about 12 lions remained) promptly cancelled his visit, and urged

the Nawab (H. H. Rasulkhanji) to take steps to save the animals

from extinction. The Nawab immediately agreed to do whatever was

in his power, and from this dates the first attempt at their protection.

Shortly afterwards, however, the Nawab wrote to the Viceroy com-

plaining that he was receiving no co-operation from neighbouring

States, and asked for his assistance. This must have been given, for

both Jetpur and Baroda States promised a certain measure of help,

though it will be seen that a complete ban on the shooting of lions

proved impracticable.

At this time, too, probably because the Nawab was the prime

mover in their protection, and because the great majority of the

animals lived in his forest, arose the claim that all lions were his

property, no matter in whose territory they were living. This was

a somewhat unreasonable premise seeing that lions without a doubt

aiso bred and had their being throughout the year in both the Baroda

and Jetpur Gir, and one that was even less tenable as the Nawab

steadily refused to admit any compensation for damage done by his

lions in foreign territory.

And so in 1901 was recorded a complaint from the people of

Mendarda, in Jetpur, about damage done there by lions, and a demand

either for compensation from the Junagadh Darbar, or that Junagadh

should stock their forest with goats to attract their beasts baclx to it.

No compensation was granted or considered, and no goats were

sent to the forest.

468 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ‘HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

In the same year it was reported that in seven months lions had

killed 352 domestic animals, 2 women, one boy, and had _ seriously

mauled a man, around the villages of Aritha, Valadar, and Harmadia

in the Baroda territory to the south of the Gir. ‘Lions are much

bolder and enter villages during the daytime. and fearlessly attack

men and cattle. The police have had to exert themselves to protect

human life’, so reads the report. In fact they had killed one lion

near Ghantwad, which seems justifiable under the circumstances, but

which nevertheless brought forth a strong complaint from Junagadh.

However, in reply, the Gaekwar amended his Act of 1876 which had

permitted the destruction of certain kinds of game in protection of

life and crops, specifically excluding lions from it, though at the same

time reserving to himself the right of ordering their destruction if

he thought it necessary.

The following vear another lon was shot in_ self-defence near

Ghantwad, calling forth a similar complaint from Junagadh.

Lieutenant O’ Boe a political officer who had killed the lion, stated

in his report that in the years 1899 and 1g00 almost all the game in

the forest had died off, and the lions at the time of writing were

living on the edge of the Gir and preying solely on cattle with

occasional human victims. He added that they had established a

regular reign of terror in the Ghantwad district where a boy had

been killed and eaten not long before, and that the lions had become

so bold that in April they had torn the roof off a hut in a village to

get at the goats inside. Two men had recently been killed as far

away from the Gir as the Kodinad district. He concluded his report

by stating that Junagadh must make arrangements to tie up cattle

within their borders to feed the lions. In reply Junagadh suggested

that the villagers should protect their cattle (and themselves) by

beating drums and letting off fireworks.

In 1903 the annual trouble recurred when a lion was killed in

self-defence just over the Baroda border on the banks of the Singavada

River. However, at that time the situation was becoming too

awkward for even the Nawab himself. In his own State in 1901, 31

men had been killed and 8 mauled by lions, and though no figures

can be found for the years 1902 and 1903, it is unlikely that there

was any great decrease in deaths from this cause, as 29 men were

killed and 11 mauled in 1904 and the lions were once more described

as becoming ‘very bold’. It was, we are forced to believe, the diffi-

culties caused in his own State rather than the complaints of his

neighbours, who, on the contrary, seem to have been remarkably

long-suffering, that led to the Nawab’s decision in that year to ‘use

his discretion. in shooting the lions’. And so ended the first attempt

at their protection.

As the lions were maddened with hunger at that period owing to

the shortage of food caused by the famine, it is probable that protect-

ion was impracticable except by the drastic step of keeping large

herds of cattle and goats in the Gir exclusively for the purpose of

feeding them. This obviously could not be done when man, slowly

recovering from the famine years, had full need of the flocks and herds

himself, and, indeed, such an action would be a matter of doubtful.

morality at the best of times.

THE GIR. FOREST (ANDY ITS. LIONS 469

For the years between 1904 and 1911, when the Nawab died and

British Administration took over the state during the minority of his

successor, there are no hion records to be found, though, if we are to

believe Wallinger, the Chief Forest Officer in 1913, they were shot at

an annual rate of 4 or 5 in Junagadh territory and 8 outside it. How-

ever, a most interesting fact to observe is that it was during these

years that the habits of the lions underwent a profound change, for

never again are they heard of as a menace to human life. This was

in all probability the result of a return to normal conditions after the

famine years. <As the supply of wild game increased and especially

as the herds of cattle and buffaloes in the forest grew bigger, lions

would be able to pick and choose their prey, no longer being urgently

driven by hunger to attack whether man was near or not. At the

same time it would no longer be a matter of such vital urgency for the

herdsmen to protect their beasts even at the risk of their own lives,

for most of the deaths had taken place during attempts to drive oft

lions that were harassing cattle. Certain it is that for the last 30

or 4o years lions have been most tolerant of men and such deaths as

have occurred have been caused by wounded lions or lonesses with.

cubs.

In ro1r1 British Administration took over and some sort of con-

trol over the shooting of lions was exercised, for in 1912 Ganga

Singh, Maharajah of Bikaner, was refused permission to shoot one

‘as they had become so scarce’.

However, in 1913, after a tour of the forest lasting for nearly two

months Captain Wallinger reported that he thought that there were

only from 6 to 8 lions left and that there were certainly not more

than 20, the statement being supported by Mr. Brooke-Fox, the Chief

Engineer of the State, a keen shikari and one who knew the forest

well. The lions, it must be assumed, were at last almost extinct.

In view of the supposed condition of the lions in 1904 and the

history of the previous nine years, to my mind, the interesting and

important fact is that they had continued to exist at all. It says.

much for their powers of survival.

As a result of this report, Mr. Rendall, the then Administrator,

placed a ban on the shooting of lions in Junagadh State, and at the

same time urged States adjacent to the Gir to do the same.

At a later date, one assumes when the lions were thought to have

increased their numbers, a limited quota (never more than three a

year) was shot, and the rules for their protection that were still in

force when Junagadh was taken over by the Saurashtra Government

were framed.

In 1917 H. H. Ganga Singh of Bikaner was granted permission

to shoot a lion, which he did, and the fact that he had khabar of

8 lions near Sasan points to the success of these measures and

suggests that they had already rapidly increased their numbers. Ulti-

mately, of course, they were to do so to a remarkable extent.

In 1920 P. R. Cadell, an Administrator who took a keen interest

in the animals, said that their number was about 50, although 10 or

12 were poached yearly in adjacent States, such lions sometimes

even being driven across the Junagadh border for this purpose or

attracted there by tying up cattle.

470 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

In 1917 lions began to visit Mytiala, to the north-east of the Gir

in Bhavnagar territory, where they had not been seen for many

years. They have regularly visited the area since 1922 and their

shooting was carefully controlled by the Bhavnagar Darbar after 1929.

In 1922 British Administration ceased and the new Nawab (H. H.

Mahabatkhanji) ascended the gadi, to continue the good work of pro-

tection instituted by the British. Indeed his zeal in this matter

promptly led him into trouble with two of India’s greatest rulers,

who, having failed to secure an answer from the Nawab to repeated

requests to shoot a lion in the Junagadh forest arranged to hold their

camp in Jetpur territory. On being approached for his co-operation

in this matter, the Nawab peremptorily refused to admit they had any

vight to shoot his lions, even in another state, and commanded them

to abandon the proposed trip. The shooting party, nevertheless,

continued with their plans, but met with no success as the Junagadh

pagis were instructed to station themselves on the border and let off

guns and beat drums to scare the game. When it was realised that

there was no chance of bagging a lion, the party turned their attention

to panther and tied up for one that was in the neighbourhood. The

Junagadh authorities, not to be outdone, immediately crossed the

border, managed to kill the panther, cut off its head and legs, and

insultingly left the carcass to rot. After this it is hardly surprising

that relations between the Nawab and the two rulers were strained,

but a more friendly atmosphere was eventually restored by the presen-

tation of a magnificent rifle to the Nawab as a peace-offering.

The following year it was again recorded that 12 lions had been

shot outside Junagadh territory.

From this date until 1936 records are again absent, but it must

have been a period of steady increase in the numbers of lions (in spite

of continued ‘poaching’ in neighbouring states), as the census of 1936

gave a total of 287 lions in Junagadh territory.

NOTES ON SOME ASIATIC STURNID4® (BIRDS)!

DANIEL MARIEN

(With a text map)

(Communicated by Dr. Ernst Mayr, New York)

INTRODUCTION

Indian starlings include the genera Saroglossa (1 species), Slurnus

(10 species), and Gracula (2 species). Except for Savoglossa, of Mada-

gascan affinity, and the specialized Gracula, these are the more ‘typi-

cal’ members of the family in the sense of being the ones most familiar

in other countries where they have been introduced.

The status of the genera has already been reviewed by Amadon

(1943 b); in this paper it has been possible to reassess the status of some

of the lesser taxonomic groups of the Indian sub-region. Some sugges-

tions are made for further investigation in the field, two forms recog-

nized in the New Fauna are found not to be valid, a recently described

race confirmed, and a hitherto unnoticed plumage in Savoglossa shiloptera

studied.

Dr. Walter Koelz's industrious collecting in India, Persia, and

Afghanistan has supplied workers at the American Museum of Natural

History in New York with an unparalleled opportunity for a systematic

study of the Indian fauna and this review is chiefly based on his speci-

mens. His superb material, in most cases with all plumages adequa-

tely represented, gives us a more up-to-date and accurate picture of the

avifauna, and concomitantly new biological and distributional problems

suggest themselves.

The systematic arrangement follows that of Amadon (1943 b) in his

review of the genera of starlings. Iam in agreement with his decision

to unite Pastor, Sturnia, Sturnornis, Sturnopastor, and Temenuchus with

Sturnus. His suggestion that Acridotheres will be considered by some

authorities as not deserving generic distinction is justified. The one

constant character by which Acridotheres differs from Sturnaus,a tendency

for the possession of a frontal crest, is too trivial in comparison with

the many features which they share to warrant excluding Acridotheres

<om the enlarged genus Sturnzus. |

Measurements: All measurements are given in millimeters and are

of adult birds in the Koelz coilection. Wing length was measured with

the wing pressed flat against the rule. ‘The bill was measured from the

anterior edge of the nostril.

Localities: The localities of the specimens in the Koelz collection

are given with the expectation that they will prove useful in extending

the knowledge of the distributions of Indian birds.

1 Notes from the Walter Koelz Collections, Number 9.

472 JOURNAL, BOMBAY (NATURAL JHIST. SOCIETW ior 229

Saroglossa spiloptera (Vigors)

Synonym: Suroglossa spiloptera assamensis Baker (Type locality:

i<hasia Hills).

Uttar PRADESH (United Provinces): Kathgodam, April 6-10, 1948, 4 ad. ¢,

3 ad. 2, Kumaon: Bageswar, June 2, lad. ¢. 3 ad. 9. NEPAL: Amlekhganj,

March 8-9, 1947, 3 ad. 3,2? imm:, 4) /2 ad.;O:; Hitaura, June 12) 17; 21, 2adn

HadeD, July JO iimme eo:

Stuart Baker (1924) proposed the name assamenszs for an eastern race

of this species which he characterized as ‘ deeper and more richly colored

above and below in both sexes. In the male the grey centres to the

feathers of the back are bolder and the margins less brown.’ ‘Ticehurst

(Stanford and Ticehurst 1935) was correct in not recognizing this race;

he noted that the male plumage is variable and that western Himalayan

birds are similar to those from Assam.

Also, without apparent foundation, Baker (1926, 1933) extends the

eastern border of the species’s range to include Burma, Shan States,

Yunnan, Annam, Cochin China and southwestern China. This is deci-

dedly incorrect. In Burma it is only a winter visitant (Stanford and

Ticehurst, 1938) as it must also be in Siam. Rothschild (1926) in his

complete survey of the Yunnan avifauna does not even mention this

species; still later Stanford and Ticehurst (1938) could say it “has not

been recorded from Yunnan.” Mr. Jean Delacour tells me that it has

never been found in Indo-China, nor am [ able to trace any record of its

occurrence there.

It must be considered as breeding in the Himalayas from eastern

Assam (and possibly adjacent areas in northwest Burma) westward at

least to the Kangra Valley in Punjab.

Although I have seen no molting specimens, it is probable that there

is a single, post-nuptial molt which occurs between July and November;

freshly molted birds are to be found in November while the specimens

collected between February and June are worn.

Many females have a few chestnut feathers dispersed among the brown

throat plumage, a condition I have not seen previously described.

In this species there appear to exist two types of first year male

plumage. It has previously been assumed that the young resemble the

female, but that the inarkings of the juvenal are more streaked. Among

the examples of this starling collected by Koelz are three specimens

which strongly suggest that the plumages of this species are not as

simple as commonly believed.

One type of first year male plumage is exhibited by a fledgling male,

with gape still fleshy, collected at Hitaura, Nepal, July 19, 1947. The

plumage of this individual approaches that of the adult male in several

respects and so definitely differs from what has been regarded as the

normal immature plumage that it deserves a detailed description.

Breast, abdomen, flanks, and under tail coverts pale rufous, except for dall

white area in center of abdomen ; feathers of the throat dull white, but the shafts,

and edges brown, imparting a streaked appearance ; primaries dull black, glossed

with green ; secondaries browner, and the outer vanes already elongate, producing

the characteristic grey patch ; upperparts brown, becoming rufous on the scapulars

tertials, rump, and upper tail coverts ; the entire back has a more rufous aspect

than that of the female ; tail dusky brown above, below, the rectrices are grey-

brown on the outer vanes and pale rufous on the inner vanes ; axillaries pale

NOTES ON SOME ASTATIC STURNIDAL (BERDS) A73

rufous; under wing coverts at bend of wing brown, barred with rufous; thigh

rufous; feet black although the colors of the soft parts were not recorded on

‘the label.

It will be seen at once that it resembles the adult male in the rufous

and unstreaked underparts and the glossy black wings, characters never

present in the female.

The second type of plumage is undoubtedly the one Baker (1926)

and others considered as that of the immature male. At Amlekhganj,

Nepal, March 8-9, 1947, Koe!z collected two males (although one was

doubtfully sexed as such) displaying that plumage. Measurements? indi-

cate they are males. Both birds are virtually identical with all the

females I have examined but are larger and with a slightly more ex-

tensive white area on the abdomen. One would expect, however, that

a male taken in the spring would possess the fully adult male plumage.

The nesting season, as given by Baker (1933), is from April to June.

it is therefore probable that these birds have passed the winter in this

female-like plumage.

Similar cases of a divergence of plumages in the same sex have

been discussed by Mayr (1933), particularly in Meolalage banksiaxa, and

by Amadon (1943a) in Gallicolumba stairi and some races of G. beccariz.

In G. sfairz it was found that females possessed, besides the feminine

type adult plumage, a male type adult plumage almost identical with

that of the male. Amadon regarded the male type plumage as advanced

(** progressive ’’) and the female type as retarded; the normal juvenal

plumage in that species resembles the female plumage.

In Neolalage bankstana, Mayr found two immature plumages, one

which was described as normal and the other as ‘“ progressive’ which

approaches in coloration the adult plumage. Birds possessing either

plumage eventually molt into the adult dress.

Both cases are somewhat analogous to the condition in S, spzlopfera

but it is not yet possible to say which case more nearly resembles that

of the starling. It is not clear from the material so far available whether

the feminine type male plumage persists in the adult male, or whether

after the next molt the fully adult male dress is acquired by those males

with a feminine type plumage.

It is not known, of course, if earlier collectors, upon taking a male

in the feminine type plumage automatically jiabelled them immatures

because of the condition of the plumage. New specimens of this bird

should be carefully sexed and the breeding condition ascertained so that

it may be possible to decide if the malesin femaie plumage are first

year birds in progressive plumage or adult birds in retarded plumage.

MEASUREMENTS: Wing: J, 110, 110, 110, 110, 111, 111, 111, 115; 29, 105,

105.5, 106, 106; Tail: ¢d', 56, 57, 57.5, 57.5, 58.5, 59, 60.5, 61, 99, 54, 55, 56,

56, 57.5. Bill: fe, 13.5, 13.5, 13.5, 14, 14, 14.5, 14.5, 15, 15, 15; 99, 13, 13, 13.5,

14, 14, 14, 14, 14, 14.

Superspecies Sturnus malabaricus

As currently treated, there are six named races of the Grey-headed

Myna: of these, three races are endemic on islands in the Bay of

Bengal and three races occur on the mainland of southeastern Asia from

+ (in mm.) Wing: 109, 111; tail. : 59,60; bill: 13,5, 15.5.

474 JOURNAL, /BOMBAY NATURAL AAIST. SOCIE LY” Vole

southern “Tadia to Indo-China, Ticehurst (1940) has suggested the

possible inclusion of Sturnus senex of Ceylon as a subspecies of S.

malabaricus, but all authors, although cognizant of the relationship of

the two forms, have retained sezex as a full species.

Ripley (1949) characterizes S. senex and S. malabaricus as members

of a superspecies. Thedistribution of sezex and the continental races of

malabaricus suggests to him that the latter may have invaded peninsular

India during periods of low temperature and high humidity ; the route

postulated is across the main watershed of India: the Khasia Hills-

Kaimur “Ridge-Vindhya Hills mountain chain from Malaysia. The

populations on Ceylon and along the Malabar Coast became isolated

during succeeding periods of high temperature and decreased humidity

and evolved during these periods of isolation into the subspecies

blythii and the strikingly different senzex.

This does not seem completely convincing. .S. senex appears to be

amore primitive species; it is crestless, the underparts are streaked

like the juvenals of some species of Sturvnus, and the crown, back and

rump are dullcolored, not glossy. It is so different from malabaricus

that it becomes difficult to conceive of dlythiz and senex being evolved

from the same immediate ancestral stock. Ceylonese forms are rarely

so different from their mainland congeners. It appears more likely that

senex is arelict of species which was once more widespread in India,

having become extirpated over most of its range but managing to

survive on Ceylon.

There are two morphologically distinct groups within walabaricus.

Asa unit the three island races are as different from the mainland

races as the Ceylonese species is from either group; at the same time

the races of each group have such an extremely similar color pattern

as to emphasize the dichotomy. It seems necessary to raise each group

to species rank and to exclude the primitive sezex as a member of the

superspecies. The superspecies S. malabaricus would then include the

two polytypic species S. malabaricus and S. ery ony sie, each with

three subspecies.

Because of their similar appearance and local migrations some con-

fusion has been evident in previous statements of the breeding ranges of

the races of malabaricus. I have attempted below to give the probable

distributions.

S. m. malabaricus and S. m. dlythiz. Compared with the ranges of

the two other races of malabaricus the range of the southern Indian race,

blythiz, is a rather limited one. Reliable breeding records for this

subspecies have been established for northern Kanara, Coorg, and ‘the

parts of Mysore bordering on the Wynaad.’ (Whistler and Kinnear,

1933). Salim Ali and Whistler (1936) state that d/y/hzz is the breeding

form of Travancore, the nominate race appears in that locality only as

a winter visitant. Salim Ali (1943) says that d/ythiz is resident in

Mysore, but his are all winter specimens and he gives no breeding data.

Whistler and Kinnear (1933) are emphatic in denying that either race

breeds in Belgaum. Koelz’s series, from just south of Belgaum, offers.

no breeding records but shows that both subspecies may occur together

there in winter.

Before proceeding further it will be useful to summarize what

has so far been established. The race O/ythzz, then, is restricted as

NOTES ON SOME ASIATIC STURNIDA (BIRDS) 475

a breeding bird to the southern Indian hills from Travancore to.

north Kanara and eastward in the hills of Mysore. It appears to be

separated by a considerable gap from nominate malabaricus; the latter

is known to breed from Mewar and Madhya Pradesh (Central Provinces).

eastward to Assam and Bengai and north in the Himalayan foothills

from Dehra Dun to Mishmi Hills.

The wintering records of d/yihzz are unusually interesting, for on the

basis of the known range they give evidence of a northward migration

after breeding, an otherwise unprecedented movement among Indian

starlings. Specifically, d/ythzz has been found in winter, together with

malabaricus, in Travancore and Mysore, just south of Belgaum, and as

far north as Bombay City (Salim Ali and Abdulali 1937)1. There are

two possible interpretations: the first that d/ythzz wanders north after

nesting and the second that the movement is only an apparent one, the

visitants coming from unkown breeding areas further east and not from

the south.

Additional light is shed upon this question by some of the Koelz

specimens. Of fourteen specimens from Londa and Jagalbed, seven are

blythiz, five are nominate malabaricus, and three appear intermediate.

These three birds have the crown and nape white, like d/ythzz, but the

white of the throat does not extend onto the breast. (The extension

caudad of the white of the throat, in some cases reaching the abdomen,

will always separate typical d/ythzz of both sexes from malabaricus). It

is evident that the two races are interbreeding in an as yet undetermined.

area.

It is therefore possible that the ranges of d/ythtz and the nominate

race are more extensive than previously believed. The evidence points

to a more northerly and easterly distribution for d/yfhiz than has been

yet reported. The nominate race should be found breeding further

southwest into Gujarat, hybridizing with d/ythzz in that general region.

The white-headed subspecies seem to be only slightly or locally migra-

tory, whereas the nominate subspecies is distinctly migratory.

S.M. MALABARICUS and S.M. NEMORICOLA: The third main-

land subspecies, memoricola, is found from northern Burma and north-

western Yunnan to southern Annam, Siam and Tenasserim. The breast

and abdomen are normally greyish-white, but in this exceedingly variable

form some specimens are almost indistinguishable from malabaricus in

the amount of ferrugineous on the underparts. The alula and primary

coverts are frequently white, but this character is not constant; indivi-

duals may be found which have some or all of the coverts, and the

alula, black. I have examined a specimen of malabaricus from Nepal

which has the left alula white and the right one black. This is unusual,

for that race otherwise has those feathers black.

Two specimens from Pantha, Upper Chindwin, identified as malaba-

vicus (Mayr, 1938) are really zemoricola. The male is quite erythritic

below, but the female is greyish-white, the usual condition in this race.

This subspecies also occurs in the Myitkyina District of northern

Burma, (Stanford & Ticehurst, 1938),

+ We have since seen specimens collected at Ahmedabad in Gujarat, ca. 300:

miles north of Bombay city.—Ebs.

476 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 49

In the use of the appended key to the subspecies, it must be remem-

bered that because of the variability of this species specimens may be

encountered which will not fit the key. Intermediates will also be a

source of difficulty. Such cases are best treated by assigning the bird

‘in question to the proper race on the basis of range. Here again diffi-

culties will be met with for in winter two forms may occur in the same

locality, especially along the Malabar Coast in southern India and the

Arakan Coast of Burma.

Useful accounts of the intraspecific variation that is known to existin

S. malabaricus are to be found in papers by Deignan (1945) and Stan-

ford & Ticehurst (1938).

KEy TO THE SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES OF THE S/urzz25

malabaricus Group (adults only)

1. Secondaties, tertials, and central tail

feathers black, glossed with green;

never grey -. (species evythropygia) 2

Secondaries, tertials, and central tail

feathers grey (species malabaricus) 4

2, Rump and upper-tail coverts pearly

grey or roseate, never deeply ;

ferrugineous 3

Rump and upper-tail coverts Bees

nut (Car Nicobar only) erythropygia

%, Under-tail coverts pinkish buff or ©

white (Andaman Islands only) . andamanensis

Under-tail coverts rufous (Katehal

Island only)! katchalensts

4. Crown and nape white or pale erent

never conspicuously streaked;

breast always white; rump .grey

(southwest India) dlythit (males)

sence and nape grey, sometimes

streaked with black and white; if

crown white or unstreaked grey,

then rump buffy ae 5

Breast sullied white or grey, some-

times tinged with rufous; rufous

usually restricted to lower flanks

and abdomen

Breast and abdomen rufous

6. Rump grey, sometimes tinged with

ochraceous (southwest India) ... dlythiz (females)

Rump distinctly buffy (Burma, Siam,

Yunnan, Annam) . nenoricola (part)

7. Rump distinctly buffy, head some-

times almost white (Burma, Siam,

Yunnan, Annam) ... memoricola (part)

ba EOD)

* Specimens not seen ; adapted from Stuart Baker (1926),

NOTES ON SOME ASTAFIC: S¥URNIDAS: (BERDS) AT 7

Rump grey, sometimes faintly ting-

ed with rufous (Himalayan foot-

hills from Dehra Dun to Nepal,

Assam and Bengal; in winter to

South India and Arakan Coast of

Burma) ... malabaricus

STURNUS MALABARICUS BLYTHU (Jerdon)

(Including intermediates)

SOUTHERN BoMBAY PROvINCE: Londa, Jan. 16, 1938, lad. ¢, Jan. 19, lad. 3

Jan. 26-29, 3.ad. ¢, Feb. 6, lad. 3, Feb. 12, 1 ad, &%

(he following birds are all intermediate between this race and nominate

malabaricus): Londa; Jan. 30, 1938, 1 ad. 2, Jagalbed, ‘Feb, 19, 1 ad. 4g,

March 10,1 ad. 4.

In the Indian starlings as a group, except for small size differences,

there is almost no sexual dimorphism. It is therefore curious that in

S. malabaricus there. should be a distinct trend toward such differentia-

tion. In both this and the nominate race the females differ from the

males in having the rufous underparts very much paier. The females of

both of these races are rather similar, but in 6/y/h7z the male only has evolv-

eda white, unstreaked crown. The sexes of xemoricola are only distin-

guishable by average size differences. The mainland races of this

species thus show an increasing differentiation of the sexes from the

easternmost to the westernmost subspecies.

MEASUREMENTS: (Adult males only) wing: 96, 99, 102°5, 104, 104°5, 105, 107;

Pail: 62, 63,-65, 65,.66,.67, 67°5 ; Bill :.14°5, 14°5,.14°5, 15,15, 15, 16,

STURNUS MALABARICUS MALABARICUS (Gmelin)

SOUTHERN BOMBAY PRrOvINCE: Londa, January 16, 1938, lad. 4, Jan. 2

lad. 2, March-12, 1 ad. 2; Jagalbad, March 3, 1 ad. 4

KATHIAWAR: Junagadh, Sasan, Feb, 1, 1949, 1] ad. 4,

NEPAL: Simra, March 5, 1947, 2 ad. ¢; Amlekhgani, March 6-7, 1 ad. -7, 1 ad,

pa LhamkotNprl\.12, lad. 23 -Mitaura, May 16-June 16, 7 ad.: 3, 3 ad: 2,

1 imm. Be

Urrar PrapEsu (United Provinces): Kumaon, Kathgodam, April 6, 1948, 1

ad. J, Aug. 18, 1 ad. 2; Bageswar, April 22, 1 ad. 2; Gorakhpur, Jan. 26-27,

194751 adn 3,2 ad. &.

MapHVA PRADESH (Central Provinces): Bichhia, July 9-22, 1946, 1 ad. 4, 2.ad.Q,

1 tmnsexed ad., 1 imm. ¢; Belwani-Kisli, July. 30, i@imm.” @y.4 imm, a

Mandla, Oct. 14, lad. 2. Amraoti, Bastar, March oF; 1949, 2 adoe:

AssAM: Khasia Hills, Umran, ‘April 9-12, 1949, 1 ad. es 3 ad. 2 ; Nongpoh,

April 20-25, .1 ad...¢,.2 ad. &:

The post-nuptial molt begins very early in July; I have found no

molting birds after September, but the material examined was scanty.

It seems probable that individuals molt rapidly.

_ MEASUREMENTS: Wing: 93%, 98-106 (102°3) ; 629, 96-102 (98°3). Tail: 644,

59-65 (62°8), 829, 60-635 (61°6). ‘Bill: 1833, 11: 5215 (13:0), 1999; 12-14 (13°3y:

Sturnus pagodarum

Most authors have been agreed that there are no subspecies of the

Brahrriny Myna and that the species is uniform across its entire range

in India from Assam to Afghanistan and south to Ceylon. It seems to

have been overlooked that the resident birds of the plains of south

478 JOURNAL; "BOMBAY “NATURAL HIST.” SOCIN TY Wow)

India exhibit a constant color difference when compared with other

Indian birds. They are distinctly browner-backed whereas the

northern and southern hill populations are gray-backed. They are also

very slightly smaller, but not sufficiently so as to be separable on the

basis of that character alone. It is probable that a large enough series

would demonstrate the existence of a regular clinal increase of size from

south to north ; this is suggested by the material at hand but the trend

is not clear.

Koelz (1939) noted that his specimens from northern India and

Afghanistan were grayer than his specimens from Madras, but thought

that in addition the Afghanistan birds could be separated from those of

Bombay, Lucknow and Nepal; for the latter he suggested the name

sylvestrts of Hodgson (1836). Accordingly, he named the former

atghanorum, at the same time indicating that he considered it probable

that Punjab and Rajputana birds would also belong to that race.

I have examined the type series from which afghanorum was

described and although they are on the whole slightly paler than

Indian specimens they are decidely more worn than the latter. Since

there are indications that birds in fresh plumage are darker, it is not

possible to be certain that the differences seen are not caused by , wear.

I believe that at the present time it is best not to recognize a distinct

Afghanistan race, although one could, with some justification, expect

that the population of the dry northwest will prove separable when

more specimens are forthcoming. |

Adults have been found molting as early as August 28 and as late

as December 26. ‘T'wo birds were found molting exceptionally late:

a male taken January 3 at Mandasa, Madras Province, molt almost

completed, and a female collected on February 6 at Sasan, Junagadh,

just beginning to molt. There are two to three broods per year in this

species and late-molting birds might conceivably be ones which have

attempted to raise the maximum number of young. There is no

substantial evidence for a pre-nuptial molt.

STURNUS PAGODARUM PAGODARUM (Gmelin)

MADRAS PROVINCE: Saba, Jan. 27, 1937, lad. ¢; Mandasa, Jan. 30, lad J;

Nilambur, March 3-5, 1 ad. 4, lad. 9; Salem, March 11-12, 1948, 1 ad. 4, lad.

; Cudapah, March 19, 1937, 1 ad. 9; Sidhout, March 21-22, 3 ad. 44 ad. 2;

Hospet, March 25, lad. ¢&.

The type locality of Zurdus pagodarum Gmelin is Malabar and

Cormandel (Gmelin, 1789) and therefore this name must be restricted

to the population of the plains of southern India. Sturnus subroseus of

Shaw and Nodder (1808) is based on a description by Levaillant (1799)

of ‘le Martin Brame’. Levaillant’s description: ‘Le manteau, les

scapulaires, les recouvrements du dessus de l'aile, les moyennes pennes

de Vaile, le dos, les couvertures du dessus de la queue et les deux

plumes du milieu de la queue, sont d’un gris roussatre,’ and the illustra-

tion (plate 95) indicate that a brown-backed bird is the form described.

Clearly then, Sturnus subroseus Shaw and Nodder is a synonym of

pagodarum, and to underscore this I restrict the type locality of

S. sabvoseus to Malabar District, Madras Province.

MEASUREMENTS : Wing: ¢%, 103, 104, 105, 107, 108, 110, 110, 110; 22, 99, 99,

99, 100, 100,101, 101. Tail: 44, 64, 64, 66, 66°5, 67, 67, 67°5, 71°5 ; 29, 60, 60°5, 61.5,

64, 64; 64. Bill : $4, 10, 12, 12, 12°5, 13°5, 14, 14, 14; 29, 11, 11°5,-12, 12, 12, 12, 13.

NOTES ON SOME ASIATIC: STURNIDAS \(BIRDS) ATS

STURNUS PAGODARUM AFGHANORUM (Koelz)

AFGHANISTAN : Marmakhel, May 20-24, 1937, 3 ad. ¢, lad. 2; Chandau,

June 7, 2 ad. f, lad. 2; Tagau, June 8, 1 ad. ¢ (type).

InDIA: PunJAB: Kulu Valley, Kulu, June 3-4, 1933, lad. 4, 1 ad. 2; Dartse

Valley, Lahul, Oct. 10, 1936, 1 imm. ¢, limm. .

SOUTHERN BOMBAY PROVINCE: Londa, Jan. 12—March 12, 1938, 4 ad. 4,

3. ad. 9; Jagalbed, June 9, 1 ad. Q.

KaTHIAWAR : Sihor, Jan. 26-28, 1949, 2 ad. g; Junagadh, Sasan, Feb. 6,

Veen : Mewar, Udaipur, April 22, 1937, 2 ad. 4; Sirohi, Anadra, Dec. 29,

1948, lad. ¢.

MADHYA PRADESH (Central Provinces): Bheraghat, March 5—April 12, 1946, 6

ad. g, lad. 9, Nov. 13, 1 ad. 4, Dec. 12-24, 2 ad. 9, limm. 9; Bichhia, July 22,

2imm. ¢. Ramanujgang, Surguja: Oct. 6-9, 1947, Lad. ¢, lad. Q.

BrHaR : Mohammadganj, Aug. 23-30, 1947, 2 ad. J, 1 imm. ¢, 2 imm. @;

Garhwa Road, Sept. 12, 1 ad. ¢; Nawadah, Nov. 12, l1imm.

UTTAR PRADESH (United Provinces) : Benares, Jan. 22, 1947, 1 ad. g;

Lucknow, Dec. 10-11, 1936, 3 ad. 3, lad. @.

When Koelz (1939) gave a diagnosis of this race and applied

Hodgson’s (1836, p. 771) name sylvestris (nomen nudum) he therefore

became the author of sylvestvzs. However, sylvestris is best considered

a synonym of afghanorum and will be available if Afghanistan and

Indian birds should prove distinct.

MEASUREMENTS : Wing: 26 ¢%, 104-115 (109-2); 9 99, 97, 103°5 (101°2). Tail :

183g 66-73 (695); 99, 56-68°5 (64°1). Bill: 30 gg, 11°S-15 (13°0); 1099, 11-14

(12°6).

Sturnus roseus (Linnaeus)

IRAN: Luristan, Durud, April 21-22, 1941, 2 ad. ¢; Khorasan, Bujnurd,

Aug. 2, 1940, limm. ¢; Robati Khan, Sept. 2-3, limm. ¢,1limm. 9.

AFGHANISTAN : Khaksan, July 9, 1937, 2 ad. 2 ; Faizabad, July 10-12, 2 ad. 4,

lad. 9; Khaisabad, July 15, 1 ad. g, 2 ad. Q, I1sub-ad. 2, 2 fledgling 2 ; Zebak,

Waly 21, timm.-O); Iskarzir,. July30, load. 2; Jurm, Aug. 8, l imm. 2; Tuti,

Aug. 15, 1 imm. ¢; Sabz Pass, Aug. 29,1939, 2imm. 4; Balkh, Sept. 20, 1937,

limm. #3; Zehnadir, Sept. 26, 1939, lad. ¢.

INDIA : SOUTBERN BOMBAY PROVINCE: Londa, Jan. 15-28, 1938, 3 ad. 4,

1 ad. 9, 1 unsexed ad.

KATHIAWAR : Junagadh, Jamwala, Feb. 10, 1949, lad. 4.

MapHya PRADESH (Central Provinces) : Mandla, Oct. 14, 1946, 1 imm. 2;

Bheraghat, Dec. 26, 1 ad. 4, March 13-22, lad. 4,2 ad. 2, 1subad. @.

The Rosy Pastor is a breeding bird of the Palaearctic and a migrant

and winter visitor to India. The movements and status of this species

have been summarized, for the Indian area, in a recent paper by

Abdulali (1947), From the breeding grounds in southeastern Europe

and Russian Turkestan flocks appear as early as July and enter India

from the northwest between Baluchistan and the foot of the Himalayas.

This starling may be found throughout the winter in peninsular

India and Ceylon; the return flight begins in March and is generally

over in April.

In Afghanistan, it is considered a passage migrant on the route to

and from India. Whistler (1945, pp. 112-114) has very little infor-

mation about its movements in autumn,! recording only one bird taken

+ Spring passage through Northern Afghanistan has been described by

Meinertzhagen (/dzs, 1938 : 499-500)—Eps.

480 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY; Vol. 49

July 6 at Tala. The Koelz specimens indicate that this migration starts.

early in July and maintains at least as late as September 26.

Although it had been suggested at one time or another that the

Pastor might be found breeding in Afghanistan, Whistler (loc. cit.)

concluded that there was no evidence forit. ‘This bird must now be

considered as having bred at least once in Afghanistan, for Koelz

collected two fledgling females on July 15, 1937, at Khaisabad, with the

nestling down still clinging to the tips of the juvenal feathers and the

new rectrices and remiges still in their sheaths. These are unquestion-

ably the young of birds that had nested locally.

There is a single, post-nuptial molt. Two years seem to be required

to attain the fully adult plumage. The immature molts from a light

brown, streaked plumage into a plumage similar to the pattern of the

adult female, but duller and browner. Individuals in this first winter

plumage I have referred to as ‘sub-adult’ but do not imply that such

birds do not breed until gaining the nuptial feathering. Whether such

sub-adults breed is not stated in the literature.

Sturnus contra contra (Linnaeus)

Synonym: Sturvnus contra dehrae (Baker),

UTTAR PRADEsH (United Provinces) : Benares, Jan. 23, 1947, 1 ad. 7, 1 ad. 9;

Gorakhpur, Jan. 28, 1 ad. ¢; Nichlaul, Feb. 5, lad. 2; Lechiwala, Sept. 9, 1948,.

lad. ¢, 1.ad. 2; Lucknow, Dec. 10-12,.193€, 1 ad. 3, 1 ad.@.

MADHYA PRADESH (Central Provinces) : 7 miles north of Jubbulpore, Feb. 24,

1916, lad. 2; Raipur, March 31-April 1, 1949, 2ad. ¢, 2.ad. 2; Mandla, June 21,

1946, 1 ad. 4, Oct. 17,1 ad9) 1imm. 33 Bichhia, Oct..7\1 imm? oa ee

Bheraghat, Dec. 6-29, 5 ad. -#, 1 unsexed ad, Jan. 17, 1947, 1 ad. 2. Sureguja:

Ramanujganj, Sept. 6-8, 1947, 2 ad. 9, limm. 4, |imm. 9.

‘Broar: Mohammadganj, Aug. 25, 1947, 1 ad. ¢.

BENGAL: Dacca, Jan. 14-17, 1937, lad. ¢, 1 ad. 2; Sukna, Dec. 27, 1936, 2

ad. ¢; Siliguri, Dec. 30, l ad. 4,1 ad. Q.

AsSaAM: Khasia Hills, Barni Hat, May 15, 1949, lad. 4.

The type of dehvae (Baker, 1925, p. 103), taken in 1870, is from the

Hume Collection, and one cannot but suspect that this specimen, and

perhaps also the remainder of the type series, had faded over the

years. It is known that the Hume Collection remained in India many

years before being finally brought to the British Museum, and modern

facilities for properly caring for a collection were not available to

Hume. It is therefore not Surprising that more recent specimens,.

when compared with this material, should appear to be different.

I have examined a Series from near the type locality of dehvae and

do not find them to be paler than birds from Bengal and Northern

Cachar. Accordingly, I do not consider dehrae worthy of subspecific

recognition.

The type locality of contva was restricted to Calcutta by Baker

(1927, p. 62). This would seem an unfortunate choice if dehrae were

really valid, for Baker’s own description of the ranges of the two

races would place the type locality almost in the zone where the two

forms would meet.

Range: Plains of northern India from the United Provinces and

Central Provinces eastward to Assam. It is replaced in northern

Burma by S. c. superctliaris.

Molting individuals are to be found from Aug. 25 to the end of

December. The bill of young birds is horn color and the legs darker

NOTES ON SOME ASIATIC STURNIDZ (BIRDS) 48 1

than those of the adult. The bright yellow bill, so characteristic of the-

adult, is probably acquired in January or February.

MEASUREMENTS: Wing: 4, 120, 120.5, 121, 122, 122, 122,123, 125, 125, 126,

126 ; QP, 114,117, 118, 118, 120, 120, 120,120, 120, 120. Tail: gf, 68, 69, 69, 69, 70,

70, 70, 71, 72, 745174, 74, 753 22, 64, 64, 65°5, 65°5, 67, 67°5, 68, 68, 68:5, 70, 72.

Bill: 17 df, 19-21 (20°0), 12 GP, 18-21°5 (19-4).

A new subspecies, sordidus, (type locality : Sadiya, north-eastern

Assam), has recently been described by Ripley (1950). It is separated

from the nominate race as ‘“‘ having the streaklets on the shoulders

much reduced, and... lacking on the nape.” The streaklets are ‘‘ sepia

rather than vinaceous or drab.” In addition, the new race is said to be

darker on the underparts than contra. The range is given as ‘* Northern

Assain from Dibrugarh and Margherita north to the foothills around

the Brahmaputra gorges and east through the Lohit Vailey.”

In the Rothschild Collection there is only one specimen from the

range of this proposed race. It comes from Margherita and does not

differ from nominate contra; it shows none of the stated characters of

sordidus.

Sturnus tristis tristis (Linnaeus)

AFGHANISTAN : Marmakhel, May 23, 1937, 1 ad. 2 ; Laghman, May 25, 1 fledg!-

ing 9, May 26, 1 ad. 2; Tashkurgan, Sept. 4, 1 ad. . Akcha,, Sept. 8,1 ad. 2;

Sept. 17,1 ad. ¢, 1 ad. 9, 1 imm. ¢; Shirburgan, Sept. 13,1 ad. 4; Bai, Sept...

18, 1939, 1 ad. 3; Kandahar, Oct. 21-24, 1537, 3 ad. J, 3ad. 2; Andkhui, Nov.

7-24, liad. 3,;2.ad. 25 Balkh, Nov. 27,,1 ad: 9;

KASHMIR: Bandipur, July 30, 1936, limm. ¢, limm. &.

PunsAB: Kulu Valley, Kakinal, June 4, 1936, lad. &.

SinD: Khinjar Lake, Feb. 16, 1934, lad. ¢.

KATHIAWAR: Junagadh, Jamwala, Feb. 10, 1949, 1 ad. Q.

SOUTHERN BOMBAY PROVINCE: Londa, Jan. 15-27, Feb. 6-14, 1938, 3 ad. J

Sad. 2; Jagalbed, Feb. 19-27, 2 ad. 3,1 ad. 9; Supa, Feb. 27,1 ad. ¢.

MapHYA Buarat (Central Provinces): Saugor, Feb: 21, 1946, 1 ad. ¢;

Bheraghat, March 26-27, 2.ad. ¢, Dec. 1, 1 imm. ¢; Bichhia, July 15, 1 imm. 2;

Kanha, Sept. 1, limm. 2. Surguja: Ramanujganj, Oct. 5, 1947, lad. 4; Khuri

Oct. 28-29, 6 ad. J. ,

BIHAR: Mohammadganj, Aug. 24, 1947, 1 ad. ¢, Sept. 5, 1 ad. 9; Garhwa.

Road, Sept. 21, lad. 9.

Uttar PrapEsH (United Provinces) : Gorakhpur, Jan. 28, 1947, 1 ad. 9;

Nichlaul, Feb. 12, 1 ad. ¢; Kathgodam, Aug."20, 1948, lad. ¢ ; Lucknow, Dec. 13,

1936, lad. Q.

NEPAL: Simra, March 4, 1947,1 ad. ¢; Amlekhganj, March 10, 1 ad. 9;

Thankot, March 23, 1 ad. 2; Chitlang, April 16-22, 3 ad. ¢, 1 ad. 9; Hitaura,

Mavs, lad) O May 30; Wad. - gy June-i6,, Pimms gl imm,-9,° July. 14...

lad. Q, July 20, 1 ad. 9. :

BENGAL : Dacca, Jan.17, 1937, 1-ad. -.

Within the past quarter of a century the range of this myna has

undergone a vigorous expansion until it has now appeared as far east

as Indo-China and as far west as Afghanistan and Turkestan. In addi-.

tion it has been introduced by man in many areas remote from its

originalrange. Perhaps because of the large population size and ability

to colonize across what would prove effective barriers for other species .

it has not evolved into more than two distinct races,

It has been customary to separate the darker Ceylon bird as the

subspecies melanoslernus. Numerous. authors have remarked on the

intermediate population resident in Travancore ; these birds are lighter

than those from Ceylon but darker than northern Indian birds. As yet, .

no one has attempted to name this population although Baker (1926).

482 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

suggested that such a course might be possible. Even though the

differences may not be sufficient to express in taxonomic terms it may

be desirable to recognize the situation as a clinal increase In depth of

color from northern to southern India.

Although the period of molt extends at least from the end of July

through November, individual birds appear to molt quite rapidly. In

several specimens the entire head, including crown and throat, appears

naked, except for the tiny incoming feathers which are ail at the same

stage of development. The tail molt is also rapid ; after the central

pair have been renewed all the others are replaced almost simulta-

neously.

With wear, the plumage of the back becomes more red-brown.

MEASUREMENTS: Wing: 13¢¢, 146-153 (149°3); 1699, 137-147:5 (141:9).

Tail : 834, 88-935 (90-9); 1199, 80-89 (85:0). Bill: 32g¢, 14-18 (16:2); 2999,

14-18 (15°38).

Sturnus ginginianus (Latham)

PUNJAB: Patiala, Gagga, Jan. 22, 1948, lad. ¢.

RAJPUTANA:: Sirohi, Sirohi, Dec. 27, 1948, 2 ad: Z, 1 ad. 9.

UTTAR PRADESH (United Provinces): Benares, Jan. 23, 1947, 1 ad. ¢.

‘Gorakhpur, Jan. 26-27, 2 ad. 9, Jan. 29,1 ad. 34; Nichlaul, Feb. 6-12, 4 ad. 33

Kalnahi, Feb. 19, l ad. ¢, Feb. 23, lad. 9; Malasa, April 1-4, 1948, 2 ad. ¢,

1ad,..Q.

eae Ast Mohammadganj, Aug. 20, 1947, 1 imm. 9, Aug. 24, ]imm. , Sept. 3,

lad. ¢; Garhwa Road, Sept. 10, 1 ad. ¥, Sept. 12, 1 imm. 9, Sept. 21, 3 imm. ¢.

The species’ range is limited to the plains of northern India between

the outer Himalayas in the north and the Vindhya Hills chain in the

south and from the Northwest Frontier Province to Bengal. It is

extremely partial to well watered terrain and apparently the jungles to the

south and east, the arid land to the west and the high mountains to the

north have been sufficient barriers preventing its entering other suit-

able areas, particularly in southern India. Within its rather narrow

range there is no evidence of geographic variation.

Specimens from Bihar, September 3, 10, and 12, are molting. The

feathers of the lower backand abdomen appear to be the first body feathers

renewed; later, the upper back and throat feathers molt, preceding the

feathers of the crown and chin, which are the last replaced. The fresh

secondaries are narrowly edged with buff, but these lightly colored

edges quickly wear.

Birds of the year, upon completing the post-juvenal molt, are

indistinguishable from adults.

MEASUREMENTS : Wing: ¢G, 118 (92), 123°5; 124, 125,125,226, 127, 12727 Zee

128, 129, 129.3 O93 121 12) 1223023 123. eral: ad, 67 (2 ?), 68, 69, 69, 70, 70, 70,

71,71, 71, 73'5, 74; 29, 64, 67, 68, 68°5, 71. Bill: 3,14 (2 ?), 14, 14, 15, 15, 16,

50, 16, 16,16, 16, 16, 17, 17, 17; 99, 14, 14, 15, 15, 16, 16.

Sturnus fuscus (Wagler)

The crested mynas of the cristatellus-fuscus-grandis assemblage have

been variously treated as including from one to three species. Ina recent

review of that group, Ticehurst (Stanford and Ticehurst 1937, pp. 555-

557) recognized two species: crzstatellus and griseus. Under the former

were included the nominate mainland race, the Hainan race, évevipennis,

and the Formosan subspecies, formzosanus. With the Javan gvtseus

were united grazadzs and fuscis.

NOTES ON SOME ASIATIC STURNID (BIRDS) 433

Ticehurst correctly saw that fuscus of India, Arakan, and lower

Burma, and gvandis of Upper Burma and Siam were conspecific. There

has been no evidence to show that these two forms are not strictly allo-

patric, and intermediates are known to occur. Ticehurst himself reports

such intermediates from Maymyo, Mandalay District of Central Burma.

I have examined a specimen in the Rothschild Collection (male adult,

May 2, Kani, Lower Chindwin) which is very similar to gvandzs, but the

lower part of the abdomen is a pale buff color, approaching fuscus in

that respect.

The relationship between gvandis and cristatellus is not as easily

established because migratory movements in these two forms have

tended to obscure the real limits of their breeding ranges. The evidence

presented by Ticehurst does not indicate a necessary overlap of the

breeding ranges, nor until now has it ever been shown that these two

birds do, in fact, occur together during the breeding season and yet

remain reproductively isolated.

In Tonkin and Annam, gazdés is said to overlap with dbrevipennts,

a subspecies of crzstatellus described originally from Hainan. I have

been able to find only two definite records of the two forms breeding

together. Mr. Jean Delacour, although he himself was there only in

winter, tells me that the two birds are very common and both breed in

Annam and Tonkin. He suggests that the scarcity of breeding notes

may be due to the fact that the birds are so ubiquitous about the country-

side that no one has bothered to publish nidification records. Milon

(1942, p.:8) states that both nest about Langson in northeastern Ton-

kin. S. Eaton (unpublished) collected at Poseh, Kwangsi, China, on

May 2, 1945, a female of cristatellus (“advanced ovary; brood patch’)

and a male of grandis (** testes enlarged’’) the following day.

In Yunnan, it is still uncertain that a real overlap of breeding range

occurs. Mayr (Stanford and Mayr, 1941, p. 354) pointed out that the

material, which according to Ticehurst demonstrated overlapping in

northwestern Yunnan, represented collections made at different

seasons. However, I have examined a specimen from the Myitkyina

District of Northern Burma, which is apparently a hybrid between

grandis and cristatellus. Of two males taken at Namaoyang (500’) Aprii

11, 1939, oneis typical grandis while the other exhibits characters of

both that form and cristatellus. ‘The latter specimen has the base of

the lower mandible reddish and the undertail coverts black, like crista-

tellus, but the coverts and rectrices are broadly tipped with white, the

condition in grandis.

Ticehurst’s remark (oc. czt.) that in “Northern Burma gvandzs some-

times has the undertail coverts partly black but always with broad

white tips, and broad white tips to the tail’? may be interpreted to indi-

cate a zone of hybridization in that area.

One must regard créstatellus as specifically distinct from /uscus

(including grandis) although they are so closely related that their

ranges are still largely allopatric and that in at least one area in

Northeastern Burma there is not complete reproductive isolation.

Because Aethiopsar and Acridotheres are congeneric the name griseus

cannot stand (Stanford and Mayr, 1941) and fuseus must replace it.

Included as a race of fuscus is grandis.

In India it is possible to recognize two races of fuscus: a gray

484, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 49

backed northern form, nominate fuscus, and the browner backed south-

ern and western bird, mahvattensis. The material of Koelz shows the.

two forms to be clearly separable on the character of the color of the

back alone, although it is said that the races also differ in the color of

the irides!. Examples from Bichhia, Mandla District, Central Provinces,

were too worn to assign with certainty, but two adults seem closer to

mahrattensis and they have doubtfully been referred to that race by me.

Salim Ali and Whistler (1936, p. 501) note that this myna had not

been recorded from the Palni Hills,? but we now have a specimen from

there.

Ai mahrattensis breeds in southern India north, along the west

coast, to the latitude of Bombay City. It may prove also to be the

breeding form of the northern Central Provinces. The nominate sub-

species nests in northern India from Simla to Assam and eastern Bengal

south to Pegu. It intergrades with gvandis in central Burma and with

lorguatus in southern Tenasserim and northern Malaya.

Ripley (1950) has described another race of fuscus from Assam. The

new subspecies, fumzdus (type locality : Sadiya, northeastern Assam), is

said to differ from the nominate form by being “darker, more sooty on

the upperparts particularly onthe rump, and darker, more smokey on

the abdomen and belly.’’ The range of fumidus is given as “‘ Assam

in north Cachar and north to Lakhimpur and the Mishmi Hills.’’

Four worn males from the Khasia Hills, which should belong to this

proposed race, were compared with males in similar plumage from

Nepal. The latter represent nominate fuscus (type locality: eastern

Bengal). No constant differences which would separate the Khasia

Hills and Nepalese birds were observed. Three specimens (Rothschild

Collection) from Assam localities—Patkai Hills, Margherita, and

‘northern Assam’—agree with the other Indian material. The distinct—

ness of fumidus appears questionable.

STURNUS FUSCUS FUSCUS (Wagler)

PunyAB: Kulu Valley, Kakinal, June 4, 1936, 1 ad. ¢.

UTTAR PRADESH (United Provinces): Kalnahi, Feb. 20, 1947, ad. Q; Khada,

Feb. 26, 1ad. 9.

NEPAL: Simra, March 5, 1947, lad. §; Thankot, April 2- 12. 2-ad. Vt, 2 ad.

9%. -Hitaura; June 16; 1 ad. ds July 4 15; 3 imm.

.. Assam: Khasia Hills, Umran, April 12, 1949, 1 ad. $; Nongpoh, April 24

May 13, 2 ad. #; Bara Pani, May 28: 1 ad. 2.

BENGAL : Dacca, Jan. 14, 1937, 1 ad. 3.

BIHAR: Raxaul, "March 1, 1947, J ad..2.

MEASUREMENTS: Wing: ¢¢, 122, 122, 125, 127,127, 127, 128, 129; 99, 120, 121,

J2t, 424, 120.» Pails fo). 2,4 Se ala 74, 75.5, 76; 29, 67, 7S, 72, 74.5, 75. Bill;

bd, 15, 15, 15, 15, 16, 17, 47, 17.5; 29, 14, 15, 15, 15, 16.

STURNUS FUSCUS MAHRATTENSIS (Sykes)

SoUTHERN BOMBAY PROVINCE: Londa, Jan. 7-25, 1938, 2 ad. 3, 3 ad.

March, -12, 1 ad. ¢; Jagalbed, March 1-4, 1 ad. éyl ad. 0 Castle Rock, March 8,

2Qad. ¢, lad. @.

Mapras PROVINCE : Palni Hills, Kodaikanal, March 10, 1937, lad. Bs Nilghiri

Hills, Ootacamund, Feb. los alaad= ce

1 Yellow in northern birds, grey in southern—Eds.

2 Salim Ali has since found it common at Kodaikanal (ca. 7,000 it.) in the

Palnis.—EDs.

NOTES ON SOME ASIATIC STURNIDZ: (BIRDS)

485

; MADHYA PRADESH (Central Provinces): Bichhia, July 4-17, 1946, lad. g, 1

ad, 2, 3imm, 9.

MEASUREMENTS: Wing: gd, 127, 127, 128, 128, 128, 130, 130, 131; 29, 123, 123,

124, 125, 126. Tail: ¢¢

, 73, 74, 75, 76, 76.5, 76.5, 76.5, 773 QQ, 70, 71, 72.5, 73.5, 75»

Bill: ¢¢, 15, 15, 15, 16, 16, 16, 16, 17; 29, 15, 15, 15, 16, 16, 16,

Gracula religiosa Linn.

This specialized starling is widespread in the Oriental region.

‘Representative forms are to be found in Ceylon (G. ptilogenys), India

Malaysia, and the Greater Sunda Islands.

The differences among the

onl

Grocolo, religiosa

a indl¢a

6B peninsutaris

Cc fnrermedia

—»

itl

Distribution of Gracula veligiosa in India.

Horizontal shading: G. r. indica; diagonal shading: G. rv. peninsularis<

vertical shading: G. r. intermedia,

various subspecies, of which fourteen are recognized, are slight but

constant. Variation chiefly expresses itself in general body Size, bill

486 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

length and depth, and the character of the bare skin about: the head.

All of the populations are isolated from each other to a greater: or

lesser degree; the extent of geographic isolation is perhaps nowhere

‘more striking than on a continental land mass such as the Indian

peninsula. The enormous discontinuity in range is scarcely appreciated

unless one examines a map (text-fig. 1); each major region is occupied

by a discrete and fairly homogeneous subspecies. Suitable areas in

central India where this myna might be expected are plentiful but

nevertheless it appears to be absent. Noa priorz reasons for its absence

are known and field studies would seem to be indicated.

The systematics of the Indian races, of which there are three, have

been adequately treated by Whistler and Kinnear (1933, pp. 585-590) ;

the puzzling problem of G. Aitzlogenys has been analyzed by Ripley

(1946, p. 237). |

Baker (1926, p. 20) states that examples of this species from the

South Andamans appears to belong to the nominate race, but I find

that specimens in the American Museum collection from that island

are not distinguishable from the north Indian race zztermedia. The eye

and cheek patches are joined in these birds and the measurements are

those of the smaller race. A specimen from Great Nicobar seems not

to differ from nominate velzgtosa.

There is no evidence of a regular period of molt and birds in all

stages of molt may be found throughout the year.

GRACULA RELIGIOSA INDICA (Cuvier)

SOUTHERN BOMBAY PROVINCE: Londa, Feb. 3, 1938, lad. g, Feb. 8, 2 ad. 3,

lad. 9, Feb. 9, 1 ai. Go eb 16, lfad.: 3, March 11- 12, Ayvad. ov; Jagalbed,

Feb, 18-26, 3 ad. ¢, 2 ad. 2; Supa, Feb, 27, wad. cs

MEASUREMENTS: Wing: ¢¢, 139, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143.5, 144, 144, 145, 145,

145; 2, 141. Tail: go, 62,.-62.5,. 65, "65, 66.5, 67, 67, 67, 68, 68, 69.5, 70; 2. 64.5.

Bill : ods 2, 18, 18, 18.5, 19, 19, 19, 19, 19, 19, 19, 20>; 29, 18, 19. Freshly

molted specimens in the A. M. N. H. collection are 8-13 mm, longer i in the wing and

1-3 mm. longer in the tail. :

GRACULA RELIGIOSA PENINSULARIS Whistler & Kinnear

BastaR : Taroki, March 20, 1949, lad. ¢, 1 ad. Q.

GRACULA RELIGIOSA INTERMEDIA A. Hay

NErpaL: Amlekhganj, March 9-10, 1947, 2 ad. ¢, 1 ad. 2; Hitaura, May 20-25,

ad. 2, June 13, lad, ¢, June 23, limm.

ASSAM : Khasia Hills, Nongpoh, April.24-28; 1949, 3ad. ¢, 2 ad. 2.

MEASUREMENTS: Wing: ¢¢, 166, 167, 176; 2, 163. Tail: gd, 75, 78, 85; Y

80. Bill: gd, 18, 19, 19, 19°5; 22; 59; 20, 20'5.

ACKNOWLE DGEMENTS

I should like to express my appreciation to Dr. Walter Koelz for per-

mission to examine his collections. Iam most grateful to Drs. Ernst

Mayr and Dean Amadon for their many suggestions, guidance, critical

reading of the manuscript, and for their kind interest and encourage-

ment.in.this study. Mr. Biswamoy Biswas has been most cooperative,

helping me. work out much of the distributional data.

NOTES ON SOME ASIATIC STURNID (BIRDS) 487

REFERENCES CITED

Abdulali, H. (1947): The movements of the Rosy Pastor in India [Pastor

roseus (L.)]. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, 46 (4) : 704-708.

Ali Salim, (1943) : The birds of Mysore, part 3. J. Bombay Nat, His. Soc., 43

(4) : 573-595.

— —— and Abdulali, H. (1937) : The birds of Bombay and Salsette, part 3.

J, Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 39 (4) : 679-688.

—-— and Whistler, H. (1936). The ornithology of Travancore and Cochin,

part 4. J. Bombay Nat. His. Soc., 38 (3): 464-514,

Amadon, (1943 a): Birds collected during the Whitney South Sea Expedition,

52. Notes on some non-passerine genera, 3. Amer. Mus. Nov., No. 1237.

—— (1943 b): The genera of Starlings and their relationships. Amer.

Mus. Nov., No. 1247.

Baker, Stuart, ELC. (1924) : Bull. Brit, Ornith. Club, 45: 14.

— (1925) : Bull. Brit. Ornith. Clu6, 45: 103-104.

-~—— —— (1926): Fauna Brit. India, 2nd Edition, Vol. 3. London, Taylor and

Francis.

—-—— (1933): Nidification of birds in the Indian Empire, Vol. 2, London,

- ‘Taylor and Francis.

Dae eT G. (1945): The birds of Northern Thailand. U. S. National.Mus,

ull, 186.

Garthwaite, P. F. and Ticehurst, C. B. (1937): Notes on some birds recorded

from Burma. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 39 (3) : 552-560.

Gmelin, J. F. (1789): Systema Naturae, Vol. 1, part 2.

Hodgson, B. H. (1836): Additions to the ornithology of Nepal. /. Asiatic Soc.,

Bengal, 5: 770-781.

Koelz, W. (1939) : New birds from Asia, chiefly from India. Proc. Biol, Soc.,

Washington, 52; 61-82. :

Levaillant, F. (1799) : Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux D’Afrique. Vol. 2.

Mayr, E. (1933) : Birds collected during the Whitney South Sea Expedition, 27.

Notes on the variation of immature and adult plumages in birds and a

pee ositts explanation of abnormal plumages. Amer, Mus, Nov.,,

—-— Sane The birds of the Vernay-Hopwood Chindwin Expedition,

Lois, (14) 2 (2) : 277-320.

Milon, A. (1942) Notes .et travaux de l’Ecole Superieure des Sciences de

iy Université Indochinoise.

Rey S: Dillon (1946): Comments on Ceylon birds. Spolza Zeylanica, 24 (3) ;

197-241.

———— (1949). Avian relicts and double invasions in peninsular India and

Ceylon. Evolution, 3 (2); 150-159,

———— (1950) Noteson Indian birds III. Birds from Assam. Postilla, Yale

Peabody Mus. Nat. Hist., No. 1, pp. 1-4.

Rothschild, W. (1926). On the avifauna of Yunnan, with critical notes. Nov,

Zool., 33: 189-343.

Shaw, G. and Nodder, F. P. (1808): Vaturalist’s Misc. 19: plate 805.

Stanford, J. K. and Mayr, E. (1941): The Vernay-Cutting expedition to,

Northern Burma, Part 4. Jdzs, (14) 5°(3) > 353-378.

——-—— and Ticehurst, C. B. (1935): Notes on the birds of the -Sittang-

Irrawaddy Plain, Lower Burma. J. Bombay Nat. .ffist. Soc. 37 (4); 859-889.

———— Ticehurst, GB. (1938) : On the birds of Northern Burma, Part 4, Jdzs,

(14) 2 (4): 599-638.

Ticehurst, C. B. (1940). Systematic Notes on Indian Birds V. /ozs, (14) 4 (1):

147-150.

Whistler, H. (1945): Materials for the ornithology of Afghanistan, part 3,

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 45 (2) ; 106-122.

Whistler, H. and Kinnear, N. B. (1933): The Vernay Scientific Survey of the

Eastern Ghats. (Ornith. section), part 5. J. Bombay Nat, Alist. Soc,.

36 (3): 561-590,

ON A COLLECTION OF BUTTERFLIES FROM

THE BALIPARA FRONTIER TRACT AND THE

SUBANSIRI AREA (NORTHERN ASSAM)

F. N. Betts

(With a sketch map)

These notes are based on a collection made while I was Political

Officer in this district during 1946/48. The collection has now been

presented to the British Museum. I did not have time to work it out

very thoroughly myself and it is therefore possible that there are some

inaccuracies.

The area worked extends from the plains on the south to the main

Himalayan Range, forming the undemarcated boundary of India on the

north. The western border is formed by the Bhutan Frontier, and the

eastern by the Subansiri River, which, running almost due south after

breaking through the Himalayas, emerges into the Assam plain a few

miles east of N. Lakhimpur.

The western portion of the district along the Bhutan border is fairly

well known as there is a regular trade route into Tibet via Tawang

over the 14,000’ Se La pass. The inhabitants, Momba and Sherdukpen

are of Tibeto-Bhutanese extraction and comparatively civilised and

have been administered up to the Tibetan frontier for a considerable

time. Far the greater part of the district however is a wild, and tangled

complex of forest covered hills, sparsely inhabited by completely savage

and extremely unfriendly tribes, mostly lumped together under

the name of Daflas. Penetration and administration was only attempted

in 1946, and a point some sixty miles into the foothills has been

reached, but still a vast area of the basins of the rivers Khru, Kamala,

and Subansiri have never been seen by a foreign eye.

The topography shows a belt of foothill ranges, 100 miles or more

in depth, running mainly east and west, though there are Several cross

chains forming watersheds between the main rivers. The outer range

bordering the plains varies from 4000’ to 12,000’ in height and rises

extremely steeply. The rainfall on the south face must be among

the heaviest in the world, and the hills are covered from base to crest

in dense evergreen rain forest. The inner ranges rise gradually in

height but experience a much drier climate.

On the west after crossing the Bompu La, 9,600’, the vegetation

immediately changes to a palaearctic type, pines and deciduous oaks

and other hardwoods. On the east where the outer wall is lower,

the semi-tropical evergreen rain forest extends much further north.

A feature of the country is the way in which the main rivers have

cut back enormously deep gorges almost to the foot of the snow ranges

so that along their banks the 2/3,000’ contour line extends very far

‘Wess (N—baly MIsueqng pue joey, Jouoig vivdipeg

B33

oy Pa “e

WVS5V

*whdhinwys 's

YANO) >,

® Vi ho8!

‘

‘V4 ra | Vv Ae .

“= s9gnvyid A

irae ey - 0009!

AR wT 3S °

a LP

LYISN VELA S aN

“008 “ISTH “I8N Aequog Suanoe |

BUTTERFLIES FROM NORTHERN ASSAM 489

north and allows a prolonged incursion of subtropical flora. On

account of their ignorance of the art of weaving and making clothing

the tribes cling to the warmer valleys to a height of 4/5,000’ only,

and live by hunting and jum cultivation, a system by which forest

is felled and burned and one or two crops taken before moving on else-

where. In the more thickly settled areas this has resulted in permanent

deforestation, and the appearance of wide stretches of scrub and

coarse grassland.

Special mention must be made of one tract though it is but twenty

square miles in area. The Apa Tani valley is an old lake bed, lying at

an elevation of 5,000’, surrounded by a ring of forested hills 2,000/

higher. The tribe, whose origin is unknown, are entirely different from

any of their Dafla or Miri neighbours, and while still in a neolithic state

of culture, have developed a system of intensive, permanent agriculture

which must be unique, and which for unknown generations has enabled

them to maintain a population of 1000 to the square mile entirely self-

sufficient except for salt. Every inch of the flat land of the valley is

under irrigated paddy or millet, and they cultivate plantations of Przus

excelsa and a peculiar type of bamboo for building purposes, neither of

which is found in a natural state within a very great distance. This

little patch of highly developed cultivated land in the middle of a vast

expanse of forest has produced a fauna of its own, and in the bamboo

groves in particular I found several species of butterflies which I saw

nowhere else.

In the following list dates given are those in which specimens were

taken, not necessarily the only times when they were on the wing.

1. Troides a. aeacus Fd.

Sept/Oct. Fairly common at low elevations along roads and rivers

in tropical evergreen forest.

2. Polydorus varuna Wd.

July/ Aug. Widely spread but not numerous. Most common after

the monsoon in secondary forest along rivers at low elevation but one

specimen taken at 5,000’ in open country in the Apa Tani valley.

3. Polydorus 1, lIatreillei Don.

Aug. Apa Tani valley, 5,000’. Only once taken in river bed.

4. Polydorus philoxenus Db.

Apr./Sept. Occurred scarcely along rivers at low elevations in tropi-

cal forest, but was extremely common and the specimens much larger

in the temperate Momba country. Here it was found in the oak woods

and drinking at patches of wet sand in the river beds, and was one of

the few Papilionids occurring. A larva which pupated on 1-12-46

hatched on 17-4-47. It turned out an extremely dwarf specimen though

perfectly formed. This was probably due to starvation as I was

unable to obtain a supply of the food plant.

5. Polydorus aidoneus Db.

July. Dejoo, 500’. Rare; only once taken.on the plains in second-

ary forest. |

490 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

6. Chilasa agestor Gray.

Feb./June. Pite, 2,000’. Not common. Single specimens feeding

with other Papilionids on wet river sand.

7. Chilasa clytea Evans.

Aug. Sadiya, 200’. A plains species never seen in the hills.

8. Chilasa epycides epycides Hew.

Apr. Likha 3,500’. Secondary scrub. Once taken.

9. Papilio protenor Fruh.

Aug. Pite, 2,000’, Talo 4,500’. Moderately common on river sand

at low elevations. The specimen taken at Talo in cultivation must have

been a stray as I never saw another as high as this.

10. Papilio rhetenor Wd.

May, Aug. Kore 4,000’, Pite 2,000’. Scarce. One taken in second-

ary scrub in hills, and one on river sand.

11. Papilio polyctor ganesa M.

April/Sept. Likha 4,000’, Rahung 5,000’, Scarce. A hill species.

Two taken at buffalo wallow in evergreen forest area, one at river sand

in temperate oak and pine zone.

12. Papilio paris L.

Apr./May, Aug./Sept. After P. helenus probably the commonest

of the genus, and the most widely spread. Taken in forest plentifully

from plains level up to 5,000’ in the evergreen belt, but not in the

oak /pine country.

13. Papilio castor Wd.

May, Aug., Sept. Sadiya, Doimara, Pite, up to 2,000’. Not un-

common, a plains species.

14. Papilio helenus L.

Quite the commonest Papilio and flies longer than any other.

Taken in every month between Feb, and Oct. from plains level up to

4,000’ in tropical evergreen country.

15. Papilio chaon Wd.

Sept. Doimara, 1,000’. Scarce. Only taken once on river sand

at foot of the hilis.

16. Papilio polytes reomulus

Very common indeed in the open cultivated country of the plains

but not seen in the hills nor in the foothill forests.

17. Papilio demoleus L.

Distribution as last. Both are minor pests on Cztrus.

18, Graphium agetes Wd.

May. Likha, 3,500’. Taken only at this one locality where it was

not uncommon at a buffalo wallow in evergreen country.

BUTTERFLIES FROM NORTHERN ASSAM 491

19. Graphium antiphates pompilius F.

May/Aug. Dejoo, Pite up to 2,000’. Swarms on patches of wet

river sand at low elevations in company pa the various Graphiums

but never so numerous as they.

20. Graphium cloanthus Wd.

Aug./Sept. Pite 2,000’, Likha 3,500’, Apa Tani 5,000’, Rahung

6,000'. Not common mostly seen at 5,000’ and above. The only

Graphium seen in the temperate zone.

21. Graphium sarpedon L.

22. Graphium doson axion Fd.

23. Graphium bathycles chiron Wall.

All three species fly together and swarm in immense numbers on

wet river sand at low elevations between April / Oct.

24. Graphium a, agamemnon L,

July /Oct. Pite, Doimara, Duimukh. Taken at low elevations

only up to 2,000’. Much scarcer than the other Graphiums and usually

solitary, one or two being seen among the myriads of other species on

sand patches.

25. Lamproptera c. curius F.

Aug. Ptie, 2,000’. Sadiya 250’. Common on river sand though

usually singletons.

26. Armandia I. lidderdalei Atk.

Sept. Rahung, 7,000’. Extremely local and was only seen in this

one spot. Even here it was confined to a narrow belt between 7 /7,500’

just below the line of the evergreen forest crowning the hill. They

were numerous, floating high to and fro among the scattered oaks and

rarely settling. Despite their fragile build they were on the wing in

dark, wet, misty weather when practically no other butterflies were to

be seen.

27. Pieris canidia Evans.

May. Kore, Duta, 5,000’. Common in open country at fairly high

elevations.

28. Pieris brassicae L,.

Sept. Lih, 7,000’. Very common in the temperate valleys of the

Momba country.

29. Delias belladonna Jerd.

April, Sept. Likha, Yatchuli, 3/3,500’. Not common, but widely

spread. Flies in grass and open secondary forest. Usually single.

30. Delias aglaia L.

Oct. Doimara, 1,500’, Not common. A low elevation species found

in secondary forest. ) : 7

492 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

31. Prioneris thestylis Db.

Feb, Nov., Dodo Seram, 2,500’, Pite 2,000’. Nate common, Gees

meadows near rivers, 7

32, Cepora nadina nadina Luc.

April, July. Lichi 2,500’, Dejoo 250’. Common in secondary forest

along rivers at low elevations.

33. Cepora nerissa F.

May. Likha, 3,500’. Secondary forest. Not common.

34. Appias lalage lalage Db.

Feb., May, Oct. Kore 5,000’, Pite 2,000’. Comnion in open country

and secondary forest with a wide range of elevation and season.

35. Appias indra indra M.

May. Lichi, 2,500’. Secondary forest.

36. Appias lyncida hippoides M.

May, Aug. Lichi 2,500’, Apa Tani 5,000’. The commonest of the

genus. i

37, Catopsilia crocale Cr.

Aug. Doimara, Apa Tani. Common at all elevations up to 6,000’

and found almost everywhere from evergreen forest to open cultivation.

38, Colias electo field Men.

Apa Tani 5,000’, Rupa 6,000’. Common in srassy meadows at high

elevations.

39, Ixias pyrene pirenassa Wall.

Nov. Dodo Seram, 2,500’ Riverside meadows.

40. Ixias pyrene latifasciatus But. y:

Aug. Pite 2,000’, Apa Tani 5,000’. Widely spread in open country.

41. Hebomoia glaucippe L.

May /Sept. Dejoo 250’, Pite 2,000’. Very common at low elevations.

along the banks of rivers in tropical forest. Comes down to wet sand

patches.

42. Pareronia avatar avatar R,

Foothills Camp, 1,500’. Aug. Very local. Only seen here in the i in-

terior of heavy forest where it was common.

43, Danais aglea melanoides M,

July / Aug. Apa Tani 5,000’, Dejoo 250’. Common from plains to

about 6,000’ in fairly open country and cultivation,

BUTTERFLIES FROM NORTHERN ASSAM 493

44. Danais plexippus L,

July/Sept. Dejoo, Doimara, Very common up to 2,000° in fairly

open country.

45. Danais melissa septentrionis But.

Aug/Nov. Pite 2,000’. Open woodland at low elevations.

46. Danais tytia tytia Gray.

May. Kore, 5,000’. Scarce. Only seen at 5,000’ and above.

47, Danais melaneus plateniston Fruh.

Nov. Pite, 2,000’. River sand. Scarce.

48. Euploea m. mulciber Cr.

July / Aug. Dejoo, Yatchuli, Kore. Common at all elevations up to

6,000’ in fairly open country and forest clearings.

49, Euploea diocletiana diocletiana F.

July/Aug. Dejoo, Charduar, 500’. Extremely common in open

forest and along forest roads on the plains but does not ascend the hills

at all.

50. Mycalesis visala visala M.

Sept. Rahung, 5,000’. Common in grass meadows and cultivation

in the temperate Momba country.

51. Mycalesis malsarida But.

~ July. Dejoo, 250’, Lichi 2,500’. Interior of evergreen forest.

Once at Duta, 5,000’ in open cultivation.

52. Mycalesis francisca sanatana M.

Oct. Pite, 2,000’ Bamboo jungle.

53. Mycalesis malsara M.

Feb, May. Pite 2,000’, Yatchuli 3,500’. Bamboo jungle.

54. Lethe c. confusa Aur.

Aug/Oct. Pite, 2,000’ secondary tropical forest; Yatchuli, 3,000’,

thatch grass and deciduous woodland; Bomdi La, 8,000’ , coniferous

forest; Nyukmadong, 9,000’, oak woods. A common species with an

enormous range of altitude and habitat. Especially fond of isolated trees

in grassland settling on the trunks.

55. Lethe yama yama M.

May. Apa Tani, 6,000’. Scarce. Inthe interior of dense evergreen

forest, with bamboo undergrowth. Settles on the ground among the

dead leaves where it is exceedingly hard to see.

56. Lethe bhadra M.

May, Oct. HESS: Puttu, ue Apa Tani, 6,000’, Bompu La,

9,000’. ---

"Similar j in Malate to Z. yama but much commoner.

494 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49 |

57. Lethe rohria F,

Oct. Yatchuli, 3,000’. Hill sides covered with long grass.

58. Lethe verma sintica Fruh. |

Oct. Lih, 7,000’, But, 6,000’. The Momba country above 5,000’,

Flies among oaks on grassy hill sides.

59. Lethe sidonis vaivarta Doh.

Oct. Bompu La, 9,500’. Extremely local and only seen on the

summit of the Bompu and Bomdi Las, where it was flying in bamboo

scrub at over 9,090’ and was the only butterfly taken at that height.

60. Lethe visrava M. .

Oct, Tasser Puttu, 4,500’. Only taken here in undergrowth in

dense evergreen forest.

61. Lethe bhairava M.

Oct. Tasser Puttu, 4,500’. As Z. vzsvava in habits. ‘Rare.

62. Lethe scanda M.

Oct. Tasser Puttu, 4,500’. As the last two species in habits. Only

taken with them in this one locality.

63. Lethe latiaris Hew.

July. Apa Tani, 5,000’. Cultivation. Rare.

64. Lethe kansa M.

May. ‘Tasser Puttu, 4,500’. Dense rain forest. Scarce.

65. Lethe vindhya Pd.

Oct. Selsemchi, 1,500'. Evergreen forest at low elevations: Rare.

66. Lethe serbonis serbonis Hew.

Sept. Bomdi La. Interior evergreen forest, 7,000’. Only seen

here.

67. Lethe sinorix Hew.

Aug. Once taken at Pite, 3,000’, in bamboo forest.

68. Lethe chandica flanona Fruh.

Oct. Tasser Puttu, 4,500’. Yazali 3,000’. Evergreen forest.

69. Lethe sura Db.

Sept. Bompu La,Bomdi La 8/9,000’. Common in scrub bamboo

on the tops of the passes.

70. Lethe distans ?

May/Oct. Apa Tani. This butterfly I was unable to identify, but

appears closest to distans, being distinguished by the orange red

SSS =

BUTTERFLIES FROM NORTHERN ASSAM 4.95

patch on the hindwing. It was one of the species confined to the culti-

vated bamboo groves of the Ape Tani plateau. It flew up and down

the narrow fenced alleys between the plantations, and was common

here but nowhere else seen.

| 71. Lethe goalpara goalpara M.

Sept/Oct. Bomdi a, 9,000’. Flying with Z. sara in scrub

bamboo but not numerous.

72, Orinoma damaris Gray. |

July, Oct., Pite, 2,500’, Yatchuli 3,500’. Only twice taken in

secondary forest. .

73. Aulocera brahminus dohwana Evans.

74. Aulocera swaha swaha Koll.

75. Aulocera padma loha Doh.

Sept. All three were common on the grassy alps of the Momba

country from 6/10,000’. A. drahminus appeared to range the highest.

76. Erebia annada orixa M. :

Rupa, 5,000’. Sept. Common in grassland in shettered valleys in

the temperate Momba country.

77. Yphthima sakra austeni M.

Aug /Sept., 5/7,000’. Habits as the last species. Common in the

Momba country, but also taken on the Apa Tani plateau in cultivated

land.

78. Yphthima narada newara M.

Sept. Lih, 7,000’. Grassland in the Momba country. Fairly

common.

79. Zipoetis scylax Hew.

May, Sept. Tasser Puttu, 3,500’; Pite, 2,000’. Undergrowth of

evergreen and bamboo forest. Scarce.

80. Orsotrioena m. medus F.

Sept. Doimara, 1,500’. Undergrowth secondary forest at low

elevations.

81. Ragadia crisilda crito d/N.

July, Oct. Tassar Puttu, 4,500’. Undergrowth of evergreen

forest. Rare.

82. Anadebis himachala M.

April/Oct. Pite, 2,000’ ; Lichi, 3,000’. Undergrowth of evergreen

and bamboo forest. Fairly common.

83. Melanitis leda ismene Cr. |

496 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

84. Melanitis z. zitenius Herbat.

85. Melanitis phedima bela M.

May/Oct. Extremely comon in forest everywhere with the excep-

tion of JZ. bela which is scarce. Habits of all three similar. _ They sit

on the ground among dead leaves, and when disturbed ‘fly off rapidly

and settle again, and immediately disappear.

86. Cyllogenes suradeva M.

Sept. Bompu La, 7,000’. Interior evergreen forest. Rare.

87. Neorina hilda Wd.

Aug/Sept. Apa Tani, 6,000’. Bompu La, 8,000’. Interior of ever-

green forest at high elevations only. Scarce.

88. Elymnias patna patna Wd.

Apr/Nov. Pite, 2.000’; Selsemchi, 1,500’. Open secondary forest

at low elevations. A stray both as regards season and locality was

taken at Duta, 5,000’, on Dec. 2nd. !

89, Faunis eumeus assama Wd. ;

Oct. Pite, 1,500’. Scarce. Interior of dark evergreen forest, Was

taken in very dull, wet weather. The butterfly sits on dead tree trunks

where it is very hard to see, and flies off swiftly dodging through the

undergrowth and resettles abruptly, making it very hard to mark.

90. Aemona amathusa Hew. .

Aug. Tasser Puttu, 4,500’. Scarce. Habits similar to Faunis

CU MEUS.

91. Sticophthalma camadeva.

Sept. Pite 2,000’. Bamboo forest at low elevations. Seen but no

specimen taken.

92. Sticopthalma nourmahal nurinissa d’N.

July. Aug. Apa Tani, 5,000’. This was another butterfly confined

to the Apa Tani cultivated bamboo groves. It was common in these for

a few weeks, and could almost always be taken as it settled on the dried

bamboo fences dividing the gardens. I never saw it in the forest in

wild bamboo.

93. Sticopthaima sparta tytleri Roth. . .

July. Rare. Taken in the Apa Tani bamboo groves but only in

small numbers. It was also seen in wild bamboo forest in the neighbour-

hood. On one occasion a very ancient and tattered specimen passed me,

so old and weak that it could hardly fly. As it sank tothe ground, it

was set upon and killed by a hornet. ! a

94, Thaumantis diores Db.

Dejoo, 1,000’; Tasser Puttu, 4,000’. Fairly common in the darkest

and dampest undergrowth of dense rain forest. Usually seen on dull,

BUTTERFLIES FROM NORTHERN ASSAM 497

wet days, when it may be flushed from dead leaves in the under-

growth, to flop a few yards and settle again.

95. Discophora c, continentalis Stg.

July. Pite, 1,500’. Low elevation bamboo jungle. Scarce.

96. Discophora tullia zal Wa.

Oct. N. Lakhimpur, 500’. Once taken. It came into the Dak bung-

alow to lamplight at 10 p. m. 3

97, Enispe euthymius Db.

July, Oct. Pite, 2,000’, Tasser Puttu, 3,000’. Scarce. Bamboo

forest.

Charaxes, Eriboea, Apatura. All robust, strong flying species

spending most of their time settled on or flying round the tops of high

trees, and extremely difficult to catch at suchtimes. They are however,

particularly the males, strongly attracted to dung, carrion, or sap exuda-

tions and most captures are made this way. Wet sand also attracts but

to a lesser extent.

98. Charaxes marmax Wd.

Oct. Pite,1,500’. Not uncommon at low elevations.

99, Charaxes polyxena psaphon Wd.

May/July. Dejoo 50’ ; Pite, 1,500’. Fairly common.

100. Charaxes polyxena hierax Fd.

As C. p. psaphon.

101. Eriboea dolon,

Apa Tani, 5,000’. Aug. Not taken but frequently seen travelling

high and fast across open country.

102. Eriboea delphis?

Aug. Talo 4,000’. Believed seen once but: just missed capture.

103. Eriboea a. athamas Dr.

May / Aug. Very common at all elevations to 5,000’ in tropical

forest clearings. It swarms along forest rivers, collecting on lumps of

otter dung in hundreds, just as the Graphiums do on wet sand.

104. Apatura ambica ambica Coll.

May, Aug., Nov. .Very common along forest rivers at low eleva-

tions. Swarms to lumps of dung or carrion as last species.

105. Apatura chevana M. |

Oct. Pite, 2,000’. Rare, only once taken on river sand.

106. Apatura p. parisatis Wd. F

May, July. Fairly common along rivers in forest and in the forest

itself at elevations up to 3,000’.

498 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

107. Herona marathus marathus. Db.

May, Oct. Pite, 2,000’, Apa Tani 5,000’. Open woodland with

bamboo. Not common.

108. Sephisa chandra M. | i

Aug., Oct. Pite, 2,000’. Scarce. Two specimens taken on river

sand.

109. Diagora persimilis zella But.

Aug. Pite, 2,000’. Scarce. Two specimens taken on river sand.

110. Euripus halitherses Db. & Hew.

Oct. Dejoo 1,000’, Males not uncommon at low elevations in

secondary scrub. Females never seen.

11l. Hestina nama Db.

Oct. Pite, 2,000’. River sand. Fairly common along rivers at low

elevations.

112. Calinaga buddha buddha M.

Apt., Pite, 2,000’. Rare. Only once seen.

113. Dichorrhagia nesimachus Bdv.

Feb./May. Pite, 2,000’, Lichi 2,500’. Fairly common up to 4, 000".

Usually seen singly. Fond of settling on tree trunks.

114. Stibochiana n. nicea Gray.

May, Sept. Pite, Lichi, 2/3,000’; Rupa, 5,900’. Common. Obtain.

ed both in evergreen tropical forest ‘and temperate oak woods..

115. Euthalia jahnu jahnu M.

Oct/Nov. Pite, 2,000’. River sand. Only one specimen seen.

116. Euthalia lubentina indica Fruh.

Oct. Pite, 2,000’. River sand. Scarce.

117. Euthalia telchinia Men.

_ Oct/Nov. Pite, 2,000’; Tasser Puttu, 4,000’. Dense evergreen

jungle. Scarce. ie

118, Euthalia duda Stg.

Apr. Pite, tropical bamboo forest. Once obtained. Aug, WA coe Hiss, “j

dense evergreen forest, fairly common..

119. Euthalia s. sahadeva M. ; :

July / Aug. Apa Tani, 6,000’, dense evergreen forest. Only seen

here flying with last species but iocally common,

120. Euthalia julii appiades Mon. rod

Oct. Doimara, 1,500’. Tropical plains forests Common.

BUTTERFLIES FROM NORTHERN ASSAM 499

121. Euthalia f. franciae Gray.

Oct. Lichi, 3,500’. Evergreen forest. Only specimen seen.

122. Euthalia phemius Db. & Hew.

Aug. Sadiya, 250’. Tropical plains forest.

123. Adolias khasiana Swin.

May, Likha, 3,000’. Buffalo wallow in secondary forest. Scarce.

124. Adolias cyanipardus But.

Aug. Lichi, 3,000’. Evergreen forest. Only specimen seen.

125. Neurosigma d. doubledayi Wd.

Oct. Tasser Puttu, 4,000’. Dense evergreen forest. Only two seen.

126. Limenitis zayla Db. & Hew.

July/Aug. Apa Tani, 6,900’. Dense evergreen forest. In company

with Euthalia duda and sahadeva. Common locally here but seen no-

where else.

127. Limenitis daraxa Db. & Hew.

Sept/Oct. Pite, 2,000’. River rocks. Particularly common on Apa

Tani plateau sunning on rocks in streams in open country.

128. Limenitis a, austenia M.

June/Sept. Only twice seen. Apa Tan!, 6,000’, in bamboo gardens.

Doimara, 1,500’, tropical evergreen forest.

129, Limenitis p. procris Cr.

July/Aug. Pite, Charduar, Dejoo. Very common on roads and

‘rivers in tropical forest up to 2,000’.

130. Pantoporia r.ranga M.

July /Oct. Pite, Doimara. Fairly common at low elevations in tropi-

cal forest up to 2,000’.

131. Pantoporia a. asura M.

Aug/Oct. Pite, 2000’. Apa Tani, 6,000’. River rocks in open

country.

132. Pantoporia perius L.

Sept. Rupa, Rahung, 5,000’. Only seenin temperate oak woods

‘where common,

133. Neptis columella ophiana M.

Dejoo, 250’. Common, plains forest clearings.

134. Neptis sankara quilta Swin.

Sept., Rahung, 5,000’; Nyukmadong, 8,000’. Common on alpine

aneadows.

500 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

135. Neptis r. radha M.

Nov., Pite, 2,000’. River rocks. Once only.

136. Cyrestis thyodamas thyodamas Bdv. =

May/Sept. Common everywhere from plains up to 6,000’, on Apa

Tani Plateau and temperate Momba country.

137. Chersonesia risa Db. & Hew. :

July /Oct. Secondary forest to 3,000’, Lichi, Pite, Fairly common.

138. Pseudergolis wedah Koll.

Sept, Kudum, Rahung, 5,000/6,000’. Temperate oak woodse

Common.

139. Rhinopalpa polynice burmana Fruh.

Aug., Dejoo; 250’. River beds and roads in plains jungle, fairly

common for a few weeks. | .

140. Doleschallia bisaltide indica M.

Oct /Nov., Pite, Dodo Seram, 2 3,000’. Fairly common along rivers.

in bamboo forest.

141. Kallima inachus inachus Bdv.

Feb/Nov. Common. Mostly in fairly low elevation forest, but

taken in the Apa Tani woods at 6,000.’

142. Kallima alompra M.

July/Aug. Apa Tani, 6,000’. Evergreen forest. The only place

seen. Locally common. Comes to a bait of carrion or rotten fruit.

143. Precis hierta hierta F.

Aug., Charduar, 200’. A plains species; very common.

144. Precis orithya ocyale Hub.

May/Dec. Jorum, 4,000’. Kore 5,000’. Very common in open

cultivated land.

145. Precis atlites L.

Sept/Oct, Dejoo 200’. Apa Tani 6,000’. Common at all elevations:

from plains to 6,000’ in open country.

146. Precis iphita iphita Cr.

May/Sept. Dejoo 50’, Apa Tani 5,000’. Rahung 7,000’. Very

common in open country and secondary scrub at all elevations both in

the Assam zone, and the Momba country.

147. Precis almana almana L.

As P. tphita

148, Vanessa cardui L.

Sept., Apa Tani and Momba country. Meadows. 5/€,000’.

BUTTERFLIES FROM NORTHERN ASSAM 501

149. Vanessa indica nubicola Fruh. |

As V. cardut.

150. Vanessa kashmirensis aesis Fruh.

As V. carduz but in temperate Momba country only.

151. Vanessa canace.

June/ Nov. 2 Not uncommon from 2,000’ up to 6,000’ along rivers

and in open country. Nearly always single, and quite the wariest of all

our butterflies, and I never succeeded in taking one.

152. Symbrenthia hippoclus khasiana M.

May/Oct., Lichi 3,000’, Apa Tani 5,000’. Secondary scrub.

153. Symbrenthia hypselis cotanda M.

May. Lichi. 2,500’. River rocks. Fairly common.

154. Symbrenth’a nyphanda nyphanda M.

- May, Lichi, 2,500’. River rocks. Not ascommonas S. Ay fselis.

155, Argynnis h. hyperbius L.

Aug/Dec. All over Dafla and Apa Tani country from 3/6,000’ in

open grassland. Very common.

156. Argynnis c. childreni Gray.

May/Nov. Similar habitat to A. Ayperbcus but much scarcer.

157. Atella phalanta Drury.

June, Joram, 4,000’. Paddyfields. Only one ever seen.

158. Issoria s. sinha Koll.

June/July. Pite 2,000’, Dejoo 250’. Secondary scrub at low

elevations.

159. Cynthia e. erota F.

June/Sept. Dejoo 250’, Apa Tani 6,000’, Rupa 6,000’. Very

common at all elevations up to 6,000’ both in plains tropical forest and

the Momba oak woods.

160. Cirrochroa a. aoris Bd.

July /Aug. Plains and foothills up to 3,000’, Pite. Very common

in secondary forest and open scrub.

161. Cirrochroa tyche mytila M.

Feb/May. Pite 2,000’, secondary scrub. Hapulia, 6,000’, bracken

clad downland.

162. Cethosia cyane Drury,

July, Lichi, 3,000’, secondary scrub. Not very common,

$02 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

163. Cethosia biblis ticamena,

July /Oct. Fairly common at all elevations up to 4,000’ in fairly

open country.

164. Zemeros flegyas indicus Fruh.

May /Oct., ;Dejoo 1,500’, Lichi 3,500’. Kore 5,000’. Secondary

scrub. Very common.

165. Dodona egeon Db.

July, Pite. River sand 2,000’. Only one seen.

166. Dodona ouida ouida M.

Sept. Rahung, 8,000’. Temperate oak forest. Only one seen.

167. Libythea myrrha sanguinalis Fruh.

Feb. Pite, 2,000’. River sand.

168. Abisara fylla_Db.

July/Oct. Pite 1,500’. Bamboo forest ; Bompu La, 6,000’, ever-

green forest. Common,

169, Abisara neophron neophron Hew.

April/May, Likha, 3,500’. Kore 5,000’. Cultivation in scrub.

WILSON’S STORM-PETRELS, SHEARWATERS AND OTHER

SEABIRDS IN THE GULF OF ADEN & INDIAN OCEAN

We WAX. PHILLIPS

I have been greatly interested in Mr. C. A. Gibson-Hilh’s papers

and Mr. Bryson’s letter (J.B.N.H.S. Vol. 48. No. 2) on Wilson’s

Storm Petrel, and other oceanic birds in the Gulf of Aden and Indian

Ocean.

On two recent voyages, I have kept very careful notes of the birds.

seen at sea between Colombo and Aden. These observations are, I

think, not without interest as they show very clearly the changes in

distribution that take place in some of our oceanic forms in the summer

and in the winter months. The homeward voyage, 11th to roth

July (1949) was chiefly remarkable for the large numbers of Wilson’s.

Petrels in the Gulf of Aden and an interesting flight of Sooty Terns

(Sterna fuscata) on the 18th July, while the outward voyage, from 13th

to 19th January (1950) for the complete absence of any kind of petrel

and the scarcity of shearwaters. Presumably, the petrels and many of

the shearwaters had migrated and were in their breeding haunts in

the Southern Hemisphere in January. It would certainly appear

probable that, as Mr. Bryson suggests, the Wilson’s Petrels that he

saw in the Cape Guardafui area on 21st November, 1945 were

gathering before proceeding south.

The following are extracts from my diaries of the two voyages.

M. V. ‘WORCESTERSHIRE. Homeward voyage. July, 11th to

19th 1940.

Speed normally approximately 14 knots, reduced at times to g

knots owing to head-winds in Indian Ocean.

July ith 1949. Indian Ocean. Sailed from Colombo at 2.30

p-m. Immediately after leaving harbour, a single Large Crested Sea

Tern (Sterna bergii velox) crossed our bows flying south. These terns

are now nesting in large numbers on a rocky islet about 60 miles

south of Colombo.

While still within sight of Colombo we passed a single, small,

white-rumped blackish petrel flying close above the water—most pro-

bably a Wilson’s Storm-Petrel (Oceanites oceanicus); also 12 to 18

medium sized shearwaters—dark chocolate brown above and very little

lighter below; darker on the primaries when seen in a good light but

most of them were some distance away, flying chose over the water,

wheeling occasionally and moving in open order in a scattered flock.

They appeared to be the Wedge-tailed or Green-billed Shearwater

(Puffinus pacificus) but might pessibly have been the Pale-footed

Shearwaters (Puffinus carneibes). |

July 12th 1949. Indian Ocean. Sea moderately. rough; wind

strong, from S. W. 9.00 a.m. A single shearwater crossed our bows—-

almost certainly a Wedge-tailed Shearwater.

504 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

9.30 a.m. Three Shearwaters (Wedge-tailed) passing flying

southwards.

12 Noon: suip’s Position Lat. 7° 17! N., LOnG. Zoe TS, al.

; 2.05 p.m. A single shearwater (Same species); 3.45 p.m. another

shearwater (same species) flying south-west at very much the same

speed as the ship. I was very surprised to see so many shearwaters

off Colombo, early in July.

- July 13th. Indian Ocean. Sea moderate, wind strong. No birds

seen.

12 Noon: SHIp’s Position Lat. 7° 22! N.,~Lone. vo og! “Ei

July 14th. Indian Ocean. Sea moderate, slightly choppy with a

long swell. 11.30 a.m. Two shearwaters off the starboard side.

12 Noon’: ‘sHip’s POSITION Lat’ > 718! IN2,. Wong. 164°7 37/0E.

Between 1.45 and 2.00 p.m. two more shearwaters were seen, one

flying within 200 yards of the ship. It then moved further out and was

joined by several more which gradually dropped astern; one was seen

to settle for about a minute. The one that came close was almost

certainly a Wedge-tailed Shearwater; at 6.15 p.m. another one was

seen.

July 15th. Indian Ocean. Sea moderate, with increased wind and

swell. 7.28 a.m. A single shearwater (Wedge-tailed) on starboard

bow. 9.10 a.m. another single shearwater.

12 Noon: SHIP’S POSITION Lat.” 7°" 17" 9N 4 HONG. 756.728! WE

Afternoon; sea subsiding slightly. No birds seen.

July 16th. Indian Ocean. Sea moderately rough, wind W.S.W.

No birds seen.

12 Noon: SHIP’S POSITION LaT. 7° 30/ N.,, Lone. 54° 48/ E.

July 17th. Indian Ocean. Strong westerly wind; sea moderately

rough.

6.30 a.m. Three Dusky Shearwaters (Puffinus assimilis) flying

low to starboard, one settled on water for a few seconds. 7.35 a.m.

Two more Dusky Shearwaters flying at a short distance from the

ship; they fly like Wedge-tailed Shearwaters but with more flapping

and more wheeling, showing first the dark brown of the upper plumage

and then the white of the lower. 8.43 a.m.: Another Dusky Shear-

water. Ship is now about 90 miles east of the African coast. 10.20

a.m.: Flock of 8 to 12 Dusky Shearwaters, wheeling and flapping

occasionally ; one settled on the water for a few seconds. One larger,

dark shearwater, further away appeared to be a Wedge-tailed Shear-

water. 11.15 a.m.: A single shearwater (Wedge-tailed) crossed our

bows flying west. |

11.30 to 11.50 a.m. Several Dusky Shearwaters seen, two couples

and a single bird, all flying west.

12: NOON : “SHIP’s' POSITION Lat? 'g°\'s9/\'N. MONG) Seo vind! EF.

1.00 p.m. Single Dusky Shearwater. 3.00 p.m.: We are now passing

Ras Hafum at about 6 miles distance.

~ WILSON’S STORM-PETRELS ETC. IN GULF OF ADEN 505

3-30 p.m. Many Dusky Shearwaters, flying in-various directions.

3 Red-billed Tropic-birds (Phaéthon aetheveus), distinguished by. their

red beaks, black-barred upper plumage and long white tails passed

the ship; one flew high near by and the other two kept more or less

together. Dusky Shearwaters numerous, flying singly or in small

open-order flocks. 4.30 p.m.: Two or three single. Dusky Shear-

waters, wheeling at a little distance from the ship. -No more birds

seen. At about 9.30 p.m. we turned into the Gulf of Aden, passing

Cape Guardafui light. |

july 18th. Gulf of Aden.’ About’'40 ‘to. 50 miles off N. coast"of

‘Somaliland. Wind slight; slight swell. 5.30 a.m.: Wilson’s Storm

Petrels have reappeared; passed about 12 flying low over the water,

close to the ship, also two Red-billed Tropic-birds.. Between 7 and

‘7.30 a.m. we passed into calm waters; Wilson’s Storm-Petrels very

numerous indeed; many settled on the water, others flying close

above; several hundreds could be seen on both sides of the ship. It

would appear that these petrels had collected in this more or less calm

area for good feeding and were then -resting’“ 7.30. a.m.: One

‘Wedge-tailed Shearwater and very many Wilson’s Storm-Petrels. One

Aden Sooty Gull (Larus hemprichi) accompanied the ship for about 10

‘minutes hanging above our stern; it then settled on the water and

drifted astern. 7.45 a.m. passed two Wedge-tailed Shearwaters

flying and one Blue-faced Boody (Sula dactylatra) on the water.

7.50 a.m. Three Brown-winged Terns (Sterna anaetheta) flew

past flying east low over the water, together with several Wedge-

tailed Shearwaters.. Between 8.30 and 8.45 a.m.: One Wilson’s

Storm Petrel and two Brown-winged Terns were passing and two

Aden Sooty Gulls were following the ship. 9.00 a.m.: Several Wedge-

tailed Shearwaters were seen at little distance away and one Wilson’s

Storm Petrel, but bird life is now scarce again. 10.38 a.m.: 2 large

terns, blackish upper plumage, white lower—similar to (but con-

siderably darker than) Brown-winged Terns, passed the ship; they

appear to be Sooty Terns (Sterna fuscata). No other birds seen before

noon.

12 SNoow: .SHIP’s POSITION ‘LaT. 12°%,.04'..No: LOwe. -48° 12! E.

1.10 p.m.: Two shearwaters appeared, they are slightly lighter cho-

colate brown in colour and slightly larger in size than Wedge-tailed

Shearwaters; they may have been Pale-footed Shearwaters (Puffinus

carnetpes). One Wilson’s Storm-Petrel was also passed, 3.30 to 4.45

p.m. Large numbers of Sooty Tern (Sterna fuscata) flying low over

the water, came up from far out to the east and crossed our bows in

a steady stream of small flocks flying in open order. Many hundreds

must have passed us, all flying in the same direction i.e. south-west

towards the Somaliland coast. I have never before seen such a re-

markable flight of birds at sea. Several Wilson’s Storm Petrels

were also passed but they were not flying with the terns. There was,

however, an occasional Brown-winged Tern (smaller and browner)

flying with the Sooty Terns. The flight of Sooty Terns continued

until after 5.00 p.m., gradually tailing off. An occasional flock of 7

‘or 8 Sooty Terns mostly flying in couples, continued to pass until about

506 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 49

5-45 p-m., but none was seen after that time. A few Wilson’s Storm

Petrels were seen up to about 6.00 p.m. when the light became too

poor to see.

July 19th. Gulf of Aden-to Red Sea: Sea. smooth; 5.15 to 5.30

a.m.: Very large numbers of Wilson’s Storm Petrels, many settled

on the water, gradually became fewer until the last was seen about 6.00

a.m. Many of these petrels appeared to be in moult with ragged

plumage. 6.10 a.m.: Three Aden Gulls were overtaken fiying in the

same direction in which we were heading; after remaining with us

for 10 minutes or so they dropped astern.

6.25 a.m. to 8.00 a.m.: A large falcon joined the ship and 4

Brown Boobies (Sula leucogastra) were passed, one of which was

sitting on the water. Just before passing through the Straits of

Babel Mandib, a large flock of terns with grey mantles, black caps

and orange-red beaks was passed, many of them were diving down

after small fish; they appeared to be the lesser Crested Sea-Tern

(Sterna bengalensis) but I could not be sure of their identification.

Several Wilson’s Storm Petrels were also passed.

At 8.00 a.m. we sighted land to starboard and commenced to

pass through the Straits of Babel Mandib and into the Red Sea.

M. V. ‘WoRCESTERSHIRE’: Outward Voyage: January 13th to

20th 1950.

January 13th 1950. Gulf of Aden. Approaching Aden Harbour.

Sea calm but considerable ripple; sky overcast and cloudy; land

visible 10 to 12 miles to port.

6.10 a.m. to 7.30 a.m.: No petrels; Lesser Black-backed Gulls

(Larus fuscus), Herring Gulls (Larus argentatus) and Aden Sooty Gulls

(Larus hemprichi) met us in increasing numbers as we approached

Aden Harbour. In harbour, several Large Crested Sea Terns (Sterna

bergil) were noted, together with many Aden Gulls and Black-headed

Gulls (Larus ridibundus) and lesser numbers of Herring Gulls and

Lesser Black~backed Gulls. 4.30 p.m. to dark: Leaving Aden

(Harbour only the four species of gulls, seen in the harbour, were noted

together with a few Large Crested Sea Terns.

January 14th 1950. Gulf of Aden. Sea smooth with a slight

swell and ripple; weather clear and cool. 6.30 to 6.45: No birds.

6.45 a.m.: A small dark shearwater crossed our bows flying rapidly

with rather quick wing beats but the light was not good enough for

identification. Then 4 small shearwaters, dark brown above and

whitish below, flew close over the water nearby. One settled and the

others continued flying quickly and gliding occasionally, rather faster

than the ship and disappeared ahead; they appeared to be Dusky

Shearwaters. 7.20 a.m. Two Tropic-birds passed over and circled

near the ship, they had red beaks, white wings with black wing-tips,

long white tail feathers—probably the Red-billed Tropic-bird. 8.10

a.m.: Two very small birds, with whitish underparts, flying close

above the sea appeared to be phalaropes—probably P. lobatus. At

11.15 a.m. two more phalaropes flying a little distance away on the

same course as the ship. Just before midday two medium sized

shearwaters, dusky chocolate brown above and a little lighter on the

WILSON’S STORM-PETRELS ETC. IN GULF OF ADEN 507°

under plumage, with rather longish wedge-shaped tails, passed—pro-

bably Wedge-tailed Shearwaters.

12 UNOON : SHIP’S "POSITION |LaT.)12"''14"")'N., Lone. 48° 04! E.

12.30 to 4.00 p.m.: Four Wedge-tailed Shearwaters flying singly were

passed and a single gull, which appeared to be immature Herring

Gull, followed in our wake. 4.30 to 4.45 p.m.: Several parties of

phalaropes, flying rapidly close over the water in different directions

were passed. One party was seen to settle on the water. At 5.18

p.m. when we were about 84 miles from Ras al Fil or Ras Filuk on

the Somaliland coast, two dark brown skuas, of medium size, were

observed flying together and chasing one another. One of them came

closer and flew in our wake for a few minutes together with the

immature Herring Gull, it appeared to be a Pomatorhine Skua

(Stercorarius pomarinus) but identification was not certain as it was.

too far away.

January 15th 1950. Gulf of Aden. Sea calm with a slight ripple

and swell; weather bright and clear.

6.15 a.m. Two dark chocolate-brown, medium sized shearwaters

(probably Puffinus pacificus), crossed our bows in the direction of

Socotra and the Brothers Islands, which were just visible about 15

miles away, northwards. One Tropic-bird (P. lepturus) passed flying

some 50 feet above the sea. 9.15 a.m.: A single Brown Booby

(Sula leucogastra probably) flew past, flying westwards about 50 to:

60 feet above the sea.

12 Noon: SHIp’s POSITION LaT. 11° 29’ N., Lone. 54° 42’ E. No

more birds seen.

January 16th 1950. Indian Ocean. Sea smooth with — slight

ripple; weather clear and sunny.

7.15 a.m. Three tropic-birds appeared, flying more or less

together. Some black on the back and mantle but tails rather short.

One settled on water and dived several times. 9.20 a.m.: Another

tropic-bird appeared and flew round and over the ship for over 16

minutes. Beak yellow, black line below eye, wing tips black, some

brown on the mantle and short tail—apparently an immature bird.

It flew mostly about 50 feet up and was seen to dive into the sea,

several times. It disappeared completely beneath the surface when

it dived. No birds of any other species seen.

12 NOON: SHIP’s POSITION LAT. 10° 30/ N., Lona. 60° o1/ E. No:

birds seen during the afternoon but at 5.45 p.m. a single tropic-bird

appeared flying high round and above the ship for over 5 minutes.

Several times it passed quite close. It had a short tail, yellow beak,

black tips to the primaries and much brown on the upper plumage ;

it appeared to be a White-tailed Tropic-bird (Phaéthon lepturus). No

other birds seen.

January 17th 1950. Indian Ocean. Sea smooth with - slight

ripple and swell; weather bright and clear. No birds.

12 Noon: SHIP’S POSITION LAT. 9° 33’ N., Lone. 65° 24’ E.:

Afternoon and evening no birds seen.

‘508 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

January 18th 1950. Indian Ocean. Sea smooth, with slight

ripple and swell; weather clear and bright.

9.23 a.m. A tropic-bird passed flying and circling high over

the sea; long white tail with a littke black on the upper plumage—a

-Red-billed Tropic-bird. No other birds seen during the morning.

12 Noon: \SHIp’s: Positron “Lars '8° “48” N.{ “ONG, 7o. 20°, hae

About 4.30 p.m.: Two unidentified birds reported. No other birds

“seen. Passed Minicoy Island Light about 11 p.m.

January 19th 1950. Indian Ocean. Sea smooth, with very slight

_ripple and swell; clear and sunny. No birds.

12 Noon’: SHIP'S’ POSITION “LaT. 7° 38'"N., “onc? 76" 03) 4E. 24 Ne

‘birds seen this day.

January 20th 1950. Arrived Colombo Harbour soon after dawn.

Many Terns and Brown-headed Gulls in Harbour.

REFERENCES k

Bryson, A. G. S. (1949): Wilson’s Storm-Petrel (Oceanites oceanicus) in the

“Gulf of Aden. Jour., Bom. Nat. Hist.. Soc., 48 (2): 362.

Gibson-Hill, C. A. (1950): Tropic-birds occurring in the Indian Ocean and

-adjacent Seas. ibid, 49 (1): 66.

TURTLE FISHING IN THE SEA AROUND KRUSADAI ISLAND

G. K. Kuriyan

Marine Biological Station, Krusadar Island, Pamban

Gulf of Mannar

(With a text figure)

Turtle fishing has been practised for ages on the south-eastern

shores of the Indian Peninsula, particularly around Krusadai Island,

where: it has long been conducted by non-Hindu fishermen. Hindu

fishermen do not generally fish for turtles; their indifference being

attributed to their religious belief that the second of the dasavatars

had the form of a turtle’.

If properly organised and developed, the fishery can be made

economically very beneficial. At present between 800 to 1,000 turtles

are annually landed in Krusadai area itself, where the fishery goes

on throughout the year.

Four species of turtles have been identified in the commercial

catches.:° They are:

1. The Green Turtle, Chelonia mydas Linne,

2. The Hawksbill Turtle, Evetmochelys imbricata Linne,

3. The Olive Logger-head Turtle, Caretta caretta olivacea

Eschscholtz,

4, The Brown Logger-head Turtle, Caretta caretta gigas

Deraniyagala.

METHODS OF CAPTURE. Turtles are caught by special types of wall

nets. These nets are made of the fibres of Acacia planifrons W. & A.,

or of cotton yarn’.

Stems of acacia are cut into pieces of convenient size. The bark

is peeled off and soaked in water to render easy the extraction of fibres.

The extraction is done by stripping of the outer greenish layer of the

bark with the finger nails. The fibres are then spun into the required

thickness, which varies from $ to ? inch. Yarn nets, being more

costly were scarcely used during the war years.

There are two important types of nets in use. These are known

as ‘Pachu valai’ and ‘Kattu valai’ in Tamil and have the same general

structure, but differ in the method of their employment. Both nets

require between 5 to 8 men each for operation.

Pachu valai (text fig.): This net is rectangular, 70 ft. long and

9 ft. high, with a 2 inch-square mesh. The upper edge has a hauling

rope (head rope) extending beyond the length of the net. There is

Se eee

* But see footnote 5 on p. 529 re tortoise flesh being permissible to Brahmins.—

Eps.

* The fibres from the bark of Calotropis are also used in making nets. From

the reports that could be gathered at Pamban, I understand that these nets are

more popular in the Tuticorin area. he

510 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

a corresponding foot rope at the lower edge of the net. The ex-

tensions of the head and the foot ropes are tied together at each

extremity. At one end a long rope with an anchoring weight (stone)

is attached and at the other another rope with a conspicuous buoy,

Floals

rf s)

Fachu Valat (diagrammatic Bus

—— ¢ d ) Wz, Ine

Ancho r ca

‘Pachu valai’ joined together for operation. The relative positions of the

anchor, buoy and floats are indicated.

The head rope is also provided with 10 wooden floats of small size

about 7 ft. apart.

The net is usually cast or set at night at the entrance of two

parallel coral reefs and is hauled in after the lapse of 12 to 18 hours.

The anchoring weight holds the net in position, while the rope with

the buoy helps location of the net and its removal. The upper edge

of the net hes on the surface of the water on account of the floats,

its own weight enabling it to stay like a porous and flexible wall

in the water. The struggle of a turtle entangled in the meshes causes

the lower end of the net to roll up and to envelop it completely.

If the gap between the reefs is sufficiently wide, two such nets

(each with anchor, buoy and floats) are used. The nearer ends of

these nets are joined by a flimsy cord, which may easily be snapped,

when a turtle is entangled.

A solitary turtle per net is the usual haul. Occasionally, with

luck, 2 or 3 turtles are caught in a single net. But there are occasions

when there is no catch at all. Catches are larger on darker nights.

and about the time of the new-moon.

Kattu valai: This net is longer and is devoid of the anchor and

buoy. Fishing with this net is also conducted between two coral

reefs, but in a much shallower area. Six fishermen usually operate

the net. Four of them get into the water and the remaining two

wait in a canoe. Two of those in the water stretch the net taut,

while those in the canoe beat the surface of the water or the sides

of their vessel to drive turtles into the net. The remaining two in

the water haul the catch ashore. If more people are available the

operation will be easier and more effective. The net is usually laid

on full-moon nights. The fishing is generally conducted for two hours,

but catches are not encouraging,

‘TURTLE FISHING AROUND KRUSADAI ISLAND 511

Pachu valai is more popular among the fishermen in the Kursadai

area.

Foop AND Bronomics: The Green Turtle is a vegetable feeder,

subsisting on marine algae such as Gracillaria, Sargassum, and the

marine phanerogam Cymodocea. Gracillaria seems to be its

favourite diet.

Deraniyagala (1939)' remarked that this species is omnivorous

but essentially vegetarian, and feeds upon Cymodocea and Thalassia

also Zostera, Halophila and other algae. Parts of the sea with

luxuriant submerged vegetation are usually favourable grounds for

the fishery.

The Hawksbill Turtle is carnivorous and the Olive Logger-head

Turtle is reported to have cannibalistic tendencies, especially when

young. (Deraniyagala, 1939).

Both the carapace and the plastron of most of the Green Turtles

examined in the laboratory of Krusadai Biological Station were found

to be infested with Turtle Barnacle, Chelonobia testudinaria Linne.

Deraniyagala (1939) has described the breeding habits of turtles in

Ceylon. Chacko (1942)? has indicated the changes in the details

of the nesting habits of the Olive Logger-head Turtle in Krusadai

Island. Two nests of this turtle were observed in October 1949 on

Shingle Island above the high-tide mark. The number of eggs in

each were 40 and 50. ~The numbers are very much below those recorded

by Deraniyagala (1939) and Chacko (1942). Though the mother turtle

‘tries to hide all traces of the packing of her eggs’ as observed by

‘Chacko (1942), the egg nests could be detected by the loose nature

of the soil in the covered burrow. The thrust of a stick into the

sand enabled detection of the looseness of the packed soil and thus helped

the location of the nest. This method is also adopted by the turile

nest hunters in Krusadai area.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF TURTLE FISHING: The majority of the

turtles landed in the Krusadai area are Green Turtles known as ‘Peramav’

(Tamil). They are edible. The other turtles are seldom eaten.

The* catches; of the "Green Turtle are graded for sale according to

the maximum width of the plastron into three or four sets as follows:

Prices in Rupees

Set Width of Plastron ee ee .

| Pre-war | Post-war

ily Over 26” | 12 | 25

2; | Between 21” — 26” | 6 | 15

3. Between 16” — 21” | i 12

4, Under 16> + | 6

* Deraniyagala, P.E.P. (1939) Tetrapod Reptiles of Ceylon. Vol. 1.

# Chacko,. Byel. (i942)" “Cur Sct. 12 (2) + 60,

512 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

The price of turtles has risen after the war, but fishing and the

catches remain at pre-war level.

The edible variety is exported mainly to Ceylon, where a lucrative

market exists for it. The absence of any excise duty for exporting

live turtles is a great encouragement to the trade. Live turtle wells

are maintained at Pamban to ensure a regular supply for the trade.

Inedible turtles are not entirely useless, their shells providing the

bases of a minor cottage industry for the mapunae wie of crude

Ornaments.

Oil from turtles is extracted by melting the fat in pans and siev-

ing it through coarse cloth. The extracted oil is used to smear

country crafts (Chacko 1942) and to make crude medicinal prepar-

ations. The oil of the Green Turtle is sometimes used as a substi-

tute for gheé. The cost of oil at Pamban varies between 5 to 7

annas a pint. |

Transport of live turtles by rail and boat is easy if they are kept

upside down. This position renders them practically immobile. They

are hardy and are known to have thriven well outside their native

element for well over a month.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This article is published with the kind permission of the Director

of Fisheries, Madras, to whom my grateful thanks are due. I am

also grateful to Dr. Beni Charan Mahendra and Sri K. Chidambaram.

for their valuable suggestions and constructive criticism.

MORE NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE NEPAL VALLEY

B. E. SMYTHIES

Burma Forest Service (Retd.)

The following notes are intended as a supplement to Mrs. Proud’s.

interesting article on ‘Some Notes on the Birds of the Nepal Valley ’,

published in the Journal for December 19491. They are abstracted.

from notes made during the following periods of war leave spent with

my parents in Kathmandu (my father being at the time Forest Adviser

to the Government of Nepal) :—

1942 3lst May—20th September

1943 24th October—16th November

1944 10th June—Ist July

1945 29th November—28th December

_Apart from a trip in the first 15 days of September 1942 along the

pilgrim trail to Gosainkund and beyond, my notes on which have already

appeared in the Journal? these periods were spent in Kathmandu.

itself with a few visits for a night or two up to the bungalows at Kakini

and Nagarkot. I madea point of climbing to the summit of Phul Chok,

Sheopuri, and the highest peak on the Chandragiri range at least once

each year, and in 1942 Phul Chok was climbed a number of times. After

the end of June the rain or mist and leeches make observation difficult.

Those were memorable mountain days, and the right antidote to war--

fare in the Burma jungles. My only regret is that I did no collecting,

under the mistaken impression that Hodgson’s prodigious collections of.

a hundred-odd years before had made further work ‘in this field super-

fluous.

Urocissa flavirostris: Yeliow-billed Blue Magpie.

Noted on Phul Chok at 8,000 ft.

Suthora nipalensis: Nepal Suthora.,

Noted on Phul Chok at 8,500 ft.

Sitta frontalis: Velvet-fronted Nuthatch.

Noted in the Valley and on Nagar Jong.

Garrulax leucolophus: White-crested Laughing-Thrush.

Occurs on Nagar Jong at 5,000—6,000 ft.

Garrulax striata: Striated Laughing-Thrush.

Noted once on Phul Chok at 6,000 ft.

1 Vol. 48 (4), pp. 695-718.

2 Vol, 47 (3), pp. 432-443.

514 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Trochalopteron erythrocephalum: Red-headed Laughing-Thrush.

This is not confined to Sheopuri being also not uncommon on Phul

‘Chok and the Chandragiri range, at 6,000—9,000 ft.

Trochalopteron lineatum: Streaked Laughing-Thrush.

Seen at 6,200 ft. near the top of the Sisagarhi pass on the road to

Kathmandu, but never in the Nepal Valley.

Pomatorhinus schisticeps: Slaty-headed Scimitar Babbler.

Noted on Sheopuri, doubtfully elsewhere.

fAcanthoptila nipalensis: Spiny Babbler.

Mrs. Proud’s record of this rare species from the Nepal Valley is of

considerable interest ; I never had the good fortune to see it. ]

Pellorneum ruficeps : Spotted Babbler.

Noted on Nagar Jong at 5,000 ft.

Stachyris nigriceps: Black-throated Babbler.

Noted at 5,000 ft. on Phul Chok and the Chandragiri range.

‘Stachyridopsis ruficeps : Red-headed Babbler.

Noted on October 27th on Sheopuri; doubtfully seen on Phul

Chok.

Pseudominla castaneiceps: Chestnut-headed Tit-Babbler.

Like Mrs. Froud, I have only seen this species on the Chandragiri

range ; a large party was encountered at 8,000 ft. on November 5th.

Fulvetta vinipecta: Fulvetta.

Probably a resident species on Phul Chok and Chandragiri range

above 8,000 ft.; in small flocks in the undergrowth.

Actinodura nipalensis: Hoary Barwing.

Another resident species above 8,000 ft. on Phul Chok and Sheopuri.

Usually on mossy tree-trunks.

Siva cyanouroptera: Blue-winged Siva.

Another resident species above 8,000 ft. on Phul Chok and Sheopuri.

Ixulus flavicollis : Yellow-collared Ixulus.

Noted on Chandragiri as well as on Sheopuri.

Leiothrix lutea: Red-billed Leiothrix.

In 1942 this species was not seen in June, July, or August, but a

solitary bird was seen at 7,000 ft. on September Ist on Sheopuri.

Pteruthius erythropterus: Red-winged Shrike-Babbler.

Noted on Phul Chok and Sheopuri as well as on Nagar Jong,

mostly at or near 7,000 ft.

MORE NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE NEPAL VALLEY

Certhia sp. Treecreeper.

The identity of the species found in aiais area needs clearing up; I

have seen Treecreepers at 7,000—8,000 ft. on Sheopuri, which I re-

corded as discolor.

Tesia castaneocoronata: Chestnut-headed Wren.

Probably resident on Phul Chok above 8,000 ft.

[Larvivora brannea: Indian Blue Chat.

On Phul Chok at 8,500 ft. in June I saw what I believe was a male

of this species skulking in the undergrowth but I did not get a good

enough view to be certain of identity. Blue upper parts, white eye-

brow, and chestnut under parts were noted. |]

Tarsiger chrysaeus: Golden Bush Robin.

In the last week of October 1943 I observed this species on Fhul

Chok and Sheopuri.

Saxicola caprata: Pied Stonechat.

Noted only on Sheopuri.

Rhodophila ferrea: Dark Grey Bush Chat.

Seen once on the summit of Phul Chok, date not recorded.

Oreocincla dauma (or mollissima): Mountain Thrush.

Seen only on the summit of Sheopuri.

Cochoa purpuera: Purple Thrush.

One record of this rare species on the Sieooin: ridge at 7,000 ft.

Siphia strophiata: Orange-gorgeted Flycatcher.

Seen only above 8,000 ft., on Phul Chok and Sheopuri, where a few

pairs are probably summer residents.

Culicicapa ceylonensis : Grey-headed Fly ca‘cher.

Noted on Phul Chok and Chandragiri.

Niltava grandis: Large Niltava.

Noted on Phul Chok at 7,000 ft., where it is probably resident.

Niltava sundara: Rufous-bellied Niltava.

Like Mrs. Proud, I have noted this only on the Chandragiri range,

at 8,000 ft.

Chelidorhynx hypoxanthum: Yellow-bellied Flycatcher,

A few pairs are summer residents on Phui Chok and Sheopuri

above 8,000 ft.

Rhipidura albicollis: White-throated Fantail Flycatcher.

Noted only on Sheopuri in the Nepal Valley, but also on the

Sisagarhi pass.

516 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Hemipus picatus: Pied Shrike.

Like Mrs. Proud, I have seen this only on Nagar Jong.

Seicercus burkii: Black-browed Flycatcher- Waablen

Noted only on Phul Chok above 8,000 ft., where a few pairs are

probably summer residents.

Seicercus castaneoceps: Chestnut-headed Flycatcher-Warbler,

One record from the Chandragiri range, November 5th.

Abroscopus schisticeps: Black-faced Flycatcher-Warbler.

Noted on the Chandragiri range.

[Suya criniger: Brown Hill Warbler. 3

I have a note of this on Sheopuri, but Mrs. Proud does not

~ record it and it is just possible I confused it yeh Acanthoptila,’

so I leave it as doubtful. ]

Pyrrhula nipalensis : Brown Bullfinch.

One record at 7,000 ft. on Sheopuri (above Sundarijal) ; Serer

ber 15th.

Riparia concolor : Dusky Crag Mattin.

Seen at Kakini bungalow on November 3rd.

Martula nepalensis: Hodgson’s House Martin.

Seen round the highest point of the Chandragiri range on ht

ber 5th.

Aethopyga nipalensis: Nepal Yellow-backed Sundbird.

Noted on the Chandragiri pass, October 24th.

Picus chlorolophus :, Small Yellow-naped Woodpecker:

Noted only on Nagar Jong.

Blythipicus pyrrhotis: Red-eared Bay Woodpecker.

Noted on Phul Chok at 5,000—6,000 ft.

Hierococc yx spar veroides : Large Hawk-Cuckoo. |

Heard on Phul Chok and Sheopuri.

Hierecoccyx fugax : Hodgson’s Hawk-Cuckoo.

_ Noted on the Chandragiri range.

Cacomantis merulinus : Plaintive Cuckoo.

Heard on Sheopuri.

2 Or vice versa ?-—EDS.

MORE NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE NEPAL VALLEY 517

Surniculus lugubris : Drongo Cuckoo.

Heard on Sheopuri.

Merops leschenaulti : Chestnut-headed Bee-eater.

Noted in the Valley, date not recorded.

Chaetura caudacuta : White-throated Spinetailed Swiflt.

Seen flying over Sheopuri.

Caprimulgus indicus : Jungle Nightjar.

Heard at the bungalow below the Sisagarhi pass. A nightjar seen

on the. branch of a tree at the foot of Nagar Jong may have been this

Or macrourus.

Otus bakkamoena: Collared Scops Owl.

Heard calling in the Valley, June 14th.

Glaucidium cuculoides : Barred Owlet.

Also heard calling in the Valley, date not recorded.

Giaucidium brodiei : Pigmy Owlet.

Heard calling on Phul Chok at 6,000 ft. Seen Chandragiri range.

Gyps indicus : Long-billed Vulture.

Noted in the Valley.

Neophron percnopterus : White Scavenger Vulture.

Noted in the Valley.

Aquila chrysaetos : Golden Hagle.

One afternoon near the foot of Nagar Jong we spent half an hour

with glasses at fairly close range watching one of these magnificent

birds plucking a Blue Rock Pigeon. The eagle was 30 ft. up a pine

tree, and did not seem to be at all shy. December 5th.

Treron curvirostra : Thick-billed Green Pigeon.

Noted on Phul Chok and Nagar Jong.

Columba livia : Blue Rock Pigeon.

Though not mentioned by Mrs. Prcud (perhaps because not con-

sidered to be truly feral) this is a very common tird of the Valley and

is often shot for sport.

Gallus gallus: Red Junglefowl.

Seen only on Nagar Jong.

Gennaeus leucomelanus : White-crested Kalij Fheasant.

Seen on Phul Chok and Nagar Jcng at 6,000 ft.

518 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49 —

Arborophila torqueola : Common Hill Partridge.

Noted on Phul Chok at 6,CO0 ft.

Francolinus francolinus : Black Partridge.

Noted on Shecpuri.

Ardea purpurea : Purple Heron.

Noted in the Valley.

Ducks. In the gardens of the palace belonging to General Sir

Kaiser Shumshere there is a duck pond where the migratory duck are

allowed to settle and remain undisturbed so that they become very tame

and are easily observed. Hundreds of duck frequent the pond in winter

and the General himself takes a keen interest in observing them, I

remember him pointing out a female Gadwall on one occasion.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BIONOMICS AND FISHERY OF

THE BROWN MUSSEL OMAFIEUS SP2) "Or THE CAPE

REGION OF PENINSULAR INDIA! f

52) ONES

(With a’text map and two plates)

(Communicated by Dr. S. L. Hora)

i INTRODUCTION

Brown Mussel fishing is a regular industry of considerable local im-

portance along the, focky coastal tracts of Southern Travancore and the

Tinnevelly District of Madras Province. From Kovalam near

Trivandrum ‘up to Cape Comorin, the ‘Land’s End’ of India, along the

west coast, and beyond as far as the Tinnevelly District on the east coast,

the sea shore consists of frequent stretches of rock with intermittent

beaches of sand. Several fishing villages nestle along these beaches

and some as at Vizhinjam, Pulluvila, Poovar, Thengapatnam, Midalarn,

Kolachal, Muttam, Manakudi, Cape Comorin and Leepuram are very

large ones, each consisting of hundreds of families carrying on inshore,

foreshore and to scme extent offshore fishing with country boats and

catamarans. ‘The fairly close proximity of the Wadge Bank to this

area gives a rich yield of fish to the enterprising fishermen and in

comparison to this, the value of the Brown Mussel fished is not greit.

Despite this, Brown Mussel fishery plays an important part in the

economy and dietary of quite a large number of people along the coast

since, in addition to giving employment with a modest income to

several hundreds of people for about 6 to 8 months in the year,

thousands are benefited by the availability of a very nutritious and

palatable article of diet as an alternative to ordinary fish especiaiiy

during the months when the latter is scarce.

Brown Mussel is known as ‘chippi’, ‘muthuva’ or ‘muthuvachippi’

in Malayalam? and as ‘kallika’ and ‘kadalka’ in Tamil. It is no ex-

aggeration to say that it is a food of the greatest delicacy to thuse

accustomed to it and it is even said that some develop almost

a sort of craving if unable to get it for a long time. About a quarter

of a century ago this was popular only amongst the poorer and

backward classes whereas now it is liked by all the fish-eating people

including many among the high-castes so much so that during the

season when the mussel is in prime condition there is practically a

scramble for it as soon as it 1s brought to the shore. Some of the

poor people when they go on a visit to their relatives living in the

* Observations mainly relate to the conditions on the West Coast. The article

was prepared in 1947 and finalised after the author joined the Central Inland

Fisheries Research Station, Barrackpore.

?-In Malabar the Green Mussel is known as ‘Kallumaikai’ and the small

sized young stages are known as ‘Kadukka’.

520 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

interior of the country take a quantity of mussel and bring back in

return with them cassava or tapioca (Manihot utilissima) roots.

VARKELEY

o <)

<<“ TIRUCNENDUR Q-

Y KOVALAM

VIZINTAM x

SUT

CAPE inecg aris

INDIAN OCEAN

ar eee a

The Cape region of peninsular India, showing the important Brown Mussel

fishing centres in South Travancore.

DISTRIBUTION AND SYSTEMATICS

Regarding the distribution of the Brown Mussel, so far as the

writer knows, it is confined to the South Travancore and Tinnevelly

coasts. The Green Mussel is only occasionally seen in South

Travancore but its abundance increases from the Cape towards the

Tinnevelly side. Both the Brown and Green Mussels have been

collected from Varkaley between Trivandrum and Quilon. Only he

latter species was collected by the writer from the piles of the pier at

Alleppey Port in North Travancore, and the Madras Harbour, and

Pamban near Rameswaram and also from the Colombo Harbour.

Reasons for the restricted. distribution of the Brown Mussel are not

known.

~ Our present knowledge about. the biology and fishery. of the Brown

Mussel is mainly confined to the brief remarks of. Hornell (1917 & 1921)

in his accounts of the ‘Edible Molluscs of the Madras ESIC and

the ‘Common Molluscs of South India’ respectively. Rao {1941),

presumably basing his observations on Hornell’s account, a to the

fishery of Brown Mussel in general terms.

BIONOMICS AND FISHERY OF THE BROWN MUSSEL 521

Dealing with the Green and Brown Mussels Hornell’ (1947) says

as follows:—‘One of these is the very handsome Green Mussel

(Mytilus smaragdinus Chem.) readily recognised because of the hand-

some green coloration of the horny membrane of periostracum invest-

ing the surface of its valve; the other is an even larger species, less

elegant in contour, coated with a coarse brown periostracum that

looks commonplace when contrasted with the vivid tint of the green.

The former species is distributed widely upon the Madras coast extend-

ing as it does almost continuously from South Kanara on the west

coast to the borders of Orissa on the east. The brown form, on the

other hand, is confined so far as I am aware to the extreme south of

Travancore and of the Tinnevelly District’.

‘This mussel’, he writes, ‘is the largest and the stoutest species

found in South India attaining commonly a length of 4 inches. It is

distinctly larger than the Green Mussel, but unlike the latter its distri-

bution is limited to‘a comparatively short length of coast in South

Travancore, where it displaces the green species. The coast there is

exposed to exceptionally heavy seas during the monsoons but !n spite

of this it thrives in great abundance on rocks from low tide to a depth

of about 24 to 3 fathoms. Annually large quantities are taken from

the rocks by divers. They form an important food item among fisher-

men and coast Muhammadans’.

It is unfortunate that there is no information about the quantity

fished from the coasts of Tinnevelly and South Travancore though

thousands of maunds (gross weight) are collected every year. In

the latest fish marketing survey report? there is also no record of the

collections.

BIONOMICS

The Brown Mussel thrives well on firm, clean substratum, to

which the anchoring threads or byssus are firmly attached. The

surface of the rock should be devoid of algal growth or sand for the

spat to take hold and develop into mussel. Complete submergence

and clear water, with as little suspended impurities as possible but with

plenty of food and light, are ideal conditions for its proper growth.

It is known to thrive up to a depth of about 20 feet. Specimens

subjected to waves carrying sand get easily choked by the latter and

perish.

The breeding season of the mussel appears to be extended, but

the main peak period is from June to August (Plate I, 2.) during the

monsoon months when the sea is rough and advances considerably on

to the shore. The rocks in the littoral region, which in summer were

exposed, get covered by the sea which is so rough that a natural close

season is established. Clusters of the mussel appear in almost all the

clean submerged portions of the rocks. There is a secondary spurt

of breeding during October and November, but the intensity of which

——$—_. —

* In. Hornell’s: recent. ‘The Study of .Indian Molluscs’ (J. Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc., 48 (3), 1949, p.. 562) he gives the same information except that he

calls the Green Mussel,. Mytilus viridis L.. It is rather strange that the specific

name still: remains unknown. . ,

* ‘Report on the Marketing of Fish in India.’ Delhi. 1946.

522 JOURNAL,- BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

could in no way be compared to that of the first season. The mussels

from the June-August spats do not become sexually mature by October-

November to bring about. the second spat formation.

THE FISHERY OF THE BROWN MUSSEL

The fishing season commences in September after the southwest

monsoon when the sea becomes calmer and water begins to recede.

The rocks in the littoral region that were covered by the seas gradually

get exposed showing a dark brown carpet of young Mytilus (Plate

III, 1.). The receding sea continues to send frequently waves which

sweep over its former domain and help to keep the mussels alive.

The fishing is at first confined to the rock pools (Plate II, 2.) and little

baylets from where the fishermen collect the mussel cautiously re-

treating to the safer and higher ground whenever high waves sweep

over the place. The less venturesome old men, children and some

women make collections from the semi-exposed beds. Mussels from

such situations being mostly half-starved are in little demand by the

public and are usually taken by the collectors for their home consump-

tion. As weeks go on, the sea recedes considerably and the men

enter the sea for regular collection (Plate I, 3.). The regular fishing

season is from mid-November to April-May. From December

onwards large specimens of mussei known as muthuva or muthuva-

chippi' (Plate I, 1.) which are the survivors of the previous year’s

brood, become available and the crop increases both in quality and

quantity by January and February. This is usually in such prime

condition that the demand is very high. It has been found that for

some inexplicable reasons the mussel sometimes grow ‘lean’ and lose

their ‘condition’ (Plate I, 1.).

It appears that the condition of the gonads is mainly responsible

for the fat and lean condition of the mussel, and as Kesteven (1941)

says in the case of oysters this ‘may be determined by a complex inter-

action of biological rhythms and water conditions’. This is a matter

that requires elucidation in the case of our mussels. Some say that

the phenomenon locally known as ‘kara’ (which means ‘milk’ or ‘sap’)

in the sea is responsible for this, while some others say that after

the ‘kara’ the mussel gets into good condition. Whatever be the

cause the mussel is in good condition between two ‘karas’! It is said

that when this phenomenon happens water loses its clear transparency

and turns somewhat turbid and the men do not generally enter the

sea at this time since it would irritate the eyes. The sea water ex-

amined by the writer three days after a case of ‘kara’ was reported

showed a large quantity of Noctiluca in it. ‘Kara’ usually occurs from

February to April?.

* *Muthu’ means pearl and as such ‘muthuvachippi’ means _pearl-bearing

mussel.

* The general belief is that in December to February, which is the season

of the ripening of the tamarind fruit, the mussel grows lean and with the

flowering of the dadap (Erythrina indica) which is in about April the flesh

becomes fat, developing a pinkish colour. These are of course only seasonal

coincidences,

yurn., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Ls PLATE I

DOR BS

Phetos by

Author

For explanation see p. 528

LOYINE

Il LV1g

97S ‘d 99s uoNeuR[dxs 105

‘SIZ “yeN Avquog ‘‘uanor

BIONOMICS AND FISHERY OF THE BROWN MUSSEL 523

_In the northern section between Poovar and Kovalam, fishing’ is

done mainly by Pulayas’. These people do not belong to the true

fishing communities like the Mukkuva (Christian), the Nulaya or Araya

(Hindu) and the Marakkan (Muhammedan). Apart from shell-fshing

and conch-fishing some Pulayas have taken to line fishing mostly when

there is no mussel fishing. It is a great advantage to these people

that the main agricultural operations are done during and between

the south-west and north-east monsoons when shell fishing is rather

difficult and is rarely done. In places south of Poovar, this fishing

is mainly done by,the Mukkuva or the Christian fishermen.

The fishing implements {Plate II, 1 & 4.) are very simple consisting

of a coir bag known as maal and a large blunt chisel known as uli?

The maal is nothing but a crude rectangular close-meshed coir bag

about 14 ft. long and 1 ft. broad with two small coir ropes on either

side so as to enable it to be tied on to the waist. Uli is a crude

chisel consisting of a stout softwood handle about 18 inches long and

about 12 inches in diameter with a blunt edged iron blade about 3

inches wide. The basal portion of the blade which is narrow and

tapering is driven into the handle and is fixed tightly by an iron hoop.

The handle is shaped out mostly by the men themselves in their spare

time from softwoods like dadap (Erythrina indica) or silk cotton

(Bombax malabaricum). In water it floats with the blade end down

and the handle up and the buoyancy of the wli prevents it from being

lost.. In South Canara and Malabar coasts any hardwood sharpened

at both ends is used for the collection of Green Mussel, whereas on

the Bombay coast according to Rai (1932) an iron chisel is used

for the purpose.

During the later part of the fishing season of the brown Mytilus

the men have to go off the shore, usually in catamarans (Plate III, 2)

and the fishing appliances are the same except that the maal is a very

large one known as ‘kottumaal’ or foldable bag which is kept on the

catamaran.

Attired in a scanty loin cloth the fishermen tie the maal in front at

the waist and with the wli in hand (Plate IH, 1.) jump into the water.

The men are good divers and sturdy swimmers and are capable of

remaining in water for quite a long time.

Before getting into the sea the fisherman makes a quick gesture

of ‘namaskaram’ for heavenly protection and at the correct time

when the wave heaves back he dives into the water. Combined with

the pull of the sea and his own efforts he soon finds himself beyond the

danger zone (Plate I, 3.). He dislodges the mussels from the sub-

marine beds with his wlz and fills the maal occasionally coming up to

the surface to breathe. Getting back to the rocks with the heavy load

of mussel is a very difficult task. He waits at the border zone and,

at the correct interval between two swells, clambers up the slippery

———_— ~ Ooo ws

* Pulayas, also known as Cherumas, have been defined ‘as a Malayalam caste

of agricultural serfs and as members of an inferior caste in Malabar, who are,

as a rule toilers attached to the soil’ (E. Thursion: ‘Castes and tribes of

Southern India’, Vol. IT. p. 45.)

* The pre-war cost of an uli was about 8 annas and a maal about 6 to

8 annas.

524. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ‘HIST. SOCIETY, Vol: -49

and precipitous rocks with the left hand supporting the mussel-filled

maal (Plate I, 4.). The fishing is usually done from about 9 or 10

o’clock in the morning to about 2 or 3 in the afternoon. A bright

sun and a clear sea are essential for this purpose. No fishing is at-

tempted when it is raining or when the sea is very rough or when

there is kara which causes considerable irritation to the eyes. The

tidal effect is not much in these parts and tides do not appear to play

a decisive part in the fishing operations though diving is more con-

venient at low water. Spring tide period is generally avoided.

Gradually the submerged rocks close to the shore get depleted and

the men swim further out in search of fresh grounds. As this becomes

more tiresome by the increase in distance, three or four men co-operate

and hire out catamarans if they do not have their own, which

serve as a temporary advance base for their operations (Plate II, 3.).

In some parts, especially in the far south, the fishermen have their own

catamarans. Here the catches are mostly landed on the beach where

customers gather for the purchase of the mussel. Catamaran fishing

of distant beds is common near Vizhinjam, Muttam, Kolachal and

Kanyakumari (Cape Comorin) where there are certain rocks, like

Kulathunkal, Adumechanpara, Keekal, Melekkal and other places, away

from the shore.

In the course of Mytilus fishing certain subsidiary catches are also

brought up. They consist ot a species of Purpura which is one of

the common edible marine gastropods in these parts. Some call it

‘Kalchank’ meaning rock gastropod to distinguish it from other chanks.

This is in good demand and as compared to the pre-war price of 2 annas

per hundred now fetches 8 to 12 annas. Lobsters (Panilurus sp.) are

also sometimes caught and now fetch 8 to 12 annas each according

to‘ the size. This is. about’ 4-to '6° times’ the ipre-wansiprice.

Occasionally they bring up the sea urchin, Stomopneustes sp., as well,

the gonads of which are considered delicious and consumed raw by

the fishermen.

Sales :—Most of the sales of the Brown Mussel are effected on the

rocks or at the shore soon after the mussel is landed (Plate II, 4.).

The men seldom carry away the stuff for sale, but dispose them off

immediately to the consumers and retailers, the latter conveying them

to the neighbouring markets for sale. When the mussels are brought

ashore by the fishermen they are mixed up with an amount of empty

shells, barnacles and weeds and the cleaning up and sorting of the

good ones is usually done at the spot.

Prices :—There is considerable difference between the present (1947)

and pre-war prices.

Pre-war price of a bag (maa!) of small mussel 4- 1 anna.

Present ,, :; a A ie 3— 4 annas

Pre-war. 5; 43 100 large mussel aks el eee

Present , 3; 100 - +55 es ee ee

The average earning of a fisherman.on a day’s fishing before the

war was about 6 annas whereas now it is about.Rs. 2 and sometimes

even more. eee a 3 |

Shells: —An important by-product of the industry is the shell’ which

fetches good price for the manufacture of lime. The dead and rejected

BIONOMICS AND FISHERY OF THE BROWN MUSSEL 525

shells left on the shore at the time of sorting are also utilized for

the purpose. Some use the shells for manuring the coconut

farms. As Hornell (1921) says in the case of Green Mussel in Matabar,

kitchen middens of discarded shells of Brown Mussel are quite a

common sight behind houses in-the coastal tracts of South Travancore.

They are either sold to ime burners or used as manure in gardens.

Pearls:—Pearls are occasionally found in the large sized _shell-

fishes and these vary in size from a tiny pin-head to that of a pepper-

corn (the largest the author has seen) in very exceptional cases. No

one searches for the pearl and there is no trade in it. When cooked

Mytilus is eaten, the ‘pearl bite’ could be distinguished from a

‘sand bite’ by the hardness of the former. There is a common belief

among the local people that a pearl is killed when boiled whereas, a

pearl from a live mussel would continue to grow if thrown back into

the sea or if kept in a vessel of clean sea water.

Methods of consumption:—The tuberous root of tapioca or cassava

cut into fairly large sized pieces, 1 to 3 inches in length, are put in an

earthen cooking vessel with a little water for boiling. Over the roots

the shellfish are kept and boiled. By the time the roots are cooked

the shellffsh also get cooked. After draining off the water the members

of the family sit around and eat (Plate III, 4.). Saltwater from the

mussel imparts sufficient taste to the roots and effects economy of salt,

and cooking both together saves time and firewood and obviates the

necessity for two vessels. A large number of the poorer classes consume

mussel in the above manner.

Some boil the shellfish and eat the flesh by itself or with rice or

cassava root. Sometimes the raw flesh 1s removed and prepared as

a separate dish.

The raw mussel flesh is relished by some (Plate III, 3.), but it is

seldom consumed thus as a regular item of food. Only the poorer

classes are accustomed to it.

Though the drying of mussel is not at all in vogue, the writer has

experimented on sun-drying of boiled as well as fried mussel meat.

Both could be sun-dried and the stuff is very tasty and keeps well for

a number of days. In this connection the findings of Humphrey (1941)

in the case of the Australian Rock-oyster that it could be dried with-

out significant loss of glycogen and protein are of interest. It is quite

likely that this may be the same with our marine mussels’ in which

case they could be dried with advantage if and when heavy crops

become available.

Associated animals:—Though on the surface of the shell it is

common to see various kinds of sedentary and free living marine

organisms, an interesting feature is the presence of a tiny crab,

Pinnotheres sp., which somehow or other finds comfortable shelter in-

side. In view of the protection derived the necessity for a shell within

a shell is obviated. It is very soft bodied and females are much more

—— -——

2 The: writer could not find any record as to the -nutritive’ value of the

mussels of the Indian waters. His efforts to get the meat of the Brown Mussel

analysed failed since the Nutrition Research Laboratory, ‘Coonoor, could not

undertake the examination of the mussel sent by him. © Lobe '

526 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

commoner than the males which are only rarely met with. The former

develops a pinkish tint when filled with gonad and though small is

tasty, Similar crabs have been found in the Rock Oyster, Ostrea

cucullata, but their specific position is also not known’.

GENERAL REMARKS AND SUGGESTIONS

Though the Brown Mussel fishery is at present limited to the Cape

region of peninsular India the contribution it makes towards the diet

of the nation especially at a time when fish is scarce is of great signi-

ficance. A higher yield of mussel helps indirectly to divert more of

ether fish from the coastal area to the interior markets. Despite this

there is little data regarding the mussel fishery and from the reports

of the various Fishery Departments it could be seen that the attention

paid to it is very little.

This is one of the few fisheries in India wherein considerable degree

of augmentation of production by more intense and judicious exploita-

tion is possible with minimum expenditure. What is required is

a practical approach to the problem after acquiring a thorough

knowledge of the existing conditions. At present the following points —

require further consideration :—

1. Whether the Brown Mussel is overfished or underfished ?

2. Do the fishing methods require improvement?

3- What measures are necessary for the increased output of the

mussel ?

The answer to the first question is definitely that far from being

overfished the mussel is underexploited. Years of general obser-

vation show that apparently there is no depletion of the brood stock,

and that year after year the littoral and fishable rocks get re-

plenished with mussel spat from inaccessible beds. Though it has

been said that the mussel is not overfished so as to cause the depletion

of the brood stock it may be stressed here that considerable quantity

of undersized shellfish is taken out during the early part of the season

contributing towards the depletion of the accessible beds.

A general complaint that one hears from the fishermen is that the

quantity fished by an individual now is less than in previous years in

spite of increased time and labour spent. While the area fished and

the quantity of crop have remained more or less static the number

of fishermen has increased resulting in a decrease in per capita pro-

duction. As already stated, the position regarding the fishable areas

is rather disquieting. Though the removal of undersized specimens

from crowded beds might be helpful in thinning them out and facilitat-

ing quicker growth, large scale removal reduces the number of survivors

as a result of which considerable time and labour are wasted in search-

1 Members of the genus Pinnotheres are well known as_ dwellers inside

bivalves. The identification of the different species of Pinnotheres is rather

difficult and this was not attempted. For recent records of Pinnotheres spp. from

the Indo-Pacific region see Tesch (1918) ‘The Decapoda Brachyura of the

Siboga Expedition, II Gonoplacide and Pinnotheridae’ [Siboga Expedition, Part

LXXXV Monograph 39 C, pp. 149-295, De Ma, J. G. 1929, Bijdr. Dierk.,

(Amsterdam), and Isabella Gordon, 1986-39, Journ. Linn. Soc., London. XL.]

BIONOMICS AND FISHERY OF THE BROWN MUSSEL 527

ing for them in submarine crevices and ledges. The quantity thus

obtained is so meagre that the men find it hardly possible to eke out

a living. In certain mussel beds like Kulathunkal near Vizhinjam and

Adumechanpara near Muttam due to their distance from the shore no

fishing is done early in the season as a result of which the mussel

grows to a fairly large size by the time it is collected.

As regards the fishing gear, the wli and the maal in use appear

to be satisfactory for the present. Possibilities of exploitation of the

untapped regions have to be seriously considered and the correct depth

te which the mussel occurs should be ascertained. A survey of the

mussel beds and all submarine rocks likely to sustain this and other

related edible molluscs should be made. A chart based on this

would indicate the desirability, if any, for improvements and alterations

in the existing methods.

The third and the most important matter for consideration is the

ways and means for increased production with adequate conservation.

In view of the meagreness of our existing knowledge of the biology,

distribution and extent of stocks of the shellfish any suggestions to-

wards improvement of the industry can only be tentative. It has

already been stated that so far as observations go the question of over-

fishing or depletion of brood stocks has not arisen though the fishing

of undersized specimens is a widely prevalent evil requiring prevention.

The conservation of selected deeper areas for late season fishing could

be done with advantage, and the economics of this measure could be

studied. A complete closure of the fishing grounds cannot be sug-

gested since it is neither desirable nor practicable. Though there is

absolutely no dearth for mussel spat it may be too premature to think

of spat collection for mussel culture, except as an experimental study.

The natural enemies and parasites of the mussel also remain to be

studied.

The most important and essential information we should possess

is correct statistics of the fishery. Our country can ill-afford to relegate

into the background as unimportant any item of food supply, the pro-

duction of which could be augmented by proper conservation of the

natural resources without any outlay. It is an accepted principle that

in such matters the return is calculated in terms of the cumulative

benefit to the nation rather than in terms of immediate cash return.

More than a quarter of a century ago Hornell {1921) while dealing

with one of the weaving mussels, Modiola tulipa, which is common in

Palk Bay forming extensive beds, said: ‘The average size is not too

small for food purposes, and were there any demand, tons of them

could easily be dredged in Paik Bay. The larger species is excellent

eating, while the smaller would make, dried and pulverised, poultry

meal and fertilizer’. Apparently nothing seems to have been done

since then.

In the race between our limited and insufficient food resources on

the one side and a teeming and ever increasing population on the other,

unless every resource is harnessed, we may be compelled to depend

indefinitely on outside supplies for our internal demands. The case of

our mussels is but one example of many and it is gratifying that the

varied problems regarding the aquatic food: resources of our country

have begun to receive attention.

028 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Iam grateful to-Dr. S. kL. Hora, Director, Zoological Survey of

India, for kindly going through the paper: and communicating it for

publication.

REFERENCES

Hornell, J. (1917): The Edible Molluscs of the Madras Presidency. Mad.

Fish. Ball, “xi, -pp. 1-57.

Hornell, J. (1921): The Common Molluscs of South India. ibid. xiv, pp.

97-225.

Humphrey, G. (1941): The Biology and Cultivation of Oysters in Australia.

Biochemistry of the proximate constituents. Pamphlet No. 111. Coupe of

Scientific & Industrial Research, Commonwealth of Australia.

Kesteven, G. L. (1941): The Biclogy and Cultivation of Oysters in Aveta

Some Economic Aspects. ibid. 105.

Rai, H. S. (1932): The Shell Fisheries of the Bombay Presidency. Journ.

Bombay. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxxv (4): 826-847.

Rao, H. S. (1941):°Indian Shell-Fish and their Fisheries. Sci. & Cult. vil,

(2): 69-78.

- EXPLANATION OF PLATES

lake 3

1. Boiled Brown Mussel with one valve removed showing the flesh’ inside.

The three in the upper row are 4—5 months old. The left one is in good fat

condition. The central on@ is in medium condition. The last mentioned has a

Pinnotheres crab inside and the dorsal side of it could be seen in the photograph.

The mussel in the lower row are all second year-olds. The first three are in

fat condition and the last one is lean.

2. Inner and outer views of a shell series collected at the beginning of the

Brown Mussel season during the last week of August, 1946. The largest shell

is about 23 months old.

3. A diver swimming off the rocks, for mussel collection.

4. The mussel diver clambering up the slippery rocks supporting a ‘maal’

of mussel.

Plate. 11 +

1. A Pulaya miussel-diver ready to enter the sea with the maal tied

at the waist and the wli in hand.

2. With his attention on any sudden wave which would dash him against

the rocks, the mussel collector is seen dislodging mussel from a rock pool.

3. Mussel collection near a catamaran which serves as a base of operations

for a nominal payment in kind or cash till one maal is full.

4. A typical family group sorting out the mussel after fishing is over.

EDIBLE CHELONIANS AND THEIR PRODUCTS:

M. N. ACHARJI, M.Sc.

(Zoological Survey of India, Indian Museum, Calcutta).

On account of the food shortage that is at present prevailing in

India, Fishery Departments of many Provinces and States are mak-

ing: special efforts to increase production of fish and to market it to

the public in a wholesome condition and at cheap rates. The Chelo-

nians” (Tortoises, Turtles etc.) as a valuable source of food do not,

however, appear to have received adequate attention. Tortoises and

turtles, are not only an excellent food, rich in proteins and other

valuable nutritive elements, but a fishery of these animals, if conducted

on proper scientific lines, will provide employment for a considerable

number of persons and will also help in setting up small scale industries

in tortoise-shell, turtle-oil, etc. One great advantage in the fishery

of these animals is that they can be kept for a considerable time out

of water and do not suffer any appreciable deterioration in their edible

qualities.

Turtle farming is a flourishing industry in Mexico, Japan and other

countries. In some parts of India, notably in Assam and Bengal,

considerable quantities of chelonians are caught and eaten. The

Santals and some other tribes in Rajmahal relish tortoise* and, accord-

ing to Annandale‘, the meat of Kachuga dhongoka Gray, commonly

known as Dhundi or Dhoor, is relished even by the Brahmins’.

Chelonians may be broadly classified into three groups, according

to their habitat, i.e., Marine, Freshwater and Land forms. A brief

and general account of those species which are valued as food, or

have some other commercial or semi-commercial importance is given

below.

I. MARINE FORMS

Dermochelys coriacea (Linn.) is the largest of all living marine

turtles; specimens weighing half a ton have been recorded. It is a

great wanderer, travelling from ocean to ocean, and generally distribut-

ed in the tropical seas, and found in abundance on the coasts of Ceylon.

It has no value as food, but eggs are highly prized. Babcock® has

recorded that the inhabitants of the tropical islands extract oil out of

* Published with the permission of the Director, Zoological Survey of India.

* The term Chelonian has been used in a broad sense. It includes marine,

freshwater and land forms.

° Chaudhuri, B. L., Rec. Ind. Mus. VII, p. 212-214 (1912).

* Annandale, N., Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal X, p. 187, Foot-note (1914).

° In the ancient law books of the Brahmins, the meat of tortoises is not

forbidden.

° Babcock, H. L., P.Z.S. (London) CVII, -p. 595 (1937).

530 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

the thick carapace of this animal. Derantyagala’ states that the oil

is used as canoe preservative of considerable value. A specimen was

sold at Colombo for Rs. 30.

Eretmochelys imbricata (Linn.), known as Hawksbill Turtle, is

distributed in the tropical and subtropical seas. The flesh is dark,

coarse and very seldom eaten. The much valued ‘tortoise-shell’ of

commerce is derived from this species. From a single specimen as

much as 10 lbs., of tortoise-shell may be obtained. Watt® has stated

that sometime the price of a single specimen goes up to £ 4, though

it naturally depends on the quality of its shell. The finest shell,

according to Watt, is obtained from the Western Archipelago, but is

exported from the southern coast of the Indian continent, Ceylon, the

West India Islands and Brazil. In India tortoise-shell is largely used

in making ornamental articles in Vizagapatam.

According to Babcock (loc. cit., 1937, p. 601), 4980 chelonians

were exported from Jamaica during the year 1929-31, valued at

£ 10,097. Deraniyagala® has given the export figures of Eretmochelys

scutes, based on the returns from the Ceylon Customs department.

Chelonia mydas (Linn.), the well-known Green Turtle is the

animal from which the highly prized turtle soup is prepared. It

has got a very wide distribution, occurring in tropical and_ sub-

tropical seas. It is found in abundance near the Andaman Islands,

and on the Rangoon coast. Maxwell* stated that there was a regular

trade in these chelonians between Calcutta and the Andaman Islands.

In the Nicobar Islands, these animals were extensively killed by

‘pegging’, and consumed by the local inhabitants.

Sometimes this turtle attains a weight of goo lbs. The eggs are

laid near the sea beach by digging holes at a safe distance from the

water-mark. The chief egg-laying period is between July and

November. Generally 66 to 195 eggs are laid by a single female.

Maxwell (loc. cit., 1911, p. 8) has recorded that the annual collection

of eggs of the Green Turtle in the Irrawady division of Burma is about

1,600,000 or more. The Burmese are very fond of chelonian eggs, and

the entire catch, therefore commands a high market price; sometimes

in bigger cities like Rangoon, the eggs used to be sold at a fancy

price. According to this author the eggs are very rich in food value

and have a taste somewhat like that of marrow.

In Ceylon these animals are netted from November to March, and

are kept in a pen specially constructed for the purpose in the sea near

the beach, from which they are transported to the market according

to the prevailing demand. In each season the catch runs to about

1,000 turtles. Deraniyagala (loc. cit., 1930, p. 66, footnote) observed

that turtle flesh is in great demand in the Jaffna (Ceylon) market.

An adult turtle will fetch from Rs. 4o to Rs. 70. The Hindus are

Deraniyagala,’ P_E.P., Spol. Zeyl- XWI. ‘p. 52° (1930).

Watt, G., Dictionary Economic. Products VI, part 1, p. 433 (1892).

Deraniyagala, P.E.P., Tetrapod Rept. Ceylon 1. p. 190 (1939). :

Maxwell, F. D., Report Inland Sea Fisheries (Rangoon), p. 4 (1911).

EDIBLE CHELONIANS AND THEIR PRODUCTS 531

amongst the chief consumers of this meat. The flesh and blood of this

species are said to have some medical properties in curing haemorrhoids.

.. Babeock- (loc. cit. 1937, p- 601) has given statistics of the number

of chelonians exported from Jamaica (mainly received from the Cayman

Islands, and-some from Costa Rica and Nicaragua). From the year

1929, to. 1931. Green Turtles, numbering 6346, and valued at £1262

were exported. Besides these, a good number of these animals were

carried away to New York from Port Limon by the United ‘3 ruit

Company’s boats, but no figure is available.

II. FRESHWATER FORMS

Geoemyda trijuga (Schweigger) is a freshwater species. There

are four subspecies found within Indian limits. It is an inhabitant of

still water, ditches and ponds and is found in abundance in Bombay and

Madras Provinces and also in some parts of Mysore. Aecording to

Smith! it has recently been introduced into Calcutta. Geoemyda trijuga

thermalis (Lesson) is-found in Ceylon and in the southern parts of the

Indian peninsula. Both Geoemyda trijuga (Schweigger) and Geoemyda

trijuga theralis (Lesson) are edible and much hunted for food.

Hardellathurgi (Gray) is another freshwater tortoise. It 1s

found in the Ganges and Brahmaputra river systems. According

to Anderson, it frequents slow-flowing and stagnant waters. In the

winter months large numbers of this species are brought to the

Calcutta market, where they are readily sold. Anderson? has described

a very interesting method of catching this species in the Purneah district

of Bihar. |

Almost all the species of the genus Kachuga (Gray) are edible

und their flesh is much esteemed as food. i elas ga has a wide range

of distribution and is found in almost all the river systems of India.

Six distinct species are recorded within Indian limits, vwiz., Kachuga

smithi (Gray), Kachuga tectum (Gray), Kachuga sylhetensis {Jerdon),

Kachuga dhongoka (Gray), Kachuga kachuga (Gray) and Kachuga

irivittata (Dum. & Bibr.). Kachuga dhongoka lays a larger number

of eggs than any other species of the genus. Eggs numbering between

30 and 35 are generally laid in sand banks. They are elongate in

shape, ca. 55 xX 33 mm. in size, and have a very delicious taste.

Batagur baska (Gray) is aquatic and herbivorous in its habits.

It is found in ‘Bengal, Burma to Cochin-China and to the Malay

Peninsula; Sumatra’. The flesh is very much liked by the Burmese

who catch this species in large numbers by means of. basket-traps

specially made for that purpose.. Eggs laid by a single female in one

night vary from io to 30 in number. During the course of six weeks’

time about 50 to 60 eggs are laid by a single individual. The eggs

measure from 70-79 mm. in length, 40-45 mm. in breadth and weigh

about three ounces each. The carapace of the species, as stated by

* Smith, M. A., Fauna Brit. India (Rept. & Amph.) I, p. 98 (1931).

? Anderson, J. Zool. Res. W. Yunnan, p. 771 (1878).

582 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 49

Maxwell (loc. cit., 1911, p. 15), has some commercial importance, as

it is of great value to the salt boilers.

Amongst the Mudturtles (Trionychidae), species of .Lissemys Smith

and Trionyx Geoffroy are mostly used by people as food. According

to Annandale’, these animals are caught i in large numbers near Khulna

(Bengal), and are transported to the Calcutta market for sale. When

the demand is low, the animals are stocked in ponds near Calcutta

with their legs fastened together, thereby arresting their movements. Un-

der such conditions they live for months, till such time as they are finally

disposed off, From Goalando* and Sunderban areas large quantities

of these turtles are brought down to Calcutta and the neighbouring

towns, packed in wooden crates and reed or wicker baskets. In

Calcutta market the pre-war price of the flesh of these turtles was

from six annas to ten annas a seer. Annandale (loc. cit., 1912, p. 157)

found that most of the turtles sold in Calcutta market were Trionyx

hurum Gray and not Trionyx gangeticus Cuvier. In South India

Lissemys punctata granosa and in Burma Lissemys punctata scutata

are found in abundance and are consumed by the inhabitants of those

places.

III. Lanp Forms

Testudo elegans Schoepff, known as ‘Starred tortoise’, is distri-

buted throughout central and southern India, extending as far souti

as Ceylon. It is the common tortoise found in Madras Province.

The flesh is eaten by the lower classes of people. In Burma it is

replaced by Testudo platynota Blyth, the flesh of which is greatly

esteemed by the Burmese. Blyth® stated that in Burma the carapace

of this species was used for bailing oil out of earthen vessels. - Testudo

emys Schlegel, is another species found in Assam, Burma and Siam..

In India it is the largest of the land tortoises and is chiefly hunted for

its flesh. !

(ee ee

‘ Annandale, N.: Rec. Ind. Mus. VII, p. 156 (1912).

* Mr. M. N. Dutt of the Zoological Survey of India while on tour in East

Bengal in 1937, saw a large number of chelonians packed in wooden crates and

in wicker baskets awaiting despatch to Calcutta at almost all the steamer stations

of the I.G.S.N.-Company.

Dr. S$. L. Hora informs me that on the Khulna Section of. the. Bastekn Bengal

Railway he has seen large number of chelonians kept on the platforms of

stations upside down and with their legs fastened together for despatch tc

Calcutta, ~ ; oe eee

-* Blyth, J.: Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, XXXII, p. 83 (1863).

REVIEWS

1. ELEPHANT BILL. By Lt.-Col. J. H. Williams, 0.B.£., with

a forward by Field-Marshall Sir William Slim, G.B.E., K.C.B., D.S.O.,

M.C. Pp. 320, plates 42, drawings 2 and maps 4. London, Rupert Hart-

IDavis,,i950.. Price. 18s. |

Lt.-Col. Williams, after gaining experience of camels and mules

in World War I, joined the staff of the Bombay Burma Trading

Corporation in the teak forests of Burma. After some twenty years’

close acquaintance with elephants both tame and wild in that country,

he became ‘Elephant Adviser’ to the XIV Army when the Japs had

overrun Burma in World War II. The result of these. twenty-five

or so years’ intimate connection with Burmese oozies and_ their

elephants has resulted in a well printed and profusely illustrated book

which has proved to be a very readable best-seller. I understand it

has already been reprinted twice this year. This is understandable, for

the book is written in a popular, graphic and lucid style, and gives

an intimate and first-hand account of elephants in a country whose

men and forests cannot but appeal to all except the most unimaginative.

_ ~When, however, the author briefly leaves the familiar ground he

knows so well to venture into the field of the zoologist and historian,

he is liable to trip up. His division of African and Asiatic elephants

into races is both arbitrary and unscientific; and he finds it difficult

to believe that the elephants used by the Carthaginians against Rome

were of African origin, as ‘no tradition of elephant-training has

survived in Africa... .’ Evidently he was not aware that elephants

existed in considerable numbers in the northern parts of Africa in

classical times, but were exterminated by the Romans by the year

350 A.D. It would have been much easier for the Carthaginians to

capture and train these, than to import Indian elephants from Asia as

suggested by the author.

The first part of the book under review is of greater appeal, especially

to the lover of elephants and the jungle, and as such is a useful contri-

bution to our knowledge. The second part falls more into the category

of a war autobiography, though considerable interest is aroused in

the reader by the description of the epic march of the elephants from

Manipur into Cachar, led by that fine tusker Bandoola.

EPG.

2. A SHORT GUIDE TO THE NATURAL HISTORY SECTION

IN THE PROVINCIAL MUSEUM, LUCKNOW. By M. M. Nagar,

M.A., U.P.E.S. Pp. 1-24; 26 plates (coloured and half tone). Super-

intendent, Printing & Stationery, U.P., Allahabad (1950). Price

Rs. I-14-0.

The Society has received a copy of this unhappy publication for

review. The 24 pages of text make poor reading and contain a

generous sprinkling of loose and incorrect statements. Among the

more astounding items of information we gather, for instance, that

534 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 49

the Baya is ‘‘the most skilful nest builder and glues particles of foreign

matter with its sticky saliva, «,...,.,. > and that sunbirds, bee-eaters

and starlings ‘‘are small perching birds renowned for their melodious

NOLES

We learn that ‘‘the tern or sea swallow is the size of a house sparrow

with a glossy steel blue above and pale pinkish-white below, often

seen in numbers huddled together on telegraph wires’’.

Scholarly and illuminating is the observation that ‘“‘the eyes of

birds are so peculiarly formed that they can alter their focus from a dis-

tant object to a nearer one almost instantaneously. Hence goes the pro-

verb birds-eye view’’ !

Many of the plates which comprise more than half of this ‘Short

Guide’ are veritable eyesores. The coloured plates in particular—which

unfortunately are also the most expensive to reproduce—though alleged

to represent definite species are often mere splodges; ‘disgraceful’ is

the only adjective that will describe them adequately. Both from the

aesthetic and the scientific points of view many of the plates are

thoroughly worthless, and it seems little short of criminal that under

our present economic stress the taxpayer’s money should be squandered

in publishing such stuff in the guise of education for the masses or

the ‘popularisation’ of science.

Originality in simple descriptions of natural history museum exhi-

bits seems uncalled for, and indeed is not expected from people who

may not be naturalists. But there are good published works on Indian

natural history available from which authentic information could have

been easily extracted so that these inaccurate and fanciful descriptions

are quite inexcusable.

3 S.A.

3. BIRDS OF CEYLON I. By W. W. A. Phillips, F.L.s., M.B.O.U,,

¥.z.S. Pp. 32, 1 coloured map, 4 photographs by author; 20 coloured

plates by Mrs. G. L. -Lushington. Colombo (1950): Ceylon

Daily News Press. Price: popular edition Rs. 3; Library edition

Reta 5.

No recent Ceylon ornithologist has more original field work to

his eredit than W. W. A. Phillips. This attractive and handy little

booklet—which is the first of a series of four, intended to cover about

a hundred species in all—is a laudable effort on his part to interest

and assist the beginner in the study of birds. The descriptions are

simple and concise, and the coloured plates illustrating some common

birds—though they have suffered from the printer’s inevitable maul-

ing—from a useful complement to them.

Mr. Phillips’s proficiency as a bird photographer is well known and

the beautiful originals of his photos, here reproduced, have excited the

reviewer’s envious admiration ere now. It is therefore all the more

disappointing to find such scant justice done them by the printer.

On p. 3 ‘Red-backed Shrike’ is obviously a slip, since this species

(Lanius.collurio) does not occur in Ceylon.

The hints on bird watching which conclude the book should be of

great help to the beginner. | . pee |

Further parts in this series will be awaited with keenness.

ADDITIONS TO THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY. 435

The following books have been added to the Society’s Library since

July pinea —

A HAND-LIST OF THE. Birps oF IRAQ. By Bashir“. Allouse

(rag Natural History Museum publication, No. 2, 1950).

AN Inpex OF MrnerRaL Species & VARIETIES ARRANGED

CHEMICALLY. With an Alphabetical Index of accepted Mineral names

and Synonyms. By Max H. Hey (British aia 1950):«

3. THe House-rty—Economic series No. -1, - Fifth Edition.

By Max H. Hey [British Museum (Natural Historie, 1950}.

4. FISHERY STATISTICS OF THE UNITED STATES 1946—Statistical

Digest No. 19 Fish & Wild-life Service. By A. W. Anderson & E, A:

Power (United States Government Printing Office, Washington. 1950).

5. AGRICULTURE IN INDIA. (The Publication Division, Ministry

of Information & Broadcasting, Government of India, 1950).

*6. ‘EPITOME’ DE BOTANIQUE ET DE MATIERE MEDICALE : DE

LinpE THESE By Lucien M. Giboin (Impremerie de Sri Aurobindo

Ashram, 1949).

7. UPLAND GAME BirDs—The American Sportsman’s Library.

By Edwyn Sandys & T. S. Van Dyke (The Macmillan Company, 1902).

8. SALMON & TrRouT—The American’ Sportsman’s Library.

By Dean Sage C. H. Townsend, H. M. Smith & William C. Harris

(The Macmillan Company, 1902).

9g. ELEPHANT BILL. By Lt.-Col. J. H. Williams (Rupert Hart-

Davis 1950).

to. THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE FLOWERING PLANTS. By Ronald

Good (Longmans Green & Co., 1947).

II. SYNOPSIS OF PROPOSALS CONCERNING THE INTERNATIONAL RULES

OF BoTANICAL NOMENCLATURE SUBMITTED TO THE SEVENTH INTER-

NATIONAL BOTANICAL CONGRESS-—STOCKHOLM 1950. By J. Lanjouw

(Ag. Rapporteur General) (The International Commission of Taxonomy

of the I.W.B.S., 1950).

12. A SHoRT GUIDE TO THE NATURAL HISTORY SECTION IN THE

ProvinciaL MusEum, Lucknow. By M. M. Nagar (Superintendent,

Printing & Stationery, Allahabad, U.P., 1950).

13. STUDIES ON Bats AND BaT PaRASITEs especially with regard

to Sweden and other neighbouring countries of the north. I. By

Olof Ryberg. (Bokférlaget Svensk Natur, Stockholm, 1947).

14. FISHES OF THE IRANIAN GULF—Reprint from Danish Scientific

Investigations in Iran, Part III. By H. Blegvad, assisted by B.

Léppenthin. (Einar Munksgaard, Copenhagen, 1944).

' 15. VARA FAaGLaR—Och hur man kanner igen dem—(Swedish

birds). Del I. By Rudolf Sédderberg. (Albert Bonniers Férlag,

Stockholm, 1950). |

16. VAra FActarR—Och hur man kanner igen dem—(Swedish

birds). Del II. By Rudolf Sédderberg. (Albert Bonniers Forlag,

Stockholm, 1950).

17. VARA FAcrar—Och hur man kanner igen dem—(Swedish

birds). Del III. By Rudolf Séderberg. (Albert Bonniers Forlag,

Stockholm, 1950). |

18. VARA FAcLtar-—VAra Faglars agg och bon—(Swedish

birds’ eggs). Del IV. By Rudolf Séderberg. (Albert Bonniers Forlag,

Stockholm, 1950).

536 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

19. STUDIES IN Birp MiGRATION being the collected papers of H.

Chr. C. Mortensen (1856-1921). Edited by Poul Jespersen & A. Vedel

Taning. (Dansk Ornithologisk Forening, Munksgaard, Copenhagen,

1950).

a a Den FLYGANDE DRaAKEN (The Flying Dragon). By Bengt Berg.

(P. A. Norstedt & Séners Férlag, Stockholm, 1931).

21. GRONLANDS FucLE (The Birds of Greenland). Part I. By.

Finn Salomonsen, with plates by Gitz-Johansen. (Ejnar Munksgaard,

Copenhagen, 1950).

22. SVENSKA FAGLAR (18 coloured plates of Swedish birds). By

M. och W. von Wright, (Férlaget Svenska Faglar, Stockholm, 1925).

23. WEBS IN THE WIND. (The habits of web-weaving spiders).

By Winifred Duncan. (The Ronald Press Company, New York, 1949).

24. REPORT ON THE LIONS OF THE GIR FOREST. By M. A. Wynter-

Blyth. (May 1950).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. A TIGER FIGHT

The Cachari villagers living a mile east of Jhargaon jheel, which is

between 3 and 4 miles south of Rowtabagan railway station in Darrang,

Assam, reported a terrific noise as of tigers fighting on the yu of.

joth/ 31st January last.

On the morning of the 31st they went to see what had happened and.

in heavy grass found a dead tiger lying on its back, severely mutilated.

An amphitheatre of flattened grass, about 15 feet across showed there

had been great struggle.

Report was sent to camp on Ist February and these are the muti-

lations I noted on inspection:

The lower jaw had been wrenched off; both fore limbs had been

chewed off at the elbows leaving stumps; the abdomen had been torn

open and allowed the stomach to protrude; the external genitals were

removed as with a knife, and the tail was nipped off leaving a stump

a foot long.

Also the 3 middle claws of the left foot were missing but otherwise

the hind limbs were intact.

There was no sign of jackals or vultures having touched the corpsé

and I visited it again as late as 3rd February when it was maggoty

and decomposition well advanced.

I was in camp at Rowta during December and January and after

tiger. A tigress with 2 cubs was reported 3 miles north-west of camp,

and the cowherd, who saw her killing and hauling one of his buffaloes

to cover, said she had an enormous head.

She shifted 3 miles east, to the left bank of the Dhunsiri river where

a cultivator saw the cubs. Then I lost trace of her; she must have

recrossed the river and gone to the Jhargaon jheel area some 2 miles

south of my camp where Cacharis saw the cubs. Another tiger, which

I consider is the animal of this tale, I tracked on the left bank of

the Dhunsiri on 9th January when enquiring about the tigress. His

large pugmarks were followed downstream till he crossed the river

and up the right bank to an outlier of Rowta tea-garden.

My elephants were hobbled there and were restless and trumpeted

on the night of 8th/oth January when the tiger arrived. He called

several nights, made no kills around and left, evidently for the Jhargaon

jheel surround. I had to close my camp and sent my elephants away

on 1st February, before news of this kill came in, so I was unable

to search for ‘the other party’ or trace the missing parts in the very

heavy grass and ‘tarapat’ round the jheel.

The tiger killed was a big old animal judging from his pale coloured

skin and worn teeth. The conclusion I came to was that the two

animals I tracked had met and fought. The cubs were born after the

poojahs of 1949 and would be just over 3 months old at the time of

the fight.

DARJEELING, W. D. RITCHIE,

1st March, 1950. Lieut.-Col. 1.m,s. (Retd.)

538 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Val. 49

2. DEATH CRY OF TIGER

In my note on the above—Vol. 48, No. 1, p. 176.—I said I had not

anywhere read of this cry having been recorded. I find that this cry

was mentioned by Mr. W. S. Thom in his exhaustive article “Tiger

Shooting in Burma’ published in Vol. XXXVII where he writes (p. 596)

as to sounds uttered by tigers, ‘I have heard them all, the cat-like

call made by a wounded tiger on the point of death, .a whine, a husky

half suppressed kind of grunt, a snarl, a purr, a miaow and the ‘‘tak’’

referred to by Mr. Peacock in his book.’

BANGALORE, | R. W. BURTON,

3rd August, 1950. Lieut.-Col, 1.4, (Retd.)

3. RABIES IN TIGER—TWO PROVED: INSTANCES

In all the years of the Bombay Natural History Society since its

foundation on the 16th September 1883, and the issue of the first

Journal in January 1886, there has been no instance recorded of rabies

in either tiger or panther. Now we have from Assam two _ proved

cases of rabies in tiger, and a possible third instance. (Calcutta States-

man of gth February 1946 and Miscellaneous Note by Mr. S. A;

Christopher in Vol. 46, p. 391:) )

There has also, so far as known to me, been no ‘mention of sabe

in tiger or panther in any of the more than 250 books published during

the past 150 years on ‘Big Game Hunting and Shooting in India and

the East.’ (Vol. 49, pp. 222-240.)

This is very strange, for it can be reasonably conjectured. that

cases must have occurred. Also one would think that panthers, being

so partial to the killing of domestic dogs for food, would have been

very many times exposed to possibility of contracting rabies through

the fresh saliva of their prey. Possibly the known instances of tigers

and. panthers being found in the forests, and cause of death not

apparent, were due to rabies.

First Case.—The narrative (condensed) of Mr. T- R. iiaate the

then Manager of the Salonah Tea Estate in the Newgene District of

Assam, gives particulars of what happened.

‘On the evening of 28 January 1943 one of three men cycling i in

the dark along the Salbari Road was attacked by a tigress (as it

proved to be) and badly mauled. The two other men managed to

drive off the animal, the cycle held-up by one of them as a shield

being bitten and clawed.

Further up the road some carts, carrying long mats extending well

over the cart buffaloes, were attacked by the tigress which leapt

from the bank at side of the road on top of the mats and was perched

there for several yards. The men, sheltered by the long mats, managed

to scare the animal away. Shortly after more carts carryiie smaller

mats came along. The tigress leapt on the buffaloes, dragged: down

one of the cartmen and badly mauled him. In the terrible confusion

three of the men were seriously clawed and bitten, one of them mute

ing a fractured arm. .

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 539

The cyclist was admitted to hospital early in the night and the

cartmen were brought in about 8.30 next morning (29th Jany.)

Not long after I motored along the Salbari road to see the places of

attacks, and going on towards Langteng met Mr. Edwards, Assistant

Manager, bringing in a woman and girl badly mauled on the road

about 8.45 that morning. These having been admitted to hospital

I sent Mr. Edwards to Nowgong, over twenty miles distant, with a

letter to the Deputy Commissioner asking for elephants and shikaris.

About 2 p.m. a man cutting wood was brought in badly mauled.

Later in the afternoon the Deputy Commissioner arrived, and Dr.

Hugh Smith (Medical Officer, Nowgong Medical Association, Salonah)

and I went with him to see the place where, it was just then re-

ported, another woodcutter had been attacked. This was _ several

miles distant from the previous place.

Arrived near the place it was getting dark so a lorry and other

three men were obtained. With much difficulty the lorry was forced

through as far as a small clearing, and after searching around for some

time in the dark the man was heard to be faintly calling in reply. He

was found to be badly torn, but conscious and sensible. The tigress

could not have been far off, and having but a torch to show the way

through rough scrub and jungle the party was rather helpless had the

animal attacked, for firearms in such circumstances would have been

difficult to use with proper effect.

~~ At 6.15 next morning (30th) I went to Borghat to take two ladies

to the railway station for the Darjeeling train. Passing through the

estate labour lines it was found there was much excitement as the

tigress “~had been seen in the vicinity.

Returning through the line with the ladies I stopped for inform-

ation. Suddenly the chowkidar pointed, and there was the tigress

quietly crossing the road about ten yards away and not even glancing

towards the car! I rushed the ladies to the station, put them safely

into the stationmaster’s office, and then started off to get my gun

from my bungalow and Dr. Smith with his heavy rifle. On my way

I met Mr.. Rogers of Amluckie Tea Estate who carried on to the

station with his wife, who was also going to Darjeeling, while I

proceeded to my bungalow. Mr. Rogers fortunately had his gun with

him.

Now .came the almost incredible climax. Arrived at the station

Rogers got the luggage out of the Ford Vanette, turned the car round,

and was sitting in the driving seat, his gun unloaded, when the tigress

came walking along the road towards the car. He was unable to load the

weapon in the confined space and could not risk getting out. The

beast walked past, taking no notice of the car or of two bullock+

tethered to a close- by cart. Rogers got out of the car, loaded his

gun, and shot the tigress as it walked slowly and quietly away from

him.

We learned later that the tigress had forced her way into houses

in the lines; and in one instance, where a man with his wife and child

tried to close the door against it, mauled the woman and child but did

not attack the man. °

The’ tigress was fully grown, perhaps three years old. Measure.

ments were not taken, nor is there a photograph, which is a pity.

540 JOURNAL, BOMBAY ‘NATURAL -HIST,. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

The brain was -quickly. removed and sent by train, held up for. the

purpose, to the Pasteur Institute at Shillong. Telegram 763 to the

Medical Officer (Dr. Smith) reported ‘Negri bodies in tiger’s brain’

thus furnishing proof positive that the animal was suffering from

rabies. (Note: Negri from ‘negroid’—black bodies’ seen under. the

microscope.) |

All the injured people were given anti-rabic treatment. Fifteen cases

were treated in the hospital and eight of them died of their wounds.

Two Mikirs (people of the Mikir Hills) and a Nepali woman were

killed in the jungle. None of the survivors developed rabies. During

the thirty-six hours of the ‘terror’ eighteen people were attacked of

whom only seven survived. The cyclist, the first man to be attacked,

died at the very moment the sound of the shot which killed the tigress

was heard at the hospital. This coincidence quickly. gave rise to

much talk and conjecture among the superstitious !’

Second Case.—In a letter published in the Calcutta Statesman of

6th May 1950, Mr. M. N. R. Kemp of Saikhoa Ghat, Assam, stated

that a tiger had attacked a village during the night of 16th April 1950,

and in a further letter published on the 20th May followed up. with

information that the brain of the tiger was reported by the Pasteur

Institute, Shillong, to contain Negri bodies. It appears that the tiger

went from house to house in the village, attacking, mauling, biting

and going on to the next house. In all 14 persons were mauled of

whom one, a woman, died at once and two others in hospital. One

man was bitten in the upper arm and suffered a compound fracture of

the humerus. His wife it was who was killed outright and the two

elder children bitten, while a small baby was unhurt. The tiger was

shot at dawn by a local shikari-—_the length 9 feet 4 inches.

It is understood that Mr. Kemp will be elsewhere publishing an

account of all that took place.

Pasteur Institute Report

In his letter of 8th July 1950 to Mr, Clark the Director of the

Pasteur Institute, Shillong, Dr. S. R. Pandit, who has held the same

post since May 1942, mentions that he quite well remembers the above

two instances of rabies in the tiger as he had examined and reported

on the sections trom both. He mentions also that he has submitted

a note of these two instances of proved rabies in the tiger to the

Indian Medical Gazette. This has not as yet appeared but will perhaps

be in the Gazette for the month of December.

A Third Case.—The Miscellaneous Note by Mr. S. A. Christopher

under the caption ‘A Tiger ‘‘Runs Amok’”’ ’ draws attention to an article

relating that a tiger killed 7 coolies and was then killed in battle with

a wild buffalo. Such an occurrence—seven men all killed at one spot

in presence of other people, presumably in daylight in or near a village

and a railway station, is certainly deserving of further enquiry. It

has not been possible to get in touch with Mr. Christopher, and the

place where the alleged incident took place not being known to me

there is at present no further information available. On the face of

it this seems quite likely to have been another case of rabies in the

tiger. ss a

blow of the Cheetah’s fore paw, is then seized by the throat... . .

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 541

How did the Tigers contract Rabies?

It is natural that people should wonder in what manner these

tigers contracted rabies. As rabies virus cannot gain entry into the

body other than through broken skin, and the virus has to be conveyed

by means of fresh saliva, it follows that the two animals contracted

the disease either by being bitten or wounded by some rabid animal;

or (which is more likely) the virus in fresh saliva from some rabid

beast they had killed, or fed upon, entered their bodies through some

wound or abrasion, or some break in the skin of mouth or tongue.

They may have licked the, ‘kill’ and so licked fresh saliva and in that

way have got the virus into their system. The smallest break in the

skin would suffice, and that may have come about in a number of

ways: a cut from a sharp bone on some part of lips or tongue; a

scratch on the lips from a thorn; or any of many possible happenings.

Other peculiar Occurrences »

Major A. St. J. Macdonald reminds me in epistola of several cases

of tigers entering houses in a semi-conscious state, and refers to the

account in the Indian Forester, a short version of which appeared in the

B.N.H.S. Journal, Vol. 36. p. 235, to a happening in Upper Burma

when a tiger walked into the Rest House by the front door, lay down,

and afterwards got up and quietly left by the way he had entered.

What was noticed more than anything else was the awful stench from

the tiger’s body and the swarms of flies even at that late hour of

the night.

A third case, to which Major Macdonald was a witness, was that

of a not fully grown tiger entering a cattle pen by day and lying

down without paying any attention to cattle and calves tethered in the

yard and in the shed. The animal was killed by spears while in a

comatose state and found to be suffering from advanced blood poison-

ing asthe flesh was of the colour of an over-ripe pear and highly

oedematous. In this instance porcupine quills were the cause.

None of these happenings were occasioned by rabies.

BANGALORE, - ao R. W. BURTON,

16th September, 1950. Lt.-Col. 1... (Retd,)

ai “THE: ‘DEW-CLAWS’...OF THE HUNTING. LEOPARD .OR

| CHEETAH [ACINONYX.JUBATUS: (SCHREBER) |

I have not had the fortune to witness the sport of blackbuck hunt-

ing with aid of the cheetah. None of the accounts contained in

shikar books are available to me just now so I turn to the ‘Fauna of

British India, Mammalia’, Vol. I where the author, R. I. Pocock,

F.R.S., describing the method of hunting from accounts available to

him (for he will not have written from personal observation of the

sport) says at page eo Mae

BS sedihe sictim, $s. ons: is usually apparently struck over by a

542 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL UIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

One would think that the forearm and paw of the cheetah has

not the muscular power necessary for such a feat, especially when it

is borne in mind that the weight of the buck is about go lbs. It

seems that it has not been related in the accounts available to Pocock

exactly how the buck is struck down in full flight.

I have just come across the two volumes of a book titled ‘The New

Shikari at Our Indian Stations’ by Colonel Julius Barras, 1885, and

read at page 92 of Vol. I exactly why the cheetah is able to strike

down the buck. Having described the preliminaries and circumstances

of the hunt Barras relates :

-‘IT now inspected the carcass of the deer (sic) with a view to

ascertain if possible how the cheetah had been able so instantane-

ously to strike down such a powerful animal immediately on getting

up with it. I at once observed a single, long deep gash in the flank

which was evidently caused by the decisive blow. But I could not

imagine with what weapon the leopard had been able to inflict this

very strange-looking wound. Then, turning to the beast, as it

sat on the cart, I inspected it closely and saw that the dew-claw

which in the dog appears such a useless appendage, is represented

in this brute by a terrible-looking talon exactly suited to the in-

fliction of such a gash.’

So here we have it.- It is not, as we can readily imagine, by a

blow of the paw alone that the buck is struck down. Nature, to aid

the cheetah’s speed has provided almost dog-like nails to his four toes,

but has retained for him the powerful, sharp, curved dew-claw to enable

him to obtain the necessary purchase to overthrow the buck at racing

speed. Without such a dew-claw the beast would probably not be able to

strike the blackbuck down with the sureness he displays.

Comments on the above by members who keep cheetahs for the

coursing of blackbuck would be interesting by way of confirmation or

otherwise.

BANGALORE. R. W. BURTON,

toth July, 1950. Lieut.-Col. 1.4. (Retd.)

[According.to Dr. Edward Hindle, F.R.s., Scientific Director of the

Zoological Society of London, to whom the question was referred, the

general opinion concerning the ‘dew-claw’ in all animals where it is

present is that it is a vestigial digit on its way to disappearance. He

had not heard of the suggestion that in the cheetah it is used for

striking and holding down prey, nor could he offer any information

concerning its possible function in this animal. But K. S. Dharma-

‘-kumarsinhji of Bhavnagar, who has considerable experience of hunt-

-ing with trained cheetahs, comments as follows:

<The cheetah’s main weapon of attack is the dew-claws without

which. it, would be difficult for him to hold down large prey.

: ~ Our. experience in hunting ‘with cheetahs is that the dew-claws

are made full use of as hooks for holding on to blackbuck once” the

animal has .been contacted. Cheetahs with blunted dew-claws’ were

not able to control full sized blackbuck as effectively as those that

possessed ‘sharp undamaged ones. We have: found’ therefore that the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 543

dew-claw is very important to the cheetah and he can-also inflict ‘a

severe wound with it.

Sometimes it is solely by means. of the dew-claws that the black-

buck is secured in the chase.’—Ebs. | |

5. NOTES ON THE CLOUDED LEOPARD

[NEOFELIS NEBULOSA (GRIFFITH)|

(With a plate)

Early in April 1950 a specimen of the Clouded Leopard

which had been killed by a Forest Guard in North Borneo,

was sent to the Raffles Museum for identification.’ This animal

has a wide range from Nepal and Sikkim eastward to southern

China, Hainan and Formosa and south to Sumatra, the Malay

peninsula and Borneo’, but according to Pocock (1939: 251-3) little is

known of its. habits. He describes it as ‘everywhere rare, or at all

events seldom seen by European sportsmen, probably because it. in-

habits dense forests and is nocturnal’. The only field notes to which

he was able to refer appear to have been those of Raffles from Sumatra

(1821: 250), Tickell from Sikkim (1843: 816), Swinhoe, from Formosa

(1862: 353) and Brownlow from Tavoy (1928: 789).

According to Rafiles the animal is largely arboreal and preys on

birds. Tickell says that in Sikkim it feeds on goats and pigs, that

it is Savage and wary, and that when wounded it may turn fiercely

on its assailants. According to Swinhoe it commits great havoc among

deer in Formosa; but he adds that it never attacks man unless pro-

voked. Brownlow provides the only positive contradiction to the last

statement at present recorded, a leopard which killed several head of

cattle and then stalked a native boy, who saved himself by splitting

its skull with his knife. For completeness one may perhaps add the

account by Gabb (quoted by the editors in this journal, 48 (4), 1949:

804) of a pair found feeding on porcupines in a cave in the Darjeeling

district. The information supplied with the skin from. North Borneo

adds several items to these data; in addition earlier notes have been

published on nebulosa in Borneo which are apparently not available

in India. It seems, therefore, to be of value to summarise this

additional material for the benefit of readers of this journal. |

The North Borneo specimen was a female; the ground colour of

the skin is a dull grayish fawn, with the flank pattern in the form

of well-marked rosettes, each with its anterior rim about as thick as

the posterior rim. It was encountered in a coastal swamp at Ulu Sungei

————

* The animal was killed on 19 March; it was sent to the Raffles Museum by

Mr. G. S. Brown, Asst. Conservator of Forests, North Borneo.

* Pocock (loc. cit.) includes Java in the range of the Clouded Leopard; so do

Carter, Hill & Tate, the authors of ‘Mammals of the Pacific World? (1945 :96).

Chasen (1940 :106) and Tate (1947 :191) rightly refrain from doing so. The error is

one- of some antiquity; it starts with G. Cuvier (1823 :437), who cites Java as the

type locality of his Felis diardi, which is a race of nebulosa. To the best of my

knowledge no feral specimen has ever been taken in Java. The -Raffles: Museum

collection contains a fine beast said to have been killed at Changi, on Singapore

Island, in 1898. . .

544 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Kurapo, near Mumiang ‘and about 18 miles east of Sandakan.. It

was accompanied by a second example, presumably the male, which

is described as larger and coloured black and yellow, with the mark:-

ings more or less eipcular on the back and incurved stripes on the flanks,

‘like a circus tiger’.

The, animal was killed by Awang bin Jim, the Forest Guard

stationed at Mumiang. According to his account he had landed from

the Sungei Kurapo to accompany two other men who were gathering

lamiding® vine for tying fish traps. The forest growth was mainly

nipah palms (Nipa frutescens Wurmb.) towards its landward limit,

in fresh water and associated with mangrove-dry-land marginal tree

species. The party heard cries, and on investigating came.upon a

pair of leopards attacking a large male Proboscis Monkey, Nasalis

larvatus (Wurmb.). The leopards had isolated it in a low leaning

tree about g feet off the ground and were leaping at it. They

dragged it down and killed it. Awang says that as they approached

more closely the female turned to attack them; so- they ran to their

boat. There Awang had a shot gun, and he killed her with buck-

shot, shooting from the river. The time was. about 3 p.m. They

started to go ashore to get the carcase but the male made as if to attack

them; so they went off some distance and collected He nipah fronds

which they used as a torch to’ scare it off.

Awang unfortunately did not measure the dead leopard deiire skin-

ning it, and he threw the skinned body, including the skull, into the

sea. He says that the body was so heavy that it was difficult for two

men to lift it.. He brought in the dried skin. Even in its shrunken

condition it measured 5 ft. 44 inches from the nose to the end of the

tail. The accompanying photograph shows the beauty of the patterning.

There are several interesting points about this record, the habitat,

the colouring of the two animals, the addition of yet another item to its

known menu, and the fact that’ it provides a second account of an

apparently unprovoked attack on man. Without doubt there must

be a wide range of temperament in this species—at least as wide as

its reported diet. Banks (1931: 77), writing mostly of the Sarawak

region of Borneo, says that there its behaviour is exemplary * as it

is not recorded as molesting children or dogs, much less man.’ — Else-

where (1949: 50) he describes it as on the whole sluggish, indolent,

retiring and good- -tempered. Harrisson (1949: 74) Says it 1s always

extremely shy ; ‘Nobody fears this Huse cat, and there are derogatory

stories about its prowess .. .—

Banks (1931) also describes the Clouded “Leopard as a shy and

retiring species, seldom seen and of unknown habits. He adds that

-' There are no feral tigers in North Borneo, but a, very successful circus, which

included a Bengal tiger in its menagerie, visited Sandakan and Jesselton while I was

in Borneo in July 1949. It may be remarked that the Leopard, Panthera pardus

(Linn.), also is not known from Borneo, and the Clouded Leopard is thus the largest

of the Felidae recorded from the island.

* Lamiding vine, a climbing fern, Stenochlaena palustris Bedd., found widely.

an tropical Asia, Malaysia and Polynesia.. ‘Lamiding’ is the name usel in. North

Borneo by the Brunei, Malay and Suluk peoples there. In Malaya it is--usually

known as akar paku or lembiding. The stems are used. for binding fish: sbeaee

and sometimes for basket-making. PORT ai

ourn., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc,

LOU

ia, I

aang

TEES

eee

| Skin of a female Clouded Leopard, Neofelis nebulosa diardi (G. Cuvier), shot in a coastal

swamp area near Sandakan, North Borneo, on 19 March 1950.

& - a foe

m, S

r _ oan a

a -

; - ae a 7

; 7 .

a a4 i

" ' . :

, : Fi :

. -

+ 7 on

" - os : ‘i

Savin echoes ge Bod oe " mies an bam 2, A lath a ees ~

. * ie 0

= vies it eh

ae Pi, -

1 ‘

1 r

. 4

z a

S =

' y ‘

' -

o 7 ‘ ’

' 7

fame MA Fs

ail

4 : .

specie = at fst .- es i SO ee Bae ae i> See” 1 ee :

" oe = Ae ty Sh, oe ae ee eee Oe ee

: 7 2 ‘ .

: a3 ‘ mo i ;

7 =

. t .

7 °

—————

MISCELLANEOUS... NOTES. 545

the natives know little about it beyond the fact that it is almost entirely

arboreal, though it is sometimes shot at night on river banks and

very occasionally caught in snares on the ground. In Sarawak it is

said to occur mostly in old jungle, but in some.parts, such as the

Lawas district, it is found in areas. of bélukar or secondary scrub.

Its corpse is much prized. .The canine teeth are sought by Kayans,

Kenyahs and others (but not by the Dayaks) for use as ear ornaments,

the skin is employed for seating-mats and parts of the body are

used by the Chinese for making medicines. As a result the Sarawak

Museum. was without a complete specimen until after the end of the

war. Since then Harrisson (loc. cit.), the present curator, has obtained

two. skins, one from the interior of Dutch Borneo, atid the second

from an animal that was cornered by dogs in the Ulu Baram district

of Sarawak early in 1947.

According to Banks (1949) its diet under natural conditions con-

sists of pigs, in this case it would be the large Sus barbatus Miller,

and monkeys, while it also follows buffaloes with calves. Earlier (1931)

he says that it sometimes constructs a large nest of sticks in a tree

top, and that it has been recorded sallying forth suddenly to take

a Long-tailed Macaque, Macaca irus F. Cuv. A specimen which he

subsequently had in captivity killed a large Pigtailed Macaque, Macaca

nemestrina (Linn.). The latter is rather nearer to the size of the

Proboscis* Monkey, which the North Borneo leopards were attacking.

The captive animal also took chickens, rats and squirrels, and would

eat two fowls a day if allowed to do so. It would seem actually that

there is no call to ridicule Raffles’s statement that in Sumatra the

Clouded Leopard takes birds and poultry, as Tickell and Pocock have

done. The evidence certainly suggests that in Borneo it is partial

to monkeys and pigs, and will take young buffaloes, all good, weighty,

meaty items. Obviously when these are not immediately available

it goes for smaller stuff in the same habitats. A tiger has been found

with frogs in its belly, and immature Leopard Cats, Felis bengalensis

Kerr, will certainly jump for grasshoppers, as domestic cats do. The

only error is to assume that the small items represent the major meals,

instead of snacks taken while waiting for something bigger to appear.

_The last point about the North Borneo specimens is the question

of colour and markings. The skin before me, with the well-determined

rosette pattern on its flanks, is clearly an example of the Malaysian

race, diardi G, Cuvier, 1823 {type locality probably Sumatra). Like

the other available skins here from Borneo it is noticeably greyer and

more heavily marked than the Peninsular specimens. In this it

apparently resembles the type of macrocelis Temminck (in Horsfield,

1825; type locality Bencoolen, West Sumatra). On the other hand,

if we are to believe the Forest Guard’s description of the second leopard,

which can only have been an example of Neofelis nebulosa, it was

much nearer to animals of the typical race from Indo-China and. southern

China. Obviously only a very limited value can be placed on the

characters of a skin that is still in the field, but it does at least suggest

that the range of colour and pattern exhibited by nebulosa in Borneo is

probably very wide. Harrisson (in litt., 28: 4: 50) tells me that one

of his Sarawak skins has the ground éélour almost full yellow. At the

other extreme both Banks (1931) and Harrisson (loc. cit.) give reports

546 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 49

of melanistic forms, the one from Mount Matang, near Kuching, and

the other from the interior of Sarawak. So faras I am aware melanistic

examples have not been recorded from the range of typical nebulosa,

but Jacobson (1921: 238) suggests that they occur also in Sumatra.

linally, Pocock (loc. cit.) says that nothing appears to be known. of

the breeding habits of the Clouded Leopard. ‘According to Banks (1949)

it has two young to a litter. He describes them as very tame and

playful, preferring meat to milk but never exhibiting the ferocity that

soon manifests itself in young Leopard Cats. He also says that they

chuckle, purr and growl. An adult, which he heard moving at nighi,

emitted a mournful, but not very loud, call not unlike the howl of a

dog or the moaning of the wind as it passes over the open mouth ofa

large jar. |

KAFFLES MUSEUM,

SINGAPORE, 6. C. A. GIBSON-HILL

27th May, 1950.

REFERENCES

Banks, E. (19381): A popular account of the mammals of Borneo.. Journ,

Maiayan Br. Roy. Asiat. Soc., 9 (2): 1-189.

Banks, E. (1949): Bornean mammals. Kuching, Sarawak. |

Brownlow, A. (1928): Miscellaneous Notes. A Clouded Leopard (Felis

nebulosa) attacking man. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 32 (4): 789-790.

Chasen, F. N. (1940): A handlist of Malaysian mammals. Bull. Raff. Mus.,

15: 1-209.

Harrisson, T. (1949): The large mammals of Borneo. Malayan Nat. Journ.,

&: (2): 70-76.

Jacobson, E. (1921): Notes on some mammals from Sumatra. Journ. Fed.

Malay Str. Mus., 10 (8): 235-240.

Pocock, R. I. (1939): The fauna of British India, etc., Mammalia, 1. London.

Raffles, S. (1821): Descriptive catalogue of a Zoological Collection made in

Sumatra. Trans, Linn. Soc. Lond., 18 (1): 239-274.

Selous, E. M. & Banks, E. (1935): The Clouded Leopard in Sarawak,

Sarawak Museum Journal, 4 (8) :263-266. '

Swinhoe, R. (1862): On the mammals of the Island of Formosa (China).

Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1862: 347-365. |

Tickell, S. R. (1843): Notes on a curious species of Tiger or Jaguar, killed near

the Snowy Range, north of Darjeeling. Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 12 (2), No.

141: 814-816. |

6. THE STRANGE DEATH OF A BISON

In 1941 while I was preparing Working Plans in Panchnoi Block,

Charduar Reserve in the Darrang district, Assam, a very interesting

incident happened, which I am recording though it may sound un-

believable. yidyy

A field assistant with a batch of Naga labourers was doing

enumeration work. All of a sudden a solitary bull bison appeared

before him and all his labourers ran away. The only thing the field

assistant can now remember is that he stood face to face with a bison

who was ready to charge. He later told me that he (being a Muslim)

just shouted the word ‘Allah’ and collapsed. He was carried to the

camp in the evening by the labourers who told me that the bison was

lying dead in the forest and the babu was miraculously saved.

MISCELLANEOUS .NOTES 547

Next morning I went to the spot and found a big bull bison lying

dead with his fore-legs entangled in a big climber which hung between

two large trees. The hat and enumeration book of the field assistant

were just by the side of the bison’s head. The only reconstruction I

could make of the bison’s death was, that while charging towards

the field assistant the climber caught in his fore-legs causing him to

fall on his head and break his neck. Death appears to have been

instantaneous. The Naga labourers told me that they saw the bison

facing the babu and they ran, and when they returned they found

both the bison and the babu lying side by side!

The field assistant was not hurt at all though he did not recover

from the shock for several days. He actually had high fever and

was in a delirious state for a number of days. The Naga labourers

ate the bison meat and brought the head to camp. The head was

shown to the Conservator, when he visited the area later.

JoruAT,

ASSAM, Pa RY Naa

April 1950. Asst. Conservator of Forests.

7. a, DOR, CHEBLAL WITH, HORNS

My cousin, Rajkumar Dharampal Singh of Awagarh, and I had

jointly taken three blocks in South Bastar Division (Bastar State) for

a month. We were encamped in the capital of Kutru Zamindari itself

and decided to go out for a spin in our car. It was 5.30 p.m. in the

evening and we had proceeded about ten miles on the Bijapur road,

when we spotted a herd of five cheetal about 200 yards away. One

among them seemed to carry a good pair of horns. As we stalked

them, the herd receded further in, but the Rajkumar of Awagarh

ultimately put in a long shot and bagged the cheetal with horns—the

only one in the herd which carried a pair. On reaching the dead animal

we found to our disappointment that the horns were not as big as

expected and measured only 294 inches. But scrutiny of the carcass

revealed a very interesting fact. The male sex organs were missing,

while the mammae along with all the female sex organs were present.

I further cut open the cheetal, and found that it also had an ovary and

‘all the other internal organs of a normal female. It was in fact a doe

‘cheetal with horns measuring 29$ inches. The animal was shot in

the Toyanar Block of Kutru Range in South Bastar Division near

Gudma village. On hearing of my rare experience the local villagers

informed me that some years back a Muria Gond had also killed a

‘doe sambar with horns, but I cannot say how far this report is correct.

I have, so far, met no sportsman who has ever told me of such an

‘experience.

P. O. DHARAMJAYGARH, ' CHANDRA CHUR,

viA Kuarsia, B.N. Ry. Raja Sahib of Udaipur State,

2gth June, 1950. Madhya Pradesh.

Bie)

548 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NALURATAIIST (SOCIETY, Vol. 49

8. THE OCCURRENCE OF ALBINO AND MELANIC RATS

Mr. Romer’s account (1) of the apparently natural occurrence of a

piebald white and natural coloured rat in Hong Kong raises the

question of the frequency of the occurrence of albinism and melanism

in “nature: :

Exact statistics of the occurrence of such aberrant forms may well

prove of value to geneticists and students of evolutionary theory, but

they are very hard to obtain. Black or white specimens of various

animals are often recorded in the literature or find their way into

collections, but visual observations are obviously biased by relative

conspicuousness, and I know to my cost how often collectors select the

unusual or extreme forms for skinning, to the detriment of estimates

of relative abundance. It is likely however that many potentially valu-

able records are locked away in the notes or memories of workers whose

business it is to make routine examinations of large numbers of animals.

When animals are collected not as specimens, but for destruction

as pests, for bacteriological examination, and so on, the proportion

of unusual specimens is likely to be truly representative of their natural

frequency. I would appeal therefore to all those who have such in-

formation to publish it. A letter to this journal seems the appropriate

medium.

Mr. Romer has kindly given me his figures, and I have extracted

figures from unpublished records collected in Rangoon {2) and in Malaya.

Negative evidence is often of as much value as positive, and so I have

included rats of which no aberrations were observed, but only of

those species of which several hundred have been seen. The records

in the following table refer only to cases of melanism and albinism.

in rats.

TABLE

Number

Pea) BEE Aberrations

Species

J, .. Data: from.3,,.,. Romer, Hong

Kong, 1948 and 1949

Rattus norvegicus 328,400 1 piebald aibino-normal, 1 other

‘white rat’ (? R. norvegicus)

reported, but latter a doubtful

record. Melanic specimens

fairly frequent but numbers not

recorded,

2. Unpublished data from Harri-

son and Woodville, Rangoon,

1945

Bandicota bengalensis 800 10 black

1 with a ventral white patch

FR. exulans concolor 1,200 none

3. Scrub Typhus Research Unit

records, Selangor Malaya,

1948 and 1949

R. vattus diardi 3,417. no complete melanic or albino

forms, but this rat is very vari-

able and white or near white

patches on the belly are frequent.

R. vattus jalorensis 863 none

Rk. exulans concolor 237 none

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. .-- 549

Number

Species axainitied Aberrations

R. miilleri 171 none

R. rajah 135 none

_ R. sabanus 273 1 albino, fur uniform pale grey

almost white, eyes and tail dark.

KuaLa LUMPUR, je Us HARRISON,

MALAYA, M.SC.

toth March 1950.

REFERENCES

1. Romer J. D. (1949): Naturally occurring albinism in a specimen of

Rattus norvegicus Berk. J, Bombay Nat. Hist, Soc., 48: 579.

2. Harrison J. L. and Woodville H. C. (1948): An attempt to control house

rats in Rangoon Trans. R. Soc., trop. Med. Hyg. 42: 247-58.

9. “SOORI PHANDA’

Commenting on Shri S. R. Daver’s interesting article on the Soori

Phanda method of killing tigers, Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton refers (p. 65

of Vol. 49) to the use of a spiked bamboo method in the ‘Triangle’ of

Myitkyina district, Burma.

I showed the sketch of the Soort Phanda to my Kachin orderly,

who comes from Nawngkai village 13 miles south-east of Fort Hertz,

and he at once said that the Kachins of his tract, which can loosely

be described as constituting the northern extremity of the ‘Triangle’,

use almost identically the same method; normally bamboo spikes alone

are used, without an iron spear-head at the tip.

If two trees are not readily available the Kachins tie the carcase

on top of two poles which are then propped up in such a way that a

tug at the carcase pulls away the prop; as the poles (which are about

2 feet apart) come crashing down the bamboo spikes come up between

them and impale the tiger.

Lt.-Col. Burton goes on to say that the tiger is ‘not particularly

harmful to the human beings of those parts’. Tigers are in the habit

of taking cattle, ponies, goats, sheep (brought over from the Nam

Tamai) and pigs; in 1947 ten heads of cattle were taken from my

orderly’s village, a-heavy loss for one small community. Man-eaters

are not unknown. The flesh of the tiger is eaten (though not relished

except by the Lisus) and the bones used to fetch 10 to 20 rupees a

viss by sale to the locai Chinaman. It is not surprising therefore that

the Kachins do their best to destroy tigers.

‘Hpalok makam’ is the Kachin name for a Soori Phanda, and

‘Masun’ corresponds to ‘Soori’.

DIVISIONAL FOREST OFFICER,

SInU SARAWAK, B. E. SMYTHIES

16th June, 1950.

950 JOURNAL, BOMBAY ,NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 49

to. LARGE GREY BABBLER .ATTACKING METAL HUB-CAP

OF WHEEL:“OF CAR

On 2nd January, 1950, | was sitting in the garden at Delhi, the

car standing in front of the porch not many yards away, when I

heard a sound as of something striking metal. I saw that a Large

‘Grey Babbler (Argya malcolmi) was jumping from the ground and

vigorously tapping the metal hub-cap of the wheel of the car. A

servant came to see what was causing the noise, and thereupon the

bird went round to the wheel on the other side, but again it was

driven away. Soon after the car was driven away for half an hour,

but then was left in the same position.

Presently the babbler reappeared, and as no servant was within

hearing, for some two minutes the bird constantly leapt up, and

made a resounding peck at the hub-cap each time.

When it finally grew tired of this extraordinary action, I went

to the car, and by lying on the ground tried to get my eye into the

position of the babbler’s eye. It was true that I could see myself

reflected in the cap, but, owing to its convex shape, my image was

greatly reduced in size. This makes the behaviour of the bird all the

more puzzling. ;

In England there have been records of Grey Wagtails (Motacilla

cinerea) constantly tapping at windows, and occasionally I think other

species have been noted. It is usually supposed, I believe, that the

bird sees its own image reflected in the window, and tries to attack:

it. But why should a bird try to attack its own image when that

image looks very small and therefore presumably a long way off?

Moreover, the Large Grey Babbler is notoriously a sociable bird,

and in this very case, others of the ‘sisters’ were hopping about

quite near, although no other indulged in this curious action while

I was watching. I am almost inclined to think that the noise had

more significance for the bird than the image seen in the hub-cap.

Can any of your readers provide any parallel experience?

24, RajpuR Roap,

DELHI, H. G. ALEXANDER

LSE, hUtein ob 5O-

11. COMMON MYNAH (ACRIDOTHERES TRISTIS) NESTING

IN THE NEST OF PIED MYNAH. (STURNOPASTOR CONTRA)

A pair of Pied Mynahs had built their nest in the lower branches

of a sal (Shorea robusta) at a height of about 25 feet from the ground,

in my compound here in Giridih. When the nest was complete tie

rightful owners were set upon and driven away by a pair of Common

Mynahs, who have now established themselves in the nest.

Referring to Stuart Baker, Fauna, Birds, Vol. III (2nd ed.) page

54—I see that he has seen a few nests of the Common Mynah

(4. t. tristis) built in trees and that the nests were ‘huge domed affairs

like those of the Pied Mynah.’

hed

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 551

Could it be possible that the nests he saw were not actually built

by the Common Mynah but were stolen property as is this nest in

my compound?

so ly. f.. Rosair, Eso.,

P.O. GIRIDIH, K. M.. KIRKPATRICK

Dist. HAZARIBAGH,, BIHAR.

23rd June, 1950.

[In Vol. II, p. 526 of his ‘Nidification of Birds of the Indian Empire’

Stuart Baker Cale of the Common Myna:

‘““When they make their nests on branches of trees they are

rather better built. All those I have seen myself were domed,

great balls of grass, leaves and miscellaneous scraps, with dense

linings of feathers. Other writers, however, speak of cup-shaped

nests. Tickell and Hume both saw such nests; Adam ‘saw a pair of

this species building a large cup-shaped nest in a babool-tree’ ; while

Marshall (G.F.L.) says that this myna ‘frequently lays incup-shaped

nests of sticks placed in trees, like small crows’ nests’.’’—Eps. |

0. »~PECOLIAR ROOSTING SITE OF THE HOUSE, SWIFT

(MICROPUS AFFINIS)

During a recent rainy spell here my servant, an aboriginal of no:

mean observationary powers and a keen bird-watcher to boot, informed

me that he had seen quite a few House Swifts, which are very common

here, flying into the nests of the Baya Weaver (Ploceus philippinus)

colony of which were then breeding in a Palmyra (Borassus flabelli-

formis) in a garden nearby. As I had previously noted that this

particular palmyra was also the breeding haunt of the Palm Swift

(Cypsiurus parvus) I thought he may have made a mistake and accord-

ingly proceeded to investigate.

However, I am glad to say that his observations were quite correct

and that at least ten or twelve House Swifts were utilising old but

sound nests of P. philippinus as dormitories during the rainy spell but

deserted them as soon as the weather returned to normal. The weaver

birds were breeding at the same time in the same tree but did not

apparently mind this ‘squatting’ in their former homes.

The House Swifts, so amazingly agile on the wing, could not compete

with the Bayas in ascending the funnel of the nests in one aerial zoom

but contented themselves with alighting on the inside of the funnel

about two or three inches up and then very laboriously crept up the

rest of the way. That they were not breeding in the Bayas’ nests ts

apparent from the way they so readily deserted them in fine weather and

552 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 49

also by virtue of the fact that at least three to four birds were occupy-

ing a single nest.

Total nests on the tree were as follows:

. Ploceus philippinus {in active use and green) 14

3 (old but sound and used at random by

Micr ropus affinis as dormitories)

3. Ploceus philippinus ‘Cocknests’

4. Cypsiurus parvus i bv sae

5. Acridotheres tristis - “ee in leaf base

It may also be interesting to note that the Baya in Giridih frequently

hangs its nests in small colonies on the imported Eucalyptus, which

grows well in this climate and the fruit of which is a great attraction

to swarms of flying foxes in season.

GIRIDIH,

28th September, 1950. KENNETH M. KIRKPATRICK

13. TAMENESS OF, WILD GREY LAG GEESE TAKENTAS

ADULTS

When we were camping at Katoria in March, 1949, (South

Bhagalpur District), the Excise Sub-inspector came to meet us followed

by a pair of Grey Lag Geese (Anser anser). As these were obviously

wild birds and not the common village geese, my interest was aroused.

On enquiry it came out that both the birds had been shot the preced-

ing February at a tank situated about 14 miles from the Dak Bungalow

in the middle of some scrub forest. It is a biggish tank, the largest

stretch of water for some distance, and with a good deal of cultivation

near about.

The female was shot on 6-2-’49, at about 5 p.m., in the right

wing which was badly damaged. The local doctor successfully ampu-

tated that wing and the goose lived. It was a remarkable case of

surgery meant for human beings applied ton, bind:

The male was shot on 19-2-’49, in the wing at about 5 p.m.,

and recovered after treatment by the same doctor.

Both are perfectly tame now. The female is incapable of flight,

but the male occasionally takes to the air, always returning, however,

to the house of its owner. They are fed on paddy and boiled rice.

I wonder if cases have occurred of wild geese having been shot

and subsequently domesticated.

c/o Sami AHMED Eso.,

FOREST OFFICE, JAMAL ARA

DALTONGANJ,

3rd sApril,. 1950.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES e 503d

14, STRAY BIRD NOTES FROM. MALABAR

1. THE STORK-BILLED KINGFISHER. This bird though reputed shy,

is a conspicuous resident in many villages in Palghat taluk. Even in

the heart of the town its calls are often heard during the rainy season.

In the drier months of the year it goes about singly and is somewhat

retiring by disposition, but when the rains break, it is found in pairs

and flies about boldly filling the air with its loud raucous calls.

In the months of May, June, July and August, the Storkbilled

Kingfisher indulges in a strange sort of game. Both birds of a pair

sit on some low perch, a short distance away from a mud or brick wal!

that has neither been plastered nor whitewashed, and uttering the

harshest of their calls, dart with breath-taking speed at the small holes

or cracks in the wall as if to transfix the wall with their bills. Some

times they hit it with such force that an onlooker would expect their

bills to break. Yet nothing happens, the birds return to the perch,

flick their tails and bob up and down (as the Common Kingfisher does

after it has swallowed a fish) and once again without waiting even

to wipe off the mud sticking to their bills, fling themselves at the

wall, to the accompaniment of fiendish croaks.

One of the walls, on which a pair used to concentrate, had a long

narrow crack running down it. In five different places along this the

Kingfishers had made small cavities 3 to 4 inches across and 4 or 5

inches. deep by flying repeatedly to the same points. None of the holes

was excavated further and, after a time, the birds lost all interest in

them.

The zeal with which the birds play this ‘game’ decreases as the

rainy season advances; in May and June the kingfishers spend five to

six hours at it, whereas, in late August, they fly only once or twice

a day at the walls. By the end of July the birds begin to go about

singly. It is clear that they take the greatest interest in the wails

when they are together, and become indifferent when, or soon after,

the pairs break up.

The birds do not seem to have any obvious motive for doing this.

Though geckos and some insects like the mole-cricket often hide

in the crevices, the kingfishers have never been found catching and

eating any.

The White-breasted Kingfisher, while making a tunnel, often does

the same sort of thing in a mud bank. But the Storkbill cannot nest

in hard, three-foot thick brick walls. As the birds make these small

holes year after year, unless we assume that they never learn from

experience, we cannot say that they are attempting to nest in the walls.

Is this then a sort of courtship? Or is it just a game the birds play

with the sole purpose of letting off steam during the early part of the

breeding season? (Though I have yet to find a nest of the Storkbill,

I have little doubt that their breeding season here is in the monsoon

months.) The Common Kingfisher’s courtship consists of, or at least

begins with, a mad chase during which the pursuing partner utters

high-pitched, piercing whistles. In May and June, the Storkbilled

Kingfisher also frequently chases its mate, less speedily than its smaller

cousin, but with much more noise. And 4s it is at this period that the

54 » JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

birds spend most time near the walls, I suspect that this wall-boring

may be a part of the courtship activities.

2. THE PariaAn KitE—Local Migration? From the village of

Kavasseri, 12 to 13 miles south-west of Palghat, Pariah Kites totally

disappear during the monsoon months, though in Palghat town itself

they may be seen even at the peak of the monsoon.

On 29th May, 1950, some days after the rains had set in, L

was surprised to find some twelve Pariah Kites sailing and soaring

like vultures from south to north (or north-east), late in the evening,

along a range of hillocks. The next evening not even a single Pariah

Kite was seen in the place though I kept close watch. On the g3rst,

at about 8.30 a.m., I was standing on top of a hillock, one of a

line extending roughly east to west for some miles, stretching upto

the Palghat Gap on its southern side. There was a strong wind

blowing from west to east and a light shower of rain also. My

attention was caught by seven Pariah Kites that seemed to be sailing

single file against the wind, towards a point in the west. These

were very soon followed by a surprising number of Pariah Kites,

flying along the same route, over some valleys and low hillocks which

lay in a line, east to west. In twenty minutes more than two hundred

birds flew past. Some alighted on a low gravel covered hillock, the

only low hill which was not all rock. There were many small boulders.

on this hillock. On these many of the birds sat, some alighted on

the bare ground and others waddled about clumsily holding their wings.

horizontally extended. Often two or three quarrelled for the same

stone to perch upon.

Apparently they alighted on the hillock for a brief rest. As some

of these took off and continued their journey, others, coming from the

east, took their places. Almost all the birds sailed down on steady

wings and only two or three strayed, soaring about over some spot

on the way. ‘The birds never uttered any calls. By about 9.30 a.m.

all the birds had disappeared, though a few still dribbled in in ones

and twos. Two or three left the main line of flight and were seen

at 10 a.m. wheeling about over a village half a mile to the north. On

June 2nd I went at 8.30 a.m. to the same hillock, but not a single

Pariah Kite was seen though I remained till 10 a.m. Thirteen or

fourteen Brahminy Kites flew west along the same route which the

Pariah Kites had taken. The village of Kavasseri lies in a’ sort

of cup within the hills: on the eastern side we have the Palghat

Gap, and on the western side there is a small break, a valley, east

of Trichur. The Kites seemed to be headed straight towards this.

I wonder whether this was a local migration. Normally Pariah Kites

are never seen in such large numbers in the place at any time of the

year.

3. Tue Littte MINIVET. THREE ADULTS WORKING AT THE SAME

NEST. On the oth of April, 1950, I came across a nest of the Little

Minivet in a teak jungle on the lower slope of a hillock. While

watching the birds at work, I was surprised to find three birds sharing

the labour! One was a male and the other two, apparently, were

females. All three came repeatedly to the nest and evinced consider-

able interest in its progress. One after the other they came to the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 555

nest, their wings feverishly quivering, added some material to the

nest, and waited until the others had also done the same. Of the

-two which were in female plumage, one was definitely more active,

came to the nest more often and more regularly and seemed to get

more attention from the male. The less active female, however,

brought lichen or cobweb now and then and worked it in as efficiently

as the other two. About a month later! when the two chicks were

being fed, all three adult birds were in attendance and all fed the

chicks! How did three birds come to share a nest? Was the third

another female—one that had not begun to lay, or having laid, had.

lost its eggs at a late stage,—or a chick of a previous brood? Has

this kind of thing been observed in the minivets or any other birds

before ?

GoOvT. VICTORIA COLLEGE,

PALGHAT, S. MAasar, Kouk. (NEE LAGAN PAN:

6th September, 1950. B.A. (Hons.}

ri SOLRAY BIRD NODES FROM: TIBET

In a letter dated 12 April 1950 from Lhasa, Mr. H. R. Richardson

of the Indian Political Mission gives some interesting ornithological

information.

‘The spring always brings a pair of Goshawks (ASstur gentilis).

There are also the Hobby (Falco subbuteo), Sparrow-Hawk (Accipiter

nisus), Cherrug and Laggar Falcons (F. cherrug and I’. jugger) and

the Peregrine (f°. peregrinus), although not actually at Lhasa.

I have seen Avocets (Recurvirostra avocetta) in large numbers,

also Black-tailed Godwit (Limosa limosa) and a Stilt (Himantopus

himantopus) on the Hram Tsho.

This year I saw a Kingfisher (Alcedo atthis) at about 13,600 feet

in November sitting quite happily on a block of ice above Samada.

Another point, on which Ludlow? had doubts is the occurrence of

the White-capped Redstart (Chaimarrhornis leucocephalus) beyond

the Tang La. It is common round Lhasa in the summer and I have

seen it in Yarlung and also some 60 miles north of Lhasa. The Blue-

fronted Redstart (Phoenicurus frontalis) also occurs round Lhasa.

Once and once only, I have seen a Rosy Pastor (Pastor roseus)

at Lhasa; it must have been a wanderer’.

Bid, APOLLO, STREET,

Fort, Bompay. EDITORS

20th May, 1950.

ee ee

* During this interval I was away from the village and could not continue my

observations:

? Birds of the Gyantse Neighbourhood. T[bis (1928 :60).

006 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL BIST SOCTET Yimou

16. SCENT OF GAME-BIRDS

Do game-birds lose their scent in the breeding season, as a

provision of nature, or develop an obnoxious counter scent?

A young friend staying with me, committed the unforgivable sin

of shooting a_ stone-curlew (Burhinus oedicnemus), better known

as the goggle-eyed plover, in June, when both my seasoned and

trained labrador, and a puppy under training 9 months old, refused

to pick it up.

The dog is four years old and has retrieved snipe and woodcock

and all the common game-birds met with in a season’s shooting; the

puppy retrieved snipe and teal at five months, but even when I

persuaded her to carry the bird, she held it gently by the neck and

her expression was definitely one of disapproval.

I have read of these birds being excellent for the table, but have

never myself shot or eaten them before, and when I tried to eat this

‘bird it tasted like a pigeon boiled in quinine! ‘To satisfy my curiosity

‘I had two others shot in the same locality (there are about thirty

birds collected and some have already flown their young, while others

have eggs on which they are sitting). The birds shot were males, and

all tasted rank.

Will the pundits give an explanation?

KOOREA,

EP. .O.. BETTIAH,

CHAMPARAN, BIHAR, ~~ ALYST. J. MACBON AID)

‘6th July, 1950.

[Dr. Hugh B. Cott of the Cambridge University Zoological

Museum—who has done (and is doing) some excellent pioneering in-

vestigations on the palatability of birds and their eggs in relation to

conspicuous and cryptic colouration—in a recent letter quotes a num-

ber of well-authenticated examples confirming that ground nesting

birds lose their scent in the breeding season as a protection against

‘predators that ‘follow their nose’.

What interests Dr. Cott particularly in our correspondent’s note,

however, is the suggestion, new to him, that breeding ground-birds

may not merely lose their scent in a passive way, but may on the

“other hand actually develop an obnoxious scent (and taste) that might

act as a deterrent to enemies. This is what would appear to have

happened in the case of Mr. Macdonald’s stone-curlews, a_ species

which consensus of opinion of most sportsmen in India and elsewhere

(and also our own experience) pronounces to be excellent eating in

the non-breeding season—at least in winter.

The suggestion obviously offers a wide scope for serious experi-

‘mental and observational work in which sportsmen and field naturalists

can make useful contributions to knowledge. Dr. Cott suggests

making comparisons as regards flavour in some Indian birds, both

in and out of the breeding season, selecting for the experiments

‘ground-nesting and cryptic species, such as, for example, Grey

Partridge, Common Sandgrouse, Courser, larks, and pipits. The

flesh could be tasted in different seasons and ranked by a system of

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 557

percentage deviation from a standard, by a panel of selected human

tasters. Or it could be offered to a discriminating dog or cat together

with some standard food to afford a means of comparison. Both these

methods are successfully employed by Dr. Cott for his own investiga-

tions, and it is amazing how closely the results agree with and

complement each other.—Ebs. |

re RIED IDENTIBICATION OF” BIRDS::

NOTES ON THE HOODWINK (DISSIMULATRIX SPURIA)

After conversations with many bird-lovers, glances at my own

ornithological notebooks and perusal of articles in ornithological

journals, I am impressed by the number of records of birds partially

seen or indeterminately heard: and it seems evident that the majority

of these records are attributable to a single species—the Hoodwink—

which I propose to name Dissimulatrix spuria.

The existence of this species has already been recognised by

several authors, amongst them James Thurber, who has presented a

somewhat imaginative picture of the bird perched upon a spray of

Ragamuffin. Gaetke, on Heligoland, shot several specimens of the

Hoodwink, but they invariably fell over steep cliffs into the sea and

“were not secured’. Observers in tropical forests are familiar with

the Hoodwink, which invariably keeps to the densest vegetation

(where it is extremely vociferous), and refuses to be lured into the

open by the observer’s imitation of a Black Mamba. The Hoodwink

has several times been photographed: it is the brown blur that passes

rapidly from right to left in all ornithological films. In many records

of bird song, also, the Hoodwink can be heard in the background,

imitating the barking of dogs, the hooting of automobiles, the

pleasant drone of the farm tractor, etc. The Hoodwink was known

to the Ancients: unsatisfactory views of the Hoodwink, before the

invention of the telescope, led to unreliable early records of the

Phoenix, Roc, Harpy, Hippogriff, Barnacle Goose, etc. Nor has the

Hoodwink been neglected in literature: it is clear to the experienced

observer that both Keats and Shelley wrote Odes to the Hoodwink.

The bird has also a definite place in British folklore; in parts of East

Anglia it is, to this day, considered lucky to drink a gallon of beer

both before and after first hearing the Hoodwink in spring.

A peculiarity of the Hoodwink is that it is more frequently

observed by beginners in ornithology than by more practised observers.

Yet records by practised observers exist. In a recent number of the

Tbis a well-known ornithologist, in order to demonstrate the fatuity

of ‘sight records,’ related how he had seen a Common Buzzard

identified by a German zoologist as a White-tailed Eagic. Now,

according to the evidence to hand, there is no presumption that it

was a buzzard rather than an eagle. Surely a third hypothesis is

possible—that it was a Hoodwink. And readers of ornithological

literature in the 1930s will remember the case of the Hoodwink on

one of the London reservoirs which imitated now the Great Northern

Diver now the Black-throated.

558 © JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Only one record of a ringed Hoodwink exists: on being ringed,

at Tooting Bec, it was entered in the schedule by the Misses

Motmot and Tody as ‘Littke Tom Tit’ and was subsequently recorded

as ‘Blue Tit, imm.’ On being retrapped, it was thought by Miss

Eleanora Falcon (of Woking), after reference to the Handbook,

to be a Lanceolated Warbler. It was later found dead, in an

advanced state of decomposition, and identified by Mrs. Snow-Bunting,

also of Tooting, as her Budgerigar Melopsittacus undulatus, Percy.

’ Below is listed what information has so far been obtained relating

to the bird :-—

The Hoodwink—Dissimulatrix spuria spec. nov. (Restricted

typical locality, ‘Mon Repos,’ Waterloo Boulevard, Bournemouth.)

Habitat.—Catholic, with marked preference for suburban _ bird-

tables. Frequently haunts cliffs, tropical forests, beds of ragamuffin

(Thurber) and other places where quick dash to cover is possible. In

Southern France in winter often found in loose association with other

Hoodwinks.

Field Characters and General Habits.—Generally recognisable by

blurred appearance and extremely rapid flight away from observer.

Polymorphous and strongly imitative: when imitating another species

closely similar to an allied species, will tend to imitate the rarer, i.e.

Greenish rather than Willow Warbler, Collared rather than Pied

Flycatcher, Blue-spotted Whitethroat rather than White-spotted Blue-

throat, etc. Usually solitary: but Miss Florence Pratincole records

a flock of Hoodwinks, seen many years ago near childhood home at

Budleigh Salterton: Col. Trumpeter-Swan, uncle of observer, who

had lived many years in India, insisted categorically that they were

‘Hoodwinks. Most information on field characters obtained from bird-

tables by Committee of Suburban Bird-lovers: ‘a brownish silent bird,

which jumped up and down all the time’ (Miss Ruby Godwit, Murray-

field). ‘I could not see whether it was as big as a thrush, but it

seemed to fancy cold porridge’ (Miss Betsy Phalarope, Auchen-

shuggle). ‘About the size of a piece of wood’ (Mrs. Carolina Craik,

Epping). P. B. Shelley’s observation that Hoodwink resembles ‘poet

hidden in the light of thought’ not: confirmed by later observers.

Ordinary gait a rapid scuffle: in breeding season ‘a stealthy walk’

(Turnstone, Fun in Birdland). On water dives readily: average of

373 dives approx. 30 minutes—in each case the observer went home

to tea before the Hoodwink had risen to the surface. Apparently

roosts among rows of bottles in bitternlike posture.

Voice.—Usual call a shrill, slightly sibilant, ‘pee-pee-wee,’ perhaps

the same as that rendered by Slobeend as ‘wee-pee-pee.’ Also utters

‘a long-drawn wheezing sigh’ (Wigeon in litt.), perhaps identical with

_the ‘protracted sighing wheeze’ described by R. C. Pochard. Call

resembling the creaking of an unoiled hinge, formerly supposed to be

uttered by Hoodwinks, now shown to be made by the creaking of

an unoiled hinge. Also highly imitative, e.g. of Redwing, a sound

commonly produced on October evenings, when ornithologists are

listening for Redwings. In February and early March utters a loud,

ringing ‘cuckoo’ (Daily Press, passim). Song Period.—Prolonged

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 509

research involving rising at dawn, stop-watches and B.Sc. degrees

have conclusively shown that the Hoodwink does not sing all the day

long: sometimes it sings, sometimes it is silent. It has been

suggested that Scottish Hoodwinks, on physiological grounds, should

be separated as D. s. annielaurieae on account of prolonged singing

on 31 December—described by McSporran as ‘supersong.’ The

Scottish form does not, apparently, sing on Sundays (uv histogram in

possession of Ecclefechan Burns Club).

Display and Posturing.—In breeding season male flies round in

ever-decreasing circles, evoking no response whatsoever from female.

Also indulges in ‘false preening,’ ‘false sleeping,’ ‘false waking,”

“false eating,’ ‘false drinking,’ ‘false singing’ and ‘false dancing’ ;

and, in the case of the female, a rapid movement of the toes deno-

minated by Steinwaelzer ‘false knitting’ (pseudotricotage). ‘Distrac-

tion display’ takes the form of ‘rodent-running’—only backwards :

this causes female observers to run away, screaming (see Y. B.

Sapsucker, The Distraction Display of the Female Ornithoscoper).

Breeding.—Details little known, but undoubtedly sometimes re-

produces by binary fission; many reliable ornithologists, watching the

Hoodwink, have seen it split into two halves and fly away in opposite

directions. Nest.—Uses old mares’ nests; eggs also laid at random,

e.g. in egg-cups. Apparently responsible for the construction of old

nests, involving young oologists in climbing very high trees or very

steep cliffs: these nests often found to contain old baked-bean tins.

Eggs.—Served in British hotels—recognisable by glycerine-like con-

sistency and frequent presence of embryo. Also possibly in Egypt,

where eggs described as tasting ‘as if laid by mummy’ (Lord Edward

Cecil). Clutch-size.—Unknown, but, on approach of ornithologist,

Hoodwink usually lays more eggs, or removes those already laid.

Food.—Analysis of two stomachs reveals 80 per cent vegetable

food (pipe-cleaners and breakfast cereals”), but has been seen to pursue

and kill a male Nitwit. Also recorded, shoots and seeds of Lex non-

scripta, Copia verborum, Lapsus calami and Insania amabilis.

MecSporran considers that haggises are the pellets of the Hoodwink.

Distribution.—British Isles.—Sporadic: number of records depends

more on character of observer than on frequency of species. Miss

Fanny Pine-Grosbeak (Chorlton-cum-Hardy) has more than 322

records. Miss Euphemia Wryneck accurately refers to the status of

the Hoodwink in Birmingham as ‘pretty casual.’ Interesting popula-

tion studies of the Hoodwink have been made, using ‘transects’ taken

from railway trains and nocturnal counts from lighthouses (Goosander

and Smew. Zeitschrift fiir muittelrutlandische Ornithologie, Vol.

CCLI).

Migrations.—Apparently aimless movements. British Hoodwinks

move in a rough circle involving Fair Isle, the Isle of May, Holy Island,

Spurn Point, Cley-next-the-Sea (Norfolk), the Norfolk Broads, Romney

———

A form of distraction display also recorded among university students.

McSporran considers breakfast cereals to be mineral.

560 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Marsh, the London Reservoirs, the Severn Estuary, Skokholm and

the breeding quarters of the Kite (a Welsh village called id Uiees

occasional trips to the Camargue.

Distribution abroad.—Almost ‘ubiquitous; coinciding remarkably

with the distribution of the Fervent Ornithoscoper Ornithoscopa per-

fervens, on which it is partially parasitic.

Description.—Little known, although in the opinion of Elliott (im

oratione vecta) is not infrequent in museum collections, many skins

becoming ‘hoodwinked.’ Brown speculum characteristic. of third

year female, though this is often obscured. General plumage, buflish

fawn shading to fawnish buff. Soft parts (i.e. hard parts): fawnish

horn shading to hornish fawn.

Characters and allied forms.—Immediately recognizable by the fact

that the true basipterygoid processes are absent, but more anteriorly

the basisphenoid rostrum bears a pair of facets projecting only slightly

beyond its general surface, the so-called secondary basipterygoid pro-

cesses, with which the anterior ends of the pterygoids articulate.

Represented in Arctic snowstorms by D.s. spurissima (the so-called

Pomatorhine Hoodwink), characterised by its more woolly appearance.

D.s. sarah-janae (O.Hebrides), D.s. mrs-jonesae (Mull) and D.s.

gretae-garbo (Clerkenwell) are doubtfully separable’. Bones of

a Closely related genus, Palaeodissimulatrix, have been found in

kitchen middens.

15, Ox LANE,

HARPENDEN, HErTs, M. F. A. MEIKLEJOHN

ENGLAND j

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Nuteracker, Maj-Gen. S. B.: ‘In Darkest Corstorphine, or Hew I Shot the

Hoodwink,’ 1873. ;

A Lady of Quality: ‘Pongo, My Hoodwink,’ 1884.

De Pipi-Rousseline: ‘La Vie Passionnelle du Houdvinque,’ 1902.

Professor Rohrdrommel: ‘Hudwinckismus und seine V6geltafielnverhaltnisse,”

1912.

Millicent Stonechat, B.Sc.: ‘Individual Distance of the Hoodwink Dissimulatrix

spuria and its apparent breakdown in the breeding season,’ 1950.

(Reprinted from ‘Birp Notes’, Vol. xxiv (8), 1950 with the kind permission

of the editor and the author.)

18. \(PFHE (RECORD. 'RUSSELL’S VIPER [VIPERA RUSSELL

(SHAW)]

Up to the present date the largest recorded Russell’s Viper

measured 5 ft. 6 inches. That specimen was killed at Cuddalore,

North Arcot, in 1894—(Journal, Vol. VIII No. 4. p. 565.) and was

mentioned by Wall at page 3 of Vol. XVIII No. 2 as the largest

record known to him.

1 This has not prevented the author of these names, in a laudable desire to

immortalize various respectable females, from attempting to separate them until

they have become extinct. This process has been termed ‘going into a cline.’

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 56 L

The Russell’s Viper shown in the accompanying photograph' was.

killed on 20th September 1948 on the Attikunna Estate, Nilgiris..

elevation 3,200 ft. It was measured by W. T. Broadhurst to be

6 ft. and 4 an inch long, and the pole held by one of the men in the

photograph was cut to the exact length of the snake. This photo-

graph and the particulars concerning it are given to me by Mr.

W. T. Broadhurst of the Jessie Estate, Malabar.

BANGALORE, Re We BUR LON,

2nd June, 1950. Lt.-Col. t.a. (Retd.)

19. A DHAMAN OR RAT-SNAKE [PTYAS MUCOSUS

(LINN.)] JUMPING

On our way to the Caves on 25th June (Kanheri National Park)

we startled a 6 ft. Dhaman which climbed up an adjacent bamboo,

and laid itself on a horizontal branch at a height of about 18 ft. from

the ground.

The snake was watched in this position for about to minutes

while it lay motionless. A stone was then flung at it and this resulted

in the snake jumping from. its position on to the ground where it

landed with a heavy thud and disappeared into a bush.

114, ‘APOLLO STREET,

BomBay, V. Ki GHAR

2oth July,1950. Asst. Curator

(This is interesting and, if a common habit, may possibly provide

the core of the frequent stories one hears in India about ‘flying’

snakes.—Ebs. |

20. THE RECORD HAMADRYAD OR KING COBRA [NAJA

HANNAH (CANTOR)| AND LENGTHS & WEIGHTS

OF -LARGE SPECIMENS

In his authoritative article on the Hamadryad in the Society’s.

Journal, (Vol. xxx. pp. 189-195) Colonel F. Wall gave the length of

the largest authentic specimen known to him as 15 ft. 5 inches.

In his contribution ‘Early Days in Malaya’, (Vol. 38, p. 257) the

late Mr. H. E. Burgess mentioned a specimen 16 ft. 54 inches long.

A letter published in The Field of 23rd October 1948 Mr. C. A.

Gibson-Hill of the Raffles Museum, Singapore, records a specimen

taken alive near Fort Dickson, Negri Sembilan, which was kept in

captivity for some time by Mr. J. Leonard of Ruthken Estate and

later sent to the London Zoo, where it died. It measured at death

mai ft. 2: inches.

1 The photo is not clear enough for reproduction. Eps,

562 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

A recent enquiry to Singapore found Mr. Gibson-Hillh away on

leave, but a letter from the Museum Director informs me that the

Aagaard’s Nakon Sritamarat Mountains (Peninsular Siam) specimen

of 18 ft. 4 inches, which is quoted by Malcolm Smith (Fauna of British

India, Serpentes, 1943, p. 438.) may be accepted as the world’s

record for the Hamadryad.

The Director’s letter mentions that quite recently a big hamadryad

was killed on Singapore Island and brought to the Museum. It was

r5 ft. 7 inches long and weighted 26} Ibs. It was very. ‘Stott, ‘se

contrasts remarkably with Ditmar’s (‘Snakes of the World’) record

of 16 lbs. for a specimen of 15 ft., which, however, had been in

captivity. That would account for the contrast in weight. <A plaster

mould has been made of this recent Singapore specimen.

BANGALORE, R. W. BURTON,

Ist August, 1950. Lt.-Col, 1.4. (Retd:)

21. BREEDING OF THE GOURAMI ,[ OSPHRONEMUS

GORAMY (LACEPEDE)] IN INDIAN RIVERS!

The Gourami is considered to be one of the best freshwater table-

fish in the world. It is extensively .cultured in Java and the other

islands in the Malay Archipelago, from where it has been taken to

Europe, Australia, Philippines and Ceylon. It was first imported to

Madras from Mauritius in 1866 by Dr. Francis Day, and cultivated

in the Government House ponds at Guindy and Madras and also

stocked in the waters in and around Madras City. But as most of the

stock was depleted by 1915, a fresh consignment was brought from

Java by Mr. H. C. Wilson in 1916. The fish is now largely culti-

vated in the Government fish farms; and breeders and young ones are

being distributed to pond-owners in the province. The fish has also

been supplied to other States like Baroda, Bengal, Cochin, Hyderabad,

Mysore, Punjab, Rajputana and Travancore, where it is reported to

be thriving well.

The bionomics and cultural value of Gourami under Indian con-

ditions have been observed by several workers like Raj*®,’°, Jones’,

Kuikarni’,§, Amirthalingam!, Bhimachar et al?, Spurgeon!?,’* and

Chacko and Venkatraman*®. Attempts made by the Madras Fisheries

Department since 2nd April 1940 by stocking 1ro6 fingerlings in the

Mettur Reservoir have succeeded in acclimatising the fish in the

Cauvery river system. The fish is now fairly common in the thirty

mile stretch of the river between Mettur and Bhavani, breeding in

selected pools having macrophytic vegetation. It is also often

captured and sold in markets by the local fishermen. Though Gourami

inhabits the rivers of other inter-tropical countries, as reported by

Willey’®, Weber and Beaufort'*, Jordan*®, Herre and Myers? and

Smith'’, this is the first instance of successful establishment of the

* Communicated with the kind permission of the Director of Fisheries, Madras.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES otk | 563

fish in a river in India; and augurs well for the addition of. this

valuable exotic species to our fluvial fisheries. The Tungabhadra

river has recently been stocked with Gourami; and its growth 1s

being watched with interest.

FRESHWATER BIOLOGICAL STATION,

Kitpauk, Mapras, POA CHACK®@

February 1950. AOR Ke ZOBATRI

REFERENCES

1 Amirthlingam (1940): J. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., 41: 436,

* Bhimachar, B. S., David, A. and Muniappa, B., (1944): Proc. Indian Acad.

Sct.,,.20:: 88.

Chacko, P. I.. and Venkatraman, R. S. (1948): Proc. 34th Indian Sci.

Cong. 3: 180.

= Merce, A: W:G.t.” and Myers; G. S: (1987): Bull. Raff. Mus. . Singapore.,

13: 71.

* Jones, S. (1936): J. Bom. Nat... Hist... Soc.,..40.; 766.

® Jordan, D. S. (1925): Fishes, New York.

7 Kulkarni, C. V. (1943): ibid., 44: 233.

® Kulkarni, C. V. (1946): Indian Farming., 7: 565.

* Raj; B: 5. (1916): Rec. Indian. Mus., 12: 279.

v0 — — — (1939): Mad. Fish. Ser. Bull., 3.

iP, Smeets OL (945) >» Bull. UO. Ss Nat. Mas.,-188 « 461

12 Spurgeon, V. D. (1945): Curr. Sct., 14: 381.

18 — ,— — (1948): ibid., 17: 28.

* Weber, M., and Beaufort, L. F. (1923): Fish Indo-Australian Archipelago,

4: 344.

> Walleye JI (1911) :, SpolinZeéyl.s) iT 0395:

22. FISH AND BAROMETRIC PRESSURE

Mr. E. P. Gee’s note: on the response of fish to atmospheric con-

ditions reminds me of an incident that left us puzzled and surprised

and to which there appeared to be no reasonable explanation. I am

sorry that I have not retained any notes and this is from memory.

We were in a boat at the north end of Powai Lake near Bombay,

looking for birds’ nests during the monsoon (probably August). When

at the entrance of a small weedy lagoon it drizzled slightly and almost

immediately a number of big fish started ‘turning over’ all around us

showing only the dorsal fin above the surface of the water, rather

like dolphins. In a few minutes, the drizzle stopped and with it the

fish. A little later, there were two short drizzles both with the same

effect. The rain appeared to ‘switch on’ these fish which were almost

certainly Rohu [Labeo rohita (Ham.)|

Rohu fry were introduced into Powai in the middle thirties by the

late Mr. H. B. Hayes and last year members of the Angling Ciub

caught, along with other fish, 268 Rohu totalling 3,592 lbs. (average

13.4 lbs.), largest 35 lbs.

Faiz & Co.,

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, HUMAYUN ABDULALL

BomBAyY-3.

564 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

23. NOTE ON AN ABNORMAL SPECIMEN OF THE

MURREL, OPHICEPHALUS STRIATUS BLOCH'.

(With a text figure)

While netting one of the ponds in the Chetput Fish Farm, Madras,

on 7th August, 1947, an abnormal specimen of Murrel, Ophicephalus

striatus Bloch., with a curiously deformed upper jaw, was obtained

Abnormal specimen of the murrel, Ophicephalus striatus ca. 34; natural size.

Slightly diagrammatic; scales not shown.

in the catch. Since existing literature on structural abnormalities

in the murrels does not appear to have recorded such a feature, a

brief description of it is given below:

The body dimensions detailed below will convey an idea of the

anatomic proportions of the abnormal specimen.

Total length from tip of lower jaw to tip of tail ... peo ey sodas

Length from anterior margin of head to tip of tail ... 184 mm.

Length from hind margin of orbit to hind end of head =o. * OO aman,

Length from hind end of head to tip of lower jaw see deanna:

Diameter of the eye ae ae at 9°5 mm.

Width of interorbital space... a 2hO saat,

Height of head (floor of mouth to dorsal aspect of head) a. gallo mine

Distance between tip of lower jaw and the angle of the

jaws wt oS nis

Vertical range in “which the mouth could be opened si 4—5 min.

The upper jaw, immediately in front of the level of the eyes, is

smoothly truncated and directed vertically downwards to the floor of

the mouth to a point almost midway between the angle of the jaws

and the tip of the lower jaw. Consequently the lower jaw projects

prominently forwards (text fig.). Even if forcibly stretched for-

wards the tip of the upper jaw would not reach that of the lower.

The eyes are situated at the anterior margin of the head, with the

nostrils close to the inner margin of each orbit. The lower jaw is

provided with several teeth—small near the anterior margin and two

long pointed ones on each side. The tongue on the floor of the lower

jaw is fully exposed. The effective vertical range of movement of

the jaws is limited to 4-5 mm.

The general condition of the fish was observed to be poor and it

was infested with lernaeid parasites.

ee ee te)

1 Published with the kind permission of the Chief Research Officer, Central

Inland Fisheries Research Station, Barrackpore.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 565.

While the angle of the jaws extends behind the levei of the eyes

as in the normal specimens, the limited gape of the mouth hampers

normal feeding and is mainly responsible for the poor condition of

the fish. At the time of netting, the stock of murrels in the pond

was only 10 months old and the normal specimens averaged 12 inches.

in length and about 7 ounzes in weight. The specimen under dis-

cussion, though presumably of the same age, was only less than =%

the normal length. The difference in the rate of growth in the same

environment, in this particular instance, is attributable to the abnor-

mal condition of the mouth which is an obvious handicap in feeding.

A thorough examination of the mouth parts shows that the

abnormality of the upper jaw is not the result of any injury sustained

during the late larval life, but is probably due to some abnormal

strain that prevailed upon the developing embryo or the early

hatchling. It is interesting that despite the handicap in feeding, the

specimen survived in the natural pond for about 10 months, amidst

its cannibalistic brethren.

In this connection it may be mentioned that the writer observed

certain dwarf specimens consisting about 30% of a brood of

Ophicephalus punctatus Bloch, coliected from the Chetput Fish Farm,

in 1946. The length of the dwarf specimen was only about half that.

of the normal fry. The head portion was of normal dimensions,

while the trunk was very much abbreviated. Alizarin preparations

showed the dwarf specimens also having the same number of vertebrae

as the normal fry, but the vertebral centra were very thin. Except

for size the dwarf specimens were quite normal and were feeding

along with the rest of the brood when they were collected. The

causes which might have led to the development of such considerable

percentage of abnormal specimens in the particular brood are not

clear.

The specimen with the abnormal snout has been preserved in the

museum of the Freshwater Biological Research Station, Government

Fisheries, Madras. The writer is indebted to Dr. T. J. Job for his.

valuable suggestions in the preparation of this note.

CENTRAL INLAND FISHERIES RESEARCH STATION,

BARRACKPORE, K. H. ALIKUNH!

15th June, 1950.

24. OCCURRENCE OF THE FISH DANIO AEQUIPINNATUS

(McCLELLAND) IN NELA BILAM—AN UNDERGROUND

CAVERN IN KURNOOL DISTRICT, SOUTH INDIA

In view of the public interest aroused by an article on ‘Nature’s

Work of Art Underground’ by R. K. Golikere published in the Sunday

News of India dated March 27, 1949, I visited Nela Bilam (Telugu for

‘underground cave’) in the Kurnool District, South India, on behalf

of the Society on 7th October 1949.

566 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCTEL YS | Vol 49

The cavern is in the premises of a Siva temple, now in partial ruin,

situated in semi-desert country strewn with scrubby vegetation and

surrounded by small hillocks all round. The chasm is 200 feet in

length and 50 feet in depth in sandstone and limestone. A flight of

203 steps leads to the pool at the bottom, 4 feet in diameter, and

3 feet deep, with a sandy bed and containing clear but slightly brackish

water. A stream flows gently into the pool from a northerly direction

and continues its course southwards through another hole. There

is complete darkness except for a few feet from the entrance. Water

is constantly trickling all over the entire cavern forming’ stalactites

containing calcium carbonate—chalk-—and quartz.

In the pool I found large numbers of the fish Danio aequipinnatus

(McClelland) which is not mentioned in the ‘Freshwater Fishes of

Madras’ published by B. Sundara Raj in the Records of the Indian

Museum, 12: 249 (1916).

Day’s Fauna of British India—Fishes—Vol. I, p. 356 (1889)

includes the Deccan in the distribution of this fish. Local enquiries

indicate that the water is perennial and though in summer its level

goes down, the fish are always present.

In spite of these conditions of life the fish appeared to be quite

normal regarding structure and colour. ‘There was no trace of any

vegetation in the pool.

114, APOLLO STREET,

BomBay, Vv. K; CHART,

24th August, 1950. Asst. Curator.

25... WHERE DO BUITEREEIES GO;

In sub-tropical regions such as the plains of Assam where there

is rarely, if ever, a true hibernating phase in a butterfly’s life history,

there yet seems to be a period in the year when a common species

becomes rare in its usual haunts. The problem of what has happened

to them during this period first began to interest me in connection

with the various species of Lycaenopsis, common here in the cold

weather, but of great rarity during the rains.

My collecting territory is the thick evergreen forest and adjacent

tea gardens at the foot of the Naga Hills in the Sibsagar District of

Upper Assam. Here, though the cold weather (approximately

December-February) is well marked, it is not sufficient to prevent the

continuous brooded species from hatching out; and an equally im-

portant. climatic factor is probably the excessive eramadity of the rainy

months May-October.

The easiest group to assess is that of the cold weather migrants,

the two principal ones being Pieris brassicae and P. napi. These are

both mountain species, P. napi occurring only as an occasional winter

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 567

visitor, but brassicae coming down in numbers to wreak havoc

amongst the cabbages and nasturtiums. With the advent of the

humid weather the pupae of the latter species rot, even if kept in an

airy room and out of direct contact with the rain. Another possible

migrant from the hills is Vanessa canace: an occasional specimen may

be taken here at any season, but it is said to be delicate in the pupa

stage and I am doubtful if it can maintain itself down here. Pieris

canidia, common during the cold weather, becomes rare during the

rains, but this is probably connected with the plentiful supply of

Brassicae during the former season, while in the rains its only food-

plant appears to be a somewhat uncommon little cruciferous plant

growing in the sheltered rain water drains around the bungalow, so

that it becomes dependant for its livelihood upon the poor sight of

the sweeper. Another migrant is Lampides boeticus, which, after

being exceedingly plentiful amongst the leguminous green crop during

the cold weather, becomes an extreme rarity during the rains.

Jamides kankena and J. alecto are common along jungle paths

from December onwards, but kankena I had till recently considered

a rarity in its W.S.F. Recent experience has shown me, however,

that at this season it shuns the open paths and keeps, together with

alecto, to the dense shade of bamboo jungle, this being true of both

sexes. The genus Lycaenopsis presents a more difficult problem.

Puspa and cardia are common, and transpecta (QQ only and

lavendularis occur sparingly, from December to June, but after that

month the only Lycaenopsis I have met is an.occasional puspa. I

suspect this may represent a seasonal replenishment from the hills,

but doubt if the same holds good for Jamides bochus which is one of

the commonest Lycaenids from December to June, and then disappears

almost as completely as Lycaenopsis cardia. It is more likely that

this species (bochus) can maintain itself, but only with difficulty, in

the plains during the rains.

The reverse problem, of those species common during the summer

and rare during the winter, is easier, since one can always postulate

a ‘partial emergence’ such as is common in temperate climates. Of

these the most striking examples are afforded by Nacaduba nora and

N. dubiosa which occur together in myriads from June to September,

but become real rarities during the cold months.

Two common species which are erratic in their occurrence are

Spalgis epius and Gangara thyrsis. S. epius, because it is at a

pastoral and nomadic level, must presumably follow its herds. In

June it is plentiful in a certain section of tea, from which it com-

pletely disappears to come and act as Aphis destroyer in my com-

pound when the pest is at its worst on the Citrus bushes. The last

brood of the year occurs in neither of these localities, but is plentiful

in a very limited area of secondary jungle. G. thyrsis has its food-

plants in my compound, and is abundant in any stage from ovum to

imago, at most times of the year. This species appears to be continu-

ous brooded, yet seems to disappear from March to June, leaving no

trace of any stage of its life history. Where has it gone, and why?

Climate can have little bearing on this problem, and its foodplants

at that season appear to the human eye no different.

568 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY a). 49

Of direct bearing on the title of this article are two recent experi-

ences. Any sunny day in July and August 1949 I could stand in a

certain section of tea and watch the rare Amblypodia camdeo flying

by. They were passing in either direction at the rate of not less than

one a minute, 3 or 4 frequently being in sight at a time. All specimens

caught were ¢ ¢ and their line of flight was so regular that barring

a few stragglers their path over the tea was a lane 10 yards wide.

Not infrequently specimens alighted on tea bushes and sat with closed

wings until disturbed, but the greater number disappeared into the

distance in either direction. I was never able to find either their

source or their destination, but the two-way trathc was particularly

unusual and intriguing. My guess is that the destination may have

been some particularly attractive nectar producing plant, but if so,

why the definite trafic lane and how did they form up in it at the

beginning? I was able to observe this occurrence frequently for

several weeks. This year I have so far (mid July) only seen one

specimen, but still flying along the same traffic lane. I had a some-

what similar experience in May at 5,500 feet in the Naga Hills. <A

stream of Appias nero, both sexes and one or two at a time, was

flying across the compound of the Inspection Bungalow at Jhakama.

On this occasion the traffic lane was about 100 yards wide and nearly

all the insects were going in the same direction, but once again the

striking fact was that all the insects of a particular species in the

one neighbourhood had chosen a particular line of flight. Lower down,

at about 4,500 feet, A. nero was extremely plentiful, flying fast

in all directions, but appearing to be making straight for certain nectar

laden creepers. One might surmise that at the higher level also the

insects were flying from their breeding grounds to a particularly

attractive source of nectar.

Without touching on rare species—-who would not like to know

where these go?—it is interesting to speculate where the females

(or in the case of Lethe satyavati, the males) hide themselves. In

this connection one thinks immediately of the genera Charaxes and

Eriboea, whose females are apparently the greatest rarities, and whose

males are relatively common. If the sexes were equally common one

would at least expect to see the ‘rare’ sex, even if inaccessibly at the

top. of a tree, but this’ 1s\'not the general”expertence. “And yet “fam

doubtful if there is likely to be any discrepancy in the sexes at emer-

gence, even in species were one sex is more commonly seen than the

other. ‘A possible answer is that the females are attending to their

maternal duties round a few unwholesome looking (to human eyes)

foodplants in the depths of the jungle—a habit well known in, for

instance, the only British species of Limenitis.

Note: Nomenclature taken from the 2nd edition of Brigadier

Evans’s ‘Identification of Indian Butterflies’.

SELENG Dak...

SELENG Hart P.O.,

Upper Assam, T. NORMAN

25th July, 1950. ‘wee

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES | 569

26. THE EARLY STAGES OF LYCAENOPSIS HUEGELIP

De Nicéville has described the early stages of the closely allied

L. argiolus, but I can find no description in the literature of the early

stages of huegelii. This butterfly occurs in great numbers on the

Khasi plateau at around 6,000 ft. At the beginning of September

all stages, from ovum to imago, abound; and I have found all stages

again at the beginning of March, though in much smaller numbers.

The foodplant is Prinsepia utilis (Rosaceae)*, and I watched females

ovipositing on this in bright sunshine at midday in early September.

Though much time is spent in selecting a suitable site for each ovum,

the final result on numerous bushes was the same, the ova being placed

indiscriminately on the stems and on both surfaces of the leaves, no

attempt being made to place them on growing points or at the base

of stems and bracts as is the habit with many of the Lycaenidae.

The ovum is small for the size of the insect, and dirty white in colour,

not appearing to undergo any colour changes with age. It is of the

usual Lycaenid disc shape, with conspicuous micropyle.

The larva, which is not attended by ants at any stage, measures

12 x 4 mm. when fully fed, being broadest anteriorly. The head is

shiny black and retractile. The ground colour is variable, usually

light apple green with a pale longitudinal streak on either side of the

mid-line, and a faint yellow iateral stripe. It is completely clothed

with short downy hair. Only the under cuticle of the leaf is eaten,

the ravages of the larvae being such that some bushes appear to be

entirely covered with skeleton leaves.

The pupa is attached most insecurely by a girdle to the under side

of a leaf of the food plant. It is 9g mm. long, and the thorax and

abdomen are covered with downy hair. Most specimens become a

fairly dark brown, being lighter on the abdomen, which has a vari-

able series of dark spots. There are two dark spots ventrally at

the junction of thorax and abdomen.

No parasites were obtained from a dozen pupae, and I saw no

hymenoptera parasitica about the bushes.

SELENG) les

SELENG Har P.O. 7 ,

Upper ASSAM, T. NORMAN

wih june, 1950.

fin the Journal Vol. 40, pp. 134-135, A. E. Jones has’ a note on

the differences between Lycaenopsis huegeli huegelit and Lycaenopsis

ladonides gigas accompanied by photographs.—Eps. |

27. BROWNISH-YELLOW FORMS OF PAPILIO DEMOLEUS L.

The foot-note to Mr. Menesse’s remark on this subject in his paper

on the Butterflies of Sind (1950, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xlix,

21) is very far from complete.

*-H21, 22 in Evans’s ‘Identification of Indian Butterflies’ (2nd edn.). Pre-

sumably subspecies oreana Swin.

* I am indebted to Mr. F. Kingdon Ward for the identification of this plant.

570 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Apart from the fact that I consider the use of the term ‘fade’ an

incorrect description of the change from pale yellow to dingy brown,

the change is a definite chemical one in the constitution of the pigment

and is caused by a combination of heat and humidity. It occurs not

only in P. demoleus but also in the closely allied African Papilio

demodocus Esp. and in other species with the same pale yellow pig-

ment. The change can take place in cabinet specimens as well as in

living insects.

Cockayne (1924, Trans. ent. Soc. Lond., 6) records that whilst

the unchanged yellow pigment fluoresces with a brilliant blue-green

colour, the brown pigment into which it is converted is non-fluorescent.

KAMPALA, D.°G. SEVASTOPULO,

29th. June, 1950. IDR

28... NEASON AL, HORMS4 OR CA TOPS etal aS re

Whilst Mr. Wynter-Blyth’s foot-note to Mr. Menesse’s paper

on the Butterflies of Sind (1950, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist, Soc., xlix,

21) correctly records the modern theory that pyranthe L. and florella

F. are merely seasonal forms of one species, it does not mention the

even longer held belief that crocale Cr. and pomona F. are again only

the seasonal forms of one another.

To me, in neither case, does the explanation of mere seasonal vari-

ation appeal, and I would like to put forward the following slightly

more complicated hypothesis.

Genetical work in England on Panaxia dominula L. (Arctiidae) and

Rhodometra sacraria L. (Geometridae) has domonstrated the existence

of genes that only reveal themselves when the early stages are passed

at certain temperatures. If the critical temperature is not experienced

the gene, even if homozygous, produces no effect and the imago appears

to be normal. I would like to suggest that the differences that separate

crocale from pomona and pyranthe from florella are due to a gene,

or more possibly a combination of genes, that only shew themselves

when the early stages have been passed under certain conditions of

temperature and humidity. Experimental proof of this hypothesis

would come from rearing part broods of known parentage under

different conditions of temperature and humidity.

Some support for this hypothesis seems to be afforded by the fact

that C. florella occurs in Africa and, in spite of the very pronounced

seasonal dimorphism exhibited by many species of butterfly, does not

itself so vary, the form being akin to that considered dry-season in

India. In Africa, incidentally, apart from other differences from the

Indian form, the female is dimorphic, there being a yellow female form,

with a deep yellow underside, in addition to the usual whity-green,

male-like female.

KAMPALA, D. G. SEVASTOPULO,

29th June, 1950. . Iaiitohat ale tees Se

—_—_—_____—_—

MISCELLANEOUS -NOTES 571

29. FOOD-PLANT OF DELIAS EUCHARIS DRURY

The food-plant of the whole genus Delias is generally considered to be

Loranthus spp. and I was surprised to read Mr. Harman’s record of

pummaloe (Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., 49: 94, 1950). Can Mr.

Harman actually confirm that the larvae fed on the foliage of the

pummaloe and not on that of a Loranthus parasitic thereon?

Also what is ‘ohangi’?

KAMPALA, Db. G. SEVASTOPRULG.

29th June, 1950. F.R.E.S.

{| This letter was sent to Mr. A. C. Harman for confirmation and

he replies as follows :—

‘‘T can confirm that I found the larvae of Delias eucharis

feeding on pummaloe [Citrus grandis| and also found eggs laid on

the pummaloe leaves. I was much surprised as I have only known

the larvae to feed on Loranthus parasite previously.

This incident occurred only during my last year in India, in Behar,

so'I do not know if it were a habit and doubt it!

“Ohangi’ is a misprint for “‘bhangi’ which is the local vernacular

name for Loranthus.’—Ebs. |

30. OCCURRENCE OF THE FAIRY SHRIMP, APUS, IN A

TEMPLE TANK IN TIRUNELVELI DISTRICT, MADRAS

One specimen of the phyllopodan entomostracan, Apus, was collected

from the Nagasunni Tempie Tank at Sankaranainarkoil, Tirunelveli

District, during one of my fishery investigations in April 1949. Dr.

S. L. Hora, Director, Zoological Survey of India, to whom the speci-

men was sent, has sent the remarks of Mr. K. K. Tiwari, carcinologist

in the Survey, to the effect that ‘the specimen of Apus does not appear

to belong to any of the (known) species but since there is only a

single specimen, and the genus shows sufiicient variability, it is not

possibile to be sure of its identity, unless more material is available.’

M. K. K. Tiwari has examined the material of Apus in the collection

of the Zoological Survey of India and is now definitely of the opinion

that it is related to A. sudanicus Brauer, though perhaps not quite

identical with it. Further efforts made by me to obtain more speci-

mens were unsuccessful.

The occurrence of Apus in the plains of India under tropical

conditions is very rare. So far it has not been recorded from South

India, and the only previous records of this genus in India, known to

me, are from Kashmir, Bulandshahar (U.P.) Panchgani, and Gujerat.

Its occurrence in South India is, therefore, interesting and completely

confirms to the general view about the erratic distribution of this

genus.

FRESHWATER BIOLOGICAL STATION,

Kai_paAuk, Mapras. P>. lo (CHACKS

t1th September, 1950

572 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

31. A FOUR-WINGED SAMARA IN THE INDIAN ELM

HOLOPTELEA INTEGRIFOLIA PLANCH.

(With a photo)

Holoptelea integrifolia Planch. is a common deciduous tree

which sheds its leaves in January-February, when the _ tree

presents an unique appearance with its flat green samaroid fruits

which may be mistaken for leaves. The ovary is composed of one

or two carpels, usually unilocular containing a single seed. The fruit

is a thin, compressed, obscurely rounded membranous body, surround-

ed by the wing which is really the expansion of the pericarp, the seed

being contained in the central portion ‘fig. 1). A case was noticed

where, in addition to the normal ovate wing there were two perpendi-

cular wings, these being similar to the normal ones though smaller

in size. Three wings can be seen in a view, one being hidden. (fig.

2). In the seed-containing portion of the fruit a smaller seed was

found in addition to the usual one. Four stylar branches were noticed

in the place of the normal two. Proper explanation for this ab-

normality will be that in this particular fruit both the carpels and the

locules have developed and hence the two additional wings, two seeds

and four stylar branches. Jivanna Rao {Madras Agrl. Journ., June

1930) has recorded functioning stomata in the wing-like portion and

the same were observed in the accessory wings also.

BoTany SEcTION, AGRICULTURAL eae. |

COLLEGE & RESEARCH INSTITUTE, S. N. CHANDRASEKHARAN

COIMBATORE. J. SAKHARAM RAO

13th July," 1950:

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 573

320 TWO INTERESTING ABNORMALITIES IN- THE

COMMON INDIAN CORN, ZEA MAYS LINN.

(With three text figures)

Variability is of Common occurrence among cultivated plants. In

a number of cases, the variations are clearly of the ‘congenital’ type.

Their causes cannot be traced in all cases definitely and one has to

remain satisfied with the oft-repeated inference that such variations

are due to the ‘inherent tendency of organisms to vary’.

The author of this note in 1934 described an abnormal type of the

‘Insertion of the leaves and the head in Helianthus annuus Linn,’

which has long been under cultivation. Closely related phenomena

have been recently observed in the commonly cultivated plant Zea mays

Linn., and it is hoped that they too may prove interesting to students

of plant life in general and of plant-teratology in particular.

1. In a fruiting specimen collected recently from the fields, the

female inflorescence, the ear, was a branched one instead of the norma!

axiliary solitary type. The abnormal type (fig. 1) consists of an axis,

on which five nodes and four internodes are very distinctly seen, and

each of the four nodes below shows a sessile ear borne laterally; all

these ears are in the same plane and are thus distichous. The last

internode bears an ear (the largest of them all) at the apex (A); this

ear bears the immature flowers and has developed chlorophyll (oolysis).

The lateral ears, which are smaller than the terminal one, do not

show full development of all their fertile flowers. All the ears show

the terminal tuft of silky styles.

574 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

An abnormality of this type in which a normal inflorescence is

branched to repeat and thus increase the number of parts is clearly

a mutation and more particularly an instance of meristic variation.

It appears to come under the category of the abnormalities called

‘Mischomany’ (Ch. Morren).

2. In another specimen also collected locally, the axis bearing the

ear (fig. 2) has grown beyond the cob of the ear and bears the male

or staminate inflorescence; another similar abnormal ear (fig. 3) bears

at the base the male and the female spikelets side by side, reminding

one of the arrangement in the spike of the coconut-palm. This ab-

normality bears close resemblance to that described under ‘recrude-

SCENnce ’. |

BroLoGy DEPARTMENT, 5S. A. PARANDEKAR,

RAJARAM COLLEGE, KOLHAPUR. M.SC.

13th June, 1950.

33. SOME PHENOLOGICAL NOTES ON DILLENIA, INDICA

LINN.

While collecting flowers and fruits of Dillenia indica Linn., for the

past three years at the Government Botanic Gardens, Bangalore, for

embryological study, some interesting phenological observations were

made. ‘These are described below.

The genus Dillenia, a member of the Dilleniaceae, has a distribution

in tropical Asia of which four species are reported from south India

by Gamble. D. indica, a round-headed tree of some silvicultural im-

portance, has a short main stem from which arise a number of spread-

ing branches all round; these in turn bear large serrate leaves with

conspicuous parallel secondary veins.

By the middle of May the leaves begin to fall and by the end of the

same month the entire plant is leafless. Immediately afterwards, within

the course of a week {i.e., during the first week of June) the leaves

begin to appear and along with the young leaves the subterminal solitary

flower buds begin to develop. By the middle of June, the entire plant

becomes leafy and the flower buds grow in size gradually. A number

of old buds which were of a fairly large size on dissection showed that

antithesis had taken place. The anthers dehisce by apical pores and

when such anthers are shaken the pollen grains are shed through the

apical pores in the form of a fine yellow dust.

The drooping flowers usually open in the second week of July.

During blooming the quincuncially arranged sepals and the whitish

petals, which remain crumpled in the bud, open. The large number

of stamens and the radially arranged whitish stigmatic lobes of the

apocarpous pistil now become clearly visible. Continuous observation

for the past three years has shown that the flowers usually open in

the morning and are visited by a swarm of honey bees. By next morn-

ing the petals drop off and the five orbicular sepals enclose the

essential organs. In some flowers which opened in the morning, ail

the petals dropped off the same evening. By the end of July a number

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 575

of fruits are developed. The fruit is a pseudocarp and it actually

comprises of the mature indehiscent fleshy carpels enveloped by the

thickened fibrous sepals. In the mature fruit, each carpel encloses a

number of seeds embedded in a glutinous substance, which is probably

secreted by the hairs developed along the margins of the compressed

seeds.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,

CENTRAL COLLEGE, K. SUBRAMANYAM

BANGALORE I,

ara. August, 1950.

BA FURTHER REMARKS ON THE FLOWERING OF

STROBILANTHES

In continuation of my note in this journal (49: 318, Aug. 1950),

I have gathered some more data on this intriguing problem and have

formed some idea of the mechanism controlling the general flowering

of this plant.

During the first week of September of this year I once more ex-

amined Bhoma Hili in Khandala for signs of a general flowering, which

I was expecting after the partial flowering mentioned in my previous

note. After a whole day’s search I did find exactly 22 plants showing

buds or flowers.

Blooming plants were all at the edges of dense clumps of Karvi,

or occasionally standing by themselves on grass slopes. By compar-

ing plants that were in bud or flower with those in the vegetative

stage, it was noticeable that the former plants had the appearance of

being sickly, half-starved, and in general in a much poorer condition

than their neighbours; again, size of the plant did not seem to deter-

mine its condition with regard to flowering; some of the plants in

bloum had but 2 or 3 leaves, and were about 15-25 cms. high, the

‘colour of their leaves being rather yellowish by contrast with the

deep green of their neighbours. Another noticeable feature was that

with but two exceptions, plants in bloom were standing at the north

or north-west side of their clumps.

A possible explanation of the general flowering of these plants may

be that such flowering is induced either by starvation of water, or

alternatively by surfeit of carbohydrates that could not be got rid of

from the leaves. This point will demand my attention in my next

outing ; as plants advance in age, their xylem vessels may be blocked

by tyloses, in which case shortage of water would naturally follow ;

or their phloem tubes may be blocked, in which alternative the carbo-

hydrates produced by photosynthesis in the leaves would not be removed

to other parts of the plants; in either alternative the result would

eventually be the death of the plant in question. A comparative study

of the anatomy of these plants in various stages may solve this

problem.

After last year’s experience, mentioned in my previous note in this

journal, I had expected a general flowering for this year;: this has

be |

6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ‘HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

not come to be, and on the contrary the events noticed during the

general flowering o! 1942-1944 seem to be taking place again, in which

case a general flowering should be expected for next year. Some

time in the near future, I hope to gather sufficient data that may help

in the solution of this interesting problem.

ST. XAVIER’S COLLEGE,

Fort, BoMBAY 1. | H. SANTAPAU,

13th September, 1950. SJ.

35. TITHE FLOWERING OF STROBILAN PAGES

In response to your request about the mass flowering of Strobil-

anthes, I am sending the following facts which were mostly either

taken from, or checked by Mr. C. G. Webb-Peploe’s notes. Some

of the specimens about which we were in doubt have been identified

by Fr. H. Santapau, and others by Mr. H. K. Airy-Shaw, a friend of

one of the Fellowship, who is at the Kew Herbarium.

The specimens were all found in the hills (Western Ghats) which

are about 30 miles north of Cape Comorin.

1. S. neilgherrensis was in full flower to the north of the valley

in which our houses are situated in 1944, and to the south in 1946.

This is the Strobilanthes which forms the characteristic border of

the sholas found on the grassy uplands of these hills. Height about

5,000 ft.

2. S. anceps growing with the above was in full flower in 1946,

though there were plants in flower in 1944. Height about 5,000 ft.

3. S. anceps var. microstachyus, found in light evergreen forest,

particularly where Ochlandra sp. adjoins this forest, was in full flower

in 1946. Height about 5,v00 ft.

4. S. helicoides, found in light evergreen forest was in full flower in

1946. Height about 5,000 ft.

5. S. tristis, found within the sholas which are on the grassy up-

lands, was in full flower in 1946. ‘Height about 5,000 ft.

6. S. luridus, also found within the sholas was in full flower in 1946.

7. S. consanguineus found in light evergreen forest, flowers every

year. - Height 3,000 ft.-4,o00 ft.

In addition to these we have found Stenosiphonium parviflorum and

Stenosiphonium russelianum which have the same habit as Strobilanthes,

of flowering periodically and then dying back. S. parviflorum was in

full flower in 1947, and S. russellianum in 1945 with a secondary

flowering in 1946. Mr. Shaw of Kew suggests that this genus ‘seems

quite worthless’ and asks for further study in this line. I should value

your help as to how to do this. The plants are well grown, and may

flower in a few years’ time.

DOHNAVUR FELLOWSHIP,

DOHNAVUR, TINNEVELLY DISTRICT, (Miss) EVELYN BOWDEN

SoutuH INDIA.

28th April, 1950.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 577

36. A NOTE ON THE POLYSTACHOUS INFLORESCENCE

IN ENTEROPOGON MONOSTACHYOS K. SCHUM.

(With a text figure)

Enteropogon monostachyos K. Schum., (= E. melicoides Nees) is a

common grass found in almost all the districts except West Coast.

The spikes in this are mentioned as solitary by Hooker (1897) and as

IEE:

<—SS

Wi Y /

(Hg

\ 4 | H\

WH A ;

\ y) | if

NB RY y

NY ; 4 Wy

AY y Nit Hl\

A Mi i

: hy /

NY, Vay \y

‘VA yi Ke

Ne) WMD \\

aN (hy ' N

ANH NY N\A

NY Na Ny)

NY 4 \y

7 Nid ly

Ny) Vie n\;

NW! my) H\\;

N Ni) i.

Ni rn

Nn a

\4 wy iN

NY) Wy "4

S LW M

N y

I, 2, 3, & 5 spikes in Lateropogo: moncstachyos Schum.

solitary or twins by Fischer (1934) and Rangachari (1921).

(1935) observes the solitary nature of spikes in the genus. In a majority

of the cases the spike is solitary as the name suggests (monostachous

= arranged in one spike) and twins are not uncommon.

It was noticed in the old collections of the Madras Herbarium that

some of the specimens bore 3 and 5 spikes. In the case of two, both

the spikes start from the same place but as regards the 3 and 5 spikes

it was seen that two of them arise from the same point, the rest arising

lower down. The character of the accessory spikes was essentially

the same as the normal ones. The phenomenon is interesting inas-

much as the genus is placed in Chlorideae nearer the genera Cynodon

Pers., and Chloris Sw., which possess more than 3 or 4 spikes having

more or less the same characters as Enteropogon. The progeny tests

are conducted to observe whether the phenomenon is repeated. All

the specimens were collected by Sri S. Ramaswamy Raju in the Agri-

cultural College Estate on 19-7-1935 and these were found mounted

in the following sheets of the Madras Herbarium, Coimbatore.

2 spikes — M.H. No. 83068. C.

3 spikes — M.H. No. 83068. B.

5 spikes — M.H. No. 83068. A.

Blatter

8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HEIST: SOCIETY, Vor. 44

The authors extend their thanks to Mr. K. A. Ayyappa, B.sc., for

the drawings accompanying this note.

Botany SECTION,

AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE & S. N. CHANDRASEKHARAN

RESEARCH INSTITUTE, J. SAKHARAM RAO

COIMBATORE,

22nd August, 1950.

REFERENCES

1. Hooker: Flora of British India. Vol. VII. pp. 284. William Clowes. &

sons, l[td:,.. London.

2. Fisher: Flora of Madras Presidency. Vol. X. pp. 1834. Adlard. London.

3. Rangachari: South Indian Grasses. pp. 246-247. Govt. Press Pub.

4. Blatter: Bombay grasses. pp. 251—I.C.A.R. Publication.

37. GLEANINGS

Tap-dancing by Mouse-deer.

In Country Life dated 21 April 1950, p. 1115, in an article entitled

‘The Tap-Dancer of the Forest’ John E. Kempe refers to the mouse-

deer in Perak, Malaya, which is attracted to a small clearing in the

forest by a Malay forming a pad with six broad leaves and patting them

lightly with his fingers. A squirrel and fireback pheasant appeared in a

few minutes to investigate and after about ten minutes there was a

‘tappety tap’ answer to the noise and a mouse-deer stole into view.

‘‘Forelegs stiff and straight, hind feet drummed a fascinating roll on dry

leaves. Did Pandak (the Malay) change the rhythm, it was echoed,

tap for tap. ‘Tappety, tap, tap’, went the fingers; ‘tappety, tap, tap’,

beat the mouse-deer’s hoofs. Advancing slowly, it plucked a leaf,

we could see it chewed and deliberately swallowed, but the drumming

never ceased.’’ Coming within a few yards it could not apparently

discern the three men hidden behind a frail screen of leaves; then it

possibly caught their scent and in an instant with a flirt of the tail, it

vanished into the undergrowth. This is apparently a well-known

method of calling up this small deer.

The Age of Goats.

From ‘Lord Anson’s Voyage round the World—1740-1744’ by

Richard Walter, M.A., abridged and annotated by S. W. C. Pack (A

Penguin book).

‘The island of Juan Fernandes abounded with vast numbers of

goats... Alexander Selkirk who stayed. here between four and

five years, relates that as he often caught more goats than he wanted,

he sometimes marked their ears and let them go. This was about

thirty-two years before our arrival at the island. Now it happened

that the first goat that was killed by our peopie at their landing had

his ears slit, whence we concluded that he had doubtless been formerly

under the power of Selkirk. This was indeed an animal of a most

venerable aspect, dignified with an exceeding majestic beard, and with

many other symptoms of antiquity. During our stay on the island

we met with others marked in the same manner, all the males being

vat

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 579

distinguished by an exuberance of beard and every other characteristic

of extreme age’. (Alexander Selkirk is believed to be the origin of

Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe).

Major S. S. Fowler in his ‘Contribution to our knowledge of the

duration of life in vertebrate animals—mammals’ | Proceedings of the

Zoological Society, London (1931) p. 209] gives the average age of

domestic goats as 8 to ro years while an individual was known to live

Hoel, years.

Tall” Birds.

Foster D. Smith Jr., in ‘A Contribution to the Ornithology of North-

eastern Venezuela’ (Proceedings of the U.S, National Museum, 1950:

Pp. 443) writes of a Swallow-tailed Kite—Elanoides forficatus yetapa

(Vieillot) :

‘The present specimen was taken by firing the shotgun repeatedly

straight up in the air. As the spent wad reached its zenith the bird

dropped lower to inspect it, finally coming within range.’

Orientation in Migratory Birds.

Julian Huxley in ‘Birds and Science’ (a review of the roth Inter-

national Ornithological Congress), Country Life, 4th August 1950,

page 367: ,

‘‘In some ways the most original and exciting new work reported

at the Conference was that of Dr. Kramer of Welhelmshafen, who has

been studying the direction of flight during migration—on captive

birds! He discovered that during the migration period starlings kept

in a suitable cage would perch or flutter towards one particular direction

—that which they would have taken if they had been free. But, more

than that, by an ingenious arrangement of mirrors he proved that the

direction of the sun’s light determines the direction chosen. By mani-

pulating mirrors at a number of openings round the cage, he could

make birds which normally gathered towards the S.W., gather at the

opposite or N.E. side, or half-way round towards the N.W. Here

at last is a core of hard fact in the welter of speculations as to how

birds find their way, a known natural phenomenon instead of a mys-

terious ‘sense of direction’ or a hypothetical reliance on magnetism.”’

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR ENDING 31st DECEMBER 1949.

President

H.E. Raja Manarajy SINGH

Vice-Presidents

Maj.-Gen. Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, 1.M.s.

Mr. W. S. Millard, F.z.s.

Executive Committee

Sir, Chintaman. D. Deshmukh,>xKr.,. C3i.E3) 1.C-S.

Mr. M. J. Dickins

Mr. M. J. Hackney

Mr. R. E. Hawkins

Mr. Fi. Bt Hayes

irs IPS OM, lead aces;

Reva@r. ch: Sanvapau, -'s-i- Bombay

Dr. 5. B.. Seta, ph.p.

Mayj.-Gen. Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, I.M.S.

Mr. Salim Ali u S tae

Mr. Humayun Abdulali ( one ol aes)

Mr. J. 1."Alfrey (Hon. Treasurer)

Advisory Committee

Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, 1.4, (Retd.) . Bangalore

Dr." BaiN. Chepra; D:se: New Delhi

Rev, Fr. Dr. J. B. Freeman, M.A., L-T., Ph.v., D.D. Mysore

Dr S.. L Fora, sp:se. | ... Calcutta

Mr. C. M. Inglis, B.E.M.B.0.U., | F.Z.S. ... Darjeeling

Col, R. CL. Merris, FR:Gss.,2F-24S5 Attikan

Dee Se Wk Mukerjee, D.SC; ~ ... Calcutta

Lt.-Col. E. G. Prukesouy area OsBtE a P.ZS., 1A.

(Retd.) a ..« Nilgiris

Dr. Baini Prashad, D.SC. «+s New Delhi

Staff

Mr. IN. G..4Pillai; a3-a. . Curator

Mr: VK. Chari, BA. 1:7.

a Asst. Curator

PROCEEDINGS AND. ACCOUNTS, 1949 581

List of members of the Executive and Advisory Committees elected

for the year 1950.

Vice-Presidents

Maj.-Gen. Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, I.M.s.

Mr: °W.'S: (Millard, ¥F.z.s.

Executive Committee

Mir je. br. Altrey i ee ae

Sir Chintaman D. Deshwuleh. KE Cole, I.esse

Mr. M. J. Hackney a

Mr. R. E. Hawkins,

Mr. P.M. Lad, 1.¢.s: a ee so

Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, s.J.... be eee |

Dr, _S. By: Setna, Php. 2 sae ee Bombay

Mi Ro Pi smith...

Maj.-Gen. Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, eM. Se

Mr. Humayun Abdulali

Mr. Salim Ali

Mr. M. J. Dickins (Hon. Treasurer)

(Hon. Secretaries)

Advisory Committee

It.-Col:,.R.. .W.. Burton; fa: (Retd) -;°... ... Bangalore

Dr. B. N. Chopra, D.sc. an me ... New Delhi

Mr, Ce. Donald, b-Z:s. ' . London

Rev. Fr. Dr. J. B. Freeman, MAs, U.T., ph.p., D.D. Coorg

Dr S.-i. Hora; “pise. a ... Calcutta

MiC. Me inglis, .€.M.BeO.U.,.<FrZ.S:. ¢ 0. ... Coonoor

Col. Re €.-Morris, F.R.G.S.5. F.Z.S. sk ... Attikan

Dr.-5.' kK. Mukerjee, D.Sc. ce a ... Calcutta

Lt.-Col. E..G. Honus -Adams, 0.B.E. | F.ZS., 1.A.

(Retd.) sa ... Nilgiris

Dr. Baini Prashad, pb. sc. ae ane ~» New Delhi

HONORARY SECRETARIES’ REPORT FOR THE YEAR troq49

THE SOciETY’s JOURNAL

During the year parts 2, 3 and 4 of Vol. 48 were published and

it seems that we are at last catching up with our arrears and that it

will soon be possible to publish the three journals according to

schedule.

Several members have drawn attention to the desirability of publish-

ing a fourth part every year, and the suggestion has been carefully ex-

amined by the Committee. Though this might result in a diminution in

the size of the journal, the extra cost would not be prohibitive; but in

the absence of any wholetime assistant on the editorial side, the

Honorary Editors are reluctant to take on this additional work. The

matter is, however, in mind and suitable arrangements will be made

as soon as possible. |

582 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

MAMMALS

On the sporting side three parts of Lt.-Col. Phythian-Adam’s

serial on ‘Jungle Memories’ were published. Attention has been

drawn to the matter of the preservation of wild life in ‘The Gir Forest

and its Lions’ by M. A. Wynter-Blyth. From this article it is evident

that the action taken by the rulers in Kathiawar has saved these

animals from extinction which seemed imminent in the early part of

this century. It is hoped that the recent changes in administration

will not be allowed to affect the position adversely in any way.

Col. Burton has an article supplementary to his original paper on

the Preservation of Wild Life and Mrs. Jamal Ara reports on the various

sanctuaries in Bihar. Humayun Abdulali in ‘Sex Ratio in Indian Bats’

draws attention to the curious preponderance of females in almost

every species of bats collected by the Society’s Mammal Survey and

reiterates the necessity for more field work and observations. Mr.

A. F. Hutton has a useful paper on the Mammals of the High Wavy

Mountains based mainly on his personal observations.

BIRDS

Papers on birds include ‘Notes on the Nesting Habits of 7 re-.

presentative tropical Sea Birds’ by C. A. Gibson-Hill and another on

‘A Pelicanry in the West Godavari District? by K. K. Neelakantan.

Mrs. M. D. Wright has attempted a census of the bird population at

Dhera Dun, while Mrs. Desirée Proud has a list of birds seen in the

Nepal Valley during a year’s residence.

The distinguished German ornithologist, E. Stresemann, assisted

by J. Arnold contributes a valuable paper entitled ‘Speciation in the

group of Great Reed Warblers’.

Other regional papers are W. L. Roseveare’s ‘Notes on Birds of

the Irrigated Area of Shwebo District, Burma’ and Col. R. S. P.

Bates’s account of ‘The Merbal Glen and some birds of the Pir

Panjal’ accompanied by his usual excellent photographs.

REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS

A. F. Hutton’s note ‘The Snakes of the High Wavy Mountains’ is

the only contribution during the year. This includes a description of

a new Pit Viper named by Dr. Malcolm Smith after Mr. Hutton.

Ehrys a

Five papers on fish and fisheries include a note by Mr.

P. K. Jacob on ‘The Bionomics of Ribbon Fishes’, ‘A list of Fishes from

the Kumaon Himalayas’ by A. G. K. Menon and a note on ‘A collection

of ‘Fish “from “Travancore” by E.G: Silas’ “Dr. 5. Bb. etna describes

some local fishing methods in ‘Bombay Fishermen’s Ingenuity’.

LN VERY EB RAILS

The late Mr. James Hornell’s contribution ‘The Study of Indian

Molluscs’ was published as a serial in 3 parts. It is proposed to bring

this out in hook form which we trust will be of interest to members.

eee

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS, 1949 583

Three parts of the late Mr. Martin Mosely’s papers on ‘The Indian

Caddis Flies (Trichoptera)’ conclude an important serial. Other

papers include ‘The Insect Fauna of a Cotton Field at Lyallpur’ by

Abdul Hameed Khan, ‘Bombay Crop Pests Calendar and Seasonal

Schedule of their control by Modern Insecticides’ by E. J. Vevai and

G. M. Talgeri. Mr. D. G. Sevastopulo has a supplementary list of the

Indian Bombycidae, Agaristidae and Noctuidae.

BOTANY

Pr. H. Santapau’s ‘Artificial Key to the Papilionaceae of Bombay

Province’ and ‘Notes on the Gesneriaceae of Bombay’ are two papers

of popular and systematic interest.

Mr. M. B. Raizada reports on several new plants from Orissa

obtained by Dr. Mooney.

Mr. M. A. Wynter-Blyth’s ‘Nilgiris Revisited’ is an interesting

account of the faunal and floral residents of the hill. We wish we

could secure more articles of this kind to add to the general interest

of the wandering naturalist and tourist.

The usual inflow of miscellaneous notes continued and we would

again ask members to write to us in connection with the smallest

incidents which they may experience, but which may possibly prove to.

be the missing link in a chain of investigations. It is hardly necessary

to reiterate that a large volume of interesting and valuable information

is embodied in the miscellaneous notes, and this section, we believe,

is also one of the most popular features of the Journal.

PUBLICATIONS

No fresh publications were brought out during this year but we

are still urging Messrs. Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh, to expedite

the printing of ‘Some Beautiful Indian Trees’ by Blatter and Millard

which was entrusted to them over 3 years ago!

Sales of existing stocks have not been encouraging, and the

appreciable amounts invested in these books hinder our plans for further

publications.

THe Sociktry’s ACTIVITIES

In November 1949, Mr. Salim Ali, accompanied by two assistants

from the Natural History Section of the Prince of Wales Museum, carried

out an ornithological survey of the Orissa States area. About 450

birds and some mammals were obtained and some interesting informa-

tion should become available when the collection is worked out and

the results published in the Journal.

With the inauguration of the Directorate of Parks and Gardens the

Government of Bombay has been showing keen interest in the matter

of Wild Life Preservation. Mr. Humayun Abdulali, who represents

the Society on the Parks and Gardens Advisory Committee, was elected

to a sub-committee dealing with the drafting of a bill for the pre-

servation of wild birds and animals in the State. Draft copies of the

proposed legislation—which is a compendium of the most desirable

features in the shooting and game rules existing in the various Indian

provinces and the United Kingdom—were circulated to many interested

584 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

and competent members for opinion and a large amount of helpful co-

operation was forthcoming. The bill has been approved by Govern-

ment and it is hoped that it will soon become Law. ,

The Society received an invitation from the International Ornitho-

logical Congress to send a delegate to attend the roth Session of the

Congress to be held at Uppsala (Sweden) in June 1950. As the So-

ciety’s finances would not permit this expenditure, the Committee

issued an appeal for contributions from members which we are glad

to report made it possible for us to send Mr. Salim Ali as our re-

presentative. We would take this opportunity of thanking our members

for their generous response.

As suggested at the last Annual General Meeting, an attempt

was made to provide local members with films and talks on natural

history subjects, but as then suspected, there is a great paucity of

suitable material to draw upon, and only two such shows could be

arranged during the year.

On roth August a film strip talk on ‘National Parks in the U.S.A.’

was delivered by Mr. Wayne M. Hartwell of the United States In-

formation Service. On 5th October Mr. Salim Ali exhibited a movie

colour film made during his trip to Assam to report on the Wild Life

Sanctuaries of that province earlier in the year.

The Society’s Committee would greatly welcome offers from

members or their friends to show at meetings any movie films of.

natural history interest made by them on fishing, shooting, mountaineer-

ing or trekking expeditions, and the like.

NATURE EDUCATION

The Nature Education Scheme undertaken in collaboration with

the Educational Department of the Government of Bombay is progres-

sing and during March/April about 2,000 pupils belonging to 39 schools

attended talks and guided tours through the Natural History galleries.

This was followed by a series of talks to teachers of secondary schools

covering the basic principles of the study of plants. Gallery talks

in English, Marathi and Gujarati were arranged on Sundays for the

benefit of the public but were discontinued for want of sufficient

response. This may possibly be due to lack of sufficient publicity.

The plant study scheme for children included the issue of sheets

covering common familiar plants, illustrated with line drawings, with a

questionnaire in English, Hindi, Marathi and Gujarati. Two such

sheets were issued, and as the cost is only } anna per sheet they should

be within the means of every student. They have had a favourable

reception from teachers as well as pupils.

REVENUE ACCOUNT

The total receipts during the year amounted to Rs. 48,794-12-4 as

compared with Rs. 37,796-7-7 for 1948. The increase of Rs. 10,998-4-9

is partly due to grants received from the Governments of India and

Bombay and partly to the increase in the annual subscription.

The total number of members on our books on 31st December 1949

was 1433 1.€. an increase of 35 over 1948, but subscriptions were

actually realized from only 767 members. : ,

PROCEEDINGS -AND ACCOUNTS, 1949 585

The sales of the Society’s publications have dropped considerably

and after allowing for necessary depreciation, the total net profits are

much less than those realized last year. The Committee have several

additional publications in mind, but are awaiting a reduction in the

stock position before incurring further outlay.

STAFF

Mr. N. G. Pillai whose services were loaned from the Government

of Travancore took over charge as Curator from 1-2-1949 until

3-1-1950 vice Mr. Salim Ali, who relinquished his temporary appoint-

ment.

The Committee wish to record their appreciation of the good work

done by the entire staff during the year under report.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The thanks of the Committee are due to Mr. W. S. Millard for his

continued help in looking after the Society’s interests in London.

APPENDIX TO THE HONORARY SECRETARIES’ REPORT

COVERING THE. PERIOD JANUARY: TO OCTOBER 1950

In a supplementary report the Joint Honorary Secretary drew attention

to the change in the format of the Journal as from No. 1 of Vol. 49

issued in April 1950. The smallness of the types hitherto used for

some of the more technical articles was a source of constant complaints

from readers. In future all articles will be printed uniformly in

large type. The alteration in the cover of the Journal has met with

general approval.

PUBLICATIONS

Bor and Raizada’s popular and well-illustrated articles on ‘Some

Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs’ which had appeared serially

in the Journal are being published in book form and it is hoped will

‘be available shortly. The Committee has also decided to bring

out in book form Honell’s paper, published in the Journal, on ‘The

Study of Indian Molluscs’ and M. A. Wynter-Blyth’s ‘The Book of

Indian Butterflies’, the manuscript and plates of which are ready.

The Department of Scientific Research, Government of India, has

promised to assist in the latter publication and it is hoped that it

will be possible to issue it shortly. Owing to the large amount of

capital locked up in our previous publications, the Committee feels

it necessary to move cautiously in the matter of incurring further

outlay.

NATURE EDUCATION

The scheme financed by the Government of Bombay is progressing

and several study sheets have been issued for the use of teachers and

pupils. A large number of teachers and shool children attended the

lectures and guided tours in the Museum, and attempts are being made

‘to produce coloured film strips showing the common _ birds . and

586 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST; sSOCIETY, Vol. 49

animals for loan to schools. Several common birds mounted in port-

able glass cabinets have also been prepared for circulation among the

primary and secondary schools of the city.

DELEGATION TO THE INTERNATIONAL ORNITHOLOGICAL CONGRESS

Mr. Salim Ali was delegated to represent the Society at the roth

International Ornithological Congress held at Uppsala (Sweden), 10th

to 17th June 1950. He left India early in May and returned on 18th

September. A full report of the Congress and the field trips that

followed will be presented to members in due course. In the mean-

time the Executive Committee wish to record their gratefulness to

all those well-wishers of the Society who responded to their appeal

and made it possible for the Society to be represented at this important

scientific gathering, and thereby to add to its prestige abroad. The

Society’s gesture of participating in this international function was

greatly appreciated by the permanent Executive Committee of the

Congress and by the delegates of the 30 odd countries attending. It

has helped to establish close ties of co-operation between ornithologists

in India and abroad, and contributed its mite to the fund of inter-

national goodwill.

On behalf of the Society our delegate extended to the International

Congress an invitation to hold a future meeting in India. The prospect

was enthusiastically acclaimed by all the delegates. It is hoped that

economic conditions will make this a practical proposition in the near

future. The Society’s Committee are taking up the matter with the

Government of India who have, in principle, approved the idea of hold-

ing an International Ornithological Congress in this country.

WILb LIFE PRESERVATION

The Society was represented on a sub-committee of the Parks and

Gardens Advisory Committee of the Government of Bombay for the

drafting of a bill for the protection of wild birds and animals in Bombay

State. Many members assisted our representative with useful sugges-

tions. The final draft of the bill has been approved by the Bombay

Cabinet and it was expected to be passed at the autumn session of

the Legislative Assembly.

The Committee has also decided to join the International Union

for the Protection of Nature with its headquarters at Brussels. An

account of this important body, by Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, will appear

in our April (1951) issue.

The Jt. Honorary Secretary, Mr. Humayun Abdulali, announced

the election of the following 105 members since the last meeting:

From 4th August 1949 to 31st December 1949

Mr. E. D. Hocper, Dhelakhat Tea Estate, Tinsukia P.O., Assam;

Mrs. W.-F.) Rivers, Metcalfe Road; Delhr; Miss: Perm > Wiistri

Bandra, Bombay; Mr. P. R. Sen, Under-Secretary, Labour Dept.,

Patna; Sub-Divisional Forest Officer, Banaskanta, Palanpur P.O.;

Conservator of Forests, Utilization & Engineering Circle, Poona; Mr.

N. Rama Row, Bombay ; The Principal, Sree Narayana College, Quilon ;.

Mrs. Camar Tyabjee, Hyderabad (Dn); Wing-Commander Sardar

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS, 1949 587

Surjit Singh Majithia, Simla East; Mrs. J. H. Barker, Kathgodam

P.O., Naini Tal; Sub-Divisional Forest Officer, Sabarkantha Division,

Himmatnagar ; Sub-Divisional Forest Officer, Utilization and Industries,

Poona; Divisional Forest Officer, East Khandesh, Jalgaon;

Divisional Forest Officer, Working Plans, Southern Circle, Belgaum ;

Prof. A. B. Misra, p.sc., p.Phil (Oxon), University Professor of

Zoology, Benares ; Divisional Forest Officer, Dharwar-Bijapur Division,

Dharwar ; Mr. C. Lobo, Bombay ; The Siliviculturist, Bombay Province,

Poona; Dr. H. J. Taylor, Wilson College, Bombay; The Raja of

Dhami State, Dhami, Simla Hills; Divisional Forest Officer, Kolaba

Division, Alibag; The Principal, Government Brennen College,

Tellicherry ; Mr. T. V. Subramaniam, Bombay ; Mr. Gulam Ahmed Khan,

— Nawab Mansib Jung Bahadur, Hyderabad (Dn); Divisional Forest

Officer, East Nasik, Nasik; The Officer-in-Charge, Naturalists’ Club,

Inter-Services Wing, Armed Forces Academy, Dehra Dun; Mr.

L. W. Wade, Bombay; Divisional Forest Officer, Working Plans,

C.C., Poona; Mr. S. R. Daver, Dy. Conservator of Forests, Bilasapur ;

Divisional Forest Officer, Belgaum; Lt.-Col. K. Guman Singh, Banera

(Mewar); Sub-Divisional Forest Officer, Working Plans, North

Eastern Circle, Nasik; The Divisional Forest Officer, North Thana,

Nasik; Mr. C. R. Patterson, Rajkot; Divisional Forest Officer. West

Khandesh, Dhulia; Mr. F. Haverschmidt, Paramaribo, Dutch Guiana ;

Me. BR. Goldschmidt, Bombay; Mr: G. K. Kurtyan, M.sc., F.Z.s.

Krusadai Island; Mr. E. B. Rajderkar, M.sc.. Bombay; Mr. P. M. Lad,

1.c.S., Bombay; Mr. Sri Nath, New Delhi; Mr. Ralph Lawson, Massa-

chusetts, U.S.A.; Mr. C. E. Underwood, Calcutta; Mr. A. D. Mukerji,

Meerut; H.H. Maharaja Pratap Keshari Deo, Kalahandi State; Mr.

C. V. Patel, A.R.S.M., B.S.c. (Lond.), Bombay.

Fvom ist January to 5th October 1950.

_ Miss Dorothy Carolyn Harper, Lucknow ; Conservator of Forests,

Research & Working Plans, Poona; Shri K. P. S. Menon, I.c.s., New

Wel: Shri H. Dayal, 1.c.s., Sikkim; Rev. R. Lepour, s.j-, Darjee-

ling; Mr. A. J. Brock, Guntur; Mr. Erach D. Avari, Darjeeling ;

2/Lt. M. K. Dharmendrasingji, East Kirkee; Sjt. Vijayasinh

Chimanbhai Sheth, Ahmedabad; Mr. P. I. Chacko, M.A., F.Z.S.,

Madras; Mr. Gerald B. Eastmure, Hoogrijan, Assam; Capt.

G. A. F. Rands, Rajahmundry; Faculteit van Wiskunde en

Naturwetenschap, Universiteit Van Indonesie, Bandung, Java; Dr.

S. R. Savur, M.B.B.S., D.M.R., X-Ray Clinic, Bombay; Mr. Stewart

Conrad Kinnersley, Amritsar; Mr. S. H. Captain, Bombay; Prof.

Cha Liang Chao, Delhi University, Delhi; Sir Norman B. Kinnear,

M.B.O.U., Director, British Museum (Natural History), London S.W.

7; The Principal, Jeypore College, Jeypore; Mr. Julius Nazareth,

Khar, Bombay; Mr. H. Marshall, Jalpaiguri; The Conservator of

Forests, Sambalpur Circle, Orissa; Mr. B. R. Halder, Calcutta; Mr.

J. A. Singh, Bombay; The Forest Botanist, Dharwar; Mr. Calvin

D. Wilson, Salt Lake City, U.S.A.; The Secretary, Western India

Automobile Association, Bombay; Major G. W. W. Halnan, Banarhat

P.O. Dooars, Bengal; Dr. C. von Wedel, Oklahoma, U.S.A.; The

Conservator of Forests, Berhampur Circle, Orissa; Dr. W. K. Winter-

halder, Bombay; Mr. T. A. Tobit, Bombay; Mrs. Daenne B. Natolie,

-588 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

New Jersey, U.S.A.; Mr. L. C: Kent-Morgan, Mudigere P.O.,

Chikmagalur Dist.; Mr. Gobinda Chandra Thakuria, Forest Ranger,

Kaziranga; Assistant Secretary to the Government of India, Ministry

of Food, New Delhi; The Principal, College of Agriculture, Dharwar ;

Mr. A. Zaman, 1.c.s., Calcutta; Mr. E. R. Wapshare, New Hope

P.O., Nilgiris; Mr. Sao Saimong, Chief Education Officer, Taunggyi,

Burma; The Principal, P.E. Society’s College, Aurangabad; The

Principal, Thiagarajar College, Mathurai; Sri Sri Sri Jubaraj Saheb

of Parlakimedi, Ootacamund; Mr. Abde A. Tyebjee, Bombay; The

Librarian, Royal Forest Department, Bangkok, Siam; Mr. F. R. P.

Cannan, Handi Estate, Mudigere P.O. Chikmagalur Dist.; Mr.

E. S. Rose, Rozella, Ceylon; Mr. Frank M. Thomas, Bangalore; Mr.

Fred Webb, Bangalore; The Silviculturist, Uttar Pradesh, Naini Tal;

Dr. G. V. Desai, Poona; The Divisional Forest Officer, Rayjpipla ;

Mr. D. S. Barron, Bombay; The Principal, Darjeeling Government

College, Darjeeling; Mr. N. G. F. Graham, Sangameswarpet ‘P.O;

Chikmagalur Dist.; The Sub-Divisional Forest Officer, Gir, Amreli

P.O.; The Principal, Government Arts College, Madras 2; Dr. Sohrab

A. Hakim, Bombay.

é oe i | i |

ee eee TOL ors gutsr | | [BIOL

ed T. ST €b2'T | = as - —-« yunlosoy e1nypued

eee -X¥ BSan Mito Deiood lagh Sigodd Ge

‘ ene na: ; F ” ; or coe ‘ I 'd—se Ieyg iIpun ae

ne is Nope _ 6F6L, peg aed ISTg WO Yoo 0 0 I9¢'T Hise as ioyyny 0} Seareeon “

BOA 94} SULINp Soles AG]O 0 gpL‘ZI fee ae 6P6I ‘AlBnUeL ST UC 49095 OF,

somes uOLIIPA Ys ‘SpAlq uvipuy jo yoo,

8 SI SPr’s a “* [BJO Q §LSFI's i [e0.,

. wee es ase E 8 OL IL ees - ‘Ojo ‘SUIyOed—sosivyD AIpung

8 SI cSse'c | "* junooDY ain} - Ge ey zs

ES be ee — *FpUadxg pu aurooUT 04 passosues ssoq * : ae a SOUP OF 2 EBON

= 0 0 009'2 “punoquy 6F6T ‘Jequiesaq ISTE UO YIog *« YBN | “punoqua err ‘ Peaaee a silts “

5. 0 0 068 (i= punod EPET ‘seque0aq 4sTE Uo y003g * 6 6 C96 Se i eeslaeae

sf 0 0 04 | Te94 94} SULINp sajeg Ag punog 6pe—t ‘ArJenues js—T Uo yI0IS OF

S 0 OT OSI‘TS | “120 J, LIT °10A ‘Dipuy po Spzig amvg

| 0 OF Ost‘'ts “= 1830

S 0 T 2b : inn aioe -

5 0 8 co ese coe eee suoljzeuog

x 0 6 61Z | see eee soe SJUSUIASIVIDADY |

—s SPLAD UNS “6

Q 0 OL sze%¢ es a “* s}USUI}SOAUT Uo ysalajuy * |

See lg ome | aeqmoe F |

0 0 0U0'S feces oie “" BIpUL JO JUSTIUIBAON”

< ; “SJUDLD Juattusa2oy ‘*

8 ST czpfc pian aie Sli. * ; 6 OT 6rZ j see joayS o0uRl[eg 0} paliojsues)

= 4 4 Be bo: A 3 ‘IO M pea ea eae | d1n}{pusdxW J9AO sUIODUT jo ssooxg *

x ae . P | see 2 ein}IUINg Uo UOl}EIDe1deq **

rd] | | eee eo eee eco siqoq ped L}

UeIpet 1 yooqpurTy ie[ndogs (1e[}s 0 ose coe ave eve be

S € SI pre - * ia “" spil@ IIH Heiner 0 ‘ Ue on se se se sete aiecn sate ee

& ¢ g £c9 | ovo 9}9 ‘uUSIg S8u1yI0dS Pr Pp GEE eee aoe eae eee eee A1vIqIy 66

= | Jaq30 Bue Jeasyeyt 93 SUNDSAUINOIID LI 6 3bS‘T aed oe eee vee: a3ejsog a

oI L 9el. a = sTeuUy ‘ 6 6 ¢29 fi Ses acy ise «6 (epuesedolg

ST fr Spug SETRET Jo. 7100e) UOIVAIBSUCTD SIT PTAA Jo junodoe

F | > HO S]tjortd * | UO €-2-9F “SY) SunUulJq PuUe A1ISBUOT}E}S as

6 (s 12 F —- | ee ds Or L CFS | eee coe ees __5esredO [erleuayy ¢e

g 2 68¢ | “ oy Py SuOHvolqnd Ss ,4}8190¢$ a) 0R9'T | «ae ase an eee juey *

Tete cce0ay AEE e ES -2S'2z be: [euinor jo oe ‘SUI}JUIIg JO SOD °°

Ie. - & wa :J0SajvS ** 710 2@L €Z8 - puny JoplAoIg PeIS 0} UOlWNdIIjUOgD **

Z IC Fritz suo!}diiosqns Ag |

ad v Sy ad ¥ SY - SWOONT a oy Su ad ¥ Sy Sc tes teers

ine 6P6l ‘MAIN AIAd WIE CHAUNA YVAXA AHL YOU NO AANLIGNAIXH ANF AWOINI 7,

Vol.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

590

& «al S8e T

0 0 9T

& e. 692'1

9. & aa

9 € CII's

6 & F¥G

0 0 LPS

6 £ L6E

9 TI 2e9F

& oS S8ucr

-—

a ¥ sy

wie) (ponuijuo0o)— 6467 ‘YAINW AIT ISi&

[VIOL

[¥IOL

SPELT ‘JeqUIBDeC] }STg UO YO} ‘f

GF6T ‘Joquiedaq 3STE UO HO0}g *

6PSL ‘tequieoac] Is[s ue yoo}sS *f

0 OT ) OT lz

& OT Ze

€ zZ 02

Jee 34} SUlInp sojeg AG|9 8 FST

€ ¢eL S8L‘T

£ SL PVE

9 SI S6

IWOA OY} Sulinp sayes AGO I S#e‘T

D u6 sekl'Z

€ v ste

6 @ 02s |

9 2 c82'P |

IBA 3Y} Sulanp selves Aq }qO O 8ST

“- Ia oY} Bulinp soyes Aq pO 0 028 |

6PEI ‘IeqWa0aq] yS[g UO YOoIs “

eee

9 IL 2e9'F

g 19

II 182

8 TO,

Je3A 9y} BuLinp sates Agf0 0 60P L

oem

L£ ¢ Sgl‘st

OL 4 92T

46 TL I61

GSI ‘Joqwie0eq ISTE UO YooIS ‘* FH O SIZ

eee

qeak ay} Supp sares G0 0 209'ZT

ATWOONT d ¥v Sy

CHAIN z

= TeIOT,

ene cen ae0

jUNnOoDY 91nyIp

Usdxy bue stoouy 0} pediejsuei} agoig ‘

me 12 sosusdxy *§

peseyoing syoog jo 34so0_ oj,

SPW uvlpuyl JO yOogpuny 40INn GOT

1e}0L

25° JUNnOIDY oIN}Ipusd

_ Xd pue autoouT 0} poeitejsuel1} yygoig “'

a x sesuedxy Alpung ‘é

peseyoind sx00g jo 3sog oF

Spug tf] uvtpuz

I TeI07,

or =o My JUNOISY o1n}pued

“XH pue aMlOoUT 0} paitsojsuesty Jyoig *'

“" ‘O39 §Sulyoeg—sasivyg Aipung ‘

a ia Ps ‘Oyo ‘SULJULIg Jo 4sOog ‘

| = 6P6L ‘Alenuer As—T uo 403g OY,

SADPUILD) IANIDAT

“ [BJOT,

an ia ae JUnoOo0Y 91n}Ip

“uedxg pue SsWOSUT 0} postojsavsy JYOIg

“* "OJa *Sulyoeg—sesieyD Aripuns ‘*

a ak 6P6[ Atenuer js[— uo Y4O0}S OF,

SPADIBSOT aAnjIg pAlg

i peIo,

abe oon coe

jyunoooy 91njIp

-Usdxyq pue auioouy 0} pasiejsues} Jgoig “«

= " "O}9 SULyOVgG—sasivyg AsIpung “

oe oy oe loyjny 0} Soly[eAoy *!

6P6l Arenues IST UO 49039 OF,

‘24a ‘Olpuy ut yst.y Butzs40gS

AIYIO PUB AIISYD]Y AY} FUuIgUaQWUNIAL)

eee coe

AION P

*- yunOOOY ainyip

| -uodxY PpuBv SWIOOU] 0} pdtsJojsuel} YOIg *

va “ 'OJ8 (SUIYOVG—SexsleyO Aipung ‘¢

JoynNYy 0} sali[eAoy “*

GGT AlJenuer Is— UO YOoIS OF,

uor zips] [—S|pukuy uvepuy Jo yoog

AUALId NAdXA

YIVPHA FHL HOH LNQNODDV AYNLIGNAAXA UNV AMOINT 74d

591

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS, i949

€ 0 68T‘Z

ae, SE ES

SAOJIDHY PUY SJUDIUNOIIP PasaqAvYyD

"OO F NOSOADUdA “AV (PS)

a W SY

“ TBO,

-AQAUOD ‘AJOUOI}EIS) SesUDdxy [eloueH **

- (6F6[ Jequiso9q 0} dn) Qs-6rér “

eve ooe

cf einyiuing “|

SJUOWINIJSUT OYTUETOS ‘*

sjeous Apnis Jue]g jo 3sogD ‘

ues (‘oye f90ue

asejisog **

" 6P-SF6L JON

: (QOUBMOTIY SSemIvEeq Sulpnyout)

JOSIUBSIQ UOT}VONPY s1njeN jo Asieles Aq

SINAWAVG

€ 0 6gI°Z

eT ASSETS TSEC

OS61 ‘fDW Yrte ‘AVAWOT

= eS

“og,

BR; ae ae spung

s,Ayo10g jo Jno psoleapy—souvleq 16

see hinted soleG—s}a0qsg ApnyS yueld Ue

= eas OS-6F6I *

6h-8P6L 194

2 CvQuog JO Juamudd2O) WOLJ SJUDLD OF

SLaIGoa

6F6I ‘AaQuMeaza(] ISTE papua AOIX IY, AOZ JUNOIIL squad puv s7¢1a2ayf

AWHHIS NOILVINdYA AAINLVN

ALAIDOS AYOLSIH TVYNLVYN AVENO?

rth

Vol.

BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

JOURNAL,

592

S £4 Tet‘so't

—————

OT OT 2rE's

nm .¢n

OI cs

el 6969

OL 12'2

IT PLO‘T6

OLS ‘F

00 sz

0 0 FFT

| § OL seet2

|$ ILz9

Ock War

lP S €sT'9

(09 Tree

0 ZI 8r6'T

0 0 on0'sz

0 OT 2I8‘ss

0 0 OOP TT

0 0 0gZ‘or

** I9AO pallleg

(Joayug soUuRlTeEg

jSB¥[ Jod sB) salgie}jng uviput jo yoog

0 SI §I “* JBVA BY} SULINP SUOIIIPPYV

bP OCsp ““iee4g s0UKe[eg 4Sse] Jod sy

> sqniyg

pue sliequil[gQ UvIpuy [Hjljneeq smo0S

see) eee eon eee (3904S

souR[eg Sv Jod sv) Uo[AeD pue vating

‘elpu] jo sayvug [vlIysediey, snouosiog

/SuotpItgnd 40f Saauvappy

(peqorjzje

JUOTU9}BIS JOG SB) 2s amayIS uol{wINDY e4njON

eee een eee ees $40199T aApunsy

eee eee eee

*"UOI]BIDaIdaq| —ssa7

“1894 34} SULIND SUOIJIDPY

"* JBaYS soueleg jse] Jod sv

eee eee

£ 9ANJIUAN

spuog sousjaq %¢ OFF

(0-0-08S'F6 “SM SPM GFET

"99 ISTE Je SUVA JoYIV) 000'6 ‘SU

Fr $Z-0/6T a aa

uvoT JUSeMdojaaeq 4SIIa %E ON0'z *

“* Qp6T UkO'T UOIsIeAMOD %F QoO'S2 *

nn 89-996T

uvo'yT Zulpung : %E ooo'og ‘°

eee spuog

yUawisAoiduly Aequiog %p OO'ST *

‘spuog }SuLL, J10g Aequiog %p 000‘FI “su

—: JOMOE ST Joaoyorqm

ON[VA JayIVUl 10 4SOd YW - Spuampsaau

SLYUSSV

OT IT 082°9S‘T

0 OoF0‘8P

a Q 6 OL 62

0 0 60S'ST

Il = 068‘EE

2 IL oop'cg 0 0 soz

€ I gE

9 0 2729

8 OL 008'T

§ PI 6IP'ST

0 0 OT6

0 0 OsPr'Zs

a V S¥Y qd VW S$¥%¥

""IQAO paplIeg

“"9IN}[puedxy JoAO SMWIOOUT Jo Ssa0xq]

““pallajsuel; Jaaug soueleg jse]

Jed se sesuedxq 10} suoljeuog -ppy

tee Joos soue[eg jsvl Jod sv oouvleg

“gUunoIdIp SnigGAns

ve eee eee puny

S,ayesaloq SSeIsu0D = [¥d1B0]04}

-IUIQ |BUOIIBUI9}UT yIO[—SuOI}eu0q ‘*

* s4ayig *

on SOTIETBS

pue “xeBy solves ‘AJauoljyeig pues

‘SUljULIg ‘304 Wpny) sosuodx”

syoog jo siloyyny 0} Sel} |BAOW

<Sasuagxay **

Ea Ss[eudnor jo **d}98 !SsulyulIg Joy

SS40)1paaz cdapuns

2997 GIUVDAIUT PUD SUuOL{dtAISQnS aIuvapy

‘Saag qryssaquayy 9jt7

SHILITIAVIT

661 ‘MHINWAIAC WIE LK SV LHAHS FINV IVI

ALHIDOS AYOLSIH TVYNLVN AVEWOE

093.

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS, 1949

‘S4OJOpNp pun SJUDIUNOIIP pasajevy

“OO ¥F NOSNOUAA “A ‘V ('PS)

Ino jO 389q 94} 0} SUIpPIOIOY SITBYe S,AjB190S5 94} JO 3}¥}g 94} JO MBIA 4991I0N pu onI} B S}UaSaidel joaYyS aduL[eg YoNs ‘uOLUTdO ANG UT

‘S}USUIJSOAU] 94} DAYIIOA ALY PUL ‘SN 0} UIAIS UOL}EULIOJUI 9} WIOIJ pue PeulezUleM jUNOD

"J904S ouR[e_ 94} JO APIs Sjessy oY) UO JUNODDe OJ! Maye} U99q JOU BABY SOUINIOA AlvIq!] pUe SUO]}O9[[O0 YoIvasal a[qen[ea Jo YOoIs W—‘azoa7

[BIOL

OL TL 082'9S'T

ee) ziesz. id

PT 98692

S 2 I8T'SO'T

d Vv Sy

oo co o9o0 Seo —— Ul

_P ST 56'S

£06°ST

Ose

{

eo co SON Soo |

}°* [BIOL

a eee een coo §-21-1L9.¥

uopuoy jo yuvg [euONeN ou} WIM

| see see eee een Aequiog

py] ‘BIpuy jo yavg [BUOl}VN 943 UTM

| ses eee ory soe eco puey uo

; @

2 Saouning 42410 pun ysvz

eee eon eco eee so1doo Z

Spyq uvipuy jo} yooqpuey Ie[ndog

= < Ad09 T Spilg TH aelpuy

ag ane sas “SON COp--PUnoquy

pue punog III ‘1OA efpoy jospiig oury

"S}IVYD E12 SUOPEII[qng [[eUg S,A}OJO0S

oe $39S LN9—SPIBD jsod 91njdIg PIl_

eee aoe Cry) ASeIN ]eyoee

[euinor jo jes [[ny suo

Se1doo 0NG‘ZI-—-sI¥uinor DIO

pue sales

* Saldod Z09—eIPU] UI YsIy BuljI0ds

Jeyjo pue JsaesyeW oy} SULWUSAMINOIID

“* s9Idoo [[g*[—S|[vulluy uelpuy jo yoog

‘* “sartdoo ¢z9'I—spstq a¥IpUT Jo Yoog

3? (WO]JeIOaIdep SS9T 3809 VW)

: (A1¥}9190g *UOFT 9Y) AQ Poglz100 SV)

puny uo ‘249 ‘syoog Jo 49015

“* piemioy Jysno1g

SLASSV

OL TT 082'9S°T

‘OS61 ‘ABW YIee ‘AVEIRO

“SH Oj] UBAIS SUOI}BUB[dx3 pue UOrTeUIOjUL

‘“soouvrl[eqd yueg pure

XV JoSyooY 9} Wool] yoaYyS aouvleg aAcge 94} peaedaid savy OAy

OL Tk O9Z‘9ST

ad ¥ Sy

qd W Sy

Pt eee ee

PIBMIO} JUSNOIgG

-—~-

SHILITIGVIT

(LESTE ERE TT LIE 5 ESE SIL TE I TE SE EE EEE IEE SBOE EE ELST SS OE CAE TES FES EI EEF OO A TST SABE ROIS SG ES REF YY TR SET ST EE EB AE ETE

(‘21u0})—6b6l ‘YHINAIT WIE LP SV LHAHS TINVIVA

i Aah eel Alteration OO eee

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL’ GENERAL MEETING OF 9A

BOMBAY! NATURAL HISTORY. SOCIETY HELD ING erie

DURBAR HALL OF THE BOMBAY BRANCH OF THE ROYAL

ASIATIE iSOCIETY, FOWN. HALE, BOMBAY, ON THURSDAY

THES “sth OCTOBERS® ro50; AT "6 Peo. j= -WtH REVS ieRe

HS AN TAPAU, tsi UN PELE iGiiATR:

1. The Honorary Secretaries’ Report for the year ended gist

December 1949, having been circulated among members, was taken as

read.

2. The Joint Honorary Secretary read a supplementary report on the

activities of the Society during the current year. (see p. 587)

3. The statement of accounts presented by the Honorary Treasurer

was approved.

4. The Committee’s nominations to the Executive and Advisory

‘Committees for 1950, as previously circulated to members, was accepted,

there being no fresh nominations received.

With the termination of the formal business of the meeting Rev.

Fr. H. Rafael of St. Xavier’s College gave a talk on ‘The Music of

the Malabar Thrush’ accompanied by several sound strips and records.

Fr. Rafael has spent hours and days listening to the bird in its native

haunts and attempting to transpose its song to musical notation.

This was followed by the exhibition of two colour films by

K. SS. Dharmakumarsinhji of Bhavnagar showing some new

aspects of the courtship display of the Lesser Florican studied by him

and recorded for the first time in his paper published in the August

issue of the Journal [49 (2): 201-216]. His second film dealt with

other birds nesting in Kathiawar.

Both the talk and the films were greatly appreciated. It is hoped

that it will be possible to show the films again to members who were

unable to attend this meeting.

ANNOUNCEMENTS

1. THE DELHI BIRD-WATCHING SOCIETY

At the beginning of 1950 the Delhi Bird-watching Society was started.

Its main purpose is to encourage the study of birds in and around

the capital city. Until recent years surprisingly little systematic bird-

study had been undertaken near Delhi. Twentyfive years ago the

Journal contained a useful survey of Delhi birds undertaken by Mr.

S. Basil-Edwardes, based on careful collecting during a six-month

stay in Delhi in winter. General Hutson did some energetic work

during the recent war, and prepared a list of birds. More recently

Mr. N. F. Frome prepared a systematic list which was published in

the Journal (Vol. 47, p. 277, etc.). This was based on earlier publi-

cations and on observations made by himself and some of his friends.

Sir Edward Benthall and Mr. H. G. Alexander have published

supplementary notes (Vol. 48, pp. 368-372).

On this basis the above Society is preparing an up-to-date list of

nearly 350 species that have occurred (including a few rather doubt-

ful observations) and they hope in the course of time to fill in a number

of gaps. The status of some of the commoner birds, even, is still a

matter of dispute, and sportsmen do not all agree about the status of

some of the less common wildfowl. Such groups as Warblers, Pipits

and even Waders have not been at all adequately observed.

Expeditions to local bird-haunts are being arranged once or twice

a month and a first lecture by Dr. Dillon Ripley on the Birds of Nepal,

was given to our appreciative audience of nearly fifty in the Prime

Minister’s House on August 7th, 1950.

The present officers of the Society are :—

Mr. Horace Alexander (Chairman); Capt. H. C. Ranald, R.N.

(Hon. Treasurer); Mrs. W. F. Rivers (Hon. Secretary); Mrs. Indira

Gandhi, Mr. F. C. Badhwar, Rev. J. Bishop, Mr. C. J. L. Stokoe

and Maj.-Gen. H. Williams (Committee Members).

As Mrs. Rivers is leaving Delhi her place as Honorary Secretary

is to be taken by Mr. L. J. Wallach.

2. THE SPORTSMEN’S CLUB OF ORISSA

We welcome the formation of this semi-scientific club. It is

obviously a step in the right direction and, in the absence of a properly

organised and competent Wild Life Department, should go a long

way to help in tightening up the administration of the game rules and

in suppressing poaching and other illegal practices detrimental to local

fauna and flora.

The objects as set out in the Constitution are:

(a) to ensure maintenance of balance of the fauna of Orissa,

(b) to promote sportsmanship among members of the club,

596 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

serve their trophies,

(d) to organise shooting and scientific excursions for members,

(e) to assist the authorities in the enforcement of game laws,

(f) to study the fauna of Orissa.

H.E. Janab Asaf Ali, Governor of Orissa, is Patron-in-Chief and

Shri N. Senapati, 1.c.s., President. With its influential Executive

Committee a solid foundation seems to have been laid. It augers well

for the present and future protection and conservation of the wild life

of the province.

The Club has the good wishes of the Society for its prosperity and

success. Its activities will be followed with hope and interest.

NOTICE

IXth International Congress of Entomology

The IXth International Congress of Entomology will be

held in Amsterdam, August 17-24, 1951.

Enquiries regarding membership, invitations, fee, accom-

modation, excursions and sectional programmes_ should be

addressed to :—Dr. J. de Wilde, Honorary General Secretary,

IXth International Congress of Entomology, Physiological

Laboratory, 136 Rapenburgerstraat, Amsterdam (The

Netherlands). .

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS,

_ 18 CHURCH ROAD, VEPERY, MADRAS,—1950, C2606

EDITORS: SALIM ALI, S. B. SETNA AND H. SANTAPAU

114 APOLLO STREET, FORT, BOMBAY

atl

SEARS ORT AS re

i oe ee i a

PME OS

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the

editors by observing the following instructions :

1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for publica-

tion to other journals or periodicals, or have already been published

elsewhere, should not be submitted.

2. The MS should preferably be typed (double spacing) on

one side of a sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered.

3. Allscientific names, to be printed in italics, should be under-

lined. Both in zoological and in botanical references only the initial

letter of the genus is capitalized. ‘The specific and sub-specific names

always begin with a small letter even if they refer to a person or a

place, e.g. Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni or Streptopelia chinensis suratensis

or Dimeria blattert.

Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where

identification has been authentically established by comparison of

specimens actually collected. In all other cases, or where identification

is based merely on sight, binomials should be used.

5. Photographs for reproduction must be clear and show good

contrast. Prints must be of a size not smaller than 34x 24 inches

(No. 2 Brownie) and on glossy glazed paper.

6. ‘Text figures, line drawings and maps should be in Indian ink,

preferably on Bristol board.

7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the

paper, alphabetically arranged under author’s name with the abridged

titles of journals or periodicals underlined (italics), and titles of books

not underlined (roman type), thus ;

Roepke, W. (1949); The Genus Nyctemera Hubner. Trans. ent.

Soc. Lond., 100 (2): 47-70.

Prater, S. H. (1948); The Book of Indian Animals, Bombay.

Titles of papers should not be underlined.

8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting

the author’s name and year of publication, thus: (Roepke, 1949).

g- Synopsis: As recommended by the Royal Society Scientific In-

formation Conference (July 1948), the editors consider it desirable that

each scientific paper be accompanied by a synopsis appearing at the

beginning, immediately after the title. ‘The synopsis should be factual.

It should convey briefly the content of the paper ; draw attention to

all new information and to the author’s main conclusions. It should

also indicate newly observed facts, the method and conclusions of an

experiment, and if possible the essential points of any new finding,

theory or technique. It should be concise and normally not exceed

200 words.

When the synopsis is complete it should be carefully revised by

‘the author to clarify obscurities, and further compressed wherever

possible without detracting from its usefulness.

114 Apollo Street, Fort, EpItTors,

Bombay 1. Journal of the Bombay Natural

History Society.

THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS.

Mammals.

Book of Indian Animals, by S. H. Prater, with many coloured and black and

white plates. | Rs. 16.

(Price to Members Rs. 13).

Birds. ) |

Game Birds of India, Vol. III. Pheasants, 1st Edition. Rs. 32.

(Price to Members Rs. 24)

Book of Indian Birds, by Sdélim Ali, with many colour and black and white

plates, 4th edition, revised and enlarged. Rs. 16.

(Price to Members Rs. 12-8). —

Set of 12 Coloured Picture Postcards of Common Indian Birds. Rs. 2-4 net.

Fish.

Circumventing the Mahseer and Other Sporting Fish in India and

Burma. Rs. 15.

(Price to Members Rs. 12).

Snakes.

Identification of Poisonous Snakes—

Folding Chart. Rs. 2-8.

Miscellaneous.

Wall Chart to distinguish a Wild Dog from a Domestic Dog or Jackal,

etc. Rs. 2-8.

Back Numbers of the Journal.

Back numbers of the Society’s Journal. Rates on application.

Obtainable from:

The Honorary Secretary,

Bombay Natural History Society,

114 Apollo Street, Bombay I.

London Agents:

Eric W. Classey,

5 Carlton Avenue,

Feltham, Middlesex, England.

TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP.

Life Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 25 and a Life Membership fee of

Rs. 500.

Ordinary Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 25 and an annual subscrip-

tion of Rs. 30.

The subscription of members elected in October, November and December

covers the period from the date of their election up till the end of the following

year.

MEMBERS RESIDING OUTSIDE INDIA.

The terms are the same for members living outside India. Such members

should pay their subscriptions by means of orders on their Bankers to pay the

amount of the subscription, plus postage—in all Rs. 31-12-0 to the Society in

Bombay on the 1st January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum

of £2-8-0 should be paid annually to the Society’s London Bankers—The

National Bank of India, Bishopsgate Street, London, E.C.

mir” i\- )

es, =m

f ~ \ JOURNAL OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Vol. 49, No. 4

0 Editors

SALIM ALI, S. B. SETNA, H. SANTAPAU

APRIL 1951

Rs. 15

Nod we

eae :

J -

i ~~ 4 ; -

ATCH-WORDS

oe O78 80.0 8 8 OP eee esececcocece

eoeeeere@ oe wae enact i

e oe oe

Lr)

bt)

‘e

OO ati eet ot

ee © «co

Sete ee ee ee

No matter how handsome, how

accurate a watch may be, it cannot

give long service unless there's

strength in its construction.

This important factor

has always been given

full consideration in the

production of West End

Watches, and, irrespect-

ive of which model you

select, you can be sure

of its long-wearing

SS 7 Saaee’- quality. Value -for-money

; offered by West End

is as high as ever.

WEST END

WAICH Co.

Ee BOMBAY

" CALCUTTA

=.=

2 ee

eS a © Fae

RE "G" ae

W.E. Everbright Steel as

Rs. 142 Pe &f oo ce o

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 49, No. 4

PAGE

JUNGLE MEmoRIES. Part VIII. By Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian-Adams,

Ores ek ZeSacleAs CRetd.) 5 os. ae ‘a he ease

SoME NOTES ON BIRDS IN LaHuL By H. G. Alexander. (Witha sketch

map) ee Pe Ae oss aa .» 608

HILSA FISHERIES IN THE NARBADA RIVER. By C. V. Kulkarni, M.sc.,

Ph.p. (With 3 text figures) es ‘we ee seu - Gad

THE GeNuS Dioscorea IN BOMBAY STATE. By H. Santapau, s.7. (With 3

plates) a sid He oo or we- 624

A YEAR ON A TIGRIS ISLAND. By E. P. Wiltshire, F.R. E. Ss. (With a

map, 3 plates, one text figure and a graph) on Afr ony) OO

A NEw RACE OF THE GROUND-THRUSH Turdus citrinus (AVES: TURDI-

DAE). By Biswamoy Biswas Bee ce oye 3 66)

CowRIES. By H.C. Ray, M.Sc.,D. PHIL. (With 2 plates) one ise, O68

On a COLLECTION OF FISH FROM THE ANAMALAL AND NELLIAMPATHI

HILL RANGES (WESTERN GHATS) wirH NOTES ON ITS ZOOGEOGRA-

PHICAL SIGNIFICANCES. By E. G. Silas, B. sc. (Hons.) (With a plate

and two text maps) one ee AS ae Ee ov Al)

FILIPEDIUM, A NEw GENUS OF GRAMINEZ eG HE SHs)) By M. B. Raizada’

and 8. K. Jain. (With 1 plate) Ae wed sds See OOS

THE GIR FOREST AND ITS Lions. ParTIII. By K.S. Dharmakumarsinhji

and M. A. Wynter-Blyth, m.a. (Cantab.), F.R.E.S. eee 7% - 6895

SOME BIRD ASSOCIATIONS OF BENGAL. By M. D. Lister. (With a@ sketch

map) = Hp ae ade ae tory OUD

GAME SANCTUARIES IN BuRMA (PRE-1942) WITH PRESENT. STATUS OF

RHINOCEROS AND THAMIN. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, 1.a. (Retd.)

(With 2 plates) ... toe Sei ae ee peer 42

ON THE HYDRO-BIOLOGICAL DATA COLLECTED ON THE WADGE BANK

EARLY IN 1949. By K. Chidambaram and A. D. Isaac Rajendran ... 738

WILD LIFE RESERVES IN INDIA: UTTAR PRADESH. By Lt.-Col. R. W.

Burton, 1. A. (Retd.) ae fear ee ax sae iy (29

OBSERVATIONS ON THE EGG-CASES OF SOME OVO-VIVIPAROUS AND VIVIPA-

ROUS ELASMOBRANCHS, WITH A NOTE ON THE FORMATION OF THE

ELASMOBRANCH EGG-CASE, By R. Raghu Prasad. (Wzitha plate) ... 755

OBITUARY :—

Brigadier-General Reginald George Burton (R. W. B.) ee ico tae LOS

ii CONTENTS OF VOLUME 49, No. 4

PAGE

REVIEWS :—

1, Birds Wild and Free. (S. A.) wae wee be ce eTGS

2; Islandof Skomer, (Ch aG.A.) a. ; RS

3. Supplement to the Botany of Bihar and Oniccal (H.S. a fi cou ¥O8

4, The Flamingos of the Camargue. (S.A.) ... sie foo Al)

5. Flamingo City. (S.A.) ; a are me TAD)

6. Trapping Methods for Bird Ringers: (S249) ene Son Fs:

ADDITIONS TO THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY aA 500 ry

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES:

1. Rabies in the Panther: Two proved instances. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton.

(p. 775). 2. An extraordinary find ina Panther’s stomach. (With a text figure).

By A. Tulloch. (p.775). 3. On the ‘ Thorn’ or ‘ Claw’ in Panthers’ tails. (With

three X-ray photos). By K. Boswell. (p. 776). 4. An abnormal specimen of Mus

platythrix grahami Ryley (Rodentia: Muridae) from Khandala, Bombay Province.

(With atexi figure). By H. Khajuria. (p. 779). 5. Albinism in Rattus cremoriven-

ter (Miller). (With four text figures anda map). By J. L. Harrison and Lim Boo-

Liat. (p. 780). 6. Protecting food crops from wild animals. By R.C. Morris.

(p. 783). 7. Jeep versus Elephant. By R. C. Morris. (p. 783). 8. The use of

Patent Bullets in shot guns. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton. (p. 784). 9. More Bird

notes from Nepal Valley. By Mrs. Desirée Proud. (p. 78!). 10. Extension of range

of the White-bellied Blue Flycatcher (Muscicapula pallipes patlipes Jerdon). By

Salim Ali. (p. 785). 11. White-bellied Drongo catching a bird. By Salim Ali.

(p. 786). 12. The Heart-spotted Woodpecker— AHemicircus canente. By Salim Ali.

(p. 786). 13. Discovery of the so-named ‘ Malabar’ Black Woodpecker [(Dvryo-

copus javensis hodgsoni (Jerdon)] in Bastar (East Madhya Pradesh). By Salim

Ali. (p. 787). 14. An Albino Snipe. By H.M Molesworth. (p. 728). 15. Exten-

sion of breeding range of the Stilt (Wzmantopus h. himantopus), and some notes on

its habits and plumages. By Humayun Abdulali. (p. 789). 15. Mass movement of

Pelican. By D. Neog. (p. 791). 17. A Sunderban Heronry. By Satya Churo Law.

(p. 792). 18. Effect of atmospheric pressure on fish. By F. R. Goldschmidt.

(p. 793). 19. Effect of atmospheric pressure while fishing. By EH. P. Gee.

(p. 794). 20. Stings by the Common Indian Hornets Vesfa orientalis and Vespa

cincta. Severe effects. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton. (p. 795). 21. A Butterdy (Cato-

silia crocale) with adefect in right hind wing. By Capt. A.G L. Fraser. (p. 797).

22. On the occurrence of the Freshwater Medusa, Limnocnida indica Annandaie

in the western drainage of the Sahyadris. (With a text map). By S. Jones.

(p. 799). 23. New record for Frerea indica Dalz. in Bombay Province. By

H. Santapau. (p. 801). 24. A note on the occurrence of turions in Aydrilla vertt-

cillata Presl. (With a plate). By C. Lakshmanan. (p. 802). 25. Muntingia

calabura Linn., a drought resistant exotic plant. (Witha photo). By L. Venkata-

ratnam. (p. 804). 26. Gleanings. (p, 806).

The International Union for the Protection of Nature mor (2809

The Bombay Wild Animals and Wild Birds Protection Act, 1951 BAAaTs sts))\)

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

1951 - “Vor 49 | No. 4

JUNGLE MEMORIES

Lt.-CoLt. E. G. PHyTHIAN-ADAMS, 0O.B.E., F.Z.S., 1.4. .(Retd.)

Part VIII-—SomeE More TIGERS

~ (Continued from p. 426 of this volume.)

In the first chapter of this series I have given an account of tiger

shooting on foot. But there are of course other ways of bringing

‘Tom Puss’ to bag, and limited as my experience with these grand

animals has been, the following episodes may perhaps prove of interest,

and at the same time help younger sportsmeti to avoid the mistakes

which I have made.

WHEN, SHOOTING Down, ATM: Low

It is well known that one is prone to miss high when firing steeply

downhill. In the course of my Army training this point had been im-

pressed on me, so that when firing at oorial below me in 1905 I made

what seemed an ample allowance, but still my bullets more than once

went over the animal. It was not until I read Major Gerald Burrard’s

interesting book Notes on Sporting Rifles, that I realised the cause.

Not only is there the automatic lessening of the range, but still more

important is the fact that when craning one’s neck sufficiently to take

aim, one is almost certain to take too much foresight. This of course

applies however short the range may be, and it was forcibly brought

home to me during my first beat for tiger in 1908.

I was camped at the time at Sirpur in the Raipur jungles, in

company with that grand old sportsman L., the D.F.O. Buffalo calves

were tied up every night, but it was not until 5 days had elapsed

that a kill was reported about 7 miles away. It took some time to

JUL 25 1051

598 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

collect the beaters, so it was not till 1.30 p.m. that I was able to start on

L.’s elephant—he very sportingly refused to come himself, knowing

(as I afterwards discovered) that it was a one-gun beat. I was in

my machan by 4 p.m. but some time elapsed before the stops were

posted and the beaters in position. It was the middle of the hot

weather and the heat was terrific; my rifle, exposed as it was to the

direct rays of the sun in my shadeless tree, became so hot that when

the beat began I changed the cartridges as a precaution, fearing that

if overheated they would shoot high. Not long after a 4-horned

antelope appeared from behind me, and for some unknown reason

dashed towards the beaters. I was wondering what on earth it was

doing when I heard steps in the dead leaves in front, so got ready.

The tiger came out at a slow walk about 4o yards away, and as

he momentarily passed out of sight behind a tree I raised my rifle.

He re-appeared not 15 yards off on my right and I fired and missed

him clean, seeing the bullet _hit the ground ‘over his sback7) ie

stood for a second with ears pricked looking very astonished and

then moved on again, still at the same pace. Recollecting that I

was shooting down, I took care to aim much lower with my left

barrel, and the bullet catching him fair on the shoulder knocked

him over. For a few seconds he lay still, then got up, and falling

and rising again covered some 30 yards, in his rage tearing up the

ground and biting at the bushes, then collapsed. Meanwhile I had

hurriedly reloaded (a slow business with an under-lever hammer

weapon) and as he was making off took a hurried snapshot, but I

was excited and far from steady and the bullet merely hit him on the

foot. Then as he lay still I gave him one through the heart to make

sure, but it was unnecessary. The rifle used was a No. 2 Express

firing low pressure cordite and a nickel-base pure lead bullet of 480

grs.—no better rifle, even today, can be found for tiger and panther,

but unfortunately the cartridges are hard to come by.

The moral of this story is of course that however close the range,

when shooting steeply down one must aim low, for the reason already

given. A brother officer with whom I compared notes had an exactly

similar experience with a panther passing practically under his machan,

both his bullets going over. But his animal was not so obliging as

mine, for it broke into a gallop: after the first shot.

M O:RiE “PRT GE RS. Tan tAIN 2 eX Pa Eae or seen

It does not do to assume from the tracks that there is only a _

single tiger in a beat. Till the beaters come out one can never be

sure that another will not materialise. I had an example of this in

1910 in the same jungles where I had my first tiger beat two years

previously. I was again camped at Sirpur on the bank of the

Mahanadi, and on the morning of March 20th my shikari Rupsingh

reported a kill at Raikela. I sent out to collect beaters and at

1.20 p.m. reached the village where I found only 45 men, so had to

wait some time till more arrived. When at last we reached the scene

of action I found that my machan was at the foot of a rocky tree-

covered slope rising on my right, while on the left in a broad tree-shaded

nullah lay the pocl at which the tigress had drunk cane recently ;

there were no other tracks.

JUNGLE MEMORIES 599

The beat began a long way off at 3.15 p.m. and the men were

not far away when there were several roars and a tiger broke out

past the stops on my left—I had only a glimpse of him without the

chance of a shot. The beaters were now quite close and I thought

everything was over when there was a pandemonium of roars and

a second tiger passed on my left at full gallop, giving such a fleeting

view that again I had no time to fire. I was now certain that nothing

else could possibly remain in the beat, so stood up in my machan

and shouted to the shikari to collect the beaters with a view to an-

other beat before the light failed. Suddenly I heard a dry stick

snap on my right, and turning round saw the tigress passing along

the hillside above me. She was only 4o yards away but there were

a lot of trees and I was lucky to hit her at all. My bullet broke a

hind leg and made her pause. She looked round to see where I

was, then came downhill at me. On that side, owing to the slope,

my machan was only some 8 feet above the ground, so my position

was rather vulnerable. Luckily my second bullet. caught her in the

throat and brought her down, bui on recovering my balance (for the

recoil of the rifle had nearly knocked me over) I found that she was

still breathing, so gave her a finisher with the .303.

Here was a case of more tigers than expected. The tie-up had

been killed by the tigress, and no other pug marks were to be found

at the water near my machan. The beat was an exceptionally long

one in order to include another pool, and it was not till half the

ground had been covered, that my shikari found the fresh tracks of

the other two animals which had only just entered the area. So

it 1s always well to wait till the very end of a beat before giving

up hope. :

I was lucky to get that tigress—I did not deserve it.

FuHe Ticer.-wHicn LooKxerp.: Up

On the following day another kili was reported by my _ other

shikari, so I seat at once to collect beaters. -The D.F.O. and the

Conservator had just arrived in camp, and I asked them to join me,

but they were too busy, and so I was lucky enough again to have the use

of L.’s elephant. I was.in my machan by 1.45 p.m. but the beat

did not begin till an hour later. At 3 p.m. I saw a large tiger

150 yards away going along the nullah—he made a splendid picture

with his deep orange coat contrasting with the bright green of the trees

as he trotted over the yellow sand. He tried the left stops but they

turned him, then i saw him return and try those on the right but

he could not get past. He retraced his steps and stood on the edge

of the nullah bank 90 yards off. I could see only his head and

neck over a fallen tree; his tongue was out and he was panting.

I got my glasses on him and saw him look up at the trees all round,

then he spotted me and did not look pleased. {[ realised that he would

not come out, and so, small as the target was, aimed for his throat

and pressed the trigger. Luckily it was a miss-fire, as I was excited

and pulled off a lot. This steadied me and the bullet from my left

barrel knocked him over, but he was up again at once and bolted

to the left followed by two random snaps from the .303 at the moving

£00 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

bushes. Stops reporied that he was still in the nullah, so I gave

orders for the place to be ringed and sent for the elephant. As I

was mounting, the tiger bolted past the stops and fearing that he

would get away, I hurried after him. After about. 300 yards of thick

jungle, seeing no signs of him we turned back to pick up the blood

trail, when the mahout suddenly spotted him in a thicket under a fallen

tree about 50 yards off. As he rose I gave him a shot through the

body but the elephant was too restless for a steady shot, and in

fact bolted as soon as I had fired. Yhe mahout soon got her under

control, and we managed to get a bit closer again, but it was so

difficult to make the tiger out in the darkness of the thicket that it

took two more shots to finish him off. He was a grand beast, the

largest I have shot, with a huge head and a long ruff, almost a mane.

I found that my first bullet had smashed the jaw and then passed

down the throat into the body; in the fury of his rage he had bitten

some skin from his shoulder. While skinning him we cut out

not only four bullets of mine, but also an old lead one from inside

the shoulder; it was flattened out and obviously had been there some

time, as it was embedded in a regular cyst. Probably it was owing

to this previous wound that he looked up at the trees, an unusual

liabit with tigers in a beat. It was lucky that I had the use of the

elephant to follow up, ctherwise matters might not have ended so

satisfactorily, for the tiger was far from disabled, and was, rather

naturally, in an extremely bad temper.

A-{S Tie Key Ea Gin sus

It was in August 1929, while I was living at Lovedale in the

Nilgiris, that a friend came in one day and asked for the loan of my

dogs to follow up a tigress which he had wounded. it appeared thai

the animal had been beaten out of a shola and had offered a fair chance

as she came uphill past O. in the open. He was positive that his

first shot had hit rather far back, and that the second, fired as she

topped the rise, on the shoulder or a little in front. As the rifle was

a H.V. 500, it did not seem probable that she could go far, but though

Q. had been searching for two days, he had been unable to locate her.

It was of course little use sending my dogs alone, so I arranged

to accompany O. next morning, hoping that another night would have

settled the tigress if she was as badly hit as supposed, or else have given

her time to get clear away. Accordingly we met next morning at

Governor shola, where the circumstances of the case were ex-

plained to me on the ground. Heavy rain had fallen the previous

night and all tracks had been washed out, so all we could do was io

work in the general direction which the wounded animal might be

expected to take. With the help of the dogs we searched a number

of likely places but without result, and since I had other urgent work

to attend to, I decided to return, leaving O. to beat certain sholas for

pig with 18 Badagas who had joined us in the meantime. On the

way back about 10.30 a.m. I passed the place where the tracks had

been lost the day before, and wondered whether the tigress had not

moved northeast instead of northwest as we had assumed. I deter-

JUNGLE MEMORIES 601

mined to have a look round, so went downhill across the lower path.

I soon came across a small swamp and just beyond it some very dense

goatweed. It looked a likely place so I sent the dogs in and almost

at once they were on to something, but whether pig or tiger I could

not tell. The dogs were barking furiously and were evidently moving

the animal to some extent, but the thicket was some 70 yards across

and composed of dense goatweed and briars in places over one’s

head, so that it was impossible to see anything or even to cnter.

Hoping that a shot would cause the beast to break, I sent my driver

round to the opposite side and he fired a round in the air from my

12 bore. But the only result was a howl from ‘Chummy’ and a

sort of subdued growling which at last gave me a clue to the

identity of the animal. There was little doubt that we had located the

wounded tigress, and since obviously I could do nothing by myself,

I sent the chokra off hot-foot to summon O. and the beaters. They

arrived about noon and I explained the situation. I sent ‘Little Boy:

in again and from his barking and the growls it was obvious that

the animal had not moved; the problem was how to get at it.

We worked completely round the thicket but could find no entrance.

We climbed trees but could see nothing. O. fired some shots with

his .375 but as this produced no result, from my tree I started

to search the area with S.G. from my 12 bore. I could tell pretty

well where the animal was lying by the waving of the goatweed

when ‘Little Boy’ went in; the difficulty was to calculate the height

of the weeds. However after firing a number of rounds, to one of

which the tigress answered, it became obvious that it was impossible

to move her, so we withdrew to await the arrival of a herd of

buffaloes for which I had sent. About 3 p.m. I heard a peculiar

moaning noise come from the thicket, but thought no more of it at

the time, though I now know that it was the tigress’s death cry.

Half an hour later a Forest Guard arrived with the news that no

buffaloes were available, and volunteered with two others to cut

a way into the thicket under close cover of our rifles. I did not

much care for the idea but there seemed no alternative, and since

the tigress had not moved for several hours, the chances were that

she was in extremis if not already dead. First I sent the dog in

again but now there were no growls in answer to his furious barking,

though the tops of the goatweed continued to wave for some time

after he became silent. I guessed that he was worrying the dead

body which indeed proved to be the case. So, to cut a long story

short, we hacked our way in and found the tigress dead with a

hind foot in her mouth, and one ear badly chewed by the dog. Near

by lay poor ‘Chummy’s’ body. Some claw marks on the flank and

a single fang mark in the back of the neck showed how he had met

his end. He was a half-bred bull-terrier of a very impetuous dis-

position, and no doubt it was the sound of my driver’s shot which

encouraged him to rush in, as he had often done with pig. A post-

mortem on the tigress revealed the somewhat surprising fact that

death was due to three of my buckshot which had entered her liver.

Of the original shots one had broken her right fore-leg low down,

while the other after passing through the skin of the throat, had

entered the left shoulder inflicting only superficial damage. Such

602 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

wounds would never have deterred a more courageous animal from

charging and we were certainly lucky in that respect. The rifle

which O. used on the first day was a borrowed one which he had not

sighted at a target, otherwise he would have been more certain of

his initial shots. That seems a point worth noting—others are

obvious. To the intrepid behaviour of ‘Little Boy’ we owed almost

everything. It is true that he had previous experience with tigers,

this being his fifth, whereas poor ‘Chummy’ had none, but imagine

him going into that dense thicket again and again, during 5 hours—

a stout effort indeed. Were we justified in cutting our way in?

All things considered I think we were, and if a similar problem con-

fronted me again, I should follow the same course. But it certainly

was a sticky business while it lasted.

AGN -EFACSWY (404) Oi wi Pe

Not long after the episode narrated above, another friend came

in to ask my assistance in following up a tiger which he had wounded

near Avalanche the day before. Accordingly we went out next morn-

ing, and leaving the car at the river crossing, proceeded about a

mile uphill to the scene of action, where G. related what had occurred.

While in camp at Avalanche he had heard the tiger roaring in the

morning presumably to call up a mate (previously it had been seen

chasing a sambar) so in the evening he sat up on a rocky spur which

gave a good view of. the surrounding country. Not long after he

had taken up his position he saw the tiger walking along the edge

of a shola some distance below, so hurried down and sat by an open-

ing to await events. A sambar ponked and suddenly the tiger

walked out only 15 yards away. G. sprang to his feet, and as the

tiger bolted along the edge of the jungle, fired at it with his Jeffery

.400. He thought that he had hit it rather far back and that his

bullet had gone through diagonally to the left shoulder, which we

found later was exactly. the case. Next morning with his shikari

he had followed up.a short distance, but realising that the tiger

must still be alive, very wisely decided to leave it for the time being,

and to obtain the assistance of another gun. In addition to myself

he had also brought K. whose first €xperience this was with tiger.

After appreciating the situation I sent ‘Little Boy’ in advance, and

we three guns then entered the shola in line, with K. in the centre.

We soon came to a spot where the wounded animal had been lying;

there was still a good deal of blood on the ground in spite of rain

overnight. The track now led across a nullah, so we moved round

to get above it and sent the dog on again; the shola was pretty open,

but there were a lot of small trees; visibility was about 4o vards.

‘Little Boy’ soon gave tongue, and as there was no reply, I expected

to find the tiger dead, but the next sound of barking was further

on, so obviously the animal was still capable of movement. Guided.

by the invaluable dog we pressed on, and suddenly I saw the tiger

on my right front about 35 yards away, a great brindled mass between

the tree trunks. There was no time to pick one’s shot, so I quickly

fired twice, hitting (as we afterwards found) with the first bullet

through the loins and with the second in the small of the back,

JUNGLE MEMORIES 603

These anchored him and I was on the point of firing again when I

remembered that it was G.’s tiger, so called to him to finish it off.

Though so close he could not see the animal until he had joined me,

when he put a bullet through the shoulder, while K. gave it another

for luck from his Paradox.

A fine heavy male it proved to be, only half an inch under 10 feet

between pegs, and with the largest lucky bones I have seen. A post-

mortem showed that G.’s original bullet had entered on the right

above the diaphragm and broken up on the middle of the left shoulder

—it was amazing that with such a wound the animal should have

survived so long, and shows what wonderful vitality a tiger possesses.

Another point of interest was that the stomach contained a quantity

of sambar meat, so the roars which G. had heard were certainly

intended to call up a mate. And he had succeeded in doing so, for

she kept hanging about while we were removing the skin, undeterred

by our shots or the noise we made clearing away bushes and small

trees to obtain light and space for a photo. All the time we were

skinning, ‘Little Boy’, who had gone further on kept barking at some-

. thing, but we did not pay any attention, thinking it was only at

Nilgiri langurs. But when we came away we found absolutely fresh

tracks of a tigress and it was no doubt at her that the dog had been

barking. I ought to have realised what it was, as his bark had a

special pitch when he was on to a tiger.

That we had such an easy follow-up was entirely owing to ‘Little

Boy’. The tiger had originally been lying concealed behind a fallen

tree, and without the dog we should almost certainly have come on

it at very close quarters, possibly too close to stop a charge,

Ay EVES TuACK EU. TN (Dirk EC T T-O-N

During a recent visit to Anaikatti, the well-known shooting ground

at the foot of the northern slopes of the Nilgiris, I had the curiosity

to check up the bungalow book, and found that since 1926 I have

stayed there over 50 times. Of recent years my visits have been princi-

pally for small game, as I seldom fire a rifle nowadays, but

during the first ten years or more my chief objective was tiger.

Though, however, I have beaten for them again and again, and have

spent for the purpose more than I care to think about, my luck has

always been out, and in all these years I have never yet brought a

tiger to bag at Anaikatti, though I have fired at more than one. Some-

thing has always gone wrong: mistakes on my part, mistakes by

the shikaris, bad stopping (the most fruitful cause of all), a torrential

downpour at an inopportune moment, or some other cause. In fact

I finally decided to give tigers there a miss, and to go after them

in other parts where the hoodoo did not persist. A typical example

of this bad luck occurred in June 1940 (my last shoot before I was

recalled to Army service), but I am glad to say that though the

tiger refused to give me a chance, it was shot by my driver G. who

was with the beaters.

It happened like this. I had been out in the morning but had

seen nothing, though I heard a tiger grunting in the direction of the

604 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Honey Rock, a prominent feature on the hill-side in front of the

bungalow. G. had gone out that way, and when we met reported

that the tiger had gone uphill where his shikari was confident that

it would lie up for the day. I was not very willing to try for it after

so many previous fiascos due to bad bandobust. However, as the

men were very keen and offered to beat without wages if I failed to

get a shot, I collected about 30 beaters and started out at 10 a.m.

I knew the beat well as we had done it more than once before.

The men go far uphill and then beat down so as to drive the tiger

below a certain rock where a number have been shot in days gone

by. But I also knew that owing to increased jungle growth visibility

from that post was now very restricted, and so decided to take up my

position at a spot lower down the nullah. The shikaris agreed to

this and after some discussion a plan of campaign was arranged,

stops were posted, and I took up my position on a low rock which

I screened with bushes. If all went well I should have a nice chance

in the open at about jo yards. The beat ‘started at’ 11-30 a-m,

and I heard two sambar break out on my right front behind some

rocks where a red cloth had been put as a stop. Then I heard G.

who was with the beaters, fire two shots, so knew that the tiger

was hard to move. Half an hour later the tiger tried to break out

on the line the sambar had taken, but was turned by the red cloth

at which he roared. He should by rights then have come straight

out to me, but was checked by the stop on my left persistently tap-

ping, so returned towards the beat still roaring. At the request of

the shikari G. fired another shot into the air, but the tiger was not

to be deterred and broke back through the beaters. G. saw him

coming straight for him so got away to one side and took a shot

as he passed. The tiger rushed on into thick cover, and 10 minutes

later I heard a prolonged moaning roar which I hoped was his

death call. However, we could take no chances with such a bad

tempered animal, so I ordered a standfast of half an hour, then

collected the men and went round above the place where the tiger

had last been seen. I took post higher up the nullah, and then

all the men shouted and bombarded the jungle below them with

stones. Nothing happened, but a few minutes later G. who had re-

mained behind, called out that he thought he could see the tiger

across the nullah. I hurried down, and advancing cautiously found

it lying dead and already covered with flies—it was now 3.30 p.m.

more than three hours since G. had fired. The bullet, a soft nosed .423

had entered rather far back, and after passing diagonally through

the liver, was nicely mushroomed under the skin on the far side.

He was a fine heavy male with rather a short tail. There was an

old bullet wound on one flank, and in the nostrils were two large

leeches ; possibly it was the latter which caused his bad temper. It

was his angry grunts as he went uphill in the morning which betrayed

him, otherwise we should never have been aware of his presence.

The death call was interesting; it seems to be very unusual with

tigers, and I have heard it on only one other occasion, as already related

in the episode of the ‘Sticky Tigress’. It may perhaps be more than

a coincidence that in both cases death was due to a liver shot.

JUNGLE MEMORIES 605

One of the maxims of tiger shooting is that one should never at-

tempt to drive a tiger over his kill, and all too late we discovered that

this was exactly what we had been trying to do. For in a ravine

near the foot of the hill were found the remains of a large buffalo

which the tiger had killed two days before, and close to which he had

been lying up. Unfortunately we knew nothing about this when ar-

ranging the beat, or I should have taken it in another direction. And

that goes a long way to explain why he preferred to break back through

the beaters rather than follow the more normal! line. Bad luck for me

certainly, but anyhow he was brought to bag which was the great

thing, as he was a confirmed cattle-killer, and the villagers were glad

to be relieved of his unwelcome presence.

Wetko AGT Ste Dib ACK SEO H T

It has been said with some truth that memory is like the sundial

which records only the sunny hours, but this hardly applies to tiger

-shikar, at any rate in my own case, for the memory of tigers I have

lost is as clear as that of any I have brought to bag. The following

is a case in point.

My first trip to Anaikatti was in November 1925, in the palmy

days when the place was full of game and tigers could always be

found there. We were of course tying up, and several of our young

buffaloes had been kiiled, but the resultant beats proved blank, as the

tigers had not been properly located. In the light of further experience

I am not at all sure that the shikaris were not leading us up the

garden path and were simply out to make money. After all, they

knew nothing about me, and in any case why kill the goose that lays

the golden eggs? However that may be, the day did come when a

tiger was positively located in a nullah about 5 miles to the west.

We collected 16 beaters, all that were available, and reached the spot

at 2.15 p.m., my post being 25 feet up a tree—far too high, but there

were no branches lower convenient for the machan. The nullah to

be beaten was densely bushed, and as we had so few men I sent my

shotgun with them to add weight. I heard two shots fired, and

shortly after the tiger appeared. He came round a bush and then

stood with ears pricked, evidently uneasy but not alarmed. It was

a perfect chance and I fired for his shoulder, but the only effect of

my shot was that he bounded into the bushes, followed by a hurried

snapshot which I saw kick up the dust behind him. I got down from

my machan and we examined the place but could find no blood, and

it was not till then that I noticed my backsight was at 200 instead

of zero. It must have got raised in some way when I was climbing

Up. the tree.) The; moral of course is that after settling into the

machan, one should see not only that the rifle is loaded (which I had

attended to), but also that one’s sights are correct. It was entirely

due to this oversight on my part that I missed such an easy chance.

Of course the shikaris attributed it to bad shooting, but I was able

to prove to them on a target next day that this was not the case.

Attention to detail is as important in shooting as it is in business

or war, | 7

606 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

A= BA D' Livy. -S 4 aek pa G AGN

October 1930 found me again at Anaikatti for another 10 days

shoot. This time I had brought ‘Little Boy’ down with me, but there

were sO many panthers about that when the car went up to Ooty a

few days later for shandy and tappal, I sent him back, as there did

“not appear to be any tigers about and so it seemed unlikely that I

should require his services. Bitterly was I to regret having done so.

It was on the following evening that I heard a tiger calling to the

west of the Honey Rock, and after dark a very frightened Badaga

came in with news that he had met the animal on the short-cut path

to Ebanaad—he had dropped his ghi tin and bolted. Next morning

I sent two trackers to mark the tiger down while I collected beaters.

About 10 a.m. a message came that the animal had been located, but

on reaching the spot I found that it had moved. Its tracks led into

the circular valley below the Ebanaad waterfall, a cul-de-sac and a

favourite locality for tiger. Here we found fresh pug-marks of a

tigress also, so decided to beat: My post was in a tree on the river

bank near the mouth of the valley, one shikari (Chetty) and my young

driver G. being posted as stops on a large rock about 100 yards up-

stream on my right, while the left stop was in a tree some 7o yards

uphill. The obvious line for the tigers was straight towards me

along the river bank, and in that direction I had a good field of fire

But my tree had a lot of upright branches which interfered with my

view to the left; they were too thick to cut without making far too

much noise, so I had to leave them and hope for the best. Not long

after the beat started the tigress came along the bank and all would

-have been well had not Chetty lost his head. He jumped up and

clapped his hands, turning her to my left. A spur-fowl rose noisily,

then the stop uphill coughed and immediately after I saw the tigress

coming down the bank on my left at a fast walk. She showed up

much higher above the shrubs than I expected and her tawny coat

contrasted wonderfully with the dark green around. As soon as she

was clear of the bushes I swung round to fire, but my rifle came in

contact with one of the upright branches and I had to raise it to

clear the obstruction. By the time I was on to her again she was

behind me and I had to twist round at a very awkward angle in order

to fire—I felt sure that my shot was not far enough forward. She

bounded off as if untouched, but I knew that I had hit her. I then

got. ready for the tiger, but unfortunately Chetty and the men on

my right came down from their rock at my shot, and so it was able

to break out on that side where I could not see it. We then went

after the tigress which showed signs of being badly hit, but she had

got into some very thick cover among a mass of huge boulders, and

though we searched for some time we could not locate her. Bitterly

did I regret the absence of ‘Little Boy’ who would have made all the

difference. Next day I returned to Ooty to get the dog, but in the

meantime heavy rain fell and the river became impassable for several

days, after which all trace of the tigress was lost. Apart from the

importance of having a good dog, the moral of this story is that I

should have done far better on the bare rock where the shikari made

such a fool of himself rather than in a tree from which I could not

shoot with reasonable chance of success,

JUNGLE MEMORIES 607

BAD. -S TOPPING

How many chances at other tigers I have lost at Anaikatti by

bad stopping I should not like to say—my diaries are full of such

cases. My experiences in the Central Provinces where beating for

tigers is a fine art, had taught me the importance not only of stops

but of selecting the right men for the job. But when I first visited

Anaikatti I found that they were looked on more or less as super:

fluous, and that their place could be taken, if at all, by a cloth hung

over a bush. By demonstration and by persistently urging the

necessity for them in time I got the shikaris to accept the idea in

principle, but the number of men available for beating being limited,

when it came to practice as often as not the men selected as stops

were found too late to be those considered unsuitable for beating on

account of infirmity or youth. Whereas of course stops should be

specially chosen for their intelligence, and should know exactly what

they have to do, i.e. whether they should tap the whole time or only

when the tiger appears, and the amount of noise they should make.

It is a very technical job indeed, and bad stops are merely a waste of

time and money, besides being intensely exasperating. I remember

how fed-up I got trying for a tiger at Anaikatti in June 1926. He

killed 4 of my buffaloes in 9 days, and we beat for him on four separate

occasions without success. On the first day he broke out on my left

where there was no stop, though the shikari had been specially warned

to place one there. The second day should have given me an easy

chance, but the very youthful stop on my left was so frightened on

seeing the tiger that he kept still and allowed it to pass under his tree,

only 4o yards from me but unfortunately out of sight. What his

father the shikari said to him does not bear repeating. On the third

day the shikari mismanaged things, and the tiger broke back, while

on the last day a stop high up on the slope above me made such a noise

hurling down rocks that the tiger in panic broke out in the opposite

direction and I never saw it. This was typical of beats at Anaikatti

and my diaries are full of similar incidents. As trackers the men are

wonderful and on a number of occasions they have marked down a tiger

for me simply by following it until it lay up, without any kill having

taken place. But on almost every occasion the sequel has been a mis-

managed beat due to inefficient stopping. Beats are such good fun

and such grand sport when things go right that one is loth to give

them up, but for concrete results sitting-up would probably be more

productive. Of that however I have had little experience, though I

should imagine that the precautions I have suggested in the chapter

on panthers would prove equally effective, provided the machan is

situated high enough to evade a tiger’s microscopic hearing.

(To be continued.)

SOME NOTES ON BIRDS IN LAHUL

H. G. ALEXANDER

(With a sketch map)

I was in Lahul from June 16th to 30th 1950, crossing the Rohtang

Pass (13,050 ft.) from the Kulu Vailey on the former date, and re.

crossing it on the latter. Our trek took us down the Chandra valley

and then up the Bhaga valley as far as the last rest house at Patsia

(12,464 ft.). From there we retraced our steps. We did not attempt

the short-cut from Gondla to Kyelang over the mountains. Thus,

apart from the Rohtang crossing and the few hours spent at Patsio,

we spent all our time at heights between 9,300 anc 11,000 feet. My

companions all kept a look-out for birds. Captain H. C. Ranald,

R. N. in particular, often spotted things before I did and he saw one

or two species that I missed.

The late Mr. Hugh Whistler published a thorough paper on The

Birds of Lahul in the Ibis, 1925, pp. 152-208. This was the result

of three visits paid by him in 1921, 1922 and 1923 at various periods

between late May and early August. He covered far more ground

than we did, so naturally we missed several birds that he saw. But

in the area we covered, our observations were singularly parallel to

his. I was not able to consult his paper till after my return, so I

did not know in advance just what we were likely to find.

In what follows I have, in the main, only included what supple-

ments or, In many cases, confirms, after tweniy-five years, Mr.

Whistler’s observations.

Raven [Corvus corax (tibelanus)|. Whistler points out that the

large Tibetan Raven does not breed in Lahul, but it appears with the

flocks of sheep that are brought over in November and June. I was

surprised to find a pair on the Kulu side of the Rohtang pass on 14th

June, not higher than perhaps 11,000 feet. Next day, in the Chandra

valley, I saw two pairs, both surprisingly approachable, between

Khoksar and Sissu. On the 21st I heard one near Kyelang. On

the return march I saw none, though I believe Captain Ranald saw

one on the Rohtang pass on the 30th.

Jungle Crow (Corvus macrorhynchos). ‘This bird also is’ un-

common in Lahul and apparently only wanders there. On the 30th

I saw one close to the top of the Rohtang pass, which is probably its

usual route to and from Lahul. I saw a few others in both valleys.

My observations on the two choughs jitted exacily with Whistler’s

remarks. The Alpine Chough (Yellow-billed, P. gvaculus) is much

commoner and usually occurs higher; but P. pyrrkocorax is sometimes

seen quite high up, at least to 12,000 feet.

The only tit I saw was Lophophanes rufonuchalis, the Black Tit.

I saw individuals visiting nesting-holes at Kyelang and Jispa and in

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

: SKETCH-MAP

x 19951 eae OF LAHUL a

TO (KASHMIR) | (32°8’to 32°59’ NX 76°49 to 77°47’)

ea aa GLACIERS 10 MILES (APPROX)

—<—<$<—<$<<

ee. x m

No i935

x ALTITUDES

19028 INDICATED

HERE

ie > CHUKUM *

2 on S\LAKE /” x 18942

7 | x

t A 18526 BARA

: % LACHA ae

19,918 os PATSIO PASS

16,641 3 12464 16047

= c

a x

2) >) x18,420

C6 ol

a -/DARCHA %&

a 10,840 A

x19 596

y ae 20040

C*21,000

*K,YELJANG Wr vy

9,26) *1g x Z

- si 21,006 24380 |

chs % “yee \ pcnixe

soe *193255°C%p, 19,587 Gy ey LAKE

SISSU ty eo. 14,500

. “QQ Ft

“Ip S ey

“An 19,229 = ,

’ x x 4

ar PY KHOKSAR 19,830 13.940 / spit

20,340 > 5 <a — >

re 19200 20,500 1493) KANZAM

19,910 x ROHTAN PASS

13050 CHEN OR

AB \ aa

SHIGRI ee

GLACIER

‘ HAMTAH

PASS

14.027

x DEO TIBBA

VAELE Y 20,410

SOME NOTES ON BIRDS IN LAHUL 60g

the juniper wood between them. L. melanophus, which according

to Whistler, also occurs in those woods, I did not identify.

Whistler comments on the remarkable fact that Trochaloplerum

variegatum, the Variegated Laughing-Thrush, is a common inhabi-

tant of the willow-groves in the two valleys, and is often quite easily

watched in the open. Does its presence there indicate that Lahul at

one time had vegetation similar to Kulu, with oak, rhododendron,

etc.? The willows are said to have been planted within the past

hundred years. How did these laughing-thrushes arrive and adapt

themselves to this type of habitat?

The Streaked Laughing-Thrush (J. linealum) is also a plentiful

species, but it chiefly haunts the lower scrub of Berberis, Rosa, ete.

which are native species, so that its presence is not so difficult to

account for.

We were lucky with Wall-Creepers of which Whistler seems to

have seen very few. One was seen flitting over the Chandra river

just above its junction with the Bhaga at under 9,500 feet and

Captain Ranald saw a second bird the same day. ‘This seems to be

an unusually low altitude for June. A pair were visiting a cliff above

the river at Patsio (12,000 ft.) perhaps collecting food for young in

a nest not far away.

Himalayan Tree Creeper (Ceriiia himulayana). This species 1s

not mentioned by Whistler. I saw one on a _ willow-tree above

Kyelang on June 21st and another, below Kyelang, on the 27th. This

latter settled on a willow-tree within a few ieet of me, and I had an

excellent view of its barred tail. It several times uttered a loud song,

vigorous and very rapid: ‘tiss, yip, yip, yip, yip, yip’. It was clearly

not C. familiaris. ;

I saw all the five willow-warblers noted by Whistler. P. affinis

I noted only along the Bhaga valley, on three cr four occasions. Both

this species and P. griseolus seem to be very silent birds. Three

times [ heard P. affinis in song, and the song is rather like a short

edition of the song of the common Wren, Tvoglodytes. P. griseolus

I only saw satisfactorily once, on a desolate scree two miles from

Khoksar, on the 29th. I sat within range of it for twenty minutes,

but it did not ‘cheep a chirp’.

P. collybita was abundant all along the Bhaga valley from the

junction of the rivers to Jispa, but I only once heard the familiar

song in the Chandra valley. Whistler called his birds P. c. tristis,

but Vicehurst (“Genus Phylloscopus’, 1938) gives P. c. sindianus as

the breeding supspecies in Lahul. The song is more ‘tinny’ than,

and not nearly as loud as, the song of the HKuropean Chiffchaff, but

it is unmistakable and just as persistent. ‘Licehurst says: ‘Brooks

noted that the call note is different from that of tristis and is a loud

‘‘tiss-yip’’.’ I frequently heard a call-note that seemed identical

with the usual note of collybita, quite distinct from the querulous

single note of tristis. Once I saw what appeared to be a Chiffchaft

constantly uttering a peculiar double note which might be Brooks’s

‘tiss-yip’. P. occipitalis is fairly common in the tree-planted parts

of both valleys.

610 JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Whistler records a single P. magimrostris which he shot by Sissu

rest-house. Curiously enough, on the 18th I heard its characteristic

song and saw one in the trees at that very spot. On June a2ist,

between Kyelang and Jispa, I heard two in song in ravines below

the path, where there were a few juniper trees for them to hide in.

On the 24th one of these two was again heard singing most persis-

tently. The five-note silver-bell-like song, descending the scale,

once heard, is unforgettable. But the bird is astonishingly clever at

remaining hidden in the foliage, and must, therefore, I think, be often

missed by those who have not learnt its song.

The Grey-backed Shrike (Lanius schach tephronotus) is very

common, and one can usually feel no doubt that it is of this subspecies.

But I think the colour of the back and scapulars is variable and if

a. number were collected, possibly some would be found to come very

near to L. s. erythronotus. More than once I saw one shoot down

a hill-side as if it were a hawk, its long tail! cocked up so as to be

hardly visible. On one such occasion some small finches in the

bushes below fled in terror.

A single White-throated Fantail Flycatcher (dthipidura albicollis)

was seen at Kyelang, 10,000 ft. This seems to be an unusually high

elevation for the species. Whistler does not refer to it.

He records a pair of Gtnanthe pleschanka (=leucomela) between

the bridge and Kyelang, apparently nesting, tobserved on 1st June,

1921. ‘This pair’, he says, ‘were doubtless only stragglers from the

main breeding ground in Ladakh and Turkestan’. However, on the

other side of the bridge, towards Gondla, I noted two males of this

species in song on the 19th; both of these were barely two miles

from Gondla. A good deal nearer the bridge, on the 27th, I observed

two more, about a mile apart, both of them males, in song. I saw

no female on either occasion and I could nct find the two birds of

the roth on the 27th. But the country near the last bend of the Chandra,

before it joins the Bhaga, looks very suitable for wheatears, and I

think it quite likely that a small colony of the species is fully

established there. Stuart Baker gives this bird the English name

of Pied Wheatear (or at least Pied Chat). He calls Gi. picata by

the same name. Perhaps Brown-winged Wheatear, or if necessary

Brown-winged Pied Wheatear would be a suitable English name. For

the brown in wings and tail are good diagnostic features in the male

bird, separating it from several very similar wheatears whose plumage

is pure black and white.

White-capped (Water Redstarts (Chaimarrhornis leucocephala)

were fairly plentiful and Indian Black Kedstarts (Phoenicurus

ochruros) extremely abundant. I did not see Gildenstadt’s Redstart

(P. grandis),which Whistler found at higher altitudes. The Blue-

fronted Restart (P. frontalis) I saw only twice: one, a male in song,

in the juniper wood between Kyelang and Jispa (11,000 ft.); the other

an adult bird feeding a young one, in the open stony country at ¢.

12,000 ft., below the top of the Rohtang pass on the 30th. }

The Blue-headed Robin (Adelura coeruleocephala) is one of the

characteristic birds of Lahul. But we only saw it.from near Kyelang

to Jispa. I did not hear the song; but the ‘tik, tik’ of the male,

SOME NOTES ON BIRDS IN LAHUL 6i1

just like an English Robin’s note, was constantly heard. The pale

cap of the male only looks blue when the bird is seen well below

the observer (which is unusual). Otherwise it looks dull white. The

underparts are not pure white, but are streaked with grey. The

female could easily be mistaken for a Rufous-tailed Flycatcher.

Whistling-Thrushes (Myophonus) were plentiful; and I saw Blue

Rock Thrushes (Monticola solitaria) three times. |

Brown Dippers (Cinclus pallasii) were fairly plentiful. On the

evening of the 22nd, at Patsio, just above the bridge, we watched

an adult Brown Dipper feeding a young one, sometimes chasing a

White-breasted Dipper (C. cinclus) which was resting on a stone near

by, but ignoring a Hodgson’s Wagtail (Motacilla alboides), which

was also feeding at the same spot. This White-breasted Dipper

was the only one of that species seen.

The only Accentor I saw was a single bird below Patsio on the

22nd; it flew out of sight and I could not iind it again. Probably

it was a Rufous-breasted Accentor (A. stropiiatus), a species which

Whistler found breeding in the juniper wood below Jispa.

The status of the Crossbill (Loxia) in Lahul is puzzling. Whistler,

who did not find it, quotes Stoliczka, who visited Lahul in 1860, as

stating that it is “common in Lahul in summer’. Whistler says he

made special efforts to find it but in vain. He nowhere specifically

mentions, however, any visit paid to the two areas of true pine-wood,

where it would be much more likely to occur than in the juniper wood.

Both these areas are on north-facing slopes, and difficult of acgess.

Stuart Baker says (Fauna, Vol. III, p. 116): ‘I have in my collec-

tion a clutch of five eggs taken in Lahul, Kashmir (sic) at an

elevation of about 12,000 feet. They were taken by natives and the

details given may not be very correct, but the nest was described as

a shallow cup of pine-twigs and roots lined with wool and placed on

a stunted pine-tree on the outskirts of pime forest. The eggs are

exactly like those of the English Cressbili’. I did not see or hear

any Crossbills ( I know the flying call-note weli) though I was on the

look-out for them. But I did not visit the pine-woods.

I had a very good view of a Spotted-winged Grosbeak (Mycerobas

carneipes) at Jispa and heard others between Jispa and Kyelang in

the juniper woods.

We saw several parties of Common Rose-finches (Carpodacus

ervythvinus), and both at Kyelang and Jispa there was a second species,

slightly larger, the male a deeper red, the female a much dingier

bird than the female erythrinus. I watched one of these females

at very close quarters at Jispa. These appear to have been the Red-

mantled Rose-finch (Carpodacus rhrodochlamys). These birds were

fond of raising the feathers of the crown, so that they looked to be

crested. Possibly all rose-finches have this habit.

Gold-fronted Finches (Metaponia pusilla) and Himalayan Gold-

finches (Carduelis caniceps) were plentiful especially in the Kyelang-

Jispa area. With one party, I also saw a pair of Himalayan Green-

finches (Hypacanthis spinoides) not far from Kyelang. Whistler's

only definite record of this species was of a single bird at Kyelang.

612 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Sparrows (P. domesticus) were iairly common at Kyelang, but

I saw none in the Chandra valley.

Fringillauda nemoricola, Stoliczka’s Mountain-Finch—if that is

the correct English name for it—(cannot the whole species be called

the Plain Mountain Finch?) was plentiful. Large flocks, parties and

pairs were observed in the more barren, stony areas. At Patsio

they were specially plentiful; and here I had good views of two

Brandt’s Snow-Finches (Ff. brandti), on the morning of the 23rd.

This is lower than their usual altitude.

Meadow Buntings (Emberiza cia) were plentiful. One day I

noticed one sitting on a wall that seemed to have a broad black patch

on its breast. Atter watching it in perplexity for some time I realised

that the breeze had ruffled its feathers, so that I was seeing the base

of all the breast-feathers. This is, perhaps, a rather good illustration

of the kind of circumstance that leads observers to report birds seen

with a colour scheme that does not fit any known species.

There were colonies of House Martins, Crag Martins and Swifts

in both valleys. But I should not describe any of these species as

‘very common’ to-day, the description applied by Whistler to the Swift.

All are fairly common.

The three wagtails noted by Whistler~-Hodgson’s Pied, Grey

(M. cinerea) and Yellow-headed ({M. ciiveola)--were all seen

Hodgson’s was noted up to 12,000 feet. Yellow-headed was only seen

in two or three places.

The only pipits I saw were Hodgson’s Pipits (Anthus roseatus)

which were plentiful near the top of the Rohtang pass (12-13,000 feet).

On June jzoth I watched some in beautiful plumage with delicate

pink on the throat. They were very tame. This also was the only

place where I saw Horned Larks {Otocorys alpesiris). The song

uttered on the ground was a good deal richer than Whistler’s ‘short

and insignificant’ would suggest. Skylarks (presumably Alauda

gulgula) I only heard and saw in the lower parts of the Chandra

valley, between Sissu and the junction of the rivers.

There was a hoopoe at Sissu (10,000 ft.) both on the 18th and

the: 2oth.

Lammergeiers (Gypaétus barbatur) were plentiful, and I think

Griffon Vultures (Gyps himalayensis) raust have increased in the past

twenty-five years, as I believe they have done in other parts of the

Himalayas. A little before sunset, at Patsio on the 22nd, we were

watching Griffons and Lammergeiers circling round a cliff-face, in the

strong slanting sunlight, when I noticed an almost black bird amongst

them. I watched it for some time and whichever way it turned in

the sunlight, its plumage, both above and below, remained dark. I

again saw one, in almost exactly similar conditions of light, soaring

above Khoksar in the evening sunshine on the 2goth. This, if any-

thing, looked even blacker above and below. Both were undoubtedly

vultures, not ¢agies. I can only conclude thet they were both

Aigypius monachus. I saw no eagle in Lahul. One or two kites

were seen between Khoksar and Sissu. I took them to be Muilvus

m. migrans, but I suppose M. m. lineatus is a possibility. I saw

Sparrow-Hawks twice, one soaring over Kyelang before sunset on the

SOME NOTES ON BIRDS IN LAHUL 613

24th and. one that dashed close past me while I was watching a

Brown-winged Wheatear on the 27th. I had a moment’s fear for the

wheatear, but it disappeared among the rocks in time. Kestrels

were not uncommon.

Blue Rock-Pigeons (Columba livia) were plentiful and tame, Snow

Pigeons (C. leuconota) occasional, usually seen in deep gorges.

Captain Ranald probably saw one or more ‘Turkestan Rock-Pigeons

(C. rupestris) at Patsio, but if I saw them I passed them over as

Snow Pigeons. her -tail-pattern +1s;° Eufancy, -rather similar. —!-

confirm Whistler’s statement that ‘the prevalent type (of Blue Rock

Pigeon) has the lower back bluish grey concolorous with the upper

back, but a few white-banded birds are to be seen’.

Rufous Turtle-Doves (Streptopelia orientalis) were common in

cultivation. Both Captain Ranald and I sew single individuals of

the Spotted Dove (S. chinensis) at Gondla on the 27th. This species

is not in Whistler’s list. .

Chukors (Alectoris graeca) are still as pientiful as they were in

Whistler’s time, all the way to Patsio. Captain Ranald saw one

Snow Partridge (Lerwa lerwa).

I thought I heard a Common Sandpiper (Actitis hypoleucos) on

the shingle banks at Darcha, which seems probable from Whistler’s

report of its distribution. We frequently scanned shingle-banks for

Ibis-bills (Ibidorhyncha) but all in vain.

HILSA FISHERIES IN THE NARBADA RIVER!

C.-V. KULKARNI, 41.Sc;,)Ph-b.,

Department of Fisheries, Bombay.

(With three text figures)

(Communicated by Dr. S. B. SETNA, F.NiI:) |

CONZENAS

1. Introduction 4 ae 56 8 “+ 614

2. Local Nomenclature of Hilsa_ bai ads 1 615

3. Distribution of Hilsa on the West Coast 616

4. Migration of Hilsa in the Narbada 2 Sod = 617

5. Methods of Hilsa Fishing in the Narbada ats -- 619

6. Disposal and Potentiality of the Yield j -- 621

7. Depletion of the Sent! -++ 622

8. Summary -. 622

INTRODUCTION

Hilsa is noted for its valuable fisheries in the lower reaches of

rivers in Bengal, eastern coast of Madras and Sind. Day (1878), who

paid close attention to the spawning migrations of this fish in different

Indian rivers, did not record its occurrence in any of the fluvial waters

of the west coast of peninsular India. Sundara Raj (1917) con-

cluded, therefore, that Hilsa did not occur on the west coast of India

except the Indus. Later, Prashad, Hora and Nair (1940, p. 530) quot-

ing Cuvier and Valenciennes stated that M. Dussumier had obtained

the fish in Bombay. Moreover, Campbell! (1877, p. 362) had also

recorded a plentiful supply of Hilsa in the estuaries of the Narbada ;

and for the past 30 years it is imported in large quantities into Bombay

where, it forms the mainstay of quality fish during the monsoon. In

recent years, Prater (1940), Moses (1940 and 1942) and Pillay (1948)

also referred to Hilsa fisheries in and around the Gulf of Cambay.

These observers, dealing as they did, with fisheries in general, did

not pay special attention to Hilsa. Recently, the author had an oppor-

tunity to study the breeding habits and early life history of the fish in

the Narbada (Kulkarni 1950). Observations made on this occasion

show that this potential source of food and wealth deserves more careful

attention, both from a commercial and a scientific point of view. Details

of this fishery as a preliminary note to further study are given below.

Acknowledgment.—I am grateful to Dr. S. B. Setna, Director of

Fisheries, Bombay, for his constant encouragement and for the facili-

ties afforded to me for the compilation of this paper.

—_—

1 Published with the kind permission of the Director of Fisheries, Bombay.

HILSA FISHERIES IN THE NARBADA RIVER 615

Bocar NOWENCEATURE OF “Hel rsa

The Hilsa is known around Bombay as ‘Pala’, a similar term, viz.,

‘Palla’ being used to designate the same fish in Sind... The fish is,

however, known differently around Broach where it is called ‘Chaksi’

or ‘Chaski’. Considerable confusion arises in the common mind on

account of Hilsa (H. ilisha) being mistaken for a similar fish, Hilsa

tolt, both of which occur in the same areas. Even scientifically, the

differences, according to Day (1889) are not very pronounced as will

be apparent from the following :—

Hilsa toli (C. and V.) flilsa tlisha (Ham.)

D-16-17. D-18-19.

A-19-20. A-19-22.

~ L1.-39-40. LI.-46-49.

L. tr-13-14. ee ales tee dO;

Head 5 to 54 times in total Head 44 to 44 times in total

length. length.

12-13 scutes behind the ~ 14-15 scutes behind the

pelvics. pelvics.

The illustrations in text fig. 1 (a) and (b) show that in superficial

appearance both the fishes are similar and one can easily be mistaken for

the other. It seems that the confusion is common even in Bengal where

nye We ine

PE OTE

(5)

Text fiz. No.1: (a) Ailsa ilisha (Ham.)2 x ; (6) Ailsatolt (C. & V.) 2 x

Hilsa toli is known as Chandana Hilsa (Hora and Nair 1940b). H. toli

is known as ‘bhing’ around Bombay and ‘modar’ at Broach. The

616 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 49

local names of these two fish are thus quite distinct; yet, the similarity

of form and appearance leads to considerable confusion, in less critical

minds, so much so that in Broach, the names ‘chaksi’ and ‘medar’

are sometimes used—indiscriminately. Consistency in the use of the

names is lax. Another anomaly noted in the same area (Broach) is

that instead of using the name ‘chaksi’ for both sexes of Hilsa, only

gravid Hilsa is called chaksi and the male is termed ‘palva’ for trade

purposes. Even a male ‘bhing’ or a small size non-gravid female

‘bhing’ is classed as Palva. If a specimen is less than 6 ins., whether

of Palla or Bhing it is known as’ Palvi or Palavdi.

Pillay (1948, p. 58) records ‘palwa’ as the local name of H. ilisha

and ‘choksi’ (= chaksi) as that of H. tol: in the Kodinar-Madhwad

area. Moses (1940), on the other hand, mentions ‘palwa’ as the local

name of Clupea toli (= H. toli) and ‘modar’ as that of H. ilisha at

Baroda. My own examination of specimens obtained from Madhwad

establishes beyond doubt that the fish known as ‘palwa’ in Kodinar-

Madhwad area is H. tolt and the .‘chaksi’ as H. ilisha. Inquiries

raade with the importers of fish to Bombay from Kodinar area also

confirm these findings. This brings to mind the fact that observations

made by Pillay (1948) regarding ‘palwa’ taking it as H. ilisha, includ-

ing the statistical figures recorded by him (loc. cit. pp. 58-61), relate

in fact to H. toli and those for his ‘choksi’ are for H. ilisha.

The local names of this fish are thus confusing and much reliance

cannot be placed on the terms used by local fishermen without actual

examination of the specimens. These discrepancies are detailed here,

as otherwise scientific workers are apt to be misled by accepting

reports from less scrutinizing persons particularly because of the close

similarity of form and habitat of the two fishes concerned.

In order to facilitate field identification of specimens a rough field

key is furnished hereunder :—

Ff. toli Hi. ilisha

Scales «» Large (LI. 39-40). Small (L1, 46-49).

Head «. About 1/5 total length. About 1/4 total length.

Dorsal fin .». Upper margin distinctly Slightly concave.

concave.

Tail ... Long caudal lobes (almost Short caudal lobes (shorter

equal to the length of the than the length of the

head). : head).

Generally, the term Hilsa denotes H. ilisha in the entire north-eastern

India as well as in scientific literature, unless stated otherwise. This

usage of terms is also followed in this paper.

DISTRIBUTION’ -OF Hits A’ ON THe OW ESC ons rc

The references quoted earlier show that the occurrence of Hilsa

in the Narbada as well as around Bombay is known for over a century,

though in the intervening period some of the authors were not aware

of it. Recent observations have shown that the distribution of the

fish is not limited to this region only but extends over a much wider

area along the coast. Its occurrence on the Kathiawar coast (Pillay,

1948), in the Purna river near Navsari, (Moses, 1942) and the Ulhas

near Bassein (Kulkarni, 1950) has already been recorded. Further in-

HILSA FISHERIES IN THE NARBADA RIVER 617

vestigations have located this fish in the estuary of the Savitri river

near Bankot about 70 miles south of Bombay, as well as in the estuary

of the Kali river near Karwar. Chacko and Ganapathi (1949) record

its occurrence on the Malabar coast also. This indicates that al-

though there is no record from rivers in the intervening areas it may

be assumed that the distribution extends definitely up to Malabar coast

and may extend even further south.

Pillay’s record of Hilsa fishery off the coast of Kodinar (op. cit.)

as well as the occasional occurrence of this fish in the catches of the

gill nets of the fishermen of Bombay, fishing about ro to 15 miles

away from the coast, in December and January, lend additional support

to the assumption that Hilsa inhabit the offshore areas. However,

whether on the west coast, Hilsa sojourns in the estuaries for two

years in the same manner as it does, as stated by Sundara Raj (1937)

in case of the estuaries on the east coast of Madras, is yet to be

determined.

Another observation recorded was that though the river Tapti is so

close to the Narbada and has a fairly large and perennial flow, the number

of Hilsa ascending the river is very small, so much so that there is

hardly any Hilsa fishery during the monsoon. Although both rivers

are sufficiently wide at the mouth and have a voluminous flow of water,

yet very few Hilsa are found in the [apti. These rivers thus afford

an excellent venue to determine the possibility of homing instinct in

Hilsa as also to study the requirements of a successful run of Hilsa

by a comparison of the conditions obtaining in these two sheets of water.

Vi GGR AT ON -O FTES A EN: THE NARBADA

Recent observations indicate that though Hilsa has been found to

occur generally in the Gulf of Cambay as well as the coastal areas,

it is abundant only in the River Narbada. The river being the largest

on the west coast after the Indus, is by far the best haven for Hilsa

on this coast. It is, therefore, worthwhile to recount a few particulars

of this river. .

The Narbada has a total length of about 800 miles and has its

origin in the Amarkantak Hills in the Bilaspur District of C.P. (Madhya

Pradesh). It drains an area of about 36,400 sq. miles and flowing between

the ranges of the Vindhya and the Satpura Hills finally debouches into

the Gulf of Cambay. The only important town near its mouth is

Broach which is 200 miles north of Bombay. According to Campbell

(op. cit.), the discharge of the river in times of maximum floods is

of about two and a half million c.ft. per second. To give some idea

of the volume of water flowing down the Narbada, it has been estimated

that in a season with average rainfall of 36 inches, a lake 324 sq. miles

in area and 100 feet deep would be required to receive its waters. The

total quantity of water is also estimated to be about 4 the capacity

of the Gulf of Cambay. In fair weather the velocity of the river water

near Broach is 1.25 ft. per second or a little less than a mile per hour.

The width of the river is about a mile near Broach, the course thereafter

widening into an estuary whose shores where they fall away into the gulf

area are more than 13 miles apart. Nevertheless, the estuarine area is

rather limited when compared with the extensive estuarine area

of the Ganges, Indus etc. It can, however, be said that the Gulf of

618 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SQCIETY, Vol. 49

Cambay itself is a vast estuary owing to such rivers as the Sabarmati,

Mahi, Tapti, etc., emptying into the Gulf, in addition to the Narbada.

The migration of -Hilsa in this river as stated by the author (1950)

commences generally in July when the first floods occur in this area

and continues up to middle of September. The ascent of the fish in

the river does not, however, extend over a long distance, probably

on account of the course of the river being rather steep, passing as

it does through hilll ranges of both the Vindhya and the Satpuras.

The upstream limit of the ascent known so far is a series of rapids

from Garudeshwar to Gora and Makhadi villages about 100 miles

from the sea, which marks the lower or westward limit of steep hill

tracts over which the river flows with considerable rapidity during the

monsoon. ‘The range of migration of the fish is thus limited to the

lower reaches of the river and is certainly short as compared with the

extensive tracts travelled by the fish in the Indus, Ganges etc.

The extreme seaward point where shoals of Hilsa are sighted during

their migrations and are sought for by the fishermen, is the village

of Bhadbhoot about 18 miles downstream of Broach. The major

portion of fishing is done, however, near the town of Broach which

commands a large fishermen population hailing from the neighbour-

ing hamlets of Hansot, Vyajalpur, Maktanpore etc. There are twenty

other villages along the up-stream course of the river which under-

take Hilsa fishing in the season, Jhanore being the last important

fishing village.

The lunar periodicity in the ascent of Hilsa in the Narbada, has

already been elucidated by the author (1950) Fish is caught on a

commercial scale only during spring tide especially from the 12th

day of each lunar fortnight up to the first or second day after full

moon and new moon. Furthermore, it has been observed that even

during the spring tide days, the catches are at their maximum during

the high water period. This indicates that the duration represents

the peak period of movement of Hilsa and the netting operations be-

come more fruitful during this time only. Prospects of fishing after

the spring tide are so meagre that fishermen suspend fishing during

neap tide and utilize the time in mending nets and repairing boats.

Another interesting aspect of the migration of Hilsa in the Narbada

is the appearance of a small run after the normal monsoon run, which

begins in March and continues up to the middle of April. This run

being small, fish caught around Broach are consumed locally. Whether

the run really ceases after April or continues unnoticed and develops

into a major run in July and August has yet to be determined. It

may be mentioned,. however, that this run is similar to the small

run of Hilsa which occurs in the Indus and the Irravadi in March

and. April (Day..1873, p. 23).: The cause of this sum in, these lapse

rivers is attributed by Day (loc. cit.) to the melting of snow in summer

in their upper reaches causing a minor flood. Hora and Nair (1940)

(a) also observed a minor peak period in the breeding of Hilsa

in the Hooghly which they attributed to the flooding of the river

due to the Nor’Westers. In the Narbada, however, there is no such

possibility, as at no stage, the river passes through any snow clad

mountains and there is not the slightest increase in the level of water

in March and April.

HILSA FISHERIES IN THE NARBADA RIVER 619

METHODS OF HILSA FISHING IN THE NARBADA

The usual gear employed for large scale capture of Hilsa in the

Narbada river is sunken drift-nets. They are ordinary drift nets,

but, instead of floating near the surface they are set almost near the

bottom and drift at that level. Each piece is about 72 feet long

and 7 feet deep. Ten or twelve such pieces are joined together end

to end as a single unit and are allowed to drift as a vertical wall.

The nets are generally made of twisted hemp with a mesh of 5”

(stretched mesh). Triangular pieces of burnt clay with a hole in the

centre or some other similar articles are tied to the lead line and used

as sinkers. About 16 floats, generally made of dry gourds are tied

to the cork line (head rope) to keep the entire net erect in the water.

The net is similar to the ‘Palwa Jal’ or ‘Hilsa net’ described by

Pillay (1948), which fishes at the surface. The position of floats on

the surface gives the impression that the net is on the surface, but

actually there is a long string between the floats and the net (text

fig. No. 2). This length is adjusted according to the depth of water

‘

()

‘

“

‘

CX)

Wars

RRO RRR

LORE RER. SOS ox j

ih be =~“2

Text fig. No.2: A part of Hilsa net (diagrammatic).

fished so that the net remains in reality near the bottom of the river.

In some places the earthen sinkers dangle half a foot below the

head line (foot rope), so that the chances of the net getting entangled

into the bottom debris are reduced.

The boats used for the fishing are all flat bottom boats of about

a ton in capacity varying from 20 to 30 feet in overall length. Each

boat has a crew of three or four, one of whom is a skipper (‘tindel’) who

manages the boat while the others operate the nets. After the net is

620 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

cast, one end of it is tied to the boat which also drifts- along -with

the net. It is paid out across the stream almost at right angles to

the current so that it drifts downwards slowly and the fish swimming

upstream are enmeshed in it. After about half an hour, the net is

hauled up to remove the catch and is paid out again for further

operations. During spring tide period, these operations are continued

day and night, and are suspended only when the catches dwindle

towards the end of spring tide period.

‘Jamda nets’.—In addition to professional fishermen who fish with

drift nets, there is another class of people, viz., ‘Bhil’ fishermen who

catch the ascending Hilsa with small hand nets known as ‘Jamda’

nets. They follow the hazardous method of negotiating the flooded

river on.a float made of gourds or dry pumpkins and catch the fish

in their purse-like hand nets. The float is known as ‘ghodi’ which

is made by securing together three dry gourds with coir string. Two

of them are tied close together on one side and the third is attached

with a broad strap in between. The-gourds are encased in a mesh-

work of coir string so that they do not slip and are less exposed to

the danger of damage. A Bhil fisherman rides this float (ghody)

which supports him and keeps him above the surface of the water.

He can thus remain erect in the water with his hands and legs free.

In his hands he holds his small ‘Jamda’ net which appears like an

open bag (text fig. No. 3), while his legs are free to steer his course

through the water. The net has an 8 ft. long slightly curved rod which

twat!

Vane

q \Y, ;

Witines

ans

= eae

eee eee,

a; ax

BR RRR

CON %

See

ng: %

ies

ene

ob, Uf

Gea

Text fig. No. 3: The ‘ Jamda’ net in operation (diagrammatic).

forms half of the upper margin or the mouth of the net, the other half

portion of the mouth being formed of only a string line. To both

these portions a purse-like netting is attached which together forms

a complete net. When the net is to be operated, another straight rod,

4 feet long, is attached by its proximal end to the middle of the

curved rod and to its distal end the marginal string of the net is

HILSA FISHERIES IN THE NARBADA RIVER 621

stretched and attached in bow-and-arrow fashion. When ready

for use, the curved rod appears like a bow, the marginal string of

the netting as the string of the bow and the straight rod takes the

place of an arrow mounted on a bow as shown in the illustration

(iext fig. No. 3).

The fisherman carries the gear on his back, but when he jumps

into the flooded river, he mounts the float and travels downstream

with the net in his hands. In this manner, he drifts with the flood

with the net immersed in water, the open mouth of the net facing

the ascending fish. He heads forward in this way through the middle

of the river, where the water is sometimes 20 to 25 feet deep. As

soon as an ascending Hilsa strikes the net, he immediately lifts. the

net andsecures the fish. In order fo..store the catch, a string ‘is

passed through the gill opening of the fish and kept floating in the

water with the help of another small dry pumpkin tied to the other

end of the string. The fisherman thus dispenses with the encumbrance

of carrying his catch and keeps his hands and legs free for his job.

On the Narbada, the ‘Bhil’ fishermen wait on the banks for the

right time of the tide—,the high tide period representing the

maximum movement of the fish—and then enter the river in groups

with their nets. The nets appear like bows and arrows stretched

taut and give the impression of a small army invading the river which

also appears tumultuous and sullen red owing to the muddy flood

water flowing swiftly downwards. In the stream, they drift in a

row of 8 or 10 in a line and thus cross about five miles at a time. At ,

Jhanore, a fishing village about 12 miles east of Broach, about 100

such ‘Jamdawallas’ jump into the river and drift up to Nicora, another

village about five miles downstream. The catches made by these

nets are not large, being about 5 to ro fish per head.

The method is certainly interesting but at the same time hazardous.

It is identical with that adopted by the fishermen in Sind (Day 1873,

p. 66) where they float down on a gourd or a hollow earthen pot

and catch fish by purse net. Further details of this method are lack-

ing to facilitate comparison, but in one of the methods, where an

earthen pot is used as a float, a spear is used to pierce the ascending

fish, according to Sebastien Manrique (as quoted by Prashad et al 1940).

Most of the fish caught by the professional fishermen with gill nets

are gravid females heavy with roe and weighing on an average 4 lb.

a-piece. Their lengths vary from 17" to 20”. The males are fewer

in number and are comparatively smaller than the gravid females.

The paucity of males in the catch may be explained by the possibility

that the males being comparatively slender bodied are not ordinarily

gilled in the nets intended for gravid females which are heavily built.

This assumption is supported by the observation that the ‘Jamda’

net which has small meshes (2}” stretched mesh) catches a larger

number of males along with a few ripe females.

Dr SeoOsnAr wp LP ORENTLIALETY OF THE. VIEL D

Fish caught by many fishermen is collected together at the land-

ing site by merchants, who, advance money to them for nets, boats

and other accessories and receive fish at a predetermined rate. Hardly

10% of fish is sold in the local market in the fresh condition. The bulk

622 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

of the fish with roe is packed in wooden boxes in ice and despatched to

Bombay by rail, where there is a consistent demand for it. Part of

the ice required by the trade is available locally at Broach, while

additional supplies are obtained from Bombay. Fish landed at centres

with a limited local demand and absence of export facilities to Bombay

are cured with salt. The roe is cured and marketed separately.

Collection of eccurate statistics of quantities of Hilsa landed

annually, has been difficult as catches of H. ilisha and H., toli are

generally mixed up both at the collecting as weil as consuming centres.

From information gleaned from fishermen as well as from the records

of fish merchants, it is possible to arrive at a rough estimate. Each

boat, in a normal season of five spring tides, (from July to middle of

September), it is estimated, collects about a thousand fish. The number

of fishing boats in the Narbada which are annually engaged in Hilsa

fisheries is about goo. Thus, the total catch of Hilsa alone in the

river totals about 16,00,000 lb. per year which at the present retail

rate 1s worth Rs. 10,00,000.

Fishermen complain of a general diminution in the catch of fish in

the past few years. A possible explanation may be the intensified fish-

ing from the increased number of boats in recent years. This naturally

results in smaller catches per unit of effort. Although there are no

accurate statistics to verify this presumption, observations at broach,

as well as the records of fish imported into Bombay by rail from

there, do point to a definite diminution in the former catches of fish.

Several factors may account for the diminished yield. It may be the

result of (1) natural fluctuation in the population of the fish in the

estuary or (2) a definite reduction in the rate of replenishment of the

fish population due to the depletion of stock. The reduced catches

might also have represented the lowest level in a period of abundance,

similar to the five year cycle recorded by Hera and Nair (1940b) in

respect of the Hilsa fisheries of Bengal. Statistics are necessary to

show whether there is a real decline in the fisheries, requiring man’s

intervention for their restoration, or if it is simply a temporary natural

fluctuation which will remedy itself. All explanations are bound to be

merely speculative in the absence of systematic observations conducted

on a scientific basis on the spot. Only then can remedial measures be

suggested.

SUMMARY

Occurrence of Hilsa in the Narbada was recorded as early as 1877.

Considerable confusion prevails regarding the correct identity of Hilsa

ilisha and H. toli both of which are somewhat similar in appearance

and habitat. Local names are also confusing at some fishing centres.

Distribution of Hilsa ilisha on the western coast of peninsular India

extends from the Kathiawar coast in the north to the Malabar coast in the

south. In the Narbada, the migration of the fish extends only up to

about 80 to 100 miles upstream, few if any ascending the adjoining river

Tapti.

HILSA FISHERIES IN THE NARBADA RIVER 623

Hilsa fishing is generally conducted in the river Narbada with sunken

drift nets, but another interesting method of fishing with ‘jamda’ nets

is practised by Bhii fishermen (aboriginal tribe) who float on dry gourds

in the flooded river for hours and catch the ascending fish. Hilsa fish-

ing constitutes a valuable source of food, most of the fish being ex-

ported to Bombay in ice during the monsoon. Depletion of the fishery

due to intensive fishing is, however, feared. Without established data

no satisfactory solution can be devised to counteract the prodlem of

diminished yield. The Narbada offers a suitable venue for detailed

investigation.

List OF REFERENCES

1. Campbell, J. M. (1877): Bombay Gazetteer for Broach and Surat, Pp.

340-364,

2. Chacko, P. I., and Ganapathi, S. V. (1949): On the Bionomics of Hilsa

ilisha (Ham.) in the Godavari river. Journ. Madras Uni xviii.

3. Day, F. (1873): Report on the freshwater fish and fisheries of India and

Burmah, Pp. 23, 24 and 66.

4. Day, F. (1878): The Fishes of India, p. 640.

5. Day, F. (1889): The Fauna of British India—Fishes I.

6. Hora, S. L. (1938): <A preliminary note on the spawning grounds and

bionomics of the so called Indian Shad, Hilsa ilisha (Ham.) in the river Ganges,

Rec. Ind. Mus. xl: 147-158.

“4; Hora, S.. Li, and Nair, K. K. (1940a): Further observation on the

bionomics and fishery of the Indian Shad JHilsa ilisha (Ham.) in Bengal waters.

Rec. Ind. Mus. xlii: 35-50.

8. Hora, S. L., and Nair, K K. (1940b): The Jatka fish of Eastern Bengal

and its significance in the fishery of the so called Indian Shad, Hilsa ilisha (Ham.)

Rec. Ind. Mus, xlii:; 553-565.

9. Kulkarni, C. V. (1950): Breeding habits, eggs and early life history of

the Indian Shad, Hilse ilisha (Ham.) in the Narbada river, Proc. Nat. Inst.

Sci. India, xvi, (3): 169-176.

~ 10. Moses, S. T. (1942): Fisheries of the Gujarat coast. Journ. Gujarat

Research Soc. iv (2): 66-82.

11. Moses, S. T. (1940): A statistical account of the fish supply of Baroda

City: Bull. III Baroda Fisheries department.

12. Pillay, T. V. R. (1948): Marine Fisheries of Kodinar in Kathiawar.

Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. 48 (1): 47-61.

13. Prashad, Hora and Nair (1940): Observations on the seaward migration

of the so called Indian Shad, Hilsa ilisha (Ham.), Rec. Ind. Mus. xlii (IV): 529-

552.

14. Prater, S..H. (1940): Some food fishes of the Indian seas No. V The

Illustrated Weekly of India, October 6, 1940.

15. Sundara Raj, B. (1917): On the habits of the Hilsa (Clupea ilisha) and

their artificial propagation in the Coleroom, Proc. 4th Ind. Sci. Cong. P. clxxxiv.

16. Sundara Raj, B. (1937): Madras Fisheries Department

Administrative

Report (1935-36) P. 38.

THE GENUS DIOSCOREA AN BOMBAY STATE

H. SANTAPAU, S.J.

(With three plates

Whilst checking my Khandala specimens of the genus Dioscorea

in Kew Herbarium, I had occasion to examine a large number of

sheets of this genus, all of which had been carefully checked by

I. H. Burkill, the joint author of ‘An Account of the Genus Dioscorea

in the East’ published in Voi. 14 of the Annals of the Roval Botanic

Garden, Sibpur, Calcutta. In the course of my work I invited Mr.

Burkill to go through my specimens, who very kindly acceded to my

request and found several species among my plants not mentioned

in Cooke’s Flora. On my return to India I paid special attention to

Dioscorea and in consequence have accumulated a fair number of

sheets from various parts of Bombay State.

In the field this genus is a fairly clear one, or perhaps it should be

called unmistakable, even when the plant is only in leaf. When the

fruits are avilable, there is no possibility of a mistake. Dioscorea

is well represented in Bombay by a number of more or less extensive

climbers with bright green leaves. In the following notes I make

no claim to originality; I have made extensive use of Prain and

Burkill’s Account and of my own field notes; to the Bombay localities

mentioned in the Account, I add those found in the collections at

present in Blatter Herbarium.

Annual plants with usually very jong and leafy climbing stems

and usually large underground tubers. Tubers annual, very variable

in shape, size and number per plant; some plants have -very long,

cylindrical tubers going deep into the soil; others have globose or

depressed-globose tubers reaching very large sizes; in some cases

the tubers are solitary, one for each aerial stem, in other cases there

are several tubers at the base of the plant. - Starch is stored in the

tubers, which are usually soft; protection against the depredations

of wild animals is effected either by burying the tubers deep in the

soil or by poisonous chemical substances in the tubers, which then

do not require deep burying.

The direction of twining is not only constant, but in the opinion

of Prain and Burkill is distinctive and can be made use of for the

division of the genus into sections. The length of the stem varies

from but a few cms. to over 30 m.; its structure is also distinct: in

some cases there are four or more wings (D. alata), or the stem

and other parts may be armed with rather soft prickles especially

in the lower parts. The leaves are all petiolate, the petioles having

a fairly large pulvinus at either end; the blade is generally simple,

but a number of Bombay species are 3-5 foliate. The leaf nerves

THE GENUS DIOSCOREA IN BOMBAY STATE 625

are generally conspicuous on both sides and can serve for identifica-

tion purposes, as the numbers are fairly constant for a given species.

In the case of D. oppositifolia var. dukhunensis the leat margins are

typically hyaline and distinctive, in the other species they are plain.

Flowers are always unisexual and generally dioecious and very

small; the inflorescence, however, becomes couspicuous on account ol

the large number of flowers produced. The colour of the flowers is

not striking, green, greenish yellow, cream or rusty-red; some ot

our Bombay plants are noticeable on account of tie large masses of

creamy-white flowers. Pollination seems to be by insects, but data

on this point are very scanty. The trimerous arrangement of the

flowers is clear and constant; sepals 3, petals 3, stamens usuaily 6,

in a few species stamens 3, alternating with 3 staminodes, stigmas

3 bifid. In the male flowers there is a rudimentary ovary that often

is represented by a small cone or by three minute points. In the

female flower there are usually 6 minute staminodes. The capsules

are always composed of three carpels, each with two seeds; the seeds

are wind-borne, and to that end they are helped by a fairly large wing

which may go all round the seed or may only grow towards the basal

side. As regards the size and shape of the capsules, there are two

main types: in one of these the wings are narrow and long, so that

the whole capsule is at least as long as broad or often even longer;

in the other type, the wings are very broad, so that the capsule is con-

siderably broader than long. Dehiscence takes piace in two ways,

according to the structure and direction of the capsule. In the section

Enantiophyllum, which includes D. oppositifolia, wallichu, alata and

belophylla of our Bombay species, the margin of the wing dehisces all

along and the seeds glide out of the capsule; in the rest of the

Bombay species, the capsule dehisces in the apical part only and

being reflexed hold the seed loose until a jerk sets them free. The

seeds are large for their weight, and once free, may glide for

considerable distances in the breeze.

From time immemorial the yams, or tubers of the genus Dioscorea,

have been used in these parts of India as articles of food; it is on

record that Indian sailors carried yams in their ships during their

journeys along the coast or from India to Africa, and that the

Portuguese learned the value of yams for the same purpose from

Indian sailors; in the 16 and 17th centuries yams were extensively

sold in the Lisbon markets and were exported by sailors to America.

Chemical analysis of ten different species of Indian Duoscorea

have yielded the following results: fats 1.02% of the dry weight;

albuminoids 10.57%; soluble carbohydrates 77.01%; fibres 5.16%

and ash 5.94%; these results closely resemble those obtained from

the chemical- analysis of the potato tuber (Hooper, in Journ. As. Soc.

Beng., N.S., 7: 57, 1911). A closer analysis made in the Philippine

Islands by Kingman and Doryland (Philipp. Agric. Rev. 10: 348

1917) gave these results: moisture 38—77% ; starch 15 —30.36% ;

proteins 0.7I—3.76% ; various sugars about 5.5%.

Several of the Indian species contain a poisonous substance

called dioscorine; it is bitter and behaves like a picrotoxin, causing

626 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

paralysis of the central nervous system. This poison has been de-

tected by Hooper in D. hispida and in lesser amounts in D. bulbifera,

pentaphylla and alata. Even in the more innocuous tubers there is

a substance of uncertain nature that acts as an irritant poison on the

human skin, throat, etc. Perhaps for this reason the yams are used

in India as a poultice to reduce swellings and also as an antidote

against snake- and scorpion-bites.

The tubers of D. hispida and of other Indian species form an

article of food in time of famine. But careful cleansing is necessary

to remove the alkaloid dioscorine. For this purpose the yams are

sliced or rasped, then boiled to destroy any resistance due to the

vitality of the cells, and then salted, this last being done possibly to

draw out the sap by osmosis; salt water from the sea is often employed,

for this purpose. Washing in either sea water or salted water must

be carried out at least for 3 to 4 days, or if salt is not plentiful, then

the yams must be washed in running water for a much longer period,

or if running water is not available, then numerous changes of still

water for a long period are sufficient. A simple test to know if the

washing is complete is to burn a slice of the yam: if it burns quietly,

it is safe to eat; but if it “writhes’ as it burns, it is a sign that the

washing is not complete. This writhing is probably due to the pres-

ence of the poisonous alkaloid that swells considerably at high

temperature.

Prain and Burkill, speaking of D. pentaphylla, loc. cit. p. 167,

write: ‘Dymock states that the flowers are eaten, but no one -has

confirmed this remarkable statement, and the word ‘flowers’ is perhaps

a lapsus calami for bulbils.’ Dymock’s statement, however remarkable

it may appear, I am able to substantiate from my own evidence;

for over ten years I have seen my Katkari and Thakur collectors

working with me in the field carefully gathering large quantities of

the flowers or flower buds to be cooked and eaten as vegetables; the

Thakurs of Khandala seem to appreciate such flowers rather highly.

In the following pages I have given several species not mentioned

by Cooke in his Flora, and changed the names of others for reasons

that will become apparent in the course of this paper.

Key TO THE DIOSCOREAS OF BOMBAY STATE.

! (After Prain & Burkill).

Stems climbing by twining to the left:

Male flowers with a disc; stems prickly; leaves simple ;

capsules broader than long; seeds winged all round ... esculenta.

Male flowers without a disc; leaves simple or compound ;

seeds winged towards the base only: A

Leaves simple with a large gland at the tip ... bulbifera.

Leaves compound :

Stamens 6 ... hispida.

Stamens 3, staminodes 3:

Plant with a dense grey pubescence; simple leaves

rather plentiful ‘

Plant with rusty-red or dirty-white hairs; simple

leaves at the most only few ~ oor ... pentaphylla.

tomentosa.

THE GENUS DIOSCOREA IN BOMBAY STATE

Stems climbing by twining to the right:

Male spikes pruduced among ine icaves, not on special

leauess branches, or near the ends in the axus ot

gradually diminisning leaves or of bracts; leat base

rounded; margins hyaline

Male spikes on special flowering and leafless branches;

Special flowering branches short, sometimes much shorter

than the spikes themselves; capsule wings broader

than long ot

Special flowering branches usually longer than the

leaves and much longer than the spikes:

Male spikes with zigzag axes; stems winged

Male spikes not zigzag, stems not winged

627

oppositifolia

var. dukhanens,

wallichit,

alata,

belophylla.

Another Key Based mainly on the Vegetative Characters of Dioscorea.

Leaves simple ;

Leaves opposite ;

Leaves subsagittate or subhastate ovate

Leaves cordate ovate with very straight sinus

Leaves acute er rounded at the base

Leaves alternate;

Leaves usually much longer than broad:

Base rounded or subacute or subcordate

Base cordate with very, straight sinus es

Leaves orbicular or nearly so, about as broad as long:

Leaves 7-nerved from the base

Leaves 9-l3-nerved from the base

Leaves 5-nerved ftrona the base:

Stems winged

Stems not winged

Leaves compound :

Leaves 3-foliate, glabrous or nearly so when old

Leaves 3- and 5-foliate mixed; glabrous or nearly so

when old a

Leaves 5-foliate below, simple above; lower surface

persistently white-tomentose

alata,

belophylla.

Oppositifolia,

oppostirfolia,

belophylla.

wallichii.

esculenta.

alata,

bulbtfera.

hispida.

pentaphylla.

tomentosa.

Note.—There is great variability in the arrangement and division of the leaves,

opposite and alternate being present on the same plant, simple and compound

leaves being also found on the same plant but not intermixed; the above key

applies to the general arrangement and structure of the leaves.

Dioscorea esculenta

TOU Wischer,

357365

Burkill, in Gard. Bull.

Straits Settl. 1

1510; Prain & Burkill, Ann. 14 (1): 80-93, tt.

- 396,

De-acuicata, Linn... Herb. ‘Amb. 23, no. 12, 1754, & Amoen. Acad.

AN:

1922 Bin G: 206, 1892; Cooke, 2:;-759.

Ge, r7cq, (non Linn.,.1753))3, Graham) 218;

Desiascieulutar Koxb. Eort.; Beng. 72, 1814 & Fl. Ind. 3:

Nairne, 345.

AD) ° Sor,

Deespinosa, Roxb,, ex. Wall. Cat--5103, 1830 (excl. B,C, jG. &

-H); FBI. 6: 291 quoad plant. mascul.

628 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Tuberous roots many at the end of fibrous roots, globose or elliptic

or cylindrical, usually about 12 cms. long. Stems puberuious or

pubescent or villous, more or less prickly especially near the base.

Leaves alternate, cordate, membranous, up to 10 cms. long and

about as broad, g-13-nerved, acute or acuminate and mucronate,

glabrous or nearly so above, sparingly covered with soft hairs beneath;

petioles often with very small prickles, more or less pubescent, 5-10

cms. long. Bulbils none.

Male flowers in long spike-like racemes; axis of inflorescence

up to zo cms. long; bracts ovate, acuminate, scarious, i-nerved,

hairy on the -back, 2.5 mm. long; pedicels up to. 1.25: unm jong,

pubescent. Perianth cup-shaped, pubescent without. Sepals broadly

lanceolate, acute, 1.75 mm. long. Petals similar but slightly smaller.

Filaments about 1 mm. long, anthers about as long, introrse. Rudi-

mentary ovary a small cone.

Female flowers like the males, axis up to 4o cms. long; bracts

ovate, acuminate, pubescent, 2 mm. long, with scarious margins;

bracteoles similar to the bracts but much smaller. Sepals lanceolate-

ovate, obtuse, 1.5x0.5 mm., pubescent outside, glabrous. within.

Petals similar to the sepals but more acute. Staminodes 6, minute.

Stigmas as three pairs of reflexed hooks. Ovary densely pubescent.

Capsule reflexed, rarely produced. Ripe seeds not seen.

Distribution: Cultivated in India and eastwards to the islands

of the Pacific, northwards to Japan; grown at low altitudes, from o

to goo m. above sea-level. Its original country is doubtful, but seems

to be the Indo-Chinese region.

Localities: Sparingly cultivated in Bombay State, but largely

imported from Goa under the name of ‘Goa Potato’, perhaps a

mistranslation of the Marathi ‘Gora Alu’. Bassein, Burkill 16,605;

Ratnagiri district, vide Prain & Burkill.

Dioscorea bulbifera Linn., Sp. Pl. 1033, 1753; Wight, Icon. t. 878;

Cooke... 2; 758; Hischers 15115 -Prain & Burkill) \ Anna.

tt. 49-51.

D. sativa. Thunb., Fl. Jap. 151, re4ge Bi Oize5m excl a):

cliffortiana) (non Linn.).

Tuber solitary, globose to pyriform, with long roots prodiuced

above the tuber. Stem soft, up to 30 m. long, never prickly, cylindri-

cal or slightly angled, glabrous. Bulbils many, variable in size and

shape. Leaves alternate, simple, broadly ovate-cordate, blade up to

20 cms. diam., 5-nerved, glabrous; petiole as long as the blade or

shorter, ridged at the back, glabrous.

Male flowers in long pendulous spikes, which are fascicled in the

axils of leaves, or more often in those of bracts on leafless branch

endings; flowers white or pale rose in colour, sweetly~ scented.

Sepals 1.25 mm. jong or longer, almost linear. Petals similar to the

sepals but narrower. Stamens 6, about half as long as the perianth.

Female flowers white or greenish white, in usually solitary

pendulous spikes. Perianth as in the male but shorter. Sepals lin:

ear-lanceolate, subacute, 1-1.5 mm. long; petals similar but shorter

THE GENUS DIOSCOREA IN BOMBAY- STATE 629

and blunter. Staminodes about + as long as the perianth. Stigmas

as three pairs of recurved hooks. Ovary reflexed after flowering.

Capsules reflexed, straw-coloured when ripe, the wings rounded at

both ends, 20-22 x8-g mm. Seeds winged on the basal side only,

brown.

Distribution: ‘Tropics of the Old World and a little beyond the

tropics, from the Guinea Coast of Africa to the remotest islets of the

Low Archipelago in the Pacific in association with rain forests. The

African variety anthropophagorum has been introduced into tropical

mmerica. ' (Prain’& Burkill, loc. cit) p. 117). It is-found from sea

level to 1450 m. altit.

Localities: Konkan: Villages south of Surat, Burkill; South

-Thana, Ryan 11693; Bassein, Burkill, Santapau 7327! Elephanta

Island, Boivin 841; Trombay, Meebold 8747; Kalyan, Hooper 23370,

34638, 34639; Panjarapura, 9 Km. E. of Kalyan, Santapau 225.7!

Parsik Hill, Santapau 225.9! Tansa Lake, Santapau 2675! Vehar

’ Lake, Salsette Isl., Santapau 10213! Andheri, Santapau 225.11! 965!

971! Mulgaon, Salsette Isl., Santapau 225.10! Bandra, Acland 1196!

1197! Blatt. Herb. 26589! W. Ghats: Mahableshwar, Birdwood;

Matheran, Birdwood; Khandala, Blatt. Herb. 25881! Santapau 818!

2539! 2540! 2541! 6781 !.10163! ror173!: ‘(North Kanara: Bet-

ween Haliyal and Yellapur, Sedgwick 2799! Yellapur, Bell 3102!

Dharwar, Young; Belgaum, Ritchie 728; Londa, Cooke; Deccan:

Nasik, Hooper 34466; 34467; Purandhar, Santapau! W. Khan-

desh:- Akrant Plateau, Burkill: 33233, 33360:

Dioscorea hispida Dennst., Schl. Hort. Malab. 15, 1818; Merrill,

Enum. Phil- Fl. Pl.°1: 217; Fischer,.1510; Prain &. Burkill,

188-202, tt. 77-78. ,

D. amoena Wight, Icon. t. 811, 1840 (per sphalm. pro daemona).

D. daemona Roxb., Hort. Beng. 72, 1814 & Fl. Ind.- 3: 805,

Teg2avy iis Icons, t. Sir; ls bl, 1G: 280, ,

D. triphylla Linn., in Stickmann, Herb. Amb. -2

Meads Ae 1st, 1759 (non Linn. Sp Pl 17

Nairne 344.

3, 1854, & Amoen.

53); Graham 218;

Tuber depressed-globose, often lobed, and at times very large

(up to 35.5 kgs. or even more), very poisonous; roots produced

above the tuber. Stems usually prickly, up to 8-g mm, diam., and

up to 30 m. long, at first finely pubescent, at length glabrescent.

Bulbils not seen. Leaves alternate, 3-foliate; petiole up to 20 cms.

long, pubescent; the middle leaflet elliptic or elliptic-oblong, acute

Or acuminate, 3-nerved from the base; lateral leaflets unequal-sided,

5-7-nerved, smaller than the middle one; all leaflets softly silky above

when young, at length glabrescent; lower surface with glands and

retaining its hairs until maturity. Petiolules abour 1 cm. long,

pubescent.

Male flowers fragrant, in dense paniculate spikes; axis of the

spike 6-10 mm. long. Bracts subacute, shortly acuminate, pubescent ;

bracteole subcircular, slightly concave, hairy outside. Sepals

630 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 49

orbicular, pubescent at the back, 0.75 mm. long and broad. Petals

slightly stouter and longer, broadly ovate, glabrous. Stamens 6,

0.6 mm. long. Rudimentary ovary a minute cone.

Female flowers in elongated, simple, solitary spikes, which are

up to 20 cms. long; axis pubescent; bracts triangular lanceolate,

pubescent, 2-2.5 mm. long; bracteole similar, but much smaller.

Sepals pubescent, ovate-lanceolate. Petals slightly smaller.

Staminodes very small. Stigmas broad and short. Capsules re-

flexed, glabrous or nearly so when ripe, up to 45 mm. long; wings

semi-elliptic or semi-ovate with a short margin. Séeds brown, winged

towards the base, wings up to 27 mm, long, 9 mm. broad.

Distribution: ‘Tropics of Asia in the regions of the Rain-forests

or a httle beyond, from India to Formosa, the Philippine islands

and New Guinea’. From sea level to about 1200 m. altit.

Prain and Burkill distinguish 5 varieties, of which only var.

daemona is found in Bombay.

Localities: 5. Gujerat: ‘Surat Dt:, Budull; Khandesh:

LTaloda, Burkill; Concan: Thana Dt., Burkill; Tungar range, 1.5

km. NW. of Brahmanpada, Santapau 225.5! 225.6! Ratnagiri district,

Burkill; N. Kanara: Haliyal, Sedgwick 2829! without precise

locality, Burkill; Deccan: Sinhgarh Hill, Kulkarni, Garade, Bhide.

Dioscorea tomentosa Koenig ex Roxb., Hort. Beng. 105, 1814;

Sprengel, Pl. Pugil. Sec. 92, 13155) Meyne an Rot Nov tae

Sp. 371, 18213 Roxb:, Fi. Ind. 3: 805, 133257 Wight, leon: ar

815 (descript. in p. 7 tantum partim); FBI. 6: 289; Fischer,

1511; Prain & Burkill, Ann. 156-160, tt. 56-57. .

Tubers several, long, cylindrical, sometimes branched. Stem up

to 20 m. long, sparingly prickly, when young densely white-

tomentose, when old ridged near the base. Bulbils not seen. Leaves

very variable, 5-foliate below, gradually passing into simple leaves

near the ends of the branches; petioles up to 12 cms. long; middle

leaflet largest, up to 15 x5 cms., elliptic ovate, abruptly acuminate;

upper surface more or less pubescent, lower surface densely white

tomentose. Lateral leaflets smaller and more or less unequal-sided ;

petiolules 2-6 mm. long. Simple leaves broadly ovate or cordate,

5-7-nerved.

Male flowers in paniculate racemes; axis of inflorescence densely

pubescent. Buds subglobose. Bracts ovate to broadly ovate, placed

just below the flower, about 1 mm. long, densely pubescent outside,

‘margins scarious. Bracteoles similar but smaller. Sepals pubescent

outside, about 1 mm, long. Petals similar to sepals, but slightly

smaller and less pubescent. Stamens 3, shorter than the sepals;

staminodes 3, about as long as or a little longer than the stamens,

fish-tailed at the apex. Rudimentary ovary a small three-lobed wart.

Female flowers in long simple spikes, which are solitary or two

together in the axils of leaves and up to 35 cms. long and pubescent ;

bracts ovate, acuminate, 2 mm. long. Sepals thick, ovate. Petals

thinner, smaller, ovate, subacute. Staminodes 6, small. Stigma

with three pairs of short rays. Ovary 6 mm. long in_ flower.

THE GENUS DIOSCOREA IN BOMBAY STATE 631

Vapsules up to 25 mm. long, the wings rounded at both ends, but

broadening upwards, 24x10 mm., pubescent. Seeds winged towards

the base of the loculus, 15-20 mm. long.

Distribution: South of Bombay State to Ceylon, from sea level

forie5o m. altit.

Localities: Belgaum, Ritchie 1238; between Belgaum and

Sutgatta, Young.

Dioscorea pentaphyila Linn., Sp. Pl. 1032, 1753; Wight, Icon. t.

Sra Dalz? & Gibst 247: Blt 6 = 280; 'Cooke,*2:°757; Fischer,

Rotiwe Prain & burl, /Ann. 160-470, \tt.-57 & 67.

D. Jacquemonti Hook. f., FBI. 6: 290, 1892.

D.inphylla Linn.,') Sp. Pl. 1032) 1753.

Tubers usually simple, variable in size, long. Stems up to 7

mm. diam., usually prickly, sparingly hairy when young, glabrous

when old, up to 10 m. long. Bulbils many, globose or cylindrical.

Leaves alternate, petiole up to 8 cms. long, rusty-pubescent; leaflets

3-5, the middle one longer than the rest and equal-sided; lateral leatiets

unequal-sided, smaller, all pubescent or glabrous above, more pube-

scent and glandular beneath; petiolules rusty, not more than 5 mm.

long.

Male flowers in racemes towards the ends of the branches; axis

up to 3 cms. long, pubescent; bracts just below the flowers, usually

broader than long; bracteoles broadly ovate to broadly lanceolate.

Sepals broadly lanceolate, subacute, glabrous or pubescent outside,

1 mm. long. Petals broader, blunter.and-more glabrous than the

sepals. Stamens 3, half as long-as the sepals; staminodes 3, a little

longer than.the stamens, bifid or tongue-shaped at the apex. .- Rudi-

mentary ovary a small cone with three scarcely separated tips.

Female flowers in pendulous spikes, which are 1-3 in leaf-axils;

axis up to 25 cms. long, pubescent, angled; bracts broadly ovate,

acuminate. Sepals as in the male, but more deltoid. Petals as in

the male, but a little thicker... Staminodés very minute. Stigmas

as three rays bifid outwards. Ovary pubescent, reflexed after polli-

nation. Capsules up to 20 mm, long, rounded at the base, retuse at

the apex, the wings semi-elliptic, up to 6 mm. broad, brown when ripe

and more or less glabrous. Seeds winged only towards the. base

with a brown wing. igs!

Distribution: Vhroughout the wetter parts of tropical Asia, and

eastwards to the furthest isles of the Pacific: From sea level to

reo m. altit. 2 .

This is a very variable plant; Prain and Burkill distinguish 16

different varieties; the following key gives the differences for common

Bombay ones:

Tubers elongated to more than twice their dia-

meter:

White hair abundant about the male flowers

and present elsewhere . . i ea, nae,

632 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

White hair not abundant about the male

flowers, though present :

Bulbils not elongated like a bolster we. Jacquemontit.

Bulbils elongated like a bolster se ereedet:

Tubers not elongated to more than twice their

diameter we. communis.

The flower buds are collected by the Katkaris and Thakurs and

used as vegetables; I have often seen my assistants in the field coilect-

ing them in large quantities to be used in curries, etc.

Localities: S. Gujerat: Surat Dt., Burkill; Co nean: Thana

Dt., Virar, Ryan 2346; Pelhar, Ryan 1261; Nagh Forest, Ryan

1209; Bassein, Chibber, Santapau! Mumbra, Santapau! Kanheri

Caves, Santapau! Salsette Island, not common, Santapau! W.

(:hats: Mahableshwar, Hooper 34608, 34609, 34610; Birdwood;

Cooke; R. K. Das 34486; Santapau! Panchgani, Bhide 1120; Khan-

dala, Cooke; Gammie; Meebold 8798; Santapau 225.1, 4, 14! 515A!

522A! 523Ah 555A! 896! 1172atl 1283! eco2e e538" on ecimoe

10175! 10221! 10222! 10290! 10291! Purandhar, Bhide; Santapau!

Eklund 268! Lessczynski 343! 374! Sinhgarh Hill, Bhide; Lanaoli,

Garade; Between Poona and Khandala, jJacquemont; Between

Khandala and Campoli,- Bhide 847; Between Khandala and Carli,

Jacquemont 568; Diva Ghat, D. M. Patel! N. Kanara: Yellapur,

Talbot -1042; Tinar Ghat, | Palbot~2622; Haliyal,,“Valbot 19785

Sanikatta, Jevlekar; Hattikere, Hallberg and McCann 23313! Dhar-

war, Young; W. of Dharwar, Sedgwick 2788! Belgaum, Ritchie

730! Tadas, Dharwar Dt., Sedgwick 1921! Amboli, Burkill 16985;

17026; 17039. Deccan: Kolhapur, Acland 1195! 1198!

The two specimens of Sedgwick are remarkable in that the flowers

are very densely tomentose, but the leaves are glabrous on both sides;

they look like an intermediate stage between D. tomentosa and the

present species.

Dioscorea oppositifolia Linn., Sp. Pl. 1033, 1753} Graham, 219;

Wight, Icon. t. 813; Dalz. &.Gibs., 247; FBI. 67) 2o2)aNicitne,

344; Cooke 2: 758, Fischer, 15125 Prain & Burkill) 392-3e6,

t: 139.

Tuber very iong, cylindrical, edible. Stem glabrous or nearly

so, up to 3-4 m. long. Bulbils not seen. Leaves alternate to opposite,

simple, elliptic-obovate, acuminate, with a brown subhyaline margin,

up to 12x77 cms., 5-7-nerved, glabrous above, glabrous or pubescent

beneath; petiole up to 4 cms. long.

Male flowers in spikes which are grouped in the axils of leaves;

axis of inflorescence 1-3 cms. long, glabrous or pubescent, angled.

Bracts ovate-acuminate, scarious; bracteoles similar but shorter.

Sepals broadly ovate, 1-1.5 mm. long. Petals almost oblong, as long

as the sepals. Stamens 6. Rudimentary ovary of three very small

points.

Female flowers in simple, decurved spikes, which are up to 15

cms. long and solitary, axillary. Bracts as in the male. Sepals

DF COH 272 G [282 BeA07SOiG ‘uuly wyofyisoddo vasossoiqy “i

ru ay pmpIeeny

t or Aa pHPRHAD { ay pepeeerl :

x } i

sa nmesagay | ES ty pRnuhD

| - | ; Sua vieo rapa

| { $8 %

| awe pee

: — | et a :

te on Re i ‘ ENOg

RR AH AY Ap HE HE og

S . + = YY a sasady 3 PENS APPPAWy

See ede | \ i topetg

MOTE IBA ECO Ms i : tw ay 2 eds

Luts Oy | sets : ;

a _ ‘

WNIBVENIR BFLAv VE FRI

= FIRTH MBSKR ORE ¥

WHINGGRAN BALLVIS THs

Sie

YR STN

PH de ROIS sf

| ~ | es “| et -|

* +

oP ey Te

| : SS . eos j

| Se . % — 1

Ee Senge SS OES Se s . SEES SANS

. 0 : AK oq ‘‘uano

aLV1T] 205 “ISIH “JUN Avquog £

OMA RHE 5G

~ os

I] adLvig

y sé

way Any ify eee

bad

133

xp PF

eee

wg gs Be oF 9%

‘\suusq wpidsiy va10rso1Ig. ‘Zz

LOBES DEM DIE IE ILS,

"00S ‘JSIH “JeN Aequog ‘-uanor

THE GENUS DIOSCOREA IN BOMBAY STATE 633

ovate, almost rounded, 1 mm. long. Petals smaller. Staminodes

minute. Stigmas as three pairs of small hooks. Ovary at flowering

time 4 mm. long; capsules with a stipe 3-4 mm. long, wings 16-24

mm. long, evenly rounded, 12-17 mm. broad. Seeds with a brown

wing all round.

Distribution: ‘India throughout the hills of thee Deccan and in

Ceylon.’ Prain and Burkill distinguish 4 varieties, of which var.

dukhunensis is the only one found in Bombay State. Typical of this

variety is that usually the male flowers are on axillary spikes and

the leaves are glabrous. Our Bombay variety is found from sea

level to 1800 m. altit. and is rather abundant. —

Localities: W. Khandesh: Akrani plateau, Burkill 33284;

Concan: Rajaoli forest near Bassein, Ryan 893; Vetoli, Ryan

41o. W. Ghats: Mahableshwar, Graham; Sinhgarh, Bhide; Santa-

pau! Panchgani, Blatter; Khandala, Graham, Cooke, Garade, Santapau

519! 898! 1170! 2116! 2504! 4429! 4465! 4473! 4657! 9052! 9554!

10162! 10170! 10171! 10172! Deccan: Poona, Woodrow; Boudhan,

near Poona, Kanitkar; Karli, Gammie 15141; Malkapur, Shevade;

N. Kanara: Karwar, Talbot 587, 597; Bell 6109! E. of Castle-

rock, Burkill; Gamble 15661; Birchop, Talbot 2127; Devimane Ghat,

Kulkarni; Amboli, Burkill 16961, 16962, 16969; Devarayi, Sedgwick

4125! Astoli, Sedgwick 2549!

Dioscorea wallichii Hook. f., FBI. 6: 295, 1892; Fischer, 15123

Prain & Burkill, Ann. 281-283, t. 115.

DD acouleata. Winn., Sp.- Pl. 1033, 1753..-quoad cit. Rheede, excl,

tubercul.

Tubers 1 m. or more long. Stems somewhat prickly towards the

base, glabrous. Bulbils not seen. Leaves alternate, cordate, acu-

minate, simple, up to 25 cms. diam., 7-nerved, glabrous and dark

green above, glabrous, somewhat glaucous and with prominent nerves

beneath; petioles about as long as or a little longer than the blade,

the pulvini violet tinted.

Male flowers in spikes on short leafless branches; spikes up to

5 cms. long, solitary or paired in the axils of small bracts; axis

glabrous and angled. Bracts ovate, acuminate, glabrous, 1 mm.

long, red-brown. Petals similar but smaller, almost obovate. Stamens

6, shorter than the petals. Rudimentary ovary a small trifid cone.

Female flowers in decurved slender spikes, which are solitary or

paired; axis straight, glabrous, angled, equalling the leaves in length.

Bracts broadly ovate, acuminate, glabrous. Sepals broadly ovate,

obtuse, 1 mm. long, glabrous, thick. Petals similar but smaller.

Staminodes minute. Stigmas as three pairs of short, sickle-like

organs. Capsules usually not more than 4-5 to each spike, glabrous,

more or less glaucous, wings 20 mm. long, truncate above and below,

rounded along the margins, 15-18 mm. broad. Seeds with a brown

wing all around.

Distribution: India to the Sahn Plateau and Tennasserim, in

moist hill forest, from sea level to 900 m. altit. Prain and Burkill

634 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

distinguish two varieties, vera and Christiei; all ihe Bombay speci-

mens belong to the var. vera. |

Localities: W. .Khandesh: Rapapur, Burkill 332393

Concan: Near Mahim, Ryan 20490; Bassein,- very common,

Burkill 16621; W. Ghats: Khandala, Santapau. 3090! 5377! 9821!

9822! - 10507 ! ! Ni Kanara: ‘Devarayi, Nana 27746), Hanhyal,

Talbot -2022:; Between Poondra and Amboli, Burkill 16988.

Dioscorea alata Linn:, Sp. Pl. 1033, 1753; Graham, 218; Wight,

icone tt. =8To, -o12;. Goake, 2) 7.56; Fischer, 1512: .Prain~. and

Burkill, Ann. 302-342, tt. 123-125. )

D,“aculeaia~icinn... Sp. “Pl: 1033, 1753, pro parte ; Wight, Icon.

t.'.2060.

Tubers edible, very variable in shape and size, solitary. Stems

up to 16 m. long, glabrous, winged: Bulbils globose or ovate, few

to numerous. Leaves opposite, rarely alternate, in equal or unequal

pairs, subsagittate or subhastate-ovate, acuminate, mucronulate, up

to 15x14 cms., usually 5-nerved, glabrous; petioles about as long as

the blade.

Male flowers rarely produced; when present, they are in spikes on

leafless branches; axis of spike 12-15 mm. long, zigzag, glabrous;

buds globose; bracts deltoid ovate, about 1 mm. long, acuminate;

bracteoles similar but smaller. Sepals elliptic-ovate, obtuse, glabrous,

y mm. long. Petals subspathulate, about as long as the sepals.

Stamens 6, 0.5 mm. long. _Rudimentary ovary a small cone.

Female flowers in spikes longer than the leaves, rarely produced ;

bracts ovate, acute, 2 mm. long, scarious; bracteole similar but smaller.

Sepals broadly ovate, acuminate, 2x 1.5 mm. Petals shorter, obovate,

thick. Staminodes minute. Stigmas as three pairs of sickle-shaped

hooks. Capsules 20.mm. long, the wings broader than semicircular,

13 mm. broad at the middle, drawn into a 2 mm. long stipe at the base,

glabrous, reddish-brown when dry. Seeds winged all round.

Cultivated in the tropics. In Bombay it is found from Nadiad in

Khaira Dt., along the coastal tract west of the Ghats down to Goa.

Dioscorea belophylla . Voigt, Hort: Sub. ree 653, L045 }-Bischer,

1512; Prain and Burkill,. Ann: .348-352,.t. 127.

D.. glabra Hook. f,,.FBI..6:.,294; 1892, ae parte.

Tubers deep in the soil, 1-3 in number, edible. Stems unarmed,

often ridged, up to 4 mm. diam. Bulbils abundant. | Leaves simple,

sagittate-ovate or the upper cordate-ovate, the sides of the basal sinus

very straight, the lower often alternate, the upper usually opposite, EF

nerved, glabrous; petiole up to 11 cms: long: 7

Male flowers in spikes on special leafless: branches ; axis glabrous,

ridged, up to 30 mm.:long. -Bracts below the spikes ovate-acuminate,

glabrous, bracts below the flowers ovate, acute, glabrous, 0.5 mm.

long, scarious; bracteoles similar but: shialter. ~ Sepals obovate, in-

curved, obtuse, 1.25 mm. long. Petals similar but shorter. Stamens

‘uulyT vyjAydvjuad vasoosolqT *Z ‘UUI'T DI0ID vas0Iso1gY “1

at hee’ ww tate yy

. “enter ‘

DEES IAL ARIE ATT:

“VRS 2 WHOVE

3 f 2

woe HF FONG

TI 2v1g ; 00S “ISI ‘“3@N Aequog ‘‘uanog

THE GENUS DIOSCOREA IN BOMBAY STATE 635

6, a little shorter than the petals. Rudimentary ovary a cone with

three points.

Female flowers in short solitary spikes; axis glabrous, bracts long-

deltoid. Sepals broadly ovate, 1 mm. long, thick. Petals similar

but shorter. Staminodes minute. Stigmas as three pairs of sickle-

like organs. Capsules with a stipe 3 mm. long, the wings 15-15 mm.

long, evenly rounded, 11-15 mm. broad. Seeds with a red-brown

wing all around.

Distribution: Endemic in India and Assam; found in well-

drained hill slopes from the Himalaya of Kashmir, eastwards to

the Khasia Hills, westwards to Khandala on the Western Ghats, and

southwards to the Nilgiris. The plant grows best at an altit. between

1300 and 1500 m.

Localities: W. Ghats: Khandala, Suntapau 954! 10165!

10288! 10289! 10479! 10480! 10528! 10529! N. Kanara:

Birchy, Talbot 2244! Belgaum Dt., Ritchie! Between Poondra and

Amboli, Burkili 16966, 16994; Devimane Ghat, Hallberg and McCann

34450!

REFERENCES

Note.—The following list includes not only the more important works mentioned

in the body of this paper, but also a few others on which this paper is partly

based, even though not specifically mentioned in the preceding pages.

phic pit. i Eb:

‘Dioscorea’ in A Dictionary of the Economic Products of the Malay Peninsula,

1: 812-825, 1935.

Bnek wile sk -H, -& Prain, -D.:

1. A Synopsis of the Dioscoreas of the Old World, Africa excluded, with

description of new species and of varieties. In Journ., As. Soc. Beng.,

N.S., 10: 5-41, 1914.

2. An Account of the Genus Dioscorea in the East. In Ann. Roy. Bot.

Gard., Calcutta, 14: 1-528, i-xx, tt. 1-150, 1936-1938.

Cooke, Th.:

‘Dioscoreaceae’ in The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay, 2: 755-759, 1906,

Diaize bin Nw A. & Gibson, A.:

‘Dioscorineae’ in The Bombay Flora, 247, 1861.

‘Dioscoriaceae’ in J. S. Gamble, Flora of the Presidency of Madras, 1506-1213,

1928.

Griea on ami, Je:

‘Dioscorinae’ in A Catalogue of the Plants Growing in Bombay and _ its

Vicinity . . ., 218-219, 1839.

EPoOoukwet, Sir J. D::

‘Dioscoreaceae’ in The Flora of British India, 6: 288-297,1392.

636 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Kin uw teh, aR

1. ‘Dioscoreaceae’ in Engler, Pfreich. 87: 1-387, tt. 1-69, 1924.

2. ‘Dioscoreaceae’ in Engl. & Prantl, Pfamilien. (ed. 2) 15 a: 438-462, tt.

194-206, 1930.

Nea irne, vA, K.*

‘Dioscoreaceae’ in The Flowering Plants of Western India, 344-345, 1894.

Perain,- D,. & . Barked ie ee

See above under Burkill, I. H. & D. Prain,

Ula ne:

Monographie der Dioscoreaceen, in Engl. Bot. jJahrb., 25: 126-165, 1898.

EXPLANATION .~OF PLATES

Plate I:

1. Dioscorea oppositifolia Linn. Santapau 2849. From Khandala.

2. Dioscorea wallichti Hook. f. Santapau 5377. From Khandala,

Plate is

1. Dioscorea belophylla Voigt. W. A. Talbot 2244, in Kew herbarium ; collected

at Birchi, N. Kanara, 15-1-1890.

2. Dioscorea hispida Dennst. Collected by J. D. Hooker in Sikhim; Kew

Herbarium. The fruits on the right-hand side belong to this species; the plant

on the left-hand side is a different species.

Plate III:

1. Dioscorea alata Linn. Collected by J. H. Lace in Burma, (Lace 2706) on

2. Jan. 1905. Kew Herbarium.

2. Dioscorea pentaphylla Linn., var. communis. H. H. Haines 5109, Ranchi

Dt, Kew Herbarium.

A YEAR ON A TIGRIS ISLAND

FE. P. WILTSHIRE, F.R.E.S.

(With a map, 3 plates, one text figure and a graph)

SYNOPSIS

This paper describes the vegetation and associated animals of a small

island on the River Tigris, Iraq, as affected by the progress of the

season and the action of the waters throughout one year. Particular

attention is paid to the Lepidoptera, which are grouped into three

classes: (1) those resident on the island, (2) the temporary colonists,

(3) the casual visitors. Different vegetational zones at different heights,

due to the period of submergence, were observed, and the possibility of

insects inhabiting each was studied. A striking feature was the co-

incidence of the season of maximum insect activity with the annual

high floods covering allthe ground but not the tree-tops ; another, was the

impermanence of the habitat, due to the violent erosion. Despite this,

the habitat was of great natural interest, approximating more closely

than the flora and fauna of the neighbouring banks to the virgin or

primary river-biocoenosis of Mesopotamia. For, although certain

species of plant and insect are exterminated on such islands by the

annual submergence, the flora and fauna of the banks, protected by

high bunds from flooding, are now subject to very great human inter-

ference. Photos illustrate the floods, and a map and a graph show the

variation of temperature, humidity, water level, and insect activity on

the island throughout the year and also the rate of the siJting up of the

smaller channel on one side of it. The river-flora and fauna of the Nile

and the Jordan are compared with those of the Euphrates and Tigris,

and the difference explained in geographical and historical terms. A

new species of Lepidoptera, Celama harount. Wilts. (Artiidae, Nolinae)

is described and its characters illustrated.

NARRATIVE

Residing in Baghdad continuously from October 1936 to November

1937 and having at my disposal a folding-canoe, I was able to visit

Karradah Island at regular intervals throughout that period, and keep a

diary of my natural history observations. Not only the insects collected

and the animals observed were noted down, but a descriptive narrative

of each visit was made, together with a note of the water-level,

maximum and minimum temperature (as published in the ‘ Bagdad

Times’) and other climatic conditions of the day of the visit. Naturally

the completed diary contained many tentative remarks and redundancies

which a publication should omit. The diary is therefore here condensed

into a graph and a month-by-month description of the reactions of

insect and plant life on the island to the caprices of the river Tigris

and the Iraqian climate, This part, however, is preceded by an

638 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.“SOCIEDNY, Vol 49

introduction and general discussion; it is followed by a list of the

lepidoptera.

INTRODUCTION

The Tigris at Baghdad is confined within high bunds or levees, but

only fills up the intervening space when in spate. Inside these banks

high water is twenty-two feet above low water. Islands inside the

bund are subject to one or more submersions every year, when the

floods come. Despite this, many islands are rich in insect life, as the

following notes show.

Karradah island proper was * in 1936-37 about half a mile long and

some two hundred yards across its widest point. It was closer to the

eastern bund ot the Tigris, being separated from the western bank by

the main stream. Opposite the island on the western bank were gardens.

which provided a very favourable ground for insects; but the eastern

bank was built over. The island was overgrown, along its whole length,

with Euphrates poplar and tamarisk. The best growth of poplar

(i.e. the biggest trees) was along the western side of the island, which

here tell steeply into the main channel; but towards the southern end

of the island the wood of big trees was some twenty or thirty yards

across. The highest growth of tamarisk was to be found eastward of

the highest growth of poplar. The eastern side of the island sloped

gradually down to the minor channel, and on this slope the two trees.

were represented by scrub and shoots, those at the lowest level of all

forming a green belt less than a foot high. Other trees did not occur

on the island; willows in the Baghdad district were only found along

irrigation-ditches and presumably required planting ; and other Baghdad

trees, found only on the mainland, included date-palm (Phoenzx), nebek

(Zizvphus sprna-christ?) mulberry, fig, orange, apricot and apple.

As for low plants and bushes, whereas the bunds were overgrown

above a certain height with Alkagt, Prosopis stepbhaniana, and caper,

none of these three occurred on Karradah island, whose vegetation,

other than trees, consisted of various grasses, dock, burr (Xanthium

strumarium L.) Polygonum, Phragmites, and Glinus lotoides L.; the

Phragmites were however too few and impermanent to produce typical

reed insects. Pig island, a much larger island a mile further down-

stream, escaped regular inundation, I believe, at that time; it had fewer

trees and was thickly overgrown with Lyciam, which was absent from

Karrradah Island. The low plants of Karradah Island were buried

annually by a thick mud deposit; the soil of the island was all alluvial,

containing no single stone.

Thus, except for those species cf plant or tree and animal which

are apparently exterminated by inundation (cone presumes the floods

account for the absence from the island of such plants or trees as

Alhagt, Prosopis, Zizyphus and Lycium) the island presented the wild

riverain oasis flora and fauna of Mesopotamia, unimpoverished by

human interference. The mainland, on the other hand, though possessing

those missing species, was spoilt, from a naturalist’s point of view, by

cultivation.

* On revisiting Baghdad i in 1943 I found that the entire island with all its trees

had disappeared.

daVdHOVG UVEIN SOIT FHL JO dV

SIMDIL A 30 TANNVHO NIV WwW}

won =

as . eo @ @ ~%

= Ze

e 2 se

¢ Bee

» aero 2 ee

= wee®rw~oegn wero

s Cd

-eeww=w ow oe

~2 cece @a~ee eee &8ee¢e 7—e3r eh ett Feast ee er een Be ee @* My we awe aw

ee ee eee a ee, ee a a SR ieee Rei Oe tO * a es Na ny ore ons

XxxX EROSION IN JULY 1937

, UNVE ISay

‘20§ “ISH “JUN Auquiog “-Usnor

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

(--e-Jeyteta so efap uo

*L°R’D CO°SO 2% AaToOTUNY eATIBTOY

*LHGE AI“ THATTCVES GAOAVY LHDIAH

rs)

Ce]

RK. 36

“Highest ground of north teland re ee a ~™" Populus ,Rumex.

LAND AND WATER LEVELS AND VEGETATION ZONES ON A TIGRIS ISLAND

Level of BUND(river bank)

Islané completely submerged

' Highest ground of island

Zone of Tamarix,

Zone of Glinus {

Zone of summer grass, |

etCe

- cone of summer

PERIOD OF NO PERIOD OF MAXIMUM

INSECT ACTIVITY INSECT ACTIVITY

TROPA ae Sheers fi

SATS PA a NWestvatl

eteoe

RT) SNe ese as

eorers

ee ween cena ort

XI.36 XIIL36 41.37 II.37 IlI.37 1Ve37 Ve37 V1I.37 VIIL37 VIIE37 1X.37

TERPERATURE HUMIDITY AND INSECT ACTIVITY ON A TIGRIS ISLAND

120

—_

feel

Fahrenheit Temperatures on days of visits

(+ smaximum; Os mininum)

A YEAR ON A TIGRIS ISLAND 639

To the north of Karradah Island, a lower island stretched upstream;

its highest parts were overgrown with poplar and tamarisk scrub, not

high enough in 1937 to protrude from the water at its highest level;

at normal levels, however, a stretch of perhaps a third of a mile broke

the surface, and at low water it was united with the bank and partly

cultivated. ‘This island is referred to hereinunder as North Island.

During the year for which the island was visited and observed

(October 1936—October 1937), two floods occurred high enough to

cover the highest ground of Karradah Island, though not, of course, its

big trees: a small sudden flood on November 39th, which lasted two or

three days, and a higher flood, lasting for at least ten days, in April.

The former was exceptionally early, and was due to cloudbursts in the

plains and foothills of Northern Iraq; it was indeed so un-

expected. that irrigation constructional enterprises on the Tigris

suffered heavy losses in equipment; but though unusual, this occurrence

in no way detracts from the value ofa study of this particular year, for

the Tigris is notoriously capricious, and unusual behaviour is almost

normal. The second flood, of course, was derived chiefly from the

melting snows of Armenia, Kurdistan, and Persia. It might be men-

tioned that during the previous year, Karradah Island was submerged

in April and again in May (1936). No matter when this spring flood

actually comes, the island’s soil is always very damp from March

till June, for the melting snows and spring rains maintain the river

at a high level for several months; in late summer, when the main

stream flows under twelve-foot cliffs and the lesser channel is dry, the

island’s sub-soil water-level is considerably lower.

From about mid-December to mid-February the cold suppressed all

insect life; the period of maximum activity lasted from the beginning

of April to the middle of June; a period of renewed but lesser activity

occurred in September and October, characterised by the frequency of

other species than those most prevalent in the first period.

Special attention was paid to lepidoptera; notes were made about

other orders (and, indeed, of bird and plant life too) but only a few speci-

mens of these were collected and authoritatively named. Only the

lepidoptera were collected and studied in sufficient detail to enable the

drawing up of a full list, showing their status on the island. The

identification of the more difficult species has taken more than ten years !

First the exact meaning of certain words used hereinunder should

be explained. By the ‘outer’ edge or side, is meant that side of the

island furthest from the main stream, the side washed by the lesser

branch, i.e., in Karradah Island, the eastern side; for Karradah Island

is on the left side of a river flowing southwards. ‘The ‘lower’ end is

therefore the southern end; the ‘inner’ side, is that washed by the

main stream, i.e. the western; and the ‘upper’ end, the northern.

Every time the river covered the island, a thick deposit of silt was

laid down; every year, therefore, the island grew higher, But the

minor channel, on the outer side of the island, grew shallower even

more quickly, since it was under silt-laden water for alonger period.

The slower the stream, the more silt was dropped; in certain condi-

tions sand was deposited: and the stream always flowed more swiftly

rising than falling. During the few days for which the island was sub-

merged, the stream was usually very rapid, and very full of silt; in

640 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

places, the lack of undergrowth and wide spaces between the trunks

of the big poplars, allowed the water to pass across the island very

fast, while in other places the young scrub checked the flow. In either

event, of course, the fastest water was in the main channel, and conse-

quently the water crossed the island from east to west. The stream

was more gentle during the long period for which it filled the eastern

channel without covering the island; in Jate summer and autumn, the

only season when the water was really pure, the eastern channel

was dry. The natural tendency of the island and its vegetation,

therefore was to extend in breadth outwards, invading the bed of

the lesser channel which became, each year, higher and drier. In

compensation, the main channel eroded the cliff-like inner edge of the

island, destroying its highest part where its flora and fauna had been

Jongest established. A Tigris island, therefore, is a fluid thing, and I

doubt if many islands can be older than a century. As the course of

the main channel shifts inside the wide limits of its two bunds, new

banks appear, are peopled with plants and insects, and are wiped out

again. But the life survives. ;

The general climate of Baghdad, situated in the middle of the Great

Palaearctic Desert, is marked by extremes of temperature, a certain

amount of rain in winter, great dryness and heat in summer and violent

winds. On Karradah Island some of these were mitigated by the pro-

longed moisture of the soil and the consequent density of vegetation

that reduced :the high evaporation typical of the true desert. The

island, indeed, was used asa summer-evening resort by the inhabit-

ants of Baghdad, on account of the coolness and freshness of its air. The

annual submersion and silting-over of its whole surface, however, had so

far deterred ambitious mayors from trying to urbanise it with flower-

beds, paved walks, or swimming pools, and it remained wild and

sylvan in 1937. A municipal keeper visited it daily, to see that its

extensive timber was not plundered; but a certain amount of lopping

(chiefly of tamarisk) was even then permitted.

Similar conditions prevail on the alluvial reaches of the Euphrates

and the Karun, except in three particulars: the Euphrates is more

regular than the Tigris in its movements, and carries less suspended

matter; the Karun is even more irregular and silt-burdened than the

Tigris, being shorter ; and in theimmediate neighbourhood of Basra and

the Shatt-el-Arab, the river is tidal and the marshes and sea render the

air more humid thatin summer in Baghdad; Baghdad is acity in a desert.

My visits and observations at once suggested the problem of whether

a species of insect survived submersion, or was killed by it and

recolonised the island later. I am convinced, from what I saw, that

those insect species biologically dependent on the poplar and tamarisk

survive the floods, which must, however, destroy many individuals; I

am equally convinced that other insects, dependent on low herbage, (e.g.

Laphygma extgua, Loxostege nudalis, Hymenia tasctalis-recurvalis, etc.)

are only late summer and autumn colonists from the mainland and are

exterminated annually by inundation. There are however other insects,

also biologically dependent on low herbage, which appeared so promptly

after the subsidence of the flood-waters that I feel it very probable that

they survive submersion. Among these may be mentioned Ahodometra

sacravia, Rivula sericealis and Nomophila noctuella. Altogether, of the

Journ,, Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLaTE |

COMPARATIVE VIEWS OF KARRADAH ISLAND

TO ILLUSTRATE FLOODS

ictal: The main drive, with the wood of full-grown poplars in the

background, and the Tigris mainstream behind them ; looking

west; 1. xi. 1936.

Fig. 2. Exactly the same view (except that camera was higher) ;

d/l 937.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLA

COMPARATIVE VIEWS OF KARRADAH ISLAND

TO ILLUSTRATE FLOODS

Fig. 3. North Is

viewed from the en

Karradah Island, she

the autumn cultiva

1x1. 1236,

Fig. 4. Exactly the same view,

one month later; 1. xii. 1936.

Fig. 5. ‘The same view, 6. ii. 1937 shewing

channel between North I. and Karradah I.

A YEAR ON A TIGRIS ISLAND 641

so-called ‘ Macro-lepidoptera’ I think that 22 species can be regarded

as permanent residents of this or similar Tigris islands, i.e. wooded

islands liable to Hooding. Four of these however I did not actually

take on this particular island: itis from later observations elsewhere

in Iraq and Persia that it has become clear that these four also

belong to this ecofauna; they are listed in brackets.

As regards islands not liable to flooding annually, their flora and

fauna is not distinguishable from that of the irrigated Mesopotamian

plain, to which I have devoted two ‘habitat articles’, eg. The Lepi-

doptera of a Baghdad Orchard, (477. Rec. 51, 1939,) and Some notes on

the Insects of the Shatt el Arab Oasis, (zdzd., 62, 1950.)

In listing the lepidoptera at the end of this ‘article I have grouped

the above twenty-two residents separately from those which, though

taken on the island, are annually exterminated by the floods, or do not

even attempt to breed there. In other orders, the cockchafer (sp. ?),

the cicada Crcadatra glycyrrhizae Kiti. and perhaps the bug Asodibhus

amygdalt Germ., are also permanent residents, though in both the latter

cases they would appear to be somewhat unsuitably named, for neither

liquorice nor almond grows on Karradah Isiand.

Visitors of passage constitute a third class, of less scientific interest

than either the permanent residents or the temporary colonists, but in

some cases it was hard to say whether a species belonged to the second

or the third, i.e., was a temporary colonist or a casual visitor. Many

more of the latter would certainly have been taken on the island,

especially in the late summer and autumn, if visits had been more fre-

quent and collecting intenser. The occurrence on the island of this

class, consisting of the ordinary population of the oasis of-Baghdad, has

no significance. In fact 1 took about twice as many species on the

adjacent mainland as I did on the island altogether.

ORIGINS OF THIS HCOFAUNA

The temperate or Palaearctic species predominate in this river

island ecofauna; the Eremic species are fairly well represented and

are PalaearcticcHremic rather than Tropical-Eremic. The Tropical

category is fairly well represented, but in a distinct minority ; it is

better represented in the more migratory classes than in this resident

class. The geographical spectrum is as follows, and the terms are

explained in the footnote * :—

Palaearctic

Euro-Siberian 2, Euroriental 3, Anatolian—Iranian 7, Pan—Eremic

3, Eastern~Eremic 2, Endemic—Eremic 1 species.

* Huro-Siberian are Cool-temperate species ranging from the Atlantic across

Siberia to the Pacific.

Euroriental are Temperate species ranging from S, Europe to S-W. Asia,

some from Britain to W. China. Anatolian-Iranian are Warm-temperate species

with headquarters in the plateaux of Anatolia and Iran, and in some cases reach-

ing the Balkans, and Afghanistan.

Eremic species are those with headquarters in the deserts and steppes north of

the Equator in the Old World.

Pan-Eremic are those Eremic species distributed from West Africa to Central

Asia; Eastern Eremic are those Eremic species not found west of the Nile ,

Endemic Eremic are those only known from Iraq at present.

642 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Tropical

Palaeo-Tropical 2, Indo-Malayan 1, Ethiopian 0 species.

Doubt ful

1 species, which will probably prove to be Anatolian-Iranian or

Eremic.

The actual attribution of each of the twenty-two species to these

categories is given in the list below.

The Euphrates poplar tree characterises the biotope which this

article studies, and the well-known fact of its occurrence and indeed

dominance along the banks of the Jordan, as well as in the Euphrates-

Tigris basin, has already suggested to writers the common origin of

the flora and fauna of these two river-valleys now separated by the

wide and waterless expanse of the Syrian desert. The tree’s world-

range must also be considered; its western limit is apparently at Siwa

Oasis in North-Western Egypt; its next nearest stands are five hundred

miles distant, viz., in Arabia Petraea and Palestine. To the north it

reaches South-East Turkey, and to the east of the Tigris it occurs

quite commonly in various Persian rivers, even at 5,000-6 000 feet

heights, e.g., the Zaindeh Rud at Isfahan, and the Kur at Bandamir

(Fars). It is also dominant in the Tarim river-basin in the Sinkiang

desert, and may even extend further eastwards in the deserts of Asia.

Unfortunately information is lacking about the insect fauna of this tree

at the two extremities of its range. If any species were found to

attend the tree throughout its entire range that species might be fairly

deduced to be of extreme antiquity and to date from the evidenily |

geologically remote age when the tree’s range was less broken up than

now. The lepidoptera of Palestine however are quite well-known,

and it is remarkable that of the twelve poplar-feeding species found in

Baghdad, only five are definitely known from Palestine, e.g. Catocala

elocata, puerpera and lesbia, Acronycia acerts and Pandesma anysa. The

tamarisk-feeders on the other hand are the same in both countries.

The probable cause of the poorer representation of the poplar-fauna in

Palestine is the absence in Syria and Palestine of any river flowing

from the Anatolian plateau southwards the whole iength of those

countries, in the way that the Euphrates and Tigris flow right through

Iraq. The poplar-insects are evidently derived from the poplar-feeding

fauna of Anatolia and Iran, and the relations of this fauna to the poplar-

feeding fauna of Central Asia must for the present remain uncertain.

This fauna becomes progressively weaker as the rivers issuing from

the Turkish and Persian mountains reach lower, drier, hotter and more

southerly tracts; at Baghdad the fauna is still comparatively rich, though

the absence of Saturnia pyri (feeding on Populus euphratica at Shapur

in Fars !) may be noted ; while at Basra and Ahwaz it is very poor.

The tamarisk-feeding fauna, which is discussed in Part II of my

‘The Lepidoptera of the Kingdom of Egypt’ (Bull. Soc. Fouad J.

a’ Ent. 33, (1949), is Eremic, some members being Pan-Eremic. The

direction, therefore, from which such species as Macaria aestimaria

reached our Tigris island is anybody’s guess, and we can hardly

venture further than to say that here they are more or less at their

centre of distribution. Se ppeRE ce i len yr oe

A YEAR ON A TIGRIS ISLAND 643

The different origin of the Tropical elements of the Jordan valley,

on the one hand, and the Euphrates-Tigris basin on the other, is very

marked and contrasts strongly with the common origin of the Temperate

and Eremic species of these two basins. The Tropical components of

the Jordan fauna link that river with the Nile rather than with Asia.

Of course, it is true that India and Africa share many species of their

Tropical fauna, and the Ethiopian and Indo-Malay categories can be to

some extent grouped into a single Palaeo-Tropical fauna, of which the

Ethicpian and Indian components are fairly closely related. Some of

the species common to both inhabit the Tigris, Jordan and Nile valleys

alike (e.g. Pandesma anysa, Danats chrysippus, Lampides baeticus) and

shed little light on the origins. ‘These three, it may be noted, are all

migrants. But 4. szva (not a migrant) is one of several Tropical Indian

species inhabiting the Tigris valley (also South Persia); it reaches no

further westwards. The tropical species of the Jordan valley on the

other hand reached that depression from Africa via the rift valley at

Akaba and some reach their easternmost limit there.

Owing to Iraq’s more northerly situation and to the absence of rivers

flowing northwards, like the Nile, out of the Tropics, there is no Acacia

inthe Tigris valley. The nearest natural stand of this tree known

to me is at Bushire (S.-W. Persia). The absence of this genus of

trees has deprived the river fauna of many Sudanian-Deccanian species

found in the Jordan valley and Dead Sea vicinity ; while the converse is

the case in Egypt, which lacks ‘an indigenous poplar-or willow-feeding

fauna. ‘Thus the Nile’s fauna at Cairo is predominantly Tropical and

Eremic, while the fauna of the Tigris at Baghdad is predominantly Tem-

perate and Eremic. (Parodoxically, summer at Baghdad is hotter than at

Cairo!) The direction of the fow of the principal river is decisive in

determining the flora and fauna of its banks and islands, in Egypt and Iraq.

In comparing origins, we must also remind ourselves of the recent

emergence from the sea of the plain of Southern iraq. Baghdad and the

island of our study were all under the salt waters of the Persian Gulf

during much of the Pleistocene, and perhaps as recently as the last

glaciation.

LD CHRONOLOGICAL NOTES

January :

The water was low most of the month (98 feet), but rose at the end

to 104 feet, a level which I consider normal because it leaves exposed

the tree-, or scrub-grown high ground of both islands, but covers

their sandier lower parts, which are submerged too long for tamarisk

and poplar to grow there and which are cultivated during the summer.

The weather was too cold for insect activity ; humidity was high.

February :

At the beginning of the month, the water rose to 106 feet after some

rain in Northern Iraq; then dropged again to 104; and on the 21st,

rose abruptly to 108. At this level, North Island was covered, but the

higher parts of Karradah Island were still exposed. A height of 109

feet is necessary to cover the ground of the latter completely.

On the upper end of North Island (a gradually shelving mud spit)

sea-guils, hoody crows, and some smaller birds constantly collected,

. attracted by the city’s refuse, washed up there. Kites (A/zlvus migrans)

644 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

were also seen on N. Island, and hoody crows (Corvus cornix capellanus)

were common in the big trees of K. Island.

A carpet of dead leaves still covered November’s silt deposit on

K. Island, fresh mud was deposited early in the month on the ‘ glinus-

shelf’ at the island’s upper, inner corner (this shelf is described under

November and December, below), so that all except the glinus plants at

the very top of the slope were buried; the mud’s surface was pierced

only by a few tamarisk stems, an occasional live dock, and one or two

large dead burr stems. Rain fell during the month and humidity was

high. At the end of the month, as the temperature rose, the poplar-buds

burst and young leaves and catkins appeared. ;

A visit by canoe on the last day ot the month revealed young leaves

on tamarisk also, and, inthe open spaces and clearings of K. Island, fresh

grass, dock, and polygonum, and a rough-leaved, pink-flowered crucifera,

whose leaves were being mauled by a coleopterous larva. Pvzeris rapae

visited these flowers, large dragon-flies were on the wing, and crickets ;

grasshoppers and grounde-spiders were seen in numbers in the clearings ;

in the wood of big poplars there is no undergrowth at any time of the

year, but here many of the same large, quick-running spiders were

seen. Small spiders were noted on the poplar trees, and three species

of ant:

No. 1 was very small, quick-moving, and shelter-loving. Certain

trees seemed to have been killed by it, their bark being quite dead

loose from the trunk and burnt-looking. They seemed to prefer the

inner surface of thin, smooth bark, but were noted on old more rugged

trunks. <A pupa of Plutella maculipennis was found among a swarm of

this ant, under some loose bark; they were not molesting it, and it

produced the imago on 21.11i.37.

No. 2 was rather larger, and lived deeper in the wood, often

however coming to the surface through holes or cracks in the bark.

No. 3 larger and solitary; a slow mover, often surrounded by

swarms of No. 1.

I also noted a Ceruza turbida clarior Wilts. cocoon, with a slight hole

at one end. On opening the cocoon it was found to contain a swarm

of ant No. 1, which could only have entered through this hole, presum-

ably made by the emerging imago some time previously. The pupa

case was also full of ants, but since there was no sign of juice or fat, I

assumed it had been empty when the ants arrived; what they were

doing there, I failed to understand.

A small beetle was also noted, common on poplar bark.

— About the same time Celama hibernating larvae, found the previous

autumn on tamarisk, resumed feeding.

March:

The water remained at 104 or 105 ft. all the month.

Hot sunny weather, tempered by heavy dews and a fall of 33

degrees fahrenheit at night. Vegetation in the clearing grew rank.

The insects mentioned for the end of February remained very much

in evidence; the shrill chirping of grasshoppers on the island could be

heard clearly on the east bank at the end of the month. Pale grey

weevils appeared in profusion, on low plants and tamarisk bushes.

Larvae of P. anysa fed up rapidly on poplar, some being mature at

the end of the month; imagines of Dicranura intermedia and Cerura

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Pirate III

COMPARATIVE VIEWS OF KARRADAH ISLAND

TO ILLUSTRATE FLOODS

Fig. 6. ‘Tamarisk jungle, viewed from the main drive, looking north-

east from the same spot as the photo below ; 1. x1. 1937.

Fig. 7. A view from the same spot, looking northwards, shewing poplar

wood on left, tamarisks on right and in foreground ; 17. iv. 1937.

A YEAR ON A TIGRIS ISLAND 645

turbida clarior were cn the wing, and Ausphecta pimpla forms pupated.

Pupae of Acronycta acerts johanna and Nadiasa siva were found in

cocoons on poplar trunks, and produced imagines in mid-April and 26th

March respectively.

April:

About the 10th, the river began rapidly to rise, because of a combi-

nation of the melting snows in Kurdistan and heavy rains in N. Iraq.

On the 16th, having stood at 115 feet for three days, the Tigris broke

its banks north of Baghdad and flooded a wide stretch of desert cast of

the city.

The weather in Baghdad was on the whole fine, though some rain

fell after the peak of the flood had passed. The heat was tempered by

the cool breath of the swollen Tigris waters in the second half of the

month, and, on many days, by a fresh north wind.

On the 17th, when a canoe-visit was paid to the inundated island

and it was possible to navigate between the poplar-trunks it was noted

that the water actually flowed across some parts of the island in an

upstream direction; a strong backwash in the eastern channel enabled

me to return a mile upstream in 20 minutes, without paddling a single

stroke, but propelled by a strong southerly wind which filled the spread

beating-tray.

At the end of the month the island was not yet dry enough to land

on, though the high ground appeared again above the surface about

the 26th.

These floods are said to bring down snakes which climb into the

branches of bushes and trees on inundated islands; but I myself noted

none. Early in the month, the tamarisks came out in white flower ;

the low plants (Polygonum, dock, etc.), but not the burr, also flowered

now. The poplars had fleshy grey-green catkins fully extended, and

their thick leaves were already much disfigured by galls. On their

trunks micro-lepidoptera abounded, ants were active, and a small red

beetle, not noted in March, was seen. The weevil mentioned under

March, above, was found in masses under loose poplar-bark, together

with companies of caterpillars, large and small, of Pandesma anysa,

which feed at night : on one strip of bark, no less than- twenty larvae

in the last instar, of this species were found, not to mention the less

mature ones; and probably every tree contained as many. Most of

these would have pupated when the flood came, and would be unable to

move higher up the trunk to escape the water, but whether or not the

floods would kill the pupae is uncertain. Among such multitudes, the

larvae of Catocala optima, whose imago was taken here later in-the year,

were overlooked.

Imagines of 4. pimplacform7s were on the wing during the first half

of the month; so, still, was Ceruva turiida clarior’s first brood, though

first-brood larvae of D. zutermedia were full-grown early in the month;

in early April, also, flew the first, brown, generation of EHarzas zrakana,

and many other moths. Curiously enough, no imagines were now

seen of those species, dependent on low herbage, which appeared in

profusion in early May (see below), soon after the floods had subsided.

A search on the mainland for the clearwing moth revealed that the

poplars on the mainland were affected by a pest not found on the island,

646 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

namely, a termite, whose runs are commonly seen on the trunks of

Populus euphratica by roadsides and in gardens, extending upwards to

a height of 12 feet or more; the obvious inference is that submersion is

fatal to this insect.

When the island is submerged, the trees form the only refuge for

those insects that are not protected by cocoons or by an underground

mode of life. At its highest the water is five or six feet deep on the

island’s highest ground; a mature poplar’s branches usually begin at

ten feet above the ground. ‘The Euphrates poplar is not pointed in

form, but squat and umbrageous. When the island was submerged,

many trees seemed, at a distance, to be wearing thick black necklaces,

which, as one approached, proved to be clusters of Jarge ants. The

commonest animal taking refuge on the tree-trunks was the spider

mentioned under March, above, the females carrying their silken balls

of eggs behind them. In places where the tips of the rank vegetation

in the clearings were just visible on the water’s surface, these same

spiders were observed hopping about on the water itself. The lady-

bird Chilocorus bibustulatus L. was seen taking refuge on the tips of

tamarisk bushes.

Two cranes (Grus grus) were seen in the trees.

In the middle of the month, just at the peak of the flood, the captive

pupae formed by the larvae of Grammodes rogenhotervi and the two

Clytie species found on the island the autumn before, started producing

imagines. This unfortunate coincidence perhaps accounted for the

scarcity of these species in early summer, though by autumn 1937 their

larvae were again abundant.

The imagines of Acvonycta aceris johanna were more fortunate this

year, for captive pupae produced no imagines before the last few days

of the month, about which time the first imagines fromthe current year’s

larvae of P. anysa hatched out. The first imago of the second brood

of D. intermedia emerged in captivity on April 30th,

May :

The river remained at about 108 feet the whole month, so that.

K, Island was hardly a foot above the water, while N. Island was sub-.

merged all the time. The ground was soft, and if one stood for long

in one place, one’s feet would slowly sink in, and water would collect in

the print. Such conditions were very favourable to vegetable growth,

and recur regularly at about the same time every year. The heat

increased, and, except for occasional rain and thunder, the air grew

drier.

The white downy fluff of the poplar catkins started blowing about

early in the month, and during May and June covered the ground with

a cottony carpet and 1ested on the tamarisk trees like web or snow.

The flood had not hurt the rank undergrowth of dock and Polygonum.

This vegetation was now alive with spiders and small lepidoptera, the

commonest of the latter being Momophila noctuella, and Eromene

tslamella, Rivula sericealis, Nymphula atfinialis, and Rhodometra sacra-

via being also numerous. The western bank of the Tigris (the only

bank at this point where these species can breed) was separated by the

full width of the river’s turbulent main-stream. I incline to believe

that the pupae of these species had survived submersion rather than

A VEAR ON A TIGRIS ISLAND 647

that they had crossed this barrier in these numbers so soon, for I know

that at least two of them are polygonum-feeders ; but certainty is im-

possible.

Beating tamarisks produced a few coleoptera but no lepidopterous

larvae, a great contrast with later in the year. Beating poplar foliage

produced small second-brood azysa larvae, immature larvae of JV. szva

and &. tvakana, and many zvakana imagines, of the second (typical,

green) generation; these latter were hard to catch because of their

erratic flight when disturbed. Showers of bugs, aphids, beetles and

other small insects also fell into the tray from the poplar branches.

Light attracted many lepidoptera, and also swarms oi sand-flies,

and many lacewing flies, beetles and neuroptera. During the greater

part of this month a species of flying grasshopper came to light in

swarms all over Baghdad, but none came to light on the island ; one can

only conclude that this particular species, like the termite, cannot live

under the peculiar conditions of the island.. Other kinds of grasshopper

do, however, occur on it, as already mentioned ; but they did not come

to light. At night the song of crickets and grasshoppers was

continuous, and two kinds could be distinguished: a long-drawn-out

trilling, and a shriller, interrupted rasping.

Towards the end of the month Lycaena phloeas appeared .on the

island, as well as many fresh &. sacvarza in perfect condition, presum-

ably just hatched from pupae in the Polygonum, on which plant I have

found its larvae. &. vapae was quite common on the wing also.

Altogether, this was the month of greatest insect-activity, and, un-

like the previous May, no submersion checked Nature’s processes.

June:

During this month the river steadily fell to about 100 feet above

sea-level, and North Island reappeared above water. |

Poplar-fluff whitened the-island, Polygonum was still green, but

dock went to seed. In places the young growth of burr -was a foot

high, but still with no sign of flower. The ‘ glinus-shelf’? was once

more exposed, and the thick deposit thereon was pierced by young

seedlings, not yet recognisable, and not hke G/znus. The weather- was

hot and dry, and the sunlight uninterrupted.

During the first half of the month, insect activity was high, but

decreased in the second half. Several moths, of the casual or colonist

class, now made their appearance on the island; the only resident, not

previously noted, to be seen in this month for the first time was Catocala

optima Ster. (3. vi. 37). 2P. anysa and &. trvakana were common early

in the month; in the second and subsequent weeks, a beautiful green

cicada (Cicadatra glycyrrhizae Klti.) appeared, leaving its pupal exuvia

on trees and low plants all over the island; the second brood of Cerura

turbida clarioy was noted; and a large, handsome, red-gold bug

(Apodiphus amygdalt Germ.) was noted commonly on poplar trunks.

Beating tamarisk began, for the first time in the year, to be productive,

young Clytie larvae being so obtained. Beating poplar, on the other

hand, was, if anything, less productive than before.

July:

By the middle of this month the water had dropped to 98 ft.,

Karradah Island and North Island were united with each other and the

648 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

bank, and it became possible therefore to walk onto them from the

East Bund; this had not been possible at the same water-level in

December and January, but the bed of the East channel had become

two feet shallower during the intervening six months.

A new sandbank having formed in the bed of the main stream just

west of the upper end of Karradah Island, the main current of the

Tigris, swinging eastwards in a circle round this obstacle, began to

make serious inroads on the lower end of North Island and on the

‘ olinus-shelf’ of Karradah Island. All day and all night the splashes

of earth-falls from the inner cliff-face of both islands could be heard.

Owing to the youth of the vegetation on North Island and the ‘ glinus-

shelf’, these places offered less resistance to the erosion than did the

lower inner edge of Karradah Island; but even here, cliff-falls occurred

and trees were lost. Erosion along the lower, inner edge of the

island was a regular, annual phenomenon; erosion, to such a marked

degree, of North Island and the upper, inner corner of Karradah

Island, was irregular, and had not occurred before 1937. The irregular

erosion, occurring just opposite the new sandbank, was much more

violent than the erosion occurring a few hundred yards downstream.

The result wili be seen in the following months.

Dock was dead and stiff on the island; burr not yet mature.

To light, sandflies were numerous; lacewing flies, green cicadas,

and beetles also came; moths came in single specimens of a species,

except for Utethezsa pulchella of which several came to the sheet.

August :

The water fell from 96 to 95 feet during this month. |

Serious erosion continued all the month, the widest inroad being

made just in the now dry bed of the narrow channel separating Karradah

Island from North Island; here, some 20 yards of alluvial soil, un-

protected by any vegetable growth, was lost. A sweeping bay, fuli of

eddies, and a few fallen trees, now replaced the lower spit of North

Island, the dividing channel, and the ‘ glinus shelf.’ Northwards from

this point, a wide sector of North Island disappeared, but the shrub-

grown high ground of Karradah Island provided tougher opposition.

The pumps which in winter and spring drew water to irrigate the

gardens or fields lying behind the houses on the eastern bund from the

eastern channel, were now fed by deep ditches cut through the dry bed

of this channel to the main stream of the Tigris; or, in one case, by a

pipe running straight across the channel-bed and through the wood t

the steep inner cliff of Karradah Island.

The sub-soil water-level fell so iow, that the polygonum and dock

now formed dense tangles of dead stems of a deep purple colour; the

burr, on the other hand, had not yet fruited, The drives and clearings

of the island became an almost impassable jungle owing to this under.

growth and the new tall growth of poplar and tamarisk shoots; com-

fortable walking was only possible under the big poplar trees.

The outer slopes of Karradah Island, which had been covered by the

waters of the eastern channel earlier, were now fairly verdant with

grass, Indian chickweed (G/inus lotocdes), and seedlings of poplar and

tamarisk. Here, numbers of Z. karsandra were seen flying, and P. vapae,

L. phloeas, and Utetheisa pulehella were also noted. The gold-red bug _

A YEAR ON A TIGRIS ISLAND 649

was still common on the trees, and dragonflies, ichneumons and flying

beetles were seen. But on the whole, insect life was considerably reduced,

with the exception of one or two species that seemed commoner than

before, notably A. sacrarta. The cocoon-fluff of the small parasite of

Acronycta acerts johanna was a common sight on poplar leaves,

September (1937):

The water fell from 94 to 93 during this month.

Erosion ceased, the Tigris being now atits lowest, slowest and purest,

no longer directly washing the inner cliffs of the island. These cliffs

were twelve feet high in places. It was still very hot; humidity rose

into the thirties, but no rain fell.

Burr (X. strumarium) was now fruiting, its best growth being along

the outer slopes of the island, between the 12-foot-high tamarisk

trees and the 3-foot-high tamarisk shoots; here the burr formed a

belt, 15 feet wide at its widest, in which the plants often attained a

height of 10 feet.

A second brood of Acronycta aceris johanna appeared, and a second,

more numerous but smaller, brood of Lepzdogma wiltshirez Amsel. These

species, with other moths, were attracted to light, which seemed now

more effective than in August. Lacewing flies, beetles, and large

diptera also came to the sheet. Beating tamarisk produced various

Noctuid Quadrifid larvae, and beetles and spiders, but beating poplars

was unproductive.

Grammodes rogenhoferi, a black moth with a white pattern, proved

to be a day-flier, but never left the thick jungle of tamarisk or the

belt of burr; in these environments, the intense sunshine variegated

with shadows made it extremely hard to follow with the eye, and the

vegetation even harder to follow with the net. In the evening it was

still active on the wing, together with Ophzusa algira, from which it

cannot be distinguished until caught.

I also examined the borings of subterranean insects through the silt

deposit on the island, which was now cracked and could be picked

up in slabs. Vertical passages ran deeper down than was possible

to follow them, and in some cases passages were found that had failed

to reach the surface; at the top of these, dead cockchafer imagines were

found, the same species that came to light commonly in the summer.

October :

The water remained at about 934 ft. all the month.

The records for this October and November and December were

made in 1936, the year before the destructive erosion above recorded.

The surface soil of the whole island was now very dry and cracked.

Low plants other than the still luxuriant burr were dead, except low

down on the outer (eastern) slopes. In the bed of East channel grass

was growing. On the island, many tamarisks had been lopped, some

right down to the ground. Westward of, and below, the island, low

sandbanks were being cultivated. The channel between Karradah

Island and North Island was dry for a length of 150 yards, except for

a pool of water in one place, and was even grassier than the bed of East

channel. lt widened as it led into the main stream, which it did obli-

quely, being separated from it by a long shelving spit protruding from

650 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

the lower inner end of North Island. (This spit was entirely destroyed in

summer 1937.) Opposite this spit, on the upper inner corner of Karra-

dah Island, was a gradual slope, steep at the top but more gradual lower >

down, leading down from the poplar wood to the channel bed which was

here quite thirty yards wide. This slope was overgrown with Indian

chickweed (Glinus lotoides) and is referred to as the ‘ glinus-shelf’

Examination of a cliff-fall at the lower inner end of Karradah Island

(a fall exposing the roots of a poplar tree) shewed that at a depth of

nine feet below the surface of the ground long horizontal roots, three or

four inches thick, run out from the main stem. A horizontal root was

exposed for a length of quite ten feet, and was probably much longer

than this in all. Such were the reinforcements to the isiand’s foundations

provided by a mature growth of Populus euphratica.

Beating tamarisks produced Macaria aestimaria larvae and several

species of Noctuid-Quadrifid larvae in profusion. Caterpillars of

Laphygma exigua were found by day under Glinus tufts some taking

refuge from the heat under a thick slab of cracked mud. At least five

species of butterfly were noted, some in abundance, and most of the

species of moth mentioned for September were still active.

November:

The water remained at about 95 feet above sea-level till the 28th.

About the 22nd light rains fell in Baghdad and heavier rainfall occurred

in Northern Iraq. On the 28th the water rose to 102 feet, on the morning

of the 29th it stood at 106 feet, and on November 30th it was 112 feet.

Similar rainfall in spring, when the Tigris is already swollen by the

melting snows, would be disastrous; but in an almost empty stream-bed,

the flood-peak was able to pass swiftly down to the sea without any

danger of broken banks.

The first half of the month resembled October climatically, but nights

gradually grew colder, the burr plants began to wither, and insects fell

off. The pretty tussock-caterpillar of the Acvonycta decorated the foli-

age of many a poplar, being especially conspicuous on young, low

bushes; and two species of Clytze were common at night on low tama-

risk shoots. No tamarisk on the island is old or large enough for these

larvae to pupate under the bark or in the forks of the branches (as

Clytie sancta does at Beirut) and they must therefore be obliged to spin

up at the roots of the tree. Many of the poplar-feeding larvae, on the

other hand, spin cocoons on the trunks of their host-tree, which gives

them an advantage over tamarisk-feeders when the floods come. The

larvae of the latter are most abundant in autumn, when the river is at

its lowest ; the poplar-feeders in early summer, when it is at its highest.

Nevertheless, a pupa at the root of a tree, if not actually killed by

submersion, will have a better chance of producing an imago than a

pupa in the ground under G/zzus or some other low plant, as will be

explained under December, below.

December :

By the middle of the month the water had fallen again to 105 feet,

and dropped to 97 at the end of the year. At 100 feet North Island

was united to Karradah Island by a neck of mud, for the dividing

channel was silting up rapidly, ;

AY YEAR ON A TIGRIS ISLAND 651

The flood at the beginning of the month no doubt drowned many

full-grown larvae on the point of pupation, especially since ovipositing

females do not discriminate between high trees and lower growth.

Larvae feeding on the former have only to climb upwards to escape the.

water, but those on the latter must be drowned. This was illustrated

by what was seen on a canoe-visit that I made on December Ist, when

I paddled down the centre of the island between the trees. Ona young

poplar-bush some three feet high growing in the main drive, clinging

limply to a topmost twig, was a dead full-grown lappet-larva (Vadiasa

stva) ; it hung there some 18 inches above the subsiding water-level ;

but straws on branches indicated that the water had been some two feet

higher a day or two before.

No live larvae were seen, though various beetles were found on the

tips of tamarisk scrub.

It was noted, on this occasion, that the mud deposit was higher

in the tamarisk-scrub than in the clearings and paths and than

under the big poplars, where no undergrowth was, for the scrub

checked the speed of the water and increased precipitation. In the

main drive, I found the water about nine inches deep, with a very soft

bottom; bubbles were rising from the mud. I also paddled up a

diagonal path or clearing between tamarisk-scrub from the inner side of

the island for some way, but was unable to penetrate into the main

drive because the water in this clearing was shallower; in fact, in

places on either side of the canoe the mud under the tamarisk shoots

was already above the water-level ; air escaping from under this exposed

mud made a loud sizzling sound as it burst the water-film or passed

through the shallow puddles in the ridges of the fresh silt.

About the middle of the month, it became too cold for insect activity,

the minimum daily temperature being at freezing point for several

days. A few hoody crows (Corvus cornix capellanus) came to forage on

the island, two Species of kingfisher were seen, and smaller birds were

observed on the shelving upper end of North Island. Flocks of migrat-

ing birds passed over Baghdad, flying southwards. Smaller companies

of waterfowl occasionally settled in the shelter of the dividing channel.

About two weeks after the re-emergence of the high ground of

Karradah Island from the flood-waters, observations of the mud-deposit

were made. It was still soft enough to give about an inch when

trodden on, was thickly littered with dead poplar leaves, and already

cracking. As yet, these cracks were only 4” wide at the most. They

radiated from, or were tangent to, tree-trunks, and a space of at least

4” was left round every trunk or thick stem, where the mud, solidify-

ing, had drawn away. This was even so where quite young tamarisk

shoots, growing from old roots, pierced the silt, but not where grasses

or low plants protruded. If not entirely covered with mud, the protrud-

ing blade of grass or twig of the low plant, was tightly gripped in the

deposit, and no interval or crack was there to permit the upward

passage of any insect resting at the roots that might have survived the

submersion. The fresh, sloping mud deposit, on the ‘ glinus-shelf’

was cracking, indeed, at its drier higher levels, but tte vegetation

played no part here in determining the course of these cracks. If a crack

touched a glinus stem, it was quite by chance, nor was the stem, even in

this case, free from the mud on either side; in the majority of cases the

652 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

glinus was completely smothered by the mud. I concluded therefore

that these conditions would prevent any exigzva pupae surviving the

winter here, or elsewhere on the island, for this plant only grew at one

level on the island’s slopes. The ‘shelf’ would, of course, be under

water longer than the higher parts of the island; in fact the water-graph

shews that the levels of the island at which this plant grows are sub-

merged for five whole months. . This consideration enabled me to

distinguish between two classes of low herbage, and of moths feeding

thereon: firstly, those, like A. sacrarza and N. noctuella dependent on the

Polygonum, etc., of the clearings on the higher part of the island; and,

secondly, those insects dependent on the G/zmus and crops of cucumber

and beans, etc., at a lower level. The relatively short submersion of

the first class, and the relatively light silt-deposit, would perhaps permit

a certain proportion to survive the floods; but the longer submersion

and consequently heavier silt-deposit affecting such species as Lampides

baeticus and Laphygma exigua would certainly never permit them to be

more than summer colonists of the island.

ANNOTATED LIST OF LEPIDOPTERA OF KARRADAH ISLAND

The species taken during the year on the island are here grouped

into three classes :—

1. Permanent residents (22).

2. Temporary colonists (8).

3. Casual visitors (17).

The numbers in brackets above represent the number of so-called

Macro-Lepidoptera in each class, totalling 47 species. Owing to my

comparative ignorance of the biology of many of the Micro-Lepidoptera

and Pyralididae, these families are listed at the end all together (20

species); their status on the island is given where possible. I am

indebted to Dr. H. G. Amsel for the identification of these latter fami-

lies. For the identification of the larger moths I must acknowledge

the assistance given by Mr. W. H. T. Tams, Monsieur Charles Boursin,

and Herren Daniel and Warnecke.

The division into Macro- and Micro-Lepidoptera is not in accord

with latest taxonomic thought, and is only followed here for con-

venience.

I PERMANENT RESIDENTS

NOTODONTIDAE

1. Dicranura intermedia Teich.

Bi-voltine, both broods being vernal, the first flying in mid-March,

the second in early May. Foodplant :—/ofulus. (On the mainiand also

on willow, Salzx.) Early stages were described by me in A/ztt. Wuench.

Ent. Ges. 1939, Heft 1 with a photograph. An Anatolian-Iranian

species, ranging from East Turkey to North-West India, inhabiting

oases; it reaches the mouth of the Tigris. It is a close relative of the

European species vzzula L. which reaches West Turkey. For the

genitalia of both, see my article: Middle East Lepidoptera—V. (Proc,

Ry Etc Soc. Lond, (B) ism Parts 9-10-1946). : |

A YEAR ON A TIGRIS ISLAND 653

2. Cerura turbida Brandt clarior Wilts.

Bi-voltine, both broods being vernal, the first flying in March and

April, the second in May and June. Foodplant:—/opulus euphratica.

The early stages were described by me with photographs and the paler

Baghdad race was named and described in ‘ Early stages of Oriental-

Palaearetic Lepidoptera, V’ [Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., xiiii,

(4) p. 624, April 1943]. An Anatolian-Iranian species of limited

range, only known from Iraq and South-west Persia; in South-east

Turkey, in Syria, in North-west and North-central Persia, closely

related but distinct species occur in oases, but not on the same species

of poplar.

3. Pygaera pigra ferruginea Staudinger.

Multivoltine or bi-voltine ; its exact phenology at Baghdad has not

been worked out. I took a female by beating poplar on May Sth, and

a male on the mainland on 20th April. Foodplant :—/Pofulus (and on

mainland Salix) A well-known Euro-Siberian species. It is not

known on the Tigris south of Baghdad, but occurs at 7,0CO ft. in

South-west Persia much further south. An oasis species.

ARCTIIDAE, NOLINAE

4, Celama harouni sp. n.

This new species is closer to cezfonal/is Hubn. than the following,

turanica Stgr. It differs from the latter principally in having antennae

as in cen/onalis, and not with fascicles of cilia as in fuvranica. From

both the straight course of the ante-median fascia on the forewing sepa-

rate it. Its browner coloration also distinguishes it.

Male antenna, ciliate.

Fore-wing, light brown marked with dark brown as follows : a basal

patch, not reaching the hind-margin; near

the costa it is composed of raised scales

c and its distal edge is parallel with the ante-

median line and hind=-margin; the ante-

median line, starting at the sub-costal from

57 a patch of raised scales; its distal edge is

almost black, and sharply defined; and

thirdly, the post-median fascia, with an

. equally dark and sharply-defined distal

edge, but dentate as in cezfonalzs ; on the

costa, just proximal to this line, is a patch

of dark brown raised scales. Except for

these markings, the forewing is pale,

especially in the median and sub-marginal

areas. Subsmarginal shade, obsolete, irre-

gular. Termen, brown. Fringes, con-

colorous, darker distally.

Hind-wing, whitish, semi-transparent,

with a weakly defined fuscous termen.

The male genitalia (see text-figure) are

eae

fo) Imm.

CENTONALIS

(For explanation of text- very like those of centonalis, but differ in

figure see end of article) te membranous part of the upper lobe of

the valve; this part is narrower in the centre of the lobe, The

654 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

saccus is more pointed; and the aedeagus cornutus is also acuter than

in centonalis, in Cyprian examples of which the cornutus is bluntly

rounded.

Holotype : 3; (Prep. 434), 1. xi. 43, Basra, S. Iraq (in coll. m.)

Bi-voltine, the broods being vernal and autumnal.

Foodplant :—prtrobably tamarisk, perhaps also poplar. This new

species, hitherto undiagnosed, and perhaps existing in many collections

under the name sgualzda Stgr., probably also occurs in Syria and else-

where in the Middle East. Its geographical classification is at present

doubtful. I took it on Karradah Island on April 3rd and again on

November 16th. An oasis species.

5. Celama turanica Ster.

Quite common to light among poplars in June, but from its captures

elsewhere it evidently has more than one brood. I have taken it at

Basra on 19. iv and 9. ix. 43. I consider henvtotz Warnecke and parvula

Chret. conspecific with ¢zvanica and therefore class this species as

Pan-Eremic. Foodplant :—probably tamarisk, possibly also poplar. An

oasis species.

LASIOCAMPIDAE

6. Nadiasa(= Taragama) siva Lef.

Has about two broods annually, not very well defined, for some

larvae hibernate, others do so in the pupal stage. Foodplants :—

Popuius and Tamarix ; (also, onthe mainland, Zizyphus, Prosopis, apple,

pomegranate, etc.) An Indian species, firmly established in Southern

Iraq, where it inhabits oases.

LYMANTRIIDAE

(7. Ocneria signatoria poenitens Stgr.

I did not take this on the island, and perhaps it cannot survive

floods, but on the whole I think it is a permanent resident ; in any case

it belongs to the riverain ecofauna. Bi-voltine, flying vernally and

autumnally, April and October; larvae of the second brood pupate in

December. I described and illustrated the early stages in JM//t.

Muench. Ent. Ges. xx1x. Heft 1. 1939. An Anatolian-Iranian species,

inhabiting Palestine. A close relative inhabits Northewest Africa.

Foodplant :—tamarisk).

AEGERIIDAE

8. Eusphecia pimplaeformis Ob.

Univoltine, vernal, flying in April. Foodplant, Populus euphratica,

boring inside the trunk. (On the mainland at Baghdad it was also found

only on this tree, but in Persia I have also noted it on Salzx.) For the

early stages see my ‘The Butterflies and Moths of Iraq’ (Directorate-

General of Agriculture, Baghdad, October 1944), and for the morphology

see Le Cerf ‘Aegeriidae nouvelles ou peu connues d’Asie anterieure’

(Zeit. des Oest. Ent.-Ver. 22, 1937.) An Anatolian—Iranian species which

does not seem to occur on the Tigris much further South of Baghdad,

but occurs in oases at 5,000 ft. in Fars (Sout-west Persia). It has not

been taken further west than Bithynia. Get. ee ce

AD VEAR. ON AL SPIGRTS TIS LAND 655

AGROTIDAE (=PHALAENIDAE)

9. Acronycta aceris L. subsp. johanna Schaw.

Bi-voltine, the broods flying vernally and autumnally, in April- vie

and September-October. Foodplant ; in the Middle East Populus is

the only foodplant observed so far, and;it is an oasis-moth; the typical]

race in Europe however feeds on various other quite unrelated trees,

An Euroriental species, known from Palestine and Persia and west-

wards to Britain.

10. Eariasirakana Wilts.

Probably bi-voltine, both broods being vernal, the first flying in

April, the second in May-June-July. ‘The species was described by

mein Zhe Entom. Lx1x (October 1936) and the two forms vernalis

and iztermedia in‘ The Butterflies and Moths of Iraq’. The spring form,

hatching before the leaves are out, is procryptically coloured golden-

brown to agree with the poplar bud-sheaths, whereas the summer

brood is green and thus harmonises with the leaves. Foodplant:

Populus euphratica; elsewhere perhaps also on Salix. This endemic

species has not yet been taken outside Iraq, where it is an oasis moth.

11. Catocala optima Stgr.

Univoltine, fying inJune. Foodplant (presumed) :—opulus euphra-

tica. Identification was assured by comparing with the type. A species

inhabiting oases, to be classified as Anatolian-Iranian or Eastern Eremic.

Before my capture of this moth on Karradah Island on the Tigris, it had

previously only been known from Tedjen Oasis, Transcaspia, and Ili,

Turkestan. I have seen no record of its later recapture.

(12. Catocala elocata Esp.

?Univoltine. Flies in Baghdad in June, but was not actually taken on

the island. Ihave taken it at Ahwaz in October, which is perhaps the

normal month of flight in the Middle East. Foodplant :—/opulus and

Salix. Rothschild refers the Mesopotamian form to J/ocata Stgr., Brandt

the Persian to deducta Ev. It is an oasis moth in the Middle East.

Buroriental.)

(13. Catocala puerpera Giorn.

Phenology and foodplant, same as No. 12 eleocata; like it, was not

actually taken on the island. A Euroriental moth, found in oases in the

Middle East.)

(14. Catocala lesbia Christ.

Phenology at least bivoltine, perhaps multivoltine. Was not taken

on the island. The early stages were described and illustrated by me

in Journ. Bombay Nat. Hzst. Soc., xvii, (4), p. 628. Unfortunately

the foodplant was omitted there. Foodplants:—/opulus and Salix. I

have found it on ?. euphratica on the banks of the Shapur River, Fars,

South-west Persia. Ranges from Sinai and Palestine to South-east

Persia, and is an oasis moth throughout this region.)

656 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 49

15. Grammodes rogenhoferi Bohatsch

Multivoltine. Foodplant : tamarisk. The first brood emerges in

April, and must suffer heavy casualties from the floods. Larvae found

feeding together with numerous Clytze syriaca and other Clytie species

in autumn at night. An Anatolian-Iranian species, ranging from

Armenia, Syria and Palestine to Sind. It probably has other food-

plants,

16. Clytie syriaca Bugn.

Multivoltine. Foodplant:—Tamarisk only. The early stages were

described and illustrated by me in Mitt. Muench. Ent. Ges. Xx1x,

Heft 1. 1939. The first brood hatches in April and must suffer from

floods. An Anatolian-Iranian or Eastern Eremic species ranging from

Syria to Persia,

17. Clytie terrulenta Chr,

Multivoltine. Foodplant :—Tamarisk only. The early stages were

described by me in the same article referred to under No. 16, syriaca.

The first brood hatches in April, and must suffer heavily from floods.

An Anatolian-Iranian or Eastern Eremic species, known from Palestine,

South-east ‘Turkey, and Transcaucasia, as well as the Euphrates basin.

(N.B. Two other C/ytze species, with a similar foodplant, are known

from the rivers of South-west Persia but not actually from the Tigris,

on which however they may one day be found; they are sublunaris

Ster. and dzstincta Bang-Haas subsp. zranica Brandt; both are Central-

Asian-Iranian rather than Anatolian-Iranian. Another closely-related

tamarisk-feeder almost certainly occurs on the Tigris further south, but

apparently does not penetrate northwards as far as Baghdad; this species

is the Saharan-Sindian Eremic moth Aypoglaucitis benenotata Warren,

of which | described the early stages, with photographs, in Azz. Rec.

56, 1944. The larva is usually found on Zamarix ariculata which is

not a river-tree, but planted in oases in Southern Iraq.)

18. Pandesma anysa Guen.

Multivoltine. Foodplant :—Populus cuphratica. Elsewhere it has

been reported on other quite unrelated trees. It has been sug-

gested by some authors, who found it in masses under loose bark,

that it eats the wood and bark. My own experience however shows

that it hides under the bark by day.and eats the leaves by night.

I have reared it from the egg on leaves of P. euphratica. The young

larvae of the first brood hatch in late February. It is extremely

numerous on the island in June, in which month mass emigration

relieves the excess of population. It isa Tropical species of the Old

World, reaching North Persia and Syria, perhaps only as immigrants.

At Baghdad it certainly survives the winter and flies all through the

summer in successive broods. It has been taken in the desert in num-

bers, but perhaps is only a migrant there.

19. Rivula sericealis Scop. |

Multivoltine. Foodplant :—grasses. Euro-Siberian,

A YEAR ON A TIGRIS ISLAND 657

GHOMETRIDAE

20, Rhodometra sacraria L.

Foodplant :— Polygonum. Multivoltine. Its prompt appearance

after the subsidence of the floods on its foodplant which survived

inundation suggests it is also able to survive. Its migratory tendencies

are however well known. Tropical.

21. Eupithecia ultimaria. Boisd.

Multivoitine. Taken on the wing in April, May and June; larvae

seen in September and October. Foodplant :—Only tamarisk. Pan-

Eremic. An oasis moth.

22, Macaria aestimaria Hubn.

Multivoltine, flying from February to November, Foodplant :—

Only tamarisk. The early stages were described and illustrated by

me in Mitt. Muench. Ent. Ges. 1939, Heft 1. Pan-Eremic. An oasis

moth, also found on Mediterranean shores. For geographical remarks

on this and other tamarisk feeders, see the final chapter, Part II of my

‘ Lepidoptera of the Kingdom of Egypt’ (Bull. Soc. Fouad 1. ad’ Ent. 33,

1949).

II. TEMPORARY COLONISTS

The following colonise parts of the island after the floods subside

and produce at least one generation on it before being again extermi-

nated when the water rises again. They are permanent residents or

migrants of the mainland, where they occur on ambiguous ground for

the biotope is an oasis harbouring both oasis and desert species.

PIERIDAE ~~

1. Pieris rapae L.

Multivoltine. Foodplant :—Cruciferae and Resedaceae. Was not

actually observed in the larval stage on the island. But a rossible food-

plant exists (see above, under February). A migratory Holarctic pest,

originally Palaearctic. It reaches the extreme south of Iraq.

LYCAENIDAE

2. Lycaena phloeas L.

Multivoltine. Probably not a permanent resident like . sacraria

(I, 20 above); it appeared soon after the subsidence of the foods, and

its foodplant survived them. Foodplant:—ARumex. The foodplant

dries up later in the summer, whereas on the mainland, along irrigation

channels it persists green. HEuro-Siberian; an oasis insect in the

Baghdad vicinity, but it does not occur much further scuth in the Tigris

basin.

3. Lampides baeticus [,

Multivoltine. Foodplant :—/ada (cultivated bean). As soon as this

is planted on North Island and elsewhere in the river bed close to

Karradah Island, it breeds; but these crops are covered every winter

658 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

with water and replanted about midsummer. Tropical, migratory;

common in Iray oases, except in midwinter, which however it survives.

It occurs throughout the plain of Iraq.

4. Zizeeria knysna karsandra Moore.

Multivoltine. Foodplant :—probably G/znus /otoides; anyhow, it is

common in the G/zzus and grass belt, i.e., at a very low level, on the

island in August and September. Tropical, common in Iraqian oases,

throughout the plain. .

SPHINGIDAE

5. Celerio lineata livornica Esp.

A half-grown larva was found on dock (Rumex) on 3rd April.

Together with any brothers there, it must have been drowned in the

flood which came soon after. A migratory species, witha variety of

possible foodplants, only one of which was seen on the island. Holo-

Tropical and Sub-Tropical. Commoner in deserts than oases, especially

in spring.

6. Utetheisa pulchella L. |

(I am indebted to Dr. K. Jordan for examining the genitalia, a pre-

caution necessary in this group of similar species). Is common on the

Glinus and grass belt in July-August ; I think its foodplant must occur

there (heliotrope), though I did not note this down. A _ Tropical

migrant, inhabiting deserts and the drier parts of oases throughout

Iraq, and varying seasonally there in numbers to a great extent. Multi-

voltine.

7. Laphygma exigua Hubn. A\C

Multivoltine. A Tropical migrant. Foodplant :—Glizus Jlototdes,

and perhaps other low herbs. The pupal period is ten days only, and

the Glinus shelf was coveted for at least four months. In Iraq ‘this

species seems to migrate into the milder desert regions of the south of

the country for its winter generations, returning to the oases (and also

migrating into distant mountains) in the spring.

8. Phytometra chalcites Esp.

Apparently bi-voltine in Iraq, though a midsummer brood has been

observed in Mediterranean districts. The two broods fly in Baghdad in

February—March and November. On the mainland it is common feed-

ing on garden herbs. On the island it was found feeding on burr

(Xanthium) on Ist November. The moth was not actually taken there,

but the larva was reared successfully. A Mediterranean and (assuming

that ¢vzosomais asynonym), ‘Tropical Indian species,

Ill, “CAasvuar VISITORS

- These are listed here without comment; they belong to the culti-

vated oasis or desert fauna of Iraq, and readers may refer to my

articles on that country for their phenology, range, etc. These details-

A- YEAR ON A TIGRIS fSLAND 659

would not be relevant to the present study; it is only by chance that

they, and not others, were taken on the island. Nevertheless, it is not

impossible that one or two of them may be temporary colonists or even

residents, unbeknown to me. For instance, the root-feeders Agrotis

ypsilon and spinifera may quite well survive floods underground; I

have, however, never observed their early stages in the Middle East;

Leucania loreyi also might well be a temporary colonist, being a

migratory species with rapid successive broods and feeding on grass:

Ophiusa algira and albtvitta have only been observed on Rubus, pome-

granate and Ricinus, none of which grew on the island, but the capture

of one of these moths flying together with Gvammodes rogenhoterz in

the belt of burr may indicate that it has a foodplant on the island like

vogenhotferi; I suggest that it may feed on the burr (Xazthium) or

tamarisk ; on the latter its larva would easily have escaped notice among

the many C/ytze larvae, which I saw.

Casual visitors :—Fapzlia machaon centralis Stgr., Euchloe belemia

Esp., Glycestha-aurota F. (= mesentina), Danats chrysthpus L., Tarucus

sp. in ¢theophrastus group, Theretra alecto cretica Boisd., Agrotis ypsilon

Rott., Agvotis spinifera Hubn., Agyrotts lasserret Ob., Leucania loreyi

Dup., Prodenia litura F., Eublemma parva Hubn., Larias insulana Boisd.,

Ophiusa algiva L. or aldtvitta Moore in this connection see my ‘ Lepi-

doptera of the Kingdom of Egypt’, loc. cit. super., Part I, (1948) and

Part II (p. 391) (1949), Pericyma albidentaria Freyer, Rhynchodontodes

vevolutalis Z. and Sterrha ochrole ucaria H.S. :

IV. PYRALIDIDAE AND MICRO-LEPIDOPTERA

PYRALIDIDAE

(1) Eromene islamella Amsel 1949. Multivoltine. (2) Heterographis

concavella Amsel 1949. (? bivoltine). (3) Trissonca oblitella Z. in vi.

(4) Phycita diaphana Stgr. bred from larvae on poplar leaves, but on

mainland also feeds on castor (Azcinus) and Crozobhora verbascttolia ;

bi-voltine, larvae full-grown in v. hatching in xi. (5) Tephris stenopte-

rella Amsel 1949. Bi-voltine; feeds on Zamarzx ; also inhabits Jordan

valley, Palestine. (6) Salebria dionysa Z. flies in v, vi, and viii.

(7) Nymphula affinialis Guen, multivoltine. (8) Nomophila noctuella

Schiff. A multivoltine migrant. (9) Bostra marginalis Roths. Flies in

iv. (10) Lepidogma wiltshirei Amse] 1949, Bi-voltine, flying in v. and

ix; probable foodplant :—7Zamarix. (11) Loxostege nudalis Hamps.

Taken on 28, ix, but on mainland also iniv, v. (12) Anthophilopsis

baphialis Led. Taken on 14. vii, but on mainland also in iv. (13) Aesch«

remon disparalis, H-S. Taken on 3 iv. but on mainland also in iii. and

x; associated on the bunds with Capparis, but it is not verified whether

this is the foodplant. (14) Hymenia fascialis Cr. (=recurvalis), Flies,

often by day, on the island in x and xi.

PTEROPAORIDAE

(15) Agdistis bagdadiensis Amsel 1949. Flies in v; presumed food-

plant, Tamarix.

TORTRICIDAE

(16) Bactra lanceolana Hubn. Taken on 19. v, but on mainland

also in x. (17) Bactra venosana Z. Taken on 3. vi, but also flies in

660 . JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

the desert of Iraq in x. (18) Semasia bagdadiana Amsel 1949. Flies

in iv, Vi, vil; presumed foodplant Populus; it is remarkable that the

poplar-feeding Semasia euphraticana Amsel was taken by me at Basra,

South Iraq, but not seen on this island at Baghdad. There can be no

confusion between these two species. S. euphraticana was described

from the Jordan valley, Palestine.

GELECHIIDAE

(19) Gelechia plutelliformis Stgr. Multivoltine, feeding on Tamarix,

HYPONOMEUTIDAE

(20) Plutella maculipennis Curtis. Though best known as a

Cructtera-feeder, and migrant (it inhabits the deserts also), this little

moth is closely associated with Populus on the island; it pupates in the

bark of this tree, and sits on the trunk when hatched. However, the

larvae were not actually observed eating its foliage. Common in iii

and iv.

EXPLANATION OF TEXT-FIGURE

Characters distinguishing Celama harouni spec. nov. (434) from Celama

centonalis Hubn. (367). The male genitalia of both are shown, ventral open view,

omitting tegumen, uncus and right valve. (C=cornutus of aedeagus ; UL=upper

lobe of valve ; S=saccus.)

[Editors’ Note: The plant so often. mentioned. in these pages un-

der the name of Glinus lotoides should be called Mollugo lotoides

O. Ktze. In some of our Indian fioras the same plant goes under the

name of Mollugo hirta Thunb. } , |

A NEW RACE OF THE GROUND-THRUSH TURDUS

CITRINUS (AVES: TURDIDAE)

B BY

Biswamovy Biswas!

The Indian populations of the Orange-headed Ground-thrush,

Turdus (Geokichla) citrinus, have so far been divided into two sub-

species: (1) the orange-throated and larger citrinus (breeding in the

sub-Himalayas), and (2) the white-throated and smaller cyanotus

(breeding in southwestern India), with some six or more races in the

Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and Malayasia. An examination

of the breeding birds from different parts of India, however, shows

that the populations from the Central Provinces {Madhya Pradesh) and

Orissa do not fit in either race and, therefore, I propose to distinguish

them. as. hese Lan =

Turdus citrinus amadoni new subspecies.

Compared with cyanctus, this new race has very little or no olive

wash on the crown, has the anterior ear coverts and the blue-gray

of the upper parts paler, and is larger in size. From citrinus it differs

in having the throat white. In some respects amadoni looks inter-

mediate between citrinus and cyanotus.

T y p E.—Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. No. 576384; adult erate Chanda,

Chanda district, Central Provinces; April 10, 1867; H. J. Elwes.

MEASUREMENTS OF THE ge WE Liss tail, So}

bill from skull, 23 mm.

R ANG E.—Central Provinces (Madhya Pradesh), Orissa, and north-

eastern Madras Province.

REMARK S.—Tickell’s Turdus lividus from Borabhum (J. Asiat.

Soc. Bengal, 2: 577, 1833) does not seem to refer to this new race.

In the description of T. lividus, the most prominent character—white

throat—is not mentioned at all. Tickell’s list of his Borabhum collection

is Conspicuous with the mention of many winter visitors, and it seems

that lividus refers to citrinus which is certainly a winter visitor in

the Borabhum area.

It is with great pleasure that I name this new subspecies for Dr.

Dean Amadon, Ornithologist in the American Museum of Naturai

History.

ened

* Now at the Zoological Survey of India, Indian Museum, Calcutta.

662

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

The more important distinguishing characters of the three Indian

races of Turdus citrinus may be summarized as follows :—

Colour of the

crown.

Colour of the

throat.

Colour of the ante-

rior ear coverts.

Colour of the back

Measurements

citrinus

Deep orange-chest-

nut.

Orange-chestnut ...

Orange-chestnut ..

Dark blue-gray

TO:

121 (118°9)*

75-83 (79°8) ;

23-25 (23'9)

5. 9? Wins,

123 (4196) 5

23-25 (24),

Wing, 116-

: tail:

bill,?

amadoni

Deep orange-chest-

nut, sometimes

with a faint olive

tinge.

White wan

Dark snuff brown to

blackish brown.

Dark blue-gray

6 ¢&: Wing, 110-

116° (1713'S); “tail,

75-83 (788) ; bill,

23-24 (23°4).

117-

tail,

76-81 (78°6); bill,

32; Wing, 113-114

(113:3) ; tail, 76-

77 (76°3); Bill,

23-24 (23'S).

cyanatus

Orange-chestnut,

strongly suffus-

ed with olive.

White see

Dark blackish-

brown.

Still darker blue-

gray.

6 $: Wing, 106-

112 (109°1); tail,

72-73, 79 (73°7);

bill, 23-25 (23°7),

9 2: Wing, 102-

111 (106°4) ; tail,

68-77 (72:5); bill,

23-24°5 (23°6),

:. , average measurments are given in parentheses

2 The bill is measured from the skuil.

- My thanks are due to the authorities of the American Museum of

Natural History for allowing me to describe specimens from their

collection, and to Dr. Walter Koelz for giving me permission to study

his Tarenial:

————————eeEeEEeEeEeEeEeeE

COWRIES

(MoLitusca, GASTROPODA: FAMILY CyYPRAEIDAE)

H.-C. Ray, M:Sc.; pD-Phil.,

Assistant Zoologist, Zoological Survey of India

(With two plates)

INTRODUCTION

While a Research Scholar in the Zoological Survey of India I

read a paper entitled ‘A talk about Cowries’ at a meeting of the

Indian Association of Systematic Zoologists held at Kaiser Castle,

Banaras Cantt., on 21-s-48. This article is adapted from the above

and gives an account oi the systematics, habits and habitats, trans-

formation, use, dissolving of the shell, etc. of Cowries which are so

well known to mankind. ;

The Cowries are marine molluscs which constitute the well-known

family Cypraeidae. There is no group in Mollusca which appears to

have excited more curiosity and admiration than the Cowries.

These forms present remarkable variety of colouration and mark-

ings as well as sculpture on their shells in close harmony with

the corals, which are really objects of great beauty and delight. The

changes which the shells exhibit regarding form and colour at differ-

ent phases of their growth are so striking and dissimilar that it is

difficult to find out the true link between them unless carefully studied

from the very beginning. This is how the naturalists and scientists

in early days got puzzled and wrongly treated the young and adult

of the same species as. belonging to different forms. The animal is

also gifted with the curious faculty of dissolving or decomposing

(with its acetose juices) any portion of the shell that is liable to resist

the advancement of its growth, and of renewing it. It may take time

for a cowry to attain its full development, but the re-calcification of

a shell at a maturer age is said to be the work of a few days only.

These may be the facts which possibly created an unusual interest

in men to study the cowries, to utilize the animal as food or other-

wise and also to use their shells (mainly composed of carbonate of

lime secreted by the mantle itself) for the purpose of decoration, orna-

mentation, games, defence, etc.

SYSTEMATICS

The admirable contributions of Lister (1685—Hist. Conchyl.)

Rumphius (1705—Amb. Rarit. Kam.), Petiver (1711—Gazophyllacium

Vol. I), Gualtieri (1735—Index Test. Conchyl.), Adanson (1757—

Hist. Nat. Senegal Coq.) and others on the iconography of cowries

and other shells appear to have evoked considerable interest in the

664 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

study of moiluscs in the 17th and 18th century and thus helped con-

chology in gaining more popularity and confidence as an important

subject among the natural sciences. But the real work on the

systematics of cowries was started with the introduction of binomial

nomenclature by Linnaeus in his Syst. Nat. ed. X, 1758, which placed

them under the new generic name of Cypraea (p. 718). It is per-

haps so named, says Perry (1811—Conchology), ‘from the circumstance

of a beautiful shell of this genus, having, as it is said, been presented

to the: temple of Venus at Cyprus—a luxuriant and smiling island

in the Mediterranean teeming with industrial wealth; and, indeed,

the beauty and splendour of these shells render them worthy of being

offered at the shrine of the Goddess of Beauty’. Dr. J. C. Melvill

in his comprehensive work on cowries published in Mem. and Proc.

Manchest. Lit. and Phil. Soc. Ser. 4, Vol. I, pp. 184-185 (1888) gives

plausible explanations of this important usage. It was Fleming (1828)

who took keen interest in the study of cowries and erected the new

family Cypraecidae for their reception. But unfortunately he failed

to separate them from the smaller Nun cowries which also live in

close association with the former in the sea. However, this difference

of great taxonomic value was detected before long by Gray, in 1832,

on the basis of which he separated the Nuns entirely from Cypraea

and instituted the new genus Trivia for their accommodation in his

Descriptive Catalogue of Shells. Now, the ‘Trivias’, like the cowries,

have also been given a separate family rank (Triviidae) owing to the

remarkable features noticeable in their shell-characters, i.e. there are

fine transverse ribs (Pl. I, Fig. 5, tr. r.) on the surface of their shells

(the anterior and posterior ones being vertical) which are interrupted

in the middle by a longitudinal groove (m. gr.); these ribs are

nothing but mere prolongations of the denticulations (Fig. 6, d.)

found on the lips below (0.1., o.1.).

Linnaeus described only 42 species of cowries in his Syst. Nat.,

pp. 718-725, under the single genus Cypraea. But as a result of

extensive studies in the field in the course of about 200 years the

number of species of living Cypraeidae has now risen nearly to 170

with more than 250 subspecies under them relegated to 56 or more

genera and 13 sub-families. The works published by Kiener (1843—

icon. Cog. Viv.), Reeve (1845-184€—Conch. Icon, Vol. III), Sowerby

(1870—Thes. Conchyl. Vol. IV.), Weinkauff (1881—Martini and

Chemnitz’s Conch.-Cab. Vol. V, Abth. 3) and Roberts (1885—in Tryon’s

Man. Conch. Vol. VU) are illustrated with beautiful diagrams bear-

ing natural colouration and markings which help in the identification

of the cowries, while those by Hidalgce (1904-1905—Test. Moll. Filipinas ;

1906-1907—Mém. de la Real Acad. Cienc. Madrid, XXV) refer to zoo-

geography and other details. But the most up-to-date and compre-

hensive work on the subject is that of Schilder and Schilder (Proc.

Malac. Soc. London, Vol. XXIII, pp. 119-231, 1939) which shows

marked improvements in the nomenclature and classification of cowries.

It is astonishing to learn that while completing that monumental work

the distinguished couple spared no pains to examine about 60,000

shells or more of living Cypraeidae obtained from more than 2,200

localities, and consulted about. 2,500 papers... This not only shows

COWRIES ) 664

their tenacity and devotion to work, but at the same time displays

the extent of the subject, its richness of literature and the great interest

it has created in the public as well as in the scientific mind since very

early times.

EAB I2s- AND. El ABT AT Ss

The cowries are very shy, hardy and sluggish creatures which occur

in great abundance on the submerged rocks and coral reefs of our shallow

seas to feed chiefly on coral animals and other micro-organisms. Like

the shell, the mantle (which Rutherford Platt’ considers as ‘a bait

of animated skin’) is also variegated with colours. Its two thin, un-

equal lobes with frilled margins’ come outside through the long and

narrow aperture of the shell (s.), extend over its dorsal surface on

both the sides and cover it either partially or wholly. This peculiar

contrivance serves two very useful purposes; firstly, to save the shell

and the animal from the attack of enemies, and, secondly, to attract

other organisms forming its food. Woodward in his Manual of the

Mollusca (1856) mentions that Adams observed the pteropodous fry

of Cypraea annulus adhering in masses to the mantle of the parent,

or swimming in rapid gyrations or with abrupt jerking movements

by means of their cephalic masses.

It is true that the cowries have now mostly disappeared from the

cold waters of the European seas, but as Stoliczka points out (Cret.

Faun. S. Ind. Il, p. 51, 1868): “there is ample evidence, that they were

formerly very numerous in the Vienna, Paris, and other districts or

basins’. Their presence in large numbers in the warm seas of the

tropics at the present time shows that they have found sufficiently en-

couraging and congenial climatic conditions to carry on their normal

life and activities. There might be some reasons responsible for

this wonderful upheaval or upset in the faunal development which ad-

versely affected the ecological conditions so favourably influencing the

life, growth and proliferation of this shellfish in the European seas.

At present the range ot distribution of the cowries appears to be

confined mostly to the warm waters of the tropics extending from the

Persian Gulf, Gulf of Oman, Gulf of Aden, Red Sea, Arabian Sea

(including the east coast of Africa) on the west and thence va Indian

Ocean, Gulf of Manaar, Bay of Bengal as far as Hawaii or even

beyond in the Pacific on the east. Geologically speaking, the cowries

commenced in the Cretaceous, but have largely augmented in the

number of species at the present time. One species is also recorded

from the Upper Jurassic of Sicily. It is interesting to note here

that in pre-historic graves in the Baltic countries and elsewhere one

finds cowries along with other shells and animal remains discovered

by archaeological explorations, which undoubtedly proves the anti-

quity of their close connection with human culture and civilization.

Specimens of C. annulus, as stated by Woodward (p._ 121),

were found by Dr. Layard in the ruins of Nimroud. Furthermore,

records from pyramids and tumuli show that both the dark queens of

the east and fair princesses of the north clasped some favourite pearls

or cowries as they were laid to their eternal rest.

1 Platt, R. Nat. Geogr. Mag. NCMVI, No.1, July, p. 39 (1949),

666 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 4y

TRANSFORMATION riley

The cowry shells undergo such wonderful changes both of form

and colour at different phases of their growth that they at once remind

us of the remarkable phenomenon of metamorphosis in insects and

Leptocephalus (the larva of eel). The different stages are

diagrammatically shown in Plate II as observed in a series of shells

of Mauritia mauritiana (Linn.) available in our named collections. The

first stage of development begins with a simple convolution of the

shell around the columellar axis in the form of a long drawn-out

bulla and hence the name ‘Bulla-state’ (Figs. 1-4). It is chiefly

characterized by a depressed or acuminated spire (a. sp.), long and

wide aperture (ap.), smooth and rounded columella {col.) or inner lip

appearing somewhat twisted and curved anteriorly, thin and curved

outer lip (o. 1.) and attractive colouration and markings usually diffused

in bands (c. b.) or wavy lines. But sometimes very fine and delicate

striations are also found on the inner lip which extend for some distance

over the dorsum. In the second epoch of growth the shell (Figs. 5,

6) gradually solidifies, the spire begins to sink below (Fig. 5, s. sp.),

the outer lip and columella begin to thicken and consequently the

aperture becomes narrowed, the rudimentary teeth (r. t.) make their

appearance on the lips from below upwards and the dorsal surface

becomes overlaid with a strong coat of gorgeous colouring matter,

also diffused in obscure bands or waves. Later the shell (Fig. 7)

becomes ventricose with the sides more thickened, the teeth more

strengthened, the aperture more narrowed and the acuminated spire

completely absorbed or remaining only rudimentary in some cases.

Finally the growth of the shell is completed by a light fabric of colour-

ing matter deposited in lines, blotches, -waves or reticulations of

various hues and pattern (Figs. 8, 9). The ornamental character with

which the dorsal surface is usually painted appears to be the last effort,

says Reeve, in the formation of the shell, but that does not appear

until the latter is on the eve of maturity, the most richly variegated

layers of enamel are reserved for the final decoration. Cypraea mappa

happens to be an exception to this general rule, because a layer of

pale hieroglyphical painting greatly resembling that of C. arabica is

deposited here by the animal on the left side chiefly when yet in a

very immature state of growth. On arriving at maturity another richer

layer of the same pattern is superimposed on the former. Thus the

shell in the ‘Bulla-state’ looks so unlike the adult as to give little

clue to its affinities with the latter. Reeve has given a few interest-

ing examples showing the different stages of growth of the shell

from the bulla-state to the adult form and I am also adding a few

more in my work on the revision of cowries.

USES

The importance of cowries has been realized by men in various

fields, of which the most remarkable is their use as a medium of ex-

change (replacing the old barter system). This practice which was so

exceedingly common amongst the civilized and uncivilized people in all

parts of the globe and developed into flourishing trade and commerce

has not yet completely died out. One of the commonest species thus

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I

A. K.®Mondal, del.

Transformation of shell in Mauritia mauritiana (Linn.) |

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PrATE. 11

A. K. Mondal, del.

COWRIES. 66

~$§

employed was ‘money-cowry’ or ‘prop-shell’, Monetaria moneta (Linn.),

which stands almost alone in being used entire (PI. I, Figs. 1, 2), while

all the other forms of shell money are made out of portions of the

shells and thus entail more time, labour and care. This species can

easily be distinguished by its thick, strong, triangularly-ovate shell of

whitish to pale yellowish colour (sometimes with a bluish tint) bearing

callous dorsal tubercles (c. tr.) of varying size and a faint ring (f. r.).

The teeth are mostly exiended and tuberculated, especially posteriorly.

These peculiarities whica are so simple and easy to detect, but not

so readily subject to erosion and decay (excepting colouration), per-

haps led the early people to select this particular type as currency.

Ornamentaria annulus (Linn.) or ‘ring-cowry’, as it is commonly

called, is another species (Pl. I, Fig. 3) which is none the less im-

portant than its ally, M. moneta, and is always found in close associa-

tion with the latter in the sea. It is more extensively used as ornaments

than as currency, as the generic name Ornamentaria indicates, but lacks

entirely the dorsal tubercles, though it possesses a well-defined orange-

ring (o. r.) instead. This possibly earns for it the popular name ‘ring-

cowry’. Some very fine hatr-like transverse white lines (h. tr. 1.) are

also found within the ring. Shells of this type are known to have

been used as ornaments in Oceania, but have also been disseminated

for centuries through Southern Asia, Southern Europe and finally to

America.

Marco Polo, the well-known Italian adventurer and explorer who

wrote an excellent account of the Chinese culture and civilization

after his memorable voyage to China, relates finding cowries circulat-

ing as currency in Yunnan in the thirteenth century. In a Hindu

treatise of 7oo A.D. mention is also made of the use of cowries as

money. Owing to similar use almost exclusively in some parts of

Africa, the cowry trade flourished greatly. This encouraged the

despatch of several cargoes of cowries annually to Wydah and Lagos,

fished from the Maldive and Laccadive Archipelagoes in the Arabian

Sea. In Africa they were exchanged with the slave traders for the

Spanish doubloons they received from the sale of slaves.

This mean but profitable trade continued till the Brazilians stopped

the introduction of African slaves into their country. Till not long

ago cowries were imported from India and other places into England

to be paid to the natives of W. Africa in exchange for their products.

In countries near the Niger, excepting N. Ashantee, prevailed a peculiar

system of exchange of gold dust and the gera or cola-nut (Sterculia

acuminata) with the cowries. A load of sixty pounds of the nuts

was considered equivalent in value to fifteen thousand cowries.

Another golden opportunity came for the cowry trade when the Sultan

of Borneo reformed his currency and introduced the Spanish doubloon

(in place of the cotton-cloth, which had hitherto been the medium

of exchange) with cowries at the rate of four thousand to the doubloon

for small change.

Besides use as currency, there is plenty of evidence in the

Ayurvedic literature relating to the medicinal value of cowries. The

Hindu women in some parts of our country look upon cowries,

especially Monetaria moneta and Ornamentaria annulus, with venera-

tion as a symbol of wealth and prosperity and, as such, never allow

668 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

any important social functions, like marriage, ‘puja’, giving of rice

to the mouth of the child (‘annaprasana’), sradha, etc. to be per-

formed without these shells. It is also customary with the Hindus

of our country to offer some cowries with the corpse. Gambling

with cowries, though an ancient and popular pastime, is still in vogue.

The rarer species of cowries, such as Cypraea umbilicata and

C. guttata, are known to fetch high prices sometimes, like the sacred

Chanks or ‘Sankha’, Xancus pyrum (Linn.). Similarly, the golden

cowry (C. aurantium Gmelin) of the South Pacific, which is considered

as most precious and a shell of ancient lineage, is highly prized by

shell collectors for its beautiful golden colour and also because of

the great prohibition imposed upon its export by Government. This

is said to be used only by a chief of the islanders as a symbol of his

sovereignty, akin to a crown. Chaplets and belts made of cowries

are used by some people, especially the islanders and tribals in their

traditional gala dance during festivals or while wooing their lovers

as described by Platt in his fascinating article ‘Shells take vou over

world Horizon’ {p. 38). Somewhat similar adornments are also

made on cattle in many parts of India. Various kinds of weapons

can be made out cf the shells of cowries for the purpose of defence.

That a good quality of lime can be produced from these shells is also

quite well known. The Asiatic Islanders are said to use the shells

of O. annulus to weight their fishing nets. The animal of C. tigris

is said to be used as a bait for cuttle-fishes. The cowry shells are also

known to be used as a charm against evil eye and for other magical

purposes. It is for all the above and other reasons that cowries probably

proved more and more useful to human society and became most

intimately connected with its culture and civilization.

Das SO LV TNC 2O Fs 1 He Sen es L

It is known that Cypraea possesses, upon emergency, the extra-

ordinary power of dissclving and renewing its shell. An interesting

note about this fact based on personal observations was communicated

by Lieut. J. B. Hankey of the British Navy (H.M.S. ‘Collingwood’,

August 6th, 1844) to Reeve who published it in his Elements of

Conchology (p. 38, 1863): ‘Will you allow me to offer you a few

remarks on the habits of the Cypraea as regards the fact of its mak-

ing a new sheli, at an advanced stage, of which process I have been

myself in more than one instance an eye-witness? I have seen the

Cowry crawl into some hollow or sheltered place, evidently for some

predetermined purpose. The growth of the animal appears to increase

too large for its cell; it gradually swells and cracks the shell, and

I think that some powerful solvent or decomposing fluid is distri-

buted over the outer surface by the mantle of the fish, for it gets

thinner in substance, and the colours duller in appearance. ‘The shell

then entirely disappears, the Cowry becomes to all appearances, a

naked mollusk, with no other covering than its membranous mantle,

and in a short time secretes a thin layer of glutinous matter which in

a few days obtains the fragile consistency of shellac. From this

step its growth is more rapid, and it becomes more and more consoli-

dated into the adult shell. When in the first stage of renewal it

COWRIES 669

has the appearance of shellac; it is always the Cymba form, but I

have never succeeded in preserving any specimens in this state on

account of their extreme fragility’.

The contributions of several workers have added much to our

knowledge of the systematics, use and distribution of the Cowries.

But I think more attention should be given now to a detailed study

of their bionomics and life-history, fishing and fishery, which may un-

ravel many interesting points helping towards a better understanding

and utilization of the animals of this group.

I am grateful to Rai Bahadur Dr. S. L. Hora, Director, Zoo-

logical Survey of India, for going through the manuscript very critically

and making valuable suggestions. My thanks are also due to Sree

A. K. Mondal, an artist of the Zoological Survey of India, who has

drawn the diagrams with care.

EX Ps AN-A/ TL O;Ni--0-8 Pi ATES

Pilate? LP:

Fig. 1. Dorsal view of the shell of Monetaria moneta (Linn.) or ‘money-

cowry’ showing the callous dorsal tubercles (c. tr.) and the faint dorsal ring

(f.r3): x 3t

Fig. 2. Ventral view of the same showing the long, narrow aperture (ap.)

and the teeth (t.), the posterior ones of which are extended and tuberculated. x3.

Fig. 38. Dorsal view of the shell of Ornamentaria annulus (Linn.) or ‘ring-

cowry’ showing the well-defined orange ring (o.r.) and the fine hair-like transverse

white lines (h. tr. 1.). x3.

Fig. 4. Ventral view of the same showing the aperture and the simple

teeth. x3.

Fig. 5. Dorsal view of a Nun Cowry, Trivia (Trivirostra) oryza (Lamk.),

showing the fine transverse dorsal ribs (tr.r.) and the median longitudinal groove

(m.gr.). x6.

Fig. 6. Ventral view of the same showing the aperture and the transverse

dorsal ribs continuous with denticulations (d.) on both the inner and outer lips

(Ee losl: a x6:

Fig. 7. Right and left mantle lobes (r.m.l., J.m.1.) partially covering the

shell (s.) dorsally. (After Steadman and Cotton).

Plate II:

Figs. 1-4. ‘Bulla-state’ of Mauritia mauritiana (Linn.) showing the acuminated

_ spire (fig. 2, a. sp.), smooth and rounded columella (fig. 4, col.) or inner lip some-

what twisted and curved anteriorly, thin and curved outer lip (o.1.), long and wide

aperture (ap.) and the dorsal colour bands (fig. 3, c.b.). Nat. size.

Figs. 5 & 6. A _ shell of the same (dorsal and ventral view) in the second

epoch of growth with sinking spire (fig. 5, s, sp.), narrowed aperture caused by

thickening of both the lips bearing rudimentary teeth (fig. 6, r.t.) developed from

anterior to the posterior end. Nat. size.

Fig. 7. A shell of the same showing the appearance of adult colouration and

markings as well as the thickening of the margins and extremities. Nat. size.

Fig. 8. A shell of the same attaining maturity. Nat. size.

Figs. 9 & 10. A fully mature shell of the same (dorsal «nd ventral view) with

characteristic shape humped dorsum ornamented with beautiful colouration and

markings (fig. 9.), well-developed teeth and greatly sinuous aperture only

posteriorly (fig. 10). The acuminated spire, one of the most prominent features

of the bulla-state, disappears here completely. Nat. size,

ON A COLLECTION OF FISH FROM THE ANAMALAI AND

NELLIAMPATHI HILL RANGES (WESTERN GHATS)

| WITH NOTES ON

ITS ZOOGEOGRAPHICAL SIGNIFICANCES

BY -

E. G. Sitas, 8.sc. (Hons.)

(Communicated by Dr. S. L. Hora)

(With a plate and two text maps)

[ND R702) Gye TD 1ON |

Our knowledge of the fish fauna of the Anamalai and Nelliampathi

hill ranges lying immediately south of the Palghat Gap is very scanty.

Considerable importance has been attached in recent years to the

Palghat Gap as a probable barrier in the distribution of torrential

fishes along the Western Ghats. Zoogeographical studies have re-

vealed that this gap, in the otherwise continuous mountain ranges,

has had profound effects on the southward distribution of certain

forms of animals. Situated 10°46’ N and 72°42! E, Palghat lies

within the Malabar region. Day (1865) in his ‘Fishes of Malabar’,

Blanford (1901) in his classical work on the distribution of Indian

vertebrates, Annandale (1911) in his account of the fresh water sponges

and polyzoa in India, and Prashad (1942) in his systematic survey of

the zoogeographical evidence afforded by the distribution of various

groups of Indian animals have all recognized the importance of treat-

ing the Malabar zone as a distinct biogeographic entity. Hora in his

several contributions on the geographical distribution of freshwater

fishes in India and adjacent lands has indicated the likely migratory

highroads of the torrential fishes along the various mountain

trends. As evidenced by the distribution of freshwater fishes

along the Western Ghats, Bhimachar (1945) has divided the Ghats

into three divisions, viz., a Northern Division, comprising the Deccan

Trap area from the Tapti river down to 16° N latitude about the level of

Goa; a Central Division, extending from 16° N latitude southwards

and including the Malnad parts of the Mysore State, Coorg, Wynaad,

parts of South Kanara district and the Nilgiris; and a Southern Division,

comprising the Anamalai, Palani and Cardomom hills of Travancore.

The Palghat Gap thus forms the dividing line between the Central

and the Southern Divisions.

Though considerable work has been done on the fish fauna of the

Central Division in recent years, the regions immediately south of the

Palghat Gap have remained practically unexplored. What little we

know about the fishes of this region, we owe to the work of Day

(1865) and more recently to- that of Herre (1942, 1945). After his

visit to India in 1941, Herre reported the discovery of two new fishes

from the Anamalai Hills, one a sisorid catfish Glyptothorax housei

Herre, and the other a homalopterid, Hemaloptera montana Herre.

In addition he extended the distribution of the remarkable homalopterid

Tvavancoria jonesi Hora, previously known only from the hill ranges

of northern and central Travancore, to the Anamalai Hills in the

north. The bedrock of Zoogeography being intensive systematic

studies, an extensive collection from this region was found to be want-

A COLLECTION OF FISH FROM THE WESTERN GHATS 671

i hor visited

ne. On the suggestion of Dr. Hora, therefore, the aut

Bc made fish collections from places south of the Palghat Gap lying

in the Coimbatore, Malabar and Cochin districts. The specimens

forming the basis of the present paper were collected during the months

of April and May 1950.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE AREA

OROGRAPHY

The Anamalai and the Nelliampathi hill ranges lying in an east

to west direction have an average altitude of about 3,500 to 4,500 Pt.

Though well within the tropics they have a temperate climate.

Like most of the isolated hill tracts of the peninsula, these hills arise

abruptly from the lower country around them and are bounded on all

. . . 4

was Z! Otay ete! %

Ee: z Abba nie ~ ry

> S

y, fNe aT

fies oe

Worse, 3

wd re Ss

nh eice RUNS IY Sr cool ao

U5 pre 2% Marwon vy

3! o£ yew you

y i ake

> o

se CO/ANBATORE

PULANTORA.

Pun PONNANS C AUVERY

WR WATERSHED WATER SHED

@PALGHAT

Ga, xe

La (3) lg

+n,

ies

tN \~ y wo om.

‘ew oe .

ek ysl ce et

eee 4 = Mn, "ss 3

a eT

SNA yn

a ae

ee nes

“aS AB): %

a HILLS ow ae ,

te, La aes

tne

N An

Fig. 1

Map showing the hill-ranges, the drainage systems and_ the localities

from where collections were made immediately south of the Palghat Gap.

1. Puthutotam Estate: 2. Stream beyond Valparai town,

Hills; 3. Stream at base of Anamalai Hills; 4. Stream at

Streams in the Manalaroo Estate, Nelliampathy Hills.

Anamalai

Nemmara; 5.

sides by short precipitous spurs—the remnants of a former

ereat escarpment. ‘fo ,the. north ; of. these; separated — by the

Palghat Gap and the extensive plains of Coimbatore District,

lie the Nilgiri Hills. The intervening plains of the Palghat

Gap at no place rise to anywhere near a thousand feet and hence

672 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49.

the abrupt high ranges on either side help to stop both the North-

east and South-west Monsoon clouds and precipitate moisture in the

hills closeby. Meteorological records show that these hills receive an

annual maximum rainfall of about 200 inches.

DRAINAGE SYSTEM

Great importance must be attached to the nature of the. watershed

in a given place in discussing the distribution of freshwater organisms,

especially fishes, as fortuitous dispersal of hillstream fishes through

any agency whatsoever must be a very rare occurrence. The streams

of the Anamalai and the Nelliampathi hill ranges and of the areas in

their immediate vicinity drain ultimately into three main systems,

namely, the Cauvery, the Ponnani and the Periyar.

The Cauvery Drainage

The Cauvery is fed by a number of streams arising in the Central

Division of the Western Ghats, viz., the hills of Coorg, Mysore and

the Nilgiris. On the east of the Anamalai Hills, a tributary of the

Amaraviti originates and flows due east and then joins the Amaraviti,

which in turn joins the river Cauvery further east. The Cauvery thus

links up the eastern faces of the Ghats in the Central and the Southern

divisions. No collection was made from the Cauvery watershed.

The Ponnant Drainage

The rivers Anamalai and Gayitri which take their origin from the

eastern slopes of the Anamalai and Nelliampathi hill ranges respect-

iveiy, flow in a north-west direction before turning due west and

eventually joining the river Ponnani which empties itself into the

Arabian Sea. The river Ponnani also receives a number of tributary

streams from the Nilgiri and the Wynaad hills. The Ponnani water-

shed drains the western face of the Ghats of the Central Division and

the eastern face of the Ghats of the Southern Division.

The Periyar Drainage

The streams and rivers on the western and south-western faces of

the Anamalai and Nelliampathy hills are separated from the water-

sheds of the north-eastern face by the intervening high hill ranges.

The river Chalakudi receives a tributary each from the Anamalai and

Nelliampathi hills, flows due south-west and joins the river. Periyar

close to the sea in Cochin. The Periyar river is fed by a number of

streams draining the western face of the Anamalai Hills in the north

and the Cardamom Hills in the south. The Periyar watershed though

isolated from the north, is continuous with the system of waterways

further south.

The Cauvery and the Ponnani watersheds which connect the

Central and the Southern divisions are likely to facilitate the dispersal

of fishes from the north to the south. But unfortunately we do not

know anything of the fish fauna of the tributaries of the Cauvery

draining the Southern Division of the Western Ghats. The collections

dealt with here from the Ponnani watershed shows the co-rmingling

of the species hitherto recorded from the Central and the Southern

divisions. The collection from the Periyar watershed is not representa-

tive enough for drawing any conclusions from,

A COLLECTION OF FISH FROM THE WESTERN GHATS 673

DESCRIPTION OF LOCALITIES AND LIST OF FISHES COLLECTED THEREFROM

The Ponnani Drainage System

Anamalai Hills.—As many as 21 species were collected from the

streams and tanks in the Anamalai Hills and their immediate vicinity.

First the author visited the coffee plantation of Puthutotam Estate,

situated at an elevation of 3,600 feet in the Anamalai Hills. Collections

were made from a shingly stream and a tank in this estate. The

stream is springfed and perennial. Plenty of shade is afforded by the

dense vegetation on either bank of the stream. Fallen and decay-

ing leaves collected at various places along the stream harboured my-

riads of aquatic insects. A few loaches were obtained from under-

neath stones and from certain muddy patches. Most of the fish

were collected from the numerous rocky pools.

The tank, which is situated at a higher elevation, had a surface

area of about an acre at the time of collection. Part of the tank was

found to be overgrown with long grass and waterweeds (Nymphaceae).

Being springted, it contains water all the year round. The water

from the tank is utilised for drinking purposes and the excess out-

flow is passed through a wire netting.

The following is a list of the species collected from the tank and

the stream :—-

Name of species No. of Standard length

Specimens

Rasbora danitonius (Ham.) 3 55°5—76:0 mm,

Barilius gatensis (Cuv. & Val.) a 102-037";

Danio aeqguipinnatus McUlelland a 41:0—62:0__—z,

Barbus (Tor) khudree malabaricus (Jerdon) J 149:°0_ ,,

Barbus (Puntius) melanampyx Day 5 30—54_—S,,

Garra mutlya (Sykes) 6 93—93_,,

Lepidocephalus thermalis (Cuv. & Val.) 3 43—60_ ,,

Another collection was made from a large stream a few miles be-

yond Valparai town in the Anamalai Hills. This stream flows along

the southern boundary of the Mudis group of estates and at the time

of collection was over 7o feet wide. The stream was fast-flowing

and had a number of large pools at intervals, with plenty of boulders

and stones along its course. There was dense vegetation on either

bank. Fish life was found to be scarce in this stream. On enquiry

it was found that the depletion in numbers was’ mainly

due to the large scale poisoning of the stream by some miscreants

a few days prior to the writer’s visit. Destructive elements, such

as copper sulphate, Bordeaux mixture and dynamite, were said to

have been used for this purpose.

The writer was able to collect the following species from this

stream :——

Name of species No. of Standard length

Specimens

Rasbora daniconius (Ham.) wee oe 57 —71 mm.

Barilius gatensis (Cuv. & Val.) 1 88,

Barbus (Puntius) carnaticus (Jerdon) agi9 128—302 _,,

Barbus (Puntius) melanampyx Day 4 38— 62 ,,

Barbus ( Tor) khudree malabaricus (J erdon) 3 126—221 ,,

Garra Mite (Sykes) a Kaen

674 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 49

A number of specimens were obtained from the pools and the

flowing waters of a large stream at the base of the Anamalai Hills.

The water was fast-flowing and a number of small rapids and falls

were present in the stream. Vegetation was sparse on either bank.

A long distance along the banks of this stream was traversed and collec-

tions were made from different niches.

A great majority of the species were obtained from three large pools

in the stream near Vannamadi Bridge.

The following species were obtained from this stream :—

Name of species Peevey Standard length

Chela argentea Day 4 63—78 mm.

Barilius barana Ham. 1 45°55,

Danio aeguipinnatus McClelland 14 41—65'5__,,

Rasbora daniconius (Ham.) 1 510i

Barbus (Puntius) amphibius (Cuv. & Val.) 1 SOO > san

Barbus (Puntius) carnaticus (Jerdon). aoe 2 109-176 -

Barbus (Puntius) carmuca (Ham.) 5 44—87:0 __,,

Barbus ( Puntius) dorsalis (Jerdon) 1 AS: (aa,

Barbus (Puntius) dobsoni Day 1 6370 see

Barbus ( Puntius) melanambyx Day 8 31—56'0 i,

Barbus (Puntius) ticto (Ham.) 4 52—55 3

Barbus (Tor) khudree malabaricus (Jerdon) ] 14:07 153

Garra millya (Sykes) 8 82-107 a

Osteochilus (Osteochilichthys) thomassi (Day) 5 57-1960,

Nemachilus triangularis (Day) 2 3371572" 5

Lepidocephalus thermalis (Cuv. & Val.) 2 51—62'0

Batasio travancoyia Hora & Law. 4 90—93 Mh

Glyptothorax madraspatanus Day 2 50°25—63°25,,

Ophicephalus gachua (Ham.) 1 GOO eae

Mastacembelus armatus (Lacep.)y 2 70—76 wee

Nelliampathi Hills.—A few species were collected from a small

stream and a tank in the vicinity of Nemmara, ciose to the Nelliampathi

Hills. Due-to the failure of the regular monsoon the level of- water

in the tank had gone down considerably. One side of the tank received

more shade from the overhanging branches of the trees that fringed

that part of the bank. The stream had a sandy substratum.

---The following species were collected from here :—- )

Name of species. No. of Standard length

specimens,

Chela clupeoides (Bloch) 5 792--91 mm.

Danio aequipinnatus McClelland ‘ 4 31—67 __s,,

Rasbora daniconius (Ham.). 3 48—55

Barbus (Puntius) amphibius (Cuv. & Val.) 7 89—112 __,,

Ophicephalus gachua (Ham.). 2 5362s

The Periyar Drainage System

Nelliampathi Hills.—In May (1950), the author visited and made

fish collections from the streams and pools in the Manalaroo and neigh-

bouring estates in the Nelliampathi hill range. These hills being

less extensive and more precipitous than the Anamalais, the streams

here flow more abruptly into the plains. Due to the then prevailing

drought most of the streams had dried up leaving patches of stagnant

water here and there. Collections were made from a few pools and a

springfed stream. Intermittent areas of sandy stretches were present

A COLLECTION OF FISH FROM THE WESTERN GHATS G75

in the stream and the water was not very clear. The rate of flow was

also slow. Plenty of submerged weeds and debris were present in

the sandy stretches. Isolated pockets of stagnant water teeming

with mosquito larvae were found in certain places along the course of

the stream. Collections were made by bag-nets, and wherever the

water was deep enough and free from weeds and submerged debris a

cast-net was used.

The following species were obtained from here :—

Name of species. No. of Standard length.

specimens.

Barilius bakeri Day eo 7 71-91 mm.

Danio aequipinnatus McClelland oes 23 21—81 ,,

Barbus (Puntius) melanampyx Day dete 18 - 33-65 ,,

Barbus (Puntius) filamentosus (Cuv. &

Val.) iss 4 67—91 ,,

Garra mullya (Sykes) in 8 39—88 _,,

Nemachilus triangularis (Day) iss 14 34—56 .,

Aplochilus lineatus (Cuv. & Val,) a6 3 36—48 ,,

Ophicephalus gachua Ham. ais 1 oho ee

NOTES ON CERTAIN SPSCIiES

Barbus (Puntius) carnaticus (Jerdon)

1942 Barbus (Puntius) carnaticus, Hora, Rec. Ind. Mus., xliv, p. 195.

2 specimens—Tank in Puthutotam Estate, Anamalai Hills; length 142—

154 mm,

9 specimens, Large stream 7 miles from Valparai town; Annamalai Hills :

length 128—302 mm.

2 specimens. Stream at base of Anamalai Hills ; length 109—176 mm.

To Barbus (Puntius) carnaticus (Jerden) are referred 13 specimens

Iog to 302 mm. in length collected from the Anamalai Hills. About

the distribution of this species Day observed, ‘Found in the rivers

along the base of the Nilgiris, Wynnad and South Kanara Hills’.

The present collection extends the distribution of this species from

the Central Division of the Western Ghats to the Anamalai Hills in

Southern Division. It is of interest to note that this species while

present in the Ponnani and Cauvery watersheds in the Anamalai and

-Nelliampathi hill ranges has not so far been recorded from the Periyar

drainage and from the rivers further south in Travancore. B. (Puntius)

carnaticus grows to a fairly large size and is known to attain over

25 lb. in weight.

Osteochilus (Osteochilichthys) thomassi (Day)

1877 Scaphiodon thomassi, Day, Fish. India, p. 551, pl. cxxxiv, fig. 1.

1942 Osteochilus (Osteochilichthys) thomassi, Hora, Rec. Indian Mus., xliv,

p. 196. 5 specimens—Streams at base of Anamalai Hills; length 57-196 mm.

This species was hitherto known to occur in the Central Division

of the Western Ghats, Bhimachar (1945) speaking of the zoo-

geographical divisions of the Western Ghats, referred to the genus

Osteochilus, and stated: ‘It is significant that these are absent in

Southern Division’. The present collection extends the distribution of

Osteochilus (Osteochilichthys) thomassi from the Central to the Southern

Division but as is the case of the preceding species, it is not found

in the Periyar River drainage system. Attention has already been

invited to the common watershed of the streams of the Central and

676 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

the Southern divisions of the Western Ghats which would explain

the distribution of Osteochilus to the Southern Division of the Ghats.

Batasio travancoria Hora and Law.

1941 Batasio travancoria Hora and Law, Rec. Indian, Mus., xliii, pp. 40-42.

4 specimens—Stream at the base of the Anamalai Hills. Length 90 to 93 mm.

Previously known from southern and central Travancore, the

present collection extends the distribution of Batasio travancoria north

to the Ponnani watershed in the Anamalai Hills. The dis-

continuity in the distribution of the species of this genus shows its

antiquity, for it represents one of the Malayan elements in the fauna

of Peninsular India.

Glyptothorax prox. madraspatanus (Day).

1941 Glypiothoray madraspatanus, Hora and Law, Rec. Indian Mus. xliit,

p. 250.

2 specimens. Stream at the base of Anamalai Hills. Length 50-25 and

63.25 mm. ;

D 1/6/05 A. 3/6/13" S Vy Ge Cial7?

Two specimens of Glyptothorax collected from the stream at the

base of the Anamalai ‘Hills differ considerably in body colouration from

Glyptothorax madraspatanus (Day) found in the hill streams of

Travancore. These specimens are characterized here as follows :—

The head and the anterior part of the body are considerably de-

pressed, the dorsal profile is slightly arched and the ventral profile

flattened and horizontal. The head is slightly longer than broad,

but is not as long as 14 times its breadth. The length of the head is

‘contained 5 times and the depth of the body 6.5 to 8 times in the

total length. The eyes are small and placed dorso-laterally, and are

not visible from the ventral surface. The length of the snout corres-

ponds to almost half the length of the head and consequently the eyes

are placed more in the posterior half of the head. The inter-orbital

width is contained 3.25 to 4 times in the length of the head.

The mouth is subterminal. The teeth in the upper jaw are pointed

and are placed in a transverse band. The width of the mouth is

contained almost three times in the length of the head.

The flattened ventral surface between the pectorals is plaited to

form an adhesive organ. The skin on the ventral surface of the outer

rays of the pectorals is also corrugated so as to help in adhesion.

The maxillary barbels are long and broad at their base. They extend

to slightly beyond the base of the pectoral fin. The inner mandibular

barbels are shorter than the outer. The gill openings are situated

obliquely and extend to the ventral surface for a short distance.

The dorsal arises closer to the tip of the snout than to the base of

the caudal. The longest ray of the dorsal is much longer than the

depth of the body below it. The dorsal possesses 6 branched rays.

The anals are small and possess 3 simple and 7 branched rays.

The paired fins are flattened and horizontal. The pectorals are broad

and possess eight branched rays. The spine of the pectoral is serrated

on its inner edge. The pectorals are separated from the pelvics by

MOIA [VISA “¢ ‘MOIA [esIoq °2 SMOIA [BI9NVT ‘T

(keq,) suuvjodsvzpou *xoid xo20y30;¢h74

“aanop

‘

» ats

. -

’

A COLLECTION OF FISH FROM THE WESTERN GHATS B77

a considerable distance. The pelvics commence slightly posterior to

the origin of the dorsal and are separated from the anal by a short

distance and possess 6 rays. The caudal is long and deeply forked.

The least height of the caudal peduncle is contained 24 times in its

length. The vent is situated nearer the base of the caudal than to the

pectorals.

The skin is tuberculated. The colour in alcohol is as follows :—

The body is dark greyish with the ventral surface and the fins being

paler. The adipose fin and the other fins are tipped with white.

Three white transverse bands are present on the body, one below

the dorsal, the second beneath the adipose dorsal and the third at the

base of the caudal. A broad transverse white band is present at the

bifurcation of the caudal. The caudal lobes are tipped with white.

Measurements in Millimeters

Total length

Length of caudal

Length of head

Greatest width of head

Height of head near occiput

Length of snout

Inter orbital width

Depth of body

Height of dorsal fin

Length of pectoral fin

Length of pelvic fin

Longest ray of anal fin

Length of caudal peduncle

Least height of caudal peduncle as

Distance between the tip of the snout and the usin of

the dorsal fin bes

Distance between the tip of the snout and the or igin

_ of the adipose fin

-Distance between the origin of the dorsal and the adipose + oy

fin 0 14,0 .-. . ., 16.0

Distance between the origin of the dorsal and the

base of the caudal ‘ 24.5 tes ~ B20

Distance between the base of che doseal and the! origin £ fhe, oe

of the adipose fin eel dine osf5 wins dds0

(Sal

rom)

we)

(o>)

pmed bed

10.0

—

¢ SDOMWUMNOSr:

ONDOCOCDONUNS

MAnoSoNoon

—"

WOODrOMDWAMN

iy) Oo

; isnt

— {

wa YOON

nN of

ZLOOGEROGRAPHTLCAL REMARES

-Most-of the species under report have a wide distribution and hence

need no special remarks. The species falling under this category are

arranged here under three heads as follows :—

t. Species widely distributed in India and further East.

Barilius barena (Ham.) Barbus ( Puntius) ticto Ham.

Danio aequipinnatus McClelland, Ophicephalus gachua Ham.

Rasbora daniconius (Ham.). Mastacembelus armatus (Lacep),.

3. Species common to Peninsular India and Ceylon.

Barbus (Puntius) amphibius (C. V.) BS. (Puntius) melanampya

ay).

Barbus (Puntius) dorsalis (Jerdor). Garra mullya (Sykes).

Barbus (Puntius) tilamentosus (C.V.) Fee ee thermalis (CVA Se

oo Aplochilus lineatus (C.V.)

678 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

3. Species found in the Western Ghats and associated hills.

Cheéla clupeoides ( Bloch.) Barbus (Puntius) curmuca Ham.

Barilius gatensts (C.V.) Barbus (Tor) khudree malabaricus (Ham.)

Glyptothorax madraspatanus (Day).

Of the remaining species, it is significant to note that some, hitherto

known only from the Central Division of the Western Ghats and others

from Travancore in the Southern Division, are at present found in the

drainage system immediately south of the Palghat Gap. The Anamalai —

Hills are also characterized by the presence of two endemic species. |

Here, those species which are of zoogeographical importance are ar-

ranged under three groups and their significance is discussed.

1. Species hitherto known from the Central Division, and now found

to occur in the Anamalai and Nelliampathi Hills :—

Chela argentea Day.

Barbus (Puntius) carnaticus Jerdon. |

Osteochilus (Osteochilichthys) thomassi (Day).

2. Species previously known from Travancore and now ebiaieg from

the Cochin section of the Anamalai and Nelliampathi Hills :—

Barilius bakeri Day.

Barbus (Puntius) denisonii Day.

Lravancoria jonest Hora.

Nemachilus triangularis Day.

Batasio travancoria Hora & Law.

3. Endemic species :—

Homaloptera montana Herre.

Glyptothorax house: Herre.

Species such as Chela argentea, Barbus (Puntius) carnaticus and Osteo-

chilus (Osteochilichthys) thomassi, being not highly adapted to a

torrential life, are also found in the streams of the plains and, as such,

it may be presumed that these species have found access from the

Central to the Southern Division along some of the streams of the

plains of Palghat.

The Periyar drainage system being continuous with the streams

of the Nelliampathi Hills, it is but natural that species like Barilius

bakeri and Nemachillus triangularis occurring in Travancore should

also be found here. The presence of Barbus (Puntius) denisonit,

Travancoria jonesi, and Batasio travancoria in the Anamalai Hills

needs further explanation. It is presumed that these species which

were originally found here migrated further south to the hills of

Travancore prior to the severance of the connection between the

watersheds. The subsequent separation of the watersheds resulted

in the isolation of these species both in the north and in the south.

Two specimens of Glyptothorax {prox madraspatanus) collected by

the writer from one of the streams in the Anamalai Hills differ.

considerably from G. madraspatanus found in the hill streams of

Travancore. A tendency towards speciation of this sisorid catfish

shows that the isolation of the species here has been of recent occur-

rence. It is possible that these differences indicate an incipient «stage

in the formation of a new-species. It is also interesting to find another

4 COLLECTION OF FISH FROM THE WESTERN GHATS 679

sisorid, viz., Glyptothorax housei Herre, endemic in the Anamalai Hills

G. housei differs from the other South Indian species, such as G. madras-

patanus (Day), G. lonah (Skyes), G. annandalei Hora and G, trewasae

Hora, in possessing a smooth skin. In this feature it resembles G. cont-

rostre poonaensis Hora, from which it is distinguished by the longer

barbels, the size, the lesser height of the dorsal and its greater dis-

tance from the adipose fin, the size and position of the anal, the

shorter head and the greater development of the adhesive organs.

Of considerable zoogeographical importance is the occurrence of

a species of the genus Homaloptera in the Anamalai Hills... (ihe

genus Homaloptera is known from Eastern Burma, Siam, Malay

Peninsula and the East. The presence of Homaloptera montana

Herre in Peninsular India throws much light on the phylogeny of

South Indian homalopterids and also helps in tracing the migratory

eS RE ae es oP ee a eo Se ee ee Ts pout Boz Pepe int a = T* RIP Pe: Bary "6041

| ARABIAN

& HOMALOPTERA

@ BALITORA

@ BALITOROPSIS

@ BHAVANIA

@ TRAVANCORIA 5

@ HOMALOPTERA ‘EXTINCT’

BALITORA EXTINCT

HOMALOPTERA WAVE

BALITORA WAVE + Ha a

BHAVANIA WAVE ; SUMATRA

Fig. 2

Map showing the probable routes of the waves of migration of Homa-

lopterid Fishes to peninsular India,

‘highroads of these torrential fishes. A certain amount of speciation

of Homaloptera took place in the Eastern Himalayas resulting

in the genus Balitora. It is clear that Homaloptera, like the other

torrential fishes, reached the Western Ghats along with the first influx

along the Satpura trend of mountains which was evidently continuous

with the Eastern Himalayas at that time. Having reached the West-

ern Ghats these fishes migrated to the south, in the Peninsula, .

680 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

On reaching the Central Division of the Ghats, from Homaloptera

was developed a better adapted and more evolved form as is seen. in

the present day genus Bhavania. Homaloptera and Bhavana continued

the southward movement and reached the Southern Division prior to

the formation of the Palghat Gap. It is now known for certain that

the disruption of Ceylon from Peninsular India took place

during the Pliocene and it is supposed that the formation oi

the Palghat Gap was later than this change. The homalopterids are

absent in the mountain ranges of Ceylon. Having reached the

Southern Division Bhavania migrated further south. The genus

Tvavancoria is believed to have been a further attempt at speciation

of the genus Homaloptera which was isolated in the Southern Division.

Homaloptera and Travancoria are found in the Anamalai Hills and

Travancoria ‘is also found further south in Northern Travancore.

Bhavania at present occurs both in the Central Division of the Ghats in

Mysore and the Southern Division in Travancore.

No species of Homaloptera has so far been recorded from the

Central and Northern divisions of the Western Ghats. In the east,

Homaloptera migrated along the mountain ranges of Burma to Siam

and Malay Peninsula. As it had given rise to Bhavania in Peninsular

India, Homaloptera also gave rise to Balitoropsis in Siam.

Balitora from its original home in the mountain ranges of the Eastern

Himalayas and Assam migrated along two similar lines in subsequent

waves. Balitora brucei mysorensis found in Mysore and Balitora

brucei burmanicus found in Burma are geographical races of Balitora

brucei of Eastern Himalayas. Balitora melansoma of southern Burma

is also closely related to B. brucei. Balitora is not found in the

Southern Division of the Western Ghats and it is likely that the

Palghat Gap acted as a barrier to the southward movement of Balitora

and of other torrential fishes which reached the Central Division in the

subsequent waves.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I am deeply indebted to Dr. S. L. Hora, Director, Zoological

Survey of India, for all the facilities he gave me to work out the

collection and for the helpful suggestions and guidance he has given

me in the preparation of this paper.

REFERENCES

Annandale, N, (1911): Freshwater Sponges. Hydroid and Polyzoa. Fauna

of Brit. India.

Bhimachar, B. S. (1945): Zoogeographical divisions of the Western Ghats as

evidenced by the distribution of hill-stream fishes. Curr. Sci. (1) xiv: 18-16.

_ Bhimachar, B. S. and Rau, A. S. (1941): Fishes of the Mysore State. I.

Fishes of the Kadur District. Journ. Mysore Univ. 1 (2): 141-154.

Blanford, W. T. (1901): Distribution of vertebrate animals in India, Ceylon

and Burma. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London (B) 194%: 335-436.

Day, F. (1865): Fishes of Malabar.

— — — (1876-1888): Fishes of India. London.

— — — (1889): Fauna of British India [ & II.

Gregory, J. W. (1925): The evolution of the River systems of South Eastern

Asia. Scottish Geog. Mag. 44: 129-141.

Herre, A. W. C. T. (1942): Glyptothorax housei, a new sisorid catfish from

South! India. Stanford Ichth. Bull. ii (4): 117.

A COLLECTION OF FISH FROM THE WESTERN GHATS 681

Herre, A. W. C. T. (1945): Notes on the Fishes of the Zoological Museum

of Stanford University. Ichthyology, xx: 399-400.

Hora, S. L. (1923): Fishes of the Indian Museum. V. On the composite genus

Glyptosternon. McClell. Rec. Ind. Mus. xxv (1) 1-44.

— — — (1937): Geographical distribution of Indian Freshwater fishes and

its bearing on probable land connections between India and adjacent countries.

Curr. Sci. T: 351-356.

— — — (1941): Homalopterid fishes of Peninsular India. Rec. Ind. Mus.

xliii : 221-232.

— — — (1942): Fishes of the Mysore State and the neighbouring hill ranges

of Nilgiris, Wynaad and Coorg. Rec. Ind. Mus. xliv: 193-200.

— — — (1942): On the systematic position of the Indian species of Scaphiodon

Heckel, and the systematic position of Cyprinus nukta Sykes. Rec. Ind. Mus.

xliv: 1-14.

— — — (1944): On the Malayan affinities of the freshwater fish fauna of

‘eninsular India, and its bearing on the probable age of the Garo-Rajmahal Gap.

Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India. x (4): 423-439.

— — -— (1947): Torrential fishes and the significance of their distribution in

zoogeographical studies. Bull. Nat. Geog. Soc. India. (Benares) (7): 1-10.

— — — (1949): Dating the period of the Migration of the so-called Malayan

element in the fauna of Peninsular India. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India. xv: 1-7.

Hora, S. L. and Law, N. C. (1941): Siluroid fishes of India, Burma and

Ceylon. Rec. Ind. Mus., xlili: 9-42.

— — — (1941): Freshwater fishes of Travancore. Ibid., 233-256.

John, C. C. (1936): Fishes of Travancore. Journ. Bombay, Nat. Hist. Soc.,

XXxVili : 702-733.

Pillay, R. S. N. (1929): Fishes of Travancore. Ibid. xxxviii. 347-379.

Prashad, B. (1942): Zoogeography of India. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India,

Vili: 33-43.

II. Glyptothoray prox madraspatanus Day 1. Lateral view; 2, Dorsal view ;

3. Ventral view,

FILIPEDIUM, A NEW GENUS OF GRAMINEAE

(GRASSES)

M. B. Raizapa & S. K. JAIN

(Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun)

(With one plate)

Filipedium Raizada et Jain genus novum; pertinet ad Gramineas,

sect. Andropogonearum. Accedit ad Capillipedium Stapf, a quo

tamen differt pedicellis spathulatis, ut plurimum spiculis pedicellatis

atque spiculis sessilibus haud aristatis.

Spiculae binae, quarum una _ sessilis, altera vero pedicellata,

distinctae inter se forma, magnitudine atque sexu, dispositae in

racemos in apice ramorum capillarium in aperto paniculo; rami verti-

cillati, nudi ad basim; racemorum nodi atque pedicelli fere similes,

complanati, hyalini in medio; pedicelli conspicue spathulati. Spicula

sessilis decidit cum nodo adjacenti atque pedicello sptculae pedicellatae

spicula pedicellata decidit ex pedicello. Spicula_ sessilis dorso

compressa, haud aristata. Glumae I atque II similes, plus minusve

chartaceae, leves; gluma-I subbicarinata, marginibus anguste incurvis;

gluma II fortiter carinata; gluma III ut plurimum abest. Fiosculus

superior bisexualis; gluma IV ad squamam hyalinam reducta vel nulla.

Stamina tria. Stigmata duo. Spicula pedicellata ut plurimum rudi-

mentaria, ad 2 glumas vestigiales reducta; gluma II ut plurimum

brevior quam gluma I; flosculi nuili.

Gramina perennia. Culmi graciles, ut plurimum erecti, simplices

vel ramosi, nodis generatim glabris. Foliorum laminae _lineares,

apicibus elongatis.

Filipedium Raizada and Jain (Gramineae-Andropogoneae). This

genus is Closely related to Capillipedium Stapf from which it can be

easily distinguished by the spathulate pedicels, usually rudimentary

pedicelled spikelets and unawned sessile spikelets.

Spikelets 2-nate, one sessile the other pedicelled, differing in shape,

size and sex, in few-jointed fragile racemes at the ends of the capillary

branches of a loose panicle; branches whorled, naked at base; joints

of the raceme and pedicels almost similar, flat, hyaline in middle,

pedicels conspicuously spathulate. Sessile spikelet falling with the

adjacent joint and the pedicel of the pedicelled spikeleg; pedicelled

spikelet falling from its pedicel. Sessile spikelet dorsally compressed,

unawned. Glumes I and II equal, more or less chartaceous, smooth;

glume I sub-2-keeled, margins narrowly incurved; glume ITI strongly

keeled; glume III usually absent. Upper floret hermaphrodite ;

glume IV reduced to a hyaline scale or absent. Stamens 3. Stigmas

2. Pedicelled spikelet usually rudimentary, reduced to 2 vestigial

glumes; glume II usually shorter than I; florets O.

Perennial grasses. Culms slender, usually erect, simple or

branched, nodes usually glabrous. Leaf-blades linear, long-tapering.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Filipedium planipedicellatum (Bor) Raizada and Jain

, a A, Tati Al DF. vis ‘ ay Dh

~ q iy 7 i] U Vt i .

ee - by A pe Hoe

_ aN

Phd ;

. ui

. em

: .

‘

* .

‘

° -

FILIPEDIUM, A. NEW GENUS OF GRAMINEAE 683

Type species: Filipedium planipedicellatum (Bor) Raizada and

Jain comb. nov. (based on Capillipedium planipedicellatum Bor). One

species from India.

Filipedium planipedicellatum (Bor) Raizada and Jain comb. nov.

Capillipedium planipedicellatum Bor in Kew Bull. (1949) 222.

Perennial. Culms more than a meter high, erect, simple, siender,

smooth, purplish in colour, nodes glabrous. Leaf-sheath tight, terete

or slightly compressed, smaller than the internodes, striate, smooth;

ligule short, membranous, ciliate above. Leaf-blades linear, almost

8 cm. long, 3 mm. wide, acuminate, long-tapering to a fine point,

margins scabrous, involute or flat, base rounded, bearded in throat.

Panicle up to 20 cm. long, 7-8 cm. wide; branches whorled,

loose; racemes naked at base, bearing short spikes in upper part,

6-7 cm. long; branches capillary flexuose, 2-jointed, smooth, glabrous.

Racemes fragile, usually with 3 sessile spikelets, the lower two with

one pedicelled spikelet, the terminal one with two pedicelled spikelets.

Joints of the raceme and pedicels similar, smooth, glabrous, 1.5-2.5

mm. long, flat, hyaline in the middle, pedicels conspicuously oblan-

ceolate, slightly thickened at the apex, purple, fragile. Sessile

spikelet falling with the adjacent joint and the pedicel of the pedicelled

spikelet. Pedicelled spikelet falling from its pedicel. Sessile spikelet

3 mm. long, elliptic-oblong, acute, dorsally compressed. Glume I

3 mm. long, g-nerved, elliptic-oblong, acute, chartaceous, smooth,

glabrous, purplish-brown, sub-2-keeled, margins narrowly incurved;

glume II equal in length, strongly keeled at back, lanceolate, acute,

3-nerved, purple, smooth, margins narrowly inflexed. Lower floret

O. Upper floret hermaphrodite, glume IV O or a narrow hyaline

scale, palea broadly triangular, hyaline, 1.5 mm. long, 1 mm. wide.

Lodicules 2, cuneate. Stamens 3. Styles 2; stigmas 2, plumose.

Pedicelled spikelet: pedicel similar to the joint of the raceme but

thickened at apex; spikelet much reduced to 2 vestigial glumes; glume

I 1.5 mm. long, narrowly or broadly lanceolate, acute; glume II

much shorter; florets O.

Manipur State, Palel, elevation 2,500 ft.; (Bor-17,059; roth Nov.

1942). ‘A grass 3-4 ft. tall—in swamps—-spikelets purple’.

This grass was regarded by Dr. N. L. Bor to be a member of the

genus Capillipedium Stapf. He found it to be different from all

known species of the genus and described it as a new species, Capilli-

pedium planipedicellatum Bor (Kew Bulletin 1949, 222). Bor,

however, had pointed out that it was a remarkable grass differing

from other species of the genus Capillipedium in several important

features.

While engaged upon an exhaustive study of the Indian species

of the genus Capillipedium Stapf the authors critically examined the

type specimen of this grass (C. planipedicellatum Bor), which revealed

that it markedly differed from all other members of the genus in

the absence of awn, spathulate pedicels and rudimentary pedicelled

spikelets. With such marked differences the inclusion of this grass

in the genus Capillipedium is not only anomalous but contaminates

the purity of this genus. The creation of a new genus Filiipedium ~

was, therefore, found necessary to accommodate this remarkable grass.

684 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

We are grateful to Rev. Father H. Santapau for very kindly

putting the description of the genus into Latin.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE

(a) Upper part of the culm and inflorescence. |

(b) A branch of panicle. |

(d) Conspicuous spathulate pedicels almost masking the sessile spilcelet. |

(e) A joint of raceme. |

(f) Pedicel of the pedicelled spikelet. |

(g), (h) and (i) Glume I, II and palea of the sessile spikelet.

(j) and (k) Glume I and II of the pedicelled spikelet.

(1) Leaf-base showing ligule.

THE GIR FOREST AND. ITS LIONS

K. S. DHARMAKUMARSINHJT & M. A. WyYNTER-BLYTH, M.A,

(Cantab.), F.R.E.S.

Part III

Continued from p. 470 of this volume

1. THE LIon tn BHAvVNaGaAR (by K. S. D.)

Lions existed all over Kathiawar in ancient times and were still

to be found in many parts of the peninsula until the middle of the

19th century. In Bhavnagar territory their main habitat was the

Sihor Hills, and the adjacent Ramdhari Hills which run in a north-

westerly direction to join the Chotila range, another old haunt of

lions. The Ramdhari Hills were studded with low scrub forest, while

at Sihor there is a thick well-wooded jungle of mixed thorny trees. These

two ranges are of distinct character, and the lions were known as being

of the Ramdhari or Sihori type, although there could have been no

difference between the two.

Since then the lion has, of course, completely disappeared from

these hills; I believe the last was killed at Sihor in the time of Thakore

Jaswantsinhji, my great-grandfather. After this it was over 60 years

before lions were again seen in the State and that was many miles

away from the Sihor Hills, in a small portion of the Kundla district

known as the Mytiala Hills, the name being derived from the old

village of Mytiala ensconced amidst them. These hills are the eastern

terminus of the Gir highland system and are divided from it by the

river Dhantarwardi, which is also almost the demarcation line between

Bhavnagar and Baroda States. The highest of these hills is between

500 and 1000 feet.

It was here in October 1917 that a lioness and two cubs were re-

corded as wandering into the territory from the Gir where lions were

considered very rare then. These animals stayed but a short time.

Following this occurrence no more lions were recorded until 1920,

when Mytiala had another visit, again in October, from a lion, two

lionesses and two half-grown cubs. In 1922 two more lions were

seen in these hills; after that date we began to have regular yearly

visits but so keen were sportsmen to bag them that many of them

were shot. At that time, I regret to state, preservation was not

strict, nor was it so until the rule of my brother, H.H. the Maharajah

Raol Shri Krishnakumarsinhji. This is seen from the records of

attempts made to shoot these lions, mostly females, during the

minority administration of the present ruler. Nevertheless it is to

the credit of R. S. Krishnachandra Kalubha, the then Superintendent

of Police who accompanied my father so often on shikar, that a fairly

good record was kept.

As years went by, lions mostly females, continued to enter Mytiala

but they never stayed in the territory for any length of time. These

686 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCTEEY, YiWol 49

animals may well be termed migratory, for, since the forest was so

poor in trees and lacking in water, there was no temptation for the

animals to remain unless they had made a kill. It was fortunate that

the distance of Mytiala from any large city was so great that by the

time any rail or road bandobast could be made for a shikar camp

the animals had had ample time to slip back into Baroda Gir territory.

This used to happen quite often and still does to the present day, as the

Mytiala area comprises only six square miles of territory, some of

which is bare open hills.

As soon as the first male lions were recorded entering the territory

in 1929, His Highness, with great foresight, made a rule preserving

the females. Since then no lionesses have been shot. Having bagged

such a rare animal, His Highness afforded ample opportunity to his

close friends to shoot ‘shootable’ lions, as they were termed, meaning

lions whose front pad measured 32 inches or over. It is of interest to

note that some of the lions were shot on foot.

As time advanced, more and more lions entered the Preserve and it

was at His Highness’s suggestion that an afforestation scheme was

begun. The arduous task of dispersal of seeds and watering young

plants was entrusted to the Shikar Department. As there seemed to be

some possibility of conserving water, three small Jakes were also

constructed. These proved to be successful in attaining their object

except during the very hot months when they dried up. Nevertheless,

this water encouraged the growth of vegetation and soon trees and

undergrowth flourished. Now, owing to strict preservation and con-

servation of the forest, the Mytiala Hills form an ideal resort for lions.

Moreover, the abundance of natural prey entices lions to stay for long

periods, with the result that for the last four or five years it has been

possible to find lions there throughout the year, something that would

have been considered impossible when we began the scheme. |

In the early ‘30’s I could count the trees in each valley: today

these valleys are a mass of forest vegetation, a delightful spectacle

during, the monsoon when foliage is green and thick.

His Highness possesses an old shooting hut placed on the side ot

a hill from which there is a magnificent view of the Mytiala Valley,

called the ‘Door’, which is the main abode of the lions: a cart track

winds through the jungle to pass Mytiala village. From this hut, which

is placed, as it were above the corridor of the valley through which

most of the lions enter our territory, one looks over the village of

Khambha towards the summit of Nandi Velo, the highest peak to be

seen in the area. Mamai Peak of the Mytiala range is close by, and

from this the sea is visible beyond Rajula on a clear day.

The preservation of forest and game has given a distinctive charac-

ter to this part of Bhavnagar territory. Whenever guests asked

where our territory ended and that of others began, the invariable reply

was that Bhavnagar territory was where trees and game could be

seen—a fact that could not be denied.

%* * *

The lion as I know him is a magnificent animal. The appearance

of a full-maned lion is formidable and one that instils respect. He is

by no means aggressive, but from my experience prefers seclusion and

resents disturbance. For him the most important question is food, for

not everywhere is there sufficient. Owing to heavy population sur-

THE GIR-FOREST AND ITS LIONS 687

rounding his home in the Gir, he is disturbed as soon as he leaves the

forest. But in spite of this, because he has learnt to know that man

seldom has evil intentions towards him, he has become used to the

presence of human habitations. The lion of Kathiawar, unlike some

African lions, does not look on man as his enemy, except when he is

hunted with the gun, and therefore one does not (nowadays) meet with

man-eating lions. Moreover, decrepit lions and lionesses seem to die

a natural “death in solitude when their powers of hunting fail rather

than attack man towards whom they have a natural fear.

Lions, then, are frequently found around human habitations and it is

rarely that a family of lions does not call at a nesda' during the night.

This, of course, is to seek for any cattle that have either lagged behind

on their way home or have been poorly secured within the nes. Lions,

consequently, feed frequently on domestic cattle and are therefore a

constant menace. The lion when he preys upon cattle always has, it

seems to me, a guilty feeling of theft, for he does not normally show

fight if the owners try to drive him away. However, when very hungry,

he gets irritated by human interference and displays defiance by roaring

and demonstrating. But these attacks cannot be compared with the

deliberate cold-blooded charge of a wounded lion. -Nevertheless, I have

known some cases of over-bold maldharis who have tried to drive a

pair of lions from a kill at night, being badly mauled by one of them

which was reluctant to part with his meal. Such cases of attack are

rare, but when a maldhari has lost one of his most valued Moe aso lens

he tends to become something of a lion himself !

As a rule a number of men coughing or talking is enough to drive

a pride of lions off their kill. From my experience, if a lion has been

deprived of his food immediately after killing, he will utter an angry

roar and leave the area disgusted. I recollect the case of a heifer that

had been killed by a pair of lions, whose carcass was removed in a

lorry. When the lions found their meal had been stolen they roared

furiously a number of times during the night, but left the jungle before

day-break.

The lion of the Gir may be seen singly, in pairs, or in prides. The

largest pride I have seen consisted of nine animals of which two were

males; but five or six of varying size with one male lion is not an

unusual sight. Solitary males may be seen, but it seems a special

characteristic of the Gir lion to move in pairs, generally both males, one

usually: slightly larger than the other. This unit is locally termed a

bélad. I personally believe the two animals find hunting made much

easier by their association, a fact I can corroborate from my personal

experience. At Mytiala there was a full grown buffalo bull which was

always left out in the open at night but was never attacked in the course

of many years, and seemed well capable of defying any single lion, or

lioness with cubs, until, one fateful night, a bold pair of lions hunting:

in concert brought him down.

The Gir lion appears to be less courageous than his African brother

and is reluctant to attack a full-grown buffalo unaided. However, both

single lions and lionesses have been known to bring down full-grown

nilgai bulls, and I myself have the record of a lioness that killed a large

bull at Mytiala one season.

‘ Herdsmen’s hamlet in the Gir, E

688 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus) of course, form an important

proportion of the game killed by lions for food. There was once a pair

of lions living in the Mytiala Hills which regularly used to prey on

nilgai with the result that these animals became very wary even during

the daytime, keeping to the steep sides and higher ridges of the hills,

and taking alarm at the slightest appearance or scent of us. Lions have

even been known to bring down nilgai at mid-day during the cooler

season, a time when these antelopes suspect little danger. At

this time™ of, ;day..,[,, once..; watched,+.a .,herd,; of .. about. iity,

of them that was stopped dead by a pair of male _ lions,

and then immediately turned and fled in the opposite direction.

Fortunately for them the lions were not hungry. Another remarkable

spectacle I had the good fortune to see was a nilgai bull following some

lions that had been feeding on a kill. The lions made no attempt to

attack the nilgai, although he was not fifty yards away, and he seemed

aware that they meant him no harm.

Lions have also been known to kill panthers and we had such a

case recently at Mytiala.

Well-fed lions are lazy and will allow close approach. It is during

the heat of the day that one comes suddenly upon them. whilst they

are lying up, and it is then that they, being frightened themselves,

show defiance. On such occasions it is best to’shout and beat a dis-

creet retreat! A lioness with cubs is still more to be feared, for even

though she may be sleeping, the cubs, intrigued by the appearance of

this strange new animal, come to investigate. The mother awakening,

perhaps finds one of her family missing and comes in search of it, and

then finds you whom she suspects of being the thief! On seeing young

cubs it is advisable to make off as rapidly as is practicable without

waking mother. 7

A lioness with cubs gives out a nerve-wracking continuous growl.

I have watched cubs, with their mother growling thus and twitching

her tail as she looked up at me. More than once I expected her to

spring at me in my machan (which was not a high one) but fortunately

she decided otherwise.

During a beat I have seen a lioness, deserted by the male which

had. moved silently away, growling fiercely in defence of her cubs and

deliberately biting and pushing them to urge them out of danger. Fin-

ally she scattered them and moved on reluctantly. Yet on the other

hand I have seen very clearly, in our own jungle, a pride of lionesses

and cubs beaten past the machan at mid-day.

Shikaris know very well the danger of pressing lions too quickly

and with too much noise, but if properly managed they give no trouble.

Nevertheless, lions vary in temperament individually, and I have known

some lions which have only been made to move after much roaring

and growling. One lioness was particularly dangerous ‘and created a

great fuss whenever our shikaris came across her. She earned herself

a name for this, and the shikaris were able to recognise her immediate--

ly by her unmitigating behaviour.

Lions, when driven, often give a roar when they get up, and then

follow a trail silently, carefully watching the ground ahead of them,

often pausing to listen. Males are inclined to amble or run if they

are suddenly pressed, while females move more slowly. Lions which

have had their companions shot in the Gir are very wary when they

THE GIR FOREST: AND ITS LIONS 689

are driven. Their attitude then is to leave the covert as quickly as

possible and to seek the protection of another.

Owing to persecution by maidharis when they have killed cattle,

lions seldom return to such kills, and are wont to consume as much of

them as they can that night. However, when they have killed away

from nesdas in the jungle and are left undisturbed they invariably

return to their kills, and I have seen them feeding on one for three

consecutive nights. After a kill has been made under such conditions

the lion keeps guard over it during the daytime to prevent vultures from

feeding on it, often getting up with a growl or roar to rush towards

the birds and drive them away. I have even seen a dead vulture near

a lion’s kill which may well have been killed by a blow from the lion,

After a lion has killed he usually begins to feed from the rear. When

the kill has been made by a pride there is much growling and the male

generally feeds first, though this is not always the case.

* * * Ms

Unless they are very hungry lions hunt by night, and, being intelligent

animals, they normally hunt up-wind.

Although I have never had the good fortune to see lions bring down

wild game, evidence supports the theory that a pride on sighting game

often breaks up and silently surrounds the quarry.

Two lions will separate in opposite directions as they catch sight

of their prey moving towards them, or they may stalk it by a pincer

movement. The last I saw clearly when two lions stalked a_ heifer

which was tied up. The smaller of the two lions, approaching from the

front, had come within twenty yards of the heifer when the latter espied

him, but the heifer was not sure of what she. had seen. The sight was

magnificent. The lion was lying low in two feet of grass, peering at

the heifer, with only the top.of the head, eyes and. tip of his. nose

visible. On becoming aware he had been seen, he froze and kept

as still as a rock with his ears pressed down. Every time the heifer

gazed in his direction he closed his eyes to a slit lest he betray him-

self; such is the intelligence of-lions. When the heifer looked away,

he opened them again and showed intense interest, as if to decide

whether to attack or not, but: he seemed diffident to do so until the

bigger lion appeared from the side somewhat to the rear of the heifer.

The heifer wheeling to face the larger lion, was the signal for the

younger one to charge, which he did, an action the larger one immedi-

ately followed, one seizing the rear of the beast, the other fastening

himself onto the throat. The fang’s in the throat, one paw on the muzzle

and the other on the back of the neck with the weight of the body

behind it soon ended its life. 7

I have known a single well-maned lion thus kill a three-quarters

grown heifer in no time: in an instant the animal was lying dead. The

lion kills a goat mercilessly and as he seems to bite at any part of

its body, I have seen these poor animals die lingering deaths. One

extraordinary sight I once witnessed was the extraction of the entire

skin of a goat in one movement by a lion, like a glove being removed

from the hand. How this was performed I keep wondering to this

day.

The lion is silent when hunting but he often emits a roar when

close to a nes. This he does to cause panic among -the beasts en-

690 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

closed inside, and if an animal is so stricken as to break out through

the wado or zareba he immediately pounces upon it. Lions wander

a great deal during their night vigils and it is not unusual for them

to cover fifteen or twenty miles. They have a definite predilection

for moving along paths or cart tracks, and often return along the

Same route.

Lions roar after they have killed and a pride may join in the chorus.

A lioness with cubs gives a low moaning roar to call her young, but

otherwise she is more silent than the male. A lioness with young

cubs emits a continuous low growling if apprehending danger, but if

the cubs are half-grown she usually moves silently away with them

following her.

A lioness meaning business looks at one in a menacing way, though

without snarling, and may depress her ears, a sure sign of her deter-

mination to charge if further encroached upon. I well recollect an

incident. during a pig beat when two half-grown lion cubs passed us

at a distance of only five yards, and a very large lioness, the mother,

showed every inclination to charge, but finally changed her mind,

when she saw her offspring bounding away safely in the distance.

While an unwounded lion is nothing to be feared, a wounded one

is extremely dangerous and should never be approached without ad-

equate precautions. Once a lion has been hit by a bullet he throws

himself about, with low pitched roars, and it is at this critical time

that fire should be accurate and in succession. Unless he has seen

the marksman, he usually attempts to flee or keeps turning in all

directions. A lion which is ready to charge gives a roar and raises

his tail above his back, the mane also being raised.

* * *

_The lion is a less cunning beast than the tiger, and hence is more

easily disposed of by the various hunting methods.

. Lion shooting from a machan is tame enough as the animal readi.y

comes out into the open, often following a nullah or ravine if there

is one close by, whereas on foot he affords good sport.

Though I have seen many lions being killed, only once have I

heard a lion giving his death cry. This was a full grown male which,

having been shot through the heart and shoulder, ran into a valley,

gave two piercing, moaning roars, and immediately expired.

The usual procedure employed by us in hunting lions is as follows.

First of all it is necessary to find the track of a ‘shootable’ lion which

has entered the Reserve: a shootable lion being one with the pad

of the forefoot 32” in diameter, measured in dust or river sand wh-re

the ground is not so soft as to leave an exaggerated impression. The

puggies or trackers soon locate the lion by following his spoor,

and it is indeed remarkable how adept they are at following a track

across hard dry soil or sometimes even over rock. As the trackers are

well acquainted with the habits of lions and know the terrain, they

can usually guess accurately where he is going to lie up, and having

located the animal even go right up to him whilst he is lying down

unaware or asleep.

Once the trackers are hot on the trail they will not give up. - As

the power of the sun increases they keep close on the heels of the

lien knowing. that. he will soon lie up. Sometimes when following a

THE GIR FOREST ‘AND ITS ‘LIONS 691

trail. in a valley it is necessary to send scouts, or chadikurs as they

are called, ahead onto the sides of the valley to spot the animal in

front. During the hot weather lions lie up in favourite shady spots

and in ravines or caves, and it is then that they are most easily

located and approached. But during the monsoon and after it they

are inclined to settle themselves on the sides and near or on the

summits of hills. The grass then is tall and plentiful and there is

much foliage on the trees, so that it is rather difficult to spot them at

this time of the year. During the winter, as also during the monsoon,

lions are likely to be continually on the move resting only for short inter-

vals, and it is then that one has to depend on experienced trackers. But

once the animal has been seen or marked down, a beat may either be

arranged with the hunter in a machan, or a bait may be tied up in the

evening, the latter being the safer method if the exact whereabouts

‘of the lion is not known. If possible, it is a sound plan to allow a kill

to be made before undertaking a beat, for a well-fed lion does not

travel far and is easily tracked the next day so that a beat may be

arranged with certainty. Even for the safety of a sportsman shooting

off the ground, as has often been the case with us, it is better to fire

at a well-fed lon rather than at one that is hungry. However, if

it is decided to sit up, this is of course best done when the

lion has not fed, when there is more chance of his making the kill.

& % %

Usually ions eat as much as they can at one sitting and do not

always return to their kill the second night. But if they do they

usually come late, whereas if they have not returned, then on the third

night they are likely to come early to a fresh live bait, since Hay will

be hungry.

Whether lions will return to a kill depends on several fiidiors2“tite

number of lions, the size of the kill, where and when the kill was

made, and lastly on their previous ‘experience. A return visit, as

mentioned before is never made to kills near nesses, whereas a kill

made in undisturbed forest in the early hours of the morning mav

even see a lion feeding during the day and keeping guard over it.

On the other hand a kill made by a pride in the early evening will in

all probability be entirely devoured that night.

When a lion is repeatedly fed in one locality he does not move far

and is inclined to become fat and lazy, coming irregularly to. the

known kill and acting strangely.

For the hunter, then, the best method of bagging a lion (that is,

if he has good trackers) is to arrange a beat after a kill has been

‘made. . For complete safety most sportsmen prefer to have a machan

built, but if the lion is lying up in a valley it is a good plan to post

oneself in an advantageous position well above where the quarry is

expected to appear. If the site is well camouflaged, such places are

safe enough, provided the shot is not taken head on. The lion seldom

looks up and I have often been placed in open machans without

being seen. Nevertheless it is better to be well camouflaged as any

‘slight movement may be spotted.

The advantages of shooting at lions during the daytime are, of

course, manifold—the target is clear and there is every chance of

placing the first and subsequent shots, and, finally Bete is time,

if necessary, for following:-up- a wounded: animal.

692 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Sitting up in the evening is all very well if the lion comes to the

kill or tie-up before dark, but personally I regard shooting from

machans at night a mug’s game, and one that gives every chance of

a wounded lion. Still, if skilful trackers are not available and the

sportsman is prepared to take a chance, this is a way open to him

without much cost or trouble.

A goat is usually tied-up together with the heifer to attract the king’

cf beasts by his bleating. ~ The disadvantage of this is that the lon

invariably pulls away the goat in his first rush, and may only return

to kill the heifer when he has disposed of the goat. The delay then

is very trying. Moreover, in the case of one or more lions the hazard

of the ‘shootable’ lion running away with the goat, or a lioness seizing

the prey before the male, is considerable, and this hazard is increased

during the winter months when the light fades quickly after sunset.

Still it is a practice much adopted.

It is my experience that if lions do not come before about 10 p.m.

mear a nes, they are unlikely to come at all except in the early hours

of the morning. Nevertheless, if lions are heard roaring in the

neighbourhood it may be well worth the sportsman’s while to sit up

until midnight, for there is always a possibility of their appearing.

From what I have seen I agree with most observers that, when

a lion and lioness are hunting in concert, it is the latter that attacks

first. When a male lion approaches a kill in the open I have

noticed that he creeps up stealthily ; then, standing up and straighten-

ing himself, he stretches forward his shapely head and neck with the

hair of the mane bristling, and charges. A male lion, if he is not

hungry may play with the bait like a cat with a mouse, until the

lioness comes up and kills it. , i

Lions wander a good deal during the monsoon, and it was at this

season and just after it that they first returned to Mytiala. Because

cover and water are then plentiful the animals move far from their natura!

abode, the Gir. Moreover, lions at this season prefer to keep to the

hilltops and the valleys close to their summits during the daytime.

This is, I believe, to escape from the flies and mosquitoes that infest

the steamy valleys and low ground, and perhaps also the disturbance

by grasscutters. Lions during the winter months also frequently settle

in similar places for their day’s rest, often without much shade.

This is never the case during the hot weather when they lie up in

shady ravines not far from water, and in caves and under trees,

especially banyan (Ficus) trees and keramda (Carissa carandas) bushes.

At that time of the year, too, lions do not wander far from their

accustomed daytime abode, invariably returning to the same patch of

jungle, unless hunger drives them further afield and forces them to rest

in some unusual cover such as a large clump of euphorbias. When in

such cover a lion will not usually leave it without causing trouble.

* * *

It has often been observed that a lion will keep with his mate

for quite a long time after the birth of her cubs, only leaving her when

the cubs are more than two or three months old. The cubs, which,

in my experience, number two, three, or four, (occasionally five)

remain with their mother for a year or more, and often until she is

THE GIR FOREST AND ITS LIONS 693

ready for her next litter. Two mothers with their cubs may join ‘orces,

and a third female has been known to join them. Such a group may

be accompanied by an adult male or young males.

During the mating period, which may take,place at any time of the

vear, lions roar frequently and the male and his spouse then go with-

out food for a long time. Curiously enough kills which are made at

such times are often left uneaten, and the lion seems to be easily irri-

tated during his honeymoon.

The manes of lions vary considerably. They may be tawny, rufous-

tawny, tawny and grey, black and tawny mixed with grey, black and

gray or rarely even black. An interesting point is that the size of the

lion seems to have little relation with the size of the mane. The colour

of the coat also varies, some being tawny, others greyish-tawny with

a blackish tinge. One skin sent to me by a friend is almost entirely

blackish. Dark coated lionesses have also been seen.

Finally size: Rowland Ward gives to ft. 1 in. as the record Sength

of an Indian lion shot by Lord Lamington in the Junagadh Fir. As

much reliance cannot be placed on the above, probably Colonel Fenton’s

record of a g ft. 7 in. lion should be allowed to stand until some more

reliable figures are produced to take its place.

APPENDIX

Records and Measurements: of Lions shotin the Mytiala Lion

Reserve® Forest, Bhavnagar State

DATES DETAILS

Oct. 1920 ... 1 lioness shot by P. A. (Gohelwad) and Capt.

Harris.

a 1922 ... 1 lioness shot by Col. Burke.

Aug. 1926... ji lioness shot by K. S. Vijayasinhji.

Sept. 1927 ... 2 lionesses shot by H. H. Palitana,

2 lionesses shot by R. S. Krishnachandra.

Aug. 1929 ... 2 lionesses shot by H. H. Bhavnagar.

Sept. 1930... 1 lion shot by Col, Mosse. Length : 8’ 6”,

- 1931 ... 2 lions snot on foot by H. H. Bhavnagar. Length:

So 10% and. 52.

Nov. 1932 ... 1 lion wounded by R.N.B.

Sept. 1933 .. 1 lion shot by R. S. Dharmakumarsinhii. Length :

8" 67." Shot on foot.

gan. 1935 .... llion shot by R. S. Nirmalkumarsinhji. Length :

; S 7.) ~Heioht «39.

Jan. 1938 ... llion shot by R.S. Dharmakumarsinhji. Length:

8’ 103”. Height : 39”.

Dec. 1938 ... llion shot by H. H. Maharani Saheba of Bhav-

nagar. Length: 8’ 84”. Height: 37”. Girth:

domme lal she, .Eront: Pad +32" .

1 All between pegs.

? Lions residing in the Mytiala Reserve after 1930 may certainly be considered

as overflow from the Gir forests.

694

Jan.

Feb.

Jian:

May

Apr.

Dec.

Apr.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

DATE

1940

1941

1945

1946

1935

1933

1934

alrow/{al

DETAILS

1 lion shot by Yuvraj Saheb of Wankaner and’

K. S. Chandrabhanusinhji of Wankaner. Length:

Sb”. Height,: @8”. Front Pad 33 Ginn =

Ae ali S cc

1 lion shot by Thakore Saheb of Wadhwan..

Length 8" 67> Height: 4072.) Mromte bade

3 5/8th”.

1 lion shot by H. H. Bhavnagar. Length : 9”.

Height =.40”- Gitth -4527.> Tail 337 = Buon.

Pad : 32”.

1 lion shot by. H.-H: Bhavnager) Length -8'557

Height 35”). Front, Pad 33”. Shot. tor evoke

Day celebrations.

2 lions shot by H. H. Bhavnagar. Ist male:

Length: 8’ 3” “Vail: 2842.5: Frontebade cada

2nd male... . length s28 Oden deal seo ore

Front Pad: 34% The latter was shot because:

he was lame and considered dangerous; the

former to celebrate VJ Day. (There were 9 lions.

in the forest on this date, 7 of which were in the:

beat).

Some other Records

1 lion shot by R. 8. Nirmalkumarsinhji at Andha-

nia @etpur/Gir). Length: 9° 4”; Height - 387.

Girth « 607.

1 lioness and two partially grown cubs (one male;

one female) shot by R. N. B. at Andhania.

Female ;.;.... dueneth,:.6: 47." Male,cubi,. ) 2

~ Length : 6’ 7”, Female cub.:... Length : 677572

1 lion shot by H. H. Bhavnagar at Sasan (Juna-

gadh Gir). Length); 8’: ./47.. Heist 22394

Front Pad : 34”., ind Pad: 357:

1 lion shot by Capt. Trother at Shane. Length :

’ 10”. Tail: 35%. Height at shoulders : 40”.

Girth 45”.

Lions shot by Colonel Watson, P. A. (end of last

century)... Two lionsy:,.<. Length: 9 and G7 i

Onelioness:. . . Length: 8’ 6”.

SOME BIRD ASSOCIATIONS OF BENGAL

M; D- LISTER

(With a sketch map)

I have tried in the following pages to set forth an accurate picture

of the various major associations of birds as 1 found them during a

period of nearly 17 months at Jessore, and 3 months at Dhubalia, both

in Bengal. Both lie behind the Sundarhans, but Dhubalia, which is.

some six miles NNW of Krishnagar, lies some 60-70 miles WNW of

Jessore and is relatively much drier with rather less luxuriant vege-

tation.

The Indian countryside, like any other, is made up of a mixture of

an infinite number of different characters, and in a study of this kind it

is possible to separate cnly the major types of habitat occurring in

the survey area, disregarding the many minor variations which occur

within each of the main types.

Thus, although the country, particularly round Jessore, is sprinkled

liberally with small tanks, they do not usually appear to have a suffi-

ciently marked avifauna of their own to warrant their separate

consideration; if indeed they have one, it is usually submerged in that

of the dominant type of land in which the tank is situated. Only where

there were special circumstances did I feel that a tank could justifiably

be dealt with as a separate type of habitat.

In most cases | have disregarded geographical sub-species, as it is.

usually almost impossible to differentiate between them in the field

without reference to good museum specimens, and these were not

available.

JESSORE DHUBALIA

Period of Survey: 14th April llth Sept. to llth Dec. 1944

1943 to 9th Sept. 1944, with 3 with one break from 10th to 31st

breaks of about a fortnight each Oct,

and one of a monthin Sent. 1943.

Co-ordinates : 23° 11’ N. 89° 23° 30’ N. 88° 28’ E.

TOE.

Natural Vegetation Region : Tropical Rain Forest.

Altitude : 20’ A.M.S.L. 45’ A.M.S.L.

Subsozt: Alluvium witha few Alluvium.

pockets of brick earth.

Habitat Types :

PE CAVTEEISATION GROUPE:

(1) Country Town. (1) —— ~

Il. CULTIVATION GROUP:

(2) Mixed cultivation. (2) Mixed cultivation.

(3) Paddyfields. (3) Paddyfields.

696 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Ill. JuNGLEe GROUP:

(4) Mixed jungle.

(5) Scattered roadside trees

(dominantly peepal).

(7) Small groves of palms.

(4) Mixed jungle.

e) =

(6) Mango grove.

Co ie

IV. WASTE LAND GROUP:

(8) Waste land under grass

(including aerodrome).

(9) ——

{10) Marsh.

(8) Waste Jand under grass

(including aerodrome).

(9) Semi-marsh land.

(10) Ss

V. INLAND WATER GROUP:

(11) Small river.

(12) Jheels and tanks.

(11) Small river.

(12) Jheels.

DESCRIPTION OF HABITAT TYPES:

I... CIVILISATION. GROUP

JESSORE

(1) Country Town : Jessore is

a typical small Indian provincial

town, spreading out more and

more thinly the further it extends

from the congested core of the

Bazar. Outside the Bazar area

the roads are fairly open and

lined with large mature trees

(many banyans). Buildings are

widely speced and the rest of the

ground is occupied by come

pounds, tanks (see Introduction)

and open patches of more or less

waste land. The whole area is

very well wooded, with large

mature trees, predominantly

banyan, tamarind, a species of

cedar or deodar(?), and various

palms (mostly coconuts), with a

sprinkling of flowering trees in

the compounds. Most of the

larger buildings have plenty of

open work about them (veran-

dahs, balconies, porches, etc.)

which attract such species as

House Swift, House Sparrow

and Common Myna for nesting

DHUBALIA

The built-up area here con-

sisted principally of Service

hutments, camps and aerodrome

buildings, all fairly well dis-

persed so that they merged into

the habitat type in which they

were situated, and could not be

satisfactorily separated from it.

sk BM/JEt rere

SIIAIA ee

Your J = Safius Oz]

RES

You f = Sofi O49

8/82

Vad ATAUNG JO NOILVOO'T

Sle

BETTI IKE NS

iit

\ih wt

one

OTT Lee

sS[{//H e8IsSeyy

Guoyys rey

Myr yyw

—

ay fo SYJrow

ay WPLINDWOSI

SOME BIRD ASSOCIATIONS OF BENGAL. — 697

JESSORE

parposes. In addition to the

permanent buildings, a large

number of ‘basha’ huts had

been built to house Service per-

sonnel. My living quarters and

mess were in this area and for a

short time I also worked there

both by day and by night.

DHUBALIA

[kc CULTIVATION Group

(2) Mixed Cultivation: The

‘fields’ are open spaces of vari-

ous shapes and sizes, set in a

matrix of fairly dense mixed

jungle with a fair amount of

undergrowth. The two are so

closely interwoven that it is im-

possible to treat them as separate

habitat types, though on an acre-

age basis the cultivated ground

would, I think, predominate.

Mostly low-growing root and

surface crops, not identified.

Visited only occasionally on foot,

but each visit usually lasted

several hours.

(3) Paddyfields: The chief

product of the district is rice and

the paddyfields may be described

as the matrix in which all other

types of habitat are set. Where-

ever there is any flat land com-

paratively free from trees it is

‘covered with paddyfieids, sepa-

rated by the usual low bunds,

which in the rainy season are

flooded to a depth of 12-18”.

In addition to the paddy there

was a fair amount of jute and a

few small patches of other low-

growing root and surface crops.

The whole of this paddy land is

sprinkled with small groves of

palm trees, with little or no un-

dergrowth, and in many cases

the paddy grows right under the

trees.

(2) Mixed Cultivation: This

area 1S more open than at Jes=

sore, the fields heing well broken

up by rough hedges and small

patches of mixed jungle. It

includes’ several fairly large

blocks of rough grassland (simi-

lar to park land) studded thinly

with trees (chiefly mango) which

are not satisfactorily separable.

Visited very frequently on foot,

(3) Paddyfields: Rice is not

grown here to quite such an ex-

tent as at Jessore. There were

only 1-2 small tracts of paddy

land, which, during the survey

period, was still Hooded and very

damp, with the paddy about 18”

high.

Note.—The flooding of such great

areas must no doubt have some effect

on the bird population and is a sub-

ject which would probably repay

further study. My records are not

sufficiently detailed, however, to war-

rant dealing separately with the paddy

land during the periods when it was

dry and in flood. In actual fact

Isaw comparatively little change in

the bird population which could

definitely be attributed to the flood-

ing, but I was told on fairly good

authority that further out in the coun-

try more water birds and waders were

in evidence in the fields.

698 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. “SOCIETY, Vol. 49

II. JUNGLE GROUP

JESSORE

(4) Mixed Jungle: Fairly ex-

tensive and patchily dense. Do-

Mminant trees mango and bamboo,

but various palms, red silk

cotton, jack-fruit, lichi and

many other kinds also present.

Undergrowth varied and at edges

of forest gave place to large

bushes and_ scattered babool

trees. Several fairly large tanks

among the trees, but these were

not treated as a separate habitat

type. I spent much time here,

both by day and by night.

In this type I have also includ-

ed patches of roadside jungie,

which were usually observed only

in passing and were not explor-

ed. These varied in size and

composition, the dominant trees

usually being banyans, bamboos

and various palms (especially

coconuts).

(5) Scattered roadside trees and

bushes: These formed a narrow

ribbon of irregular growth on

either side of sections of the road

embankment, usually where it

ran through paddyfields. ‘The

dominant trees were peepal, with

asmaller proportion of babool,

banyan, palmyra palms and

mango. Usually observed only

when passing in a vehicle.

(7) Groves of Palms: Princi-

paliy Coconut Palms (Cocos

nucitera), Date Palm (Phoenix

sylvestris) and Palmyra Palm

(Borassus flabelliformis) _ and

Betel-nut Palm (Aveca catechi.),

but identity of some trees uncer-

tain. Whole district, especially

the paddyfields, sprinkled with

-~DHUBALIA

(4) Mixed Jungle: The whole

countryside is broken up by

rough untidy ‘ hedges ’ and small

patches of. mixed jungle, con-

sisting of Jarge straggling bushes,

usually growing in a dense

tangle, with trees of various

kinds. Some of the hedges are

swollen into considerable belts

of dense bushes. Undergrowth

varies. Dominant trees difficult

to determine, but tamarind,

mango and various palms (in-

cluding some palmyras) TIEN)

predominate.

(6) Mango Grove: This cover-

ed 14-2 acres. Trees all mature

and large, spaced 25-40 ft. apart,

the canopy being almost conti-

nuous. No undergrowth, except

at edges; inside the grove the

earth was bare even of grass.

This grove contained a number

of large ‘busti’ huts, in one of

which I lived. |

SOME BIRD ASSOCIATIONS OF BENGAL 699

JESSORE

smali groves of palms, sometimes

mixed, sometimes almost entirely

‘Coconut or Date or Betei-nut.

Usually no undergrowth and

paddy often growing tinder

the trees. Much toddy-tapping

done, and this no doubt attracted

insects, which in turn attracted

birds (see General Observations).

IV. WASTE

(8) Waste land under grass:

Fairly extensive and included

much of a large aerodrome and

the land surrounding it. Inter-

sected by several roads and

small dykes and ditches. Cover-

ed with rough grass which in the

rainy season was up to 3’

tall over considerable stretches.

This area was sprinkled with

small groves of palms and an

occasional small scrubby busn.

A fair number of well-dispersed

‘busti’ buildings.. Herds of

several hundred oxen often graz-

ed here. Aircraft constantly

taking off and landing. My visits

to this type were usually in a

jeep or truck and were. less

frequent than to some of the

other habitat types.

(10) Marshy waste land. Co-

vered many acres. Full extent

not explored and observation

confined to several hundred yards

of périmeter. It consisted of

very damp ground covered with

deep, grassy herbage up to 4’

in height in rainy season. After

monsoon this was largely beaten

down to form a platform over the

water (at least 2’ deep), strong

enough to carry most birds.

Ample cover for birds in the

herbage.

DHUBALIA

LAND GROUP

(8) Waste land under grass:

This covered about 4 sq. miles

and included a large aerodrome.

Consisted simply of rough grass,

with occasional small isolated

bushes. A fair number of

well-dispersed ‘busti’ build-

ings and at least one small

Indian village, but these were

not satisfactorily separable from

the main type. Some cattle

grazing. Large numbers’ of

coolies working on the aero-

drome, and aircraft constantly

taking off and landing.

(9) Semi-marshland : 800-1,000

acres adjoining river and jheels.

In the rainy season, (which had

ended just before the survey

period began) it is obviously

very damp and flooded in most

places. A good deal of water

(up to 2~3”) still about at first,

but by the end of the survey

period this area had taken on

more of the character of

rough waste land. Whole area

covered with a fairly dense

growth of marsh grass, in flower

during period. Small bushes of

briar and bramble type here and

there and small babool trees.

Clearly only seasonal marsh-

land. Whole area under obser-

vation on foot fairly frequently,

usually for several hours at a

time.

700 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

V. INLAND WATER GROUP

JESSORE

(11) Small river: 25-30 yds.

wide. Very sluggish indeed and

in most places much overgrown

with weeds [predominantly Water

Chestnut (Zrapa bispinosa) ' or

water hyacinth?] During rainy

season there is a good deal more

water, but this guickly dis-

appears and thereafter much of

the vegetation rots down. The

weeds provide excellent cover

for birds. Under irregular obser-

vation along several short stret-

ches of the bank.

(12) Sheels and tanks: In

this group I have included an

open jheel lying among rgaddy

fields, the only cover at its edge

being paddy; and a tank some

70 x 70 yds. also lying among

paddy fields and much overgrown.

The artificial banks of this

were high and were studded with

a few trees and bushes. Both were

large enough to have a recog-

nisable bird population of their

own. The jheel also was largely

overgrown with weeds. Both

were visited only occasionally.

DHURBALIA

(11) Small river: 25-30 yds.

wide. Moderately slow current.

Margined irregularly with scat-

tered clumps of marsh grass

growing on and broken here and

there by short stretches of mud

bank. At one end of the stretch

under observation was a small

fishing weir. Observed irregular-

ly over a length of about two

miles.

(12) JSheels: At one point the

river broadens out into a. wide

jhee! adjoining the semi-marsh

land. 3-400 yds. away is another

jheel connected to the first by a

small, swiftly-flowing seasonal

stream running through soft

marsh. The 2nd jheel was more

than 500 yds. long and 30-40 yds.

wide bordered by dense marsh

grass (some 3-5 ft. high in

places) and weeds. Watering

places for cattle at intervals. The

Ist jheel dried out almost com-

pletely before the end of the

survey period, but although the

water level in the 2nd jheel fell,

I believe, judging from air

photos, that it does not normally

dry out completely. Visited fre-

quently on fcot.

Animals: Demestic: Bullocks, cattle, water buffalo and goats

predominated and wandered about everywhere.

The bullocks and

water buffalo were the main draught animals in the district, with

a few horses. ‘There were also large numbers of pie-dogs and a few

cats.

Wild: Jackals (Canis aureus): Very numerous.

Indian Fox (Vulpes bengalensis): Numerous throughout

the district.

Hyaena (Hyaena striata): A few believed to be in the

district, but this was not proved.

Common Grey Mongoose (Herpestes mungo pallidus) :

numerous. Often mobbed by birds, especially Common.

Myna and Magpie Robin.

SOME BIRD ASSOCIATIONS: OF BENGAL 70

Common Striped Squirrel or Tree Rat (Sczurus palma-

rum): Numerous. Often mobbed, especially by Common.

Mynas and Magpie Robins.

Leopard (felis pardus): One or two occasionally reported.

Fishing Cat (fe/zs viverrina) or possibly Common Jungle

Cat (Felis chaus); seen at night on several occasions.

Flying Foxes (Pleropus edwardsit medius): From June to:

December these were numerous, especially about the

large mango trees in Type (1) at Jessore.

Common Langur [Presbytes (Semnopithecus) entellus] : A.

small party was often to be seen at Dhubalia, but did

not occur at Jessore.

Reptiles: Water Monitor (Vavanus salvator): One reported twice

at DhubaJia on good authority, but not seen by me.

Snakes plentiful, of various kinds, including cobra.

Amphibians: Frogs very numerous, especially at Jessore.

Species not identified.

Insects: The insects were so numerous and varied as to be a per-

fect pest, particularly at night and during the rainy.

season, and especially at Jessore.

General:

(1) Conditions: Bird-watching depended on the opportunities.

afforded by intensive war work, but on the whole these were numerous

and covered every part of the day and night. Apart from casual obser-

vations at all times, most of my spare time was spent in bird-watching,.

usually alone. For identification purposes I was confined to the usual.

- books (including the Fauna of British India—Birds, 2nd Edition), as.

there was no museum available for specimens.

(2) Preponderance of Observation: I. Jessore: I lived and had my

meals in Type (1), and for the first few months of the survey period I

also worked there. Later I worked in Type (4) being conveyed there:

by car or truck through Types (3), (5), (1) and sometimes (8). I

often spent the day and the night in Type (4) both in the dry and.

(though toa lesser extent) in the rainy season.

II. Dhubalia: I lived in Type (6) and worked in Type (8) but

had frequent opportunities of exploring on foot all the other habitat

types covered.

(3) Disturbance: The popuration of the whole district, both at.

Jessore and Dhubalia was increased by several thousand Service per--

sonnel, and in addition to the native traffic on the roads there was.

continual Service traffic as well. In addition, aircraft were constantly

flying low overhead and landing at and taking off from the aerodromes..

I saw little evidence, however, that these caused any real disturbance

among the birds, though the soaring species (Vultures, Kites, etc.) were

sometimes scared away.

Migration: I did not obtain enough positive evidence to be of

any real use in determining migratory trends. Wherever necessary I

have given dates in the lists given below.

Birds and Red Silk Cotton Trees (Bombax malabaricum) :

This tree grows fairly abundantly over the whole survey area, especi-

ally at Jessore, both on its own and among other kinds of trees. It

402 -JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.:SOCIETY, Vol. 49

flowers during the dry season, before its leaves appear. The large waxy

flowers are very popular with many species of birds, which would perch

close to one of the flowers and plunge their heads into the trumpet.

Whether their object was to drink the dew, which collects in considera-

ble quantities in the bottom of those flowers which happen to be growing

vertically, or to find some form of food (? insects or nectar) inside the

blossom, I have been unable to ascertain, but I incline to the

former in view of the diversity of the species seen there.

The species I have seen at these flowers are as follows:

Jungle Babbler (Zuvrdozdes somervillez), Red-vented Bulbul (Pyczo-

notus cater), Red-whiskered Buibul (Pyczonotus jocosus), Magpie

Robin (Copsychus saularis), Common Myna (Acridotheres

tristis), Jungle Myna (4¢thiopsar fuscus), Pied. Myna

(Sturnopastor contra),Green Barbet (Megalaima zeylonicus).

Birds and Toddy Palms: It isthe practice inthese districts

as in many others, to tap the palm trees for toddy. A horizontal cleft

is made in the trunk just below the branches ; from this a short, narrow

vertical slit is made into which isinserted a small piece of split bamboo,

which acts as a gutter to carry off the liquid away from the trunk. An

earthenware bowl or chatti is suspended so that the gutter leads into

is mouth. It is a frequent, though not invariable, practice to tie or

wedge a small bunch of grass over the gutter, no doubt to keep insects

away from the liquid, A cloud of flies can usually be seen hovering

over the outlet, whether the grass is there or not.

The flies, no doubt, attracted some species of birds, but so did the

liquid itself. The bamboo gutter formed a most convenient perch and

the birds made full use of it, taking the liquid as it flowed down the

chute. I have seen several species do this, and on one occasion I

saw a Tickell’s Flowerpecker fluttering a few inches below a gutter to

which no bowl was attached, and catching the drops of liquid

as they fell. In all, I have seen the following species at the liquid:

Jungle Crow Common Myna

Jungle Babbler Jungle Myna

Red-vented Bulbul Pied Myna

Red-whiskered Bulbul Grey-headed Myna

Black Drongo | Tickell’s Flowerpecker

Tailor Bird * Golden-backed Woodpecker.

* Mabratta Woodpecker.

Birds and Cattle: For this purpose I include in the

term ‘cattle’ water buffalo, oxen, cows and goats, though the

majority of the instances I have witnessed concern oxen. Oxen are

used extensively in these districts for ploughing, transport, etc., and

may be seen anywhere along the roads and in the fields. Herds of

several hundred beasts used to be grazed on the grassy waste land at

Jessore [Type (8)], and to a lesser extent on the same type at Dhubalia.

There were not very many water-buffalo in the district, though herds

‘were often driven through Jessore, kound, I believe, for the Calcutta

—_o- eo

* These species were not seen to drink the liquid, and were probably after the

‘insects attracted by the exposure of the sweet liquid. ae

SOME BIRD ASSOCIATIONS OF BENGAL 703

market. Goats were very numerous wherever there were native dwel-

lings. AlJmost anywhere where there are cattle, some birds may be

seen foraging about them, the species varying toa certain extent with

the place the cattle happen to be. At one time or another J have seen

the following species so engaged.

Jungle and House Crows: ‘These ére usually to be seen associated

with resting catile in the streets of the villages or town. They cluster

round the beasts and not only pick about on the ground among them,

but also habitually perch on their backs and pick insects out of their

eyes, ears and hide. It wasno uncommon sight to see half a dozen

House Crows and one or two Jungle Crows foraging about oxen lying

down in the road outside my bungalow.

Common and Pied Mynas act in a similar way, but are to be seen

about moving cattle as frequently as about resting ones. They often

perch on their backs, whether the beasts happen to be working or not,

though I do not remember ever having seen them do this when the

cattle were pulling carts. But they are more often to be seen explor-

ing the ground round the feet of the moving beasts in the fields, in an

exactly similar way to Starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) in Europe.

Black Drongos almost invariably perch on the backs of moving or

standing cattle, from which they make foraging sorties after flying

insects. ‘They also, rather less frequently, I think, catch insects on the

beasts themselves.

The Magpie Robin’s association, I think, is usually more fortuitous

than deliberate, and occurs much less frequently. I have never seen

one do more than fly down to the ground at the feet of cattle from a

neighbouring perch.

White (and no dcubt other) Wagtails may occasionally be seen

foraging about moving or resting cattle, but I think the association is

less marked than is often the case with the wagtails in Europe. This

impression, however, may be partly due to the fact that most wagtails

appear to be present in this district only for a comparatively short time

each year, and that I have not been specially on the look-out for

instances of their association with cattle.

The House Sparrow’s association usually seems to be confined to

occasional cases of foraging among beasts resting in the streets of the

village or town.

Cattle Egrets “or Tick Birds, as they are popularly known) feed

about browsing or ploughing, etc., cattle in much the same way

as the Mynas, and they frequéntly pick insects off the beasts’ legs and

flanks.

I have never seen Red or Yellow-wattled Lapwings or gulls forag-

ing among cattle, in the same way as Lapwings (lVanellus vanellus) or

Black-headed Gulls (Larus rzdibundus) do in Europe. Commensalism

is a Subject which could profitably be given much more attention in

India than it has hitherto enjoyed.

Weather: In winter (Oct. to mid or end of March) the weather

is usually very settled, with pleasantly warm days and quite cold

nights, the difference between the day and night temperatures being

- particularly marked in December, January and February, though there

is no frost. By the end of March, or a little earlier, the colder weather

is beginning to break and there is more cloud, with storms and sudden

704 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

squalls with winds up to about 50 m.p.h., and the humidity increases.

These unsettled conditions continue until the South-west Monsoon has.

really arrived, and from then until the end of September the.sky is

more often than not filled with towering cumulus and cumulo-nimbus.

clouds, with some periods of stratus or strato-cumulus forming a cloud

blanket over the whole area. There are many electric storms at this

period and the humidity is very high. The real rainy season is June—

September, when over 30” falls. I give below some temperature and

rainfall data.

Temperature (Fahrenheit.) Rainfall.

Jessore : Average Absolute

Max. Min. Max, Min.

April 1943 ae 91:3 71°4 99°0 64°0 5°18”

May * se 94°9 76°7 98:0 71:0 2:25"

June vA No records available.

Salyar is 84°4 76°7 93°0 73°0 16°16”

Asiocniyis aioe 88'8 77°4 92:0 75°0 13°62”

Seotr us, feu 90:2 ciao 98:0 74:0 4.917

Oct: ous; 91:0 7329 96°0 66°0 6°39”

Nov. \ eee 86°1 60°90 91:0 54°0 sisi

Dec. iy Bs 79°7 5535 82.0 49:0 ‘-

Jan. 1944 ane 73°4 53:4 83°7 44°9 5:8”

Feb. =,, aie 79:2 56'9 88:2 2:5 1:0”

March ,; aCe 840 64:0 94°0 56°4 3°47

Aprils, 92°6 Tou 98°0 62:0 4°46”

May ” ove 97°9 79°4 107°0 71:0 3°04”

June ~ «5 Ee 90°5 ES) 101°0 71:0 4°55”

July ie 88°5 78'6 93:0 75°0 13°49”

iN Gerais een Ae 88°3 78°4 93°0 75°0 13°29”

Sept. ,,1st-Sth ... 88°89 97 076 90°0 74°0 (1°64),

Dhubaliaz:

Sept. ,,18-30th ... 90:0 hilei 95°0 7Os0 2°57”

Oct. Re ae 88°0 12°3 92°0 75°0 0.96”

Nov. a one 84:2 Sholmte) 96:0 9350 ae

Dec. as ann No records available.

Method of Recording: Having spent the first few weeks after

my arrival in exploring the district, ascertaining what major habitat types.

were involved and how they could best be grouped, I then made a list,

with a separate column for each of the major habitat types covered.

Another column contained a list of the species I had seen in the neigh-

bourhood, with a ‘X’ in the habitat column to indicate in what types of

habitat they had been seen. At irregular, though fairly frequent

intervals, I went through this list and brought it up to date by the

addition of new species seen, fresh habitats where they occurred and

the addition of further columns for any new type of habitat not included

previously. In doing this I relied on memory, coupled with my general

bird records, and I believe the record to be complete. Six times

during the period at Jessore and twice at Dhubalia this composite list

was fair-copied into my general note-books, with full introductory

notes on all appropriate ‘ background’ matters such as agricultural

operations, preponderance of observation and soon. A more accurate

method would undoubtedly be to have kept detailed day-to-day records

SOME BIRD ASSOCIATIONS OF BENGAL 705

of all birds seen in each of the habitat types under observation, but this

was impracticable here, though I have done the same thing over a

period of some five years on a farm in England.

Oy Aun ww

INCIDENCE OF SPECIES

I. CIVILISATION GROUP

(1) Country Town — Jessore

Jungle Crow (Corvus macrorhynchos)}: Numerous, but rather

less so than House Crow. Could often be seen foraging

about the various Service cook-houses.

House Crow (Corvus splendens): As last, but rather more nume.

rous. Often to be seen foraging outside the Indian eating

houses inthe Bazar proper, as well as about Service cook-

houses, etc.

Indian Tree Pie (Dendrocitta vagabunda) : Regularly seen and

fairly plentiful.

Indian Grey Tit (Parus major): Fairly plentiful.

Jungle Babbler (7urdozdes somervillet): Fairly plentiful.

Abbott’s Babbler (Malacocincla sepiaria): 1-2 believed seen

April 1944, but identity not proved beyond all doubt.

Common lora (4 githina tiphia): Plentiful.

Bengal Red-vented Bulbul (Pyczonotus cafer): Plentiful.

Their numbers seemed to be increased towards end of rainy

season.

Red-whiskered Bulbul (Pycnonotus jocosus): Plentiful, though

rather less so than last species.

Magpie Robin (Copsychus saularis): Abundant.

Red-breasted Flycatcher (Muscicapa parva): Evidently only

a winter visitor, as they were thinly distributed throughout

this area from early December to early April.

White-browed Fantail Flycatcher (AAzpidura aureola): Rather

thinly distributed.

Ashy Swallow-Shrike (dvlamus fuscus): A few present in

rainy season.

Indian Black Drongo (Dicrurus macrocercus): Abundant.

Indian Tailor. Bird (Ovthotomus sutorius): Fairly plentiful.

Indian Oriole (Orzolus 0. kundoo): A few seen occasionally.

Black-headed Oriole (Oviolus xanthornus): Fairly plentiful.

A nest with young found in July 1943.

buted.

Common Myna (Acridotheres tristis) : Abundant.

ae ee (Siurnopastor contra): Not quite so plentiful as

On29,

Indian House Sparrow (Passer domesticus) : Fairly plentiful.

——~——_

* The scientific names will appear only on the first mention of a species in the

following lists.

706

JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,.-Voi. 49

(1) Country Town—Jessore (Contd.)

No. a oor ae

22. Purple Sunbird (Cznzyrts astatica): Fairiy plentiful.

23. Purple rumped Sunbird (C. zcylonica): Fairly numerous—t

, think slightly moreso than No. 22.

24. Tickell’s Flowerpecker (Dicaeum ery throrhynchos) : Somewhat

thinly distributed, but no doubt often overlooked. |

25. Golden-backed Woodpecker (Srachypternus benghalensis) : |

Plentiful. |

26. ‘Tickell’s Golden-backed Woodpecker (Chrysocolaptes guttacris-

tatus): Rather less numerous than No. 25.

27. Little Scaly-bellied Green Woodpecker (Picus xanthopygaeus) :

As many as three seen together, but not plentiful.

28. Mahratta Woodpecker (Dj obates mahrattensis): A few seen.

29. Green Barbet (Wegalaima zeylonicus): Plentiful.

30. Biue-throated Barbet (Megalaima asiatica) : > Plentitdl:

31. Coppersmith (egalaima haemacephala): Fairly plentiful, tut

less so than Nos. 31 and 32. On 12-8-1944 at least 50 were

together in a row of large banyan trees; later a dozen or so

flew to the concrete parapet of a small house, where they

appeared to be taking something from the surrace. Whether

this was food in the form of insects or seeds, or small

grains of sand or concrete for roughage, I could not tell.

32. Indian Cuckoo (Cuculus micropterus): Appeared to be abundant,

though I could not judge to what extent it is locally migra-

tory. From March to August its call was wearisome, but

it was completely silent during the rest of the year.

33. Common Hawk Cuckoo (Hierococcyx varius): Abundant.

34. Pied Crested Cuckoo : (Clamator jacobinus): A few present in

July and August, but not seen or heard at other times.

35. Koel (Zudynaniis scolopaceus): Abundant.

36. Crow-Pheasant(Centropus sinensis): Plentiful. On one occasion

I found one bird moving easily among the upper branches

of a tree some 40’ above the ground.

37. Large Parrakeet (Pszttacula eupatria) : Not very plentiful.

38. Roller (Coracias benghalensis): A few, but not very numerous.

39. Green Bee-eater (Merops orientalis) : Numerous.

40. Pied Kingfisher Ceryle rudis) : A few seen about the tanks.

41. Common Indian Kingfisher (Alcedo atthis): Plentiful about

the numerous tanks.

42. Stork-billed Kingfisher (Ramphalcyon capensis) : Fairly plentiful.

43. White-breasted Kingfisher (Halcyon smyrnensis).: Plentiful

about the tanks.

44. House Swift (AZicropus affinis): Fairly plentiful.

45. Palm Swift (Cypscurus batasszensis): Fairly plentiful, though

less So than outside the town.

46. Horsfield’s Nightjar (Caprimulgus macrourus): Always 1-2 to be

heard at night.

47. Collared Scops Owlet (Otus bakkamoena): 1-2 believed always to

be heard at night, but not seen and voice was the only means

of identification.

No.

48.

49.

50.

Dil

DO:

34.

55.

56.

AYE

58.

Su:

60.

OZ:

SOME BIRD ASSOCIATIONS OF BENGAL 707

(1) Country Town—Jessore—(Contd.)

Spotted Owlet (Athene brama): 1 identified in Aug. 1944.

Jungle Owlet (Glaucidium radiatum): 1-2 believed heard now

and again, but identity not proved.

King Vulture (Zorgos calvus): plentiful.

Long-billed Vulture (Gyfs zzdicus): less plentiful than the

other vultures.

White-backed Vulture (Pseudogyps bengalensis): Abundant.

Crested Serpent Eagle (SAzlornzs cheela): usually 1-2 about.

Pariah Kite (AZz/vus migrans): Ubiquitous.

Brahminy Kite (Halzastur indus): Plentiful.

Shikra (Astur badtus) : one seen once over the town.

Rufous Turtle Dove. (.Stveptopelza orzentalts): a few about.

Spotted Dove (S/veptopelia chinensis): fairly plentiful.

Red Turtle Dove (Ocnopofelta tranguebarica): a few about.

Blue Rock Pigeon (Columba livia): Fairly plentiful.

Cattle Egret (Bubulcus zbts) : Fairly plentiful.

Indian Pond Heron (Ardeola grayz) : fairly plentiful.

708

JOURNAL, “BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST: SOCIETY,. Vol. 45

*SUISeIOJ [NjIJUETd |

@eeven

‘snolomnu Ayirey

VIIVanHq

S@’1aI4

| $SayT Joy}esr nq

UoWTIOSUN jou”

*MOj B

*comtooun peu

ese tee

SUIS¥IOJ JUBpUNGE

°6 “ON Uey} Os

‘op

*SUISLIOJ ne al

*3a1de10j A[[eaoIsv990 |

T °ON

}

‘potted AdAINS Jo

pus SP1I¥ AYO} OS SSI]

| OU} [nyyuetd = Aprrey

‘sno1suinu A[IIey

Uey} JaMay 3nq “op | ueYyj,OSs Sse] jnq “op

SULSeIOJ [NJUaTd

HUOSsar

AdQVd

"snoreuind | ‘op

Aik ‘op a ar

‘sayojzed opsunl ivod

es pue ur ynyyuerd Apitey| a

aT, “ON se ‘ON

uvq} OS Ssaf jnq ‘[Njz1}UeTd | °° se

‘snoraurnu A[tey *[nyiyueyd | ** soe

VIIVanHqd HUOSsal

“Eb-ZI-92

uO Uses 9UO 9IBUIS ¥v

*domlmootNn jou

‘poeynqtiajstp AjurYy} 19y4j}eI

‘soyojed

g[sun{ ut moy e Atensn

SUJUOU! I9}

-UIM Ul paynqisjsip Alury}

‘juepunqs

"6 (ON UeqA

OS SSo] JoyWeIynq “op

“SULSVIO} ‘Ny1UaTd

*‘(njrjzuerd

"PEGI APN

|-lidy uses peaasiieq z-T |

‘peytyaopt Ajaa

-y1sod jou nq EF-ZI-92Z

uo usas padastfeq Ajied T

NOILVAILTINO GUxINn

GNOYH NOTLVAILTAD

(SujvqStAP "T) 9¥lIGS UMOIg

*(snjou

-OAY ICAI *T) BAIIYS payovq-snojny

“"*(Sngnsvu *7) BA1IYS pepeay-yov[g

(s2jnqj12 SniuvT) 9YILYS payoeq-Avg

"* Tayo BOAT A [LEJUV YT PImo4iq-a}ty M

*(DaANZD SIU

-AyjogdaFy) ssyoyeoh[ q podeu-yoviq

I9YO}VOAT YT Pojsvoiq-pey

nee UIqoyY sdsey

“* InGINg pareysiy m-poy

“se jnq[ng pejusa-pay

BIOT uoululogd

9a1qqegd §,1300qqV

‘(opopnv9 DATAP ) Jalqqeg uourmtosy

Jaiqqeg osunr

WL Aety Uerpuy

Iq 91], Ueipuy

MOIZ) ISnOF]

MOI‘) BEsuNns

——_

SHIOddS

709

NGAL

ASSOCIATIONS OF BE

SOME BIRD

‘ad A} sty}

Ur 8¢ “ON Ueq}

d10Ul 194j}eI ATpensn

‘SUISvIOJ jOepUNqe

‘juepunge

"des

34 0} Mol v ATlensp

“SPlEG

Apped Suome 9323

/osI¥l BY UL Susou

|punoy Auojod o9au0

| ‘od Aj

“SIQ} UL gz ‘ON Bey

| aIOUl Jay}eI ATjensn

‘SULSeIOJ juvpuUNqLe

eee etee

“SUISBIO} ‘QOWAapPIAS

“UI YOM 900 4sBaq]

je sABATe {snorlsuinu

‘ad Aj siq}

‘Ur 8g “ON uey}

910 JoyjJer Aypensn

‘SULSVIOJ

mer

juepunqe sayjer Ayjensn ¢

‘SULSeIOJ JULpuN pe |

‘SULSEIOJ MOj v |

ecevon

eecoes

SA teal Geis

Uses Pliq o[SUIS B

‘juvpunge

"90s Ajied auo.

eonesee

| DYIUOIOAL/) )

"ad A} SI}

wey o1OUL

puCEUNaE,

86 (ON

‘poynqiazjsip Apuryy qonien ist

"Moy

*juepunqe

*sorpoyed

91800 jnoqe <Agayo |

‘paynqitjsip A[WIt} 1eqjer

| ' soyoyed e[2unf Ivou pues

| ‘Spllq 1eqjo uveTT}

-yUSTIG pue Joylep [eap

“ynq

ur Ageryo ‘[nyyuetd Ayte;

*sortoads-qns SIU} @

poos & 3J9M UVES SPIIq

SUOIS8000 [eIoAOS U0

‘gpsunl

ynoqe = [nyHueyd = Ares

‘poaoid jou Ajyrj}Uepr

‘uses pedd¢eq Z-l

* (VILADgDIVUE

BIUn]T P9}BOlY}-9}T4 M

"(suuzg

-g1jtyg SNIIO[Y) PIG roavom eAvg

-Uls

‘juepunge |

SIL9Y JOPLAIF? )

Bud pat

** (smasnj Avsgoiyzy) eudyq o[8une

*(snuviuts

eudyy yueg

a euAJ UOWIUIOD

se Bud popvoy-Aaly |

“* gfOMQ papeay-yoeg

(i) plig Joprey, sseuring

KY pire toprey, UBIpUy

* (uinsojaunp

(S2QVYGIIOAIF’ ) JO|GIS NM psey SWAT

*(SUIISAINAIDI SNA

| 24217) OSsUOIC Pal[[sq-oyIy AA Werpuy

OsuoIq YoR[_ werpuy

"* OF1IUG-MoOTTeMS AYSy

"(Sau

‘uoultoouN jou “diasag SNJOIOAI1AAT ) YOATATT BIW]

*(DUDLAIILPUOg SIU

il. Corrrvatrion Group

—_——$— $$ ———

MIXED CULTIVATION PADDYFIELDS

No SPECIES == = 7 =

JESSORE DHUBALIA JESSORE DHUBALIA

5 1 ] Jungl | |

ungle Crow oon .. | plentiful. fairly numerous, | plentiful foraging. | fairl

2 | House Crow D plentiful, but less so than but lesssothan| do., but eestinanl ee

4 si . o. 1. No. 1 | No.1. i

3 | Indian Tree Pie .|fairly plentiful in and Peo eae Sater |

mearjangle|patches\ey ‘|g 14008 a a eter meen ee Se eee we eee

re peigien rey, Tit : iota ete 2 kegérccin lho Py eee |

ungle Babbler do, numerous, occas iovall fora: .

6 |Common Babbler (Argya caudata). l party believed seen on | fairly numerous. ‘ ne ae

26-12-43 but not positi-

a ’ vely identified.

7 | Abbott’s Babbler + /1-2 believed seen Aprile} 0 see Goa

| May 1944, a ea eee Se eee

8 |Common Iora ey |) LOL fC] Se | ee

9 | Red-vented Bulbul

10 | Red-whiskered Bulbul ...

1l | Magpie Robin 03

12 | Red-breasted Flycatcher. aoe

13 | Black-naped Flycatcher (Hypothy-

mis azurea).

14 | White-browed Fantail Flycatcher ... |

15 | Bay-backed Shrike (Lanius vittatus)

16 | Black-headed Shrike (ZL. masutus)...

17 | Rufous-backed Shrike (L. erythro-

notus).

18 | Brown Shrike (Z. cristatus)

| Common Wood-Sbrike (7ephrodor-

| nis pondiceriana).

“| than No. 9.

. | abundant.

a few.

plentiful, foraging.

| plentiful foraging.

do., but rather less so} Q

” | pientiful foraging.

thinly distributed in win- noice

| ter months |

usually a few in jungle

| patches, |

rather thinly distributed. |

not uncommon, .

a single one seen on/|fairly plentiful

26-12-43. less so towards end

of survey period.

20 | Little Minivet (Pericrocotus peregri- notumcommon., | wn nee

nus

21 | Ashy \ wallow-Shrike scanon one party seen,

22 |Indian Black Drongo ... abundant. abundant.

23 | Indian White-bellied Drongo (Dicru-| waves a single bird seen on

rus caerulescens). 18-1]-44,

24 | Blyth’s Reed Warbier (Acrocephalus | 1-2 believed seen, but) 0 we |

dumetorum) . | identity not proved.

25 | Indian Tailor Bird ..|fairly plentiful about;

| jungle.

26 | Burmese Tailor Bird (?) ./on several occasions) — ......

birds seen were a good

deal darker and bright-

| er than other birds,

| ? this sub-species.

27 ‘| Black-headed Oriole .| fairly plentiful, chiefly in) wines

and near jungle patches

28 | Grey-headed Myna ./rather thinly distributed, | a few foraging.

chiefly about jungle)

patches.

29 | Common Myna ap «| abundant. | adundant foraging.

30 |Bank Myna (Acridotheres gin- afew. :;£;£;4;4;424;4 4 2 2 | arene

ginianus).

31 | Jungle Myna (.2thiopsar fuscus) ...| rather thinly distributed.

32 | Pied Myna ... eee) .|abundant; usually rather abundant foraging,

more than No. 28 in usually rather more

this type. than No, 28 in

this type.

33 | Baya Weaver Bird (Plocets philip- numerous; always at

| pinus). least one flock in

| evidence, foraging.

34 | White-throated Munia (0 frolonchay sae)

matabarica) .

tho’ weetee

plentiful foraging, plentiful aging,

do., but rather less noses

so than No, 9. |

abundant foraging. | plentiful foraging,

| not uncommon,

a few.

not uncommon

abundant, abundant,

abundant foraging. a few foraging.

abundant foraging, | abundant foraging,

usually rathermore| usually rather more

than No, 28 in this} than No. 28 in

type. this type.

one colony found) aareee

nesting in a large’

tree among paddy

fields.

usually a few to Le weeny

seen,

oe ————————————————————

802

“ISIH IVAOLVN AVAWOs “TVNUNOL

“ALAIIOS

4aNOS

aula

SNOILVIQOSSV

TVWINTH JO

60L

JOURNAL; BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY; Vol. 49

71G

eerree

VITVEOdd

——

| eenrse

"jhoqe Maj v SAVATC

‘ported Ada

_-INs JO pte spire Mo}

‘sjied JolIp oy} = SnoJeminu ssey nq

jnoqe uoumlmtodan joN ‘jsiIy je jJuvpunqe

| ‘Ud9S MdJ B

| seeeee | SULSt10jJ Maj v AT] ensn |

“Spley 94} Ur

/S100H Ssulysely} 3t}

noqe [njUeTd ApArey |

AUOSsaL

VITVSNHQ

SaATaITACAGVd

*$99.1} SIOAN

Q1oy} I9ANISYM nyyUeld

‘sjied papoom

a1oul jnoqe Moje ATTensn

‘7p UBY} SnoisuINU

siom Apysys ‘op

*sayojed gpsunt

ynoqe snorleumna ATIIey

“IOJUTA

UI syuv] pue = sysoyl

[[eals jnoqe uses [eI9AOS

“Spey

aq} Ul Ss100H SuUTYserYy

aq} Jnoqe [njyuetd Apriey

‘PPT Say ul wed pry,

8 Ul Suljsau punoyj ited v

awossar

NOILVAILTONO GAaX1N

(pio). dn OUD NOTEVAIL 129 ~ “fT

jase taysedpoo A, pexyoeq-tapjoy

{

| eee

** IQyDedIOMOTY S.TOXYOLL

' *(v91U

-ojtaz °°) prqung poduins-sjding

““(wItwisy stAhuurD’ pliqung efding

"(WII

“DSSD VAJDALYT) YIeY ysng yesueq

| eee

(Sujujns snygup) yidig ueipuy

(0704-4729 #7) [VBISE NM Poepway-MOT[A

*SiSGOINA]

DIPLIDIO/7) — [LBIBVA = PODBJ-3UTM

*(0j091AN7 I

opunalyy7) = MOTEMSG YO uUerpay

* (S#auysamop

AISSVq) MOlIedgG esSNOFT UeIpuy

*(vp0/

“njIung wyzuojo4)) etunyW poyjods

SHIOUdS.,

Til

SOME BIRD ASSOCIATIONS OF BENGAL

‘sorjied [[eus

Ajjensn

‘jUepunqy

*‘[HJtIjUe|d AI9A JOU

‘our Aq

‘MoJ @| UdES JOU 4JnNq ‘poyods1 |

‘Juepunge

"[njiQueyd Aprrey |

esveee

eeoeen

| *Uj1Ba JO polo & uaAD

10 SpseM TO pata

-Jod u9}jo . juepunqe

*[nj1}u9Td AI9A jou

SQUIT}

‘SULSEIOJ MO}

‘sespoy jnoqe

tac

eocecee

@erece

eserce

u9as T

‘juepunqe

‘Tnyijustd Apires

*sotoadsqns

é pue fynjnuajd Aida jou

*sjived

pepoom a1oul ut [nyWUueTd

*sj1ed

pepooM siow tw juRvpungP

ereecce

*S901}] OTOM

91904} IoASIOUM JUepuNnqe

“‘snony-Yd1ef

A[snonuryu09 pares

: JuBpunqe oq 0} porvadde

“jqnop [je

puoAag poytuept jou jnq

‘Pr. “G2 pue ep, 99d

Ul UeeS PdASI[9q SOTA}

"S301}] OIOM 9191}

IDANIOYM [NJTUed Apitez

‘67 “ON

uvy} snozownu sso]

Anysys sdeysted ‘op

"S901} O10M

a194} IoAaTeyM [nytjueld

“¢P6I-cI-92

uo uses podreg;leq T

“SP6I-ZT-E2

wo waes (sopoods

SIq} JO 9AaITAq J) Iayo0d

-pooMm pedeu-yov[q 8

‘WOTIMOOTN JOU

"(s7s01j19

-4agus Sgosapy) leyes-39q palle}-enig |

Jayea-39q U9s0I14)

JaT[OY

a JooyVlieg osotuIng os1e7]

Jurseougd MOID |}

[04

*(SHUIINAIU SIqUDUE

-0907) ooyong osAnUIv[g UWeipuy

ae OoOxOND YMBFT UOUIUIOD

: fe oOyOND UsIPUT

*(snqpy daz

-0110¢ = sngnanz\) ooyong 9aity

oe zo yyiurs1eddo4

cf “ - Joqiveg pe}eoiy}-enlq

eee ae jeqieg 9014)

*‘(zaanut Saqvgohiqg )

laysodpooM ped pPe}s¥eeaiq-snoan

"(SNUDI SNILF)

JaysedpooMm weelr) poedeu-yov[q

Jayoad poo &}} BIG RIN

{US

“SPECIES |

Spotted Munia (Uroloncha punctu- |

lata).

Indian House Sparrow

domesticus).

[Indian Cliff Swallow (Hirundo

|_ fluvicola).

| White-faced Wagtail (JA/ofacilla|

leucopsis. |

| |

| Indian Pipit (Anthus rufulus)

| Bengal Bush Lark (Mirafra assa- |

| mica). |

| Purple-rumped Sunbird (C. zeylo-

| nica).

| Tickell’s Flowerpecker ...

Golden-backed Woodpecker

Mahratta Woodpecker ... an

Black-naped Green Woodpecker

(Picus canus).

Fulvous-breasted Pied Woodpecker

(Dryobates mace).

Green Barbet

Blue-throated Barbet...

Coppersmith

Little Cuckoo (Cueulus polio-

cephalus).

Indian Cuckoo “

Common. Hawk Cuckoo

Indian Plaintive Cuckoo (Caco-

mantis merulinus).

Koel oom oh as

Crow Pheasant

Large Burmese Parrakeet

| Roller =

Green Bee-eater

| Blue-tailed Bee-eater (Merops super-

ciliosus).

4 pair found nesting in a

Yellow-headed Wagtail (47. citreola) | several seen about small

| Purple Sunbird (Cinnyris asiatica).., fairly

usually a few about more

.. | plentiful

.|fairly plentiful wherever

.. | appeared to be abundant;

.| abundant wherever there

. | plentiful in more wooded

.|not very plentiful ; and ?

MIXED CULTIVATION

JESSORE |

CULTIVATION GRouP (Contd.)

—_____._.

——————K— um

| PADDYFIELDS

DHUBALIA JESSORE DEUBALIA

Tad palm in Aug. 1944,

(Passer | fairly plentiful about the

threshing floors in the|

fields.

jheels and

winter,

tanks in

i numerous about|

jungle patches. |

do.; slightly

numerous than 42.

wooded parts.

Wherever there

were trees,

not vncommon .

a black-naped wood-

pecker (I believe of this

species) seen on

23-12-1943.

believed

26-12-1943.

plentiful wherever there

were trees.

1 seen on

do.; perhaps slightly

less numerous than

No. 49.

there were trees.

twice believed seen in

Dec. 743 and Feb. '44,

but not identified beyond

all doubt.

called continuously

March-August.

were trees.

abundant in more wooded

parts.

subspecies.

fairly plentiful,

abundant.

fairly plentiful about

the threshing floors

in the fields,

usually a few foraging

a few seen,

Not uncommon about |

the drier parts.

abundant at first,

but less numerous

towards end of sur-

vey period,

always a few about.

lseen 2-3

about hedges,

times |

a few foraging.

not very plentiful,

not very plentiful. fairly plentiful.

abundant’ often per-| abtindant. abundant,

ched on weeds or

even a clodofearth, |

onde | reported, but not seen|}a few, usually in

| by me. small parties.

—_—_————— oars _

Avawogd ‘TvNyNol or

IWYOLVN

S “LSTH

6F IGA ‘ALAINO.

IVONAX FO SNOIL¥YIDOSSY GUId AWOS

ItL

Vol.

SOCIETY,

712

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NADLURAL FEES?

score | ‘SUISBIOJ ‘OP ‘snoreumnu A]IIey

peer ‘Tngjryuetd aay "M9J B

Penh. Tay nee ore “May B

| 5 ZI-Z UO SulIBosS

OE | ees usas peAadrsiTeq 9su0

‘snoyinbiqn | ‘snoyinbiqn | ‘snoyinbiqn

sees ‘Tnyyuetd Ajiey *ynoqe May *e Uso

| ‘aM ydels

(-9791 e@ uo peyor1sd

SOOO “FH6I-€-91 uses [| ceaae |

eoocee | aescsee | seceee |

eons? | eee cee | "3000 uaos au0 |

*jUepunqe. ‘juepunqse | ‘juBpunqe

"juUepunqe | ‘juepunge | ‘juepUngqe |

"U99S ‘tas

aq 0} Mo} @ ATyensn | ‘op (oq 0} Moy *e Ajjensn |

| ‘SUSE |

oon Of “(MIGO. ATs. | ou ea

Opa 2 Se ee a FOO OT

"Moje

‘SPJoy ay] Ul Seal,

uy peysied wuajjo |

eee cee

“SP[9G

Apped papoog 19A0

“SUISBIOJ UIdS Maj VB

viTvanuq | “HUOSSHL | VIIVanHG

| ——— =

SCA'THIATAGC Vd

("pjuo7 )—ad 204 4)

*ISAO0

SBM O10} JOADIOYM “Op

‘qnyyueld Apres

‘snojinbiqn

‘nyt us,d

eooree

‘ud9S aq 0} Moj & AT[ensn

juepunqe

juepunge |

“Op

SUIDSBIOJ

"syUuR}

‘\noqe Moy vB ATjensn pue sjaeyf jnoqe jnjnuetd

‘Injrjustd Aypares

"Ud9S Mj B

eee cee

‘tnyiyueyd Apres

‘PPGL-Z-Z Wo wees [| “

AMOSSHL

“QAO II}JINT, snojny| 6/

see uossIq YOoy enj_ | g/

al ay BITS | LZ

(snanosz0ut SNIALD) INIIEY 3Vq| 9/7

“" OM Yeed |) ¢/

as ayy Aurmyeig | $/

*(0s9a}

anysomng) gpseq plezzng poAs-a}14M | 7

ie “* g]8eq JUadIIG pojsaIg}| Z/

‘(susaqgouzsag UOLYGoaAT)

(“OInyNA JasusavoG ayy M [eas] 1

“* OADYNA PePeq-AVGM | O/

“ ain A SUIT | 69

cee YIMS Wed} 89

: JIMS asnoF{] 79

Tei vendiy) sodooH | 99

IOYSYSULY pasvalq-ouyM | s9

IOYSySULy Pallq-Y10IS | 79

JOUSYSULY UvIpUy uoulmtog; ¢

a3 TOYSysuLy Ped} 29

SHIOUdS "ON

NOILVAILTONO GAxXTn

Neri y Ar ae. |

BENGAL

SOME BIRD ASSOCIATIONS OF

eseeceee

"JYSIU ye

puw ‘ssulusaA9 9u}

UL SUIsBIOJ puUNoj}

3q sABM{e p[nod Z-T |

"[nyrued Arte]

‘spjeyApped

pepooy ur joys

‘spjayApped pa

-poof Ul punoj moj &

‘SUIBI

94} suUTINp spTey

-Apped papoopg

ur wowmooun 40u

‘op

‘spjoy Apped

peapooy Ul punoj Z-T

‘op

“op

*MOOUL [NJ

Ajpetoedse

‘jusla je Asiou Ae

-asQ, ‘[nyyuetd Aysvej

jnoqe

"}qnop 9[qIssod [Te

puofsq paAoid jou

ynq ‘}091I00 psAdT]

-oq AjjUSpI—jysiu

jijuoot Aue suly[eo

pivoy 9q pfhoo ¢-T

*}USIU Je

pue ssulusA9 93}

Ul SUISeIOJ puNnoj

oq SAeM[@ pjnood 7Z-T

‘JOUS 9UQ *FF-6-ZZ

UO J9}880} uses ¢ |

*sioyrenb

QSojo je UsIas Mo} B

“Tj

-Iyu9]d AI9A JOU JnqG

‘inoqe sfemje May

‘Tnyijueld Aprey |

"[nyiyaetd Aparey

‘juepunqe |

‘wyyuard Apres

»yeoceae

“sjaoul

ay} oqe [njyued Apes

‘nynustd jou

“qoulmlooun jou

‘op

"(snguput

Snq7aUvaALgOT ) SUIMAeT] pep}jea-poy

(oSnunyos vyjagv7)) ediug WoUrmIOD

‘(sug

-04Y90 vsUIAT) Aedidpuvg Usery

*(snmauszipao

SnULYANG) MIINQ suo0}G UeIpUy

"(sasua

-7DYsUsg DINIVAISO YT) BCU pe}Uledq:

*(SNBANALYI SNUDL

-spy gdoApap]) Bueoee papie}-jueseeyd

"(smaypus

snipidojayy) EUBIeL POSUIM-9Z001g

*(DANIMUIGOYY SLUAOA

-NDUp7) USYIaBA pejsvetq-a}14 M

(S240)

-NIDUL VIUANT ) [LENO woyng wetpuy

* (40D J19SNS

“MAN T) [ren pivjsnq uowmumoy

*(SNUDIAII

-1puog snutosuvay) asplsyeg Ay

*(0j2002ap

pyagojg74jS) edo sury uelpuy

dAO IID pew

aaoq pe}jods

{

€6

Il. Curtrvatron

GRou P—(Contd.)

Sa.

| MIXED CULTIVATION |

————_

SPECIES

Pied Kingfisher

Common Indian King fisher

Stork-billed Kingfisher

White-breasted Kingfisher

Hoopoe (Upupa epops)

House Swift

Palm Swift

King Vulture a

White-backed Vulture ... —

Small White Scavenger Vulture

(Neophron percnopterus).

Crested Serpent Eagle .. é

White-eyed Buzzard Eagle (Bulasluy

teesa). é

Brahminy Kite

Pariah Kite ... ct

Pale Harrier (Circus macrourus) a

Shikra.,

Blue Rock Pigeon

Rufous Turtle Dove

Spotted Dove

Red Turtle Dove

Indian Ring Dove

decaocio). E r

Grey Partridge (Francolinus pondi-

cerianus).

(Sire plopelia

Common Bustard Quail (Turnix

suscitator). ;

Indian Button Quail ( Turnix macu-

latus).

White-breasted Waterhen (Aman-

rornis phoenicura).

Bronze-winged Jacana (Metopidius

indicus).

Pheasant-tailed Jacana (Hydrophas-

ianus chirurgus).

Painted Snipe (ostratula benghal-

ensis).

Indian Stone Curlew (ASurhinus

oedicnemus).

Green Sandpiper (Zringa ochro-

mS). ;

een Snipe (Capella gallinago).

Red-wattled Lapwing (Lodivanellus

indicus).

fairly plentif

JESSORE

a few seen,

fairly plentiful.

plentiful about jheels and

tanks,

1 seen on 2-2-1944.

fairly plentiful, foraging

do,

abundant

usually a few to be seen, |

PADDYFIELDS

DuuBarra |

usually a few about,

often perched in

trees in the fields.

a few.

one seen once.

JESSORE.

a few seen foraging

over flooded paddy

fields. ;

fairly plentiful, for-

aging,

usually a few to be do.

seen.

| abundant, abundant.

abundant. abundant.

seen 16-3-1944

perched on a tele-

graph wire,

plentiful, joften a few i: i

ontif | ofte ew about. fairly plentiful.

ubiquitous. | ubiquitous, abiquians®

Fr Jone believed seen

0. wherever there was | f:

cover,

do.

not uncommon,

not plentiful.

fairly plentiful about the|

jheels.

fairly plentiful,

soaring on 7-12~’44,

| a few.

a few.

airly numerous.

abundant.

fairly plentiful.

a few always about,

but not very plenti-|

ful.

a few seen at close)

quarters. i

3 seen together on

22-9-44. One shot.

1-2 could always be

found foraging in

the evenings and

at night.

| 1-2 could be heard

| calling any moonlit

night—identity be-

| lieved correct, but

not proved beyond

all possible doubt.

fairly plentiful. Usu-

ally noisy at night,

especially about

full moon.

fairly plentiful.

do. foraging,

1-2 found in flooded

paddy fields.

do.

not uncommon in

flooded paddy-

fields during the

rains.

a few found in flood-

ed paddy fields.

1 shot in flooded

paddyfields.

fairly plentiful.

DHUBALIA

usually a few,

usually a few to be

seen,

abundant,

1-2 could always be

found foraging in

the evenings and

at night.

Ee eee

ee ee

1A 'ALATIOS

TO SNOITLVIIOSSVY GNIX FNOS

TVONAL

412

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY (avo

714

"spreyApped

ay} suowe uel}

pue = “eljeqnyq

| je Uv} o1OSSOr 3}

| UONBCATI[ND poxXiut

oy} suome oysunl

oIOUL YONU svm

9194} Veq} pala Ur ;

suIog aq 4SsnUl J[J—'aso\7

‘spjeyApped pa *($27909

caniges -pooy Suoure u9a9s 7-T genes aes “1nd S$aMNpOg) aqe1x) aT ueIpuy) TOT

| "(v21UvaAv1

BOOOCH | ‘op =OOCEE pou DUBhIOAPUACT ) [VIT, SULISIY AM 1asse'q| OOT

“SUIBI OT}

‘papoog suowe | *(Ssnunt

era, uowumooun you eeecee sien -JAPUDIUOLOD SNGDIIN7) [eaT, W0}0.)| 66

‘op | ‘op ‘op ‘op an uoleyH puog UBIpUT|; BG

‘jnoqe Moj ve Ajyensn *Tnyuetd Ayirey *ynoqe Maj e SAeMTe ‘tHytyaetd Aparezy] °° JIS 9eDQ| 6

rece ‘op | wares oe gS oe aes iat (DIZADS DIAATT ) PIZY BVT | 96

‘am Aq uses jou

seveee _-poog wo pazstodey | TO ee ee meee vANOssuy ) yI0IC poyoen-sy14.M | cg

"Spjoy |

-Apped Suoule saat}, | ‘puod *(4adiu

UO SOUT} [BJaAQS Tees tts | saris [es UO 900 UsaS Z| XV4LOIOAIVIDY-T) /JUBIOWILOD IIT) FG

at Sh ihe |

vITvanaq Huossas VIIVaNHG | auOSsar |

<= == wea SHIOUdS ON

Sa TaTdWAddVd NOIDLVAILING GHXIW 2

(‘p1u07)—a NOAH NOILVAILITAD TI

SOME BIRD ASSOCIATIONS OF BENGAL

a EE a

*‘TBIOANS SABATS

‘Z-[ SeUlljemIo0s

“Moy © SABME

‘sAep [B19A0S

uO Uses odaIOM

8 pp-li-0¢... uo

porvedde z ise9] 1¥

‘domutooun jou

eensee

‘jnoqe

shemye Ayred auo |

‘snolouinu

qnyljueyd Apres

‘Tn y1} ued

‘snojeumint | T

uoas pliq s[suls B| Uses plIq 9o|SUIS |

‘Injgryued Aqirey

‘[nyTUe]d |

‘uomuiooUun jou

‘TOmMUmMmOOUN jou

)

| "JUS

‘jnoqe g-T AT[ensn cerns aid ATT BUOLs¥DD0

‘may v SABMTC ‘moj e AlTensn | ‘Moz e ATTensn |

‘Tnyijyuatd “May @ SABMlE “Moy B SABMT?

VITVaNHq AWOSSar HaOSsa

SW1Vd SAAAL

TCA ACISGVOU

JO SHAOYD

qnoas)

“PP-1T-OF Uo

‘arossof¢ je

se snojounu os

a}yinb jou yUIY} -

jnq ‘juepunqe

‘ynyyuerd Apres

"[nyT}ueld

‘(njnuetd Ayre}

*Soysnq AoIy} Ut

jnoqe Moj e AT]ensn

‘Thy tuerd Ay11ey

| ‘snoretnu AIdA jou

‘tnyued Apirey

“Ingyuerd Ayirey

‘Ssnoletunu

VIIVaNHQG

HTIONOS GA4XIn

ATONOASC

"PrET Sulids ut

\ ‘juepunqe

‘TC “ON wey}

OS SSeT jynq ‘op

"[nyIyueyd,

| “{nziyuoyd |

“ppGL Ae /idy |

UI Ud0S Padded Z-T

“Op

‘Op

‘tnynuetd Aprrey

‘I ‘ON

uevy} OS ssa

ysnoy} ‘{ny1jyueTd

‘sholomnu

| auOsSaL

‘Ty

*(0u14419 074I1Y¥OAD ) YSNIYY,

punojs) pepeay-asueig

Se uIqoy stdseyy

wee [Nq[Ng pslayAsiyM-poy

[nq[Ing pejweA-pay

*(2uopsal SisgoA

-0747) sisdo1o[yD s,uopier

se e1OT WOUIMIOZ

has 1s[qqed 8.34300qV

*"(vywagig viywUe

2) sojaqeq peddeo-pey

et ra1qqeg wournr0o;

Jajqqeg a,sunr

WL Avg) UeIpuy

stg sel 7, UeIpuy

MOID esnoy

MOID 9suNL

SdIOudsS

Pr.

er) tO on~ 7,4) moO

>. |

‘ON

“y

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

716

"Mdj B SABATE ‘snorotmuntt Apes,

en oes | err een |

‘shodatunu Ape, | “[oynuerd

setae | ‘U908 MOJ

‘\weptnqe

“jnoqe

M9] B ATpensn

"momlMIOoNUN jou age 4 fae usnes ‘MOUIUIOOTIN Jou

MOMIULOOTIN AOU = eee | *MOJ YU ‘COMIMIODTN jou ToOUMOSUN jou

| ‘porrod AoA

| = -InsjopuospivmM |

|-0} OS. Sse. yszg

eevcce | eeocce vevese | ye snolounu AJIOA eoccoe

Rdeces “Moy ¥ “Moy Orcas | Ene

eeccoe | *IO]OIM Ul Adj e eeceve | cocece | ecccee

ecccee "MOJ B "Mj ve | ee occe | eaerece

| | *poynqi1}

‘jnoqe [ Ajfensn- sees wee ‘ynoqge Maj ei -sIp Ayury] JeyIeI

‘pajoodsns uajyo | |

Ajeyuyep uses [. ase perro. see 8q 0} Moj v AT] ensn

| *SOUT}

\Jeyjo ye uses

| /JOU ! UOSBaS POO

"yOOQ-pima | suunp pajnqrs}

ttaos g Alqissod ‘{_ 7 hee rie -SIp Aycry} sJeyjer

| | ‘bP6I-C-he UO

Laioee sevens seeree | ssenes Uses Pliq o[suIs v |

"pez qit4sip

*jnoqe Z-T sAvaye ‘FF uel Ajuryy ‘IOPSTA

*PE-OI-T 491}8 | —EP °}0O Uses 72-T ay tee | ‘snojetinu | sayuim =e ATJUepTA

| eas

VIIVanHq HUOSsal HUOSSAL VI1vanad AWOSsA

| SIN1Vd SHHUaL |

HAOUD OONVIN | JO SAAOW ACISAVON HTIONNL CGaxIW

a a nd

(pju0j)—-d OOD ATONOGL ‘TIT

ate osuoiq xorg

a 9PlIYS-MoTVMG Aysy

Tie JOAIUTFL OPIN

ene IAL S-poo A MOTWUIOT)

YY eylLIYG uMOIg

ex1Iyg payovq-snoyny

i SYS pepvsy-ysoxig

ss eXNYS peyoeq-Aeg

“Iayoyeo

“AT [TeJUVA Pomo4q-oz1y MA

"* JayoywodT yy podeu-yovlg

*(tstpvsvg vas

“2149 [,) LayoyedALY osipereg

‘(DUISSDIDYI SpLAM

“HY ) IayoyeodTY JSPIPIIA

TOYO VAY pojsveiq-payy

(AE

al i

BENGAL

SOME BIRD ASSOCIATIONS OF

*Mo} @ ATTBUOISB990

‘Mj @ AT[ensn |

eevcece

‘Moy ve SACMIE

*p-e Aypensn |

‘7-1 Alfensn

‘paaoid jou Ay)

-usp! Inq ‘jynoqe

Z-[ SABM[B padatyjag |

‘snojleumnu Aires

*uowluIooUnN jou

‘snojemina ATI |

‘SUISIOJ

(¢-1 A][@Uuolsvoo0

*s901} edaad 91}

| Ul Suljsoq AueuUr

| snoreuinu

A[ILeJ

‘doWwUMtooun jOu

*snolowmnu Airey

“MO} B SOTUTJOTIOS

‘doulmooun jou

"MOjJ B 119]}0

Ceeres

“UOTUUTOOUN 100

| "9c ON ue} [ny

-1]Ua[d si1our Ap. SITs

| eeosece

*snoleulnu

‘snolatinu AJA JOU

"Tnjiuoyd

*paaoid

jou Ajjuepr ynq

‘199s padAdl[eaq ¢-7Z

eer eee

‘Injyuetd ATE;

*posaoid

10U Ayiyuaputr

jnq ‘poejoedsns 7-]

| ‘SyOOp Ul snogeurnd |

“SSUppIng

jnoqe Moj & SABMB

*snoreunu

*pejnq

-ll}sIp Alay) Joyye1

"seuAyT I9q}0 94}

UeYy3 SNOJOUINU Ssdj

‘snoreuinu

‘paynq

“l1}SIp A[ury} 1ayze1

"Thy }zUe{d ApIEy

"OE “ON

uvy} [NjUed ssoy

‘psaoid

jou AjijUepr jnq

EVEL t9qtts00¢T Ut

UdIS PIASI[9q Z-T

‘U99S P2ASI[9q Z-L

‘THyiqUeyd Ape;

*paaoid

(jou Ajytuapr yng

‘$F judy /yoreyy

Us29s pdsAdTsq 7Z-T

‘PP-Z-LT

woas peaety

-oq Ajied |[eus 2 |

“* moitedg asnop uvipuy

“ BTUNYT PI}eo1Y}-9}714 M

Je plig Joavanw vAeg

ia euAW pot

“* eudy opeune

“* . BUA Ue

ia eudj, WOUTMIOD

vudyy popeay-Aary

S[OLIQ pepvegq-xovi_

— s[OH1O UBIpU]

*(S270190S DiUtA )

I9TQ1IBM-UstM AYSV

‘(Sujousour sngor

~S0]JAYq ) 12]GIEM AOTITM

(paUMOID) paMmolq-MOTIIA

*(01D.52]02

Sivj0gG1F7). 1IQAVM FLL

$,9yAG IO Is[qIVAA ps}00g

3 pilg Iopley, ssoating

ar Pilg JOTBL Uelpuy

“e daiqiemM peey s.qiAIg

* OSUOIG Pat]{eq-931t AA

€&

0¢

Ill.

JUNGLE GRoOvP—(Contd.)

ee _

—---__T,

| SPECIES

Red-breasted Flycatcher

Verditer Flycatcher

mytas thalassina),

(Eu-

Paradise Flycatcher ( Zchit-

rea paradist).

Black-naped Flycatcher

White-browed Fantail Fly-

catcher,

Bay-backed Shrike

Black-headed Shrike

Rufous-backed Shrike

Brown Shrike

Common Wood-Shrike

Little Minivet

Ashy Swallow-Shrike

Black Drongo

White-bellied Drongo

Blyth’s Reed Warbler

Indian Tailor Bird |

Burmese Tailor Bird

Booted Warbler or Syke’s

Tree Warbler (Hippolais

caligata).

Yellow-browed (Crowned)

Willow Warbler (PAy//os-

copus inornalus),

Ashy Wren-Warbler

(Prinia socialis).

Indian Oriole

Black-beaded Oriole

Grey-headed Myna

Common Myna

Bank Myna

Jungle Myna

Pied Myna

Baya Weaver Bird

White-throated Munia

Indian House Sparrow

MIXED

JESSORE

ROADSIDE GROVES OF |

JUNGLE | TREES | z PALMS | MANGO GROVE

DHUBALIA | JESSORE | JESSORE DyvuBArta

— a

numerous,

evidently a winter

visitor, thinly

distributed.

a single bird seen

on 24-2-1944,

tather thioly dis-

tributed during

cold season ; not

seen at other

times.

usually a few to be

seen.

rather thinly dis-

tributed.

not uncommon

usually 41

about.

abundant.

few

ja small party be-

lieved

17-24.

1-2 believed seen

March/April 44,

but identity not

proved.

seen

fairly plentiful.

1-2 believed seen.

1-2 believed seen

in December 1943

but identity not

proved.

Jess plentiful than

No. 36.

fairly plentiful.

rather thinly distri-

buted.

numerous.

Jess numerous than

the other Mynas.

rather thioly distri-

buted.

numerous,

always ‘a few about

buildings.

a few about.

| very numerous at

| first, less so to-

wards end of sur-

vey period.

not uncommon.

a few seen,

plentiful.

| 1-2 suspected, but|

indentity not

proved.

| |

| fairly plentiful.

2-3 believed seen, |

but identity not

proved. |

plentiful.

not very numerous.

numerous,

slightly more plenti-

| fulthan No. 38,

| numerous in flocks.

| not uncommon.

HW sococes

fairly numerous.

often a few.

Jan. 44.

ie Bae

cD ) aagstace

a few. a few.

seteee a few in wicter,

a few a few.

afew. | 5

‘fairly numerous.

not uncommon.

sometimes a few.

fairly numerous,

not uncommon. not uncommon,

fairly numerous ; | fairly numerous.

many nesting in|

the peepal trees.

occasionally 1-2

foraging. |

fairly numerous.

|1-2 seen Oct. 43— after 1-10-44.

always 1-2 about.

1, possibly 2 seen

mid-Oct.

1 seen definitely

once; presence

often suspected.

usually 1 about.

not uncommon,

not uncommon.

ere a few.

usually 1-2,

believed always 1-2

about, but iden-

tity not proved.

usually 1-2.

usually 3-4,

always a few.

| usually a few,

| occasionally a few.

OTL

‘LSIH IVNALVN AVAWOT “TYNUNOL

‘ALIIIOS

OF 104

ANOS

aut

TO SNOLLVIQOSSY

IVONATT

Vol.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISi- SOCIE? y.

718

resces ie soveoe o0* 00 serves ‘sno eulnu ATAVe} | soo piiqang ajdang | TS

| “ATT euoIs * (psosgag

Recete errs Soe Sa eat 28090 UsBS Maj vB -70g¢ Sgosaiso7\ eK2-27TM!| OS

‘peaoid jou |

A}IJUSpT yNq uses |

cocves ; | eoecee PeAdsi[oq [e19A9S coerce | coocee | see oon ydig UvIPUT 67

“YSle yy

| ur wa}jo SSo[

"PP-ZI-9 19332 | pue r6l “494

pue wo jusosoid | pue ‘ue ur Apel *(2u0s spoy

siequinu yews ee Me Epa (hey TE | ustees /-nsei Uses [BIOAOS suyiupy) YdIq 9e1j, UBIPUT) QF

| ‘od Aj SIG} UL syUe}

gees eseee pone sscgee jnoqe Uoas [BIOAeS ** [IR}SEM Papvey-MO][9A! /F

| ‘sopoods

yeu} = =JO— Sp.lq

geaqjo ul uey}

| Temo][a4 yeoluy 2x

yseaiq 2 Joyiep

petisss pay sq}

| Sv jou AUTYY | ING

| | (Sh) = Trease

| | pepesy-anigq ev

| weeq 9ARY WYSTIU

‘(tdaagunyy *f 772

| | STU L ‘Ep l-9e

oeeeee | slaie\eraie | ececes eccece | uo woos peastjaq T | -DIOJ/) [1e}3eM pepeay-Aeir OF

‘oovds uedo ue | | | |

UI SUISeIOJ QaUO | a | | +s (DUutzag DAD] { V7]12 |

uses paddt[aq 90. caress | Banout | eerie | eee | plop) [vea3e MW papeeu-anig gp

| }

vIIVanaq awaossaf HUOSSuL VITVaOHq | HUOSsar

oa aoe |e ee Sa1Odds ‘ON

SN 1Vd NIGECR ND r

HAOUD OONVIN AO SHAOWD ACISaVOU HIONOAL GHXIW

ee ce ARR ARNE RE SEO RS RR SO AEA SS TP CESS BES — SRE ; 7 ' ' on

(p707) dNOAY HIONAL ‘IT

‘

719

SOME BIRD ASSOCIATIONS OF BENGAL

‘Maas SOWITJIMIOS T

‘7-T Ajpensn

“SOULIT}

[e198 Aes

*7-[ sfeuye |

"U99S 7~[

‘Z-[ SOtTjeu0s

uses

*c-, Ajpensn

esecoe

“HOTUTIOOUN OU

eoegtee

et eee

‘uaas A][eWoIse300

*MOj

‘woTIMO TN j0U |

‘uaas Ajj euOIsed—o |

‘UOTIMOOUN jou.

‘mOuUrmooUN jou

eeeree

nyiqua;d Aparey

“PP,

‘ydag UL U99S Maj

*plvoy

pue wus9s Mo Pv

*JUITIS JoyjeI ATV

-nsn yng ‘jnoqt Maj ev

‘o7ip

‘[njiqaetd Aparey

Peercoe

"nyyusjd Apa

"U99S 7-T

‘UGaS MI 8

‘Injyuetd Ajirey|)yYUIqy YT

‘juepunqe

*SOUlI} 19430

je peorjou jou

ynq ‘sny/A[ne ut

snonoidsuoo Moy &

"99S I9A0U

nq Fp dy

UL woo ATIIey

pivey peaelyeq qT)

‘ony

“ole Ajlepnder |

po[vo {yuepunqe |

‘juepunqe | oe

oes [205]

OOFOND paj}seiy pag

OOYOND SATPUMV[G WerIpuy

OOYOND AMBP wloura4rosy

ooyong uvipuy

“* yyursreddod

yoqieg pe}¥o14}-an|gq

‘(snjoau1y vuivjn sayy )

yoqieg pejveuly Wessy

'eq 0} peivadde

"[nyryuard Ayre}

"[Njyusjd °*"

| ‘PP-E-22

(uO Uses paddTjaq Z.

| ‘[nyyUeTd |

‘Ph-Z-he WO uses T

"T Jiyuetd Apirey |

*[ny1ZU97d |

*snoJeuInu jou |

| Bisbanhecycel

“{OJUIM Ul U99S Z-T

PP-Z-SZ Uses Ired |

*poHOOT.IIAO

(ue}jo Alqeqoid

‘uommooun jou

“TS “ON dey}

os 91001 AT}4SIIS

‘op

/jou ynq ‘uses Z-| |

yoqIed useIr)

*‘(vyqtnbsog Xun) YOaTAIM

paxoeq-aapjoy

‘Iayood poo A

S.T24OLL

Jayoad poo pexoeq-uaeploy

-YIWAQ Oftd) eid WeIpuy |

1ayoed poo AA BI] VINLI

‘1ayIedpooM WseI45)

patp[aq-ATeog 9733!]

‘(pant

‘(ajtdv W1NnaDIIG )

Joyoediamo[q — Pal[iq-AOrmL,

JaydadIIMO[Y S,[[@4OL I,

+ priqung pedums-a[ding

{

ee)

ill.

Jpncire Group (Contd.)

3 ROADSIDE GROVES OF

MIXED JUNGLE TREES | PALMS MANGO GROVE

No SPECIES —— ————— : = = —

JESSORE DHUBALIA JESSORE | JESSORE DHUBALIA

| |

45 | Blue-headed Wagtail Gee sored | = = | co one believed seen

cilla flava beema) lien once foraging in

an 0} .

46 | Grey-headed Wagtail (A/o/a- 1 believed seen on) nes tegen

cilla f, thunbergi). 26-11-43. This

might have been

a Blue-headed

Wagtail (45)

| but I think not as

the head seemed |

darker & breast

| & throat yellower |

than in other

| birds of that

| species. |

47 | Yellow-headed Wagtail several seen about) everest eee | om || “doce

tanks in this type. | |

48 Indian Tree Pipit (Amthus several seen regu- | sce small numbers

hodgsont). larly in Jan. and present on and

Feb, 1944 and) after 6-12-44,

| less often in| |

March. | |

49 |Indian Pipit ... bs counn3 oy | several believed | mney en | Ss;

| seen but identity

| not proved. |

50 White-eye (Zosterops pal- a few seen occa- mary C*d](C tit cD | o i

| pebrosa). | sionally. |

51 | Purple Sunbird .. |fairly numerous, | wu om ls eee ‘Al

52. | Purple-rumped Sunbird do, It think)

slightly more so

| than No. 51. |

53 | Tickell’s Flowerpecker not uncommon; |

| probably _ often |

i overlooked. |

54 | Thick-billed Flowerpecker 1 pair seen 25-2-44 |

(Dicaeum agile), |

55 | Indian Pitta (Pitta brach- | 1-2 seen in winter.

yura). |

56 | Little Scaly-bellied 1-2 seen, but not

Green Woodpecker. plentiful. |

57 |Mahratta Woodpecker... , not numerous. |

58 |Golden-backed Woodpecker | plentiful.

59 | Tickell’s Golden-backed | fairly plentif 1.

Woodpecker.

60 | Wryneck (/ynx torquilla). 1 seen on 24-2-44.

61 | Green Barbet ... | plentiful.

62 |Assam Lineated Barbet |2 believed seen on!

(Megalaima lineatus) . 22-344, |

63 | Blue-throated Barbet plentiful.

64 | Coppersmith ... | fairly plentiful.

65 | Indian Cuckoo . | appeared to be|

| abundant; called |

| regularly March- |

ug.

66 | Common Hawk Cuckoo... | abundant. |

67 | Indian Plaintive Cuckoo ... |1 believed heard

fairly often in|

| April 44, but

| never seen.

68 | Pied Crested Cuckoo 9 la few conspicuous

| in July/Aug. but

not noticed at

other times.

69 | Koel | abundant.

fairly plentiful.

a few seen.

1-2 seen.

fairly plentiful.

tairly plentiful.

ditto.

afew about, but usu-

ally rather silent.

a few seen and |

heard.

a few seen in Sept.

44,

| fairly plentiful.

ger. i ees | usually 1-2.

anaes || —-tecdad | Sometimes 1-2.

oncone | 1-2 seen.

no uncommon. always 1-2.

not uncommon.

cxcene 1 seen several

times.

usually 1-2.

occasionally seen.

|not uncommon.

| ome

a few. testes

occasionally seen. cco0 1 sometimes seen.

ee SS See

8T2

ic}

LUN AVE.

‘ALALIOS

1°A

AWOS

SNOTLVIDOSSV GUIL

TIVINIA JO

Gté

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 49

Oe bes

"JYUSiu Ww pajjvo

A][e@uoises00

“9AOIS JO SaBps

jnoqe

VITIVaNHQ

snHoretnu

“Ssnozeuinu |

'$901} wyed 9}

uo psyoied uajjo

Alive}

eree

uepunde

‘rom UumOoTN jou

AY OSSH

HAAOUD OONVWNN

LL SL SSCS APA E SACS <TE

SIWW1Vd

HO SHAOND

“usa3s 900

eooene

Cee eee

eoerve

*‘[njiquerd Ayire;

‘juepunqe

“TOTMUNIOOUN JOU

‘uses A[[BuoIsea00

e@eorece

awossa

SICICOCN,

AHCISCVOUN

epecee

‘preol] Moy &

eootee

eoocee

‘ai0ssor 18 Uvuy

OS SS8, YUIG) T

yng ‘jnyruaid Ape;

‘jnoqV Mj B

‘Jaepunqe

“peynq

-T1jsip Ayuryy soqj}es | njyuetd

"U99S Z-T

‘Snojouinu AJ9A JOU

Togzyueyd Apsrey

‘ajo1yaA B Aq

paty Apjueredde

‘psap dn paxoid {

*‘uoulmiooun jou

‘}USIU JB plvoy

9q 0} Z-—T SABMTR

‘Op

TnyyUed Ayre}

‘THynuetd

‘{Hynued Ayirey

*Syuej sy} ynoge

jnyTusytd AL Ie}

‘Ssyue}

jnoqe usas Maj &

‘juepunqe

| ‘Suvi g

}943; Ul soaovid

19y}0 omloS UI

UB} OS SSI] OT}

Airey

‘sosedsqns

é:uses AT} euOTseI00

‘Py yos|d

VIIVdnHq

AWMOSSHL

ATONOL GAXIIN

((pj7w07)—d NOXDH AIONLG YI]

* (Stsuauoghar

v¢njay) IMO Ysiq UMoIg

*(0907]290

41415) [MOQ POOM Pr1}}0/

“Teh QSIN Ss, pleysioy

i JIMS weg

5 IIMG osnoyy

“LOYSYSULY pajsvaiq-ajiy MA

“ JaYSYSULyy] pal[iq-y10}9

IaYSYsSuly, TIpuy uowM0)

eae JIYSYSuIy pod

ae I9}¥a-30q W39IH)

FCONSE

‘(D]VYF 2IOUDAI BINIVIZIST)

JOOYVIIVG poepeoy-urosso[q

ef ; jooyelieg oslery]

M2 yuBSveyd MOID

SdIOddS

ASSOCIATIONS OF BENGAL

SOME BIRD

"2A018 30

aspo UO paseloj

9014} PP-cl-ILT GO

‘op

‘S-[ Satuijeui0s

*7-T SACMIE

“Moy @ Skee | Ayjensn ynq ‘0331p |

‘OVP eto

"Jy SIU

303 AVle[nsor

Jeo 0} pedslfeq [

seceee

“uUowurooun jou

‘waytustd Ayarey

“SHOT IUINU JOU

eee ae

“MOTBIGEY

ueuiny Joivau day |

“domUutooun jou

eeeees

‘op |

‘Tnjuad Apres |

‘SHOTSTUNU JOU |

‘OH eyqey

uUvuUNny Jsa1veu yday

Ajjensn jnq ‘oyIp

‘uoultroouN jou

es eee

‘uUs90S 90

“U99S PsA[aq Z-T|

"Tnyiyuetd Ayre] |

‘Op

‘juvpunqe |

‘jnoge Moye

‘Tngyuerd Apirey

"JHOGE MO] FB |

‘ynoqv 7-T Ayjensn

‘op

‘THpiyueld Apres

‘TnyHUe|d

A[I1®j_ paaatjaq

"qogiyaeyd Aprrey

‘Op

‘op

Tnyyuuotd Apres

‘M99S PIAdT[9q T |

‘ABM SO[IUI Moz

e yous suelo

-ads { poaoid jou

3nNq ~~ pajyoedsns

ATSUol}s a0Uesord

‘snojynbiqn

"ToyryU9}d

‘jnoqe

Ajjensn Moy 8B

‘yqnop pnod

-9q pedaoid jou

jnq ‘juesaId aq |

O, padslaq Maj ev.

‘jnoqe Z-[ Ajjensn |

‘juepunae |

‘Injryueyd Ajarey |

‘juepunae |

‘uleses pue Mou

preoy PeaAsl]eq ¢-| |

"UOl}] BOY

-IJUapl Jo suvour

ATWO SPA 9dOI0A

aol (Oh earls frehioe sh:

pies oq 07 SABM

-[B padelsq z-T

“* 11enG prvjsng uomuroy

2A0d WNT pey

oa 9A0Qd SUL UeIpUT

Eee 2sA0q peyjodg

ce 9AO IJIN J, snoyny

a Uoasig yoy sng

"(nauaD DAOAIPVDISN] )

uossIq Use, jelwoduy

(sraaggonuaoyg SngoI047)

woasiIq Udelxs) uomlW0g

ae SIM YeLled

a ayy Aumyeig

"(sag

-eDdy]yIt = vsvygoryzyI7 )

31]5eq SuIYysiy pepvey-Aoin

‘(suygdsoonay snjavivpz{)

ITS vq Saysly Ss see

“ -3)Seq JUadIeg pajsaig |

aITINA Pexoeqg-ozly M |

“re AINI[NA pef[iq-suo'y]

ae dIN}[NA SUIS

Bee J2[MO apeune

J9[MO sdoog pareljoo

TOT

00T

Ill.

JunGLE GRovuP—(Conld.)

———

No.

SPECILS

101

Crow Pheasant

Large Parrakeet

Blossom-headed Parrakeet

(Psittacula cyanoce phala).

‘Roller -

| Green Bee-eater

| Pied Kingfisher

Common Indian Kingfisher

Stork-billed Kingfisher...

White-breasted Kingfisher.

House Swift

Palm Swift

Horsfield’s Nightjar

Mottled Wood Owl (Strix

gcellata).

Brown Fish Owl (Aé¢/upa

aeylonensis).

; Collared Scops Owlet cl

Jungle Owlet oll

King Vulture

Long-billed Vulture

White-backed Vulture

| Crested Serpent Eagle

|Pallas’s Fishing Eagle

| (Haliaétus leucoryphus). |

Grey-headed Fishing Eagle |

| (Lchthyophaga ichthyaé-

| tus). |

Brahminy Kite orl

Pariah Kite oD |

Common Green Pigeon |

(Crocopus phoenicopterus) |

Imperial Green Pigeon |

(Muscadivora aenea) .

Blue Rock Pigeon on |

Rufous Turtle Dove

Spotted Dove

Indian Ring Dove

Red Turtle Dove

Common Bustard Quail ... |

. |a few seen about}

-.. | fairly plentiful.

jabundant. do

fairly plentiful. do.

| abundant. do.

MIXED JUNGLE

JESSORE DyuBALIA

. | plentifel. fairly plentiful.

occasionally seen;? | not very numerous.

subspecies,

| cnn 1-2 seen.

. | fairly plentiful, ! rather thinly distri-

| tho! less so than| buted.

| in some other|

| places in the}

| Plains

- | abundant,

abundant.

| tanks, |

| fairly plentiful

| about the tanks. |

| fairly plentiful. \a few about.

| plentiful. \ fairly pientiful, but

| 1 think less so

| than at Jessore,

do. :

always 1-2 to be/a few heard.

heard at night.

not uncommon,

1 picked up dead,

apparently killed

by a vehicle. |

1-2 believed al- | believed fairly

ways to be heard | __ plentiful,

at night but

voice was only

means of identi-

fication.

1-2 believed heard

now and again.

fairly plentiful.

usually 1-2 about.

a few believed to

be present, but

not proved be-

yond doubt.

few usually

about.

usually 1-2 about.

a few about.

fairly plentiful.

plentiful.

ubiquitous.

presence strongly |

suspected but

not proved ; spe- |

cimens shot a

few miles away.

1 believed seen. sence

fairly plentiful. a few about.

do. Eaties |

do, abundant. |

do.

fairly plentiful.

fairly plentiful. |

{

ROADSIDE GROVES OF

TREES PALMS

az =F i]

JESSORE JESSORE

not uncommon. not uncommon,

abundant. abundant.

fairly plentiful.

fairly plentiful

the palm trees,

numerot

one seen,

1-2 believed seen.

one seen.

not uncommon, not uncommon.

ditto, but usually | ditto, but usually

kept nearer human | kept nearer human

habitation.

not numerous.

fairly plentiful.

not numerous,

fairly plentiful,

d do.

do. not uncommon.

do. do.

often perched on

| MANGO GROVE

| DHUBALIA

numerdus about

edges of grove.

| 1 occasionally

| called at night.

1 believed to call

regularly at

night.

| one ditto.

lalways a few.

always 1-2.

sometimes ]-2.

lo.

ov 11-12-44 three

foraged on edge

of grove.

isp

is}

is)

ayvld ANOS

TWINDTI AO SNOILVIOOSSV

1eL

<3}

oe)

ia)

boa

re)

—,

*Sd01] OY] Jap

-un 9]};80 jnoqe

AgOHOE “MIJ Ul - ‘sneoletanu | :

pe} 3:d00 [eIBA9S aaretece

vitvdoud ATUOSSAL

| SWIVd

AAOUD OONVNA |

HO SdAOYD

addIsdvow

‘(pjuo7)—dNO0UXH AIONAL ‘IJ

vduts4y) sedidpueg poom

ps Jadidpues 19915)

(-UDANY YUAIIS) Ulay, JOsty

cesses ‘May & ‘snotetnu ApILvy |:

*snolouinu Os

poceot ye a ae addase o1nb 30U 4nG ‘ou1I1p

“syue]}

2u} jynoqe

oS ||, arena uoulmiooun jou

‘ofsunt ysnol

Ul SHU} 3B SOT}

soetee [@I9A9S W99S | shes

*SUINIIAD

Ul *°O2 seaysng

jnoqe Sulse

‘m9eas O10 | -10J AT[ensn Maj vB segres

aAUossar vIIvanHq auossar

Sei NT @IONOL CAXIW

. uoloyH puog ueIpuy |

J9ISY 9178O

*(V70040]8

"(v4

“USYIIJVM =paysvo1q-9}IU MA

SdIodds

Z0I

901

SOL

vOL

£Ol

‘ON

723:

SOME BIRD ASSOCIATIONS OF BENGAL

‘aspa Jnoqe [nynuUa;d

‘9Spa jnoqge [njqueTd

“Sul

-[]¥q SOUITJOTIOS MIJ B

"jnyIQUeTd

eoosee

"SS¥1S YSIVUI JO

SUI9]S 94} 0} SuUT[O

pinom Aoy} 5! Moy

esoree

"MOj By

‘IO]UIM Ul Moy B

‘cdowurooun jou

‘aspa oy} node Bul

-3e10} TOMMIODUN jou

‘op

‘98pe 94} Jnoqe sul

-Se1oj UOTMIODUN 100

‘jnoge sum0S SABA TE

‘2000 W8ES §—-Z

‘Inoqe sulos SABE

}

“Moye Ajypensn |

‘pO

—‘jdog sss Moy

| ‘poised

| Adamns jo pus |

/SpI@MO} JaoMay jnq

| Qnoqe Moj ce SACATE

‘ynoqe Z-T ATpensn

"9000 U9AS 900 |

“Moy B ATyensn |

VIIVSOHq

“MOT @ SABMIE |

‘jnOqe OTIOS SABATE

*jnoqe ouIOS SABM]V

"= eco

"Moy @ SAPMIC.

eeceee

‘Maj © Ajpensn

VIIVANHG

HSYVIINAS

"PRET AlUL Ul OdIM} 99S Z |

"[njT}UaTd

| "nj Hueld

‘Toy WUetd

eecrae

eoe vee

"Mj |

‘penqiijstp Almyq} Jeqjel

‘SUISvIOJ UOMMIOOUN jou

eoetee

| ‘SuUlSsvioj WoMIMIOOUN Jou

‘T ‘(ON UVTI} SNOIOMINU sso]

‘Taytueyd ATITBj

AWOSSAL

SSVYD AHGNN ANV'T ALSVM

JO}UIA Ul Moy *

"(Dyn gnIeayD

eIUnyy pel[jeq-jnuyseya

eudyq Patg

eudyy yued

eudjy UOTUTIORD

vIUny )

ee eee

eudAyq papesy-AaI4

osuolq 4oelgd

coo coe

JOATULTAL O13

oyWYyS UMOIg

eYTYS pexyoeq-snojny

PAHS popesy-jov[q_

axlIyS poyouq-Avg |

eo eos UIqoy s1dsew

*(vJVN AO] DJONXDS) EYD USN UvIpUy

“+ [NQING poreyxsiy M-poy

[nqing peyusaA-poy

elOT UOTIMIOD

MOI) OSNOF

eylys Mopeas Aysy |

MOID o[sunf

SHIOddS

INOUXN) GNVY YLSVM

"Al

Vol.

’

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY

224

‘op

“SUIIBOS |

‘op

‘Sul

-Se los ‘Oyuetd Apsiey

1NF!4

‘Sosse1s

[v1 uo suiyorod

wad AyIrey,

uaes { [nyjuerd Aparey.

‘juepunqe

‘motmmiooun jou

eaoces

eeneee

HYOSSaL

HSavw

*90010 Udas U0 |

‘op

“SUIIGOS

‘PP-OL-ET sas Z

‘U99S MOI B

eevcee

‘snoleunu ATIrej

‘op

“Moy B SABMTE

*spooyl pus IdALI

9} 1vou Moy & Skemye

‘PP-OL-Z1

SUT}S9U puUno};

/9ul0

‘Maj B. AlTensn

VITVINHC

HSaUVW-INAS

ae rn er BT _

‘Op

| ‘op

‘SULIVOS Maj ve ATTensn

*Mo] B SABMIP

‘juassid otros skeaye

‘Sul

-Se10jJ Moy e Alrensn

VITIVanHq

‘A][@UOIS¥D90 Ud_aS T

‘Juepunqe

‘JuBpUnq?e |

‘Suljseu pues ‘op

‘SUISBIOJ Injruard AyATey

‘prGL |

Areniqey-Arenuer usas 2 he

‘[njnuerd Apirey | +

‘Tnyued Ayapey |

eoorere

‘uUepanae |

‘paynq

“lajsIp A][UIY} JeqMATIOS |

"U99S MOj vB):

url 9000 uses Ajived suo!

AUOSSal

SSVaO YHANN ANVI ALSVM

zoe, os ees

(‘pjwo7j)—anouy GNV] @ISVM ‘AI

| ee

aes "" TrelBe A popvey-an[q

(supnsunuut) O2VZ) [2189 WeIpuy

ais (wa8dnl o2[m7) Uodeg 1e33e7]

es SIN][NA peyxoeq-oz1y M

‘a “81ND, palfiq-suo07

nos dIN]NA Say |

WIMS Ue

oe is JIMS UBIpTy |

3 s0dooxy

JIYSysuly Uvipuy vomum0s)

JOYSYSULy pojsevatq-s}Ig A

arg 19}B9-99g7 Ppa[lv}-on[q

J9}]83-30q Uaz1D

To [OY

Ag yey] ysng [esuegq |

eee see ydig ueipuy

ie "* [18]38M popway-Mollax

"* MOITEMS HNO ueipay

ree “" BIUNYA P2}PO1Y1-3y1U

SadIodds

“ON

725

SOME BIRD ASSOCIATIONS OF BENGAL

‘op

"‘ToyTUsld Ayrreyz

e@eovee

‘Injnueld slow 97331]

B yaI4q, J jnq “Op

‘uommooun jou

eeaces

JUSS

“oid Ayjensn sued T[

*aAoqe suldg pue

a6pa je Uses uaijo

*‘Tny1UE1d

"0998 Moy &

‘peaoid jou Ayjuapl

JQ =sotl] [eIoAaS

Besse beseleq 4. ¢-T

“e8pe 1¥

S991} Ul payored 10

‘Sulivos Altensn z-[

“SUIAY 0399S Maj &

‘op

‘jnoqe Maj v U9}jO

‘oloy SurAg uses Z

"U99S {LIDADS

‘2010 Uaas 90

‘op

*soovid 1oduiep

94} noe 7-|[ Allensn

‘Moy ve AlTensn

‘JOTIJSIP UI JOYS

M9j @ AT[ensn

‘Z-T Al[euoIseso0

"moj ATensn

"[ny1quetd Airey

‘9000 W998 OO

juesoid & T

U9a}Jo puv Y ve Ayjensn

‘moj @ ATyensn

eeoces

eooree

eoscne

eeerece

‘PP-ZI-9 uO

JOYS ouO : Md} @ U9jJO

"MOJ © Ud}JO

“moj © A[Tensn

"Moy @ SAVME

"THyWU91d

eeeege

“tP-L-TE WO Us9S ¢

"Toyijusyd Altes

‘Injryued Apres

“uUOTUMIOOUn JOU

"I9A09 SBM 919}

TeAatoym [njtjuetd Apres

‘op

*I9AOO SUM

elo} JOADTIOU MA “op

‘jnyizueyd Apres

‘u9as A][BUOISBDI0 Z-[

*FPEL euNsG-[ldy wsas |

‘eae ADAINS

opisjno «ysn{f joys suo

‘sn ojyinbiqn

"Tuyyued

"IddS MO}

*pasoid

}joa Ajyuept jnq ‘sawi}

[BleAeVs Uses pdAdl[aq T

‘uaas aq 0} Z-T Aljensn

ae “* TeaT, SUISIYM 1asso’T

oe oe uolaH puog uvipuy

soe ce 1o138q aye)

as (vasaulz VapAPT) UOIayY AIN

"(Suny

-19S0 snumojsvuf7) Y1I0}S [I[IqG-uedo

° (vanuays vyjagvp) ediug [eyuI1g

a Jedidpuvs poo

Jedidpuvs usein

" SUIMALT Po[}]BM-psy

ceo eee

MO[IND sUo]G ULIPUT

eco wee edius paruleg

e espiuyieg Adin

9A0q STINT, pey

SAO SUIY UvIpUyT

9A0q pajjods

SAO] 8}IN J, snojny

Uo0IsIg YoY sniq

eee eee BIAS

"* (snsouzdnsav *D) Isley YSieyy;

* (S#INIJOUD II SNIALF) ABIIIEFT Pag

(S70972490I SNUDIZ) OVS] PISUIM-F9 VIG

oy Weed

oy AurUyelg

see a[seq SUIyslyy pepvay-Aoix)

wae a[seq Suusig §,SBiled

i a[oeq jUsdiag payselg

6§

IV. Wastr Lanp Group—(Conid.)

eee

—$<———————____

WASTE LAND UNDER GRASS SEMI-MARSH MARSH

No. SPECIES 2 aa = ae

JESSORE DHUBALIA DHUBALIA JESSORE

ae: ieee aes Tere ‘ =

20 | White-throated Munia ... jone party seen once in; usually a few; one}; —_......

| sumiuner. found nestin ee

i < 12-10-44,

21 |Indian Cliff Swallow «2 0 |} ee usually a few forag- ese &

| : ing. =

22 Blue-headed Wagtail ... 0 22 2 | saa always a few near the a

= | Yellow-headed Wagtail... EE ee oot uncommon =

| Indian Pipit ; 5% lways a few | : S

25 Bengal Bush Lark a few seen, ; a seene eS 5

26 | Roller ‘Vsoniewbal\yithinly (distri:) San) fo sc =

buted. e

27 Green Bee-eater abuodant, always some present. fairly numerous. abundant 5

28 Blue-tailed Bee-eater_ ... mono) usually a few. ; : 3

2 | White-breasted Kingfisher einweniing ~- |) so | eee fairly plentiful; seen

x |c E : grasses, a

ommmoen Indian Mingisher fairly plentiful. a few seen. fairly plentiful. &

31 | Hoopoe ca 2 seen January-February 2 seen 13-10-44. | és a

, : 1944. | e *

32 | Indian Swift fairly plentifulforaging. {| 2 °° fairly plentiful, forag- =

s forag: S

33 Falm ouitE do., and nesting. alway sya) few.) | mE ee Nea do a

ing Vulture .| abundant. lly a fi g i | i ? &

35 Long-billed Vulture ... 00] cee Reseed saa See Tage aoe E

26 White-backed Vulture ... abundant. do. do. do.

37 | Laggar Falcon (Falco jugger) “| 1 seen occasionally. | : :

38 | Indian Kestrel (Fa/co finnunenlis).| — ——ssense | one seen

39 | Crested Serpent Eagle - | usually 1-2 to be seen. ar | oeed \1-2 usually soaring,

| | or perched in trees

| | atedge

40 | Pallas’s Fishing Eagle l believed seen several a) i} oc )1-2 believed seen

| times, but AGentity, not | several times but

proved. identity not proved.

41 | Grey-headed Fishing segle -|a few seen. a few seen.

42 | Brahminy Kite - | plentiful. 0 plentiful.

43 | Pariah Kite - | ubiquitcus. plentiful. often seen at edge 4,

and fying: above. is}

44 | Black-winged Kite (Hlanuscoeruleus)\one shot just cutside eee enecoD seyee 5

survey area.

45 | Pied Harrier (Circus melanoleucus).|1 seen April-June 1944. aaneee Do cesrses b

46 | Marsh Harrier (C, aeruginosus) usuallya gandoften |1 pair usually pre-e 3

1Q present sent 6

47 | Shikra on J-2 occasionally seen. one seen once. =

48 | Blue Rock Pigeon fairly plentiful. ” G

49 | Rufous Turtle Dove do. wherever there S

was cover. 5

50 | Spotted Dove ase do. always a few. fairly plentiful. =

51 (Indian Ring Dove - ee usually a few. usually a few. SI

52 | Red Turtle Dove fairly plentiful wherever | often a few. occasionally 1-2. 8

there was cover. =

53 | Grey Partridge seanee usually a few an

54 | Painted Snipe shot in district. °

55 | Indian Stone Curlew oo oocen5 oftenafew:oneshot | esse on 5

on 6-12-44. te,

56 | Red-wattled Lapwing ... «| not uncommon. f TIS 112] y7eUg) CW | es I

57 | Green Sandpiper a usually 1-2 about the] not uncommon. a

damper places. Be

58 | Wood Sandpiper on do. do. but Ithinka &

little more plentiful.

59 |Pintail Snipe (Capella stenura) ... fk. one seen once. soo

60 |Open-bill Stork (Amastomus osci- several seen,

tans). 4

61 | Grey Heron (Ardea cinerea) cx 2 seen flying here. ‘ coeeG

62 | Cattle Egret 5 fairly plentiful. often a few about. fairly plentiful.

63 | Indian Pond Heron fairly plentiful. do. do ae

64 | Lesser Whistling Teal 2 seen on 31-7-4 a few seen flying. B

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AHIST. SOCIETY, Vol.

726

OM} \seo] 3B AT[ensn

edbocbd

*snoqinbiqn

"Tnyyued

“MIT

‘noqe Ud}JO Maj

‘jnoge Mo3j & Ajjensn

*yuosoid

‘op *[nyijueld

2 "moos Moj eb eovecee

‘m9aS Z7-T

‘snorotunu A[Iej

*[nytyue]d AIOA

eee seo: eevcve

eh)

“Moj 2 Alpensn

| Ceo eee

seceee

@ossen eovree

‘op ‘op

“MO} CB UI}jJO “Ssnosoatng

"Inyyuayd Ajaey ‘[njnuald

errs ‘op

‘Moy VUdO ‘“SUIYUIp waes u9}jJo

}

VITvanHd AUOSsar

-UIM Uy 90s [e19AOS

ebosce

eccces

‘Inoqe Maj e ATjensn

eetoses

everes

*juosoid

Z ysvor jv Atyensn

‘moj @ ATTensn

‘op

“re

‘u30S Moj ©

"MOj @ 19}JO

*snolourau ATIF

‘93 po

je SuUlSv1O} Z-T ua}jJO

‘Moy B SABMTE

"PP-OT-ST 4998S ¢~T

'PP-OI-ST Uses Z-T

‘Moy @ Aypensn

‘op

"M9} @ W9}jO

"[ngyuerd Ayirey

VITVaNHG

SUANVL pure STHAHL

‘snojinbiqn

| "ToyHUeTd

‘jnoqe Ajjensn Maj

, ‘poaoid jou Aj} Uapt jng

juasaid paadcllaq Moy B

*yuBq UO $991} UO

Suryored AjuowMODUN JOU

"Taz !jUue;d

‘ nyyueld ATsrey

*ynyijuetd AIOA

‘JOJUIM UT UddS [BIOAOS

eoo-ee

“19JUTM UL UI9S Mo} B

eeceeo

‘op

| sy

aUOssaf

‘jnoqe Moje Ayyensn |

UdATS AIVNS

dNOUD YALVM ANVINI ‘A

‘snojournt | °

‘Injruetd -

WdYI9}8 M PI}SBIIq-STIUM

ah dy Yeueg C7?

: ay AuluIyBIg| ZZ

Bee Sulysty pepvsy-AoiIny| 12

“ g[seq Salyshy 8Sel[eq| 02

“+ g[seq jued1eg pajseIg| 61

(sajgviqvy uorpuvg) SeidsQ| st

Bo WIMS UVd! Lf

IOYSYSULY pejsvolq-eyIqM | OT

JOYSYSUry ueIpuy uoulmod| ST

— jeysysury pelg| PFI

“+ Jojea-90q polle}-an[g| ¢L-

wat J9}83-30g Ud0IN)| ZI

Ses yLeT sng jesueg Tr

““TIBISEM PIpvey-MO}IIA| OT

“' 11B}5eBM popsey-anig!] 6

“** [Te]SeM SIUM UBIPUT| ¢

Ate MOUTBMS PID) 9

se euAW patd| §¢

ame eudy WOUMLOD 7

ABE osuoId YoRB(q| ¢

kay MOJO osnoy CG

Me MOIQ suns) T

SAIOadS ‘ON

ASSOCIATIONS OF BENGAL

SOME BIRD

ESOS,

“SON Ub OS SSI]

04} “[nsWUstd Aya;

‘u998 Z-T

‘Tngiyuatd Apres

‘uaas AT[BUOISBD90 Z-T

@etecen

‘poaoid jou

A}JUSPT ynq yNoqe

c-1 Aljensn poaaerjeq

*poeaoird jou

A}ijUspr 4ynq noqe

c-I Aljensn peasijaq

*sjied 191ps9M 9}

jnoqe Maj e skem[e

eoiv AVAINS opts jno

ysnf{ yeouf ve uo1j

Ayioyjne poos

Ajlis} ao prj10daiz

‘{nyiuajd

alout AyiYyss $ 0}Ip

“UOTUIMIOOUN jOU |

*SnolomMnu jou

"njiymoyd Ayre]

"M2J B

"vole

AVAINS oprisjnoe jysnl

|j2euf 19yj0ue uO jos

| ‘A}iIoyyNe poos

'A[IIey Uo pajroderz

eopren

"LE ® OE

"SON’ UB} OS SSdj

<O4} pasruetd Ayre;

‘op

‘Tnyyaatd Ajay

‘aur Aq

uses jou jnq ‘vale

ASAINS apts}no jsnf

Wods A}LINYJNB poos

Ajirey} wo pajiodaz |

| ‘paaoid jou

AjIJUSIpPI jnq noqe

Z-T Ajpensn paaes1ijsq

‘paarid jou

Aytyuapr inq ‘jnoqe

z-l Ajjensn paasijeq

"}0US 9u10

‘op

"WOWMOOUN JOU):

eoecos

“UOlT[fal

-I9A $33, puv Yyoulq pe

-YOO] Sed HORS UT yeaq

‘peaoid jou AjjUspt

jnq ‘usas

‘snoletnu jou

"ynuerd Aprrey

yyseehaeg [nes

paasyaq Z-

* (09409

XVAOIOAIDIVY eT) JEBIOUNOD Is51Bq

'(soona7

\-ogty syijap7) siedidpuevg uommog

“* (DLADI NGA DEULAT) YUeYsuasIy

ae Jaedidpusg pooMm

Jodidpues waar

SUIMde] pal}yeM-pay

*(4aisvd

-OUDJAUL DUAAIS') UAT, PAll[eq-yoVeTq

Uso y, JOATY UOWUOT)

"(091

[ | -072¢u wopyaysojay) Uslay, pel[iq-[[n4H

*(Dp14sg

“AY SvuOpIyYD)) Uiey, po1eysiqM

ediug [leur

" BUBIEL Pallvj}-]UBSesIUg

"* BUuBoB, PasUIM-3oZU01g

(DAJD DILINY) YOOD VOWUIOD

"(snqvyga9

-0170g oOlAdygsoq) Ueyioow siding

‘sng

-O40]YI YINUL]VLH) VUsYIOOW UvIpUy

6€

t¢

INLAND W

ATER GROUP

_——_—_————

z |

SMALL RIVER JHEELS and TANKS

No. SPECIES [ === —

i} {

JESSORE DHuBALIA JESSORE DHUBALIA

1 |Jungle Crow . P

} yuae Crow usually zvew about, ; often SeanGhnlIeEs often a few.

3 | Black Drongo ... | plentiful fairly plet | i zt i mnitift

3 L, y plentiful. plentiful, | fairly plentiful

4 |Common Myna -. |mumerous. ft | f eee

5 | Pied Myna | ae oO! ae few. | SuneLCuS. often a few.

6 | Cliff Swallow xp | usually a few. ; | oe

7 |Indian White Wagtail | 1-2 seen 15-10-44

8 | White-faced Wagtail 1-2 seen 15-10- 4g. |

9 |Blue-headed Wagtail .. 22 | eee always a few. | lusually a f

10 | Yellow-beaded Wagtail... }severalseenin winter, | = sereey sary

1a (Bengal Bushy sare on =o) | eco | often 1-2 foraging at ete wey

edge.

12 | Green Bee-eater .| very plentiful. fairl: i

13 | Blue-tailed Bee-eater om uP 2 Veteentattay anes ames:

14 ‘| Pied Kingfisher rm | a few seen, | 1-2 jase

15 |Common Indian Kingfisher ... | fairly plentiful. do. | f males

16 | White-breasted Kingfisher on | plentiful. do. erestans

17 | Palm Swift 9 usually a few. ae

18 | Osprey (Pandion haliaétus) usually at least 2 usually at least two

| present.

19 | Crested Serpent Eagle ... on |not uncommonly perching| eee | eee ee

Pagers on trees on bank, sean

20 | Pallas’s Fishiug Eagle ... -|a few believed present) eumumer=7. |

but identity not proved. | Br >

2 REN headed Fishing Hagle D la few asad asdet a0

& j y “0 Dee: |

Be Been ite EEE: | usually a few about. Plentifal. usually a few about.

24 | White-breasted Waterhen y beta 3 rot otter abut,

ew.

25 ,Indian Moorhen (Gadlinula chloro-|

pus.

26 | Purple Moorhen (Porphyrio polio-) ———wvsave

cephalus).

27 | Common Coot (Fulica atra) .|a few.

28 | Bronze-winged Jacana ... fairly plentiful.

29 | Pheasant-tailed Jacana ... -., | Dot numerous. |

30 | Pintail Snipe Onn a | concn

31 |Whiskered ‘Tern (C/lidonias hy-

brida). |

32 | Gull-billed Tern (Gelochelidon nilo-\1-2 believed seen, but

tica). identily not proved;

| beak in each case look-

| ed black and legs ver-

million,

33 |Common River Tern... ap = resee

31 | Black-bellied Tern (Sterna melano-

gaster).

35 | Red-wattled Lapwing om

36 | Green Sandpiper .. | not uncom

37 | Wood Sandpiper do.

38 | Greenshank (7yinga nebularia)

39 |Common Sandpiper (Actitis hypo-|

| deucos).

40 | Large Cormorant (Phatacrocoraz|

carbo).

2) ESS a

| reported

\reported on _ fairly

good authority.

shot on another jheel

just outside survey

area.

a few.

fairly plentiful.

not numerous.

one shot.

believed usually 1-2

about, but identity

not prived.

believed usually 1-2}

about but identity)

not proved.

on fairly

good authcrity from

just outside survey

area, but not seen)

jalways a few about

the weedier parts.

believed usually 1-2

about but identity

not proved.

believed usually 1-2

about but identity

not proved.

by me. | |

fairly plentiful. Ee eases: | 1-2 occasionally seen.

do. not uncommon. | fairly plentiful.

do. |ditto ; slightly more do.

| plentiful.

nesens | 1-2 seen.

fairly plentiful tho’ fairly plentiful, tho’

less so than Nos. less so than Nos.

36 & 37. 36 & 37.

seston reported on fairly) 2 ses

good _ authority

from a jheel just

| outside survey area

‘LSIH TWHALVN AVAWOT “TVNYNOL 9BL

WA ‘ALAIOOS

aINOS

auld

4O SNOILVIDOSSV

TVONTE

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.

‘op

‘tnyqzuetd Apirey

“May B SABM[Y

‘'U99S Z-T

‘SuIUDAD AlaAD

JOAO passed sjysip

‘ynoqe Moje ATlensn

sulinp

‘Op

uosvas AUIB.L

Sivt. Aue

ye ‘uomlmiooun jou

‘Op

*‘[nyrjaetd Apirez

Asains

‘CIIe

ay} apisjno

ysnf yasyf B wtolj

A}l20u}

| Ayarey

ne poos

uo = paytode1

eevecee

‘U30S [BIOARS |

‘juepunqe

‘op |

‘[nyyueld Ayarey

‘U39S Z-[

‘90U0 sas Z_

‘op

‘Injtqustd Airey |

‘Tnyyue[d Aypirey

-OUDIAUt

va, SUlTISIUM Jesse]

[Ba 10}309

UuOIO_] puog uvIpu]

JOIST BTNVD

JOISY aWT

(vg]v v1j9487 ) JOISY VB1e'T]

uolepy Adl+)

*(4ajsv8

vsulyup) sJoyeq uvipuj

JURIOWIIOD 91}}V]

vVITVadnHG

FUOSSAL

SINVL pue STHAHL

AwWOSSa [’

. SAHATaA TIVIWS

(pruoj)—-dnoOuHy AHLVM ANVIN]

SdIodds

‘ON

GAME SANCTUARIES IN BURMA (pRE-1942)

WITH PRESENT STATUS OF RHINOCEROS AND THAMIN

LizuT.-Cot. R. W. Burton, 1.4. (Retd.)

(With two plates)

Prior to the Japanese invasion and the subsequent grant of inde-

pendent status to Burma, early in 1948, there were several Game

Sanctuaries in the 50,000 square miles of Government Forest in that

country; and the total area under forest was about 240,000 square

miles.

There was the Shwe-u-daung Sanctuary of about 81 square miles.

of mostly hilly country in the Momeik and Mogok Forest Divisions

in Upper Burma; the Kahilu Game Sanctuary of 62 square miles in

the LPhaton and Salween Forest Divisions of Lower Burma; the two

sanctuaries of Maymyo and the Moscos Islands which were merely wild

bird refuges of 49 and 19 square miles respectively ; and the Pidoung

Sanctuary here described.

THE VANISHING RHINOCEROS

The position of the three Asiatic species of rhinoceros in the above

sanctuaries and elsewhere was fully discussed and brought up to date

(1947) by Ansell | Volv''47-(2) pp: 249-2760], his conclusion being

that RR. sondaicus had become virtually extinct in Burma, also in

Malaya, Siam, Sumatra, Java and Borneo: while as to Dicerorhinus

sumatrensis the lowest reasonable estimate was 21 animals in Burma,

and perhaps as many as 45.

In view of the present state of law and order in Burma, and other

eastern countries where the rhinoceros has hitherto existed, it can

be safely conjectured that the species sondaicus is virtually extinct,

and that sumatrensis may not survive beyond the present century.

So we have the sad. prospect of two more species being added to the

many which have vanished from the world almost within living

memory.

RHINOCEROS UNICORNIS

The preservation of this species rests with India and Nepal. In

his article, ‘Wild Life Reserves in India: Assam.’ E, P. Gee

oped o.,. Vol., 40, (1)! gives an estimate’ of the number’ of

rhinoceros now existing in this country, based on the Society’s report

to the International Union for the Protection of Nature in 1949.

If the estimate of 50 for Nepal is near the actual figure then there

has been a great diminution there of the species within the past forty

years. A sportsman fishing in the Rapti river wrote on the 25th May

1909 :—

‘My principal fun was going out on an elephant photographing

rhino . . . They are simply in swarms; I counted twenty within a

730 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL BIST. “SOCHETL VY >= Vol 49

mile of my camp, and I did not go into the good ground. There

were ten big ones in a small piece of grass not more than 5 acres

in -extent.’/. (i. BoN apse pW ol? 10) (ah pps itz

A rehable census of the number of rhinoceros in Nepal at the

present time would be of great interest.. Im the reference quoted

above it is also authentically stated :—

‘The rhinoceros is found in the Nepal Terai, in Morang, north

of Purnea, on the Kosi at Patharghatta, on the banks of the Bagmati

north of Muzaffarpur, and as oneal by Mr. Lydekker, it 1s even more

numerous still farther to the west in the Chitwan and Naolpur valleys

along the banks of the Gandak and the Rapti rivers . .. In spite of

the numbers of rhino which were killed in January 1907 (there was a

big shoot and twenty-eight rhinos were shot and six calves caught) the

forests in Chitwan are still so full of them that no appreciable diminu-

tion in the stock has been made.’

RHINOCEROS SONDAICUS

At page 266 of his article Ansell remarks :—

‘Regarding the ;existence of, the species. in, other countries; a lmicel

that the Sundarbans of S. Bengal may offer a little hope, though little

is known about the number of rhinoceros, if any, that exist there

today. Rhinoceros in this area, if any exist, would almost certainly

be sondaicus as in all the available records no specimen of either

R, unicornis or D. sumatrensis has been recorded from the area.’

In reference to the above the excellent article by Vicomte Edmond

de Poncins, ‘A Hunting Trip 3 in the Sunderbunds in 1802.’ [J.B.N.H.S..,

Vol: 37; No%4 (1935). | is of considerable interest and value.

Besides much that is of interest to the sportsman-naturalist and the

general reader, is the account of how he spent days and days track-

ing and observing the habits of the few Rhinoceros sondaicus which

were to be found at that time on islands. 165, 169, 170, 171, 172:—

‘The’ rhinos. lived.there, for, one reason.) Inythe middle) orgthis

jungle there was sweet water.’

Edmond de Poncins was obviously a reliable observer. He did

not kill, or fire at even one of the animals :—

finally I got a glimpse of a strange profile at a very short

distance.. For the first and, I am sorry to say, the last time in my life

I saw that long, grey, hornless head and everything was explained:

these rhinos were R. sondaicus, they had no trophy worth having,

and shooting them was without excuse.

What has become of the Sunderbund rhinos now (1935) in spite

of the extreme difficulty involved in their pursuit? They were then

very few: I am certain of three, I consider that a fourth is probable,

and that six is the maximum. They are probably shot out. Even

when I was there, poaching was rife in the Sunderbunds.’

It is probable that not very long after 1892 the species will have

been exterminated in the Sundarbans—and everywhere in India, in-

cluding the Chittagong Hill Tracts where there might at that time

have been a few of them. ‘So of the three rhinoceroses of Asia it is

only the Rhinoceros unicornis of India which is likely to survive into

the next century: except perhaps for a few specimens in zoological

GAME SANCTUARIES IN BURMA (PRE-1942) 731

gardens, as sumatrensis has been known to attain the age of 47

years in captivity.

Members interested in the status of the rhinoceros in Asia may

see the list of references at end of this article.

THE PIDOUNG GAME SANCTUARY IN 1930

Of all the game sanctuaries in Burma, the Pidoung Sanctuary in

the Myitkyina Forest Division of Upper Burma was alone suited for

purposes of photography and observation of the wild life it contained,

for it was readily accessible. It extended on both sides of the railway

running for twenty miles through the area and was provided with a

bungalow not far from the railway station about twelve miles from

Myitkyina.

It was in May 1930 that the writer visited the Pidoung Sanctuary

with the kind assistance of the then Game Warden of Burma, Mr.

H. C. Smith, who made all camp arrangements, provided two riding

elephants, and guided me and a Government Officer who was just

beginning wild hfe photography so that we could see the sarictuary

and its denizens under the best possible conditions. Things may have

greatly changed since then so it will be best to continue in the present

tense from notes made at the time.!

The area notified by the Government of Burma as the sanctuary

comprises 260 square miles of forest country. There are hills and

valleys, thick evergreen forests and more open jungle; while north

of the railway station are rolling downs, bare of trees, in the hollows

of which are dense thickets, also long winding green valleys filled

with lush grass.

In this part of the sanctuary there is excellent stalking ground,

so that the photographer who is so fortunate as to be under the

skilful guidance of the Game Warden can obtain opportunities for

beautiful and interesting pictures with whatever kind of camera he

may possess. Care has to be taken not to alarm the game which

is not yet wholly without fear of man. In time the animals will be

as tame as fallow deer in the beautiful Parks of England, or the

animals in the National Parks of America and other countries. In-

deed, one need not go so far away as that to enjoy the sight of

wild animals without fear of man, for in a quite small sanctuary

in a Central India State the writer has seen sambar and other game

of those parts literally as tame as village cattle; and in the Yala

Sanctuary in Ceylon are animals almost as tame.

Here, at Pidoung, the present scribe, a humble wielder of a Kodak,

managed to take several reasonably good pictures of a herd of grazing

bison and one of a bull saing. But for the dull light and cloudy sky

the bison photos might have been considerably better. It is during the

months of April and May that the habits of bison and saing bring

these splendid animals into the open to graze on the short green grass

and be free as possible from the swarms of biting and stinging insects

—S-_ — ee a oe

* Shortly we hope to publish an up-to-date account of the Pidoung and other

game sanctuaries to be supplied by the present Chief Conservator of Forests of

independent Burma.—EDs.

732 JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 49

which so plague them at that season. Saing are the wild cattle of

Burma, and of Malaya, where they are called Banting. They are

also found on a number of islands of the Malayan Archipelago, even

as far away as Borneo.

The bulls are massive animals attaining a height of nearly 17 hands,

and vary in colour from a khaki dun to a dark brown and almost

black. For everything concerning them, and the hunting of them,

Peacock (20) should be seen. Bison bulls are, as we all know, huge

animals of enormous strength which attain a height of over nineteen

hands and a weight of more than 2,000 lb., yet these great animals

fall victims to the tiger. We saw in the sanctuary the carcase of a

recently slain grand old bull bison with rugged horns. He had been

done to death by a large tiger which had hamstrung the noble beast

by slashing the hind legs with his claws. It was seemingly useless

destruction, for only a portion of the tail had been eaten.

One should make as early a start as possible ; although when the day is

cloudy and a strong breeze blowing animals may be seen at almost any

hour of the day. Sambar and hog-deer are in considerable numbers, but

it is the bison and saing which form the chief attraction in the more

open-places. The sambar are shy, and it is mostly by chance that a

photograph is obtained when stalking time is somewhat limited. The

hog-deer are more easy to stalk, being frequently found in the grassy

hollows, where there are bushes and clumps of high reeds. But to

get really good pictures of the deer it would be better to watch in a

‘hide’ over a pool of water during the hot hours of the day. It was on the

hog-deer ground that the Game Warden showed the place where he was

standing when a tiger, crossing at a right angle fifty yards away,

suddenly obtained the scent of the hated human and instantly, without

looking for the cause, turned left and went away at speed. That is

a clear instance that a tiger has more scenting power than many sports-

men realize.

THE Manaw -SAUT-LICK

There are two ‘licks’, much frequented by animals, at which there

are machans in large trees. There, if one is fortunate, bison, saing

sambar, hog-deer, and smaller animals and birds may be seen amid

their natural surroundings, all unaware of the watching eyes and click-

ing cameras. It was when we were approaching the Manaw ‘lick’ at

about half-past eight that the keen eye of the Warden detected move-

ment ahead. Down we all sat. The cameraman—as the soon-to-be-

expert possessor of three instruments—-telescopic, movie, and stereo-

scopic, may be designated—had already begun to get his bags of tricks

into working order in anticipation of work at the lick: so by the time

‘the bull saing had got to within about a hundred yards, almost all move-

ment had ceased. But the wary eyes had detected some movements.

among our party. The grand beast stopped and stared, the while we ex-

amined him through our field glasses. Wandering through the forests

in which he had been so long unmolested he had not that fear of man

which, in other surroundings, would have caused him to clear out on

the first suspicion of danger.

Slowly he came on, and several times he stopped to have another

look. His great depth from the withers to the girth was very notice-

ce A

aaa

GAME SANCTUARIES IN BURMA (PRE-1942) 733

able, and his muzzle had the appearance of being circled by a white

ring. He was grizzled between the horns which curved upwards and

inwards, being about twenty-six inches in length. His white stock-

ings, white from above the knee downwards, as are those of the bison,

were conspicuous. The outer aspect of the upper part of his forelegs

was dark, tending towards black, and his general colouring rather

dark khaki. A grand beast indeed is a bull samng in the prime of his

life.

Much photographed he was during those long minutes when he

stood at gaze or slowly paced along. The humble effort of the Kodak

is before you (plate). He presented the appearance of a prize Here-

ford bull. Suddenly he got our wind. Quick and active as a deer

he turned and galloped away his white buttocks flashing among the

trees.

Bit SuOoN= AGN: Di --S<AcL NG

On several occasions we observed saing at close quarters in the

more open country. One herd that we stalked and photographed

consisted of twenty animals: a fine herd bull, two threequarter

grown ones, and a two-year old; the others were cows and calves of

various ages. Lovely groups the animals made as they browsed about

on the open downland, some of them lying close to one another in placid

cattle-like content.

To approach this herd we had to disturb a sentinel cow. Very alert

she was, and after being photographed by the cameraman got our wind

as we advanced under cover of a fold in the ground and made off with a

snort of alarm io join the herd. It was curious that her companions did

not take alarm: perhaps it was not that kind of snort! They merely

went on as before grazing and lying down and moving slowly about.

It was evident they trusted more to their noses than their eyes; but

when hunting these animals early in that year in the dry zone of

lower Burma the writer found their eyes to be almost as good as

their noses. The cows of the Magwe country were a rich chestnut

while those at Pidoung were of a light dun colour.

The bison were tore easy of approach than the saing. We made

a very successful stalk of thirty-seven animals. Just as the stalk

was about to commence, a fine bull,. probably the same beast we

had chanced upon and disturbed twenty minutes previously, paced

slowly across our front to join the grazing animals.

This was the cameraman’s first essay at animal photography and

he obtained good results with all three cameras. So you can imagine

the opportunity we had. The Kodak was pretty successful, as you see;

and when that old cow spied the bold amateur photographer rudely

taking pictures of her she merely snorted and advanced for a closer

view, while the intruder crept quickly away to avoid giving further

alarm. It was after that, when the cameraman returned to take

movie pictures, that he found the herd in the same place and also

obtained a ‘shot’ at a herd of saing which emerged from a nearby

strip of forest. Fortunate cameraman! This was his first sight of

those animals and his first effort at animal photography. Many more

exciting stalks and good pictures will reward his future efforts at

Pidoung. ,

734 JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL AIST) SOGIETYV® aol. 49

Tre ERS “AN Dp Bear RS

On all the game trails we saw numerous ‘scratchiugs’ of tiger,

also some fresh tracks. Along a path through a thick belt of jungle

—the ‘Tiger Walk’ we called it—were scratchings innumerable, and

many of the trees had marks of claws on them. On the trunk of

one large tree was the unusual sight of both tiger and bear clawing,

the latter ascending high up the trunk where could be seen hanging

under a branch the wild bees’ comb which had attracted his sense

of smell, for he has a keen nose for such a delicacy as ‘honey.

The tigers destroy muth game, ‘and steps are-|being taken to

reduce their number. Already the stock of hog-deer is largely

diminished, and this extensive area of forest could support many

more animals than are in it; but everything must have a beginning

and the sanctuary is but a few years established.

Near the Manaw lick several trees had in them platforms made

ol branches broken off by black bears—the Himalayan Bear (Selenaroctos

thibetanus)—during the previous’ rainy season. A photograph

taken showed how orie side of a tree had been stripped of its branches.

This ‘nest’ was quite a large one, as on the ground are a number

of branches since blown down by the high winds. The number of

this species of bear in the sanctuary is estimated as sixteen.

Eo BE Poa eAGN aes

The elephants, of which there are about 140 in the sanctuary,

stay mostly in the evergreen forest, so are not often seen. No doubt

anyone wishing to take pictures of these beasts could manage to do

so as theré are ‘sure toy be suitable “clades, and” \salteullicke alse:

There would have to be a considerable stock of patience and ample

time would also be necessary.

As we were unable to obtain photographs of wild elephants we

had to be content with the tame ones which bathed in a pool for our

special benefit. The surroundings are perfectly natural. One small

tusker was without an attendant, and seemed highly pleased at his

second bath that day, as he remained mostly submerged, now and

again only the tip of his trunk appearing. above the surface to take

air to his lungs.

BoLeR DS. SONED 25: NEAPKGESS

The sanctuary can show birds of many species. The harsh call

of the Chinese Francolin is often heard, and the bird occasionally

fiushed as one wanders about in the early morning. The Burmese

Peafowl is both seen and heard, and it is noticed that the call is

not quite the same as that of the Indian peacock. Among the several

kinds of quail is seen the tiny Button Quail of which Burma has

two species. The Peacock Pheasant lives amongst the evergreen;

Whistling Teal and other wildfowl are on the quiet pools of many a

stream winding through the dense forests. From all the thickets

comes the call of the Red Junglefowl.

The Green Imperial Pigeon is seen. One of these fine birds flew

off the scanty platform of twigs which satisfies the species as a

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I

Bull Tsaing or Banteng (Bibos banteng)

Photos Author

A herd of Gaur (Bibos gaurus)

PLATE II

JourN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Col. C. H. Stockley

Photos

The Brow-antlered Deer or Thamin (Panolia eldt)

GAME SANCTUARIES IN BURMA (PRE-1942) 735

nest, and. looking up we could see one of her eggs through the

interstices of the flimsy structure. A very beautiful bird, the Burmese

Red-billed Blue Magpie, was also disturbed off her nest by the side

of ‘Tiger Walk’.

Everywhere in the jungles of Burma the nest of a species of ant

is Conspicuous in the tress. It is a curious round, or oblong, affair

looking like a black cellular papier-mache football. Some of them

are much larger than that. They are seen in parts of India also.

They are built in the fork of branches, or just around a stem, and

in substance are very tough, for in spite of their size they are ex-

tremely light and withstand much rough usage. In many of these

nests is seen the round hole indicating that the Siam Rufous Wood-

pecker is, or was, nesting there. It seems that this species always

nests in these structures, cutting a tunnel in the usual woodpecker

fashion, to ‘the «centre and: there laying the eggs. A live nest is

always chosen so that the bird and its brood has food ready to hand,

a very excellent board and lodging arrangement for the woodpeckers.

What the ants think of it we do not know! A photograph of a

typical nest was taken.

One morning we flushed a pipit from her nest in the deep impress

made by a saing’s hoof when the ground was soft. The bird had

chosen wisely. In the morning some of the sun’s rays would warm

the nest which would later on be in the shade. There were three

eggs, one of them much lighter than the other two, so perhaps some

parasitic cuckoo had also viewed this little nest out in the open plain.

A snake of brilliant hues was killed on a path near the camp.

The main colour was coral red, and when tapped on the back with

a stick it formed a white corkscrew of the underpart and end of its

tail. No doubt this habit is a means of protection, as it was re-

peated every time the reptile was touched. The snake was apparently

McClelland’s Coral Snake introduced to scientific notice by Rein-

hardt in 1844 and named by him in honour of Mr. J. McClelland, a

member of the Indian Forest Department of that period. (Wall,

(Dag eNE Se tN Ol. 25, p. 628.)

Pythons are met with in the evergreen—how is it that we have

no recorded instance of a human being having been swallowed by

a python in India'?—and the dreaded hamadryad is not at all rare,

so we were told. In the pools are large water monitors, some of

them nearly six feet in length. One which was recently killed by

the Game Warden had consumed no less than 41 frogs for

his breakfast !

We left the camp, which was about five miles from the railway

station after four delightful days. In early May the more open parts

of the jungle are scented by the yellow blossom of a species of small

tree (Wendlandia tinctoria) and amongst the undergrowth are several

kinds of conspicuous creamy-white flowers. The foliage of trees

has assumed that more vivid green which is a presage of the coming

rainy season, so all the birds are joyfully singing and _ twittering

among the leaves.

1 Perhaps they don’t !—Eps

736 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

From the high ground above the Forest Rest House we take our

farewell view of the comparatively level country over which we have

been wandering in search of the wild life we had come to see, while

in the distance are the evergreen hills, the impregnable retreat of

the animals from the all destroying hand of man. Would that there

could be more inviolate game sanctuaries maintained through the will

of the people to protect the larger animals of Eastern countries; for

in these days of destruction there is much need for all peoples and

all nations to be reminded how valuable but irreplaceable are the fast

vanishing wild animals which it is an inherited duty to maintain for

posterity.

Bb ROW, -vANe Ee Ree DEER

There were no Thamin in the Pidoung Sanctuary; perhaps they

were introduced later, and before 1942? In any case none will have

there survived.

In 1930 it was well recognized that unless adequately protected

in One or more sanctuaries the Burmese race of thamin would become

extinct within quite a few years. The fate of the race—Panolia eldi

platyceros of countries further east—there were, for instance, many

of these deer in parts of Indo-China in 1947—can be imagined.

Pocock designates the Burmese race of this deer as Panolia eldi

thamin Thomas, while he considers the Manipur race the nominate

Panolia eldi eldi McClelland.

During the 1914 War the thamin in Woburn Abbey park which

had been imported by the Duke of Bedford unfortunately died out;

so there are none in England now {1950).

Early in 1949 the present writer put forward through the Society

a concrete suggestion for the importation of the thamin deer of Burma

into Assam. Nothing came of that.

On the 9th November 1949 it was in the Wireless News that the

Burma-Assam Road via Manipur would be in use by the middle of

February 1950, so a renewal of the suggestion was made and copies

of the correspondence sent to the Department of Scientific Research,

New Delhi, on the 30th January 1950. The suggestion was passed

to the Government of Assam and also brought to the notice of the

International Union for the Protection of Nature, Brussels. Up to

time of writing, December 1950, no positive action has been taken

anywhere. Maybe the Governments of India and Assam are saying

that the Burma race of this deer need not be ‘saved’ since the species

exists in Manipur.

It would seem, however, that the Manipur race is also on the very

verge of extinction! It is evident that, unless the authorities and

departments concerned get speedily busy, nothing will be effected, and

these beautiful deer will vanish from both India (Manipur) and Burma—

and the world. It is indeed a sad reflection that when the writer was

in Burma in 1891, thamin were in their thousands, and are now close

to vanishing point.

“Where there is a Will there is a Way’ is a good old saying; and

another which is apposite to the situation is ‘tempus fugit’ for, as time

goes on, the surmountable difficulties will grow worse and not better,

as we can all very well see for ourselves. Some will be saying that

GAME. SANCTUARIES IN BURMA (PRE-1942)

yews

the saving from extinction of a few deer is a very small matter in these

tremendous times.

be negligibly allowed to vanish from creation?

REFERENCES TO RHINOCEROS IN THE SOCIETY’S Journal

On Rhinoceros Shooting. (Somali-

land).

The Asiatic Two-horned Rhino-

ceros. (Ahinocerus sumatrensis).

Note on Rhinoceroses in Burma.

(2. sondaicus and sumatrensis).

Record Great Indian Rhinoceros.

(Pehinoceros unicornis).

Haunt of the Indian Rhinoceros ...

The Asiatic

ceros.

The Breeding of the Indian Rhino-

ceros (f. unicornis) in capti-

vity.

The Shwe-u daung Game Sanctu:

Two-horsed Rhino-

ary, Upper Burma, with a Note

on the Asiatic Two-horned

Rhinoceros (fA. sumatrensis)

with a plate.

Someexperiences among HE lejelet stale

and other Big Game of Burma,

1887-1931.

A Hunting Trip in the Sunderbans

in 1892.

Rhinoceros Shooting in Burma,

(With one plate).

To Malaya fora Rhinoceros. (With

2 plates).

The Two-horned Asiatic Rhino-

ceros. (Dicerorhinus sumatren-

sis) with 8 plates.

Additional Notes on the Asiatic

Two-hcrnea Rhinoceros.

Memorandum on the Kahilu Sanc-

tuary with an Introduction by

Theodore Hubback, with 2

plates.

Burma’s Decreasing Wild Life

Notes on the Five Rhinoceroses of

the World.

A Note on the Present Distribution

of the Sumatran Rhinoceros.

(Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) in

the Arakan District of Burma.

A Note on the position of Rhino-

ceros in Burma, with a map and

a plate.

‘A Game Book for Burma and Ad-

joining Territories ’.

Lieut-Col.

F.Z;S;

Vol. 13 (No. 3) p. 538

Veterinary Major G. H. Evans,

Hebe:

Vol. 16 (No. 1) p. 160. ;

Veterinary Major G. H. Evans,

Hi. Ss

Vol, 16 (No 4) p. 555

M. TIT. Briscome.

Vol. 19 (No. 3) p. 746

Lieut-Cols - J.

British Resident in Nepal.

Vol. 19 (No. 3) p. 746

G C. Shortridge.

Vol. 23 (No. 4) p. 772

Sélim A. Ali.

Vol. 31 (No. 4) p. 1031

H.. D. Olivier, R.Er.,

E.H. Peacock, F.Z.s.

Vol, 35 (No; 2); p. 445

W.S. Thom, 1.P.

Vol. 36 (No. 2) p. 321

Vicomte Edmund de Poncins

Vol. 37 (No. 4)

Ws. 3; Lhom, 1.P.

Vol. 38 (No. 1) p. 133

R. C. Morris, F.Z.s.

Vol. 38 (No. 3) p. 438

Theodore Hubback, F.z.s.

Vol, 40 (No. 4) p. 594

S. H. Prater, C.M.Z.S.

Vol. 40 (No. 4) p. 618

D’Arcy Weatherbe.

Vol. 41 (No. 1) p. 146

D’Arcy Weatherbe.

Vol. 42 (No. 1) p. 150

W.S. Thom, I.p.

Vol. 44 (No. 2) p. 257

Lieut-General, Philip Christison.

Vol. 45 (No. 4) p. 604

W. F.H. Ansell:

Vol. 47 (No. 2) p. 249

By E: H. Peacock, F. (26 plates,

sketches anda Map. 12/6 H. F.

and G. Witherby.

Manners-Smith.

But is it so small a matter that a species should

1900

1904

1905

1910

1909

1914

1926

loi

1947

1933

ON THE HYDRO-BIOLOGICAL DATA COLLECTED

ON THE WADGE BANK EARLY IN 1949.*

K. CHIDAMBARAM

AND

A. D,. ISAAC RAJENDRAN

(Fisheries Biological Station, Tuticorin)

INTRODUCTION

In 1907 Hornell, when he was attached to the Ceylon Company of

Pearl Fisheries, Ltd., arranged for a trial cruise to areas of compara-

tively shallow water, within 100 fathom line off Cape Comorin, with a

view to locating trawling grounds, if any, aboard the S. T. ‘ Violet’,

under the skipper Captain Gibb. During this cruise he struck a trawling

ground lying to east, south and west of Cape Coniorin within the 100 fm.

line, where dredging beyond the 17 fm. line indicated the presence of

‘fine grey sand’ free from any obstructions to fishing. Hornell reported

this area rich in fish and so extensive as to offer good fishing for

an indefinite period to a large fleet of steam trawlers of full power

and size. This bank is known as ‘Wadge Bank’ and it extends to a

distance of more than 50 miles off shore and covers an area of more

than 4,000 sq. miles. The bank is exposed to the S.W. and N.E.

Monsoon and hence fishing operations are greatly influenced by the

monsoon; during c2ttain months of the year fishing will be practically

impossible even by modern vessels due to the strong current

prevailing at the time. The Wadge Bank has been explored by the

Madras and Ceylon Governments in the succeeding years on a few

occasions; the Madras Government worked the trawler 5S T. ‘Goschen’

between 1927 and ’29. Experimental trawling was conducted by the

Ceylon Government in 1913-14 and from 1919 in ‘ Violet’ and < Lilla’.

In 1945 the Department of Fisheries in Ceylon ccmmenced comunercial

trawling with S.T. ‘ Raglan Castle’.

In February 1949, the Deep Sea Fishing unit of the Madras Fisheries

planned to explore the Wadge Bank areas from the Indian side to

determine the economic value of the operations by a small fleet of

vessels including the departmental vessels, ‘ Lady Nicholson’, M.F.V.

‘Gouhar Khaleeli’ and M.F.V. ‘ Tuticorin’.

The fishing operations commenced on February 2, 1949, and ended

on April 8, 1949. As the vessels had to return after a day’s fishing to

dispose of the catch in fresh condition, fishing was possible once in

three days, subject to favourable weather conditions. Under changing

conditions of weather, fishing was possible that year only on three days

in February and on six days in March 1949. The grounds fished were

more than 30 miles off and sometimes 60 miles off the coast. The

fishing gear used were ordinary hand lines with four to five hooks

attached to each line.

* With the kind permission of the Director of Fisheries, Madras.

HYDRO-BIOLOGICAL DATA COLLECTED ON WADGE BANK 739

The work was purely of an exploratory nature, to determine the

efficiency of line fishing in those areas. Incidentally, opportunity was

seized to collect certain hydro-biological data during the few weeks of

operations,

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Our thanks are due to Messrs. A. I. George, Assistant Director of

Fisheries, and Tahar Shariff, Inspector of Fisheries, and the crew of the

vessels for the assistance given in the collection of data and in the

analyses of the catches.

PHYSIOGRAPHY

From Manapad to Cape Comorin there is a foul shore composed of

coral reef and rock extending from the beach to 9 fm. contour, A

similar inshore belt from Cape Comorin to Muttam point and even as

far as Trivandrum is of fine clean sand, free from obstruction. Towards

Trivandrum this sandy belt seems to extend beyond 9 fm. up to

27 fms.

South-south-east of Manapad beyond the 20 fm. line, roughly at a

distance of 25—30 miles from the shore, good trawling ground with fine

coarse sand, free from obstruction, is found extending to 100 fm. line.

This belt of good fishing ground is quite narrow but widens out

towards the west and south-west. South of Cape Comorin the belt

Stretches for about 35 miles. South, south-west and west of Cape

Comorin, the belt reaches its maximum width of nearly 50 miles. West

of Muttam, it narrows again to about 35 miles. ‘The whole of this belt

is composed of sand and dark agglutinated sand. Further north,

along this belt, broken masses of dead loose coral were met with though

the ground is trawlable. Fine ground, however, stretches, in a narrow

belt well within the 50 fm. line, west and north-west of Muttam. South-

west of Cape Comorin at a distance of about 25 miles, there is a huge

cluster of submerged rocks rising to a height of 5 fm. to 33 fms. above

the surrounding sea bottom. (vzde the Admiralty Chart). Though

trawling can be done to within the limits of this rocky patch, no trawiing

is possible over it. The depths range from 45 to 65 fms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The motor schooner ‘Lady Nicholson’ and motor fishing vessel

‘Gouhar Khaleeli’ were engaged in fishery survey along with three

Tuticorin type of canoes. Thirty fishermen and the crew of the vessels

were engaged in fishing at one time or another. The two power vessels

reached the fishing ground where they served as mother vessels, when

the canoes were engaged in fishing with hand lines. The fish caught

were measured, weighed and examined for sex, sexual maturity and

stomach contents. The position of the ground was fixed by compass

bearings. ‘The water sample was collected from a depth of § metre below

the surface by a canvas bucket and from the bottom by a water sample

bottle. ‘The temperature was recorded in °C and the specific gravity

was recorded by Acrometer (Sikes Hydrometer),

HyvyDROGRAPHY

The hydrographical data recorded were only the temperature and

Specific gravity of sea water both on the surface and at the bottom of

JOURNAL, BOMBAY (NATURAL. HIST.\SOCIETY,. Voin 29

740

SQ Caen Leese

i os oa eo aN

He = "| MS—GN

pues

Wy og |q}IM yooy a MS—dUN

ae AYD0Y oe AS—MN

Uy ¢¢ AYD0Y Bec AS—MN

v6 AYD0Y 2 MS—48N

Wy 6P AYOY ae MS—AN

i pues ea | AS—MN

“ qq == | S—WN

Wy CP YOON |AS—-MN

TU0}304 sdBjING

m10}}0q et as oe

yidaq jo aInjen

jyuolIng

SZ0-T 6701 AO9G am sepeee

920°T ¢Z0.T 90-92 BS29¢

Oc0s feet) =S2 008 00-92 00°SZ

120-1 OZ0-f. my Gi 20:97 KIA

120-1 | B20-T 07-92 20-92

920-1 720-1 oV-9Z Aide

9Z0-T SZ0- Teal <8:0¢ ec.92

9°01 SZO-T 9:92 50522

9c0-T C20-L PAL? 09-92

920-1 C20 el =. 2Ome ech:

tuo}og | sd¥RBJING | UIN}j}0g | ao¥vjINS

Aytaeis ‘ds

‘Q, sinjelodugy,

‘ard ¢

uooU ZT

‘Ue Q

’V.-S_ 8k

‘urd p

woou ZT

6F.-€-91

‘ad F

woou ZT

6F.-€-F1

‘ud fF

moou ZI

“U'B

6P.-€-P

OUuL I,

pue oe

“Hace

ALGIOLL

“NUSS

WoL

“H.90S

OVoLs

"NuS

/86oL

: auSP

IP oLL

“NUSP

OF of

“Hu8

sSGoL/

"NuZ

Gee

UOT}ISOg

‘tuvindsey UWO1} S3[IaL

"I 02'S WUE 9speM

‘trvindsay wool} ss[lar

‘HoSh "S YuUe_ sspem

‘meindsay] uloly

SATII Be “| OP'S “Sayitu

‘AoShp “S yueq aspen

"[euUeU

-niod jvlung Wolly sata

Si)

‘ASP ‘S Yue” aspen

u01}B19

YyUv_T aspVY Ww

IESE I fre ll’ gab

PIJI9QIOI DIOP BvI1YgVADOAPAFY

TABLE II

Details of catches of fishes on the Wadge Bank: Species, their numbers, size & weight

No, of hand-lines in

operation

25 H.L. — 3 luggm.

2 HLL.

25 HL. 3

3 HLL.

25 HL. 3

4 HL,

26H.L. 3

3 HLL.

30H.L. 4

3 HLL.

30 HL. 4

4 HL.

30 H.L. 4

4 H.L.

30 H.L. 6

30 HL. 6

No. of hours of fishing

9 hours (9 a.m.—6 p.m.)

do.

do,

3 hours (1-4 p.m.)

do.

11 hours (6-5 p.m.)

do,

do.

8 hours (9-5 p.m.)

do,

do.

Remarks

(a) from luggers.

(6) from M.F.V.

| Lutjanus malabaricus 5 Lethrinus Epinephelus | eee E. bleekeri RS

S. Date Depth of aie | WES [eee a2 x v . e* otal relent

| | 1 beat if Is | Bi . e |

| . | | | | | ] ] =

| Cms. | Cms. | Cms. | | Cms. | Cms. Cms. | Cms. Cms,

| | |

1 | 21-249 a, | 40-45 fm. Rocky Calm 29 30-60 Isl} 2 30-99 8 2 | 30-60 | 8 90 30-120 748 | 5 30-40 39 23 30-90 | 110) 14 30-90 116 1

| | | 110

b. “3 Fe Rough | 13 sy 68| 2 14 2 | 10 | 14 ie 118 | | 4 oD 34 { 1683

| |

2 | 23-2-49 a, 40 fm. ” | » | 17 | 30-80 | 132| 15 20-90 76 wo tg joo ee | 942 | 17 15-30 40 50 20-60 | 250 7 20-60 40 (

| | | | |

b » are s\n 2 } 14] 2 25 6 #2 | 30-90 | 145] 4 20-30 Gis lieters | { 1868

3 | 25-249 a, 50 fm. ” | ” 37 | 30-90 244]... co | 154 1 1315 ees ove on 33 30-60 184 (

b. - rel omer | | . | : Ny WI SOA) eo ie = || ~ lees an a i 2599

| | |

| |

4 43-49 a. 50 fm. ” Calm 54 eee 338 9 aa 64 | 374 3010 | 12 40 S4 oe 274 7 43 | {

| \ | | | | |

b. in - 5 38 09 264 4 ax 34 nee oe eee 59 | & 492 | ... tee op 20 a 112 3 ce 30 | 4794

| | |

5 14-3-49 a, 49 fm. ny 2 16 | 48-63 101) 8 45-75 48 2 38-63 | 14 86 | 40-68 650 | 18 33-45 67 50 | 35-50 256 7 55-72 59 {

| |

b ‘1 se aa 0 aa 25 40-50 | 125 eg s ae E | 1340

| | |

| |

6 | 16-349 a, 49 fm. ss | om 12 | 48-65 EY cos || aun x Sto tee Joss | 44 | 40-85 334 8 25-35 28 27 35-50 124)|, 00 || see |

b 55 fm. i, | 10 45-50 | 60 | 8 | 45-65 64 | a 733

| | | | | | |

7 | 18-349 a, 65 fm. ” | » ae | oD o. | 63 48-72 | 546 os fr op 77-| ~65 604 6 30-45 22 76 35-54 352 {

| | | |

b. G Ay | 6 29 40-55 184 w : co se 2496

| | |

8 | 23-3-49 65 fm “6 m | ... | S1-| 48:80 | 458 |... | 159 45-75 | 1005 me F 49 | 35-50 145]... ea ae 2 | 165-180 | 168 2185

| | | |

| |

9 | 25-349 65 fm. 7 | rs 20 | 48-50 126 | 137 | 8-80 | 744 an | see 99 | 45-72 598 |... tee eee fe on oo ase 09 tse 1614

| ! | | \ | |

nn -

poles Sitios z eae = —s

: ™~

oe i. £ = ‘

q ‘ ‘

- .

< t;

_ ™

‘

; &

\ =

= ~

HYDRO-BIOLOGICAL DATA COLLECTED ON WADGE BANK TAL

the sea. These were registered at 8 a.m., 12 noon and 4 p.m. Only on

4 days, viz., 4th, 14th, 16th and 18th March 1949, was it possible to

record the data. On other days the rough seas and rolling of the

vessels prevented collection of samples, with the available

equipment. The surface temperatures ranged from 25:0° C at 8 a.m.

to 27-49 Cat 4 p.m.and bottom temperature from 26°0° C at 4 p.m.

to 27'6° C at 8 a.m. Temperature was lower at the surface in the

mornings and then gradually increased and was higher than the tem-

perature at the bottom as the day advanced. Specific gravity of sea

water ranged between 1:024 and 1°026 at the surface and between 1:025

and 1:027 at the bottom. It was always higher in bottom samples than

in the surface samples. The details are given in Table I.

FISHES

Details of catches of cifferent commercially important varieties of fish

on the bank during the days under review, are presented in Table II.

TABLE UflI

Detazls of total catches of each genus on the Wadge Bank

Epinephelus : Aprion Total weight

Date spp. Lutjanus spp. pristipoma of all fish

Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb.

21—2—49 1,165 219 22 1,683

23—2—49 1,477 146 82 1,868

25—2—49 2 ,006 244 te 2,599

43 —49 4,078 602 98 4,794

14—3— 49 1,157 101 48 1,340

16—3—49 550 84 60 733

18—3—49 1,113 - 184 546 2,496

23—3—49 1,150 sae 458 2,185

25—3—49 598 126 744 1,614

Totaly = 2: 13,201 1,706 2,058 19,312

The catches comprised mostly of sea bass, Epinephelus spp. and

Snappers, Luijanus spp. and <Aprion (Pristipomoides) typus (Blkr.).

There were a few sharks and sea breams. The genus Epinephelus was

represented by &. ¢auvina (Forsk.), E. miniatus ( Forsk.), 4. dbleekert

(Vaill. and Bocourt) and 4. undulosus (Q.G.). The only species of

Lutjanus common in the catches was ZL. malabaricus (Bl. Schnutr.).

E. tauvina (Forsk.) was predominant, accounting for a little over half

of the total catch. They ranged in size between 30 cms. and 120

cms. They were immature. The body weights of a 50 cm. male

and female were 3°7 1b. and 2°5 lb. respectively and those of a 62:5

cm. male and a female, 8:5 1b. and 7:5 lb. respectively. They had

fed mostly on other fish. 4, dleckerz (Vaill. and Bocourt) was next in

importance and ranged in length between 30 cms. and 90 cms. These

were immature and had fed on other small fish. The other two species

of Epinephelus were poorly represented.

742 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49°

The fish Aprion typus (Blkr.) was next only to &. ¢auvina and the

range in length of these species was between 20 cms. and 90 cms. The

gonads were not ripe and they had consumed only fish.

Lutjanus malabaricus (Bl. Schnr.) ranked fourth in iboreanes ins

the catches and it ranged in length from 30 cms. to 90 cms. The

gonads were not ripe. Allthese species had in their stomach small

trigger fish, Balzstes spp.

Of the total quantity of 19,312 lb. of fish landed on nine days by

hand lines, 13,291 lb. belonged to Epinephelus spp.; and £. tauvina

(Forsk.) alone accounted for 10,657 lb. On the three days of fishing

in February 6,150 1b. were landed and on 6 fishing days in March,

13,162 lb. were landed. Based on the number of hours of fishing and

the number of hand lines employed, it works out to 33:2 lb. of fish per

hour per line. Expert fishermen land four to five fish at a time, other-

wise it may not be worth the trouble of landing one fish at a time and

to haul up the line for 100 metres !

DISCUSSION

The range of variation in temperature of surface Jayers of the sea on

the Wadge Bank has been between 0:'9° C to 2°4° C; and that of the

temperature of the bottom layer between 0:2° C to 1° C. There does

not seem to be any direct relationship of the trend of temperature

variation of the surface layer with that of bottom Jayer. But in the

diurnal variation of temperature at the bottom layer, it is noticed that.

the maximum range of 1° C was observed ata depth of 90 metres and

the variation has been 0°4° C at a depth of 98 metres, 0:20° C at 110

metres and 130 metres. This indicates that the range of diurnal varia-

tion of temperature gets reduced asthe depth increases in this region.

Presenting the table of temperature at different depths in the Gulf of

Manaar in January 1921, Sewell (1929) recorded that ‘in five instances.

out of eight the surface temyerature is lower than the temperature at a

depth of 50 metres and again this occurs at any time of the day, so that

it does not depend on the greater cooling of the surface water during ~

the night’ and in these two southernmost stations near Wadge Bank,

they are so. Sewell further indicated from the data of temperature and.

salinity recorded in March and April 1920 in the southern regions of the:

Gulf of Manaar from surface to a depth of 59 metres that once late in

April the temperature of surface water was less than that at a depth of

50 metres and also that ‘during the winter months surface water of

Indian Seas, or at any rate of certain areas, may be colder than that

lying at a depth of some 20—25 metres and, furthermore, that this condi-

tion is specially likely to be present during the night and early morning

hours’. Similar trend of variation in temperature in the surface and.

bottom layers of the four stations in the Wadge Bank in the month ot

March 1949 was observed by us; the surface temperature being less in

the morning than that at the bottom at depths more than 90 metres.

and higher at the surface than at the bottom in the afternoon at 4 p.m.

Sewell (1929 p. 309-311) observed that in the latter part of April

and May, and in October and November, the surface waters might

be more Saline than that at a lower depth and that in the north-east

monsoon months of January and February the surface water would be

less saline than that below. He had also indicated that the variations.

HYDRO-BIOLOGICAL DATA COLLECTED ON WADGE BANK 743:

might be caused by the force of wind and the prevailing temperature of

the sea water. In March 1949, it was not possible to estimate the

salinity. If specific gravity could be taken as indication of salinity, it

could be said that the specific gravity was less at the surface than at

the bottom layers.

Hornell (1916) found the Indian grounds ‘ greatly superior in extent

and richness’ to those off Ceylon and observed that the Wadge Bank

‘is generally much richer in the daily quantity of fish catchable by each

trawler and is so extensive in area as to offer good fishing for an inde-

finite period to a large fleet of steam trawlers of full power and size.

This ground comprises the whole of that wide submarine plateau

within the 100 fm. line which lies off Cape Comorin on the western,

southern and eastern aspects... On the Cape Comorin grounds so

long as the fishing was carried on outside of the 17 fm. line plenty of

fish were everywhere met with ... The trawl skipper of the ‘ Violet ’

returned to port enthusiastic over the trawl] potentialities of the Cape

Comorin Bank of soundings both in regard to the large quantities of

good quality fish to be had there and to the clean and unobstructed

nature of the bottom.’

Sundara Raj (1931) while reporting on the survey of deep sea

fishing grounds by S. T. ‘Lady Goschen’ observed that ‘the note-

worthy changes since 1907 in this area are (i) that good trawl ground

with sand bottom was not met with upto about 20 fathoms south and

south-west of Manapad and Cape Comorin; (ii) the large rays (Plough

fish and Sharks) were not found off Meniped or Cape Comorin, but

only on the western margin of the plateau in about 40 fm.* During the

trawling experiments of the ‘ Lady Goschen’ in 1927-28 and 1928-29

trawling on the Wadge Bank was carried on in depths less than 50 fms.

excepting on one occasion, when the trawl was shot ata depth of 60 fms.

During these trials the rate ot catch per hour worked out to 140 1b. in

1927-28 and 200 lb. in 1928-29, as indicated below :—

TABLE lV

Rate of catches of fish by S. T. ‘Lady Goschen’ (1927-29) in Wadge Bank

ACERT OY ESE ae al IY OILY RT REA SLESS EBTES EG LAS APSE PEALE TES GT EG REET TE

INo.! of: hauls’ a, : : 5

| | and hours “A a = o. a

a fished = i eS is wn o s

~ mo ° he) i) ° ae) tH

Year.) = gS eS. Serie shee

uo} = & | Vag Sa ie et w fished

au = CaN oe er ne °

° a wn iS Os 5 iS te

. a! cc

Z 3 5 Q s ~

i en an

1927-28 8 19 664 | 9296 140 99247

lb. Ib. fms

é| —_—_———SS a ea a ya ae

1928-29 | 11 22 794 | 15904] 2032 | 2114 2106 200 | 99237

| fms

| lb. Ib. lb. lb. lb.

Malpas (1926) referring to the \Vadge Bank indicated that ‘ the bank

is fishable upto 1-0 tathom overtall.’ In ‘Lilla’, no information was

744 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

available for trawling on the banks in depth exceeding 45 fm. The

average rates of catch per hour by ‘ Lilla’ on the Wadge Bank in

depths between 11-20 fm. and between 21-45 fm. were 157:7 lb. and

238-4 lb. respectively with a large proportion of the best class of edible

fish. For the above two vessels, the data on average catch per day’s

absence are not available ; but for the vessels which operated on Wadge

Bank from Ceylon after 1928 the details of average catch per day’s

absence are taken from the report ‘Commercial Trawling in Ceylon

Seas’ by Amirthalingam and De Zylva and they are presented below :—

TABLE V

Average catch per day’s absence on Wadge Bank

Names of the Power Average No. of | Average catch per | Average annual

Vessels used for days absent an- day’s absence / catches (Hund-

trawling | nually (in years) | (hundreds of Ib.) | reds of 1b.)

* Bulbul’ as | ml oiorGays

1928 to 1935 42:07 7790°04

* Tongkol * self Ool8 Gays

1928 to 1929 232 1806°58

* Raglan Castle’ ses ¢ledays

1945 to 1947 55:11 4025°82

* Aringa’ «| 154 days

1947 64:07 9867°27

Details of maximum depths at which trawls were tried from the

above four vessels and the range of depths where catches were heavy

are not available. It has been successively proved that the availability

of excellent fishing on the Wadge Bank and the catches on this bank

have compared very favourably with the productivity of the trawling

grounds elsewhere. This bank is ‘beyond the reach of the type of

craft now used by local fishermen’ (Amirthalingam and De Zylva,

1948).

a nee of Cape Comorin at a distance of about 25 miles, the

huge cluster of submerged rocks rising toa height of 30 to over 200 ft.

above the surrounding sea bottom termed ‘ Wadge Bank’ in the

Admiralty Chart, though not suitable for trawling, is very good for hand

lines. As such the methods to be adopted for the development of

fishing in the Wadge Bank beyond the range of the existing craft in

the Indian waters, will be (1) Hand lines and (2) Trawling. Hand lines

have to be operated like the dories working off a mother vessel or from

a fast power boat with a special hold to work in the off-shore regions

off Cape Comorin. The fishery survey early in 1949 was directed

mainly towards the operation of hand lines to find out the productivity

of these rocky patches on the Wadge Bank where trawling and long

lining at the bottom were not feasible. It will be seen from the details

of catches, that the hand lines were operated in beds deeper than 40 fm.

and the landings had been at the rate of 33:2 lb. per line per hour.

745.

HYDRO-BIOLOGICAL DATA COLLECTED ON WADGE BANK

skep QZ SABD 06 sXep 09 sAep S/ sAep C/ shep 09 oes sulysy jo sivp Jo "ON

IOqQUIDAO A

Jequis90q er pears jJoquiejdeg 0} oune Re 0} pene. N YoIeyT—requiaseq, ‘|**° peysy yO,

“SUIJ OP ’ ae (‘sty ¢p 9AOGV pus ‘sul OT 2 F a ae

Uey} Sse] sumy OC—TT ‘suly QZ WLU} SSeq) uey} sso] SU} CF—O0C Salj CPV—TT surysy Joy yjdap siquying

6 cL #¢ G9 is For | 282 | 492 9 GG ¢ cv 202 Il ost c a peysy simoy jo ‘ON

P6L Ors | 2-19 | 08 | SZE |099| OF |0-T9T|/€-ZTE 8c B-S9 |2-EZT \L-€2Z TeSITIS-ZPL 1€-cSP a Inoy 13d yo}eD

7 (

CcPy-I2é oon QV ISP-Ic\0c-1IT| OP sw Oc-I1| OT Ot OF site ea-tt OT 9 Ccr-Iz2 eet Ot "stuy ur y}doq

310 des '

ee rrr SS

(O£6I-LZ61 )—, UY ISO) ApwT , °*Z °S JO Szynsat Uo pasng SaYRvD jo sjivjaq

IA AITAVL

746 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL. HIST... SOCIETY, Vol. 49

The magnitude ofthe catches can be appreciatéd by the landings of

2,599 lb. on 25-2-1949 by 29 handlines in 3 hours and of 4,794 Ib. on

4-3-1949 by 29 handlines in 1] hours. Sucha rate per unit of effort

indicates the richness of these rocky patches on the Banks and the

survey definitely proves what John (1948) considered possible—viz.,

‘that certain regions of the Travancore coast such as the south western

corner of the Wadge Bank, 60—75 fathom region off Anjengo and

Chandra where the ground is hard and rocky, are rich in ground fishes,

Such as .oTrey Sihappers..icc- e:.08 These fishing grounds are not suitable

for trawling and seining. But line fishing is possible......... ‘

The previous trawling surveys have indicated the richness of the

bank for bottom fishes and also that a large section of the bank is

suitable for trawling. It will not be out of place here to indicate the

catches by the trawlers on the Indian coasts by different vessels and at

different depths. These are presented in Table VI, VII and VIII.

TABLE Vil

Details of catches on the Wadge Bank‘ Lady Goschen’ and‘ Lilla’

(ats ‘ Goschen ’—Madras

Lilla ’—Ceylon Government @uccenmene

1 _ i re | ,

‘Depth | ee |

Gross wt. Ist Bae | ge No. of Gross No. of

er hour edible ae hours mt hours

P fish |. fish per hour

10 fms. aa nil nil nil ihr:

11-70 fm, &.| 15/*% tbs: 145°3 11°4 20053 452°3 3 hours:

2l-A5S im: 3.1 2984 200°4 34°6 PH sola 147°3. /\180. 4,5

a6 fm. 2. liglisgat BL

TABLE VIil

Details of catches on the Pedro Bank—‘ Lady Goschen’ and‘ Lilla’

| Lilla—Ceylon Government ‘ Goschen ’ Madras

Government

Depth 7

Gross wt. pire: eee No. of et ee No. of

per hour han fish hours | eae hours

Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb.

<0: fm. hal ap - 204 11°8 58'°9 10 317'3 6

11-20... 145-6 118°7 23-0 Biya ter 263

21- 45 1. 130°6 115-9 13:3 2045 |. #46 783

46-100 oes 42°5 39°8 2°0 4 | 660 16}

HYDRO-BIOLOGICAL DATA COLLECTED ON WADGE BANK 747

It will be evident from the figures of catches and the total number

of hours fished, that Wadge Bank yielded a good rate of catch, viz.,

452-3 lb. per hour in depths between 11 and 20 fms. and 147°8 Ib. in

depths between 21 and 45 fms. The yields in the same depth ranges

reccrded by S. T. ‘ Lilla’ worked by Ceylon show alsoa high figure of

157-71 lb. and 238-4 lb. in 11 to 20 fm. and 21 to 45 fm. ranges

respectively. On the Pedro Bank, in depths less than 45 fm., the rate of

catch per hour by the trawlers was equally good. In the bank off

Manapad the depths between 21 and 45 fms. indicate the presence of

fairly large quantities of bottom fish. These show the richness of the

Wadge Bank and Pedro Bank. Catches by trawlers compare favourably

with the catches elsewhere, but trawling has not yet proved commer-

cially feasible owing to certain other difficulties and it is suggested that

the introduction of these mechanised craft should be gradual and that

specifications of the type and size of the trawler should be suitably

modified.

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATION

Fishing operations were conducted in the Wadge Bank area during

February, March and April of 1949 with the help of the vessels ot the

Fisheries Department. This opportunity was availed of to obtain

certain hydrographical data and biological data on the fishes of the

locaiity. The fish examined included Afinephelus tauvina (Forsk.),

E. mintatus (Forsk.), Z. bleekert (Vaill. and Bocourt), &. zzdulosus (Q.G.),

Lutjanus malabaricus (Bl. Schnr.) and Aprion typus (Blkr.) Summary

of data on their length, weight, sex, condition of gonads and stomach

contents are presented in this paper.

With the available knowledge that the productivity of the Wadge

Bank has been proved to be good, it is recommended that fishing with

hand lines may be taken up immediately on an organised scale with a

fast 45 ft. sea-worthy power vessel to enable the catches to be brought

ashore quickly for prompt disposal and marketing. This should en-

courage the development of line fishing with a mother vessel and small

boats for fishing and with adequate facilities either for storage in the

mother vessel or speedy transport in other power vessels to the shore

at periodic intervals. Simultaneously with this type of fishing further

efforts need to be made to make trawling commercially successful by

modifying the designs of trawlers to suit local conditions and as may

ensure efficient preservation.

REFERENCES

J, Amirthalingam, C. and De Zylva, E.R. A. (1948): Commercial trawling in

Ceylon Seas. (Mss).

2. Hornell, J. (1908) : Report on the feasibility of operating deep sea fishing

boats on the coasts of the Madras Presidency, with special reference to the selection

of fishing centres and harbours of refuge—Madras Fish. Bull. No. 4: 33-70,

3. Hornell, J. (1916) : Notes upon two exploring cruises in search of trawl

grounds off the Indian and Ceylon coasts—Madras Fish, Bull. 8: 23-42,

4. John, C. C. (1948): Progress reports of the Fisheries Development

Sei Res. Inst. Div. Marine Biology and Fisheries, Trivandrum

pp. 1-8.

5. Malpas, A. H. (1926) : A preliminary report on the possibilities of com-

mercial trawling in the sea around Ceylon—Ceylon Journ, Sci. Sec. C. I: 1-12.

748 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

6. Malpas, A.H. (1926): The Marine Biological Survey of the littoral

waters of Ceylon—Cevlon Journ. Sci. Sec, C. I: 13-165.

7. Sundara Raj, B. (1931) : Report on asystematic survey of deep sea fish-

ing grounds by S. T. ‘ Lady Goschen ’—Madras Fish. Bull. 23, No. 3 of 1929:

153-187.

8 Sundara Raj, B. (1933) : Report on a systematic survey of deep sea fish-

ing grounds by S. T. ‘ Lady Goschen ’—MWadras Fish. Bull, 24, No. 3 of 1930:

199-232.

9. Sundara Raj, B. and Devanasan, D. W. (1942): Report on a systematic

survey of deep sea fishing grounds by S. 7, Lady Goschen ’—Madras Fish, Bull.

28, No, 2 of 1942: 1-67,

WILD LIFE RESERVES IN INDIA: UTTAR PRADESH

Lr.-Cons R: W) Burren, 1A. (Retd:)

1. The Hailey National Park

The following is contributed by Mr. S. S. Negi, D.F.O., Ramnagar

Forest Division, U.P. (December 1949):

‘When the article on the Hailey National Park was published in

the Indian Forester of November 1936, the Park had been in existence

only for a little over a year. The wild animals, inside the boundaries.

of the park were then not notably less shy than those in the forests out-

side the boundaries.

2. A strict protection of about 15 years, since then, has enormously

increased the number of wild life inside the Park and has made them

much tamer. It is not unusual to meet a herd of chital, sometimes of

up to 100 heads, grazing peacefully by the roadside, while a visitor is.

passing by in a moving vehicle or on an elephant. The animals lift

their heads, without much concern, merely to see what the intruder

is like, and then continue grazing as if nothing has happened. They

are sometimes somewhat shy of visitors on foot and run off some

distance and keep staring from there till the intruder has passed out

of sight.

3. The tigers and panthers have also grown considerably carefree.

They are often found roaming about in open areas in daytime, and

when they come across a man they look at him with curiosity but

without any sense of fear. It has sometimes been necessary to shout

at a tiger to drive him away from staring at one too interestedly !

4. The animals appear to be conscious of protection inside the

boundaries of the Park. It has often been noticed along the boundary of

the Park that a herd, on seeing a passer-by, will run across into the

- sanctuary and look from there with the satisfaction of safety, even

though their natural retreat be in the opposite direction.

In connexion with the above is reproduced an account of the Park

written in July 1939 by Mr. F. W. Champion the then D.F.O. of the

Kalagarh Forest Division.

It may be remarked regarding the hydro-electric dam across the

Ramganga River ‘which has largely cut off the migrating fish from

their spawning areas’ that similar harm has been done in other rivers.

of India, and in some canals. An article on this important subject

will be published in the Journal.

‘This fine National Park, one of the first permanent National

Parks as distinct from temporary sanctuaries to be established in the

East, owes its inception to Lord Hailey, who, when Governor of the

United Provinces in 1934, asked the Forest Department to make

proposals for the creation by the legislative authority of a National

Park on the lines recommended by the International Wild Life Confer-

ence, Of 1933... Mr. -E. A. -Smythies, -I.F.S., now (1939) Chief

Conservator of Forests in the United Provinces, was asked to make

definite proposals for a suitable area in the Western Circle and he

chose the famous Patli Doon on the borders of the Ramganga River

in Kalagarh Forest Division, combined with a portion of hill forest to:

the south of it, lying partly in Kalagarh and partly in Ramnagar

750 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Divisions. His proposals were accepted and an area of about 125

square miles was constituted as a permanent National Park under the

U.P National Parks Act of 1935.. This was a great step forward

in the preservation of wild life in India and it is to be hoped that,

in due course, this beautiful area of hill and dale will develop into

a permanent refuge for the disappearing wild animals of this country

and a quiet resort for visitors who wish to see the splendid wild

creatures of India in an undisturbed and natural state. It must al-

ways be remembered, however, that it takes a long time to remove

the inborn fear of man exhibited by wild animals and one cannot

expect much in the very few years that the Park has been in existence.

It took 25 years to tame the animals in the fine Kruger National

Park of South Africa, and we must expect much the same sort of thing

here, but the chital and sambar are already (1939) beginning to

respond to the absence of firearms and will allow a motor car to pass

quite close, although they still keep their distance from tame elephants

and human beings on foot. The tigers, so far, are much the same

as they were before, although they are quite often to be seen at a

distance in the day-time. In due course, when a new generation of

tigers that have never been hunted grows up, it is more than likely

that the tigers will carry on their daily life regardless of the presence

of human beings in the way that lions are now to be seen doing in

the National Parks of Africa.

The area chosen for the Hailey Park is almost ideal for the purpose,

being noted for its beauty and containing as it does almost every type

of Himalayan foot-hill forest. Perhaps the finest portion of all is

the Patli Doon itself, which consists of a broad flat valley of old

river terraces, two or three miles broad :and fifteen miles long,

‘covered for the most part by great seas of waving tiger grass, which,

after it is burnt in the spring, becomes a green sward of short new

grass so beloved of chital and hog deer. Among the grass are patches

of forest and scattered specimens of dhak, semal and Bauhinia, with

‘dense patches of shisham bordering the beautiful Ramganga river,

which flows through the doon, meandering from side to side and chang-

ing its course every year. This area in the spring, with the lovely green

of the new leaves of the shisham, the gorgeous scarlet flowers of

the flame-of-the-forest and silk cotton trees, the mauve blossoms of

the Bauhinia and sandan trees and the lovely pink of the budding

kusum, combined with the crystal clear sparkling waters of the Ram-

ganga river, must surely form a scene of beauty that can have few

equals anywhere in the world. But. the Patli Doon is part only of

this chosen spot. At its lower end the hills close in on the river,

and between Boksar and Kalagarh there is precipitous and lovely gorge

where great slabs of bare sandstone and vertical rock strata alternate

with deep-sided damp ravines where ferns, orchids and tropical creepers

flourish. Through this striking gorge flows the river sometimes foam-

ing over boulders, sometimes burying itself into great pools of un-

known depth and tenanted by huge mahseer and goonch, while on

sandbanks and rocks are often to be seen basking in the sun both

species of India’s inland crocodiles. The gorge terminates very sudden-

ly at Kalagarh, where the last outer rampart of the Himalayas occurs,

and the river passes out of the Park into the great flat bhabar tract

WILD LIFE RESERVES IN INDIA: UTTAR PRADESH iol

below. Then again there is another steep gorge at the upper end

of the doon, whereas to the south there is a wild and broken tangle

of hills, valleys and streams, totally uninhabited by man except for

the forest staff and occasional timber contractors’ workmen, where

one can wander at will in untrodden wildernesses covered with tiger

tracks, and where one may meet at any time any of the numerous

kinds of animals that inhabit this favoured tract.

The wild animal population of the Hailey Park consists of a great

variety of species. There are a few wild elephants, but a good deal

of the area is too rough for these huge animals; a very large number

of tigers; a few leopards, hyenas and jackals with an occasional wild

dog; a fair number of sloth and Himalayan black bears; a very

large number of chital, some with fine heads ; a lesser number of sambar

generally with poor antlers; some magnificent hog deer in the Path

Doon and numerous kakar everywhere; a very occasional serow and

a fair number of goral; mongooses, palm-squirrels and flying squirrels,

ratels, wild cats and otters. It is hoped in due course to introduce also

gond (swamp deer) and a better strain of sambar. There are gharial

and mugger in the rivers and a few pythons, hamadryads, cobras and

Russell’s vipers scattered about the forests. The fishing in the Ram-

ganga river used to be very good indeed, but it has been very seriously

upset by the construction of a hydro-electric dam across the Ramganga

some 20 miles below the Park which has largely cut off the migratory

fish. The river is, however, readjusting itself to the new conditions

and quite good mahseer and Indian trout fishing is to be had in the

spring and summer months. There are also huge goonch that turk

in the rapids and deep pools, and a good many other species of fish

that are not usually caught on rod and line.

The above should give some idea of the type of country and in-

habitants of the Hailey Park and it remains to explain how to get there

and what arrangements to make for a visit. The Forest Department

during the last few years have done a very great deal to make the

Park more accessible, and a system of fair weather motor roads has now

been constructed making it possible to see most of the Park from a

light car skilfully driven, between December and June. The nearest

railheads are Kotdwara and Ramnagar and it is also possible to

motor from Dehra Dun, Ranikhet, Lansdowne, Haldwani or Naini

Tal. The distance from Ramnagar to Sultan, one entrance to the

Park, is about 14 miles. From Haldwani to Sultan is about 50 miles

and from Dehra Dun to Kalagarh about 90 miles. Permission to

enter the Park should be obtained from the D.F.O., Kalagrah Division,

Lansdowne, or the D.F.O., Ramnagar Division, Ramnagar, from

whom maps of the Park can be obtained. Absolutely no shooting

is allowed but daylight photography is permitted and permits to fish

in the Ramganga are issued. There are forest rest-houses at Sultan,

Gairal, Sarapduli, Dhikala, Boxar, Kalagarh, Paterpani, Gaujpani

and Jamnagwar in the Kalagarh Division, and Malani and Bijrani in

-Ramnagar Division, permits to occupy which, if available, may be

obtained from the D.F.O’s. concerned. These rest-houses contain

essential furniture, but no crockery, lamps or sweepers. They are

not always available and visitors who intend making a prolonged stay

should bring tents. Food supplies are scarce and visitors must bring

752 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

a large supply of tinned provisions. No petrol is available except in

Ramnagar or Kotdwara. The D.F.O., Kalagarh Division, can some-

times help with a limited supply of milk, vegetables and possibly

goats, fowls and eggs. Fish can be caught by the skilful—in the

Ramganga river. Visitors are strongly advised to employ one or two

dak runners to bring out food and letters from Ramnagar.

The roads in the Park are all unmetalled and are motorable only

during fine weather between December and June. Communications

are sometimes cut by heavy winter rains in January and February.

The climate is fairly good and cool, particularly at night, but a

mosquito net should be used.

A limited number of visitors will now be welcome, but a large

influx of people is most undesirable until the Park has been in existence

sufficiently long for the animals to become tamer and more used to

human beings. Communications are being improved year by year

and it is to be hoped that at the end of another decade, Northern

India will possess a National Park comparable to the fine National

Parks of other countries.’

2. The Rajaji Wild Life Sanctuary

Members will be interested in some details of the Kansrau Sanctuary

formed in 1940-41 and recently named after the last of the long line

of the Governors-General of India. It is situated in the Siwalik Hills,

Saharanpur Forest Division of Uttar Pradesh.

The information is extracted from notes contributed by Mr. G. M.

Johri, D.F.O., Dehra Dun Forest Division, through the Conservator of

Forests, Western Circle, U.P., Naini Tal.

The Sanctuary covers an area of nearly 64,902 acres or IoI square

miles and includes some former Shooting Blocks.

The upper parts are very rugged and precipitous, sometimes broken

with slopes and gradients of all kinds. The middle slopes are at places

moderate to steep, or fairly level to slightly undulating, with a general

slope towards the south forming a flat to undulating base in the sub-

montane area along the forest motor road and the Khara-Hardwar cart

road.

Rock and soil is mainly sandstone, with loose conglomerate beds

in the upper parts. There are about sixteen raus (ravines) and numerous

feeder nalas and sdts (precipitous water courses). Most of these re-

main dry for the greater part of the year. In fact, water is available

in only a few of them till the advent of the hot season when most of

them, except in the middle zone, appear to be waterless. In the north

east of the Sanctuary water is available all the year round as the Suswa

and Song rivers flow on that side. Natural springs are rare.

The Sanctuary is traversed by the Dehra-Saharanpur metalled road

through the Mohand Pass down to the Mohand, and a forest motor road

runs along the submontane tract from east to west joining Dholkand,

Mohand, and Shakumbheri Forest Rest House; while the Khara-

Hardwar District Board public road forms the southern border of the

Sanctuary.

On the upper Siwalik slopes, the jagged summits of which attain

an elevation of 3,000 feet, the forest is stunted and open consisting on

the southern side of pines (Pinus longifolia) and scattered Anogeissus

WILD LIFE RESERVES IN INDIA: UTTAR PRADESH 753

latifolia, Boswellia serrata, Buchanania latifolia, Odina wodier, Ougenia

dalbergioides, and Garuga pinnata. The middle and lower hills are

clothed with a better type of forest among which are A, latifolia, O.

wodier, G. pinnata, Bauhinia purpurea, B. malabarica, Diospyros

tomentosa, Albizzia lebbek, Acacia catechu, Terminalia belerica, T.

tomentosa, Cassia fistula, Ficus religiosa, F. bengalensis, Emblica

officinalis, Lagerstroemia parviflora, and other trees and shrubs of the

area.

The strips of forest along the ravine beds and sides consist chiefly

of shisham (Dalbergia sissoo) and khair (Acacia catechu) in the riverain

tracts; and sal (Shorea robusta), Terminalia tomentosa, T, belerica,

Cedrela toona, Adina cordifolia, Mitragyna parvifolia, Bauhinia

purpurea, B. malabarica, Anogeissus latifolia, Kydia_ calycina,

Zizyphus jujuba, Z. xylopyra, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Bombax

malabaricum, Sterculia villosa, Albizzia lebbek, Casearia tomentosa,

Ficus religiosa, F. bengalensis, F. glomerata, Ougenia dalbergioides,

Ehretia laevis, Aegle marmelos, Limonia acidissima, Holoptelea

integrifolia, Grewia elastica, Diospyros tomentosa, Holarrhena anti-

dysenterica, Wrightia tomentosa, on the plateaus of the submontane

LLAaCts:

The under-storey consists of Mallotus philippensis, Zizyphus

xylopyra, Holarrhena antidysenterica, Carissa opaca, in parts with

undergrowth of Helicteres isora, Adhatoda vasica, and various grasses.

The upper and middle hills are fairly covered with Pollidinium

angustifolium, Chrysopogon montanus, and Heteropogon contortus

grasses; whereas the strips along ravines are thickly stocked with

‘ula’ and ‘dhub’ (Cynodon dactylon which is the chief and best of

pasture and fodder grasses), Saccharum munja etc.

In places along the ravines are fair strips of evergreen forest with

such species as Eugenia jambolana, Machilus gamblei, Phoebe

lanceolata, Litsaea polyantha, etc. The canopy is closer in the area

east of the Dehra-Saharanpur metalled road.

Bamboo occurs throughout the region in the middle and upper parts.

Werrep. ‘Lt EE

The area contains all the larger animals of the northern forests of

the U.P., viz., Elephant, Sambar, Chital, Barking Deer, Goral, Tiger,

Panther, Sloth Bear, and a very few Himalayan Black Bear when the

honey season is on. There are also hyenas and wild pig. Of the

smaller carnivora there are the Common Jungle Cat, the Leopard Cat,

the Common Palm-Civet or Toddy Cat, and perhaps the rare Spotted

Linsang or Tiger Civet. The Himalayan Yellow-throated Marten will

be seen, and perhaps the Red Flying-squirrel, and of course the

ubiquitous Five-striped Palm Squirrel. Wolves and foxes appear to

be now absent from the area as they are very seldom seen; wild dogs

occur. Hyenas mostly frequent the rocky ravines and may be found

singly or in family parties. Porcupines are not uncommon and do

damage to young trees. The Indian Pangolin or Scaly Ant-eater

also the Ratel or Honey-Badger occur, but are seldom seen. Jackals

will be both seen and heard.

In the rivers and deep pools are crocodiles of both species, (Gharial

754 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

and Mugger) and the Smooth Indian Otter hunts along the rivers,

streams, and jungle pools where they exist. Pythons of the Siwaliks

grow to more than usual dimensions. Of the poisonous snakes

there are cobras, daboias, kraits, saw-scaled vipers, all of which

can be deadly to man, and the King Cobra or Hamadryad may perhaps

be met with. Besides these is a number of non-poisonous species,

and of those of green coloration the Common Green Pit Viper may

be mentioned as non-lethal to man but the bite of which may cause

severe local effects and constitutional disturbances.

Of the Primates the Common Langur or Hanuman Monkey, and the

Rhesus Macaque or Bandar, are common in both the forest area and

in the neighbourhood of habitations. |

Among ground or small game, are hares, peafowl, red jungle-

fowl, spur fowl, black partridges, and various species of quail. The

Kalij pheasant is found in the interior in suitable places.

Part of the taungya plantations in Barkala Range in Shambukherl,

Sahansra, and Kothri Blocks come within the limits of the Sanctuary

and under the new Working Plan such plantations are to be extended

along the submontane tracts. These will afford added cover for birds

and the smaller animals.

The wild elephant is somewhat rare in the Sanctuary, but some-

times two or three may be seen roaming in suitable environment. One

of these is a big tusker, supposed to be the biggest ever seen in Uttar

Pradesh, and Mr. F. W. Champion took several photographs of this

animal in various situations.

Where tracks disclose the presence of tigers they could be observed

in the early mornings or late afternoons in selected places, success

being more hkely from elephant back. In this way also many other

animals of the area and their tracks could be observed, should a riding

elephant be available and the necessary permission obtained from the

appointed forest official.

Sambar mostly select Boswellia serrata on the higher ground for

their mid-day rest, lying up under some isolated tree. They travel long

distances in search of food, and may be seen in small parties of two or

three animals.

The Spotted Deer or Chital is widely distributed in the area being

the most gregarious of Indian deer. The herds may include hundreds

of individuals and the lovely creatures become very tame in a sanctuary.

Being mostly partial to low level ground they are readily observed by

the visitor. The record head of 391 in. was obtained in Bahraich, but

several heads of 39 in. have been shot in the Siwalik forests.

Barking deer will be seen, and also heard calling to one another

or giving loud alarm calls on scent or sight of the larger felines. The

nimble Goral (wild goats) frequent the rocky ground and steeper places

in the middle of the forests, and are usually associated in small parties

of 4 to 8 animals. Their principal enemy is the panther.

The sloth bear may perhaps be seen, and an occasional wild boar

or a sounder of wild pig will be encountered. There are in the area

some hundreds of species of wild birds including several eagles and

smaller birds of prey, and vultures. For the camera are many attrac-

tive subjects, both scenery and mankind, ‘and the visitor to this

Sanctuary is sure of much enjoyment and many pleasing memories.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE EGG-CASES OF SOME

OVO-VIVIPAROUS AND VIVIPAROUS ELASMOBRANCHS,,

WITH A NOTE ON THE FORMATION OF THE

ELASMOBRANCH EGG-CASE!

R. RacHu PRASAD

(Central Marine Fisheries Research Station, Mandapam Camp.)

(With a plate)

INTRODUCTION

Egg-cases of a number of oviparous Elasmobranchs have been

described from time to time, the oblong egg-capsules of skates and

rays being known as ‘skate barrows,’ ‘sailors’ purses,’ ‘mermaids’

purses,’ and ‘mermaids’ pin-boxes’. As in all the oviparous species

known so far, so also in all ovo-viviparous and most of the viviparous

species, the egg is protected by an egg-case. But little attention

seems to have been paid to the study of the egg-cases of ovo-

viviparous and viviparous Elasmobranchs.

Prasad (1945 a, b and 1948) reported certain structural modifica~

tions that had been observed in the nidamental glands of Elasmo-

branchs as oviparity gives place to viviparity. In a recent paper

Matthews (1950), while describing the nidamental glands of

Cetorhinus maximus remarks: ‘The structure of the gland in

Cetorhinus is such as to suggest that its function is solely that of

secreting albumen; if any shell is produced it is unlikely to be more

than a membranous sac, as in Acanthias’. The present work was

started with a view to study the probable changes that might result

in size, shape and structure of the egg-cases of ovo-viviparous and

viviparous Elasmobranchs as oviparity gives place to viviparity and

the following is a preliminary report on the observations made on a

few ovo-viviparous and viviparous Elasmobranchs of the Madras

Coast.

EGG-CASES

The best developed egg-capsules are naturally those of oviparous

forms. They vary from the simple horny capsules of many of

the common oviparous species to the highly developed egg-capsule

of Heterodontus, where it is of relatively large size and has the form

of an elongated conical capsule with very thick walls, provided with

two broad flat flanges twisted spirally around it and two long coiled

filaments at the pointed end. Variations in the egg-cases are found

1 This investigation was carried out while the author was working in the Madras

University Zoological Research Laboratory, but the publication has been delayed’

owing to his being away on an Overseas Scholarship.

756 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

even within the same family. Such differences are given by Clark

(1922) who has described the egg-capsules of eight species belonging

to the family Raiidae. He mentions also that capsules spawned

by the same fish show considerable variation in size. In the egg-cases

of some of the oviparous species the four corners are drawn out into

long tendrils; in some others the four corners may be produced into

horns of varying lengths; in some only two corners are produced

into long horns, the other two being short, stumpy and strongly

hooked; in still others there are numerous delicate filaments on the

two side margins of the egg-case. The tendrils, horns and filaments

are all considered to be different aids for anchoring the egg-capsule.

Of the egg-cases belonging to the different species of oviparous

Elasmobranchs, the largest recorded is one hundred and eighty

millimeters in length and about one hundred and fifty millimeters in

width, the smallest about sixty-three millimeters in length and thirty-

seven millimeters in width (Norman, 1947). Among the egg-cases of

the various species of the family Scyllidae, Smedley (1926) observed

a gradation. He says: ‘The members of the family Scyllidae in-

habiting Malayasian waters provide examples of three distinct types

of egg-cases. “That of the genus Scyllium has the four corners

produced to form long tendrils, and it is not until these have become

firmly entwined around some fixed object that the egg-case is drawn

from the oviduct of the female. Chiloscyllium indicum has a band of

fine mucilaginous hairs which may form a means of anchorage alter

the laying of the egg. ‘In the case of Stegostoma no method of

attachment is provided and the egg apparently drifts until the

hatching out of the young shark.’

These are typically oviparous forms. The. next stage in the

gradual transition from oviparity to viviparity is the ovo-viviparous

condition. Since in the ovo-viviparous and viviparous forms the egg-

‘case 1S retained in the uterus the means of anchorage such as tendrils

and mucilaginous hairs have been lost. Probably egg-cases such as

those of Stegostoma indicate the transitional stage through which

Elasmobranchs passed gradually from oviparity to ovo-viviparity?.

The egg-case of Chiloscyllium griseum, an oviparous_ species,

found commonly along the Indian Coast, has been described by Aiyar

and Nalini (1938) and Nalini (1940).

Of the ovo-viviparous Elasmobranchs that occur along the Madras

Coast, the author has examined the egg-cases of Rhinobatus granu-

latus, Rhynchobatus djiddensis and Pristis cuspidatus. All these have -

almost similar egg-cases measuring on an average 250 mm. by 120

mm. Each egg-case is a large bag made up of two lateral halves,

* The term ovo-viviparity is here used to include those cases in which the

eggs, enclosed in an egg-case, are retained in the uterus until the young ones

hatch by rupturing the egg-case. There is neither a placenta formed nor is there

a direct feeding mechanism by the trophonemata of the maternal uterine wall.

The term viviparity, on the other hand, is used to include those cases in which

the eggs undergo development in the uterus and the young ones hatch and usually

there is the formation of the yolk-sac placenta or the maternal uterine villi or

the trophonemata pour their secretion directly into the system of the embryo.

The eggs may or may not be enclosed in an egg-case, which when present, is

made up of only a thin diaphanous membrane.

ON THE EGG-CASES OF SOME ELASMOBRANCHS 157

enclosing three to five eggs, the number being subject to variation.

Photo I shows the egg-case of R. granulatus opened to show the eggs

in it. The walls of the egg-case are soft, fairly thick, highly elastic

and brownish yellow in colour. The two poles of the egg-case show

sight foldings, which, as the embryos grow, unfold gradually making

room for the developing embroyos. The surface shows closely

arranged parallel lines. Setna and Sarangadhar (1948 a) have

described the egg-cases of P. cuspidatus in detail and mention that

the egg-case R. djiddensis is exactly similar to that of P. cuspidalus.

Microtome sections of the wall of the egg-case of R. granulaius

show three distinct layers (Fig. 1). Mallory’s triple stain colours

the inner and the outer zones orange and the middle layer iight

blue. -The outermost is the thinnest layer and is composed of

horizontal striations with lacunar spaces. The narrow light blue

middle layer has a beaded appearance and the innermost thick layer

is composed of horizontal striations with lacunar spaces. Similar

sections of the wall of the egg-cases of P. cuspidatus and R. djiddensis

show the three layers described above.

Tiny protuberances are described by Nalini (1940) as occurring

on the outer surface of the egg-case of Chiloscyllium griseum. These

are not present on the egg-cases of the ovo-viviparous forms described

here, the surface being smooth and even. Couch (1847) observed

that the egg-case of a species of Myliobatus has the surface reticu-

lated.

Nalini (1940) observed in the egg-case of C. grisewm that the

outermost layer is followed by a clear space and this has been inter-

preted to represent a slight pause -in the secretory activity of the

nidamental gland. In all. therthree species sovfar described by the

author no such clear space has been noticed. If the clear space is

tOM Fepresent: ar quiescence in) the» secretory activity. of the gland, “as

suggested by Nalini, then it seems that, in the species under con-

sideration, when once the secretory activity of the gland has started

there seems to be no pause until one egg-case is completed.

The maximum thinning of the egg-case has taken place in the

typical viviparous forms, where the egg-case is made up of a thin

diaphanous, elastic and transparent membrane which has a slight

yellow or brown colour in most species.

In a specimen of Galeocerdo tigrinus, caught off the Madras

‘Coast, each uterus contained twenty eggs, each enclosed in an egeg-

ease. The egg-case of this species has already been described by

Sarangadhar (1943). It is soft, thin and transparent with both ends

highly folded. Between the egg and the egg-case there is a layer of

albuminous fluid. The folds, as already mentioned in the case of

R. granulatus and other ovo-viviparous species, unfold as the embroyo

develops giving enough space for it. An examination of sections of

the wall of the egg-case stained with Mallory’s triple stain shows

that it is composed of a single homogeneous compact layer as. the

sections are stained uniformly red. Striations and lacunar spaces

which are seen in the sections of the egg-case of R. granulatus are

net present here. In Carcharinus dussumieri one pole of the egg-

case Is continued as a long twisted cord, which is highly folded and

has a golden colour. The cord measures from 220 to 250 mm. in

758 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 49

length. The egg-cases of Hemigaleus balfouri resemble more or less

those of C. dussumieri in appearance. Here too, one pole is con-

tinued into a twisted and highly folded cord measuring about 60 mm.

In Scoliodon palasorrah there is a similar covering for the egg (Piate;

photo. 2) but the long cord has been reduced to a small conical,

highly folded and compressed tuft-like structure measuring about 15

to’ 20 mm, im length: The ege-cases of both! Hi vbaljour: amdas-

palasorrah have a light brown colour. The tiny egg of S. sorrakowah

is covered over by a very delicate, transparent and _ colourless

membrane. The egg-case (Plate; photo. 3) is pear-shaped and

measures about 5 mm. by 3 mm. and it is likely that this happens to

be the smallest egg-case known. The narrow part of the egg-case

is drawn out into a small tuft, about 2 mm. in length when stretched

out, Whereas the tuft at the broad end of the egg-case is comparatively

short. The egg-case is filled with a clear transparent liquid.

Microtome sections of the egg-cases of the last four viviparous

species described were examined. Unlike the structure of the egg-

cases of the ovo-viviparous forms, there is no differentiation into layers

as revealed by the fact that the sections, when stained with Mallory’s

triple stain, take a uniform light red colour as im G: \itgrinus~

Lacunar spaces as well as striations are not present. All the egg-

cases are composed of a single homogeneous compact layer.

The egg-cases are retained in the uteri, even in the viviparous

forms, for a fairly long time and even after the young are liberated

portions of the egg-case can be seen in the uteri. In certain forms

like Mustelus laevis it has been noticed by Hoedemaker (as quoted

by Mahadevan, 1940) that the membranous egg-case persists between

the maternal and foetal tissues of the placenta. It permits ready

diffusion of the milky nutritive fluid secreted by the uterine mucosa.

According to Norman (1947) the egg-capsule formed in viviparous

forms is absorbed later on.

FORMATION OF THE ELASMOBRANCH EGG-CASE

There is a good deal of uncertainty still on this subject. Earlier

workers like Gerbe (1872), and Perravex (1884) held that the albumen

and the shell are secreted simultaneously around the egg. The laiter

held that although secretion of the matter, of which the shell is

composed, begins before the egg reaches the gland, yet the shell is

actually formed when the egg reaches the gland. But Beard (1890)

stated that in skates the lower half of the purse is formed before the

ege enters the oviducal gland and the closure of the purse is effected

soon after the arrival of the egg. Among the more recent workers

Borcéa (1904) opines that the formation of the shell commences before

the egg reaches the gland on the ground that the pressure of the egg

within the gland would prevent the secretion from passing between the

lamellae, at the base of which individual tubular glands open.

Widakowich (1905), while describing the nidamental glands of Scylliwm

canicula, held that the caudal processes of the egg-case are laid

down during the passage of the egg down that part of the oviduct

which is cranial to the nidamental gland, but that the body of the

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

m CO.

eg.

Figure 1. A section of the wall of the Photo 2, Egg-case of Scoliodon palasorrah

egg-case of Rhinobatus granulatus. ca. % natural size.

Note the three distinct regions.

xX 600 (oil)

Egg-case of S. sorrakowah.

Note the narrow end drawn out into a

short cord. x 8

Photo 1. LEgg-case of R. granulatus Photo 3.

(in uterus) opened to show the eggs.

ca. + natural size.

Kryv to LETTERING

CO.) tees CONICal Ciatt,

COU otetrescnsss “C20.

EQ IC? Mectesr soe. (COC=CaSC,

1G crises tssces net Laver,

ee eeaias ee OO CIe Laver,

OP Neisusecsr) OULer ayer,

CW. cosesveesese twisted cord:

“TI

ON THE EGG-CASES OF SOME ELASMOBRANCHS

ege-case is forined during the subsequent movement of the egg

through the gland. Hobson (1930), after examining about 150

pregnant skates of several species, came across a single specimen in

which the egg-cases were in the process of formation. He found ova

in the upper oviducts, between the ostium and the nidamental gland,

whilst the egg-cases were three-quarters completed; their only

difference from the final product was their light colour and_ soft

texture. The egg-cases were quite empty and the dorsal and

ventral walls were well separated from one another. On the evidence

of this he concluded that the posterior three-quarters of the exg-case

is secreted before the ovum enters the nidamental gland and probably

half of it before the ovum has left the ovary. Garrault and Filhol

(1987). lave described the mechanism ..of secretion ofthe different

lavers of the egg-case of Raja batis and Scytioriuinnus canicula Dut

they do not mention whether the secretion of the egg-case starts

before the egg reaches the nidamental gland or after that. Metten

(1939) examined several specimens in order to establish the truth or

otherwise of Hobson’s contention. He has given a record of a

number of partially secreted egg-cases. According to him there was.

never an ovum present in less than three-quarters Rompleted ev'g-Case }.

nor was an ovum to be found undergoing migration in ie coelom

Or upper oviduct in any fish where the egg-cases were half secreted

or less. He was not able to find any fish in the exact condition of

Hobson’s skate, although he found fully formed egg-cases. containing

only albumen. But these were rather small, otherwise normal.

Nalini (1940) rejects the view of the part formation of the egg-case

and concludes that the secretions are poured over the egg after it

reaches the nidamental gland. She also suggests that the mode of

formation of egg-case may vary in different species of oviparous

Elasmobranchs. Setna and Sarangadhar (1948 a) observed incom-

pletely formed egg-cases in the nidamental gland of Chiloscyllium

griseum and remark: ‘The most interesting features were, however,

presented by the incompletely formed egg-cases in both the nidamental

elands: of the. temale;(Pext-ie, 2c; Pl, 1, fe. 2 left). Both of theny

were equal in development, similar in SHCA GOR which itself was

similar to that of the fully formed egg-cases and they were situated

exactly opposite to each other. It was obvious that nearly two-

thirds of their development had been completed, characteristically,

from the posterior end forwards and that antersorly they were open,

the openings being fairly wide and irreguiar in outline. The ferti-

lised eggs, surrounded by ‘dense masses of transparent, gelatinous

albumen, had already entered the egg-cases, and more albumen was

seen to be still entering through the open ends’. While discussing

the mode of formation of the egg-case in C. griseum the authors

remark: ‘Observations on the egg-cases obtained by us point to a

lack of uniformity in the composition cf the structure of the capsular

wall in different regions and clearly suggest a non-synchronous

activity of the shell-glands in different zones of the nidamental glands.

These features, together with the very incomplete nature of the ege-

cases encountered by us, thus support the former view, that the lower

half or more of the egg-case is jormed before the egg arrives in the

nidamental gland and that the closure of the purse is effected only

760 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. \SOCIERY< Volt: 49

after the entry of the egg in the partially formed egg-case,’ regarding

the formation of the egg-case in oviparous forms.’

The above-mentioned observations have all been restricted to

oviparous forms. The condition of the egg-case in the ovo-viviparous

forms such as IRhinobatus granulatus, Rhynchobatus djiddensis and

Pristis cuspidatus suggest the improbability of the egg-case being

formed after the egg reaches the nidamental gland. The mode ot

formation of the egg-case, which the author believes to be of general

occurrence In Elasmobranchs, would seem applicable to all forms.

In all the ovo-viviparous species described, a single egg-case covers

more than one egg. Usually the number varies from three to five.

This arrangement stood against the acceptance of the view that the

egg-case 1s being secreted around the egg or eggs after they reach

the nidamental gland. If, according to Borcéa (1904), one egg in

the nidamental gland can give so much pressure as to prevent the

secretions from flowing out, what will be the pressure exerted om ihe

gland by three to five large ova each measuring about 50 mm. in

‘diameter ?

Most of the previous workers agree that the formation of the

shell commences before the egg reaches the gland. It has been

doubted whether normal egg-cases can be formed, considering the

highly sticky nature of the secretions, when there is no egg in the

nidamental gland to keep its walls separate and to prevent the walls

of the egg-case from collapsing (Nalini, 1940). The observations of

Beard (1890) show that about ten per cent of some shark egg-cases

laid in captivity were found to contain no egg. More instances of

such egg-cases, containing no egg, have been recorded by Borcéa

(1904), Metten (1939), Gudger (1940) and Smith (1942). These records

substantiate the fact that the walls of the eg eg-case can remain separate

even though there is no egg in between. Further, it is not unlikely

that a certain quantity of albumen will be secreted into the egg-

case that is in the process of formation and this will keep the walls

from collapsing. As Metten (1940) has remarked some egg-cases,

even though they do not contain the eggs, have albumen inside.

Externally, these ‘empty egg-cases, it is reported, are quite indis-

tinguishable from others,.except for their lighter weight. Such empty

ege-cases are sometimes known as ‘wind eggs’.

In a mature female specimen of Galeocerdo tigrinus, caught off

the Madras Coast on August 10, 1944 measuring 3775 mm. in length,

two eggs, one in each cranial oviduct, were seen migrating down into

the nidamental glands. They had already travelled about one-third

of the distance from the oviducal funnel to the nidamental gland.

An examination of these glands revealed that they had already begun

to secrete the egg-case and part of the egg-case formed could be

traced from the lateral horns of the gland to the caudal oviduct. The

portion that had already been formed would evidently constitute the

highly compressed and twisted cord at one pole of the egg-case.

The very fact that one seldom encounters a partly formed egg-case:

as the one mentioned here, suggests that the formation of the egg-

case is rather quick and hence it is only by pure chance that one

1 Note: Italics by author

ON THE. EGG-CASES OF SOME ELASMOBRANCHS 761

may come across a specimen with an incomplete egg-case in the

nidamental gland and as Setna and Sarangadhar (1948 a) have pointed

out a more intensive fishing during the breeding season. may reveal

the normality of the phenomenon of part formation of egg-cases.

In those forms where more than one egg is enclosed by an egg-

case the theory of egg-case formation en masse does not seem to be

applicable because all eggs which are to be enclosed by an egg-case

cannot reach the nidamental gland simultaneously ; even if they reach

the gland in quick succession the glands will have to remain inactive

until all the eggs reach the gland. So taking these facts into consi-

deration the following conclusions may be drawn. The nidamental

gland begins to secrete the egg-case as soon as ovulation takes place,

whether ovulation be the only stimulus or not, and consequently

when the egg reaches the nidamental gland there will be a partly

formed egg-case to receive the egg. Fresh secretions, being in the

form of granules and fibres, are dovetailed so closely as not to leave

any definite suture. Further, it is important to emphasise that when

once the secretory phase of the gland has started it stops only after

the completion of an egg-case and thus the formation of the egg-case

is a continuous process which eliminates the possibility of the presence

of a suture denoting the line of fusion.

SUMMARY

1. Egg-cases of three ovo-viviparous forms viz., Rhinobatus

granulatus, Rhynchobatus djiddensis and Pristis cuspidatus and five

viviparous species viz., Galeocerdo tigrinus, Carcharinus dussumieri,

Hemigaleus balfouri, Scoliodon palasorrah and S. sorrakowuh have

been described.

2. The egg-cases of oviparous species are thick and horny exhi-

biting distinct layers, while viviparous forms have thin and transparent

ege-cases of a homogeneous substance not marked into distinct layers.

In ovo-viviparous species the egg-cases formed are intermediate in

their structure and thickness.

3. The probable mode of formation of the egg-case together with.

the stage at which secretion begins is suggested.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

It is with extreme pleasure that the author records here his

sincere thanks to Prof. R. Gopala Aiyar and Dr. N. Kesava Panikkar

for their suggestions and criticisms.

LITERATURE CITED

Aiyar, R. G., and Nalini, K. P. (1938): Observations on the reproductive

system, egg-case and breeding habits of Chiloscyllium griseum. Proc. Indian

Acad. Sct., Ser. B, 7 (5) : 254-269.

; Beard, J. (1890) : On the development of common skate. 8th Annual Report,

Fisheries, Scotland, Pt. 3: 300-311.

Borcéa, J. (1904): Surla glande nidamentaire de 1’ oviducte des elasmo-

branches. C. R. Acad. Sct., Paris, 138: 99-101.

Clark, R. S. (1922): Rays and Skates (Raiae), I.—Egg-capsules and young,

Jour. Mar. Biol, Assoc., United Kingdom, 12: 577-643.

762 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AFST. SSOCIETVN Volw49

Couch, J. (1847) : Onthe egg purse and embryo of a species of Myliobatus.

Report British Assoc. Adv. Sci., 16th meet., p. 80.

Garrauit, H., and Fithol, J. (1937): L’organe nidamentaire de Elasmobranches

et son rdle dans la formation de la Capsule del’oeuf. C. A. Soc. Biol., Paris, 126:

773-775.

Gerbe, Z.* (1872): Recherches sur la segmentation de la cicatricule et la

formation des produets adventifs de l’oeufs des plagicstomes. Jour. Anat. et.

Physiol., 8: 609-616.

Gudger, E. W. (1940): ‘The breeding habits, reproductive organs and

external embryonic development of Chlamydoselachus, based on notes and draw-

ings by Bashford Dean. Amer. Mus. Nat., Hist. Bashford Dean Memorial Volume,

Archaich fishes, Art. *.

Hobson, A. D. (1930): A note on the formation of egg-case of skate. Jour.

Mar. Biol. Assoc. United Kingdom, 16 (2): 577-581.

Mahadevan, G. (1940): Preliminary observations on the structure of the

uterus and the placenta of a few Indian Elasmobranchs. Proc. Indian Acad.

Scz., Ser. B, 10 (1) : 1-44.

Matthews, L. H. (1950): Reproduction in the basking shark, Cetorhinus

maximus (Gunner). Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., London, Ser. B, 234: 247-316.

Metten, H. (1939) : Studies on the reproduction of dog-fish. Ibid., 230:

217-238.

Nalini, K. P. (1940): Observations on the structure and function of the

nidamental gland of Chtloscyllium griseum, with a note on the formation of the

egg-capsule. Proc. Indian Acad, Sct., Ser. B, 12: 189-214.

Norman, J. R. (1947): A history of fishes, 3rd. Ed., Ernest Benn Ltd.,

London.

Perravex, E.* (1884): Sur la formation de la coque des oeufs du Scyllinm

canicula and §. catulus. C.R. Acad. Sci., Paris, 99, 1080-1082.

Prasad, R. R. (1945a): The structure, phylogenetic significance and function

of the nidamental glands of some Elasmobranchs of the Madras coast. Proc.

Nat. Inst. Sci., India, Ser. B, 11 : 282-302.

(19456) : Farther observations on the structure and function of the

nidamental glands of a few Klasmobranchs of the Madras coast. Proc. Indian

Acad. Sci., Ser. B, 22, pp. 368-373.

-—— (1948): Observations on the nidamenta! glands of Hfydrolagis colliei,

Raja rhina and Platyrhinotdes triseriatus. Copeia, 1948, No. 1: 54-57.

Sarangadhar, P. N. (1943): Tiger Shark—Galeocerdo tigrinus Mull. & Henle.

Jour. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 44: 102-110.

Setna, S. B., and Sarangadhar, P. N. (1948a@): Observations on the develop-

ment of Chiloscyllium griseum M.& H., Pristis cuspidatus Lath. and Rhynocho -

batus djiddensis (Forsk.). Rec. Indian Mus., 46: 1-24.

—— (19484): Descriptions, bionomics and development of Scoltodon sorrakowah

(Cuv.). Ibid., 46: 25-53,

Smedley, N. (1925): On a staye in the development of the Tiger shark—

Stegostoma tigrinum. Jour, Roy. Astatic Soc., Bengal, Malayan Branch, 4: 166.

Smith, B. (1942): The heterodont Sharks: Tne natural history, and the

external development of Heterodon!us japonicus, based on notes and drawings by

Bashford Dean. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Bashford Dean Memorial Volume,

Archaich fishes, Art. 8, pp. 651-770.

Widakowich, V. (1905) : Uber bau und funktion des nidamental organs von

Scyllium canicula, Zeit. wiss. Zool., 70 (1): 1-21.

References marked* have not been consulted in the original.

OBITUARY

BRIGADIER GENERAL REGINALD GEORGE BURTON

With deep regret we-record the death of this old and valued

member of our Society which took place at his residence, Bafford

Grange, Charlton Kings, Gloucestershire, on the 2nd February 1951

in his 87th year. ; |

Brigadier General Burton was the fourth son of the laie General

E. F. Burton of the Madras Staff Corps, all of whose nine sons—only

one now living—followed their father’s profession. He was com-

missioned in the First West India Regiment on the 23rd August 1884,

and after a period of service in Jamaica came to India on appointment

to the Bengal Statf Corps and the Hyderabad Contingent. Following

auperiogs OF service On the 120. Stam at. Simla he commanded the

94th Russell’s Infantry (Hyderabad Contingent) from 1909 to 1913.

In 1915 he was Staff Officer with the Force landing in Gallipoii where

he was wounded and invalided home. In 1917 he was Commandant

of the.Cadet College, Wellington, Nilgiris, and in 1918 Commander

of the Madras Brigade Area.

After retirement at Cheltenham he was 23 years Manager of the

Boys’ Sunday Schools, and 9 years Vice-Chairman of the Hospital.

In 1901 he married Elsie Mary, daughter of Mr. William Lumb of

Whitehaven, and leaves one son, Reginald William Boteler Burton,

Fellow and Vice-Provost of Oriel College, Oxford University who

served in the Air Force all. through the War and was mentioned in

despatches.

R. G. Burton inherited both sporting and literary tastes. His

‘History of the Hyderabad Contingent’ was a masterpiece of its

kind. His other publications included, “Tropics and Snows’ 1808;

‘Sport and Wild Life in the Deccan’ 1928; ‘A, Book of man-eaters’

ngage bie book or tie, Miser 19335 “lhe licer Punters’ 1936.

He contributed a number of articles to the ‘Field’ and other papers

in England connected with Natural History. He also wrote a number

of books on military history and historical works on Indian campaigns

for the General Staff, and published three volumes on Napoleon’s

campaigns, One of which is still the standard book on the campaigns

in Italy.

When in Russia in 1893, he followed the track of Napoleon’s

invasion and afterwards passed as interpreter in the Russian Langu-

age. He was examiner in military history and strategy for the Indian

Staff College in 1910.

Brig. Burton joined the Society in 1898 and contributed many notes

and articles to the pages of its journal. A few may be mentioned :

‘Bull Terrier and Tiger’ and ‘Jungle Notes’ in Vol. 12; ‘Wild Animals

at. water. vol. 14; “Bie Game’ vol. 16; “Some Notes on Tigers and

Panthers’ vol. 17; ‘The Drinking Habits of Wild Animals’; ‘Fear

of Man in Wild ‘Animals’; ‘Some Natural History Notes on Tiger’;

]

764 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

~ ‘Notes on Panthers’; ‘Old Deccan Days’; ‘Wild Beasts—Real and

Apocryphal’ in vols. 18 to 21, and ‘Panthers’ vol. 26 (pp. 266-273).

Burton greatly enjoyed the extensive experiences of tiger shooting

which he had with his brother Robert during the earlier years of his.

service with the Hyderabad Contingent during which they killed many

tigers. ;

The class of sportsman-naturalist of whom R. G. Burton was

a notable representative is fast vanishing from India to the lasting:

loss of the country to which they gave the best vears of their lives.

Rio Wie

ie LE WS

1. BIRDS WILD AND FREE. By A. W. P. Robertson. 208:

PP. 72" = 52". 45 photos. London, The Bodley Head, 1950. Price:

TOS. set.

it is eloquent of the popularity which bird study enjoys in England

to-day that each Spring and Autumn unfailingly adds its quota to the

already imposing array of books on birds—especially British birds.

Bird-watching, once somewhat disdain‘ully regarded as a pastime:

of the ‘Idle Rich’, has grown in popularity notably between the two:

world wars and more vigorously during and since the last. It is

little exaggeration to say that as a hobby it now enjoys almost

universal approval in Britain. It has demolished all class barriers

and can claim its devotees from amongst every stratum of society

and every walk of life. In the past its appeal was chieflv aesthetic,

and the approach to it largely emotional. Academic highbrows

treated it with tolerant condescension as a harmless enough though

somewhat childish way of killing time, and of little scientific worth.

The steady shift of emphasis in zoological research in recent years

from the laboratory to the field has brought about a refreshing change

in the scientist’s outlook. Increasing attention is now being paid to:

the living organism—to problems connected with ecology behaviour,

population dynamics, migration, and so on, and it is abundantly

realized that morphological studies divorced from the living orgavism

provide an incomplete and distorted picture of its evolutionary history

and status.

Perhaps no other branch of field zoology offers the potentialities,

and certainly none can boast of greater strides forward than have

been achieved in the domain of ornithology. In England the establish-

ment of the British Trust for Ornithology at Oxford is undoubtedly

the most important single factor that has contributed to the change

in the scientific outlook. It has given a new impetus to bird-watching

all over that country. The number and variety of scientific problems

that are being tackled by amateur ornithologists with the co-operation

of the Trust’s experts is considerable. This altered outlook on bird-

watching is reflected in the number and general trend of the bird

books that are now produced. The best of them are characterized

by the possession of a sound scientific bias; they are simply and

pleasingly written and are usually well illustrated. And this is the

category into which I would unhesitatingly place the one under review.

‘Birds Wild and Free’ is a record of the author’s observations and

impressions on the behaviour and habits of his local birds, gathered

mostly during the last ten years of war and peace. The record is

illustrated by some excellent photographs by himself and his fellow--

766 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIET Vanvorms9

enthusiast Robin Powell. A great many of the observations were

made while in pursuit of bird photography.

A garden of about one acre in Cheshire, carefully controlled by

a party of nine enthusiasts working under the author’s direction,

produced no less than 60 nests of 21 different species, which is truly

remarkable.

Long-tailed Tits nesting in the proximity of a hedge-sparrow’s

nest were observed to occasionally feed the chicks of the latter in

addition to their own. A spell of wintry weather froze a lake on

which paired-off coots were preparing to breed causing the birds to

temporarily revert to their accustomed community life of the non-

breeding season. One pair so affected had already built a nest !

The book is replete with interesting and often original observa-

tions on the behaviour and habits of various bird species made from

the photographing hide, or in connection with the preparations for

photography. They emphasize the unparalieled opportunities vouch-

safed to the intelligent bird photographer for making detailed studies

on almost every activity of the living bird.

The return of the Avocet as a breeding species to Britain after

an absence of over a hundred years, and the measures employed to

a fascinating chronicle. Readers of J. K. Stanford’s ‘The Awl Birds’

will recognise in retrospect many of the incidents here recorded and

around which that enchanting story was built up.

The march of the seasons in an English farming village, with its

record of the arrivals and departures and the changing activities

of birds is beautifully described, and the book ends appropriately

with a chapter on Bird Identification which beginners will find of

the greatest usefulness... As the author rightly observes: It usa

fundamental fact that you cannot accumulate information about a

person, a bird, or anything else until you know its name; but once

the name is known a great gap is bridged and information can

accumulate like a snow ball.’ Correct identification is indeed the sine

qua non for intelligent bird-watching. No matter how careful or

interesting an observation may be, it will be ruined and will lack real

scientific worth unless the species to which it relates has been correctly

identified. .

It is some considerable time since I can remember to have enjoyed

.a bird book as much as this one, and I would recommend it strongly

to all who love birds, aspire to bird photography or appreciate good

descriptive writing.

Sian

2. ISLAND OF SKOMER.” Edited by John” Buxton’ and=R. Mi:

Lockley." Pp.- 1642" %Size “cal 18y/>x 05 5 ir plates! ands seeammays

London, “Staples Press tds” Price 28s

Skomer is a wind-swept, almost treeless island, some 7oo acres

in extent, lying off the extreme west coast of Wales. It is almost

REVIEWS

“1

(i)

“I

surrounded by cliffs, but the main part of the island is only about 200

feet above sea level. The rainfall is fairly heavy and is distributed

throughout the year. Consequently, there is a marsh, a stream and

a pond on the island, and fresh water is always available. Formerly

the island was inhabited by man, so there are a number of grassy-

fields from which the stones have been cleared to form walls. ‘To-day,

the commonest inhabitants of the island are rabbits, shearwaters,

puffins and other cliff-breeding birds—-these birds, of course are only

on the island during the breeding-season.

From March to October, 1946, the authors of this interesting

book, together with a number of short-time assistants lived on the

island, and carried out a careful and thorough survey, geological,

botanical, zoological—the island is one of the breeding-places of the

rare Atlantic grey seal—ornithological, entomological, marine-biolo-

gical. There is a modest disclaimer that the survey of the island's

natural life has been in any sense completed by six months’ work.

On the contrary, the authors hope that the publication of their book

may stimulate other observers to continue the work, both on this

and other Welsh islands—and why only Welsh? Perhaps fndian

too.

R. M. Lockley lived for some years on the adjacent island of

Skokholm; and one of the most interesting features of this book is

the comparison that can be made between the biology of these two

islands. Skokholm is three miles from the coast; Skomer a_ short

half mile. Thus, although the sea-birds breeding on the two islands

are the same and the visiting migrants are much the same, ‘land’

birds breeding on Skomer bring its breeding-total to 34 species,

whereas Skokholm’s total is only 21. Similarly, it appears that the

Lepidoptera breeding on Skomer are in excess of those found on

Skokholm. And the flora is astonishingly rich and varied. Fuller

comparisons of the two isiands would be valuable.

One of the most remarkable features of this little island is the

presence of a small Vole, Clethrionomys skomerensis, which is not

known from any other locality. It is a very tame animal. On the

photograph facing page 88 it is described as ‘a large insular variety

of the Bank-vole’. But it is clear from the text that scientific opinion

now accepts the view that it is a distinct species, probably at one time

more widely distributed, which has somehow failed in the competition

for existence in other parts of its range. It has been kept in captivity

with the-common Bank-vole, but the two animals would not interbreed.

The larger part of the book deals with the bird-life of Skomer.

Many illuminating observations were made. Only one or two can be

referred to here. In some of the gull colonies the Herring Gull

(Larus argentatus) and the British Lesser Black-backed Gull (L.

fuscus graellsii) breed side by side. These two species are only separ-

able by the colour of the mantle in the adult and (in some subspecies)

by the colour of the tarsus. Moreover, there seems to be complete

intergradation from the palest grey subspecies of L. argentatus to the

blackest subspecies of L. fuscus. Consequently, some authors insist

that they should all be lumped as one species. Yet on Skomer they

768 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL BIST. SOCGIBEY = Vols 49

breed side by side and do not interbreed. Careful observations were

made on their feeding-habits. Both species are more or less omni-

vorous, and no specific differences in feeding-habits could be detected.

The young birds are usually indistinguishable from one another. Yet,

when the breeding season is over, the brown young Herring Gulls

spend the eutumn and winter roaming over the North Atlantic and

the North Sea, while the brown, young Lesser Black-backs nearly ail

migrate to south-west Europe and north-west Africa. A multitude

of ringing results demonstrate this.

The autumn of 1946 was so stormy off the Welsh coast that very

little bird migration could be observed; and in one severe storm the

yacht was battered to pieces. So the party were driven away to the

shelter of a world where there is better protection from the elements.

In spite of disappointments however, in the final chapter the authors

write: ‘The last word of Pnowiniee can never be written about any

living thing—the joy of discovery, which is the inspiration and _ re-

ward of all honest search for true knowledge, ever remains.’

Perhaps the fascinating story told in this book will stimulate a

group of young Indian nabnealiere to start a survey of Elephanta Island

or of some other compact little universe within Indian waters.

el ci aS

3. SUPPLEMENT .TO-)THE:; BOUANAANOR a7 BIEA Rin hie

ORISSA. » By: Herbert. Mooney. 1950:7) ;Gatholiengh ress; ai omenr

TO.5X (L255 CmMS., Heaps si h2o4e

This is an excellent supplement, the result of many years of active

work in the field, for which the author deserves the congratulations

of Indian botanists. The printers on their part have spared no effort

to make this book a model of its kind in India.

In the introduction, the author mentions a large number of plants

which have not been recorded for his district by any of his predeces-

sors; the list is an impressive one particularly for a region that had

been so thoroughly explored by Haines. The discussion on the vegeta-

tion of several special tracts is of great interest.

There is but one fault that this reviewer can find with the book,

and this is in connection with the nomenclature of the plants listed

therein. -It is-the avowed aim of the author (See.p. 111) to Drme tike

nomenclature up to date; this is a diihcult enterprise especially ior a

field worker who spends most of his time away from the better

libraries.

On p. 24, to cite but one example, the author lists. Polycarpaea

corymbosa (Linn.) Lamk., and the reference to Linne as the author

of the specific epithet is in accordance with the Intern. Rules of Bot.

Nomencl., ‘Art. 49; generally, however, the author omits such re-

ferences.. In my opinion a uniform policy of either giving’ such

references or omitting them everywhere, would be more consistent.

On p25 Mollugo lotoides is attributed to Clarke in Hook. f., FI.

Br. Ind; 2) 662. 787 79: ° As far as I have’ been -able’ te ‘discover, tiie

$j nailer th AC

REVIEWS * 769

combination should be attributed to O. Iwuntze in Rev. Gen. Pl. 264,

1891. Clarke, loc. cit., gives Mollugo hirta Thunb.; and lower down

on ‘the same* pace, M. hivia: var, lotoides:: On p..776 of the Index

Clarke lists Mollugo lotoides Wt. & ‘Arn.*as a valid species; Wight

and Arnott, however, in their Prodromus p. 362 mention Glints

lotoides Linn. and not Mollugo lotoides. The combination must,

then, be attributed to O. Kuntze, who was the first cleariy to publish

it.

On p. 34 Mooney mentions Breynia patens Benth. ‘The generic

name Breynia Forst. is an invalid one, in the words of Croizat (in

Sargentia 1): 48, 1942) ‘on two counts. It is a later homonyin of

Breynia L. (Sp. Pl. 503, 1753) and a nomen coufusum, a mixture of

Breynia sp. and Phyllanthus distichus L.’ The oldest valid name for

Breyma Forst.. is Melanthesa Blume, in. Bl. & Fisch,, Fl. Jav. 1: vir

im note; 1828.

P. 67. Ammannia tenuis Clarke. The genus Ammannia has

recently been revised by Koehne in. Engler, Bot. ‘Jahrb. vol. 1, 1880

anduin. Enoler, Pianzenreich iv. 216;-more recently still Blatter and

Hallberg revised the Indian species of the genus in tiis journal, vol.

26. The plant in question is now called Rotala tenuis (Willd.) Iochne

inked; Bot. Jahrb. 1: 172, 1880.

P. 78. Bidens pilosa Linn. Sherff in 1937 published two ‘monu-

mental volumes on the genus Bidens; the common Bombay plant is

according to Sherff Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. & Sherff; it would

be interesting to know exactly what Mooney’s plant is in the new

revision of the genus, since B. pilosa seems to be actually rare in

this country.

P. 83. Centunculus pentandrus R. Br. This plant belongs to the

Primulaceae, not the Plumbaginaceae as stated by Mooney, obviously

by mistake. The correct name according to the revision of the

family by hax and: Kurthisan Enolery Pireichi"'22 :- 337, 1: 1, 1905)

is Anagallis pumila Swartz.

P. 86. Anodendron manubriatum (Wall.) Merr. for A. paniculalim.

The reason for the change as effected by Merrill is not obvious;

Wallich’s Echites manubriata is in fact the oldest name for the plant,

but at the same time it is a nomen nudum and therefore of no value

from the point of view of taxonomy and nomenclature. Roxburgh’s

Echites paniculata (1832) is invalid as being a later homonym for

E. paniculata Poir. But in the genus Anodendron the combination

A. paniculatum A. DC. is the oldest one for the plant in question, and

I fail to see why such a name is considered invalid by Merrill.

PY 37. Hoya pendula. Wight, Icon. t: 474, 1850:{not of Contrib?)

If Mooney is correct in distinguishing the plant of Icon. (1850) from

that of Contrib. (1834), then surely the former name is invalid, since

it is a later homonym; see Art 61.

P.' 89. Cordia dichotoma Forst. f.; this name! is correct, but thé

explanation given by the author is not. Linne’s Cordia myxa is the

oldest of the three names mentioned by Mooney, and has priority over

the other two names, but Cordia myxa Linn. is now considered a

different plant from the one commonly known under that name. in

Indian floras.

770 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

P. 93. Ipomoea hederacea Jacq. This plant is a native of America

and in Indian floras and herbaria is often mixed with a native Indian

plant, IZ. mil Roth; it would be interesting to know precisely which

of the two plants is meant* as occurring in Orissa.

P 109. Ruellia‘sp. The genus Ruellha, as far-as Bombay‘is con-

cerned, is represented only by the American introduced plant R. luberosa

Linn. The other Indian species of the so-called Ruellia have been

shifted to other genera by Bremekamp.

P. 116. Barleria montana Nees. This plant does occur in India,

but very often it is mixed with two other species, B. gibsoni Dalz.

and B. prattensis Sant. It would be interesting to find out which

of the three species precisely is the plant in the Supplement.

P. 120. Lippia nodiflora Rich. The correct name for this plant

is Phyla nodiflora (Linn.) Green in Pittonia 4: 46, 1899.

P..120. Lantana camara Linn: is a very rare plant am Undiawat it

does occur here at all; the common spiny plant is L. camara L., var.

aculeata Moldenke, or Lantana aculeata Linn.

P. 139. Salix tetrasperma Roxb. belongs to the family Salicaceae,

not to the Moraceae.

P. 204. Burmannia coelestis Don. Is this the typical variety or

B. pusilla Thw.?

The price of the book (about Rs.109) is rather stiff for a book of

only 300 pages.

Hy) SANTAPRAU cH:

4. THE ; FLAMINGOS) -OF , THE. CAMARGUE. |) By niente

Gallet. Translated: from the French py. Summer Austin. _,- Wath 53

photographic illustrations; -by. the author) ) hes. 127 Size jo sags.

Oxford, Basil’ Black, woso.—ienices 15s. mex

5. FLAMINGO CITY. By 'G.. Ko Yeates, ¥:R P's.) with) saga

and 44 photographic illustrations (6 in colour). Pp. 209. Size

ot" x 6! \ London, |Countsy, Lite Lid’) 1g50.. tanice 25s mer

Despite the popularity which the flamingo has enjoyed through

what one may call the bird-conscious centuries on account of its

striking form and colouration and the vastness of its normal congrega-

tions, there has clung to it (and still clings) a certain haze of mystery.

We are in comparative ignorance not only of the true nature and

extent of its seasonal movements but also of practically every other

detail concerning its life history, including its food.

The three best known and most populous breeding grounds known in

the Old World are (1) the marshes (marismas) in the delta of the

Guadalquivir river in Southern Spain, (2) the tract known as the

Camargue in the delta of the Rhone in southern France, and (3) the

Great Rann of Kutch in north-western India. We have little recent

information regarding (1).° All that is known about (3) is embodied

in two papers in the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society,

ao |

—

REVIEWS 7

the first by C. McCann (Vol. 41, pp. 12-38. 1939) and the second by

Salim Ali (Vol. 45, pp. 586-92. 1945). Although the Camargue has

been known as a breeding ground for over 70 years and references and

odd notes on the flamingos there have appeared from time to time

from the pen of several visiting ornithologists, Mons. Gallet is per-

haps the only resident ornithologist who has used his unrivalled

opportunities to investigate the nesting colonies closely and over a

fairly continuous period. His attempt to lift the veil from many aspects.

of the flamingo’s life history is admirable indeed, and the remarkable

photographs which form such a prominent part of his book can claim.

to be the finest series ever taken of this extraordinary bird in its

native haunts and at its domestic avocations.

Some of the points on which doubt and uncertainty prevailed—

not yet entirely dispelled in spite of M. Gallet’s pointed suggestions.

—may be mentioned:

Seasonal Movements: According to the author flamingos

arrive in the Camargue, leisurely following duck and coots, as the

temperature rises in spring. Where they come from remains a subject of

speculation. It will be remembered that McCann even suggested a

swing between Kutch and Spain and Camargue owing to untavourable

phenological conditions at either end. There have been no recoveries of

the young birds ringed in Kutch in 1945 to provide any clue, but of

a number marked in Camargue in the summer of 1950, I was recovered

from_ Toulon 200 km. east, 2 from the mouth of Ebro River in Spain,

t from Oran in Algeria and 1 from Tunisia suggesting that their

wanderings may in fact be quite widespread. The marking method

is obviously the onlv way in which this puzzle will finally be solved,

and it is to be hoped that serious attention will be centred on this.

matter wherever the flamingo nests.

Food: Investigators have been intrigued by the almost micro-

scopic quantity of solid matter invariably found in flamingos’ stomachs

upon dissection. ‘Animal as well as vegetable matter has been

recorded, but the quantity of solid food, even in healthy birds killed.

in the act of feeding has been far from adequate to suggest that this

comprises the staple diet of the species. The major proportion of the

stomach contents is usually slimy mud intermixed with sand. M.

Gallet suggests that the birds derive their sustenance chiefly from

the organic matter contained in the mud scoped up from the botton::

of the shallow brine or under the surface crust of crystallised salt. That

flamingo chicks are able to subsist for weeks, and even grow fat in

an area where nothing is apparent besides heavily concentrated brine

in which no living organism can exist, is quoted in support of the

suggestion that it is this slimy organic mud which supplies the necessary

nutriment. A comparative analysis of the slimy bottom mud and the

sand left behind on a patch where a flamingo had been feeding showed

that as much as 6 to 8% of organic matter had been extracted. M.

Gallet’s suggestion is worth critical examination; it may well prove

to supply the answer, as he believes.

M. Gallet believes that the sense of smell plays an important part

in the recognition of nests by their owners inside a congested flamingo:

“42 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NAPURAT WAIST. SOCTET VY) \Volwe49

colony. A mass of birds disturbed off their nests after dark returned

later, each bird finding its own nest by passing its bill over the

surface of each nest, neck drooped and swaying like a trunk. The

same manoeuvre is said to be employed during day time as well. ‘The

author’s experiments showed that an adult bird does not recognise

its egg or chick, but only its nest. If 2 or 3 chicks have scrambled

on to a nest in confusion, the returning mother pushes off the extras

indiscriminately till her quota of only a single chick is left. That this

is done without bias for her own offspring was ascertained by marking

rightful chicks with a woollen thread.

A great many points of absorbing interest in the life and progress

of a breeding colony are touched upon. Many of the author’s observa-

tions are highly suggestive, though it is sometimes difficult to decide

from the text (no doubt partly due to losses in translation) which are

based on fact and which are mere surmise. Unfortunately the style of

his writing is not what one is normally accustomed to, or expects,

in a modern scientific bird book, even of the more ‘popular’ type.

This reviewer, being a brutally prosaic person himself, would have

been glad to dispense with of the poetic emotionalism and romanticism

which in his opinion mars what is otherwise perhaps the most out-

‘standing first hand contribution to flamingo lore of recent times, and

‘certainly unique for the magnificent photographs that go with it.

In spite of its name, our second book ‘Flamingo City’ contains

much else that is strictly speaking beyond ‘urban’ limits. A large

part of the book deals with what one may perhaps call Flamingo City’s

suburban population, species like the Purple Heron, Black-winged

Stilt, Roller, Bee-eater, Hoopoe and others which though they may

‘seem somewhat commonplace to us in this country are precisely what

‘draw large numbers of enthusiastic bird lovers to the Camargue every

year and infect them with a sort of chronic ecstasy for which the

‘only antidote is a visit to more tropical climes! Not that an antidote

is necessary or even desirable, as any one reading Mr. Yeates’s

eloquent raptures will agree. There are certain human ‘afflictions’—

and bird-watching according to some is one of them—which some of us

can suffer cheerfully, and continue to suffer, indeed even be thankful

for. :

Mr. Yeates’s well-deserved fame as a_ bird-photographer siands

fulfilled in ‘Flamingo City’. Some of his photographs, particularly

of the Purple Heron, Pratincole (coloured) and the group of flamingoes

titled “Morning Light’ (p. 165) are truly superb. The text is interest-

ing and often quite amusing, but is in the main a narrative of his

visits to the Camargue in quest of bird photographs, above all of the

flamingo. The accounts of birds are on a rather anectotal level with

particular appeal to bird photographers, and add but little to scientific

knowledge. Even the section dealing with the flamigo, of which he

was fortunate enough to visit the 1948 colony in occupation, is largely

a re-hash of previous literature on the subject, a complete and very

useful bibliography of which is given at the end. In the list of

‘abbreviations on p. 203, J.B.N.H.S. stands for Journal of the Bombay

National (sic) History Society !

Hd OUAU GLC Mee & SARs eRe ce:

Appendix ir ‘A Review of our Knowledge of the Flamingo’ is a

t'résume of all that has been published about the bird arranged, under

the following sections: 1. The Mystery of the Nesting Grounds, 2.

The Problem of Discovery, 3. Nesting Range and Distribution, 4.

Nesting Habits, 5. Food, 6. The Future of the Flamingo.

The author’s frequent emphasis on the intolerable heat experienced

whea working from a hide in the Provencal summer should make

European readers reflect on how much more and continuously trying

must be the climatic factor for the bird photographer in the tropics.

‘It is only in this perspective that a proper appraisal of the work of

‘such of our own pioneers as R. S. P. Bates and E. H. N. Lowther

must be made for the excellence of their results to be truly appreciated.

Both these books will form a welcome addition to any bird-lover’s

library.

6: ERAPPING METERODS FOR BIRD RINGERS. . By P. A.D:

Hollom. Field Guide No. 1 published by the British Trust for

Ornithology, Oxford: 40 pages, 84" x54". 24 text figures. 1950:

Price: 2522.00.

One of the chief difficulties facing those who wish to ring birds

either for migration or life history studies is the catching of them.

Yhis has retarded marking very considerably and thereby the accumula-

tion of data concerning individual birds which only this method can

‘provide.

The British Trust for Ornithology and Mr. Hollom are to be

‘congratulated on producing this extremely useful and much-needed

pamphlet dealing with traps and nets for catching birds for marking

purposes. In its 4o pages numerous types of automatic and non-

automatic traps and nets are described, with diagrams and exact

dimensions. Many of them are of a design simple enough to get

constructed locally almost anywhere without the need of elaborate

material or special skill.

Our knowledge of the life histories of even our commonest birds

e.g. House Sparrow and House Crow are woefully limited and un-

precise. There is no more satisfactory method of learning facts about

individual birds than by marking them. Coloured rings, which can

now be supplied by the Society for some of our smaller passerine

‘birds, are easy to put on and afford a certain means of recognizing

individuals at a distance and of following their daily movements,

chores and occasions.

With the help of this pamphlet the catching difficulty can be

easily overcome, and a pleasant and enjoyable way of adding to

scientific knowledge lies open for everyone who takes an intelligent

interest in birds.

Copies can be had from the Society, or direct from the Secretary,

British Trust for Ornithology, 91, Banbury Road, Oxford. It is

hoped that full advantage will be taken by the numerous correspondents

who write to us for advice about trapping methods from time to time.

Sioa

774 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

The following books have been added to the Society’s ME

since January 1951:—

1. Mammats oF Nort America. By Victor H. Cahalane (The

Macmillan Company, 1947). 3

2. Birps or THE Wesr. By Ernest Sheidon Booth (Stanford

University Press, 1949).

3- SIMPLE EXPERIMENTS IN BroLtocy. By Cyril Bibby (William

Heinemann Ltd., 1944). |

4. SUPPLEMENT TO THE BOTANY OF BIHAR AND ORISSA. By

Herbert Mooney (Published under the authority of the Government of

Orissa, 1950).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. RABIES IN THE PANTHER; TWO PROVED INSTANCES

Owing to an unfortunate circumstance the Indian Medical

Gazette for October, 1950, was not received by me until after the

article on Rabies in the Tiger had gone to press.

In reply to my enquiry with reference to the opening paragraph

of Dr. Pandit’s article to the Medical Gazette, the Director of the

Central Research Institute, Kasauli, Punjab (India) writes to me on

the 25th January 1951:

‘Between the years 1908 and 1949 there has been a total of 9 deaths.

due to hydrophobia in persons bitten by rabid panthers as recorded in

the statistics of the Pasteur Institute of India, Kasauli, and of the

Central Research Institute, Kasault.

The most recent case of this description occurred in 1949.’

In view of the above it would seem most advisable for all persons.

mauled by panthers in this country to be given anti-rabic treatment

without delay.

BANGALORE, R. W. BURTON,

27th January, 1951. Et.-Col. 1.4. (Retd.)

2. AN EXTRAORDINARY FIND IN A PANTHER’S STOMACH.

(With a text figure)

I am sending you per separate registered postal parcel, a piece of

dry wood, broken at one end, and pointed at the other, which was

found in the stomach of a large panther I shot on 3-10-1950 in the

vicinity of Koira, Bonai, Orissa.

Actual length tip to top 9°2”

Maximum thickness 1.2”

7 circumference 3.4”

There was no scar or any such mark on the outside of the belly

portion of the beast to indicate that it had been speared from that

side. The local villagers, however, told me that the barb seemed

to be a broken piece from an implement used by them for digging

out edible roots in the forest. Their theory was that the panther in

attacking a person or his cattle in the forest had received a thrust

with this implement in the mouth, causing it to break and swallow

776 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

the sharpened end. There was no scar noticeable in the mouth, but

one of the upper small teeth was dislodged.

I would very much like to have your views as to the possibility of

any such occurrence as this after examining the wooden piece, and the

period it could have remained in the stomach of the panther.

P.O. BaraA-JAMDA, ATLL OCH

i. ORISSA,

we7th. October 1950:

{It is indeed an enigma how such a large and jagged piece of

hardwood—undoubtedly some roughly fashioned digging tool or spear-

head—could have found its way to the panther’s inside without causing

any noticeable damage to its mouth or throat. That it had not lodged

within for any considerable time is evident from the sharpnesses of

the point and at the fracture where the piece had snapped off. They

had as yet lost nothing of their roughness through the action of the

gastric juices. It must have caused much discomfort to the luckless

animal, and it seems a wonder that the points had not perforated the

.stomach during peristalsis.—Eps. |. :

3, ‘ON THE ‘THORN’ OR “CLAW? IN PANTHERS” @ADES

(IVith 3 X-ray photos)

With reference to the last line of your editorial comment on my

note in Vol. 47 of the Journal (p. 718, August 1948) regarding the

apparent absence of similar-malformation in tails of tigers, I now have

pleasure in being able to send you the end of a tiger’s tail possessing

the same feature. This tiger (male) was shot in June-in the Wynaad,

north of the Nilgiris, by:an- Indian gentleman. It was of exceptional

size, both in length and girth.

A preliminary examination of the tail oA trans- illumination, with an

ordinary 2-cell electric torch in a darkened room shows that, while

there is no dislocation existing, the curved ‘claw’—nearly 14 ins. in

jength—consists of four caudal vertebrae; and that, just beneath their

junction with the next bone of the main part of the tail, is an opacity

which might be mistaken for a totally dispiaced bone from the vertebrae.

This I consider to be, however, a naturally developed lump of dense

cartilage if not actually ossified cartilage or tendon (in medical parlance

a ‘sesamoid bone’) developed either by the play of a tendon over a

joint, or to serve the purpose of a fulcrum for using it the more easily

(the human knee-cap being a constant structure as such). And, per-

haps, it is because of this node in the tail of felines that they can

twitch the tip independently of the remainder.

In the case of the X-ray photographs of the two panthers’ tails,

it seems likely that too much attention had been drawn to the disloca-

| | r casual observer

to note, the, slight. resemblance to the curvature of a claw im the

MISCELLANEOUS -NOTES - Ta:

terminal portions. In the case of the larger tail such displacement

was, in my opinion, obviously of recent occurrence—precbably a sesamoid

bone. (If it was a cartilaginous nodule, the X-ray would scarcely

reveal it, if at all.) The smaller specimen—but also from a heavy,

adult panther—does show what seems to be a completely displaced

vertebra where a sesamoid bone might naturally develop; except that,

in this one, it lies on top of two adjoining vertebrae—though, frankly,

I do not yet know which ought to be the upper and which the lower

surfaces of these tails! |

However, I am sure that an X-ray illustration of the distinctively

Claw-like curvature in the tip of the tail of this very large and old.

tiger will afford an interesting study.

My grateful acknow!edgements for so carefully procuring the speci-

men for me, are due to the willing co-operation of Messrs. Neale &

_ Bosun of Mavinhalla (Wynaad}.

\VALMER, |

LOVEDALE, NILGIRIS. K. BOSWELL

Oth July, 1950.

[Dr. F. C. Fraser of the British Museum (Natural History), to whom.

Mr. Boswell’s letter and specimen were submitted for opinion, writes :—

‘‘The terminal portion of the tiger’s tail has been examined and

X-ray photographs taken of it. The ‘claw’ proves to be connected

with a dislocation of the vertebra fourth from the end of the tail.

A bony blunt pointed process is present at the proximal end of the

displaced vertebral body, which appears to be an integral part of the

vertebra concerned and not a ‘sesamoid’ as suggested by your corres-

pondent. It is marked off from the body of the vertebra by a shallow

well-defined depression which can be seen in the X-ray photograph.

The explanation of the existence of the process is for a pathologist to:

give, but the presence of the limit between it and the body of the

vertebra suggests that hypertrophy of the proximal epiphysis may have

developed as a consequence of the dislocation, by the removal of the

epiphysial face from juxtaposition with that of the vertebra im-

mediately anterior to it.

The vertebrae distal to the dislocated element are not symmetrical.

On the side of the tail to which the dislocated bone is displaced, each

of the four terminal vertebrae is slightly concave and it is the sum

of these concavities which forms the curvature of the ‘claw’. On the

other side the margins of the vertebrae are very nearly straight.

With reference to the larger panther’s tail figured in your journal

Vol. 47 (1948), p. 717, I disagree with your correspondent’s opinion

that the displacement was obviously of recent occurrence and probably

by manipulation during skinning. Inspection of the vertebral body

immediately distal to the first dislocation shows that it is curved and

in general modified to a degree sufficient to point to alteration during

th: .animal’s life and it is fair to think that it is a result of the dis-

location displayed... The vertebra distal to the second dislocation is.

also curved in a similar manner.’’ :

778 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

The X-ray photographs were sent to Dr. Osman Hill, the Pro-

sectorium, The Zoological Society of London, Regent’s Park, who

has replied as follows :— |

“With regard to the radiographs of the tiger’s tail, I am fully

in agreement with your general diagnosis. The conical process on

the proximal end of the 4th vertebral body from the tip is a mass

of osssified callus that has arisen as a result of a previous dislocation.

It is a very fine radiograph as regards details of the trabecular

system. The process is certainly not a sesamoid as suggested in

Boswell’s letter, as this term is restricted to ossifications in tendons

or fibrous tissue away from the main skeleton, and remaining dis-

continuous therewith.

I do not think that the shallow depression delimiting the bony

process is purely a surface phenomenon, as there is a distinct in-

ternal plate of bone representing possibly a juxta-epiphysial plate,

the cervical process being perhaps caused by overgrowth of a dis-

placed epiphysis during early life, finding itself subject to abnormal:

forces in its new environment. That the condition is of some

chronicity is determined further by the remoulding that has been

necessary to produce the marked curvature on the three vertebrae

alistal to the injured one. This strikes me as an attempt at com-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 779

pensatory straightening of the tail to make up for the bad alignment

produced by the callous overgrowth, a feature commonly found in

relation to malunited fractures.

That the condition is of traumatic origin I am certain. It has

no relation to the so-called ‘claw’ or ‘prickle’ at the end of the tail

‘of the lion and other felines (known since the days of Homer) which

is a purely cutaneous phenomenon without relation to the bony

skeleton, except for the support given to the horny process by the

tip of the last caudal vertebra (vide Turner, /. Anat. 7, 271-273 and

earlier authorities there cited)’’.—Ebs. |

4. AN ABNORMAL SPECIMEN OF MUS PLATYTHRIX

GRAHAMI RYLEY (RODENTIA: MURIDAE) FROM

KHANDALA, BOMBAY PROVINCE

(With a text-figure)

A specimen of the mouse collected at Khandala (W. Ghats)

October, 1949, was sent by the Bombay Natural History Society to

the Zoological Survey of India for determination. As the specimen is

of considerable interest, the writer has thought it fit to report on it.

It differs from the two other specimens of apparently the same

form, collected later from the same locality, in the possession of a

peculiar, more or less triangular area occupying nearly one third of

the total head and body length, on the posterior part of the dorsal

surface. The most remarkable feature of this area is that the spines,

which are the chief covering material for the rest of the body, have

been reduced to the point of almost total disappearance, and only a

very few can be made out by careful examination. Their place has been

An abnormal specimen of Mus platythriz grahami Ryley from Khandala. x 1/1

fapprox). | | he

(Due to the backward bend of the spines and the hairs the actual limits of the

spineless area are not well-defined in the drawing.)

taken by the hairs which are much more numerous than on the rest of

the body, and are almost the sole elements of body coat of this area. The

tips of the hairs lend a general apricot-buff colour to this zone which,

thus, becomes very prominently contrasted against the anterior part

730 JOURNAL, BOMBAY.NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

of the dorsal surface which has a general black hue due to the black

tips of the spines. The few spines which are found in the area under —

ccnsideration are also tipped with apricot-buff like the hairs. The

spineless area gradually passes into more posterior parts where the

spines again preponderate over the hairs.

The body measurements in the fresh state are wanting. The tail

is broken but healed up leaving a short stump behind. As compared

with the skull of one of the specimens collected later (in the other it is.

damaged), the skull of the abnormal specimen is slightly smaller and

bas its molar crowns less worn out, thereby indicating its younger age.

There appears to be every justification to consider the specimen as only

an abnormal individual of the form; but, at present, no plausible ex-

planation can be given as to the cause of disappearance of spines on a

particular part of the body.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

InpIAN MusSEuM, CALCUTTA, H. KHAJURIA

5th November, 1950.

[The attention of the Zoological Survey of India was drawn to the

fact that the original specimen was sent to the British Museum where it

was identified as Mus phillipsi fernandom (of which they had only 2

skins and 2 skulls for comparison) but with rather unusual pelage.

Dr. B. S. Chauhan replied that the Zoological Survey had followed

Ellerman’s Key to the Rodents inhabiting India, Burma and Ceylon

(J. Mammalogy, Vol. 28, Nos. 3 and 4, 1947, p. 386) which reads :—

‘Fernandom resembles platythrix in a general way, except for

its apparently shortened muzzle, the diastema being normally less than

one-quarter of occipito-nasal length.’

He goes on to say that the diastema in the specimen under con-

sideration definitely exceeds the proportion stated above, and that after

a careful consideration of all the characters of the specimens he finds.

no reason to-revise the Zoological Survey’s identification.

It may also be pointed out that fernandoni was originally described

frem Ceylon and is believed to be restricted to the island.—Eps. ]

5- ALBINISM.IN RATTUS. CREMORIVENTER (MILLER)

(With 4 text-figures and a map)

Recent correspondence in these pages (48: 579 and 49: 298) has drawn

attention; to the lack of exact knowledge about the natural occurrence

of albinism in rats, and to the doubt which must always exist as to

whether ‘itS occurrence in house rats can be regarded as natural or

due to the release or escape of - domestic “white ® rats; “liens,

therefore, of considerable interest to record the! occurrence? 10%

partial Aina mn in a rat which is reasonably certain to be free from _

any admixture of domestic strains.

In connexion with work on scrub typhus, a large number of small

animals are’ regularly collected from within a_ radius of about fifteer

MISCELLANEOUS" NOTES : 781i

milés of the town of Kuala Lumpur, in the state of Selangor, Malaya.

Among other habitats, a number of forest reserves are trapped, and.

in these is to be found an arboreal rat Rattus (Maxomys) cremoriventer.

This rat is strictly arboreal and therefore quite different in habits to.

Rattus (Rattus) norvegicus to which the white domestic rats belong.

The possibility of hybridisation with aa arboreal forest rat of a.

different subgenus is therefore so remote as to be safely ignored.

The rat is normally brown with a white or yellowish belly, as -

shown in the drawing (text figure A). In the Selangor specimens

the belly is typically white. Of the 87 rats of this species trapped —

in four specimens the white has been’ much more ‘extensive,

appearing as patches on the back such as is Shown in fig. C.

782 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

dn a fifth specimen the white was uniform over the whole of the hinder

part of the body, leaving only the head and shoulders pigmented

(fig. D). This specimen was juvenile.

Serendah g 5 pear go ;

4 é S J

; J Cf

( ( og ( oS

Wy i \

r R : Be

\ 2 ‘\ \

| : ¢ ‘

{/ } =) ULU ae { Gee

‘ eu); |. “GOMBAK AE Re = See

) Noakes Sidr aE | f east

er’ BUKIT LAGONG FR. {\ |

aed N Fe

\ sat !

BUKIT ~ ¢

, \

LANJAN ULU LANGAT °

2 io miles

fe) 10 Km

These aberrant specimens were not confined to one locality, but occurred

~wherever the rat was trapped in any numbers, as is shown in the

table and map. Although the numbers are small, the proportion of

aberrant rats observed from each locality agree very closely.

TABLE

Number of aberrant specimens

Collecting area Total 7

(Forest Reserve) number Total Type

collected ae

B C D

‘Bukit Lagong ee 72 28 25 2 ih

Ulu Gombak 2 2 Z 0 0

Ulu Langat 5 2 0 2 0

Bukit Lanjan I 0 _— ad —

Total 87 32 27 4 hk

‘ScruB TypHUS RESEARCH UNIT, J. L. HARRISON

INSTITUTE FOR MEDICAL RESEARCH, LIM BOO-LIAT

‘Kuata Lumpur, MALAYA.

19th December, 1950.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 78a

6. PROTECTING FOOD CROPS FROM WILD ANIMALS

It might interest some of your readers to learn that a Wolseley

Electric Fencer can be used with success in keeping elephants and other

animals out of crops. This simple unit is produced by the Wolseley

Sheep Shearing Company in the U.K., and is a very compact little affair.

Either an inert 6-volt battery, available from the same company, or an

ordinary car battery can be used with the apparatus. I found a

single line of electrified barbed wire, set about 3 {t. from the ground

round the cultivated area was sufficient to keep elephants and sambar

out. To keep chital and pig out I added 2 lines of unelectrified barbed

wire under the electrified line at 2 ft. and « ft. The current

is naturally, only switched on at nights. The shock, though

not dangerous, is quite appreciable ; about equal to that felt on contact

with an automobile plug wire. It is essential of course to make a

periodical inspection of the wire to ensure that no jungle growth, twigs

etc. are touching the line as such will tend to gradually short-circuit the

battery. Elephants attempted to raid our ragi fields, protected by the

“electric fencer’, on four occasions, and were repelled on contact with the

wire each time; twice an elephant was ‘stung’ on its trunk first and

then, swinging round, got it on its backside and pushed off !

On a moonlight night, before the unelectrified Jower lines had been

added, a tiger and a wild boar had, while having a skirmish, got into

the field; and the encounter was eagerly watched by the Sholagas (the

local jungle tribe) on nearby watchman’s machans. They hoped that the

tiger would kill the pig; and that they would then be able to drive the

former off its victim by making a din, and have the pork to themselves !

However, our overseer there, and his men in the field camp, heard the

row made by the combatants and sallied forth to the spot with torches

and, much to the Sholagas’ chagrin, drove the animals out of the field !

HONNAMETTI ESTATE,

ATTIKAN “PO. >:

via Mysore, Ra Ce MORRIS

27th December, 1950.

7 PEP VERS BLE PHAN TE

On December 17th 1950 while returning in my jeep at night along

the Hassanur-Kollegal road after a final search for the missing’ ill-

fated Air-India plane, I camé on a solitary tusker walking. up the

road tail on, about 30 vards ahead. I immediately stopped, but kept

the headlights on and the engine running. Perhaps the sound of the

latter irritated the elephant ; for it suddenly whipped round and charged.

I just had time to put the jeep into reverse, which lessened the impact

somewhat. The collision however with such a hard object was not

to the elephant’s liking and it swung away with a shrill trumpet.

Out jumped our dog (Spaniel-Alsatian cross!) which is normally an

arrant coward where al! wild animals are concerned, and for a few

seconds I had glimpses of ‘Smoke’ (the dog) and the elephant whirl-

ing round and round in front of the jeep—to the accompaniment of

734 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

frantic barks and trumpets—while I endeavoured to retrieve my rifle

from the grasp of my driver who, petrified with fear, was quite un-

intentionally hugging it to himself. By the time I had -tnduced.

him to release the weapon and loaded it the elephant had: left the

road; and ‘Smoke’ was back in the jeep very pleased with himself. |

am quite sure ‘Smoke’ was unaware of the fact that the elephant was.

a wild one; nor, I feel certain did the elephant know there was an in-

animate object behind the dazzling lights he was charging. I was dead.

tired after days of long tramps through the jungle, and can only assign

to this the fact that I was motoring through elephantine forests with

an unloaded rifle; I cannot recollect ever having done this before.

The impact forced the radiator in, and caused other damage, but I was

able to get back to the estate without much trouble.

HONNAMETTI ESTATE,

ATTIKAN P.O.

vid Mysore. R. C. MORRIS.

27th December, 1950.

8.0 THE USE’ OF PATENT “BULLETS IN SHO GUNS

The following will be of interest to users of patent bullets in shot

guns with reference to the Miscellaneous Note in Vol, 31, No. 4, pp-

1040/41.

Writing about the Asiatic Two-Horned Rhinoceros Mr. G. C..

Shortridge related at p. 774 of Vol, 23, No. 4:—

‘It is astonishing how quietly even a Rhino can move when it

chooses, as at last without any warning it suddenly crashed out of 2

bush almost on top of us. As the moon had almost set it was.

impossible to see the sights of my rifle so I was depending on a shot

gun loaded with lethal bullet and dropped him at 7 paces with a lucky

shot in the head, which smashed through the zygomatic arch and into:

the skull, the bullet being afterwards found inside the brain in about

a dozen pieces, several of the circular steel discs used in the con-.

struction of the bullet having entirely detached themselves from the

lead covering’.

BANGALORE, R. W. BURTON,

6th December, 1950. Lt.-Col, 1.4. (Retd.)

og (MORE CBIRD NOTES HROM NEPAL VAri iM

Birds seen in the Nepal Valley during December and January not

included in my previous list:

Sitta frontalis: Velvet-fronted Nuthatch. Now quite common on

the lower slopes of Nagar Jong.

-Garrulax leucolophus : Himalayan W hite-crested eee ruplene

This bird is now very common in large flocks in the jungles up to about —

6,500 ft. particularly at Godavari. I never saw them once during’ —

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. 0°05. ars

1948-49. As they are so noisy, with very distinctive yelping calls as

well as harsh chattering, it seems hardly possible to have missed them

and I feel they must have only recently spread into the valley.

Adelura coeruleocephala : Blue-headed Robin. Seen several times

on open hill-slopes about 6,000 ft. 3 ‘

Oreocincla dauma: Mountain Thrush. I have often noticed a heavily

spotted thrush, always solitary, always on the ground, which runs verv

swiftly when disturbed and does not fly if it can avoid it. I was

never able to identify it for certain. We obtained a specimen on

January 13 which proved to be of this species. My husband thinks

he has seen it in our garden as late as May. | |

Bhringa remifer : Indian Lesser Raquet-tailed Drongo. A_ pair

in the jungle at the foot of Nagar Jong. I have heard them there

before, but they are scarce in the valley. |

Pyrrhula nipalensis: The Brown Bullfinch. <A flock seen feeding

on the berries of a creeper at 7,800 ft. on Phulchok, January 14.

They kept up a soft whistling twitter. .

Hypopicus hyperythrus: Rufous-bellied Woodpecker. A female

shot on Phulchok at 7,800 ft. on January 14. a

‘Bucia athertoni: Blue-beared Bee-eater. In forest at about 7,000

ft. on Phulchok. Has a curious double croak, rathér like the grunt of

a monkey.

While we were having lunch on Phulchok at 7,500 ft. we noticed

numbers. of Phylloscopi (pulcher and proregulus) drinking the sap of

an oak (Q. semicarpifolia?). They quite ignored our. presence in their

eagerness. A pair of Mrs. Gould’s Sunbirds often joined in the feast.

I tasted the sap which is slightly sweet. This oak does not grow

here below 7,500 ft. and from that height to the summit of the hills

the bird life is more abundant and varied than anywhere else in the

district.

KATHMANDU. (Mrs.) DESIREE PROUD

15th February, 1951.

10. EXTENSION OF RANGE OF THE WHITE-BELLIED BLUE

HEY CATCHOR (MOSCICAPULA PALLIPES PALLIPES JERDON)

On 23rd October 1950 I collected a specimen of the above at

Bhimashankar (W. Ghats, altitude ca. 3,000 ft.—19°4 ft. N x 73°32 ft.

E). It was in a patch of Government protected more or less primary

evergreen forest with an undergrowth of lanky seedlings, typical of its

normal habitat in Travancore and the S-W section of the Ghats. Its

northernmost limits hitherto recorded were Karwar (Fairbank, S.F.,

AV. 257 and Londa |Kolez, J/.B:N.H.S., 48 (1): 15], both on the

(Goa Frontier. Bhimashankar is some 250 miles north of these localities.

Bes, Patt Hitt, BANpRA,

Bomsay, , SALIM ALI

Sth March, 1951. oy a

786 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

“a1. WHITE-BELLIED DRONGO CATCHING A BIRD |

On 5th February 1951 while camping at Raipur (Amraoti Forest

Division, Madhya Pradesh) with Horace Alexander, we witnessed an

extraordinary happening. At sunset two White-bellied Drongos were

observed hovering purposefully in rivalry around a low leafy twig of

a mango tree in the compound of the forest rest-house, as if to stampede

some insect lurking amongst the foliage. Presently out dashed a

startled Franklin’s Wren-warbler which was set upon and hotly chased

by both drongos. The warbler rushed into the verandah of the bun-

galow. Its pursuers followed it there and one of them pounced on it

in mid-air, seizing it firmly in its feet like a hawk. With the squeaking

victim thus held, it made off pursued closely by the rival for over

50 yards, in and out of the tree tops, until it vanished from sight.

The next day another member of my party, Rainer Brocke, reported

a drongo of the same species giving furious chase to a Franklin’s

Wren-warbler which, however, managed to escape by diving in the

undergrowth.

It would thus appear that the taking of small birds by drongos,

though I had not myself observed it before, is perhaps less rare an

occurrence than the meagreness of records would suggest. Butler

(Stray Feathers, 8: 500) mentions a drongo eating an iora. Osmaston.

(J].B.N.H.S., 28: 547) saw one take a white-eye.

33, PALi HILi, BAnprRa, ;

BOMBAY, SALIM ALI

Sth March, 10951.

12. THE HEART-SPOTTED WOODPECKER—HEMICIRCUS

CANENTE

On the data till then available, Peters (Checklist of the Birds of the

World, Vol. VI 223/24—1948) gives the distribution of the two races

of Hemicircus canente as follows :—~-

H. c. canente (Lesson)

‘Assam south of the Brahamaputra, Burma, Malay Peninsula,

Siam (chiefly in the lowlands of the eastern provinces) and southern

Indochina.’

H. c. cordatus (Jerdon)

‘West coast of India from Khandala to Malabar and Travancore’.

Jerdon’s sight record from ‘the Chanda forest’ of over 70 years ago

has always been looked upon as probably erroneous since it was

never confirmed by later observers. Peters appears also to have over-

looked the records from the Bombay neighbourhood (J.B.N.H.S., 42 (1),

p. 195—1940), and since then the distribution on the western side of

the peninsula has been extended still farther north to the Tapti river

(ca. 21°, N. x 73° 40-ft. E.) by a fine series collected by the Gujarat

Ornithological Survey in the Surat Dangs and Navsari Prant of

Baroda. More recently still the Bastar and Orissa Ornithological.

Surveys discovered this little woodpecker | on the eastern side of the

peninsula (approx. between lat. 19° and 22° N. and long. 81° and 86°).

Renin:

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES | . 78T

The named population of south-west India (separated from nominate

canente only on smaller size of wing and bill) hitherto believed to be

isolated from that of Assam, etc., now proves to be merely the south-

western extremity of a continuous chain of distribution which, as in the

case of so many other bird species, stretches across the peninsula over the

Satpura axis. The gap from Orissa to Assam remains to be bridged,

but this is no doubt only a matter of time and methodical collecting.

Under the circumstances I am unable to see the justification for

retaining any longer the ‘Malabar’ race cordatus. The separation was

due solely to insufficient knowledge of the species’s distribution at the

time. The populations of the Dangs and Bastar do show a slight.

average increase in size of wing and bill over that of the Travancore

area, but this is a gradual cline and such as would normally be ex-

pected under Bergmann’s well-known rule. There is no difference in

colouration.

Comparative measurements are given below :—

Travancore, Wynaad and N. Kanara (B.N.H.S. Collection) :—

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

4 go 94-98 (95°25) 18°5-22°5

7 22 §6-93 (90'3) 18-19 —

Surat Dangs*.

5é¢é 93-99 (95°6) 20-22'5 18°5-19°5 33-35

4 QO 92-94 (93°5) 19°5-21 17°5-18°5 32° 5=34-5

Bastar and Orissa*:

2c 97-99°5 (98°25) 22°5 18°5-19 34-37

22° 95-96 (95°5) 19-20-5 17°5-19 33°5-38

Assam, etc., (vide Fauna iv, p, 84)

bod 94-103 20-25 ; Ma

22 92-98 (one 89) 19-21 ; Tis 28-31

As it is impossibie to define the exact geographical limits of either

race owing to the continuous distribution, I propose that the race

cordatus be suppressed after suitable indication has been given of the

existence of the cline in size from Travancore to Assam, etc.

33, Patt Hitt, Banpra, ;

Bomsay, SALIM ALL

Sth March, 1951.

13. DISCOVERY OF THE SO-NAMED ‘MALABAR’ BLACK

WOODPECKER [DRYOCOPUS JAVENSIS HODGSONI

(JERDON)] IN BASTAR (EAST MADHYA PRADESH).

The distribution of the Great Black Woodpecker given in the Fauna

(Vol. IV, p. 90) is ‘Travancore to Belgaum, on the Western Coast of

South India’. In 1941, Humayun Abdulali (J.B.N.H.S., 42: 933) by

recording it at Suriamal! on the southern border of Nasik District ex-

tended its distribution considerably northward. The Gujarat Ornitho-—

logical Survey extended the distribution still farther north by collecting

* Measured in the flesh.

“788 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

specimens in the Surat Dangs and Navsari Prant of Baroda, almost to

the CON River (ca. 21°UN..x 73° 40" EE.) here: is :an “old jspeci

amen (@) in the British Museum collection labelled ‘Khandesh’, 2 W ‘ithout

other data, which seems to have been completely ignored by previous

workers.

One of the surprises of the Bastar Ornithological Survey was the

unexpected meeting with this woodpecker on the eastern side of the

peninsula at Amraoti (19° 35’ N. x 81° 58/ E.). Only a single pair were

seen in fairly dense moist deciduous forest—the typical habit of the

species—and the female secured on 28-12-1948.

I have compared this specimen with material from south-western

India in the collections of the Bombay Natural History Society and

the British Museum, as well as with the fine series recently. obtained

mn the Surat Danes, and cam) see no -ditterencevim colouration.

Comparative measurements are as follows :—

Bastar*

12 222 61 36 164°5

Travancore and Kanara (in Bombay Natural History Society’s and British

Museum’s collections) :

10 é¢ 215-223. (218:1) 2: re 143-162 (154°6)

5 2° 212-22]. \(215'4) 4 Ge. 20 1302170 (156:0)

Surat Dangs*

6 J 213-225 (219°17) 63-69 37-43 139-165 (153°5)

62 214-219 (216°17) 59-65 36-39 135-161 (149°0)

Thus it appears that there is no appreciable difference in size either,

though it is of course possible that following the normal rule, eastern

Jyirds in series may average somewhat larger as seen in the case of

the Heart-spotted Woodpecker (Hemicircus canente).

The occurrence of the Large Black Woodpecker at either extremity

of aie Satpura axis, and the almost identical nature of the two popula-

tions, suggests that the species may be continuously distributed over

this entire mountain trend in enclaves of the appropriate biotope and

emphasizes the need for careful investigation of the intervening blank

area whence it has so far not been recorded. |

23, PALI TILL. BAN DRA:

BomBay, SALIM ALI

oth March, ro5x.

Mm. AN ALBINO SINE

You may be interested to hear that when shooting to-day near a

village called Krishnapur, in the Salt Lakes outside Calcutta I put up

a pure white snipe. It got up close to me and had I -not been so

surprised, I should have shot it. It uttered the usual snipe ‘scaping’

noise and flew round in the usual way, unfortunately going out of

sight before pitching. .

* in the flesh,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 789

In 18 years’ shooting in India this is the first albino snipe I have

ever seen. My shikari had never seen one before in his life. I should

be interested to learn of similar instances, and as to the degree of

their frequency.

20, Aipore Roap, H. M. MOLESWORTH

CALCUTTA.

[Three other cases of albino snipe have been recorded in past

volumes of this journal. The Journal also records albinism in such

diverse animals in India as the following :—

MAMMALS.—Tiger, elephant, blackbuck, kakar, hog-deer,

gazelle, chital, sambar, wild boar, palm squirrel.

B1IRvpS.—House sparrow, hoope, crow, shoveller, comb duck,

Malay spotted dove, Nilgiri pipit, chukor, red-vented bulbul and

rufous-backed shrike. |

Since going to press we have received through H.H. the Maharao

a pure albino Black Partridge (francolinus francolinus). recently shot

in Kutch.—Eps. |

rm EXTENSION OF BREEDING RANGE)OF. THE. STILT

(HIMANTOPUS HH. HIMANTOPUS), AND SOME NOTES

ON ITS HABITS AND PLUMAGES

In our paper on the Birds of Bombay and Salsette in 1939

(J.B.N.H.S. 40: 639) we recorded the Stilt as ‘Not uncommon but patchi-

ly distributed’, with all our records between 29th September and 6th

November only. We also tentatively listed it as ‘a local migrani’. .

In April and May 1944 we saw many birds in Mahim Creek and I

have a note for this area dated 9th June 1947:— —

‘Flock of 40 to 50 birds has been here for over a month—appear

restive—stretching wings over back and bickering, but not making up

their minds to go.’

With the sustained restriction on the use of firearms within city

limits during the last few years, stilts together with many other waders

such as black-tailed godwits, avocets, sandpipers and large numbers of

duck have frequented this area, and despite the stench an interesting

hhour may be spent here watching a galaxy of water birds.

On 4th June 1950, the water level at Powai Lake (which is a few

miles north) had dropped very low creating several new islands, and

here one or more stilts uttering the alarm call of ‘wilk-wik-wik’ very

loudly when approached, were noted. On the 11th June only a single

pair was left and one bird was seen squatting five yards from the shore

on a bare island about 25 yards long and 15 yards wide. A crocodile

lying on the water’s edge, five yards away, did not appear to worry

it very much. .A couple of days later I got to the. islet with a boat

and a stilt was put off 4 eggs arranged plover-like (small ends

pointing inwards) on a thin layer of small pebbles. On the 23rd June

two young in down were running about the island while one egg

on the point of hatching was still in the nest.

The young swam well and one was seen to return after a short

trip on the lake. A few days later the birds had shifted to a larger

790 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

island which held a considerable amount of vegetation and one Janky

full-fledged chick was discovered here after a long: search. This bird had,

got its legs tied together by a piece of white ‘string’ which prevented it

From walking normally. For a moment I suspected that some amateur.

photographer had also discovered the birds and this was an attempt to

keep it within range of his camera. There were, however, a large

number of cobwebs on the island and an examination of the ‘string’,

by Fr. Santapau confirmed that the bird had hobbled itself accidently

with these. When released, it swam away and managed to evade

capture from a boat for a considerable period. The parents were

greatly agitated, using both the ‘wik-wik-wik’ and a continuous and,

grating cry uttered from the ground. - They also settled on the water

when our presence on the island prevented them from landing there. .

Stuart Baker, both in Nidification and the Fauna, implies that stilts

nest all over India, but except for Ceylon there are no records south of

Sultanpore, near Delhi. (K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji of Bhavanagar,.

in a recent bird film Showed them nesting at Porbandar in Kathiawar;.

In the ‘Handbook of British Birds’ Volume 4, page 406 is 2 picture

of a stilt with a black head marked ‘Adult male: summer’. The Hand-

book adds that in summer the male has the underparts suffused with a

roseate tinge and the crown and nape more or less black with variations

in the following groups :—

(a) With crown down to below eye and nape black (forehead and

lores white).

(b) As (a) but crown and region behind eye usually interinixed

with white, nape intermixed with white or with white feathers tipped

black.

of nape white, sometimes tipped black.

The Fauna (vi, p. 193) describes the adult male as having a white

neck and head with a few black spots often showing on the head.

There is no reference to a winter and a summer plumage. It also says

that young males have the anterior crown, upper ear-coverts and a

line down the back of the neck black. This is questioned by Ticehurst

(J.B.N.H.S., 34: 486) who considers this either sub-adult or a

variation. The Fauna adds that the female has the white head always

sullied with some grey, as also the hind neck.

Whistler in Avifauna of Ceylon p. 277 described a new race,

ceylonensis, from Kalawewa, Ceylon, whence 4 breeding males are in

the British Museum. ‘The males differ from the typical form, which

has the crown and nape black in the breeding plumage, in having those

parts white merely sullied by the dark bases of the feathers showing

through. The females have the brown back darker than in Eurepean

birds’.

Both parents at Powai were glassed at close range and appeared fo

have pure white heads and necks except for slight traces of very light

grey on the hind neck. There was certainly no black on the crown

and/or nape of either parent.

I have also seen many photographs of stilts at their nests and they

invariably show pure white heads e.g. in Coward: Birds of the British

Isles Vol. III p. 20, Lowther: A Bird: Photographer in India p. 131,

Ik...S. Dharmakumarsinhji of Bhavanagar’s cine film. »

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES) 0-2 -8.Hi1O. OT

Subsequent to the above observations I noted a party of 4 birds

on 7th September in which the male (with black wings) had a pure

white head while two birds with brownish wings had brown heads.

Further notes for October, November and December record that the.

heads appeared to be darkening and no birds with pure white heads

were seen. All this appears to confound Whistler’s description of his

race ceylonensis somewhat, and it would be interesting to obtain further

observations on the plumages of this relatively common species.

c/o Faiz & Co.,

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, BOMBAY, HUMAYUN ABDULALI

pth January, 1951.

[The photograph of a stilt at nest on page 36 of G. K. Yeates’s

book ‘Flamingo City’ (reviewed at p. 768 of this number) depicts a bird:

with a blackish nape. Amongst a gathering of over 150° non-breeding

stilts observed at Dharavi Creek (Bombay) on i5th February, 1951,

only a single bird had completely white head !—Eps. |

16. MASS MOVEMENT OF PELICAN

On a dull wintry day, about the month of January 1935, while I

was camping at a place called Chargharia on the south bank of the

Brahmaputra River in the Kaziranga Game Sanctuary in Assam, I

noticed flocks after flocks of pelicans coming from an easterly direction

and settling on the shoal and sandbank opposite my camp. This

went on for hours. Such a huge congregation of birds of the size of

pelicans was an unusual sight for me. Even modestiy computed the

number would certainly exceed one thousand.

My companions, two local villagers whom I had engaged 2s boat-

men, offered the information that they too had never seen so large a

congregation of pelicans. To satisfy my curiosity, I rowed across

the river (which was about a mile wide here) to the spot, and when I

got close enough I saw quite a number of Brahminy ducks and geese

also in the midst of the birds. They all seemed to be standing still

‘doing nothing’.

The first to take to wing were the Brahminy ducks. The pelicans

ignored my advancing boat for some time, but gradually rose in waves,

flew pell-mell in all directions for a while and finally made off towards

the east.

Neither the Sanctuary, nor the country around it is known to be

a« habit of pelicans, nor do they nest there. ‘They are of course

occasionally seen in small flocks of 5-10 on shoals in the river.

I wonder, what could have been the occasion for such an unusual

congregation—unusual at least for this part of India.. May be they

were migrating, but I failed to see anything of them afterwards ai-

Ba I was camping there for the next few days.

Maxum,’ a Baits Dp: NEOG,

ASSAM. Assistant Conservator of Forests.

¥92 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

17, A SUNDERBAN HERONRY

During my trip to the Sunderbans (Khulna) in early August 1944,

arranged by courtesy of the Divisional Forest Officer and accompanied

by Mr. M. Sain, artist and naturalist, I had a unique opportunity of

visiting what is called ‘Chunkuri Block’, covering a huge area of

typical Sunderban tree forest, which at this season provides an en-

ormous nesting colony for heterogeneous groups of birds. Leaving

Khulna town on August 2 after lunch, we halted the night in the

Aura Sipsah and reached this spot next evening at 8.30 p.m., via

Cobaduk and Buri-goalini forest-stations. At daybreak we got into

jolly boats and wended our way through mazes of nullahs, sallow

creeks and water channels underneath dense patches of forest trees.

It did not take us long to reach the proximity of what was obviously

a natural bird sanctuary but whose integrity and sanctity were maine

tained by the forest authorities. As we drew closer, we were struck by

the grandeur of the scene—a vast stretch of evergreen swamp forest of

Sunderban trees, some dwarfish, others taller and sometimes luxuriant,

others again with tops bare of leaves, all entirely colonized by a huge

mixed gathering of nesting birds. The species most noticeable were

Anastomus oscitans (Bodd.), Egretla intermedia (Wagler), Egretta

garzetta (Linn.), Bubulcus ibis coromandus (Bodd.), Nycticorax nycti-

corax (Linn.), Phalacrocorax niger (Vieill.) and Anhiga melanogaster

Penn. Remarkably enough the Open-bill Storks (A. oscitans) and one or

other of the three species of egrets mentioned above had their nests in the

same tree, either ‘Khalsh’ (A giceras majus Gaertn.) or ‘Kankra’

(Brugwera gymnorhiza Lamk.), which is generally of low stature.

Some taller trees like ‘Keora’ (Sonneratia apetala Ham.) and ‘Baen’

(Avicennia officinalis Linn.) apparently had great attraction for the

Open-bill Storks. I observed the birds at close range picking and

plucking leaves and stems from their tops, and in many instances 1

found their nests built in the forks of these trees and composed entirely

of such plucked leaves and stems. There were egrets’ nests also on

these trees and I likewise observed some Night Herons (Nycticorax

nycticorax) nesting on them. One striking feature in the biology of

these community-breeding birds was that while 4. oscitans nested freely

in the company of Egretta intermedia, Egretta garzetta and even

Bubulcus 1. coromandus it seemed to give a wide berth to Anhinga

melanogaster and Phalacrocorax niger whose nests were placed apart,

though not infrequently in proximity of egrets’ nests. The one or

two nests of A. oscitans, which was the normal number built on a single

tree, were invariably surrounded by a large number of egrets’ nests—

either almost exclusively those of the Cattle Egret or by a mixed

assemblage of those of the Little and Cattle Egrets and even EF.

intermedia. In a few cases I also saw nests of Nycticorax nycticoran

in this assemblage. Anhinga melanogster, a prominent breeding

species in this colony, was generally found to affect very tall ‘Baen’

trees. On one of these trees I saw a pair mating.

The number of birds in this breeding congregation was so enormous

that no satisfactory estimate was possible. From our jolly hoat

passing through the narrow nullahs and water channels thickly over-

hung with foliage and hemmed in by dense tree forest it was not

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES: Vi 79S

possible to get a full or comprehensive view of the scene. From my

casual survey it was apparent that though nesting activity was brisk

and most, if not all, of the birds present were taking part in it—

yet there were only a few nests which had eggs in them. <A few nests

already contained some young in different stages of growth—-from

one just hatched to a fledgling. The parent birds on our apprvach

showed hardly any reaction except to move away some distance on

our attempting ‘close-up’ photos. The presence of crows and kites.

near the nests, though no doubt a potential danger to the eggs and

nestlings, curiously enough did not seem to perturb the parents at all,.

the Open-bills in particular showing utter. indifference to them. Appa-

rently the boldness and tame and confiding nature of the birds arr

due no less to their coloniai instinct, strikingly brought into play now

under impulse of breeding, than to the comparative immunity enjoyed

by the nests due to their location in this almost inaccessible

Sunderban swamp forest subjected to the perpetual influence of the

tides.

CaLCUTTA, ; SALTY A CHURN: BAW:

29th August, 1950. ~ . MwA, PH. Dig FeaNole

hone PRC OF Pht ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ON~ ISEE

In the April, 1950 issue of the’ Journal (Vol. 49, p. 128) Mr. E. P.

Gee reported on the effect of atmospheric pressure while fishing. His.

observations confirm what is well-known to many anglers in all parts

of the world, namely that fish do react intensively to changes in atmos-

pheric pressure, much in the same way as they do to a change in water

pressure following a rise or fall in the water-level. —

It is generally accepted that fish are active and on the feed when the

pressure (atmospheric or water) is high and decline to feed and become

inactive when the pressure is low when they also move to the bottom

or deeper water to counter the lowered pressure. This has been ob-

served by me on many occaSions. In addition, it cannot be over-

emphasized that fish become greatly disturbed, if a considerable change

in pressure takes place suddenly. Then it does not matter whether the

pressure is up or down. Upon such sudden change, fish become very

uneasy and disturbed for hours, and sometimes days, until they get

accustomed to the changed conditions.

Whether a change in atmospheric pressure has the same effect as

compared with the much stronger change in water pressure is noi

quite certain. No doubt, when fish move up by a few feet from deeper

water towards the surface or vice versa the pressure change which

they must register is much larger than the most violent change in

atmospheric pressure, and therefore the fact that fish do at all react

to atmospheric pressure can only be explained by the very sensitive

organs which fish possess, namely the lateral line and the bladder.

Both organs seem to be very delicate pressure instruments. Whether

the ear (which is built quite similarly to the ear of pammals) is also:

able to. register pressure changes is not known.

-..The new theory of ‘SoLUNAR’ reactions. and. periods, as given

in the Solunar Tables, published by J. A. Knight in U.S.A. and now

794 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.:SOCIETY, Vol. 49

reprinted regularly in some 80 American Outdoor magazines and other

papers, does not quite fit into our old observations on atmospheric

pressure. This new theory is based on the presumption that animal

{including fish) life is under the influence of sun and moon radiation

(Sol=sun ; luna=moon) and the position of sunspots during the earth’s

24-hours course. If there is any reaction from Solunar radiation and

ihe constellation of sun and moon upon atmospheric pressure, then

it can only be due to the fact that there is some interconnection with

the low and high tide of the atmosphere, similar to the ebb and flow

of the sea. This phenomenon which has been known for some years

is called ‘Atmospheric Tides’. Attraction and heat radiation from sun

and moon cause pressure waves in the atmosphere rotating with the

earth. Such regular periodic pressure waves are observed and

registered with a sensitive barometer. The most important pressure

waves from the sun travel round our planet once every 24-hours. It

can be very distinctly observed in the Tropics by direct reading from

a barograph.

Atmospheric tides caused by the moon are comparatively insignifi-

cant, oscillations being very minute. I mention this, because it is

often reported that fish bite better or less during moonlight or full

moon. I believe that this is not the result of atmospheric influence,

but probably due to the fact that fish have a better chance to see and

find their food.

As to the ‘incident’ in connection with the Black Mahseer reported

by Mr, Gee, I regret I have no explanation to offer. It should be

cbserved that other circumstances, besides atmospheric pressure, are

of importance, particularly in river fishing, e.g. water temperature and

discolouring, periodic appearances of different insects, larvae and other

food on which different fish feed.

BOMBAY F.R. GOLDSCHMIDT, p.sc.

19. EFFECT OF ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE WHILE FISHING

With reference to my previous notes on this subject, published in

the Journal of August 1949 and April 1950, I was in Britain on leave

in 1950 and made further enquiries about the theory of atmospheric

pressure making a very great difference to the feeding habits of fish.

Dr. Edward Hindle, F.R.s., of the London Zoological Society re-

ferred me to the Solunar Theory, in which he appeared to believe.

This theory is fully explained in The Modern Angler by John Alden

Knight (Charles Scribner’s Sons Ltd., New York and London, 1936),

and claims that ‘other conditions not being unfavourable, fresh-water

fish tend to feed more readily during Solunar periods than at other

times.’ The Solunar period is ‘the time at which the conditions which

cause ocean tides (i.e. the pull of the sun and the moon) pass the

longitudinal meridian of any given point.’ | fae.

In order to put this Solunar Theory into practice, it 1s necessary

tor those fishermen who live inland to find out the high and low tide

times of the nearest true ocean tides. Then adjustment must be made

according to the longitudinal difference (geographically) by the formula

15 degrees of longitude equals - 1 hour of sun-time. It is claimed that

the best results are to be had when fishing during the Solunar period

corresponding to low tide, the effect on the fishing at high tide being

not so marked.

“It is claimed that the Solunar Theory has worked well in the

U.S.A., and that the Solunar periods of practically all the inland

fishing resorts have been worked out in detail and published. I do

not know if it has been tried out in India—if not, then there is a good

opportunity for someone to test the theory in this sub-continent. But

I was gratified to read in the above-mentioned book that the author

admits that ‘fluctuations in barometric pressure are perhaps the most

common and decisive influence on the daily habits of fresh-water fish.’

And he goes on to give the following barometric causes and effects:

‘Rising glass—good fishing.

Steady glass high—fair fishing.

Steady glass low—fair fishing.

Falling glass—poor to very bad fishing.’

On my enquiring, while in Britain, as to who was the person most

eminently qualified to give me an opinion on my own interpretation of

the effects of barometric pressure on fishing, I was recommended to

contact Professor James Gray of Cambridge University. Professor

Gray in addition to being a noted zoologist and a Fellow of the Royal

Society is also himself a keen fisherman. I herewith give, with

his permission, an abstract of his letter to me on the subject:

‘I am very much interested in the possibilities that changes in

atmospheric pressure may affect the behaviour of fish. The same

suggestion was made by W. H. Macaulay who used to fish the Add in

Argyllshire. His idea was that a sudden rise in the barometer was a

good omen for catching salmon and sea trout. From a physiological

point of view, it is reasonable to assume that the fish could detect such

a change by means of its swim bladder—provided the rate of change

of pressure is sufficient. On the other hand, a change in pressure

might, in the case of trout, affect the fish by influencing the hatch of

insects etc.

‘To test the theory it would be necessary to keep very careful

records for a considerable period of time-——being careful to record: (t1}

changes of barometric pressure which were accompanied by good fish-

ing, (2) simitar changes which were not foliowed by good fishing, (3}

whenever fishing is good—a record of barometric changes would be

necessary and finally (4) when fishing is poor, what is the barometer

doing? Without data of this type—there is danger of selecting

occasions favourable to the theory and ignoring others.

‘Your suggestion is, without doubt, an extremely interesting one,

and is well worth following up.’

It appears, then, that the keeping of records of barometric changes

while fishing is likely to be of very great use to all those sportsmen

who indulge in the ‘gentle art’.

Doyane T.E.,

OaTInG P.O.,

ASSAM. . | | E..P GEE

13th January, 1951.

796 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 49

20. STINGS BY THE COMMON INDIAN HORNETS VESPA

ORIENTALIS. AND VESPA CINCTA. SEVERE EFFECTS

It is not perhaps generally known how very severe may be the sym-

ptoms and effects following stings by the two species of common Indian

hornet, the smaller being Vespa orientalis and the larger Vespa cincta,

In the Society’s Journal Vol. XVIII, No, 3. of 15th: July 1908 there

is record of three cases among Indian troops at Peshawar occasioned

by the smaller hornet. These effects, while sufficiently severe—semi-con-

sciousness, cyanosis, fainting, contracted pupils, shallow respiration,

feeble and irregular pulse, blue lips, rise of temperature—were much

surpassed by the effects of four stings on scalp and neck of an officer out

shooting in Kumaon on roth Decembez 1908 as recorded by Major

F, Wall, 1.M.s., at page 533 ef Vol. XIX, No.2. (Major d., attacked

by hornets, lay down and protected his face with arms round his

head thus exposing only the back of head and neck to the stings.

In about ten minutes he became unable to speak and fainted away.

His face became livid, eyes bloodshot, nose and ears blue, hands.

cold and blanched, pulse not discernible.

On recovery from semi-consciousness, which lasted about half |

an hour, he was unable to see. He suffered an intolerable itching

all over the body and a rash appeared all over the abdomen. After

some rest he was able to walk to caimp, with assistance. Severe

diarrhoea set in about 7 p.m. and lasted all night. Genitals became

oedematous but not painful. Next morning he was able to continue

shooting and there were no further untoward symptoms.

Major Wall remarked on the case :— ry

‘The poison appears to have operated in two ways. Firstly

upon the nervous system, and the full force of the neurotoxic agent

appears to have fallen upon the heart. There appears too, to have

been a toxic influence reducing the coagulability of the blood, hence

the rash, which was probably a nettle rash, and the oedema of thé

genitals. There seems little doubt that had one or two more stings.

been inflicted the case would have ended fatally.’ |

In spite of repeated efforts a specimen of the hornet was not

obtained for identification. In view of the following account it may

have been V. cincta.

The Peshawar cases were treated with strychnine, hot water bottles,

etc. There is no record of treatment in the Kumaon case. fae

I am moved to refer to the former cases—no others have been re-

ported in the Journal—because of the case now related to me by Mr.

A. E. Lobb of the Mavinkere Estate, Mysore. |

Stincs BY Vespa cincta—-DEATH OF A Doc

A hornet’s nest about the size of a Rugby football and attached

about three feet from the ground to a branch of a fallen tree had been

passed many times, being close to a path. On 6th October 1950

Mr. Lobb was following behind his mechanic and another man,

his cocker spaniel at heel. Suddenly the party was attacked ; the

men ran away and the dog ran all over the place, yelping with pain.

Mr. Lobb stood quite still, and only because he had to move his right

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES A VAKS\ 79?

arm to steady on his walking stick (he is very lame) did he receive two

stings on right elbow. In a few minutes he followed after the dog

to the bungalow. He had at once realized that immobility would be

his sole protection.

The dog did not cry out any more but stood, rigid and panting

heavily. He could not, or would not, lie down and remained stand-

ing until the 8th when he fell and died. All the time he could not

open his mouth or drink. Water was poured down his throat. He

performed no natural motions except on the second day when he passed

urine the colour of black coffee. here were no signs of ‘stings or

swelling inside his mouth or on the tongue.

The nrechanic had four stings on the head and two on the arms.

After about an hour he became unconscious and so remained for about

two hours. Then diarrhoea commenced and lasted about twelve hours.

About three hours after the diarrhoea commenced he vomited a great

deal and had cramping pains in the stomach. Neither temperature

nor pulse were taken. Sight did not appear to’ be affected. By

roth October he had recovered.

The doctor who came on the 9th was unable to suggest any treat-

ment as necessary. He said that there was record at his hospital of a

man who had died as result of twelve stings by hornets, species not

named. Mr. Lobb’s arm swelled and elbow became very stiff and so re-

mained for about a fortnight. There was, at first, an intolerable itching

of the part. Both stings were on the bare elbow.

It is dificult to understand why the dog suffered no bowel effects

IAt page 275 of Vol. 28 is an account of a big, smooth-haired fox terrier

dog being stung by a scorpion. The effects were very severe and after

an hour the dog was sick, and continued vomiting until his stomach was

empty. Later he passed a lot of blood per rectum. Perhaps it was, in

case of the cocker spaniel, that the stings were many, and the weight of

the dog being about one-sixth that of the man the intestines became

rigid and unable to act. Had the dog been able to vomit and also

empty his bowels he might have recovered?

These cases of hornet sting indicate how very dangerous to life they

can be, and that in the absence of a blanket or such covering complete

and instant immobility is the only protection.

BANGALORE, R. W. BURTON,

16th January, 1951. Lt.-Col. 1.a. (Retd:).

20) VA BULPLTERELY.(CATOPSILIA. CROCALE) WITH &

DEFECT IN RIGHT HIND WING

On 10th June 1950 a male of the above named species, (specimen

in question has been despatched in a separate parcel) attracted atten-

tion because it was noticed that the right hind wing was spotted and

discoloured. It was netted whilst feeding on the orange coloured

flowers of Lantana scrub (Lantana aculeata).

-. Examination under an ‘Ultra Lens’ (Indian distributors :——Hard-

castle Waud & Co., Ltd., Bombay) shows the following abnormal

798 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

features—the under- and upper-side right. hind wing exhibits a dis-

‘tortion by curling outward of the wing and in the depression created,

the scales, in the interspaces of nervules 1, 2, 3, and 4, are discoloured

‘by a brown and melanin black substance overlaid. In the cell there

is one spot (near to the discocellular vein) which under magnification

appears as a knotted mass of the melanin pigment substance superim-

posed on and obliterating the scales. One other similar spot lies at

the junction of nervule 3 with the median vein. Between the dev and

-extended up to the termen the discal area is stained brown and nervules

3 and 4 for their entire lengths are stained black and brown and

interspersed with black nodules, similar to the spots alluded to in the

foregoing. The left hind wing, on its upperside, shows similar dis-

-colouration on a section of it corresponding to and impinged ujon

by that of the rot on the right hind wing—ciose apposition of the

wings occurring when the fly, is in the resting posture at night, and

while feeding. Owing. to infiltration of the substance through the left

hind wing a slight discolouration on its underside is visible to the

naked eye.

The question arises as to whether the defect is a congenital

-malformation or due to a mycotic infection acquired after emergence.

The normal greenish yellow tinge has, in the decayed parts, been

slightly bleached. Nervules 3 and 4 show marked distortion and a

black-rot involvement. All these unusual features—and more parti-

-cularly because the nearly sound left hind wing is becoming infected

with the rot—serve as pointer to the condition not being a congenital

«defect, but rather, a mycotic infection. I haven’t a microscope

to examine the scrapings in order to ascertain whether mycelium

threads and sporangia are present. The moulds, which often cause

trouble to collectors and damage to dead specimens kept in envelopes

and cabinets, are different and in the nature of fur growths. In this

-example the wing-rot in a living imago, if not due to a fungus, 15

-certainly a diseased condition of some kind, possibly of the wing

membranes, causing destruction to the structures, which might ulti-

‘mately lead to its dysfunction. It should be noted that the flight

seemed normal. ‘The tear in the defective wing must have occurred

owing to extreme fragility resulting from the abnormality when the

‘fly was fluttering in the net. With a normal fly of this species the

wings usually do not become easily damaged by the net. During

14 years of collecting butterflies this is the first example met with of

a deviation from the normal. Butterflies with shattered wings are

often encountered in the free state—a disintegration caused by age

and trauma. The disability here recorded must be rare amongst the

Order Lepidoptera. .

In Volume 48 No. 4, p. 814, Mr. T. Norman, in his ‘Note on the

-Larva of Amblypodia centaurus’ cites examples of mould infections.

He makes a reference to the remarks made thereto by Mr. D. G..

“Sevastopulo in his paper Some Suggestions for Entomological Work

in India (Vol. 48, No. 1, p. 81) that ‘as yet, no Indian Lycaenid larva

is known to be unable to survive by reason of the honey gland

“becoming choked with mould if the attendant ants are removed.’

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES pee WD 799

The suggestions made by Mr. D. G. Sevastopulo in his paper

have prompted me to submit this note. You may retain the specimen

and deal with it as you think fit.’ : Ove

ela A. G. L.: FRASER,

DANDELI, Capt., 1.M.D: (Retd:y:

NoRTH KaNARA. , Seen

[Through the good offices of Prof. G. Ilale Carpenter of Oxford

University to whom the specimen was submitted, we have obtained

the opinion of Dr. G. C. Ainsworth who kindly got the mould into

culture in order to identify it.

Dr. Ainsworth writes:

‘The butterfly fungus is proving troublesome .... it is undoubtedly

a species of Aspergillus but I cannot be specific. In 1879, M. C.

Coote (? Cooke) described an Aspergillus which he obtained from the ~

pupa of an Erie silk moth from Cachar, and there are a few other

records of Aspergilli dainaging insects. The present one does not

seem to agree with any of these, nor with any other good species of

Aspergillus. It grows very slowly, and the conidial heads are mostly

what I take to be malformed. ...... All I can say at present is

that the fungus is a species of Aspergillus which is possibly undes-

reds a. = = If I make no more progress I will send a culture to

an expert in the groups in U.S.A.’

A further communication is awaited with interest.—Eps. |

226 ONe BE OCCURRENCE OF THE .PFRESHWATER

MEDUSA, LIMNOCNIDA INDICA ANNANDALE, IN THE

WESTERN DRAINAGE OF THE SAHYADRIS

(With a text map)

While recording in the August 1950 issue of this journal (Vol. 49,

p. 318) the occurrence of Limnocnida indica Annandale from below

the Jog falls in the Sharavati river, Ramakrishna and others (1) were

evidently not aware of the fact that Limnocnida was already recorded

from the western drainage of the Sahyadri by Darling (2) in 1935. In

pointing out the significance of the find in a water system flowing

‘westwards she said ‘It is noteworthy that freshwater medusae were

found by Dr. S. P. Agharkar, but were in a river system which flows

eastwards across the continent and enters the Bay of Bengal’.

Though her provisional identification of the medusa stopped with the

genus, it is unlikely that it could be any species other than L. indica.

The medusa was collected by Darling from the Periyar Lake,

Travancore, which is formed by the construction of a dam across the

Periyar river which flows westwards into the Arabian Sea (sketch-map).

The water stored in the lake is diverted to the Madura District for

irrigational purposes, along a tunnel through the Western Ghats.

800 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

A still more interesting but yet unpublished record of L. indica

from the western drainage of the Sahyadris is its collection by Mr.

G. Renga Aiyer of Trivandrum in 1944 from a stagnant tank at

Pampadampara Estate in the Cardamon Hills, Travancore, about 20

miles north of the Periyar Lake and lying anita the Periyar watershed

(sketch-map). So far as I know he did not record the collection

GOIMBATORE

DISTRICT

YUNGUW

122)

PAMPADAMPARA

Gee

, Pak)

3 o yt ==

/ LSIQ

GUNWUY *

probably in view of the note by Darling (2) on the occurrence of the

medusa within the same watershed. For about 2 years, from 1940

to 1942, I was stationed at Pampadampara, but thé presence of the

medusa did not come to my notice though I made fish collections

from the tank several times. I have seen the material collected by

Mr. Renga Aiyar and this consists mostly of large specimens, but

cannot give from memory any further details. He told me -that

collection was mainly done by disturbing the surface by pouring

bucketfulls of water which helped the medusa tocome vip in the

eddy that was formed.

The Pampadampara tank, situated at an altitude of about 3,000

feet, is’ an ‘artulicial ‘one; roughly oval in shape, about 120 feet long

and go feet broad and formed by the construction of a small bund at

the head end of a narrow ravine near the estate quarters. The water in

the tank is intended for the labourers, for bathing purposes, and is used

by cattle also. There is no stream flowing into the tank and it depends

entirely on the rainwater washed down from ihe sides. The depth

is about 5 feet during summer and 8 feet during the rains, and the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES BOL

bottom is soft mud. In summer there is no outflow from the tank and

the ravine below is dry while during the rainy months the excess water

flows out into it through a small drain pipe. This tricklet flows into

other streams lower down that ultimately swell into one of the main

tributaries of the Periyar river, which it meets about 35 miles below

the dam.

The Pampadampara tank is different from other pieces of water

from where Limnocnida has been recorded hitherto in that it does

not lie in the regular course of a river. There could be little doubt

that the medusa came into the tank after its construction some years

ago. The agency responsible for its introduction could at present

be only a matter of speculation. If a resting stage, as suggested by

the previous workers (3), actually exists there is chance for its fortuitous

distribution during this phase of its life-history. A further point of

interest in the occurrence of the medusa in the Periyar watershed is

that this region lies in the southern section of the Sahyadri range

which is separated by the Palaghat gap into a distinct zoogeographical

zone. A systematic survey of the distribution of the medusa and a

study of its life-history should yield interesting results.

CENTRAL INLAND FISHERIES RESEARCH STATION,

BARRACKPORE, Ss: JONES

15th November, 1950.

REFERENCES

(1) J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 1950, 49 (2) : 318-319.

(2) Nature, 1935, 135 (3404) : 151.

(3) See (1) above for the previous references.

NEW RECORD FOR FREREA INDICA DALZ. IN

BOMBAY PROVINCE

oS)

In this journal (44: 143, 1939) C. McCann, formerly the Curator

of our Society, published a very complete and illustrated description

ef this plant. According to McCann, the plant had been seen three

times in Bombay Province, and in every case either on Junnar Hill,

Poona Dt., or in its immediate neighbourhood. Recently I found it

at Purandhar, Poona Dt., at an altitude of about 4,o00 ft., on the

slopes just below Vazirgarh Fort, the twin fort of Purandhar.

‘At first sight the plant looked to me like a somewhat stunted and

irregular stem of Euphorbia neriifolia, but for the absence of thorns

and the regular arrangement of the leaves, that seemed to be opposite,

to judge from the leaf scars. After a week of keeping the plant on

the floor of my room in Purandhar, I brought it down to Bombay

and planted it in my laboratory. In a week’s time the plant brought

out several leaves, and on December 20th 1950, it opened its flowers:

these are so typical that I have no doubt about the identity of the

plant. | , )

Purandhar, then, is to be considered a new locality for this very

rare plant. At the same time, judging from my experience, it is

802 JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL: HIST.’:‘SQCIETY, Voi. 49

quite possible that Frerea is not so rare as it appears, but its great

similarity with Euphorbia when in leaf may have caused some collectors

to mistake one plant for the other and to leave untouched what they

considered a very common plant. In my case it was almost an

accident that the plant was collected and planted for further study.

Sr. XAVIER’S COLLEGE,

Fort, Bompay 1. H. SANTAPAU, s.,J.

22nd December, 1950.

24. A NOTE ON THE OCCURRENCE OF TURIONS IN

HY DRIELA. VERTICIETAT A Pintle

(With a plate)

The turions or winter buds are well known to occur in a closely

allied species Elodea canadensis Michx. (1), but those of Hydrilla

verticillata Presl., as far as I am aware, have never been described.

Although the turions of Hydrilla in several respects resemble those of

Elodea (1, 2), there are certain very marked differences which call

for some remarks. The species, on which the present study

is based, grows abundantly in stagnant pools round about Annama-

lainagar, often mixed with Elodea.

The plant is benthos-rooted to the bottom of the pools. It has

a linear branch (fig. 1, m) which trails inside the muddy substratum.

Branches arise in an axillary position from a condensed shoot which

itself is borne in the axil of a leaf of the main trailing axis (fig. 15,

vy. 1). These branches grow erect and remain lashing in water (fig. 1).

Their lower internodes are longer than the distal ones. At the nodes

leaves are borne in whorls of four to six (fig. 1).

On the approach of winter the condensed shoots, which bear the

normal vegetative branches, give rise, from the axil of the scale leaves,

to positively geotropic shoots which penetrate into the muddy floor

ofthe pool’ (fig../1, ti:s.3figs.ln5, ise , Phéxapicesiot these oe,

then swell up to form turions. The turion is boat-shaped (fig. 2),

and sharply curved at its distal end, and is white or whitish brown’

in colour.

It is interesting to note that such turions are also fornted on the

erect stem far above the mud-level (fig. 1, t, and t,). These turions

are either sessile (fig. 1, t,) or stalked (fig. 1, #,) and invariably green

in,. colour. ,Unlike -the-, underground). turions, (fie. “a, 467," i vand

fig. 3) the distal end in this case-is but mildly curved. |

The turion consists of a condensed axis with 12-15 internodes

studded with rather fleshy leaves arranged in alternating whorls of

three at each node. These leaves are very different from the normal

foliage leaves in so far as they are shorter and broader and fieshy

(1) Arber, A. (1920): Water Plants (Cambridge University Press), p. 219.

(2) Safeeulla, K.M. and Govindu, H.C, (1949); Occurrence of Hagens in

Elodea canadensis. Current Science, 18 (11): 414-415.

Hist. Soe.

Journ., Bombay Nat.

VERTICILLATA Prese.

HyDRILLA

MISCELLANEOUS NGBES ¢ aks 4 4's 803:

(figs. 7, 8). The axis is thick and stumpy ending in a conical growing

apex. Both types of turions are filled with reserve food material in

_ the form of starch. 7 es

At the nodes of the ‘turion- ended shooté (he. 1. ES. ), “Ale borbe-

membraneous scale leaves arranged in whorls. of 7a -6. These scale

leaves’ are, however, smaller than those which form ; a cup at the base of

the turion, (figs. 2 5, 3 5,.4,and Be ss ‘

The foliage leaves of the main vegetative shoots, the scale leaves

of the turion and those of the shoots bearing the turions, show certain

interesting structural differences in their epidermis. The midrib:

region of the foliage leaf consists of narrow elongated cells (lig. 9)

and its laminar region on either side has broader tabular cells.

(fig. 10). But the scale leaves of the shoot bearing the turion peculiarly

show a reversed arrangement, namely, the midrib region has broader

cells (fig. 13) than the laminar region (fig. 14).. In the, fleshy scale

leaves of the turion, however, the narrow cells are restricted towards

pune -hipy cesion. (ae: 11) wheres, towards ‘the basal region ie cells

are parenchymatous and bigger (fig. 12).

As mentioned above, among the two types’ of turions thes one

formed inside’the mud is slightly more curved (fig. 1, t, and fig. 2),

than the one formed above the mud-level (fig. 1, t, and t,, and fig. 3),

excepting this difference, the general shape of both is similar. The

growing apex of both of them is turned upwads (fig. 1, t, & t,, and:

fig. 2 and 3). However, the shoots bearing the turions show certain

marked differences. In such cases where the turions are formed above

the mud-level and are borne on lateral shoots, the latter always arise

at right angles to the main axis (fig. 1, t,). But the shoots of the

subterranean turions are positively geotropic showing strong obtuse

Cinvatlire, im_respect of the main axis (fig: 1, t.s.).

It is significant to note that the green turions are formed on plants.

only confined to the margins of the pools in shallow waters.

In the closely allied member Elodea canadensis. Michx. turions

have been known and described as winter-buds, because they are

formed only in winter (1); but recently Safeeulla and Govindu have

shown that under conditions prevailing at Bangalore, the turions

may be formed even during summer. <A _ notable difference in

Hydrilla, however, is the simultaneous occurrence of turions both

embedded inside the mud and over the mud-level submerged in water.

The latter type of turions are the same size as that of the subterranean

ones, except for the fact that the leaves are green in the former whereas

they are cream-white in the latter.

It is my pleasant duty to express my grateful thanks to Prof.

T. CoN Singh, p.sc.,. F.8:S=, Professor and Head* of ‘the Depart-

ment of Botany, Annamalai University under whom the work ‘has

been carried out, and for his valuable guidance, criticisms and sugges-

tions during he course of the preparation of this paper.

‘DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY, C. LAKSHMANAN, B.sc. (Mad.),

ANNAMALAI UNIVERSITY. Research Scholar.

1st September, 1950. | .

894 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Ex PLANATION OF THE PLATE

(m = vegetative branch trailing under mud; s = scale leaves forming the cup

below the turion ;7, = a sessile turion formed above the mud-level in water ;

t = a stalked turion formed above the mud-level in water; 7, = subterranean

turion; ¢, s. = a shoot ending in turion; v. 1. = a normal foliage leaf in the axil

of which the condensed shoot arises; Ss. 1. = ascale leaf in the axil of which a

vegetative or positively geotropic branch arise.)

Fig. 1. Aydrilla verticillata Presl. : showing two types of turions. x 1.

Fig. 2. Asubterranean turion formed under mud. x5.

Fig. 3. Green turion formed above the mud-level on the main vegetative

shoot. x 95.

Fig. 4. Ascale leaf from the ultimate base of theturion. x 5.

Fig. 5. Ascale leaf from a whorl of leaves on the shoot ending in a turion.

x 9.

Fig. 6. A norma! foliage leaf from a vegetative shoot. x 4.

Fig. 7. Aleaffroma greenturion. x 4.

Fig. 8. Aleaf from asubterranean turion. x 4.

Fig. 9. Cells of the midrib of a normal foliage leaf. x 120.

Fig. 10. Cells of the laminar region of the normal foliage leaf. x 120.

Fig. 11. Cells of the apical part of the leaf of the turion. x 120.

Fig. 12. Cells of the basal part of the leaf of the turion. x 12).

Fig. 13. Cells of the midrib of the scale leaf of the shoot bearing turion,

x 120.

Fig. 14. Cells of the laminar region of the scale leaf of the shoot bearing

turion. x 120.

Fig. 15. Longitudinal section of the condensed shoot bearing normal vegeta-

tive branches and positively geotropic branch which gives rise to a subterranean

turion. x15.

25. ~ MUNTINGIA _CALABURA ‘LINN., A DROUGHT

RESISTANT. EXOTIC (PLANT

(With a photo)

Munlingia calabura Linn. is a medium spreading tree belonging

to Elaeocarpaceae introduced in Madras Province very recently. Its

native home is in Tropical America and is reported by Macmillan! to

have been introduced in Ceylon in 1912. Apart from this information

further details regarding this plant are lacking. From enquiries it

is learned that a few plants are found in the gardens of Madras and

‘Coconada, and also in the Botanic Garden of the Annamalai University.

These are reported to be thriving.

Within two years of planting in the botanic gardens at the

Agricultural College, Bapatlal, where the soil is sandy and poor, the

plant has attained a height of twelve feet with an average spread of

six feet either way. The trunk measures 15” in circumference at the

base. A perusal of the photograph will illustrate this remarkable

feature. ay

The plant fruits within a year of planting and commences to bear

regularly from the second year. It blossoms almost throughout the

year and stray harvest of fruits all through the year is not an un-

common feature. The peak period ranges in summer between May

* Macmillan, H. F. {1946) ; Tropical Gardening and Planting.

MISCELLANEOUS (NOTES .). 805»

and July. The fruit is green and slightly obovate in the initial stages ;

it attains a crimson red colour when fully ripe, and is very attractive

possessing also a pleasing flavour. Because of these features squirrels.

eee

saa Psa

ieee

and parrots are easily attracted to feast upon the fruits. The seeds

are minute and the pulp is finely granular. The plant is propagated

commonly by layers or root suckers. Attempts to raise by cuttings

or seeds have not met with success.

806 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

The plant is drought resistant and requires very little attention for

its maintenance. It has established itself well in Bapatla, where the

soil is poor, sandy and the water table high. When the temperature

remained over 112°F. for over a fortnight in May and June, 1948

amany plants in this locality including coconuts showed severe scorching

of leaf tip and margins, and some even succumbed in the heat wave

which touched 118°F. Surprisingly enough this plant remained quite

unaffected.

The Department of Agriculture has advocated the use of this

plant for planting in all agricultural farms in this province and it is

hoped that plant lovers will not lag behind in utilising this exotic

plant for economic purposes as a fruit and even as a fuel yielding tree

because of its extreme quick growth in the initial years and its drought

resistant nature.

In view of the exotic origin, and meagre information available

on this plant, a brief botanical description of it is given below :—

Muntingia calabura_ Linn. (Eloeocarpaceae.) A Tropical

American, middle-sized spreading tree. Stem: Terete, tender

portions glandular and _ pubescent. Leaves: Alternate, simple,

oblique, pubescent, glandular and sticky, serrate, 5 to 7 cms. wide,

tapering towards the end, stipulate, stipules hairy, pubescent,

glandular and deciduous. Flowers: Profuse, axillary and _ solitary,

regular, white and symmetrical. Sepals: Green, glandular, pubes-

cent, free, valvate. Petals: 5 free, white, inserted around torus,

valvate. Stamens: Indefinite, anthers 2-celled, dehiscing by lateral

clefts. Ovary: 5-celled, free, superior, sessile on the torus, stigma

terminal, 5-fid, connate. Fruit: Green, obovate when unripe,

‘crimson red when ripe, of the size of a marble, connate stigma persis-

tent, pericarp leathery, seeds copious, minute.

I am grateful to Dr. T. C. N. Singh, m.sc., D.sc., F.B.s., Professor

-and Head of the Department of Botany, Annamalai University,

Annamalainagar for his helpful criticisms and suggestions.

L. VENKATARATNAM,

AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, M.SC., B.SC. (Ag.)

-BAPATLA. Plant Physiologist.

26. GLEANINGS

Tibetan Antelope.

‘The Tibetan antelope has some curious characteristics, which must

‘be remembered when hunting them. They have little or no sense of

‘smell, but excellent sight. During July and August they are attacked

‘by a sort of fly, which lays its eggs under the skin on the rump.

These eggs mature to grubs. I have cut these grubs out of some

‘antelope that I have shot and found them to be about 14 in. long and

‘as thick as a man’s little finger. Naturally, these grubs set up intense

irritation and annoy the animal. sae

The antelope stop feeding at about 10 a.m. and then lie up in

shallow pits which they dig on the lower slopes of the mountains.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES yo 807

‘The sun striking down on their backs sets the grubs to work, and

it is seldom that the antelope stay in the same place for more than

20 minutes on end. They will suddenly jump up from their resting

places and go off, as if demented, at full speed. When they have

been driven to move by the activities of these grubs or flies, they

are entirely oblivious to danger.’—Lieut.-Colonel G. E. C. Gregory in

‘The World’s White Roof Tree’ from the ‘Field’, September 9, 1950,

page 417.

‘Chick and King Cobra Venom

On pages 326 and 327 of Vol. V, No. 2 (New Series) of. the

“Sarawak Museum Journal, dated September 1950, Tom Harrisson

refers to a king cobra in captivity which was offered rats and frogs

-all of which were promptly attacked and killed, but subsequently not

‘taken as food. In an effort to feed it a newly hatched chick was put

into the cage and the king cobra struck and shook it several times

‘during the 18 hours it was left with it. The chick was, however, later

‘removed and grew into a handsome cock! Keference is also made

‘to a Sakai belief that chickens are immune to snake bite.

The attention of the Haffkine Institute, Bombay, was drawn to

‘this note. They tell us that they have experimented with very young

chicks as well as older birds, but none of them survived an injection

of as small a quantity as one-tenth milligramme of cobra venom. In

-an effective bite over 500 times this quantity is injected.

‘Stones in Crocodiles

In the ‘ Field’ dated 14th October 1950, page 634, is an interesting

‘note entitled “Some Crocodile Enigmas’ by Major W. Robert Foran.

‘He refers to stones found in their stomachs and quotes Colonel C. R. S.

‘Pitman as suggesting that they may possibly help the digestive juices

to remain in condition during long periods of abstinence from food.

‘The late Sir Henry H. Ostler is quoted as stating that he had seen

a 15 ft. Crocodilus porosus owned by a man in North Queensland

‘throwing up eight stones, some nearly as large as a man’s fist. These

‘were reswallowed when the creature was next fed, and then vomitted

‘again after some days.

The Duck that got away!

Harold Hanson and Robert Smitn in their booklet entitled ‘Canada

“Geese of the Mississippi Flyway’ which appeared in the March 1950

‘issue of the Bulletin of the Illinois Natural History Survey refer to

recent fluoroscopic studies made by the Illinois Natural History Survey

-of ducks trapped at Spring Lake on the Mississippi River and at Lake

‘Chautauqua on the Illinois River which reveal that_approximately 25%

-of the mallards migrating through these areas carry lead shot in

‘their bodies as a result of shooting.

808 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

A Shamming Snake

Dir, |

Mr. Swann’s letter in the ‘Field’ of April 29th recalls to my

memory a strange experience at Barrackpore at the beginning of the

monsoon in 1947.

From my verandah I saw on the drive about 20 yards away a large

cobra writhing and squirming as if in its death throes. Beside it a com-

mon myna, seemingly also injured, was fluttering and pecking at the

head of the snake.

I have heard it alleged, but have never quite believed, that snakes

do sham injury in order to attract victims. My scepticism was un-

fortunate. But for it, [ would have waited to see what happened.

As it was I picked up a cane and went to dispatch the cobra, which

promptly shot off into the undergrowth, while a perfectly uninjured

myna flew away.

Is my scepticism unfounded? What is the true explanation of

conduct of (i) the snake (ii) the bird?

BROADWATER,

SUSSEX. STEWART, E> P. ATLHEREEY,

From the ‘Field’ dated Sth July, 1950; p- 71.

THE INYERNATIONAL UNION FOR THE fF ROTECTION

OF NATURE

LT.-Cot. R. W. Burron, 1.4. (Retd.)

The I.U.P.N. was established at Fontainebleau on the 5th Octo-

‘ber 1948. Thirty-three countries in all were represented at the Con-

aerence.

A ciear definition of the meaning of ‘Nature Protection’ was

given:

‘The term ‘Protection of Nature’’ may be defined as the pre-

servation of the entire world biotic community, or man’s natural

environment, which includes the earth’s renewable natural resources

of which it is composed, and on which rests the foundation of human

civilization.’

It was also declared that :

ever more effective means for: exploiting these resources

(ere reuuired) and moreover soils, water, wild life and wilderness

areas are of vital importance for economic, social, educational and

‘cultural reasons.’

Also that:

‘Protection of Nature is a matter of vital concern to all nations,

and the furthering oF it is the primary concern of no single effective

ternational agency.’

The objects of the Union were declared to be:—

1. The Union shall encourage and facilitate co-operation bet-

ween governments and national and international organizations con-

cerned with, and persons interested in, the epratection of Nature’.

2. The Union shall promote and recommend national and inter-

national action in respect to:—

(a) The preservation in all parts of the world of wild life and

the natural environment, soils, water, forests, including the pro-

tection and preservation of areas, objects and fauna and flora having

scientific, historic, or aesthetic significance by appropriate legislation

such as the establishment of national parks, nature reserves and

‘monuments and wild life refuges, with special regard to the preserva-

rion of species threatened with extinction ;

(b) The spread of public knowledge about ‘Protection of Nature’

the field of the ‘Protection of Nature’ ;

(d) The preparation of international draft agreements and a

world-wide convention for the ‘Protection of Nature’

(ec) Scientific research relating to the ‘Protection of Nature .

3. The Union shall collect, analyze, interpret and disseminate

information about the ‘Protection of Nature’. It shall distribute to

-governments and national and international organizations, documents,

310 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

legislative texts, scientific studies and other information concerning

the ‘Protection of Nature’.

Under' the initiative and auspices. of | UNESCO an. international and

iechnical ‘conference on the Protection ‘of Nature was assembled at

Lake Success on August 22-27, 1949 and passed a series of 21 re-

solutions of world-wide importance:

All the above is set out for the information of those who may

not be completely aware of the origin and purposes of this new-born

Union whose activities are of vital moment to all peoples of the world;

and to have clearly in mind the purposes of the Union for a considera-

tion of their bearing on conditions prevailing in India.

The First Resolution

Within the seven paragraphs of the first resolution is clearly and

concisely outlined why and how it is necessary to increase knowledge

of human ecology, by whom this should be done, the methods neces-

sary and; finally:

‘7. The results of these studies should be published and made

available to specialists. Also popular versions of the scientific results

should be made available in several languages to the general public.’

The. underlined words contain. the .real kernel of the matter.

Grandiose scientific resolutions can-be of no final practical value un-

less the facts and results of scientific investigations and researches

are visually placed before the literates of the people (which includes

the various grades of all the administrative departments concerned}

through suitable popular literature and demonstrated on the land and in

the forests to those sections of the people who are vitally affevied in

their living conditions by the scientific conclusions in various fields

of research.

Practical methods for giving effect. to this will be for consideration

by the Central and Provincial governments; perhaps the solution

niay lie with the radio, which has been likened to the spreading

branches and tendrils of a banyan tree penetrating to all parts of the

country, supplemented by cinema and propaganda vans visiting all

village weekly markets and also contacting rural population through-

out the land.

Lately, prominent people have said:

‘Ultimately it is on the application of science that all progress

depends.’ and,

‘There is lack of adequate provision to put the results of re-

search into actual practice.’

Soil and erosion; water and increase of productive acres; over-

grazing, improvement of fodder supplies and of cattle breeds;

alforestation outside forest areas to remedy past neglect and present

misuse; urban and rural planting of trees including provision and

maintenance of tree nurseries, proper planting methods and methodical

post-planting maintenance are some of the most important directions

in which effort is urgently called for. —

Then there is the need for village communities to provide for them-

selves by. establishment of village. Shan ees, and other Bees of

——<.

INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR THE PROTECTION .OF. NATURE 81¥

selected varieties, much needed fuel and wood for numerous agricultural

requirements—sheds, carts, ploughs, hedges, etc.

Practical fish conservation is necessary. It is not only through pond

and tank culture, but through protection of the aatural supply which

is in all the waters of this country in great abundance, if guarded against

wasteful and illegal destructive methods, that the people can obtain

the much needed proteins in their diet. Also, for many years and

right up to the present time, weirs and dams across rivers in many parts.

of India have, almost without exception, been unprovided with efficient

ladders for needs of migratory species of fish. Consequently some

ef the great rivers and their tributaries have been largely denuded.

ef certain species of great economical value.

There is great necessity for protection and conservation of wild

iife, fauna and flora according to the methodical order called ‘Balance

in Nature’. In this the aid of scientists is called for. Uninstructed

clamour on the part of the cultivating classes entailing the destruction

of edible species of animals and birds, as also the almost unrestricted

trapping and snaring of ground game, antelope and gazelle is doing

enormous damage all over the country to the inherited wild life re-

sources of the Republic of India. :

All these and various other matters are within the purview of this

first admirable Resolution. |

‘Where there is no vision the people perish.’—‘The first necessity,

if a man is to study life, is to cease to destroy it.’—‘Constitutional

and legal provisions are meaningless unless they are enforced. ’— ‘Can

there be anything more humiliating to a government than that it should

make laws which are violated at the discretion of the people—and the

violators not punished.’

All these utterances have direct bearing if the iabours of scientists.

are to have desired results.

Edt ation—The next four resolutions deal with the fundamental

importance of the widest possible distribution of educational material—-

films, books, leaflets, attractively designed and illustrated booklets as

produced in such profusion in some western countries; the necessity

that the organizations concerned with the protection of nature and

conservation and utilization of resources should collaborate to the

greatest possible extent; the great importance of encouraging youth

movements in favour of nature protection and conservation such as

already exist in a number of countries. India has none of these. It

is the aim of I.U.P.N. to take steps to bring into being in all countries.

youth clubs devoted to the study and conservation of Nature; the

promoting of international Fellowships for study and_ training in

countries with a highly developed conservation science and technology

is envisaged.

Primary and secondary schools.— The sixth resolution resolves:

‘That the International Union for the Protection of Nature re-

commend to UNESCO that it informs governments of the vital need for

the introduction of the teaching of the principles of nature protection

and conservation in the curricula of primary and secondary ‘schools,

and of universities and technical colleges, either as special courses or

as part of existing ones related to the subject matter.’ -

312 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

That is of the utmost importance, as has been urged by the present

writer for ‘the youth of to-day must become the conservationists of

to-morrow’.

In America the adoption of a ‘Conservation Pledge’ has had great

resuits. Such a pledge might well be adopted by all youth organizations

and for nature study classes.

CONSERVATION PLEDGE

‘I give my pledge as a citizen of the Republic of India to save

and faithfully to defend from waste the natural resources of my country,

its soil and minerals, its forests, waters and wild life.’

Large-scale projects. —The next resolution envisages the promotion,

in connection with large-scale projects, of co-operation with one or

more of the organizations executing such projects, detailed ecologica!

surveys which would furnish at the same time the most vital data in

regard to those developments on the overall living environment in the

areas affected, and valuable information to guide the development of

similar projects.

This is of course, as are all the others also, a very important matter.

Agriculture, malaria, fish supplies, afforestation and other aspects of

human ecology are all concerned. Co-operation, exchange of ideas

and experiences are most valuable in connection with all large-scale

undertakings such as are in view in India at the present time.

Insecticides.—Resolutions 8, 9 and ro deal with the use and m‘suse

of insecticides; the effective regulation of their use, as also of fungi-

cides, herbicides, rodenticides for the protection of human interests,

the object being to protect the equilibrium of nature by ‘preventing

the destruction of animal and plant communities. It is declared that

proposals should be worked out, and transmitted to a co-ordinating

body such as a4 ‘permanent Joint Commission on Insecticides’ to be

formed by FAO, WHO and UNESCO.

Resolution No. 11 deals with treatment of cattle in Africa against

trypanosomiasis and does not concern India. So also, No. 14, 19, and

20, do not apply to this country.

Exotic Spectes.—Resolution No. 12 recommends to governments

submission of their plans for importation of exotic species of animals

and plants for approval of one of the scientific services dealing with

nature protection and conservation, and has special reference to creation

of parks for exotic animals, industrial breeding projects (fur animals,

etc.), and fish farming.

This has interest for India, and will attract attention of govern-

ment departments concerned.

Scientific Committees—The I1.U.P.N. resolves in No. 13 that

‘certain countries or groups of countries promote the establisiment of

scientific committees composed of a small number of naturalists or

ecologists to supply the Union with information in the field of ecology,

and the true situation in regard to the protection of nature. This is

of moment io all countries as providing the essential contacts for ful-

filment of the objects of the Union.

INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR THE PROTECTION OF NATURE _ 813

In India, at the present time, while all aspects of the protection

of Nature are of great importance, perhaps it is erosion, afforesta-

tion and cattle fodder, conservation of fish in waters of all rivers and

streams, and wild life conservation which can claim priority.

Vanishing Assets Considering that the world is faced with an

increasing list of threatened and vanishing species of fauna and flora,

jthe Conference resolves (No. 15) that the I.U.P.N. should establish

a ‘survival service’ for the assembling, evaluation and dissemination

of information on, and the study of, all such cases in order to assist

governments and appropriate agencies in securing their survival.

The next Resolution gives a partial list of threatened birds and

animals, which include the Indian pink-headed duck and the Indian

rhinoceros, the Asiatic lion, and the Burmese brow-antlered deer of

which one race is found in Manipur; and further provides measures

for maintenance of an open list of such rare and threatened species

and promotion of such ecological research, and such measures as would

be necessary and effective for their preservation.

Resolution 18 deals specifically with the Great Indian One-horned

Rhinoceros and urges the Government of India to recommend to the

Provincial Government of Assam to take such steps in collaboration

with the I.U.P.N. as will protect and preserve the species, especially

in the Kaziranga Sanctuary which should be set aside as an inviolable

Rhinoceros Sanctuary.

Kesolution 17 recommends immediate and vigorous action by Govern-

ments in respect to rare and threatened plant species and maintenance

‘Of an open list in respect to them.

Food. Resolution No. 21, referring to the Beirut (1948) Session of

UNESCO, states that conservation of food resources is one ot the

primary responsibilities of FAO, and points out that the I.U.P.N. brings

together specialists of various countries who are concerned with the

fundamental scientific problems of conservation. It further makes

clear that the function of UNESCO in a world-wide programme olf food

resources should be determined between UNESCO and FAO, and that

the educational and basic scientific aspects of such a programm? should

‘be given special consideration by UNESCO.

It also suggests that it would be to their interest to consult I.U.P.N.,

and that the latter should receive from FAO and UNESCO all aecessary

documentation and information pertaining to their work in the field

of conservation.

SUMMARY

Scientists in all the many fields of modern research having perused

‘and studied the above, will perhaps be more than ever brought to

realize the importance of their labours in the cause of humanity, and

the better use that can be made through their conclusions of the

‘preservation of the earth’s renewable natural resources of which it

is composed and on which rests the foundation of human civilization’.

CONCLUSION

In respect to all the many matters dealt with, satisfactory results

cannot be achieved by government efforts alone. The people also

814 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

have their responsibilities, and unless these are whole-heartedly and

willingly discharged any amount of effort on the part of the abies

ment cannot have adequate results.

Therefore it is that the future well-being of the peoples of ae

Republic of India rests with the scientists, the government, and the

people themselves—the people in every class of life and in every

occupation and pursuit, and in all this they have the wise counsels and

invaiuable support of the International Union for the Protection of

Nature.

[As announced in the Appendix to the Honorary Secretary’s Report

for 1949 (Journal 49 (3): 586), the Society has joined the International

Union for the Protection of Nature in order the better to further its

efforts in the cause of India. The above article was originally written

by Col. Burton for Science & Culture and is here reproduced with

acknowledgements to its editor and publishers.

Since the publication of the article it has been announced in the

press (Delhi, 1st November 1950) that the Indian Agricultural Research

Council, under its new constitution, has established 3 new bodies, one

of which is named ‘Extension Board’.

The Extension Board is charged with carrying the results of research

to the farmer. The Board includes the Directors of Agriculture and

heads of Fishery Services, Animal Husbandry and Forest Departments

from the various State Governments.

It is gratifying to note that the Extension Board, as above consti-

tuted, fully satisfies Col. Burton’s remarks under The _ First

Resolution (p. 806)—Eps. |

BOMBAY WILD ANIMALS AND WILD BIRDS PROTECTION.

AGT 1051 | r

THE EDITORS

All of us who have shot in India must have had occasion to

regret the impunity with which poaching is carried on in various

places and the impotency of the few game laws which hitherto existed.

A few years ago, the Bombay Natural History Society attempted:

to prevent partridge being advertised for sale on the Bombay market

and on hotel menus during the close season, but she police expressed.

their inability to prosecute with any hope of conviction under the

existing laws.

Representation was then made to the Director of Parks and

Gardens who offered to move the Government of Bombay for changes

in the laws if some definite proposals were made to him. A draft bill

prepared by Mr. Humayun Abdulali on behalf of the Society was pre-

sented at a meeting of the Parks and Gardens Advisory Committee who:

referred it to a sub-committee for further examination. Mr. J. A. Singh,

till recently the Conservator of Forests, Bombay, was also on this Com--

mittee and with his assistance we went over the draft many times revising

and recasting it in the light of suggestions collected from many co-

operators and well-wishers. Prominent among these were Lt.-Col.

R. W. Burton, Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian-Adams, Mr. R. C.. Morris,

Mrs. Jamal Ara, Mr. P. D. Stracey, Mr. M. J. Hackney, the late Mr.

H. B. Hayes, Mr. W. F. H. Ansell and Col. C. L. Boyle, the Hon:

Secretary of the Fauna Preservation Society. Col. Boyle kindly

c:rculated the draft among a number of other people with practical

experience of Indian conditions, and some very valuable suggestions.

were elicited. We were also sent copies of allied legislation in force

in various parts of Africa which helped greatly in drafting the Act.

The following were consulted and drawn upon:—

INDIA

1. The Rules and Bye-laws of the Toorsa-Sankos Fishing and

Shooting Association (Dooars, Bengal).

2. Bengal Act V of 1932—The Elephants Preservation (Bengal

Amendment) Act 1932. |

3. Bengal Act II of 1938—The Bengal Rhinoceros Preserva-

tion (Amendment) Act, 1937.

4. Bengal Act VIII of 1932-—The Bengal Rhinoceros Preserva-

tion. Act, 1932.

5. The Memorandum of the Constitution of the Game Federa-

tion of Bengal.

6. Correction Slip No. 36 to the Bengal Presidency Manual,

Part 1. |

7. Correction Slip No. 87 to the Bengal Presidency Forest

Manual, Part I.

8. Government of Bihar Revenue Department, Notification of

goth March 1948.

°816 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

9g. Bihar and Orissa Government Reserved Forests Shooting

Rules 1932.

10. The Central Provinces and Berar Game Rules, 1942 and the

Shooting Rules.

11. Government of India Act No. VIII of tor2-——Act to make

better provision for the protection and preservation of certain wiid

birds and animals. |

12.. The Indian ,Forest:Act.of 1927.

13. The Bihar Wild Birds and Animals Protection Act.

14. Madras Game Laws and Shooting and Fishing Rules also

Licence.

15. The Punjab Wild Birds and Animals Protection Act.

16. Sind Wild Birds and Wild Animals Protection Act, 1940.

17. Shooting Rules in force in the United Provinces.

18. Wild Birds and Animals Protection Act {VIII of 1912)—

‘Close time for wild birds and animals in the U.P.

CEYLON

19. The Legislative Enactments of Ceylon—Fauna and Flora

Protection Ordinance (1938 Revision).

20. Parliament of Ceylon 3rd Session 1949—Fauna and Flora

Protection (Amendment) Act, No. 38 of 1949.

‘GREAT BRITAIN

21. Game Laws at a Glance (published by the British Field Sports

Society).

AFRICA

22. Colony and Protectorate of Kenya—An Ordinance to consoli-

‘date and amend the law relating to the Protection of Game Animals

-and Game Birds.

23. Colony and Protectorate of Kenya

the Game Ordinance 1937.

24. Colony and Protectorate of Kenya—An Ordinance to consoli-

date and amend the law relating to the Protection of Game Animals

and Game Birds.

25. Northern Rhodesia—Notes on the Game Oran with

Schedules and Fees (July 1949).

26. Northern Rhodesia—Game: Chapter 106 of the laws (1949.

Edition).

Though a considerable amount of time and energy was expended

in this effort, the whole process was interesting and has revealed many

significant and often curious facts. One of them appears to be a

flaw in the Constitution Act which prevents the provinces from legi-

slating in connection with any living creatures other than men, animals

(which means only mammals) birds and fish! In view of this

difficulty it has heen found necessary to delete reference to the protec-

tion to crocodiles, lizards, frogs and all invertebrates. None of them

appear to need any immediate protection in our State, but a provision

in the Act might have been useful in future if occasion arose., The

final draft was submitted to the Government of Bombay and we under-

stand that. it. has been approved by both.the- Houses of Legislature.

The crux of the whole Act is the appointment of a Special. Wild Life

Preservation Officer for which the Society has long agitated, and

An Ordinance to amend

BOMBAY WILD ANIMALS AND WILD BIRDS PROTECTION ACT. 195L 31%

that section which makes it incumbent upon the accused, if found ia

possession of a game animal and suspected of committing a breach

of the game laws, to prove that his trophy was legally acquired.

Another important feature is the appointment of honorary game-

wardens who, if properly selected and armed with police powers should,

we feel, act as effective deterrents to poaching. It is self evident

that the co-operation of the shooting fraternity is the first essential

towards the success of this new Department. We hope that members

of the Society will give government all possible support, and also

attempt to get similar legislation passed in all the other States of the-

Union.

The Government of Bombay as a preamble to the bill give a state-

ment of objects and reasons as follows:

‘

STATEMENT OF OBJECTS AND REASONS

‘*Wild-life is a valuable natural resource and its conservation,.

therefore, is considered as a national wealth. In its fauna, nature has.

endowed India with a magnificent asset. The forests in the State of

Bombay are well_known for wild birds and animals of various species.

ft is the duty of the State to protect the useful and beautiful wild things.

of the woodlands. The forest wild-life has many values. It provides

in the way of hunting. It yields hides, pelts, skins, tusk and teeth,

etc., that bring cash to the State.. Wild creatures provide a service

that we often fail to appreciate because it is not obvious—they contribute

to the natural balance that helps to keep forests in condition. Without

regulation, this valuable resource is in danger of extinction and it is,.

therefore, essential that suitable steps should be taken for its conserva-

tion. The present Bill aims at conserving wild-life in the State of

Bombay and also at keeping in check wild birds and animals which:

are a danger to human life and agricultural crops.

The Government of India recognised, as long ago as 1912, the prime

necessity of conserving wild-life and they passed the Wild Birds and

Animals Protection Act, 1912. The present Bill contemplates repeal

of the Government of India Act in its application to the State of Bombay,

as the provisions of that Act are not sufficiently wide to cover the

requirements. The provisions of the present Bill cover the various

questions pertaining to the preservation of wild-life and provision has

been made in the Bill for the establishment of Game Sanctuaries for

the purpose. |

The presence of sportsmen of the right kind has been found to be

the best guarantee for preservation of wild-life. The Bill, therefore,

provides for the grant of shooting licences with certain reservations in

the best interests of wild-life.

Recently, so many States have merged in the State of Bombay.

This has increased the State forest area considerably. In view of

this, it is proposed to appoint an independent officer with necessary

‘staff for seeing that the provisions of the Bill are properly implemented.

Forest Officers are fully engaged with their normal work and cannot

find time for effectively undertaking this duty.

. With a view to obtaining expert advice of persons and associations

connected with wild-life preservation, provision has been made ir

‘Short _ title,

“818 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

the Bill for appointment of an Advisory Board consisting of officials

and non-officials. This will help Government in gauging the general

trend of opinion as regards selection of areas for game sanctuaries and

formulation of policy regarding grant of licences and other matters

‘connected with the preservation of wild-life.’’

TEXT OF A BILL TO MAKE ADEQUATE PROVISION FOR THE

PROTECTION OF WILD ANIMALS AND BIRDS IN

THE STATE OF BOMBAY

WHEREAS it is expedient to make better and adequate provision for

‘he preservation and protection of wild animals and wild birds in the

State of Bombay and for certain other matters hereinafter appearing ;

it 1s hereby enacted as follows :—

CHAPTER [|

PURSE IA Molen ATR Ay

1. (z) This Act may be called the Bombay Wild Animals and Wild

extent and Birds Protection Act, 1950.

commence -

ment.

i Definitions.

(2) It extends to the whole of the State of Bombay.

(3) It shall come into force on such date as the State Government

may, by notification in the Official Gazette, appoint.

Z. In this Act, unless there is anything repugnant in the subject or

context,—

(a) ‘Animal or Bird’ includes the young ones of the animal or bird,

as the case may be;

(b) ‘Big Game’ means any animal specified in Schedule III or IV;

dt. sor IV.

(d) ‘Game Officer’ means any officer, warden or servant appointed

or authorized for any of the purposes of this Act;

(e) ‘Hunt’ means to hunt, kill or capture any animal or bird by

-any method and includes every attempt to kill or capture it or to take

.or destroy any part of its body or eggs or nest or to disturb its eggs

‘or nest.

(f) ‘Licence’ means a licence granted under this Act;

(gz) ‘Meat’ includes fat, blood, flesh and bones;

(h) ‘Permit’ means a permit granted under this Act;

(¢) ‘Prescribed’ means prescribed by rules;

(j) ‘Rules’ means rules made under section 438;

(k) ‘Schedule’ means a Schedule appended to this Act;

l) ‘Small Game’ means any animal or bird specified in

‘Schedule II;

(m) ‘Trophy’ means the durable part of an animal or a bird

which has been preserved by any means, whether natural or artificial,

-and includes the head or horn, tooth, tusk, bone, claw, hoof, skin,

hair, feather, eggs or nest of any bird, but does not include any article

manufactured from any such part of the animal or bird as aforesaid;

(n) ‘Vermin’ means any animal or bird specified in Schedule I

and includes. any animal or bird declared to be a vermin under

section 18. 3 |

BOMBAY ‘WILD ANIMALS AND WILD BIRDS PROTECTION ACT 1951 819

_: 3. Nothing in this Act shall apply to domesticated or other animals Domesticated

or birds which are lawfully captured and kept in captivity. and other

animals and

birds in

CHAPTER II captivity

exempted.

AUTHORITIES TO BE APPOINTED OR CONSTITUTED UNDER THE ACT

4. (1) The State Government may for the purposes of this Act Appointment

-appoint of Wild Life

; ‘ . : Preserva-

(a) the Wild Life Preservation Officer for the State of Bombay; tion Officer,

_(b) the Game Wardens, either honorary or stipendiary ; Game War-

(2) The honorary Game Warden shall ordinarily hold office for 4 Oe) ae

period of three years:

Provided that the State Government may terminate his tenure of

office at any time without assigning any reason.

(3) The Game Wardens and other officers and servants appointed

under this section shall be subordinate to the Wild Life Preservation

‘Officer.

9. The Wild Life Preservation Officer may, with the approval Delegation

of the State Government, by order in writing delegate any of his of powers |

; as ; by Wild Life

powers and duties under any of the provisions of this Act to any Pracetunuan

officer subordinate to him, subject to such conditions, ii any, Officer.

as may be specified in the order.

6. (z) As.soon as possible after the coming into force of this evi

Act, the State Government shall constitute an advisory board herein- yy: ee:

: ‘ . . . ; nas Wild Life

after called ‘the State Wild Life Advisory Board’ consisting of the advisory

following ex-officio and other members nominated by the State Board.

“Government, namely : —

(a) The Chief Secretary to the Government of Bombay as the

‘Chairman ;

(b) One representative of the Bombay Legislative Assembly ;

(d) ‘Two non-officials who in the opinion of the State Government

are interested in the protection of wild animals and birds;

(e) One representative of the Bombay Natural History Society ;

(f) Four other officials of Government.

(2) The Wild Life Preservation Officer shall be the Secretary of the

‘Board.

(3) The members shall ordinarily hold office on such terms as to

‘tenure and vacation of office as the State Government may determine :—

Provided that the tenure of office of any member may be termi-

‘nated by the State Government at any time without assigning any

‘reasons.

(4) The members shall be entitled to receive such allowances in

respect of expenses properly incurred in the performance of their duties

as the State Government may determine :—

Provided that the receipt of such allowances by the representative

-of the Bombay Legislative Assembly or the Bombay Legislative Council

‘shall not be deemed to make such representative as the holder of an

office of profit under the State Government.

820 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Duties of ~ 7. It shall be the duty of the State Wild Life Advisory. Board to

State Wild advise the State Government— |

Le Sey (r) in the selection of areas to be declared as Game Sanctuaries ;

(2) in formulating the policy in granting licences and permits under

this Act and administration of Game Sanctuaries ;

(3) in the matter of framing rules under section 48 and

(4) on any other matter connected with the preservation and protec-

tion of animals and birds which may be referred to it by the State

Government.

Procedure of 8. (zr) The State Wild Life Advisory Board shall meet at least

ee taeda once a year at Bombay or such other place as the State Government

1re TIsOry

hea may direct.

(2) The procedure (including the quorum) of the Board shall be

such as the Board may, by bye-laws made in this behalf, determine.

Cuapter III

HUNTING OF ANIMALS AND BIRDS

A. Licences

Hunting of 9. No person shall hunt any wild animal or wild bird except

wild animals

ee ae under a licence granted under the provisions of this Act and in

Sahout accordance with the conditions specified in such licence :

licence pro- Provided that no such licence shall be necessary to hunt any vermin.

hibited.

Registration 19. Any person who holds a licence granted under the Indian Arms

ofcertain Act, 1878, for the possession of arms for sport or protection or who is

Seer exempt from the provisions of that Act and possesses any arms, shall

Pe one register his name and address with the Wild Life Preservation Officer

or any other Officer authorized by the State Government in this behalf.

Such registration shall be made on application made in the prescribed

form and on payment of such fee as may be prescribed.

Procedure 411. (7) Any person desiring to obtain a game licence shall apply

for licence. to the Wild Life Preservation Officer or any other Officer authorized

by the State Government in this behalf in the prescribed form. Such

application shall be accompanied by such fee for the licence as may

be prescribed. |

(2) The application may be made for any or all of the following

kinds of game licences, namely:

(a) Small Game Licence,

“(b\ebie. Game ikicence:

(d) Pet Animals (Possession) Licence,

(e) Pet and other Animals (Trapping) Licence.

(3) On receipt of an application and after making such inquiry as

he may deem necessary the Wild Life Preservation Officer or the

authorized Officer may, subject to any general or special orders of the

State Government, grant or refuse to grant the game licence without

BOMBAY WILD ANIMALS AND WILD BIRDS PROTECTION ACT 1951 821

assigning any reasons. When a game licence is refused the fee paid

therefor shall be refunded to the applicant.

(4) Every game licence granted under this section shall ordinarily |

be valid for such period as may be prescribed.

(5) Any person aggrieved by the refusal of a licence may within

fifteen days appeal to the State Government, whose decision shall

be final.

IZ. (1) The holder of every game licence, of the kind specified in Record of

clause (b), (c) or (e) of sub-section (2) of section rr, shall keep a record game hunted

containing such particulars as may be prescribed of all game killed Of eens

captured by him during the currency of his licence.

(2) When any game is killed or captured by the holder of such

licence, he shall not later than fifteen days of the killing or capture

of the game or before leaving the State of Bombay, whichever is

earlier, intimate in writing to the Wild Life Preservation Officer or to

any other Officer authorised by the State Government in this behalt,

the prescribed particulars of the animal or bird killed or captured

by him.

(3) Not later than fifteen days after the expiry of his licence, the

holder shall surrender his licence to the Wild Life Preservation Officer

or the authorized Officer and shall sign a declaration in the prescribed

form certifying the accuracy of the record of the game killed or

captured by him.

13. Notwithstanding anything contained in this Act, it shall be Issue of

lawful for the Wild Life Preservation Officer, upon such conditions licences for

as he may deem fit to impose, to grant a licence to any person with ae

or without payment of fee, which shall entitle the holder to hunt ;

animals and birds specified thereon for any of the following purposes,

namely :— :

(a) Scientific research ;

{b) Collection of specimens for zoological gardens, museums and

similar institutions; and

menace to human life or property.

14. (z) The Wild Life Preservation Officer or any other Officer Suspension

authorized by the State Government in this behalf may, subject to any or cancella-

general or special orders of the State Government, without giving any aeeee

previous notice and without assigning any reasons, suspend or cancel :

any licence granted under this Chapter. ;

(2) Any person aggrieved by the suspension or cancellation of a

licence under sub-section (1) may within fifteen days appeal to the

State Government, whose decision shall be final.

B. General

15. (2) Except when authorized under a specified condition to that Hunting of

effect in a licence, no person shall hunt the young of any game or any young and

female game accompanied by its young or any deer with horns in Sen ES

‘velvet. : - hibited.

(2) Nothing contained in sub-section (1) shall apply to the hunting

of vermin. HOU:

822 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

lose time. 16. The State Government may, by notification in the official

Gazette, declare the whole year or any part thereof to be a close time

throughout the whole or any part of the State of Bombay for any kind

of wild animal or bird or for female or immature wild animal or bird

of such kind.

Unlawful 17. (1) No person shall hunt any game from or by means of a

methods of

heading: wheeled or a mechanically propelled vehicle on water or land or by

air-craft.

(2) No person shall use a motor car, motor launch or air-craft, for

the purpose of killing, driving or stampeding game.

(3) No person shall hunt any game with nets, snares, pit-falls,

poison or poison-weapons, except in defence of ica life or property,

and except in so far as it relates to capture of animals and birds

under a licence of the kind specified in clause (e) of sub-section (2) of

section I1.

(4) No person shall for the purpose of hunting set fire to any

vegetation.

(5) No person shall use any artificial light for the purpose of

hunting, except in the case of carnivora, over a natural kill. |

(6) No person shall hunt any game during the hours of night, i.e.,

one hour after sun-set and one hour before sun-rise, except in the

case of carnivora, by sitting over a natural kill.

(7) No person shall hunt any game on a salt-lick or water hole or

other drinking places or on paths and approaches to the same except

sand-grouse and water birds. }

(8) No person shall hunt any game on any land of private owner-

ship, without the consent of the owner or his agent or the lawful

occupier of such land.

(9) No person shall, ner ate nee that he holds a game licence

for the purpose, hunt any game animal during the close time.

Declaration 18. The State Government may by notification in the official

ofcertain Gazette declare any wild animal or wild bird other than those specified

apna and in Schedule I, to be a vermin in any specified area, and it shall not

irds as

Sal be necessary to hold a licence to hunt any such animal or bird in

such area.

CHAPTER IV

GAME SANCTUARIES

P t ek: . : : .

Be leto = 19. The State Government may by notification in the _ official

areatobe Gazette declare any area to be a Game Sanctuary, in the manner

Game Sanc-hereafter appearing.

tuary.

Notification 20. Whenever it has been decided t to declare any area to be Game

regarding yaacee the ‘State Government | ae issue a notification in the

Sanctuary. (z) stating that it has been decidéd to acclané eichi area to be a

. Game Sanctuary ;

(2) specifying ‘as nearly as’ “possible the situation and limits ot

such area, and

BOMBAY WILD ANIMALS AND<.WILD BIRDS PROTECTION ACT 1951 623

(3) directing the Collector to inquire into and determine the

existence, nature and extent of any rights alleged to exist in favour

of any person in or over the land comprised within the limits of such

area and deal with the same as provided in this Act.

Explanation.—For the purpose of this section, it shall be sufficient

to describe the area by roads, rivers, ridges or other well-known or

readily intelligible botindaries. Bar of ac-

3 * ; i f crual of an

21. After the issue of a notification under section 20, no right shall rights fatand

‘ be 2 4 ° . ° ° ° .

be acquired in or over the land comprised in such notification, except comprised in

by succession. Game Sanc-

tuary.

22. When a notification has been issued under section 20, the Proclamation

Collector shall publish in the regional language in every town andby Collector.

village in the neighbourhood of the area comprised therein, a procla-

mation— re

(a) specifying, as nearly as possible, the situation and the limits

of the proposed Game Sanctuary ;

(b) fixing a period of not less than two months from the date of

such proclamation, and. requiring any person claiming any right

mentioned in section 20 or section 21 within such period either to

present to the Collector a written notice specifying or to appear

before him and state, the nature of such right and the amount and

particulars of the compensation (if any) claimed in respect thereof.

23. The Collector shall take down in writing all statements made Inquiry by

under section 22 and shall at ‘some convenient place inquire into all Collector.

claims duly preferred under that section and the existence of any rights

mentioned in section 20 or 21 and not claimed under section 22 so

far as the same may be ascertainable from the records of Government

and the evidence of any persons. likely to be acquainted with the same.

24. Rights in respect of which no claim has been preferred under Eee

section 22 and of the existence of which no knowledge has been” “8 *”

acquired by inquiry under section 23, shall be extinguished.

25. In the case of a claim to a right in or over any land, other Power a i

than a right of public way or right of common pasture, the Collector um 7

shall either— | right is

(a2) exclude such land from the limits of the proposed Game claimed.

Sanctuary, or

(b) come to an agreement with the owner thereof for the surrender

of his rights, or _

Act I of 1894.

Land Acquisition Act, 1894. :

| ~acquiri ee Acquisition

26. For the purpose of acquiring such land, Ee cecdinew

J of 1894. : 7

(z) the Collector shall be: deemed to be a Collector proceeding under

the Land Acquisition Act, 1894; one

824 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49°

(2) the claimant shall be deemed to be a person interested and

appearing before him in pursuance of a notice given under section 9

of/-that “Act;

(3) the provisions of the preceding sections of that Act shall be

deemed to have been complied with;

(4) the Collector with the consent of the claimant, or the Court,

with the consent of both the parties, may award compensation in land

or, partly in land and partly in money; and

(5) in the case of the stoppage of a public way or a common

pasture, the Collector may, with the previous sanction of the State

Government, provide for a substitute public way or common pasture,

as far as may be practicable or convenient.

Power of 27. The State Government may, by general or special order, direct

veal that the powers exercisable or the functions to be performed by the

fo be exeT- Collector under sections 20 to 26 (both inclusive) may be exercised

cised by : % as ;

other officers. 2nd performed by such officer as may be specified in the order.

Restriction 28. No person, other than,—

Paton (a) any public servant on duty;

n ame ad . . e AAO saa ee

Ree cunt (b) any person who ordinarily resides within the limits of a Sanc-

tuary ;

the limits of a Sanctuary;

(d) any person passing through a Sanctuary along a public high-

way ;

(e) the dependents and servants of the above persons; shall enter

or reside in a Game Sanctuary, except under a permit and in accordance

with the conditions of the permit granted under section 29.

Permit to 29. (1) The Wild Life Preservation Officer may issue to any person

enter or re- on application a permit to enter or reside in a Game Sanctuary for any

PE ats a i of the following purposes, namely:— | ies |

tuary. (a) Investigation or study of wild life and purposes incidental

thereto;

(b) Photography ;

(d) To transact lawful business with any person residing in the

Sanctuary.

(2) A permit to enter or reside in the Sanctuary shall be issued,

subject to such conditions as the Wild Life Preservation Officer may

deem fit to impose or as may be prescribed and such conditions shall

be endorsed on the permit.

Hunting in 30. (1) No person shall hunt any animal or bird in a Game Sanc-

Game Sanc- tuary, provided that the Wild Life Preservation Officer may in any

i ma eout special case where he is satisfied that it is necessary that animals or

Eeear ~ birds should be hunted for the better preservation of other animal life,

or for other good and sufficient reason, issue a permit authorising any

person, to hunt such animals or birds under the direction of an officer

authorised by him.

- (2) A permit issued under sub-section (z) shall specify the number

and kind of animal or bird that may be hunted by the holder of such

permit.

BOMBAY WILD ANIMALS AND WILD BIRDS PROTECTION ACT 1951 825

31. (z) The Wild Life Preservation Officer may, for good and Refusal or

sufficient reason, refuse to issue any permit or may cancel any permit pe rita

granted under this Chapter. ;

(2) ‘Any person aggrieved by the refusal or cancellation of a permit

under sub-section (1) may within fifteen days appeal to the State

Government, whose decision shall be final. :

32. No person shall set fire to a Game Sanctuary or kindle or leave uae fire

any fire burning in such manner as to endanger such sanctuary. prohibited.

CHAPTER V

TROPHIES AND PET ‘ANIMALS AND BIRDS

33. No person shall carry on the business of a trophy dealer on canes in

dealer in pets, except under and in accordance with the trophy oor Ye

dealer’s licence or pets dealer’s licence granted under the provisions jicence

of this Chapter. prohibited.

34. <A trophy dealer’s or pet and other animal dealer’s licence may Trophy and

be issued by the Wild Life Preservation Officer or by any other Officer Pets dealer’s

authorized by the State Government in this behalf on application and “°°:

payment of such fees as may be prescribed, and shail entitle the

holder to carry on the business of a trophy dealer or dealer in pets

upon the premises and conditions specified in the licence. Every such

licence shall be valid for one year from the date of issue, unless duly

suspended or cancelled before that period.

35. A trophy dealer or dealer in pets shall keep such records and Records and

returns to be

‘submit such returns of his dealings to the Wild Life Preservation made by

‘Officer as may be prescribed. trophy and

pets dealers.

36. The Wild Life Preservation Officer may for the purposes of Certificate of

section 37 issue a certificate of ownership to any person who in hisownership.

opinion is in lawful possession of a trophy.

37. No person shall export or transfer by gift, sale or otherwise, Export and

‘to any person any trophy unless he is in possession of a certificate of sale of

ownership therefor and such certificate shall be delivered or sent by ‘toPhies

: ; regulated.

post to the transferee at the time of export or transfer.

Explanation. For the purposes of this section, ‘export’ means to

take out of the State of Bombay otherwise than across a customs

frontier.

38. Any game found dead or killed without a licence in defence of Government

life or property or by mistake or any game or trophy in respect of trophies.

which a breach of the provisions of this Act has been committed, shall

‘be a Government trophy and the property of the State Government.

39. Any person who by any means obtains possession of a Govern- Possession of

ment trophy shall within 48 hours make a report thereof to the nearest Government

‘Game, Police or Forest Officer and shall, if so required, hand over OPAy to be

‘the trophy to him. reported.

15A

826 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST..SOCIETY, Vol. 49

Unlawful 40. (rz) No person shall without the permission of any of the Officers

possession referred to in section keep in his possessi

Poe tans 39 Pp p ssion any Government trophy

in Govern- 0° without the permission of the Wild Life Preservation Officer or

ment any other Officer authorized by the State Government in this behalf

trophies. transfer, by gift, sale or otherwise, any Government trophy to any

person.

(2) In any prosecution for contravention of the provisions of sub-

section (1), it shall, until the contrary is proved and the burden of

proving which shall lie on the accused, be presumed that the person

in whose possession the Government trophy was found was in un-

lawful possession thereof.

Production 41. Every person who kills an elephant or a bison shall produce

of ivory or

horn before itS ivory or horn before the Wild Life Preservation Officer or any

Wild Life other Officer authorized by the State Government in this behalf within

Preservation one month of the killing thereof, or within such further time as may

Officer. a at ie : j i . ; : a

e allowed by him in any special case, together with the game licence

under which it was killed.

Registration 42. The officer to whom the ivory or horn is produced under the

eG provisions of section 41, if satisfied, after such enquiry as he may con-

identification Sider necessary, that the ivory or horn has been lawfully obtained, shall

marks. cause it to be weighed, marked and registered in the prescribed manner

and shall return it to the person producing it together with a certificate

of ownership in the prescribed form.

No Ao 43. No person shall in any manner transfer any such ivory or horn

hornto be without the certificate of ownership obtained from the Wild Life Pre-

transferred : : P

without a Servation Officer or the authorized Officer, as the case may be.

certificate of

ownership. CuHaPTer VI

PREVENTION AND DETECTION OF OFFENCES AND PENALTIES

Powers of 44. (rz) The Wild Life Preservation Officer or any other Game

entry, search, Officer empowered by him or any Forest or Police Officer may, if he

ee has reasonable grounds for believing that any person has committed

"an offence against this Act,—

(a) require any such person to produce for his inspection any

animal, bird, meat or trophy in his possession or any licence, permit

or other document issued to him or required to be kept by him under

the provisions of this Act;

(b) enter and search any premises, land, vehicle or boat, in the

occupation of such person and open and search any baggage or other

things in his possession ;

any person and appearing to him to be the property of the State

Government, and unless he is satisfied that such person will appear

and answer any charge which may be preferred against him, without

warrant arrest and detain him.

(2) It shall be lawful for any of the Officers referred to in sub-

section (1) to stop and detain any person whom he sees doing any

act for which a licence or permit is required under the provisions of

this ‘Act for the purposes of requiring such person to produce his

licence or permit and if such person fails to produce his licence or

BOMBAY WILD ANIMALS AND WILD BIRDS PROTECTION ACT 1951 827

permit, as the case may be, he may be arrested without a warrant,

unless he furnishes his name and address and otherwise satisfies the

officer arresting him that he will duly answer any summons or other

proceedings which may be taken against \him.

(3) Any person detained, or things seized under the foregoing

powers, shall forthwith be taken before a Magistrate to be dealt with

according to law.

3 (4) Any person who, without reasonable cause, fails to produce

anything which under the powers conferred by this section he is

required to produce, shall be guilty of an offence against this Act.

45. (z) Any person who contravenes any of the provisions of this Penalties.

Act or of any rules made thereunder or who commits a breach of any

of the conditions of any licence or permit shall be guilty of an offence

against this Act, and shall, on conviction, be punished with imprison-

ment which may extend to six months or with fine which may extend

to Rs. 500 or with both.

(2) When any person is convicted of an offence against this Act,

the Court trying the offence may order that any animal, bird, meat or

trophy in respect of which the offence has been committed and any

weapon or trap with which the offence has been committed shall be

at the disposal of the State Government, and that any licence or per-

mit held by such person under the provisions of this Act, be cancelled.

(3) Such cancellation of licence or permit shall be in addition to

any other punishinent awarded for such offence.

46. No Court shall take cognizance of any offence against this Act : When Court

(z) except on the complaint or report of the Wild Life Preserva-* take ie

tion Officer or any Officer authorized by him or of any Forest Ones a

Police Officer or of any other Officer authorized by the State Govern-

ment in this behalf; and

(2) unless the prosecution is instituted within three months from

the date on which the offence is alleged to have been committed.

47. Nothing in this Act shall be deemed to prevent any person Operation of

from being prosecuted under any other law for any act or omission other laws

which constitutes an offence under this Act or from being liable ”°t barred.

under such other law to any higher punishment or penalty than that

provided by this Act:

Provided that no person shall be punished twice for the same offence.

CHAPTER VII

MISCELLANEOUS

48. (zr) The State Government may make rules for carrying out Power to

the purposes of this Act. make rules.

(2) In particular and without prejudice to the generality of the

foregoing power, such rules may be made for all or any of the following

matters, namely—

(a) the forms to be used for any application, licence, permit,

registration, declaration, certificate, return or other documents,

granted, issued, made or submitted under the provisions of this Act

and the fees, if any, therefor;

828 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49

(b) the conditions subject to which any licence or permit may

ibe granted under this Act;

be kept and submitted by any licensee;

(d) controlling settlements in game sanctuaries with a view to

preventing disturbance to the natural fauna;

(e) regulating the sale cf pet and other animals and trophy

derived from the wild animals and birds;

(f) manner of registration of ivory or horn of elephant or bison

brought for such registration ;

(g) any other matter for which in the opinion of the State

Government provision is expedient or necessary to carry out the object

of this \Act.

(3) The power to make rules under this section shall be exercised

subject to the condition of previous publication.

(4) The rules made under this section shall be published in the

official Gagette and on such publication shall have effect as if enacted

in this Act.

Power to 49. For the purpose of preserving or protecting the rare species

amend Sche- eleatiait caged s f p LaCie ing sp

alec: of wild animals and wild birds, protecting such animals and birds

during the breeding season and for any similar purpose, the State

Government may, by notification in the official Gazette, add to or alter

any of the Schedules and any such addition or alteration shall have

effect as if it had been made by this Act.

Defence of 50. Subject to the provisions of sections 38 to 4o (both inclusive),

life and nothing in this Act shall prohibit—

Hai (1) the killing or capturing of any wild animal or wild bird by the

occupier of any land in defence of the standing crop or cattle on the

land; :

(2) the killing or capturing in good faith of any wild animal or

wild bird in defence of himself or of any other person :

Provided that nothing in this section shall exonerate any person

who, when such defence became necessary, was hunting any game

eee to OF Committing any contravention of tise Act.

be public 51. All Game Officers and other officers exercising any of the

(XLV of powers conferred by this Act shall be deemed to be public servants

1860). within the meaning of section 2 of the Indian Penal Code.

Protection to 52. No suit, prosecution or other legal proceedings shall lie against

persons act-any person for anything which is in good faith done or intended to

ing in good

faith be done under this Act.

Power to 53. The State Government may by notification in the official

exempt. Gazette exempt any person by name or in virtue of his office or any

class of persons from all or any of the provisions of this Act.

Repeal 54. The Wild Birds and Animals Protection Act, 1912, in its

(VIII of application to the State of Bombay, is hereby repealed:

gor?) Provided that any licence granted under the said Act and in force

on the date of commencement of this Act shall continue to be in force

and be deemed to have been granted under section 13 of this Act.

829

ACT 1951

BOMBAY WILD ANIMALS AND WILD BIRDS PROTECTION

‘Bib

* be & Up

eR Z lil) [eb blue)

‘Pk

‘PBI b

"Bub | t

"(12.9 [Ue) Bue) b>

"BY o/s d

(iE IRSE b |eole

lojiie BR ‘lolt eae:

“38S bp

teh)

POSER BID

"DLE ID

| | eo yt"

“{Q) 2H

| IPP

i JED

Bile JbS}e} (lel)

| Ite lu

| Delete

| 2>b

| Nie}

| IEPY Ye [22

—2)1) [PEP Wie [Eb

bbe Lele» “Holts b2>)

S ee . ee — :

‘(~ploeiyisd) syooyeredg

‘(epudésey) soinjyna

suipnpoxa (seiyidiooy) AeIg jo spilig

‘(pIA104D) SMO)

*(era}dos1y4 ) seg

Caspiq —

-O[OT) pue wpideyydOdlea7y) sAayZUo

*(snaany s1uvz) [eyoer

‘(dds ujsts

-2dJIgq )—S[oaltabs sur dy gq

pue ‘(dds wjnjvy7) spear

-1Inbg ywurry “(dds szga7T)

—solevp] ideoxe . (eIJUapoy) sjuapoy

| ate {@lris ‘(sngojsta7 SNS) BIg PILM

| 1h21B Ik In@le ‘(sasuaunyynp uon7) etal PIEAN

r ‘Yeyeaus) wz JoyjUL ‘WOT

| {Sb}- bl? ‘IaSl], Suipnjoxa (wpa) sig PTA

> o ‘dds zwunsvg

| (Sb) -"hEk pu vdsIQLY ‘SNANKOPVANG) SYED YAID

| 1@eP "(dds sajsaguaz] ) SSOOSUOT

i {22h "YSst[suq

"UWI A

‘| AINGHHOS

™

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.

“bibelt

“ig

“AIN@L] Ikelt 42a}

SPB Pil

~lolb ‘@irbielle (ka juerue

*{Eabe@is

"AZ b web

‘web BIkb|S ele

“| Dlke

“(ule

* 1 2Up be

‘pep ib? lh?

*{O1bHt

| 2bIb—ett

| IbB}

| IPB} Ye ele "alr

| {beh-ls

| B2 dle bbb

| Pb |AI@Ia

| joley

| (PAI

| 12ueb

|@vuit Ik de

| {23)

‘guer) [[euIS

TI] HINaGHHOS

‘soroads

1t@ jo (sxplpo1sj3qg) asnoizpurs

*(SaIrdtU $240140Y 7)

pivjsng ueipuy

yeoIn SuIpnpoxs (H2pipno) spieisng

‘[(oeplapry) storoTzy

pue SjoI3sq ss (eepriu

-OOI)) SHI0IG SUIpN[OXe] spitqe19qze AA

‘QAOQE UPY} 194}0 SPUTy

Ie (eepryeuy) suemg ‘asoan ‘syonqg

"(Sorts

-81U Sijoldoyy)) pPIe\sng UvIPU] ywoIN

‘(wasn hy g

-OhADI wssasuopoyy) YON pepvoay-yxUIg

‘(smunr |

-japunimos0o sngvyjanN) ee} woW0d

‘(wauvavl ‘Gg

pue vajny vustosrpuag )

‘{[euis pues asi1er ‘[vo] SUITISIU MA

"(SOJOUDIIUL SIULOLP2YLVS) CANNY

"(wy IUAY10/1900g SHUF’) [[G-jOdS

"Ys[suq

831

BOMBAY WILD ANIMALS AND WILD BIRDS PROTECTION ACT 1951

‘Ib21@ b BrP

‘Bik

“lala

asaya

*(In22) 2h bv 14

elle | be

‘bls Jee) IBA

‘O12 & Ske ‘dbp

bb} Ibye} MIP

-{2blb bp

eee

| IRS} Mie Ble

| dort

| Wel}

| In|

ary:

| Ble |b

Bein

| IYbIth de Bebe

|22b Ih Ike

| BIL

| lubh—@lnis

lee

; — “ = : —

(sngny 51109) SOATOM :

pue (vusvty vuavtyy) seuwky

‘(svljunu snovyunpy) i90eq sulyIeg

4 ‘(92410914 ponb

sosajvaja [) adojayuy peusoy-inog

*ATUO

sopeul ‘(277au229 vyazv+y) Bley ULY.)

CT J2AO |

suioy yy AluUO soem

(vad vs10.499 ago] mup) Yong Yorlg

“(sujampz0s v4) Snyvygasog) e3lIN

‘soroads [je (‘dds sga7) serey

*sotoads

1e (sepiquinfoy) saAoq pue suoesig

‘soloads [[e (a@epplwiny,

‘y1sojmvjjvIny ‘UoljI0/9

-019haQ ‘vynsiptag ‘xIuAnjoD) [rend

(snji1g WJ pue snunsaupuog

“7) peyueg pue Adin ‘saspliyied

«(227 D4AdUUOS SN]IDL)) [MOJ-9] Sun

(waoupogs xppsagorjo4)) [moj-inds

Vol.

BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

JOURNAL,

832

‘lee Mee} dt

pb}

‘SB

Bik

‘Ble Inet}

“2Bte}

ELD

{21h

"OUIBX) SIG

TT] #iaagnoc

pie

"AJ ATNGAZHOS

| IBB|

| Olt Ik Bp

| Bll

| Int

| pb}

Byars

| (22}

| (tel?

‘sUIBL) SIG reroedg

"(DISL9G 037 DAIYIUD ) DOT

"u1OY 9}. jo aseq,

oui 3® {ST JO ys ev (9)

‘peolds \sapim oy} ye. Coen

SUIOY 94} JOSaspa Iazno at}

usaMJoq ‘sayouUl EE jo uvds

B® (v) S}IUNT 94} JO aUO

JSvo[ Je YOVel ysnw sjyusu

-aINSeaul Ul0Y (suanvd sogig) uosig

"JOOS

243 apisyno ,,gT ¥sn} ouU0

jseo] Je—(Sneuzxvu svy gay) jueydelg

Loan?

(sngogntl xAuoULIP ) YeWaYD

(SNULSAN SNSANJIPY) Lea YYOIS

(914817 Agus ) 1OBLT)

C smpsod vagy 1U¢ ) jayaed,

“02 JaA0 sul0Y piey

YUM Ajo sopeu (s7xp sexpr) peyaoury!

‘,O€ 19A0 SUIOY prey yA

AjUO soaTeUl (“oj021Iun vsny) AequIeS

"Yst sug

tRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS,

C3210

SANTAPAU

18 CHURCH ROAD, VEPERY, MADRAS.—4-6-1951

sALIM ALI, S. B. SETNA AND H.

114 APOLLO STREET, FORT, BOMBAY

EDITORS °

Se a ee el eee ere

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the

editors by observing the following instructions :

1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for publica-

tion to other journals or periodicals, or have already been published

elsewhere, should not be submitted.

2. Tne MS should preferably be typed (double spacing) on

one side of a sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered.

3. All scientific names, to be printed in italics, should be under-

lined. Both in zoological and in botanical references only the initial

letter of the genus is capitalized. The specific and sub-specific names

always begin with a small letter even if they refer to a person or a

place, e.g. Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni or Streptopeiia chinensis suratensis

or Dimerta biattert. |

4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where

identification has been authentic7lly established by comparison of

specimens actually collected. In all other cases, or where identification

is based merely on sight, binomials should be used.

5. Photographs for reproduction must be clear and show good

contrast. Prints must be of a size not smaller than 34 x 24 inches

(No. 2 Brownie) and on glossy glazed paper.

6. Text figures, line drawings and maps should be in Indian ink,

preferably on Bristol board.

7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the

paper, alphabetically arranged under author’s name with the abridged

titles of journals or periodicals underlined (italics), and titles of books

not underlined (roman type), thus ; |

Roepke, W. (1949); The Genus Nyctemera Hubner. Trans. ent.

Soc. Lond., 100 (2); 47-70.

Prater, S. H. (1948); The Book of Indian Animals, Bombay.

Titles of papers shou!d not be underlined.

8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting

the author’s name and year of publication, thus; (Roepke, 1949).

g- Synopsis: As recommended by the Royal Society Scientific In-

formation Conference (July 1948), the editors consider it desirable that

each scientific paper be accompanied by a synopsis appearing at the

beginning, immediately after the title. The synopsis should be factual.

It should convey briefly the content of the paper; draw attention to

all new information and to the author’s main conclusions. It should

also indicate newly observed facts, the method and conclusions of an

experiment, and if possible the essential points of any new finding,

theory or technique. It should be concise and normally not exceed

200 words.

When the synopsis is complete it should be carefully revised by

the author to clarify obscurities, and further compressed wherever

possible without detracting from its usefulness.

114 Apollo Street, Fort, EDITORS,

Bombay 1. Journal of the Bombay Natural

| History Society.

THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS.

Mammals.

Book of Indian Animals, by S. H. Prater, with many coloured and black and

of Jaciag. Rs. 16.

WHITC Pilates (Price to Members Rs. 13).

: Birds.

Game Birds of India, Vol. III. Pheasants, rst Edition. Rs. 32.

(Price to Members Rs. 24)

Book of Indian Birds, by SAlim Ali, with many colour and black and white

plates, 4th edition, revised and enlarged. : Rs. 16.

(Price to Members Rs. 12-8).

Set of 12 Coloured Picture Postcards of Common Indian Birds. Rs. 2-4 net.

Fish.

Circumventing the Mahseer and Other Sporting Fish in India and

Burma. Rs. 15.

(Price to Members Rs. 12).

Snakes.

Identification of Poisonous Snakes— |

Folding Chart. ) Rs. 2-8.

Miscellaneous.

Wall Chart to distinguish a Wild Dog from a Domestic Dog or Jackal,

etc. . : Rs. 2-8.

Back Numbers of the Journal.

Back numbers of the Society’s Journal. Rates on application.

Obtainable from:

The Honorary Secretary,

Bombay Natural History Society,

114 Apollo. Street, Bombay !.

London Agents:

Messrs. Wheldon & Wesley Ltd.,

83/84 Berwick Street,

London, W. I.

TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP.

Life Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 25 and a Life Membership fee of |

Rs. 500.

Ordinary Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 25 and an annual subscrip-

tion of Rs. 30.

The subscription of members elected in October, November and December

covers the period from the date of their election up till the end of the following

year.

MEMBERS RESIDING OUTSIDE INDIA.

The terms are the same for members living outside India. Such members

should pay their subscriptions by means of orders on their Bankers to pay the

amount of the subscription, plus postage—in all Rs. 31-12-0 to the Society in

Bombay on the 1st January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum

of £2-8-0 should be paid amnually to the Society’s London Bankers—The

National Bank of India, Bishopsgate Street, London, E.C.

ALOT ERY )

} Ae air fy

} ti HN nha)

Dae

; i HAE ct TaN RR 4 cA i “iit ROY nm SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES

= ---- - "/|\\|\\|

Wes MeN MMe cha aa AMAT EHEt ne Wealcan Egle) Mick phe ay Wyle ows hoe a wei nib by Wiwee ‘ 1205 0860

Ar Kee D OR Ne fede WOME R He kom Fei a Se sew ey he MSMR A Dee WEP aM See Chit poe pl ab ogee i o hey ‘ ny

seein Mota tis earn syeae teas gts Re way ee Parr ty tba cum iyy Tha tit ths art) ) ‘ . Boho y . het ah hh) ' i ) F

Semen DENN MDa Uwe N fed MP aH We Web WM Nh eee hon ay jae ' F n . ' ' ‘ ‘ ‘ woh

Sina lonedb AVE AH MENON) aay MEM PME AC gy a Sgeey os Webreegsebvep bW Ube Haw care] PULRD bee) Ay hs PBs hN AT Aa baie 4} : aie , , hops ‘ ‘ ‘

Hwee g ‘ WeV dived egiedle et ke Dek MPM YAE Rog Lae te tin eyes BEL hy : i ' wn , ' vy uh) F a '

seinen VAL eh tae Tans SE ae gs Spieb: abe Hg eper Wagh Pi etbe Re SBs 4h de MW) BN Hehe ey ’ wets ‘ ‘ A

SP EMSbepe ds Hat we awed Pee Uk Ua ls hep BERK Nev net aE DH ae eb Bh rie Pe ich thy a igh ‘ ‘ ' ‘ jee F } , ;

Veale Wed he BEAEA SA) le leh asta vdbeh we wis We AUB oa n , Tinteety. er Pei ee iy py ft ,

Wepeaipemen ae despe a Me Hudege atee dl ‘ i Mie athe ts tty Bee : ; ‘ Ff nw: F

body Hep eae erieTtaterrts ce Gabe ede my . Key f y ; wo Nes , , Pee Ae }

dhe Avedlent edi as seis ipa bet Dee ee ne ere eh ORT re nea ie Ten Kine hans f ) ene \ > {

Silas web ese s Wee NE Nee Me fer Lp , Wee Fees asa wae pra nal La ha , Waterss Wes ey

a WF iyaletiees bay aly Perret) , 5 , . ay oeite , PA ‘ . f

jens Tih tin, Pecan oer ier merreeyh ary net ‘ : ‘ vibel a ' or Mew : ‘ 1 ‘

esth Hews eRe Ney Nee npn Ree a i os Wirt me’ ‘ i ' ,

. i , , ' '

J oeV eb tea cay Srodictee ar yok bay “ ‘ feed yen walt “ ' ‘ ‘ -

nes VayrsfeneAe dean hy oer) yeggal yas , vad rr ae \ i n hy eit ;

ea aleae Ati WeHea MON now f Nrieria way Aare Wild ee eet ‘ ‘ i i ' ' voy wr ‘

VF ey an ea iy ‘ ls ve ” ) )

ay ae eA Hay ‘ aa ’ wo ' , P ; $ \ t

1) Yee i Tube By bs tose ay ali is fart Ava Wy ah ve he ee a , ; ‘ i

J Wena bn ye 4 . ‘ ' ey ‘ ‘ f / ohare |

\ ‘ {ates ‘ ’ ‘ ‘ '

i DASuhas Sahat wha ae Wily eats We 4 : f 5

W i ; r (EMCEE Daly wee iyela ba i "aie » " ; ; 4

by ‘ ' , , ’

i 7 ' ‘ A m eer " e ' p ‘ ’

. , ‘

j ; hae | ,

, Now hey

Tite , ' Nats

Vi ey hid ; ae) 5

va sity , R :

i if BG 4 . 4

ROE heal tt a gt tba 1 ‘ : 5 ‘

j } enya 4 ‘

SAL ay SUE | i ; i x me H ‘ P "

tt WME se é ; : ;

ts x DARPA ELS yal 1 Pas i ren A a Ue as | eee ' ‘

WAL Se uly a :

ley ‘ Von Ha . ‘ ‘ ,

gle citaa 4 “ UR ied y ‘ H ‘ < l v : , U

Gobek i ‘ t 4 ‘ ve bo : \ 5 ’ :

Hk Wes PPP ite Hay { i ( hidh aboard teat viet ‘ i ' ” .

avrg en te t ’ " i i , , . on

Fpeme honey Map atid ens: Tithe dee aR P ok 28 spe ten qa wie iu ; ‘ yb: }

Ue eee Rocke othe tea mith saa sh wet i i bie ep ; : ha , ry 5

Bigg sae ew Qa Tae te cr at 4% andy ay ‘ F ? a ‘ ‘ 4 q ? t

mt inthe Un Lakethe tes ty enya) OW ey Kes i i eB: i i ' ’ ‘

ais Oey wey ad a uh ated rr ' rant i Gee , ’ {

Ph ete anh. NG Sis di Pat , te ea Tey ie) , ity ’ vee Ny ‘

Werte (Gh fe Gob Re (i eereetes (fr nn ear er ist ) Walt ‘ Yi adhe fhe DT PD ry ve ‘ : ,

yee Mert? , ‘ AVS ae Oe PCs it ee a ek a Wit Bef YB ee \ ‘ vi :

MS MCS POOLE Sra aap ae pt be “ hs \ ” } a i

Nehete thet Oe ten 1 Hh wooded MP eth Ge Reo ee bed Ue t Uoqarer ree) ' it hemp whey “" ' f

Vrabeat PRONE EUS Se ye EAM Ae pedi ste ig fy oty : (a \ Wane dy } i hoes ‘ .

' Cen Rete ent ti (a ere eT Pai AL HAAR Pg bee Oe e Te Ta tot eee ae teu , 6 wy yews ' '

Hop a aL a Goa Wb ay ae pea el Vad ined i ‘ Puch hg i brew tad i , ; ' ; ‘ \ 1

deed Waders Qatar ge Bis 4 We eg tite Sede ieee Wet wee , , ‘ ; ,

na AI Sid al cs Gist ene reyes he aria a + 4 ) aa) ‘ ‘ ' ° ae ‘ ' A ye . ‘ tone

PO Torr Free ed ee Char ee ek ed CORO ERE DEO ORR eg veer ee Se aa ? yt an i a eae :

Wg id ite a TON Cor as Se aes OO AS 1% { rit y ti bet wey eae ale

ete Ub pe vege apa me ead | RAG RO Pe Pe iy a P| i i i PO BD ted v4 ‘} : ?

Weed Lat ly Apa ace) he eda Dap tits ’ i \ es a Teas weed wi ie Wy

oy PRC pe Oe Be ee Pe ie Way ioe whee yt HO F i Pew wy a4 ‘ tit ¢ rota ee Pe Pes eh ‘ i

nite bette Ce dk Ta! " t) Toc eae SC Le i pA A i et i i yi ‘ VW ede ‘ "

1 Armad eabstioad > de oda Reet ae ee Bb ce ok er Wh Weis GR Hot er Cn oO | On PS TP i hw i ra : t its ee i wey i f f i '

ila ae lay 4 ii ee Pcs | ve die rns aaa i ‘ 6.4 ‘ i fee a ea tae i : r |

Reis Wy Meas ARG Uy ypeadet oO Qik ae a DeLee Wea iding CO h ( i ; er peed i ‘ ‘ oan

uot met) ‘ aches Hage rue HEY eget ‘ i i ‘ ‘ : ” ‘ h (

riftcmrs fo ctl ae enue Gan) PR be te ee Te Reena re WR UB OG Ok PC a | “ i eds Pra ne hs aoe oe et uy aby i ' t i

TOTES) A RN Ok UA ear wet) Ay UP TAPE Gadd Hv Bue ‘ i ha i ‘ The Te Pa | i Oey i i i t

PM TTT aay asd Sah Qe PO gr tak IP pp Re dr om i te bot dhe (lary Penn t ‘ oan Te On eA , rt ‘ at yes

EO SURE leet die DA Nar ere ae Gea Oe dy ein i vit ‘ y ‘ } ‘ \ "4 car

PERN a ior he Tor acre tie aries erie ie isi ge yt er rhs dare heat Ce ce Mk Ue ee ef Fae ts We nerta (ar pe Ra RW ES i Ait ’

Weta eg a ay Bete gest ee egtthehis | fet se Mow eee et eh ge i i ‘ i Wo era tS 1h) ia ‘ ta wi i i } ’ i

Wea A RA geal Hage i es) WR ede Abe aren ve de Gre ea a Heed on ey a ree ew Pe ‘ i \ hn bt ‘

Le as er de et Weed HU Bese b ng EQ NOT ice tren bd pasck ok en vet wo) bef ‘ } i t i

{fies ER Sa toh Oa ye er 4 WUC CaO USO Teo ee ode ee ees i ; wey ‘ ‘ ius i ae : ‘ '

Whee beh wD tah ge gy POCA de fot y ctl dec epee dD vad rl toe tye CW (der Ce CC uy y iy ia ‘ ‘

: Terex ates eats here fe ike Se ee EE ee ete jenn | a eee ‘ whi V tiene i ; iw ’ ' \ ,

AN Ls eter pri ( We aere Reon gee i i i pe ie j wy ri ' ‘ trby

fro A Hod my aoe ayedpetl & HD eae Tb ee tatdoe ea Gan foe ey ape DP Re pree Pe ee por ea a ek deer Baek yi ky ’ f ; i '

Weed Hoyo Baad ‘ rl vit SS Phe Petia ht PW e RO at eine ig a Bad Vahey vi ‘ wy bow ‘ i

WER MAUMEE ogi od Ae tong Uhr te, VAN OA Cen diag area aR lop a eink aa eo doy GA a el eee a ere bey oy 1 ' '

Gaal le ge dtr bee Pe nice nia i a Tee NE Re Praier iis (ht Hye a i i perl 4 i wo ‘ ; wes i

i at pow yas dea piqutyriae t Vier lis et ta (er I ee ae ) \ PM ba Ce ie San a Tn ae | ' rig : ' a

Aaoueany AT a rok WAN pet he Pad gird ‘ rN 1 ine boa DALE AA yale rire TW 1a iy Wet

NUS Visite (RIVA sy (Pe Heh Re Par ier Tien Ne Heed hi gh BL, Me Wy ye Oe ee we vd warinke st ea wer tt tee i i

AY ay aes Ae eae gy Teak ein ie Th » fi gy Pa A ‘ \ ‘ wt ’ Te oe : A ew hy ‘ ' '

Dr tet ei tie te} Ha Ww ae ke Puy ok ea Be ed et Hoa gay owe gy \ bayee treba ' i ‘

Wea NoFEM OT aro tapes i PEAR a as 7 144 Fas pei wer ia ii} et { Heres ’

Labbe ia it PaO, (A ee Or a an nt Pewee wad fod ee ie oan p ‘

seo ieuoa Chien Ja er er ie Fa La VEAP RY Ea # ey i fowa e beh hye ‘ ne

Sasbalopleat beth say ap cal ty al R HAV Wet bare ou an Coach. We fear oe tie eae ra iit Pode te ' 1 i wy

WED AAU geen wg: Hy NI dk WA ide ales wi " ; i vay y vd to i “ i

Pie athena by tee rte (aya HVT eM Me pede tl is Wes ee De ‘ “vd ’ i pu ' }

ANS HEN AVN toy Ras egy cds Hee bolt hore 4 rug vege ‘ "Px eee ee Woche Owe eye ead ea ’ i ,

Vd Voit ow toga ieee win bop eget ge it ‘ nee ‘ jouer rue " ’

are eater tiny wed Woh boa” and hi an ee ee a nd vue itl f i bow ed ‘ ; : mye

A Sy Tat ea AL th PVN OH Iti a es whew ted snd eye \ ‘ hob ies i howe : i

WAR Ay Og isi iis Doe a fe ay wing ' ; tr '% , “

NAW eee a rte) nay Paw BOS cn) ‘ AD Mba et ' towel ty ‘ , '

Neidio Bad Mh AL ey) Cro hone aa ee GC Piet Oaieny \ as ' ‘4 vf 1 rw ; re

HA ey Datrens wh WN eerie bree ake) Woah ud we bone Wed ' at i wt '

sory oe he a rea fe Ge Or OE pene he bpd mre ) ba Wi vege ey ‘ wy ae CO

a iets Te iS a ope A ee dah ray yeh Wea tae air ge toh biedg Be pied Ce eee wow die be t'}e

VBE Nt dpa ye Mid HW woe Baer ey ey He gd wey hey ae hwirti | \ i , y i

Meshea Wd Waa ew i by ke aver ne ree i ia iy ‘4 bein Wisp raves) 4 i wy wi i Hee vpn P ' f

WOW AT ON gh on ee Wey WPT AO Wa aed peb ae. hod Pipe he aye pd wt fecha Wier Pew b " '

Cs) ep ie er show beep Been UW PO ge a bo and ns : Wl ; et ved ry

Wen dee 1 VU Oe Sh A Meo aye ce wie | Pa et bey pep to fea i} eee) ' rs ves 1+ ma , r

SWAY POO TP RN ee yy ew CN a de Uk ee Hak joey bee Tes Tk ni 8 | ' ‘ ¢ !

(ries re he WOE A wits WEA au) eT